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Duchess of Marlborough
----------------------
On 1 July 1857, her husband succeeded to the title of 7th Duke of Marlborough, and from that date henceforth, Frances was styled **Duchess of Marlborough**. She was a commanding and hot\-tempered woman described in *[The Complete Peerage](/wiki/The_Complete_Peerage "The Complete Peerage")* as a "woman of remarkable character and capacity, judicious and tactful". Her face had more strength than beauty and her eyes were either warm or hard, never lacklustre.Martin, p. 61\.
She ruled [Blenheim Palace](/wiki/Blenheim_Palace "Blenheim Palace") and its household with an iron hand; yet it was she who rejuvenated the palace with her lavish and gay entertainments which she herself organised; transforming the palace "into a social and political focus for the life of the nation".
She was a domineering yet devoted mother; both of her surviving sons' marriages were a disappointment to her. Her eldest son George married a woman described as stupid, pious and dull, while her youngest and favourite son, Lord Randolph earned her displeasure by marrying, against the wishes of both herself and the Duke, American socialite Jennie Jerome, whom Frances openly disliked.Martin, pp. 61, 65, 73–74\.
Frances and her husband refused to attend Lord Randolph and Jennie's wedding at the British Embassy in Paris, which took place on Frances's 52nd birthday. Like the rest of the 19th\-century British aristocracy, the Marlboroughs regarded American women as "strange and abnormal creatures with habits and manners something between a Red Indian and a [Gaiety Girl](/wiki/Gaiety_Girl "Gaiety Girl")". When the newly\-wed couple moved to their home in [Curzon Street](/wiki/Curzon_Street "Curzon Street") in London, however, Frances arrived to help Jennie pay her first visits to the leaders of London society. She lent her some of her own jewels for the occasion, and the two women travelled in the Marlborough family coach.Martin, p. 101\. Frances featured largely in the lives of the younger members of the family, including her grandson Winston, to whom she often acted as a substitute mother.
From 1876 to 1880 her husband served as [Lord Lieutenant of Ireland](/wiki/Lord_Lieutenant_of_Ireland "Lord Lieutenant of Ireland"). As the result of her diligent efforts at famine relief in which she displayed humanity, proficiency and leadership that attempted to avert the effects of the [1879 Irish Famine](/wiki/Irish_Famine_%281879%29 "Irish Famine (1879)"), she was invested as a Lady of the [Order of Victoria and Albert](/wiki/Order_of_Victoria_and_Albert "Order of Victoria and Albert") by [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria").
[thumb\|right\|[Lord Randolph Churchill](/wiki/Lord_Randolph_Churchill "Lord Randolph Churchill"), the youngest surviving son of Frances and the Duke](/wiki/File:Randolph_Churchill.jpg "Randolph Churchill.jpg")
{{Infobox emblem wide
\|image \= \[\[File:Coronet of a British Duke.svg\|centre\|150px]]\[\[File:Frances Duchess of Marlborough Escutcheon.png\|centre\|200px]]
\|escutcheon \= The arms of the Duke of Marlborough(Quarterly: 1st and 4th, Sable a lion rampant Argent on a canton of the second a cross Gules (Churchill); 2nd and 3rd, quarterly Argent and Gules, in the second and third quarters a fret Or, overall on a bend Sable three escallops of the first (Spencer); in chief, on an escutcheon Argent a cross Gules surmounted by an inescutcheon Azure charged with three fleurs\-de\-lys Or.) impaled with the arms of The Marquess of Londonderry (Quarterly: 1st \& 4th, Or, a Bend counter\-company Argent and Azure, between two Lions rampant Gules (Stewart); 2nd, Argent, a Bend engrailed between six Martlets Sable (Tempest); 3rd, Azure, three sinister Gauntlets Or (Vane).).
}}
|
[
"Duchess of Marlborough\n----------------------",
"On 1 July 1857, her husband succeeded to the title of 7th Duke of Marlborough, and from that date henceforth, Frances was styled **Duchess of Marlborough**. She was a commanding and hot\\-tempered woman described in *[The Complete Peerage](/wiki/The_Complete_Peerage \"The Complete Peerage\")* as a \"woman of remarkable character and capacity, judicious and tactful\". Her face had more strength than beauty and her eyes were either warm or hard, never lacklustre.Martin, p. 61\\.",
"She ruled [Blenheim Palace](/wiki/Blenheim_Palace \"Blenheim Palace\") and its household with an iron hand; yet it was she who rejuvenated the palace with her lavish and gay entertainments which she herself organised; transforming the palace \"into a social and political focus for the life of the nation\".",
"She was a domineering yet devoted mother; both of her surviving sons' marriages were a disappointment to her. Her eldest son George married a woman described as stupid, pious and dull, while her youngest and favourite son, Lord Randolph earned her displeasure by marrying, against the wishes of both herself and the Duke, American socialite Jennie Jerome, whom Frances openly disliked.Martin, pp. 61, 65, 73–74\\.",
"Frances and her husband refused to attend Lord Randolph and Jennie's wedding at the British Embassy in Paris, which took place on Frances's 52nd birthday. Like the rest of the 19th\\-century British aristocracy, the Marlboroughs regarded American women as \"strange and abnormal creatures with habits and manners something between a Red Indian and a [Gaiety Girl](/wiki/Gaiety_Girl \"Gaiety Girl\")\". When the newly\\-wed couple moved to their home in [Curzon Street](/wiki/Curzon_Street \"Curzon Street\") in London, however, Frances arrived to help Jennie pay her first visits to the leaders of London society. She lent her some of her own jewels for the occasion, and the two women travelled in the Marlborough family coach.Martin, p. 101\\. Frances featured largely in the lives of the younger members of the family, including her grandson Winston, to whom she often acted as a substitute mother.",
"From 1876 to 1880 her husband served as [Lord Lieutenant of Ireland](/wiki/Lord_Lieutenant_of_Ireland \"Lord Lieutenant of Ireland\"). As the result of her diligent efforts at famine relief in which she displayed humanity, proficiency and leadership that attempted to avert the effects of the [1879 Irish Famine](/wiki/Irish_Famine_%281879%29 \"Irish Famine (1879)\"), she was invested as a Lady of the [Order of Victoria and Albert](/wiki/Order_of_Victoria_and_Albert \"Order of Victoria and Albert\") by [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\").",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Lord Randolph Churchill](/wiki/Lord_Randolph_Churchill \"Lord Randolph Churchill\"), the youngest surviving son of Frances and the Duke](/wiki/File:Randolph_Churchill.jpg \"Randolph Churchill.jpg\")",
"{{Infobox emblem wide\n\\|image \\= \\[\\[File:Coronet of a British Duke.svg\\|centre\\|150px]]\\[\\[File:Frances Duchess of Marlborough Escutcheon.png\\|centre\\|200px]]\n\\|escutcheon \\= The arms of the Duke of Marlborough(Quarterly: 1st and 4th, Sable a lion rampant Argent on a canton of the second a cross Gules (Churchill); 2nd and 3rd, quarterly Argent and Gules, in the second and third quarters a fret Or, overall on a bend Sable three escallops of the first (Spencer); in chief, on an escutcheon Argent a cross Gules surmounted by an inescutcheon Azure charged with three fleurs\\-de\\-lys Or.) impaled with the arms of The Marquess of Londonderry (Quarterly: 1st \\& 4th, Or, a Bend counter\\-company Argent and Azure, between two Lions rampant Gules (Stewart); 2nd, Argent, a Bend engrailed between six Martlets Sable (Tempest); 3rd, Azure, three sinister Gauntlets Or (Vane).). \n}}",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|Water Fortress](/wiki/File:Freiwaldau-Wasserburg-3.jpg "Freiwaldau-Wasserburg-3.jpg")
### 13th century
The first written mention of Jeseník is from 1267\. It was probably founded during the colonization of the territory by the [Bishops of Wrocław](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Wroc%C5%82aw "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław"), who acquired the area in 1199\. It became a town between 1284 and 1295, thanks to the development caused by its strategic location on a trade route from [Moravia](/wiki/Moravia "Moravia") to [Silesia](/wiki/Silesia "Silesia") and on the confluence of two rivers, and thanks to the iron ore deposits in the surroundings. In 1284 at the latest, a castle had to stand here.
### 14th–16th centuries
In the 14th century Freiwaldau developed as a centre of iron one processing. The first mention of the iron ore processing is from 1326, when thirteen [hammer mills](/wiki/Hammer_mill "Hammer mill") were already operating here. However, mining ended already at the end of the 14th century. In the second half of the 15th century, gold and silver were mined here.
From 1378 to 1463, the town was owned by the Mušín family. In the following decades it often changed owners. In 1506, the flourishing town was purchased by the Swabian [Fugger](/wiki/Fugger "Fugger") dynasty who resumed mining activity. In the same year, the town obtained the *[Bergregal](/wiki/Bergregal "Bergregal")* privileges. The iron ore deposits were soon exhausted or have become unprofitable, and the Fuggers sold the town back to the Wrocław bishops in 1547\. The town developed crafts and gained many guild privileges at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. [Linen](/wiki/Linen "Linen") [weaving](/wiki/Weaving "Weaving") became the most important source of income.
### 17th–19th centuries
[thumb\|Jeseník spa in the early 20th century](/wiki/File:L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B_Jesen%C3%ADk_1910.gif "Lázně Jeseník 1910.gif")
Jeseník was damaged several times during the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War"). Between the years 1622 and 1684, the town was in the centre of the infamous [Northern Moravia witch trials](/wiki/Northern_Moravia_witch_trials "Northern Moravia witch trials"). A large fire severely damaged the town in 1696\. Despite the difficulties, economic prosperity continued until 1742, when Jeseník became part of [Austrian Silesia](/wiki/Austrian_Silesia "Austrian Silesia") after the [First Silesian War](/wiki/First_Silesian_War "First Silesian War"). Due to the loss of Silesian markets as the main customer of production, linen got into a crisis and the town lost its mining privileges.
New economic development occurred in the 19th century, when industrialization began and new factories and enterprises were established. Significant and world\-famous was the *Regenhart u. Rayman* textile factory, established in 1822\. The opening of the railway in 1888 also helped the development of the town. In 1808, the Grabenberg hamlet (later known as Gräfenberg/Gräfenberk, today [Lázně Jeseník](/wiki/L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B_Jesen%C3%ADk "Lázně Jeseník")) was founded, and the spa was established here in the 1820s. Gräfenberg was incorporated into the town in 1868\.
### 20th century
Jeseník remained with the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire "Austrian Empire") and the [Austro\-Hungarian Monarchy](/wiki/Austria-Hungary "Austria-Hungary") until [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918\. According to the Austrian administration census of 1910 the town had 6,859 inhabitants, with 6,588 (99\.5%) were speaking German, 16 Czech and 13 Polish. [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews") were not allowed to declare [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish_language "Yiddish language"), most of them thus declared German. Most populous religious groups were [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Roman_Catholics "Roman Catholics") with 6,552 (95\.5%), followed by [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants "Protestants") with 208 (3%) and the [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews") with 83 (1\.2%).Ludwig Patryn (ed): *[Die Ergebnisse der Volkszählung vom 31\. Dezember 1910 in Schlesien](http://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=11734)*, Troppau 1912\.
In 1938, Jeseník was ceded to [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") as a result of the [Munich Agreement](/wiki/Munich_Agreement "Munich Agreement"). It was administered as a part of [Reichsgau Sudetenland](/wiki/Reichsgau_Sudetenland "Reichsgau Sudetenland"). During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the German occupiers operated several [forced labour](/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II "Forced labour under German rule during World War II") subcamps of the [Stalag VIII\-B/344](/wiki/Stalag_VIII-B "Stalag VIII-B") [prisoner\-of\-war camp](/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_II "German prisoner-of-war camps in World War II") in the town.{{cite web \|title\=Working Parties\|url\=https://www.lamsdorf.com/working\-parties.html\|website\=Lamsdorf.com\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029103834/https://www.lamsdorf.com/working\-parties.html\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-03\|archive\-date\=2020\-10\-29}} The town was restored to Czechoslovakia after the defeat of [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") in World War II in 1945\. The German population was [expelled](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia "Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia") according to the [Potsdam Agreement](/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement "Potsdam Agreement") and [Beneš Decrees](/wiki/Bene%C5%A1_Decrees "Beneš Decrees") in 1945\.
In 1950, Bukovice and Dětřichov were joined to Jeseník. In 1997, Jeseník was damaged by the [Central European flood](/wiki/1997_Central_European_flood "1997 Central European flood"). In 2024 it was damaged again by the [floods](/wiki/2024_Central_European_floods "2024 Central European floods").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Water Fortress](/wiki/File:Freiwaldau-Wasserburg-3.jpg \"Freiwaldau-Wasserburg-3.jpg\")",
"### 13th century",
"The first written mention of Jeseník is from 1267\\. It was probably founded during the colonization of the territory by the [Bishops of Wrocław](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Wroc%C5%82aw \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław\"), who acquired the area in 1199\\. It became a town between 1284 and 1295, thanks to the development caused by its strategic location on a trade route from [Moravia](/wiki/Moravia \"Moravia\") to [Silesia](/wiki/Silesia \"Silesia\") and on the confluence of two rivers, and thanks to the iron ore deposits in the surroundings. In 1284 at the latest, a castle had to stand here.",
"### 14th–16th centuries",
"In the 14th century Freiwaldau developed as a centre of iron one processing. The first mention of the iron ore processing is from 1326, when thirteen [hammer mills](/wiki/Hammer_mill \"Hammer mill\") were already operating here. However, mining ended already at the end of the 14th century. In the second half of the 15th century, gold and silver were mined here.",
"From 1378 to 1463, the town was owned by the Mušín family. In the following decades it often changed owners. In 1506, the flourishing town was purchased by the Swabian [Fugger](/wiki/Fugger \"Fugger\") dynasty who resumed mining activity. In the same year, the town obtained the *[Bergregal](/wiki/Bergregal \"Bergregal\")* privileges. The iron ore deposits were soon exhausted or have become unprofitable, and the Fuggers sold the town back to the Wrocław bishops in 1547\\. The town developed crafts and gained many guild privileges at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. [Linen](/wiki/Linen \"Linen\") [weaving](/wiki/Weaving \"Weaving\") became the most important source of income.",
"### 17th–19th centuries",
"[thumb\\|Jeseník spa in the early 20th century](/wiki/File:L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B_Jesen%C3%ADk_1910.gif \"Lázně Jeseník 1910.gif\")\nJeseník was damaged several times during the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\"). Between the years 1622 and 1684, the town was in the centre of the infamous [Northern Moravia witch trials](/wiki/Northern_Moravia_witch_trials \"Northern Moravia witch trials\"). A large fire severely damaged the town in 1696\\. Despite the difficulties, economic prosperity continued until 1742, when Jeseník became part of [Austrian Silesia](/wiki/Austrian_Silesia \"Austrian Silesia\") after the [First Silesian War](/wiki/First_Silesian_War \"First Silesian War\"). Due to the loss of Silesian markets as the main customer of production, linen got into a crisis and the town lost its mining privileges.",
"New economic development occurred in the 19th century, when industrialization began and new factories and enterprises were established. Significant and world\\-famous was the *Regenhart u. Rayman* textile factory, established in 1822\\. The opening of the railway in 1888 also helped the development of the town. In 1808, the Grabenberg hamlet (later known as Gräfenberg/Gräfenberk, today [Lázně Jeseník](/wiki/L%C3%A1zn%C4%9B_Jesen%C3%ADk \"Lázně Jeseník\")) was founded, and the spa was established here in the 1820s. Gräfenberg was incorporated into the town in 1868\\.",
"### 20th century",
"Jeseník remained with the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire \"Austrian Empire\") and the [Austro\\-Hungarian Monarchy](/wiki/Austria-Hungary \"Austria-Hungary\") until [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") and the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918\\. According to the Austrian administration census of 1910 the town had 6,859 inhabitants, with 6,588 (99\\.5%) were speaking German, 16 Czech and 13 Polish. [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") were not allowed to declare [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish_language \"Yiddish language\"), most of them thus declared German. Most populous religious groups were [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Roman_Catholics \"Roman Catholics\") with 6,552 (95\\.5%), followed by [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants \"Protestants\") with 208 (3%) and the [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") with 83 (1\\.2%).Ludwig Patryn (ed): *[Die Ergebnisse der Volkszählung vom 31\\. Dezember 1910 in Schlesien](http://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=11734)*, Troppau 1912\\.",
"In 1938, Jeseník was ceded to [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") as a result of the [Munich Agreement](/wiki/Munich_Agreement \"Munich Agreement\"). It was administered as a part of [Reichsgau Sudetenland](/wiki/Reichsgau_Sudetenland \"Reichsgau Sudetenland\"). During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the German occupiers operated several [forced labour](/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II \"Forced labour under German rule during World War II\") subcamps of the [Stalag VIII\\-B/344](/wiki/Stalag_VIII-B \"Stalag VIII-B\") [prisoner\\-of\\-war camp](/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_II \"German prisoner-of-war camps in World War II\") in the town.{{cite web \\|title\\=Working Parties\\|url\\=https://www.lamsdorf.com/working\\-parties.html\\|website\\=Lamsdorf.com\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029103834/https://www.lamsdorf.com/working\\-parties.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-03\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-29}} The town was restored to Czechoslovakia after the defeat of [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") in World War II in 1945\\. The German population was [expelled](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia \"Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia\") according to the [Potsdam Agreement](/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement \"Potsdam Agreement\") and [Beneš Decrees](/wiki/Bene%C5%A1_Decrees \"Beneš Decrees\") in 1945\\.",
"In 1950, Bukovice and Dětřichov were joined to Jeseník. In 1997, Jeseník was damaged by the [Central European flood](/wiki/1997_Central_European_flood \"1997 Central European flood\"). In 2024 it was damaged again by the [floods](/wiki/2024_Central_European_floods \"2024 Central European floods\").",
""
] |
Coaching career
---------------
Brey returned to his former high school, becoming an assistant coach under Morgan Wootten. In 1987, he was hired by [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_Blue_Devils_men%27s_basketball "Duke Blue Devils men's basketball") to assist [Mike Krzyzewski](/wiki/Mike_Krzyzewski "Mike Krzyzewski"), and in 1995 he took over his first head coaching job at the [University of Delaware](/wiki/University_of_Delaware "University of Delaware"). Brey guided the Fightin' Blue Hens to a 99–51 record over five years, leading the team to two [America East Conference](/wiki/America_East_Conference "America East Conference") Championships and subsequently two trips to the NCAA Tournament. In 2000, Brey became the head coach at the University of Notre Dame.
### Notre Dame Fighting Irish
In 2000, Brey succeeded [Matt Doherty](/wiki/Matt_Doherty_%28basketball%29 "Matt Doherty (basketball)") as head coach of the [Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_men%27s_basketball "Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball") team. Notre Dame had not been to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament") since 1990\. Brey led the Irish to the NCAA tournament in his first three years as head coach (2001–2003\), notching a [Sweet Sixteen](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship "NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship") appearance in [2003](/wiki/2003_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2003 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"). He has since led the team to tournament appearances in [2007](/wiki/2007_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2007 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2008](/wiki/2008_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2008 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2010](/wiki/2010_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2010 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2011](/wiki/2011_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2011 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2012](/wiki/2012_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2012 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2013](/wiki/2013_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2013 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2015](/wiki/2015_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2015 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2016](/wiki/2016_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2016 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"),[2017](/wiki/2017_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2017 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament") and 2021\.
On December 29, 2017, Brey tied [Digger Phelps](/wiki/Digger_Phelps "Digger Phelps") for most wins by a Notre Dame coach with 393\.
#### 2007–08 season
During the [2007–08 season](/wiki/2007-08_Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_men%27s_basketball_team "2007-08 Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball team"), Brey led the Irish to a 24–6 regular\-season mark. He was named the [Big East Coach of the Year](/wiki/Big_East_Conference_Men%27s_Basketball_Coach_of_the_Year "Big East Conference Men's Basketball Coach of the Year") for the second consecutive season on March 11, 2008\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.uhnd.com/articles/2008/basketball/harangody\-brey\-take\-home\-top\-big\-east\-honors/\|title\=Harangody, Brey Take Home Top Big East Honors\|publisher\=UHND.com\|date\=March 11, 2008\|access\-date\=2008\-03\-12}} Notre Dame had a 45\-game home winning streak between February 2006 and February 2009 – the second\-longest in school history. By completing the [2007–2008 regular season](/wiki/2007-08_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_season "2007-08 NCAA Division I men's basketball season") 18–0 at [home](/wiki/Joyce_Center "Joyce Center"), Brey coached the first team in Big East history to have consecutive undefeated seasons at home.
On June 19, 2012, Brey signed a 10\-year extension to remain the head coach of the Notre Dame Irish up until 2022\. The financials were not released.
#### 2014–15 season
During the 2014–15 season, Brey's Notre Dame team went 32–6 and won the ACC conference tournament. The squad advanced to the Elite Eight, losing a close game to Kentucky. The 32 wins were the most by a Notre Dame men's team since 1908–09\. He also passed Hall of Famer [George Keogan](/wiki/George_Keogan "George Keogan") for second place on Notre Dame's all\-time wins list, trailing only [Digger Phelps](/wiki/Digger_Phelps "Digger Phelps").
#### 2015–16 season
Notre Dame advanced to the Elite Eight for the second consecutive season, defeating Michigan, Stephen F. Austin, and Wisconsin as the 6 seed in the East region. Notre Dame lost to North Carolina 88–74 in the Elite Eight.
#### 2016–17 season
During the 2016–17 regular season, Brey's team went 23–8\. They finished the season in a three\-way tie with Florida State and Louisville. The Irish were given a 3\-seed in the ACC tournament which guaranteed them a double bye. Notre Dame dominated its first two games against Virginia and Florida State and sparked another ACC tournament final appearance for the second time in three years. The Irish went on to lose in the tournament final to Duke, 75–69\. Notre Dame received a 5\-seed in the West Region of the NCAA tournament, and defeated Princeton in the first round before falling to West Virginia in the second round.
#### Resignation from Notre Dame
With his 2022–23 team struggling to stay out of the basement of the ACC standings, on January 19, 2023, Brey announced that the 2022–23 season would be his last as head coach at Notre Dame, although he said that he was definitely not done coaching.{{cite tweet\|user\=tnoieNDI\|number\=1616181539007512577\|title\=BREAKING: Source tells South Bend Tribune that \#NotreDame coach Mike Brey will retire at end of season}}{{cite web\|url\=https://sports.yahoo.com/longtime\-notre\-dame\-coach\-mike\-brey\-not\-retiring\-despite\-plans\-to\-leave\-fighting\-irish\-203014753\.html\|title\=Longtime Notre Dame coach Mike Brey not retiring despite plans to leave Fighting Irish\|website\=yahoosports.com\|first\=Ryan\|last\=Young\|date\=February 13, 2023\|access\-date\=March 8, 2023}}
### Atlanta Hawks
On June 15, 2023, Brey was hired as assistant coach for the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks "Atlanta Hawks").{{cite web\|title\=Hawks' Quin Snyder finalizes coaching staff, includes Igor Kokoskov \& Mike Brey\|url\=https://www.nba.com/news/hawks\-quin\-snyder\-finalize\-coaching\-staff\-2023\-24\|website\=NBA.com \|access\-date\=15 June 2023 \|date\=15 June 2023}} He would reunite with then\-head coach [Quin Snyder](/wiki/Quin_Snyder "Quin Snyder"), who played his junior and senior seasons at Duke while he was an assistant under Mike Krzyzewski. The two would then coach at Duke together during the [1994–1995](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_Duke_Blue_Devils_men%27s_basketball_team "1994–95 Duke Blue Devils men's basketball team") season.
|
[
"Coaching career\n---------------",
"Brey returned to his former high school, becoming an assistant coach under Morgan Wootten. In 1987, he was hired by [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_Blue_Devils_men%27s_basketball \"Duke Blue Devils men's basketball\") to assist [Mike Krzyzewski](/wiki/Mike_Krzyzewski \"Mike Krzyzewski\"), and in 1995 he took over his first head coaching job at the [University of Delaware](/wiki/University_of_Delaware \"University of Delaware\"). Brey guided the Fightin' Blue Hens to a 99–51 record over five years, leading the team to two [America East Conference](/wiki/America_East_Conference \"America East Conference\") Championships and subsequently two trips to the NCAA Tournament. In 2000, Brey became the head coach at the University of Notre Dame.",
"### Notre Dame Fighting Irish",
"In 2000, Brey succeeded [Matt Doherty](/wiki/Matt_Doherty_%28basketball%29 \"Matt Doherty (basketball)\") as head coach of the [Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_men%27s_basketball \"Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball\") team. Notre Dame had not been to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\") since 1990\\. Brey led the Irish to the NCAA tournament in his first three years as head coach (2001–2003\\), notching a [Sweet Sixteen](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship \"NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship\") appearance in [2003](/wiki/2003_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2003 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"). He has since led the team to tournament appearances in [2007](/wiki/2007_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2007 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2008](/wiki/2008_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2008 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2010](/wiki/2010_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2010 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2011](/wiki/2011_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2011 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2012](/wiki/2012_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2012 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2013](/wiki/2013_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2013 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2015](/wiki/2015_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2015 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2016](/wiki/2016_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2016 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"),[2017](/wiki/2017_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2017 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\") and 2021\\.",
"On December 29, 2017, Brey tied [Digger Phelps](/wiki/Digger_Phelps \"Digger Phelps\") for most wins by a Notre Dame coach with 393\\.",
"#### 2007–08 season",
"During the [2007–08 season](/wiki/2007-08_Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_men%27s_basketball_team \"2007-08 Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball team\"), Brey led the Irish to a 24–6 regular\\-season mark. He was named the [Big East Coach of the Year](/wiki/Big_East_Conference_Men%27s_Basketball_Coach_of_the_Year \"Big East Conference Men's Basketball Coach of the Year\") for the second consecutive season on March 11, 2008\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.uhnd.com/articles/2008/basketball/harangody\\-brey\\-take\\-home\\-top\\-big\\-east\\-honors/\\|title\\=Harangody, Brey Take Home Top Big East Honors\\|publisher\\=UHND.com\\|date\\=March 11, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-12}} Notre Dame had a 45\\-game home winning streak between February 2006 and February 2009 – the second\\-longest in school history. By completing the [2007–2008 regular season](/wiki/2007-08_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_season \"2007-08 NCAA Division I men's basketball season\") 18–0 at [home](/wiki/Joyce_Center \"Joyce Center\"), Brey coached the first team in Big East history to have consecutive undefeated seasons at home.",
"On June 19, 2012, Brey signed a 10\\-year extension to remain the head coach of the Notre Dame Irish up until 2022\\. The financials were not released.",
"#### 2014–15 season",
"During the 2014–15 season, Brey's Notre Dame team went 32–6 and won the ACC conference tournament. The squad advanced to the Elite Eight, losing a close game to Kentucky. The 32 wins were the most by a Notre Dame men's team since 1908–09\\. He also passed Hall of Famer [George Keogan](/wiki/George_Keogan \"George Keogan\") for second place on Notre Dame's all\\-time wins list, trailing only [Digger Phelps](/wiki/Digger_Phelps \"Digger Phelps\").",
"#### 2015–16 season",
"Notre Dame advanced to the Elite Eight for the second consecutive season, defeating Michigan, Stephen F. Austin, and Wisconsin as the 6 seed in the East region. Notre Dame lost to North Carolina 88–74 in the Elite Eight.",
"#### 2016–17 season",
"During the 2016–17 regular season, Brey's team went 23–8\\. They finished the season in a three\\-way tie with Florida State and Louisville. The Irish were given a 3\\-seed in the ACC tournament which guaranteed them a double bye. Notre Dame dominated its first two games against Virginia and Florida State and sparked another ACC tournament final appearance for the second time in three years. The Irish went on to lose in the tournament final to Duke, 75–69\\. Notre Dame received a 5\\-seed in the West Region of the NCAA tournament, and defeated Princeton in the first round before falling to West Virginia in the second round.",
"#### Resignation from Notre Dame",
"With his 2022–23 team struggling to stay out of the basement of the ACC standings, on January 19, 2023, Brey announced that the 2022–23 season would be his last as head coach at Notre Dame, although he said that he was definitely not done coaching.{{cite tweet\\|user\\=tnoieNDI\\|number\\=1616181539007512577\\|title\\=BREAKING: Source tells South Bend Tribune that \\#NotreDame coach Mike Brey will retire at end of season}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sports.yahoo.com/longtime\\-notre\\-dame\\-coach\\-mike\\-brey\\-not\\-retiring\\-despite\\-plans\\-to\\-leave\\-fighting\\-irish\\-203014753\\.html\\|title\\=Longtime Notre Dame coach Mike Brey not retiring despite plans to leave Fighting Irish\\|website\\=yahoosports.com\\|first\\=Ryan\\|last\\=Young\\|date\\=February 13, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2023}}",
"### Atlanta Hawks",
"On June 15, 2023, Brey was hired as assistant coach for the [Atlanta Hawks](/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks \"Atlanta Hawks\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Hawks' Quin Snyder finalizes coaching staff, includes Igor Kokoskov \\& Mike Brey\\|url\\=https://www.nba.com/news/hawks\\-quin\\-snyder\\-finalize\\-coaching\\-staff\\-2023\\-24\\|website\\=NBA.com \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2023 \\|date\\=15 June 2023}} He would reunite with then\\-head coach [Quin Snyder](/wiki/Quin_Snyder \"Quin Snyder\"), who played his junior and senior seasons at Duke while he was an assistant under Mike Krzyzewski. The two would then coach at Duke together during the [1994–1995](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_Duke_Blue_Devils_men%27s_basketball_team \"1994–95 Duke Blue Devils men's basketball team\") season.",
""
] |
### Notre Dame Fighting Irish
In 2000, Brey succeeded [Matt Doherty](/wiki/Matt_Doherty_%28basketball%29 "Matt Doherty (basketball)") as head coach of the [Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_men%27s_basketball "Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball") team. Notre Dame had not been to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament") since 1990\. Brey led the Irish to the NCAA tournament in his first three years as head coach (2001–2003\), notching a [Sweet Sixteen](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship "NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship") appearance in [2003](/wiki/2003_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2003 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"). He has since led the team to tournament appearances in [2007](/wiki/2007_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2007 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2008](/wiki/2008_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2008 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2010](/wiki/2010_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2010 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2011](/wiki/2011_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2011 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2012](/wiki/2012_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2012 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2013](/wiki/2013_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2013 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2015](/wiki/2015_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2015 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"), [2016](/wiki/2016_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2016 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"),[2017](/wiki/2017_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2017 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament") and 2021\.
On December 29, 2017, Brey tied [Digger Phelps](/wiki/Digger_Phelps "Digger Phelps") for most wins by a Notre Dame coach with 393\.
#### 2007–08 season
During the [2007–08 season](/wiki/2007-08_Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_men%27s_basketball_team "2007-08 Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball team"), Brey led the Irish to a 24–6 regular\-season mark. He was named the [Big East Coach of the Year](/wiki/Big_East_Conference_Men%27s_Basketball_Coach_of_the_Year "Big East Conference Men's Basketball Coach of the Year") for the second consecutive season on March 11, 2008\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.uhnd.com/articles/2008/basketball/harangody\-brey\-take\-home\-top\-big\-east\-honors/\|title\=Harangody, Brey Take Home Top Big East Honors\|publisher\=UHND.com\|date\=March 11, 2008\|access\-date\=2008\-03\-12}} Notre Dame had a 45\-game home winning streak between February 2006 and February 2009 – the second\-longest in school history. By completing the [2007–2008 regular season](/wiki/2007-08_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_season "2007-08 NCAA Division I men's basketball season") 18–0 at [home](/wiki/Joyce_Center "Joyce Center"), Brey coached the first team in Big East history to have consecutive undefeated seasons at home.
On June 19, 2012, Brey signed a 10\-year extension to remain the head coach of the Notre Dame Irish up until 2022\. The financials were not released.
#### 2014–15 season
During the 2014–15 season, Brey's Notre Dame team went 32–6 and won the ACC conference tournament. The squad advanced to the Elite Eight, losing a close game to Kentucky. The 32 wins were the most by a Notre Dame men's team since 1908–09\. He also passed Hall of Famer [George Keogan](/wiki/George_Keogan "George Keogan") for second place on Notre Dame's all\-time wins list, trailing only [Digger Phelps](/wiki/Digger_Phelps "Digger Phelps").
#### 2015–16 season
Notre Dame advanced to the Elite Eight for the second consecutive season, defeating Michigan, Stephen F. Austin, and Wisconsin as the 6 seed in the East region. Notre Dame lost to North Carolina 88–74 in the Elite Eight.
#### 2016–17 season
During the 2016–17 regular season, Brey's team went 23–8\. They finished the season in a three\-way tie with Florida State and Louisville. The Irish were given a 3\-seed in the ACC tournament which guaranteed them a double bye. Notre Dame dominated its first two games against Virginia and Florida State and sparked another ACC tournament final appearance for the second time in three years. The Irish went on to lose in the tournament final to Duke, 75–69\. Notre Dame received a 5\-seed in the West Region of the NCAA tournament, and defeated Princeton in the first round before falling to West Virginia in the second round.
#### Resignation from Notre Dame
With his 2022–23 team struggling to stay out of the basement of the ACC standings, on January 19, 2023, Brey announced that the 2022–23 season would be his last as head coach at Notre Dame, although he said that he was definitely not done coaching.{{cite tweet\|user\=tnoieNDI\|number\=1616181539007512577\|title\=BREAKING: Source tells South Bend Tribune that \#NotreDame coach Mike Brey will retire at end of season}}{{cite web\|url\=https://sports.yahoo.com/longtime\-notre\-dame\-coach\-mike\-brey\-not\-retiring\-despite\-plans\-to\-leave\-fighting\-irish\-203014753\.html\|title\=Longtime Notre Dame coach Mike Brey not retiring despite plans to leave Fighting Irish\|website\=yahoosports.com\|first\=Ryan\|last\=Young\|date\=February 13, 2023\|access\-date\=March 8, 2023}}
|
[
"### Notre Dame Fighting Irish",
"In 2000, Brey succeeded [Matt Doherty](/wiki/Matt_Doherty_%28basketball%29 \"Matt Doherty (basketball)\") as head coach of the [Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_men%27s_basketball \"Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball\") team. Notre Dame had not been to the [NCAA tournament](/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\") since 1990\\. Brey led the Irish to the NCAA tournament in his first three years as head coach (2001–2003\\), notching a [Sweet Sixteen](/wiki/NCAA_Men%27s_Division_I_Basketball_Championship \"NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship\") appearance in [2003](/wiki/2003_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2003 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"). He has since led the team to tournament appearances in [2007](/wiki/2007_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2007 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2008](/wiki/2008_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2008 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2010](/wiki/2010_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2010 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2011](/wiki/2011_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2011 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2012](/wiki/2012_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2012 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2013](/wiki/2013_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2013 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2015](/wiki/2015_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2015 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"), [2016](/wiki/2016_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2016 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"),[2017](/wiki/2017_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2017 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\") and 2021\\.",
"On December 29, 2017, Brey tied [Digger Phelps](/wiki/Digger_Phelps \"Digger Phelps\") for most wins by a Notre Dame coach with 393\\.",
"#### 2007–08 season",
"During the [2007–08 season](/wiki/2007-08_Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_men%27s_basketball_team \"2007-08 Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball team\"), Brey led the Irish to a 24–6 regular\\-season mark. He was named the [Big East Coach of the Year](/wiki/Big_East_Conference_Men%27s_Basketball_Coach_of_the_Year \"Big East Conference Men's Basketball Coach of the Year\") for the second consecutive season on March 11, 2008\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.uhnd.com/articles/2008/basketball/harangody\\-brey\\-take\\-home\\-top\\-big\\-east\\-honors/\\|title\\=Harangody, Brey Take Home Top Big East Honors\\|publisher\\=UHND.com\\|date\\=March 11, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-12}} Notre Dame had a 45\\-game home winning streak between February 2006 and February 2009 – the second\\-longest in school history. By completing the [2007–2008 regular season](/wiki/2007-08_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_season \"2007-08 NCAA Division I men's basketball season\") 18–0 at [home](/wiki/Joyce_Center \"Joyce Center\"), Brey coached the first team in Big East history to have consecutive undefeated seasons at home.",
"On June 19, 2012, Brey signed a 10\\-year extension to remain the head coach of the Notre Dame Irish up until 2022\\. The financials were not released.",
"#### 2014–15 season",
"During the 2014–15 season, Brey's Notre Dame team went 32–6 and won the ACC conference tournament. The squad advanced to the Elite Eight, losing a close game to Kentucky. The 32 wins were the most by a Notre Dame men's team since 1908–09\\. He also passed Hall of Famer [George Keogan](/wiki/George_Keogan \"George Keogan\") for second place on Notre Dame's all\\-time wins list, trailing only [Digger Phelps](/wiki/Digger_Phelps \"Digger Phelps\").",
"#### 2015–16 season",
"Notre Dame advanced to the Elite Eight for the second consecutive season, defeating Michigan, Stephen F. Austin, and Wisconsin as the 6 seed in the East region. Notre Dame lost to North Carolina 88–74 in the Elite Eight.",
"#### 2016–17 season",
"During the 2016–17 regular season, Brey's team went 23–8\\. They finished the season in a three\\-way tie with Florida State and Louisville. The Irish were given a 3\\-seed in the ACC tournament which guaranteed them a double bye. Notre Dame dominated its first two games against Virginia and Florida State and sparked another ACC tournament final appearance for the second time in three years. The Irish went on to lose in the tournament final to Duke, 75–69\\. Notre Dame received a 5\\-seed in the West Region of the NCAA tournament, and defeated Princeton in the first round before falling to West Virginia in the second round.",
"#### Resignation from Notre Dame",
"With his 2022–23 team struggling to stay out of the basement of the ACC standings, on January 19, 2023, Brey announced that the 2022–23 season would be his last as head coach at Notre Dame, although he said that he was definitely not done coaching.{{cite tweet\\|user\\=tnoieNDI\\|number\\=1616181539007512577\\|title\\=BREAKING: Source tells South Bend Tribune that \\#NotreDame coach Mike Brey will retire at end of season}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sports.yahoo.com/longtime\\-notre\\-dame\\-coach\\-mike\\-brey\\-not\\-retiring\\-despite\\-plans\\-to\\-leave\\-fighting\\-irish\\-203014753\\.html\\|title\\=Longtime Notre Dame coach Mike Brey not retiring despite plans to leave Fighting Irish\\|website\\=yahoosports.com\\|first\\=Ryan\\|last\\=Young\\|date\\=February 13, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2023}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Red Bull Records was founded co\-founded by [Dietrich Mateschitz](/wiki/Dietrich_Mateschitz "Dietrich Mateschitz") and Greg Hammer in 2007 with [Red Bull](/wiki/Red_Bull_GmbH "Red Bull GmbH") building a recording studio in [Santa Monica, California](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California "Santa Monica, California") and recording small [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock "Indie rock") bands for free.Lauria, Peter. (2008\-04\-01\) [Pump The Music](http://www.nypost.com/p/news/business/item_SY9XQMYwCgtsf6cCoINAOO). NYPOST.com. Retrieved on 2011\-06\-05\.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Hampp \|first\=Andrew \|date\=May 26, 2012 \|title\=Green On Red Bull \|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1022338088 \|magazine\=\[\[Billboard Magazine]] \|pages\=6,8 \|id\={{ProQuest\|1022338088}} \|via\=ProQuest}}
The label's first major success was in 2011 when [Awolnation](/wiki/Awolnation "Awolnation") released their debut album *[Megalithic Symphony](/wiki/Megalithic_Symphony "Megalithic Symphony")*. The album went on to become platinum certified and featured the band's most notable single "[Sail](/wiki/Sail_%28song%29 "Sail (song)")", which has sold over 10 million copies to date.[AWOLNATION Sail into the recording studio \| RedBull.com Music](https://www.redbull.com/gb-en/awolnation-sail-past-four-million-sales-as-they-record-new-album). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\. The single spent 79 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 charts, making it the third longest single ever to stay on the Hot 100, surpassed only by [Imagine Dragons](/wiki/Imagine_Dragons "Imagine Dragons")’ "[Radioactive](/wiki/Radioactive_%28Imagine_Dragons_song%29 "Radioactive (Imagine Dragons song)")"[Imagine Dragons' 'Radioactive' Ends Record Billboard Hot 100 Run \| Billboard.com News](https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6084584/imagine-dragons-radioactive-ends-record-billboard-hot-100-run) Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22 and [The Weeknd](/wiki/The_Weeknd "The Weeknd")'s "[Blinding Lights](/wiki/Blinding_Lights "Blinding Lights")". [The Weeknd's Blinding Lights breaks Hot 100 record \| Billboard.com News](https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/9615371/the-weeknd-blinding-lights-hot-100-record-88-weeks/) Retrieved on 2021\-09\-16 The band’s sophomore release, *[Run](/wiki/Run_%28Awolnation_album%29 "Run (Awolnation album)")*, came in 2015 and included No. 1 hit “Hollow Moon (Bad Wolf)” as well as Top 5 tracks “I Am” and “Woman Woman.”[AWOLNATION \| CHART HISTORY \| Billboard.com Chart History](https://www.billboard.com/artist/awolnation/chart-history/mrt/). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\.
Red Bull Records' first international signing was Scottish rock band [Twin Atlantic](/wiki/Twin_Atlantic "Twin Atlantic").[Twin Atlantic Sign To Red Bull Records. \| Rocksound.tv News](https://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/twin-atlantic-sign-to-red-bull-records). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\. The band has released four studio albums to date; Vivarium, Free, Great Divide and GLA, and band made their BBC national TV debut on [Later… with Jools Holland](/wiki/Later..._with_Jools_Holland "Later... with Jools Holland") on October 4, 2016\.[Watch Queens Of The Stone Age Perform With String Quartet \| Kerrang.com News](http://www.kerrang.com/video/watch-queens-of-the-stone-age-perform-with-a-string-quarter-on-later-with-jools-holland/). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\.
In 2013, the label signed its first [metalcore](/wiki/Metalcore "Metalcore") band [Beartooth](/wiki/Beartooth_%28band%29 "Beartooth (band)").[Exclusive: Beartooth sign to Red Bull Records \| Altpress.com News](https://www.altpress.com/news/entry/exclusive_beartooth_sign_to_red_bull_records). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\. The band was formed in 2012 by frontman [Caleb Shomo](/wiki/Caleb_Shomo "Caleb Shomo") in Columbus, OH, and has released four studio albums on Red Bull Records; *[Disgusting](/wiki/Disgusting_%28album%29 "Disgusting (album)")*, *[Aggressive](/wiki/Aggressive_%28album%29 "Aggressive (album)")*, *[Disease](/wiki/Disease_%28Beartooth_album%29 "Disease (Beartooth album)")*, and *[Below](/wiki/Below_%28album%29 "Below (album)")*. Beartooth won the Metal Hammer Award for Best Breakthrough Band of 2016 and the Loudwire Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year 2017\.[Beartooth Win Breakthrough Band Of The Year \| Loudwire.com News](http://loudwire.com/beartooth-wins-breakthrough-band-of-the-year-2017-loudwire-music-awards/). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\. In 2020, Beartooth's single "In Between" was certified [Gold](/wiki/Music_recording_certification "Music recording certification") in the United States.[Beartooth has been certified gold \| Rocksound TV](https://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/beartooths-in-between-has-been-certified-gold-in-the-us/). Retrieved on 2021\-01\-22\.
Red Bull Records's first foray into [hip hop](/wiki/Hip_hop "Hip hop") came with signing Warm Brew.[Warm Brew Signs to Red Bull, Drops New Song \| XXLMag.com News](http://www.xxlmag.com/rap-music/new-music/2016/06/warm-brew-signs-red-bull-song/). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\. The group had participated in Red Bull’s Sound Select program before signing to the label.[Joey Bada$$, Lil Herb, \& Warm Brew at Red Bull Sound Select's 30 Days in LA \| TheHundreds.com Blog](https://thehundreds.com/blogs/content/joey-badass-30-days-in-la-2015). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\. Warm Brew released their debut EP *Diagnosis* on Red Bull Records in 2016\.[Warm Brew Drop "Diagnosis" EP \| XXLMag.com News](http://www.xxlmag.com/rap-music/new-music/2016/07/warm-brew-diagnosis-ep/). Retrieved on 2018\-01\-22\.
In 2020, Red Bull Records added [Blxst](/wiki/Blxst "Blxst") to the roster. Blxst's debut EP "No Love Lost" peaked at \#3 on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)") Heatseekers chart. [HEATSEEKERS ALBUMS \| Billboard](https://www.billboard.com/charts/Heatseekers-albums/2020-12-19). Retrieved on 2021\-01\-22\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Red Bull Records was founded co\\-founded by [Dietrich Mateschitz](/wiki/Dietrich_Mateschitz \"Dietrich Mateschitz\") and Greg Hammer in 2007 with [Red Bull](/wiki/Red_Bull_GmbH \"Red Bull GmbH\") building a recording studio in [Santa Monica, California](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California \"Santa Monica, California\") and recording small [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock \"Indie rock\") bands for free.Lauria, Peter. (2008\\-04\\-01\\) [Pump The Music](http://www.nypost.com/p/news/business/item_SY9XQMYwCgtsf6cCoINAOO). NYPOST.com. Retrieved on 2011\\-06\\-05\\.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Hampp \\|first\\=Andrew \\|date\\=May 26, 2012 \\|title\\=Green On Red Bull \\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1022338088 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Billboard Magazine]] \\|pages\\=6,8 \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|1022338088}} \\|via\\=ProQuest}}",
"The label's first major success was in 2011 when [Awolnation](/wiki/Awolnation \"Awolnation\") released their debut album *[Megalithic Symphony](/wiki/Megalithic_Symphony \"Megalithic Symphony\")*. The album went on to become platinum certified and featured the band's most notable single \"[Sail](/wiki/Sail_%28song%29 \"Sail (song)\")\", which has sold over 10 million copies to date.[AWOLNATION Sail into the recording studio \\| RedBull.com Music](https://www.redbull.com/gb-en/awolnation-sail-past-four-million-sales-as-they-record-new-album). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\. The single spent 79 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 charts, making it the third longest single ever to stay on the Hot 100, surpassed only by [Imagine Dragons](/wiki/Imagine_Dragons \"Imagine Dragons\")’ \"[Radioactive](/wiki/Radioactive_%28Imagine_Dragons_song%29 \"Radioactive (Imagine Dragons song)\")\"[Imagine Dragons' 'Radioactive' Ends Record Billboard Hot 100 Run \\| Billboard.com News](https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6084584/imagine-dragons-radioactive-ends-record-billboard-hot-100-run) Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22 and [The Weeknd](/wiki/The_Weeknd \"The Weeknd\")'s \"[Blinding Lights](/wiki/Blinding_Lights \"Blinding Lights\")\". [The Weeknd's Blinding Lights breaks Hot 100 record \\| Billboard.com News](https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/9615371/the-weeknd-blinding-lights-hot-100-record-88-weeks/) Retrieved on 2021\\-09\\-16 The band’s sophomore release, *[Run](/wiki/Run_%28Awolnation_album%29 \"Run (Awolnation album)\")*, came in 2015 and included No. 1 hit “Hollow Moon (Bad Wolf)” as well as Top 5 tracks “I Am” and “Woman Woman.”[AWOLNATION \\| CHART HISTORY \\| Billboard.com Chart History](https://www.billboard.com/artist/awolnation/chart-history/mrt/). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\.",
"Red Bull Records' first international signing was Scottish rock band [Twin Atlantic](/wiki/Twin_Atlantic \"Twin Atlantic\").[Twin Atlantic Sign To Red Bull Records. \\| Rocksound.tv News](https://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/twin-atlantic-sign-to-red-bull-records). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\. The band has released four studio albums to date; Vivarium, Free, Great Divide and GLA, and band made their BBC national TV debut on [Later… with Jools Holland](/wiki/Later..._with_Jools_Holland \"Later... with Jools Holland\") on October 4, 2016\\.[Watch Queens Of The Stone Age Perform With String Quartet \\| Kerrang.com News](http://www.kerrang.com/video/watch-queens-of-the-stone-age-perform-with-a-string-quarter-on-later-with-jools-holland/). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\.",
"In 2013, the label signed its first [metalcore](/wiki/Metalcore \"Metalcore\") band [Beartooth](/wiki/Beartooth_%28band%29 \"Beartooth (band)\").[Exclusive: Beartooth sign to Red Bull Records \\| Altpress.com News](https://www.altpress.com/news/entry/exclusive_beartooth_sign_to_red_bull_records). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\. The band was formed in 2012 by frontman [Caleb Shomo](/wiki/Caleb_Shomo \"Caleb Shomo\") in Columbus, OH, and has released four studio albums on Red Bull Records; *[Disgusting](/wiki/Disgusting_%28album%29 \"Disgusting (album)\")*, *[Aggressive](/wiki/Aggressive_%28album%29 \"Aggressive (album)\")*, *[Disease](/wiki/Disease_%28Beartooth_album%29 \"Disease (Beartooth album)\")*, and *[Below](/wiki/Below_%28album%29 \"Below (album)\")*. Beartooth won the Metal Hammer Award for Best Breakthrough Band of 2016 and the Loudwire Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year 2017\\.[Beartooth Win Breakthrough Band Of The Year \\| Loudwire.com News](http://loudwire.com/beartooth-wins-breakthrough-band-of-the-year-2017-loudwire-music-awards/). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\. In 2020, Beartooth's single \"In Between\" was certified [Gold](/wiki/Music_recording_certification \"Music recording certification\") in the United States.[Beartooth has been certified gold \\| Rocksound TV](https://www.rocksound.tv/news/read/beartooths-in-between-has-been-certified-gold-in-the-us/). Retrieved on 2021\\-01\\-22\\.",
"Red Bull Records's first foray into [hip hop](/wiki/Hip_hop \"Hip hop\") came with signing Warm Brew.[Warm Brew Signs to Red Bull, Drops New Song \\| XXLMag.com News](http://www.xxlmag.com/rap-music/new-music/2016/06/warm-brew-signs-red-bull-song/). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\. The group had participated in Red Bull’s Sound Select program before signing to the label.[Joey Bada$$, Lil Herb, \\& Warm Brew at Red Bull Sound Select's 30 Days in LA \\| TheHundreds.com Blog](https://thehundreds.com/blogs/content/joey-badass-30-days-in-la-2015). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\. Warm Brew released their debut EP *Diagnosis* on Red Bull Records in 2016\\.[Warm Brew Drop \"Diagnosis\" EP \\| XXLMag.com News](http://www.xxlmag.com/rap-music/new-music/2016/07/warm-brew-diagnosis-ep/). Retrieved on 2018\\-01\\-22\\.",
"In 2020, Red Bull Records added [Blxst](/wiki/Blxst \"Blxst\") to the roster. Blxst's debut EP \"No Love Lost\" peaked at \\#3 on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\") Heatseekers chart. [HEATSEEKERS ALBUMS \\| Billboard](https://www.billboard.com/charts/Heatseekers-albums/2020-12-19). Retrieved on 2021\\-01\\-22\\.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### 2008
Brands began 2008 ranked No. 220\. After a few unimpressive tournaments to start the year, he beat no. 132 [Aisam Qureshi](/wiki/Aisam_Qureshi "Aisam Qureshi") and no. 193 [Simon Stadler](/wiki/Simon_Stadler "Simon Stadler") en route to a semifinal Challenger finish in Germany in February. In March, he made the quarters of a Challenger in Japan before losing to no. 124 [Yen\-Hsun Lu](/wiki/Yen-Hsun_Lu "Yen-Hsun Lu"), then reached the quarters of a Challenger in Sarajevo, beating no. 169 [Matthias Bachinger](/wiki/Matthias_Bachinger "Matthias Bachinger").
In May, Brands reached the quarterfinals at two more Challengers, beating no. 66 [Michael Berrer](/wiki/Michael_Berrer "Michael Berrer") and no. 114 [Brian Dabul](/wiki/Brian_Dabul "Brian Dabul"), while also winning the doubles title in one and reaching the doubles final in the other. Then, with his ranking at a career\-high of no. 210, he beat no. 123 [Nicolás Massú](/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Mass%C3%BA "Nicolás Massú"), no. 151 [Pablo Andújar](/wiki/Pablo_And%C3%BAjar "Pablo Andújar") (who beat him a week earlier), and no. 198 [Alex Bogomolov](/wiki/Alex_Bogomolov "Alex Bogomolov") to qualify into the main draw of the [2008 French Open](/wiki/2008_French_Open "2008 French Open").
### 2009
Brands made it to the semifinals of the 2009 [BMW Open](/wiki/BMW_Open "BMW Open"), before losing to [Mikhail Youzhny](/wiki/Mikhail_Youzhny "Mikhail Youzhny"). He lost in the first round of the [2009 French Open](/wiki/2009_French_Open "2009 French Open") to [Robert Kendrick](/wiki/Robert_Kendrick "Robert Kendrick").
### 2010
Brands again bowed out in the first round of the \[2010 French Open], but he put up a great performance only to fall short against the eighth seed Frenchman and world no. 10 [Jo\-Wilfried Tsonga](/wiki/Jo-Wilfried_Tsonga "Jo-Wilfried Tsonga").
Brands made his Wimbledon debut at the [2010 tournament](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships "2010 Wimbledon Championships"), defeating [Igor Andreev](/wiki/Igor_Andreev "Igor Andreev") in the first round. He continued his run in the second round by upsetting world no. 5 and seventh seed [Nikolay Davydenko](/wiki/Nikolay_Davydenko "Nikolay Davydenko"), who was returning from injury. Brands then saved four match points at two sets to love down against [Victor Hănescu](/wiki/Victor_H%C4%83nescu "Victor Hănescu"), to win while leading the fifth set when Hanescu retired due to injury, and a controversial issue with the crowd. In the fourth round, Brands lost to eventual finalist [Tomáš Berdych](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Berdych "Tomáš Berdych").
At the [2010 US Open](/wiki/2010_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2010 US Open (tennis)") tournament Brands was defeated by countryman [Benjamin Becker](/wiki/Benjamin_Becker "Benjamin Becker") in the first round in straight sets.
He then accepted a [Wildcard](/wiki/Wild_card_%28sports%29 "Wild card (sports)") for an [ATP Challenger Tour](/wiki/ATP_Challenger_Tour "ATP Challenger Tour") event in Braşov, Romania where he bowed out in the first round. The [Open de Moselle](/wiki/Open_de_Moselle "Open de Moselle") in Metz was his next tournament. He fell to [Tommy Robredo](/wiki/Tommy_Robredo "Tommy Robredo") in the first round.
He reached his first quarterfinal of the season at the [Thailand Open](/wiki/PTT_Thailand_Open_%28ATP%29 "PTT Thailand Open (ATP)") in Bangkok defeating [Illya Marchenko](/wiki/Illya_Marchenko "Illya Marchenko") and [Thiemo de Bakker](/wiki/Thiemo_de_Bakker "Thiemo de Bakker"), where he saved a matchpoint. He was again knocked out by [Benjamin Becker](/wiki/Benjamin_Becker "Benjamin Becker").
### 2012
Brands lost to [Marin Čilić](/wiki/Marin_%C4%8Cili%C4%87 "Marin Čilić") in the [Croatia Open](/wiki/Croatia_Open "Croatia Open").{{cite news\|url\=https://newsok.com/article/feed/402602/cilic\-beats\-brands\-to\-reach\-umag\-quarterfinals\|title\=Cilic beats Brands to reach Umag quarterfinals\|date\=11 July 2012\|publisher\=Associated Press\|website\=News OK}}
### 2013
Brands entered the [Australian Open](/wiki/2013_Australian_Open "2013 Australian Open") beating 27th seed [Martin Klizan](/wiki/Martin_Klizan "Martin Klizan") before losing to an in\-form [Bernard Tomic](/wiki/Bernard_Tomic "Bernard Tomic"). In the [French Open](/wiki/2013_French_Open "2013 French Open") he drew [Rafael Nadal](/wiki/Rafael_Nadal "Rafael Nadal") in the first round. He shocked Rafa, winning the opening set 6–4 with a punishing serve and huge flat groundstrokes, reminiscent of both Söderling and Rosol, who upset Rafa in the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively. Brands went ahead in the second set tie breaker 3–0, but his level slightly dropped and Nadal's rose. After pulling Nadal off the court with a second serve at 3–2, Brands missed a backhand into the open court that provided the break that Nadal needed to climb back in and win the tiebreaker, 7–4\. Brands let down slightly in the next game and was broken for the first time in the match. Nadal upped his game and won the next two sets 6–4 and 6–3\. Nadal was quoted by the New York Times as saying, "I don’t know what he's ranked, but he can’t be ranked 60th playing like that. I can’t believe it".After Nadal Dodges Upset, a Wild Card Delivers One, Christopher Clarey, *The New York Times*, 27 May 2013
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### 2008",
"Brands began 2008 ranked No. 220\\. After a few unimpressive tournaments to start the year, he beat no. 132 [Aisam Qureshi](/wiki/Aisam_Qureshi \"Aisam Qureshi\") and no. 193 [Simon Stadler](/wiki/Simon_Stadler \"Simon Stadler\") en route to a semifinal Challenger finish in Germany in February. In March, he made the quarters of a Challenger in Japan before losing to no. 124 [Yen\\-Hsun Lu](/wiki/Yen-Hsun_Lu \"Yen-Hsun Lu\"), then reached the quarters of a Challenger in Sarajevo, beating no. 169 [Matthias Bachinger](/wiki/Matthias_Bachinger \"Matthias Bachinger\").",
"In May, Brands reached the quarterfinals at two more Challengers, beating no. 66 [Michael Berrer](/wiki/Michael_Berrer \"Michael Berrer\") and no. 114 [Brian Dabul](/wiki/Brian_Dabul \"Brian Dabul\"), while also winning the doubles title in one and reaching the doubles final in the other. Then, with his ranking at a career\\-high of no. 210, he beat no. 123 [Nicolás Massú](/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Mass%C3%BA \"Nicolás Massú\"), no. 151 [Pablo Andújar](/wiki/Pablo_And%C3%BAjar \"Pablo Andújar\") (who beat him a week earlier), and no. 198 [Alex Bogomolov](/wiki/Alex_Bogomolov \"Alex Bogomolov\") to qualify into the main draw of the [2008 French Open](/wiki/2008_French_Open \"2008 French Open\").",
"### 2009",
"Brands made it to the semifinals of the 2009 [BMW Open](/wiki/BMW_Open \"BMW Open\"), before losing to [Mikhail Youzhny](/wiki/Mikhail_Youzhny \"Mikhail Youzhny\"). He lost in the first round of the [2009 French Open](/wiki/2009_French_Open \"2009 French Open\") to [Robert Kendrick](/wiki/Robert_Kendrick \"Robert Kendrick\").",
"### 2010",
"Brands again bowed out in the first round of the \\[2010 French Open], but he put up a great performance only to fall short against the eighth seed Frenchman and world no. 10 [Jo\\-Wilfried Tsonga](/wiki/Jo-Wilfried_Tsonga \"Jo-Wilfried Tsonga\").",
"Brands made his Wimbledon debut at the [2010 tournament](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships \"2010 Wimbledon Championships\"), defeating [Igor Andreev](/wiki/Igor_Andreev \"Igor Andreev\") in the first round. He continued his run in the second round by upsetting world no. 5 and seventh seed [Nikolay Davydenko](/wiki/Nikolay_Davydenko \"Nikolay Davydenko\"), who was returning from injury. Brands then saved four match points at two sets to love down against [Victor Hănescu](/wiki/Victor_H%C4%83nescu \"Victor Hănescu\"), to win while leading the fifth set when Hanescu retired due to injury, and a controversial issue with the crowd. In the fourth round, Brands lost to eventual finalist [Tomáš Berdych](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Berdych \"Tomáš Berdych\").",
"At the [2010 US Open](/wiki/2010_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2010 US Open (tennis)\") tournament Brands was defeated by countryman [Benjamin Becker](/wiki/Benjamin_Becker \"Benjamin Becker\") in the first round in straight sets.\nHe then accepted a [Wildcard](/wiki/Wild_card_%28sports%29 \"Wild card (sports)\") for an [ATP Challenger Tour](/wiki/ATP_Challenger_Tour \"ATP Challenger Tour\") event in Braşov, Romania where he bowed out in the first round. The [Open de Moselle](/wiki/Open_de_Moselle \"Open de Moselle\") in Metz was his next tournament. He fell to [Tommy Robredo](/wiki/Tommy_Robredo \"Tommy Robredo\") in the first round.",
"He reached his first quarterfinal of the season at the [Thailand Open](/wiki/PTT_Thailand_Open_%28ATP%29 \"PTT Thailand Open (ATP)\") in Bangkok defeating [Illya Marchenko](/wiki/Illya_Marchenko \"Illya Marchenko\") and [Thiemo de Bakker](/wiki/Thiemo_de_Bakker \"Thiemo de Bakker\"), where he saved a matchpoint. He was again knocked out by [Benjamin Becker](/wiki/Benjamin_Becker \"Benjamin Becker\").",
"### 2012",
"Brands lost to [Marin Čilić](/wiki/Marin_%C4%8Cili%C4%87 \"Marin Čilić\") in the [Croatia Open](/wiki/Croatia_Open \"Croatia Open\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://newsok.com/article/feed/402602/cilic\\-beats\\-brands\\-to\\-reach\\-umag\\-quarterfinals\\|title\\=Cilic beats Brands to reach Umag quarterfinals\\|date\\=11 July 2012\\|publisher\\=Associated Press\\|website\\=News OK}}",
"### 2013",
"Brands entered the [Australian Open](/wiki/2013_Australian_Open \"2013 Australian Open\") beating 27th seed [Martin Klizan](/wiki/Martin_Klizan \"Martin Klizan\") before losing to an in\\-form [Bernard Tomic](/wiki/Bernard_Tomic \"Bernard Tomic\"). In the [French Open](/wiki/2013_French_Open \"2013 French Open\") he drew [Rafael Nadal](/wiki/Rafael_Nadal \"Rafael Nadal\") in the first round. He shocked Rafa, winning the opening set 6–4 with a punishing serve and huge flat groundstrokes, reminiscent of both Söderling and Rosol, who upset Rafa in the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively. Brands went ahead in the second set tie breaker 3–0, but his level slightly dropped and Nadal's rose. After pulling Nadal off the court with a second serve at 3–2, Brands missed a backhand into the open court that provided the break that Nadal needed to climb back in and win the tiebreaker, 7–4\\. Brands let down slightly in the next game and was broken for the first time in the match. Nadal upped his game and won the next two sets 6–4 and 6–3\\. Nadal was quoted by the New York Times as saying, \"I don’t know what he's ranked, but he can’t be ranked 60th playing like that. I can’t believe it\".After Nadal Dodges Upset, a Wild Card Delivers One, Christopher Clarey, *The New York Times*, 27 May 2013",
""
] |
Antiquity
---------
The four cardinal virtues appeared as a group (sometimes included in larger lists) long before they were given this title.
### Hellenistic philosophy
Plato associated the four cardinal virtues with the social classes of the ideal city described in *The Republic*, and with the faculties of humanity. Plato narrates a discussion of the character of a good city where the following is agreed upon:
{{Blockquote\|Clearly, then, it will be wise, brave, temperate \[literally: healthy\-minded], and just.
\|427e;{{Cite book \|last\=Plato \|title\=The Republic of Plato: with an English translation by Paul Shorey \|title\-link\=Republic (Plato) \|date\=1937 \|publisher\=\[\[Harvard University Press]]; \[\[William Heinemann Ltd.]] \|isbn\= \|edition\=Revised and Reprinted \|series\=\[\[Loeb Classical Library]] \|volume\=1 \|location\=\[\[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]; \[\[London]] \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/republicshorey01platuoft/page/346/mode/2up 347] \|translator\-last\=Shorey \|translator\-first\=Paul \|lccn\=a44004515 \|oclc\=669777366 \|ol\=OL20425902M \|id\={{Internet Archive\|republicshorey01platuoft}} \|quote\=Clearly, then, it will be wise, brave, sober, and just. \|author\-link\=Plato \|orig\-date\=1930 \|translator\-link\=Paul Shorey}} see also 435b}}
*Temperance*{{efn\|\[\[Cicero]] and Plato sometimes preferred the word \[\[Sophrosyne\|{{transl\|grc\|sōphrosynē}}]].{{cite book\|last\=Strauch\|first\=E.H.\|title\=Beyond Literary Theory: Literature as a Search for the Meaning of Human Destiny\|location\=\[\[Lanham, Maryland]]\|publisher\=\[\[University Press of America]]\|year\=2001\|page\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=Wo7FP1Uq2kcC\&pg\=PA166 166] }}}} was most closely associated with the producing classes, the farmers and craftsmen, to moderate their animal appetites. *Fortitude* was assigned to the warrior class, to strengthen their fighting spirit. *Prudence* was assigned to the rulers, to guide their reason. *Justice* stood above these three to properly regulate the relations among them.
Plato sometimes{{efn\|e.g., ''\[\[Protagoras (dialogue)\|Protagoras]]'' 349b; cf. 324e, 329c, 330b, 331a\-c.}} lists holiness ({{transl\|grc\|hosiotes}}, {{transl\|grc\|\[\[eusebeia]]}}, {{transl\|grc\|aidos}}) amongst the cardinal virtues. He especially associates holiness with justice, but leaves their precise relationship unexplained.
In Aristotle's *[Rhetoric](/wiki/Rhetoric_%28Aristotle%29 "Rhetoric (Aristotle)")*, we read:
{{Blockquote\|The forms of Virtue are justice, courage, temperance, magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, wisdom.
\|''Rhetoric'' 1366b1{{cite web \|author\=Aristotle \|title\=Rhetoric Book I \- Chapter 9 \|url\=https://kairos.technorhetoric.net/stasis/2017/honeycutt/aristotle/rhet1\-9\.html}}}}
These are expounded fully in the *[Nicomachean Ethics](/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics "Nicomachean Ethics")* III.6\-V.2\.
[Philo of Alexandria](/wiki/Philo "Philo"), a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, also recognized the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. In his writings, he states:
{{Blockquote\|text\=In these words Moses intends to sketch out the particular virtues. And they also are four in number, prudence, temperance, courage, and justice.\|author\=Philo\|title\=''\[\[Philo's Works]]''\|source\=Allegorical Interpretation 1\.XIX{{Cite web \|title\=Philo: Works of Philo Judaeus \|website\= Christian Classics Ethereal Library \|url\=https://ccel.org/ccel/philo/works/works.iii.ii.html\#iii.ii\-p22\.3 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-20 }}}}
These virtues, according to Philo, serve as guiding principles for a virtuous and fulfilling life.
### Roman philosophy
The Roman philosopher and statesman [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero "Cicero") (106\-43 BC), like Plato, limits the list to four virtues:
{{Blockquote\|Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind ({{lang\|la\|animi}}) in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom ({{lang\|la\|prudentiam}}), justice, courage, temperance.
\|''\[\[De Inventione]]'', II, LIII{{efn\|Nam virtus est animi habitus naturae modo atque rationi consentaneus. … Habet igitur partes quattuor: prudentiam, iustitiam, fortitudinem, temperantiam.}}{{Cite web \|author\=Cicero\|title\=de Inventione II \|url\=https://thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2\.shtml\#159 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110144829/http://thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2\.shtml\#159 \|archive\-date\=2021\-01\-10 \|access\-date\=2014\-01\-17 \|website\=The Latin Library}}}}
Cicero discusses these further in *[De Officiis](/wiki/De_Officiis "De Officiis")* (I, V, and following).
[Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger "Seneca the Younger") writes in {{lang\|la\|\[\[Seneca's Consolations\|Consolatio ad Helviam Matrem]]}} about justice ({{lang\|la\|iustitia}} from [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek "Ancient Greek") {{lang\|grc\|δικαιοσύνη}}), self\-control ({{lang\|la\|continentia}} from Ancient Greek {{lang\|grc\|σωφροσύνη}}), practical wisdom ({{lang\|la\|prudentia}} from Ancient Greek {{lang\|grc\|φρόνησις}}) and devotion ({{lang\|la\|\[\[pietas]]}}) instead of courage ({{lang\|la\|fortitudo}} from Ancient Greek {{lang\|grc\|ἀνδρεία}}).{{Cite book \|title\=Seneca. La «Consolatio ad Helviam matrem» con un'antologia di testi \|author\=Seneca \|date\=2004 \|publisher\=Carocci \|translator\-last\=Cotrozzi \|translator\-first\=Annamaria \|page\=76 \|lang\=it}}
The Roman Emperor [Marcus Aurelius](/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius "Marcus Aurelius") discusses these in Book V:12 of *[Meditations](/wiki/Meditations "Meditations")* and views them as the "goods" that a person should identify in one's own mind, as opposed to "wealth or things which conduce to luxury or prestige".{{Cite book \|author\=Marcus Aurelius \|title\=Meditations \|date\=1976 \|publisher\=Penguin Classics\|translator\-first\=Maxwell\|translator\-last\=Staniforth \|page\=83}}
Suggestions of the [Stoic virtues](/wiki/Stoic_virtues "Stoic virtues") can be found in fragments in the [Diogenes Laertius](/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius "Diogenes Laertius") and [Stobaeus](/wiki/Stobaeus "Stobaeus").
The Platonist view of the four cardinal virtues is described in *[Definitions](/wiki/Definitions_%28Plato%29 "Definitions (Plato)")*.
**Practical wisdom** or prudence ({{transliteration\|grc\|phrónēsis}}) is the perspicacity necessary to conduct personal business and affairs of state. It encompasses the skill to distinguish the beneficial from the detrimental, to understand the attainment of happiness, and to discern the right course of action in every situation. Its antithesis or opposite is the vice of folly.{{cite book \|chapter\=Definitions\|title\=Works of Plato\|volume\=VI\|url\=https://archive.org/details/WorksOfPlatoV6\|series\=Bohn's Classical Library \|location\=London\|publisher\=Henry G. Bohn\|year\=1854\|editor\-first\=George\|editor\-last\=Burges\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/WorksOfPlatoV6/page/126/mode/1up 126]}}
**Justice** ({{transliteration\|grc\|dikaiosunê}}) is the harmonious alignment of one's inner self and the comprehensive integrity of the soul. It involves fostering sound discipline within each facet of our being, enabling us to live with others and extend the same regard to every individual. Additionally, justice pertains to a state's aptitude to equitably allocate resources based on individuals' deservingness, as determined by their merits. It entails refraining from undue harshness, fostering a universal perception of fairness. Furthermore, it entails embodying the qualities of a law\-abiding citizen or member of society, upholding principles of social equality. Justice encompasses the formulation of laws that can be substantiated by valid justifications, leading to a society where actions align with these laws.
Moderation or **temperance** ({{transliteration\|grc\|sôphrosunê}}) is the capacity to temper the indulgence of desires and sensory pleasures within the bounds of what is customary for the individual, aligning only with experiences already familiar to the soul. It encompasses achieving a harmonious equilibrium and exercising disciplined control when it comes to overall pleasure and pain, ensuring that they remain within normal ranges. Moreover, moderation involves cultivating a harmonious relationship and a balanced rule between the soul's governing and being governed aspects. It signifies maintaining a state of natural self\-reliance and exercising proper discipline as and when required by the soul. Rational consensus within the soul is essential concerning what merits admiration and what warrants disdain. This approach entails deliberate caution in one's choices, as one's selection navigates between the extremes.
**Courage** ({{transliteration\|grc\|andreia}}) can be defined as the ability to conquer fear within oneself when action is necessary. It encompasses military confidence, a deep understanding of warfare, and maintaining unwavering beliefs in the face of challenges. It involves self\-discipline to overcome fear, obeying wisdom, and facing death boldly. Courage also entails maintaining sound judgment in tough situations, countering hostility, upholding virtues, remaining composed when faced with frightening (or encouraging) discussions and events, and not becoming discouraged. It reflects valuing the rule of law in our daily lives rather than diminishing its importance.
### In the Bible
#### In the Old Testament
The cardinal virtues are listed in the [deuterocanonical book](/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books "Deuterocanonical books") {{Bibleverse\|Wisdom of Solomon\|8:7}}, which reads:
{{Blockquote\|She \[Wisdom] teaches temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude, which are such things as men can have nothing more profitable in life.}}
They are also found in other non\-canonical scriptures like {{Bibleverse\|4 Maccabees\|1:18–19}}, which relates:
{{Blockquote\|Now the kinds of wisdom are right judgment, justice, courage, and self\-control. Right judgment is supreme over all of these since by means of it reason rules over the emotions.}}
#### In the New Testament
[Wisdom](/wiki/Wisdom "Wisdom"), usually {{transliteration\|grc\|\[\[Sophia (wisdom)\|sophia]]}}, rather than Prudence ({{transliteration\|grc\|phrónēsis}}), is discussed extensively in all parts of the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament"). It is a major topic of [1 Corinthians 2](/wiki/1_Corinthians_2 "1 Corinthians 2"), where the author discusses how divine teaching and power are greater than worldly wisdom.
[Justice](/wiki/Justice_%28virtue%29 "Justice (virtue)") ({{lang\|grc\|δικαιοσύνη}}, {{transl\|grc\|dikaiosýnē}}) is taught in the gospels, where most translators give it as "righteousness".
Plato's word for [Fortitude](/wiki/Courage "Courage") ({{lang\|grc\|ἀνδρεία}}) is not present in the New Testament, but the virtues of steadfastness ({{lang\|grc\|ὑπομονή}}, {{transl\|grc\|hypomonē}}) and patient endurance ({{lang\|grc\|μακροθυμία}}, {{transl\|grc\|makrothymia}}) are praised. Paul exhorts believers to "act like men" ({{lang\|grc\|ἀνδρίζομαι}}, {{transl\|grc\|andrizomai}}, {{Bibleverse\|1 Corinthians\|16:13}}).
[Temperance](/wiki/Temperance_%28virtue%29 "Temperance (virtue)") ({{lang\|grc\|σωφροσύνη}}, [{{transl\|grc\|sōphrosýnē}}](/wiki/Sophrosyne "Sophrosyne")), usually translated "sobriety," is present in the New Testament, along with self\-control ({{lang\|grc\|ἐγκράτεια}}, {{transl\|grc\|egkrateia}}).{{cite book\|last\=Plummer\|first\=Alfred\|editor\-first\=W. Robertson\|editor\-last\=Nicoll\|title\=The Expositor's Bible: The Pastoral Epistles\|chapter\=The Meaning and Value of Sobermindedness \- The Use and Abuse of Religious Emotion\|volume\=44\|location\=London\|publisher\=\[\[Hodder \& Stoughton]]\|date\=1888\|pages\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=JgVFAQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA241 241\-242]}}
|
[
"Antiquity\n---------",
"The four cardinal virtues appeared as a group (sometimes included in larger lists) long before they were given this title.",
"### Hellenistic philosophy",
"Plato associated the four cardinal virtues with the social classes of the ideal city described in *The Republic*, and with the faculties of humanity. Plato narrates a discussion of the character of a good city where the following is agreed upon:",
"{{Blockquote\\|Clearly, then, it will be wise, brave, temperate \\[literally: healthy\\-minded], and just.\n\\|427e;{{Cite book \\|last\\=Plato \\|title\\=The Republic of Plato: with an English translation by Paul Shorey \\|title\\-link\\=Republic (Plato) \\|date\\=1937 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Harvard University Press]]; \\[\\[William Heinemann Ltd.]] \\|isbn\\= \\|edition\\=Revised and Reprinted \\|series\\=\\[\\[Loeb Classical Library]] \\|volume\\=1 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]; \\[\\[London]] \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/republicshorey01platuoft/page/346/mode/2up 347] \\|translator\\-last\\=Shorey \\|translator\\-first\\=Paul \\|lccn\\=a44004515 \\|oclc\\=669777366 \\|ol\\=OL20425902M \\|id\\={{Internet Archive\\|republicshorey01platuoft}} \\|quote\\=Clearly, then, it will be wise, brave, sober, and just. \\|author\\-link\\=Plato \\|orig\\-date\\=1930 \\|translator\\-link\\=Paul Shorey}} see also 435b}}",
"*Temperance*{{efn\\|\\[\\[Cicero]] and Plato sometimes preferred the word \\[\\[Sophrosyne\\|{{transl\\|grc\\|sōphrosynē}}]].{{cite book\\|last\\=Strauch\\|first\\=E.H.\\|title\\=Beyond Literary Theory: Literature as a Search for the Meaning of Human Destiny\\|location\\=\\[\\[Lanham, Maryland]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University Press of America]]\\|year\\=2001\\|page\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Wo7FP1Uq2kcC\\&pg\\=PA166 166] }}}} was most closely associated with the producing classes, the farmers and craftsmen, to moderate their animal appetites. *Fortitude* was assigned to the warrior class, to strengthen their fighting spirit. *Prudence* was assigned to the rulers, to guide their reason. *Justice* stood above these three to properly regulate the relations among them.",
"Plato sometimes{{efn\\|e.g., ''\\[\\[Protagoras (dialogue)\\|Protagoras]]'' 349b; cf. 324e, 329c, 330b, 331a\\-c.}} lists holiness ({{transl\\|grc\\|hosiotes}}, {{transl\\|grc\\|\\[\\[eusebeia]]}}, {{transl\\|grc\\|aidos}}) amongst the cardinal virtues. He especially associates holiness with justice, but leaves their precise relationship unexplained.",
"In Aristotle's *[Rhetoric](/wiki/Rhetoric_%28Aristotle%29 \"Rhetoric (Aristotle)\")*, we read:",
"{{Blockquote\\|The forms of Virtue are justice, courage, temperance, magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, wisdom.\n\\|''Rhetoric'' 1366b1{{cite web \\|author\\=Aristotle \\|title\\=Rhetoric Book I \\- Chapter 9 \\|url\\=https://kairos.technorhetoric.net/stasis/2017/honeycutt/aristotle/rhet1\\-9\\.html}}}}",
"These are expounded fully in the *[Nicomachean Ethics](/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics \"Nicomachean Ethics\")* III.6\\-V.2\\.",
"[Philo of Alexandria](/wiki/Philo \"Philo\"), a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, also recognized the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. In his writings, he states:",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=In these words Moses intends to sketch out the particular virtues. And they also are four in number, prudence, temperance, courage, and justice.\\|author\\=Philo\\|title\\=''\\[\\[Philo's Works]]''\\|source\\=Allegorical Interpretation 1\\.XIX{{Cite web \\|title\\=Philo: Works of Philo Judaeus \\|website\\= Christian Classics Ethereal Library \\|url\\=https://ccel.org/ccel/philo/works/works.iii.ii.html\\#iii.ii\\-p22\\.3 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-20 }}}}",
"These virtues, according to Philo, serve as guiding principles for a virtuous and fulfilling life.",
"### Roman philosophy",
"The Roman philosopher and statesman [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero \"Cicero\") (106\\-43 BC), like Plato, limits the list to four virtues:",
"{{Blockquote\\|Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind ({{lang\\|la\\|animi}}) in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom ({{lang\\|la\\|prudentiam}}), justice, courage, temperance.\n\\|''\\[\\[De Inventione]]'', II, LIII{{efn\\|Nam virtus est animi habitus naturae modo atque rationi consentaneus. … Habet igitur partes quattuor: prudentiam, iustitiam, fortitudinem, temperantiam.}}{{Cite web \\|author\\=Cicero\\|title\\=de Inventione II \\|url\\=https://thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2\\.shtml\\#159 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110144829/http://thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2\\.shtml\\#159 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-10 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-17 \\|website\\=The Latin Library}}}}",
"Cicero discusses these further in *[De Officiis](/wiki/De_Officiis \"De Officiis\")* (I, V, and following).",
"[Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger \"Seneca the Younger\") writes in {{lang\\|la\\|\\[\\[Seneca's Consolations\\|Consolatio ad Helviam Matrem]]}} about justice ({{lang\\|la\\|iustitia}} from [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek \"Ancient Greek\") {{lang\\|grc\\|δικαιοσύνη}}), self\\-control ({{lang\\|la\\|continentia}} from Ancient Greek {{lang\\|grc\\|σωφροσύνη}}), practical wisdom ({{lang\\|la\\|prudentia}} from Ancient Greek {{lang\\|grc\\|φρόνησις}}) and devotion ({{lang\\|la\\|\\[\\[pietas]]}}) instead of courage ({{lang\\|la\\|fortitudo}} from Ancient Greek {{lang\\|grc\\|ἀνδρεία}}).{{Cite book \\|title\\=Seneca. La «Consolatio ad Helviam matrem» con un'antologia di testi \\|author\\=Seneca \\|date\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=Carocci \\|translator\\-last\\=Cotrozzi \\|translator\\-first\\=Annamaria \\|page\\=76 \\|lang\\=it}}",
"The Roman Emperor [Marcus Aurelius](/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius \"Marcus Aurelius\") discusses these in Book V:12 of *[Meditations](/wiki/Meditations \"Meditations\")* and views them as the \"goods\" that a person should identify in one's own mind, as opposed to \"wealth or things which conduce to luxury or prestige\".{{Cite book \\|author\\=Marcus Aurelius \\|title\\=Meditations \\|date\\=1976 \\|publisher\\=Penguin Classics\\|translator\\-first\\=Maxwell\\|translator\\-last\\=Staniforth \\|page\\=83}}",
"Suggestions of the [Stoic virtues](/wiki/Stoic_virtues \"Stoic virtues\") can be found in fragments in the [Diogenes Laertius](/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius \"Diogenes Laertius\") and [Stobaeus](/wiki/Stobaeus \"Stobaeus\").",
"The Platonist view of the four cardinal virtues is described in *[Definitions](/wiki/Definitions_%28Plato%29 \"Definitions (Plato)\")*.",
"**Practical wisdom** or prudence ({{transliteration\\|grc\\|phrónēsis}}) is the perspicacity necessary to conduct personal business and affairs of state. It encompasses the skill to distinguish the beneficial from the detrimental, to understand the attainment of happiness, and to discern the right course of action in every situation. Its antithesis or opposite is the vice of folly.{{cite book \\|chapter\\=Definitions\\|title\\=Works of Plato\\|volume\\=VI\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/WorksOfPlatoV6\\|series\\=Bohn's Classical Library \\|location\\=London\\|publisher\\=Henry G. Bohn\\|year\\=1854\\|editor\\-first\\=George\\|editor\\-last\\=Burges\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/WorksOfPlatoV6/page/126/mode/1up 126]}}",
"**Justice** ({{transliteration\\|grc\\|dikaiosunê}}) is the harmonious alignment of one's inner self and the comprehensive integrity of the soul. It involves fostering sound discipline within each facet of our being, enabling us to live with others and extend the same regard to every individual. Additionally, justice pertains to a state's aptitude to equitably allocate resources based on individuals' deservingness, as determined by their merits. It entails refraining from undue harshness, fostering a universal perception of fairness. Furthermore, it entails embodying the qualities of a law\\-abiding citizen or member of society, upholding principles of social equality. Justice encompasses the formulation of laws that can be substantiated by valid justifications, leading to a society where actions align with these laws.",
"Moderation or **temperance** ({{transliteration\\|grc\\|sôphrosunê}}) is the capacity to temper the indulgence of desires and sensory pleasures within the bounds of what is customary for the individual, aligning only with experiences already familiar to the soul. It encompasses achieving a harmonious equilibrium and exercising disciplined control when it comes to overall pleasure and pain, ensuring that they remain within normal ranges. Moreover, moderation involves cultivating a harmonious relationship and a balanced rule between the soul's governing and being governed aspects. It signifies maintaining a state of natural self\\-reliance and exercising proper discipline as and when required by the soul. Rational consensus within the soul is essential concerning what merits admiration and what warrants disdain. This approach entails deliberate caution in one's choices, as one's selection navigates between the extremes.",
"**Courage** ({{transliteration\\|grc\\|andreia}}) can be defined as the ability to conquer fear within oneself when action is necessary. It encompasses military confidence, a deep understanding of warfare, and maintaining unwavering beliefs in the face of challenges. It involves self\\-discipline to overcome fear, obeying wisdom, and facing death boldly. Courage also entails maintaining sound judgment in tough situations, countering hostility, upholding virtues, remaining composed when faced with frightening (or encouraging) discussions and events, and not becoming discouraged. It reflects valuing the rule of law in our daily lives rather than diminishing its importance.",
"### In the Bible",
"#### In the Old Testament",
"The cardinal virtues are listed in the [deuterocanonical book](/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books \"Deuterocanonical books\") {{Bibleverse\\|Wisdom of Solomon\\|8:7}}, which reads:",
"{{Blockquote\\|She \\[Wisdom] teaches temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude, which are such things as men can have nothing more profitable in life.}}",
"They are also found in other non\\-canonical scriptures like {{Bibleverse\\|4 Maccabees\\|1:18–19}}, which relates:",
"{{Blockquote\\|Now the kinds of wisdom are right judgment, justice, courage, and self\\-control. Right judgment is supreme over all of these since by means of it reason rules over the emotions.}}",
"#### In the New Testament",
"[Wisdom](/wiki/Wisdom \"Wisdom\"), usually {{transliteration\\|grc\\|\\[\\[Sophia (wisdom)\\|sophia]]}}, rather than Prudence ({{transliteration\\|grc\\|phrónēsis}}), is discussed extensively in all parts of the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\"). It is a major topic of [1 Corinthians 2](/wiki/1_Corinthians_2 \"1 Corinthians 2\"), where the author discusses how divine teaching and power are greater than worldly wisdom.",
"[Justice](/wiki/Justice_%28virtue%29 \"Justice (virtue)\") ({{lang\\|grc\\|δικαιοσύνη}}, {{transl\\|grc\\|dikaiosýnē}}) is taught in the gospels, where most translators give it as \"righteousness\".",
"Plato's word for [Fortitude](/wiki/Courage \"Courage\") ({{lang\\|grc\\|ἀνδρεία}}) is not present in the New Testament, but the virtues of steadfastness ({{lang\\|grc\\|ὑπομονή}}, {{transl\\|grc\\|hypomonē}}) and patient endurance ({{lang\\|grc\\|μακροθυμία}}, {{transl\\|grc\\|makrothymia}}) are praised. Paul exhorts believers to \"act like men\" ({{lang\\|grc\\|ἀνδρίζομαι}}, {{transl\\|grc\\|andrizomai}}, {{Bibleverse\\|1 Corinthians\\|16:13}}).",
"[Temperance](/wiki/Temperance_%28virtue%29 \"Temperance (virtue)\") ({{lang\\|grc\\|σωφροσύνη}}, [{{transl\\|grc\\|sōphrosýnē}}](/wiki/Sophrosyne \"Sophrosyne\")), usually translated \"sobriety,\" is present in the New Testament, along with self\\-control ({{lang\\|grc\\|ἐγκράτεια}}, {{transl\\|grc\\|egkrateia}}).{{cite book\\|last\\=Plummer\\|first\\=Alfred\\|editor\\-first\\=W. Robertson\\|editor\\-last\\=Nicoll\\|title\\=The Expositor's Bible: The Pastoral Epistles\\|chapter\\=The Meaning and Value of Sobermindedness \\- The Use and Abuse of Religious Emotion\\|volume\\=44\\|location\\=London\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hodder \\& Stoughton]]\\|date\\=1888\\|pages\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JgVFAQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA241 241\\-242]}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
Sri, an engineering graduate from small\-town [Trichy](/wiki/Trichy "Trichy"), arrives in [Chennai](/wiki/Chennai "Chennai") to interview for an IT job in [Business Process Outsourcing](/wiki/Business_Process_Outsourcing "Business Process Outsourcing"). Sri passes his interview with [HR officer](/wiki/Human_resources "Human resources") Regina Cassandra and celebrates at a bar with his friends. Another man at the bar, Sundeep Kishan, has had an [unrequited love](/wiki/Unrequited_love "Unrequited love") for Regina since they were in college. In a [flashback](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 "Flashback (narrative)"), goons threaten to [throw acid](/wiki/Acid_attack "Acid attack") in Regina's face if she falls in love with Sundeep. Enraged, Sundeep punched one of the goons. In the present, the goons recognize Sundeep in the bar and hire some gang members to beat him. However, the gang members mistake Sri for their target and beat him when he leaves the bar, knocking him unconscious and stealing his phone and bag, throwing the latter into a taxi cab.
Charle came to the city to seek medical treatment for his son while driving a taxi rented from gangster PKP. He finds Sri's bag in his taxi with his [academic certificates](/wiki/Academic_certificates "Academic certificates"), which he takes to the police station. In the morning, Sri awakens in the street and calls a friend to take him home. He boards a bus to his new job, to explain about his missing academic certificates. Sundeep boards the same bus to attend a job interview at Regina's company. He recognizes the goon who threatened Regina and attacks him with acid then escapes with his friends. Sri is detained by the police, having unwittingly passed the bottle of acid to Sundeep. Fatigued by the hostility of the city, Sri argues with the police inspector who beats him until a constable intervenes. The constable talks with Sri at a [tea stall](/wiki/Tea_stall "Tea stall"), where Sri recognizes the man who told him to pass the acid bottle, and the constable arrests him.
The gang members plot to kidnap schoolboy Karthi for ransom, sending a man named Winnings to trick his teachers. Winnings is unprepared when there are five boys named Karthi, one of whom volunteers to go with Winnings in order to avoid a mathematics test. They take the boy but later realize he is the son of gangster PKP. Sri tells Regina that he no longer wants the job. She asks him to take the company's training so that she won't be held responsible for his quitting. They begin to argue about it and Sundeep, who is waiting for his interview, intervenes. The police arrive and take Sundeep away, saddening Regina who loves Sundeep but cannot accept his carefree nature. Sri tells Regina that he lost his academic certificates, and she agrees to cover for him for a day.
PKP orders his henchmen to hunt down his enemies in a search for Karthi. The gang demand a {{INR\|1\|link\=yes}} crore (10 million rupees) ransom and PKP agrees to follow their instructions. Meanwhile, Sundeep is released by the police inspector, who is his uncle. Sundeep waits for Regina at a bus stop outside her hostel. Regina sees Karthi, who had escaped the kidnappers, hiding in a truck and instructs Sundeep to take Karthi home. Sundeep tries to call PKP but his phone is off. He then meets his uncle and leaves Karthi in the police inspector's custody. Winnings, who is terrified of PKP, confesses the kidnapping to the inspector, who commands Winnings to go through with the ransom exchange. Sundeep arrives and realizes the situation. The inspector shoots PKP and tries to shoot Winnings but Sundeep shoots the inspector in the leg and instructs Winnings to take PKP and Karthi to the hospital.
Meanwhile, Sri is riding in Charle's taxi when they are stopped and attacked by the gang who believe they are spying for PKP. They threaten to kill Charle if Sri does not bring PKP. To allow Charle to escape and take care of his sick son, Sri fights back against the gang who he recognizes as his attackers from the bar. Sri's lost academic certificates are returned to his home address. Outside the hospital, Sri and Sundeep each talk to their girlfriends. They are about to introduce themselves to each other when they are challenged by another gang hired by the goon Sundeep punched. Sundeep and Sri charge toward the gang to defend themselves.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Sri, an engineering graduate from small\\-town [Trichy](/wiki/Trichy \"Trichy\"), arrives in [Chennai](/wiki/Chennai \"Chennai\") to interview for an IT job in [Business Process Outsourcing](/wiki/Business_Process_Outsourcing \"Business Process Outsourcing\"). Sri passes his interview with [HR officer](/wiki/Human_resources \"Human resources\") Regina Cassandra and celebrates at a bar with his friends. Another man at the bar, Sundeep Kishan, has had an [unrequited love](/wiki/Unrequited_love \"Unrequited love\") for Regina since they were in college. In a [flashback](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 \"Flashback (narrative)\"), goons threaten to [throw acid](/wiki/Acid_attack \"Acid attack\") in Regina's face if she falls in love with Sundeep. Enraged, Sundeep punched one of the goons. In the present, the goons recognize Sundeep in the bar and hire some gang members to beat him. However, the gang members mistake Sri for their target and beat him when he leaves the bar, knocking him unconscious and stealing his phone and bag, throwing the latter into a taxi cab.",
"Charle came to the city to seek medical treatment for his son while driving a taxi rented from gangster PKP. He finds Sri's bag in his taxi with his [academic certificates](/wiki/Academic_certificates \"Academic certificates\"), which he takes to the police station. In the morning, Sri awakens in the street and calls a friend to take him home. He boards a bus to his new job, to explain about his missing academic certificates. Sundeep boards the same bus to attend a job interview at Regina's company. He recognizes the goon who threatened Regina and attacks him with acid then escapes with his friends. Sri is detained by the police, having unwittingly passed the bottle of acid to Sundeep. Fatigued by the hostility of the city, Sri argues with the police inspector who beats him until a constable intervenes. The constable talks with Sri at a [tea stall](/wiki/Tea_stall \"Tea stall\"), where Sri recognizes the man who told him to pass the acid bottle, and the constable arrests him.",
"The gang members plot to kidnap schoolboy Karthi for ransom, sending a man named Winnings to trick his teachers. Winnings is unprepared when there are five boys named Karthi, one of whom volunteers to go with Winnings in order to avoid a mathematics test. They take the boy but later realize he is the son of gangster PKP. Sri tells Regina that he no longer wants the job. She asks him to take the company's training so that she won't be held responsible for his quitting. They begin to argue about it and Sundeep, who is waiting for his interview, intervenes. The police arrive and take Sundeep away, saddening Regina who loves Sundeep but cannot accept his carefree nature. Sri tells Regina that he lost his academic certificates, and she agrees to cover for him for a day.",
"PKP orders his henchmen to hunt down his enemies in a search for Karthi. The gang demand a {{INR\\|1\\|link\\=yes}} crore (10 million rupees) ransom and PKP agrees to follow their instructions. Meanwhile, Sundeep is released by the police inspector, who is his uncle. Sundeep waits for Regina at a bus stop outside her hostel. Regina sees Karthi, who had escaped the kidnappers, hiding in a truck and instructs Sundeep to take Karthi home. Sundeep tries to call PKP but his phone is off. He then meets his uncle and leaves Karthi in the police inspector's custody. Winnings, who is terrified of PKP, confesses the kidnapping to the inspector, who commands Winnings to go through with the ransom exchange. Sundeep arrives and realizes the situation. The inspector shoots PKP and tries to shoot Winnings but Sundeep shoots the inspector in the leg and instructs Winnings to take PKP and Karthi to the hospital.",
"Meanwhile, Sri is riding in Charle's taxi when they are stopped and attacked by the gang who believe they are spying for PKP. They threaten to kill Charle if Sri does not bring PKP. To allow Charle to escape and take care of his sick son, Sri fights back against the gang who he recognizes as his attackers from the bar. Sri's lost academic certificates are returned to his home address. Outside the hospital, Sri and Sundeep each talk to their girlfriends. They are about to introduce themselves to each other when they are challenged by another gang hired by the goon Sundeep punched. Sundeep and Sri charge toward the gang to defend themselves.",
""
] |
Career
------
Mitchell started as an improv and sketch comedian at the [Upright Citizens Brigade Theater](/wiki/Upright_Citizens_Brigade_Theater "Upright Citizens Brigade Theater") (UCB) in Los Angeles.
He went on to write and star in [*The Birthday Boys*](/wiki/The_Birthday_Boys_%28TV_series%29 "The Birthday Boys (TV series)") for [IFC](/wiki/IFC_%28U.S._TV_network%29 "IFC (U.S. TV network)"){{cite news\|last\=Ryan\|first\=Kyle\|title\=Be careful with pubic hair: 6 lessons the Birthday Boys learned from the first season of their show\|publisher\=Entertainment Weekly\|date\=2014\-10\-17\|url\=http://www.ew.com/article/2014/10/17/the\-birthday\-boys\-season\-2\-lessons\-ifc\|accessdate\=2016\-07\-05}} which aired for two seasons.{{cite news\|last\=Barsanti\|first\=Sam\|title\=IFC cancels The Birthday Boys\|publisher\=AV Club\|date\=2015\-01\-23\|url\=http://www.avclub.com/article/ifc\-cancels\-birthday\-boys\-214289\|accessdate\=2016\-07\-05}} During this time he also appeared regularly on [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC")'s *[Parks and Recreation](/wiki/Parks_and_Recreation "Parks and Recreation")* and [IFC](/wiki/IFC_%28U.S._TV_network%29 "IFC (U.S. TV network)")'s [*Comedy Bang! Bang!*](/wiki/Comedy_Bang%21_Bang%21_%28TV_series%29 "Comedy Bang! Bang! (TV series)") In 2014, he played a fictionalized version of himself in the short film *The Badger's Promise*, the directorial debuts of friends [Harris Wittels](/wiki/Harris_Wittels "Harris Wittels") and [Armen Weitzman](/wiki/Armen_Weitzman "Armen Weitzman").
Mitchell was the head writer of *[Hidden America with Jonah Ray](/wiki/Hidden_America_with_Jonah_Ray "Hidden America with Jonah Ray")* on the [Seeso](/wiki/Seeso "Seeso") streaming service, and had the recurring role of Randy Monahan on the [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") comedy series [*Love*](/wiki/Love_%28TV_series%29 "Love (TV series)"). He also played Cowan in the 2021 movie *[The Tomorrow War](/wiki/The_Tomorrow_War "The Tomorrow War")*.{{Citation\|title\=The Tomorrow War \- IMDb\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9777666/locations?ref\_\=tt\_dt\_dt\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-05}}
### The Birthday Boys
In 2007, at [UCB](/wiki/Upright_Citizens_Brigade_Theater "Upright Citizens Brigade Theater"), Mitchell formed the sketch comedy group The Birthday Boys{{cite news\|last\=Piccalo\|first\=Gina\|title\=The Birthday Boys' team approach to getting laughs\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=2010\-05\-11\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2010\-may\-11\-la\-et\-birthday\-boys\-20100511\-story.html\|access\-date\=2016\-07\-05}} with [Jefferson Dutton](/wiki/Jefferson_Dutton "Jefferson Dutton"), [Dave Ferguson](/wiki/Dave_Ferguson_%28comedian%29 "Dave Ferguson (comedian)"), [Mike Hanford](/wiki/Mike_Hanford "Mike Hanford"), [Tim Kalpakis](/wiki/Tim_Kalpakis "Tim Kalpakis"), [Matt Kowalick](/wiki/Matt_Kowalick "Matt Kowalick"), and [Chris VanArtsdalen](/wiki/Chris_VanArtsdalen "Chris VanArtsdalen"). With the exception of Kowalick, all members of The Birthday Boys graduated from [Ithaca College](/wiki/Ithaca_College "Ithaca College").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ithaca.edu/intercom/article.php/20131108130652597\|title\=Intercom \- The Park School Welcomes Back The Birthday Boys\|website\=www.ithaca.edu\|access\-date\=2020\-04\-10}}
Mitchell and The Birthday Boys performed regularly at [UCB](/wiki/Upright_Citizens_Brigade_Theater "Upright Citizens Brigade Theater") and the group uploaded original sketches to their [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") page.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/user/TheBirthdayBoys\|title \= TheBirthdayBoys \- YouTube\|website \= \[\[YouTube]]}}
The Birthday Boys gained notoriety within the LA comedy scene, appearing on *[Comedy Bang! Bang!](/wiki/Comedy_Bang%21_Bang%21 "Comedy Bang! Bang!")* and called [Adam McKay](/wiki/Adam_McKay "Adam McKay")'s "favorite sketch group."{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ucbtheatre.com/show/1916\|title\=UCB Theatre}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.earwolf.com/episode/the\-wacky\-ding\-dongs/\|title \= The Wacky Ding Dongs, episode \#54 of Comedy Bang Bang: The Podcast on Earwolf}} The group met [Bob Odenkirk](/wiki/Bob_Odenkirk "Bob Odenkirk") through a show that Odenkirk's wife, Naomi Yomtov, created at UCB. They began collaborating with Odenkirk and were picked up for a sketch show, *[The Birthday Boys](/wiki/The_Birthday_Boys_%28TV_series%29 "The Birthday Boys (TV series)")*, at [IFC](/wiki/IFC_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 "IFC (U.S. TV channel)"), with Odenkirk and [Ben Stiller](/wiki/Ben_Stiller "Ben Stiller") as executive producers.
Mitchell featured frequently in *The Birthday Boys* sketches. His notable characters include Woosh,{{cite AV media \|url\-status \= live \|archive\-url \= https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/Y6JnYnA9Tzo \|archive\-date \= 2021\-12\-11\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Y6JnYnA9Tzo \|title \= Happy Birthday You! \|website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} Pretty Dad, and September Santa. The series ran for two seasons before being canceled in 2014\.
Mitchell still performs sketch comedy with The Birthday Boys and other projects.
### *Doughboys*
Mitchell created the comedy podcast *[Doughboys](/wiki/Doughboys_%28podcast%29 "Doughboys (podcast)")* with comedy writer [Nick Wiger](/wiki/Nick_Wiger "Nick Wiger") in 2015\. *[Doughboys](/wiki/Doughboys_%28podcast%29 "Doughboys (podcast)")* was named "The One Food Podcast to Start With" by pop culture site Vulture.{{cite news\|last\=Legaspi\|first\=Althea\|title\=The One Podcast to Start With, Across 24 Topics\|publisher\=Vulture\|date\=2015\-10\-05\|url\=http://www.vulture.com/2015/10/one\-podcast\-to\-start\-with\-across\-24\-topics.html\|accessdate\=2016\-07\-05}} The co\-hosts review chain restaurants with a weekly guest, including [Nicole Byer](/wiki/Nicole_Byer "Nicole Byer"), [Haley Joel Osment](/wiki/Haley_Joel_Osment "Haley Joel Osment"), [Sarah Silverman](/wiki/Sarah_Silverman "Sarah Silverman"), and all of the Birthday Boys, among others.{{Cite web\|url\=https://headgum.com/doughboys\|title \= Headgum // Doughboys}} Mitchell's fans call him "The Spoonman", "Mitchy Two\-Spoons", "Spoon", "The Artist Formerly Known as Spoon", "Night Spoon", "Dorito Kid" and "Mr. Slice" all nicknames he gave himself. His co\-host, Nick Wiger invites listeners to submit [roasts](/wiki/Roast_%28comedy%29 "Roast (comedy)") of Mitchell to be read at the beginning of each episode, which often involve pop culture references and puns based on food or physique.{{Cite web\|url\=https://headgum.com/doughboys/mortons\-the\-steakhouse\-with\-tim\-kalpakis\#player\|title \= Doughboys \- Morton's the Steakhouse with Tim Kalpakis}}
As of early 2018, the podcast is no longer associated with [Feral Audio](/wiki/Feral_Audio "Feral Audio") and is now a member of the [HeadGum](/wiki/HeadGum "HeadGum") network. Mitchell and Wiger use [Patreon](/wiki/Patreon "Patreon") to bring exclusive paid *Doughboys* content to their subscribers beyond the weekly episodes. As of June 2019, the *Doughboys* Patreon is the 9th most popular podcast Patreon and the 25th most popular Patreon in general.{{Cite web\|url\=https://graphtreon.com/creator/doughboys\|title \= Doughboys: Patreon Earnings \+ Statistics \+ Graphs \+ Rank}}
On the June 13, 2019 episode of *[Doughboys](/wiki/Doughboys_%28podcast%29 "Doughboys (podcast)")*, Wiger and [Jason Mantzoukas](/wiki/Jason_Mantzoukas "Jason Mantzoukas") offered Mitchell $15,000 if he could get an original song on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_charts "Billboard charts") Hot 100 within a year. In 2020, the offer was extended indefinitely.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Mitchell started as an improv and sketch comedian at the [Upright Citizens Brigade Theater](/wiki/Upright_Citizens_Brigade_Theater \"Upright Citizens Brigade Theater\") (UCB) in Los Angeles.",
"He went on to write and star in [*The Birthday Boys*](/wiki/The_Birthday_Boys_%28TV_series%29 \"The Birthday Boys (TV series)\") for [IFC](/wiki/IFC_%28U.S._TV_network%29 \"IFC (U.S. TV network)\"){{cite news\\|last\\=Ryan\\|first\\=Kyle\\|title\\=Be careful with pubic hair: 6 lessons the Birthday Boys learned from the first season of their show\\|publisher\\=Entertainment Weekly\\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-17\\|url\\=http://www.ew.com/article/2014/10/17/the\\-birthday\\-boys\\-season\\-2\\-lessons\\-ifc\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-07\\-05}} which aired for two seasons.{{cite news\\|last\\=Barsanti\\|first\\=Sam\\|title\\=IFC cancels The Birthday Boys\\|publisher\\=AV Club\\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-23\\|url\\=http://www.avclub.com/article/ifc\\-cancels\\-birthday\\-boys\\-214289\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-07\\-05}} During this time he also appeared regularly on [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\")'s *[Parks and Recreation](/wiki/Parks_and_Recreation \"Parks and Recreation\")* and [IFC](/wiki/IFC_%28U.S._TV_network%29 \"IFC (U.S. TV network)\")'s [*Comedy Bang! Bang!*](/wiki/Comedy_Bang%21_Bang%21_%28TV_series%29 \"Comedy Bang! Bang! (TV series)\") In 2014, he played a fictionalized version of himself in the short film *The Badger's Promise*, the directorial debuts of friends [Harris Wittels](/wiki/Harris_Wittels \"Harris Wittels\") and [Armen Weitzman](/wiki/Armen_Weitzman \"Armen Weitzman\").",
"Mitchell was the head writer of *[Hidden America with Jonah Ray](/wiki/Hidden_America_with_Jonah_Ray \"Hidden America with Jonah Ray\")* on the [Seeso](/wiki/Seeso \"Seeso\") streaming service, and had the recurring role of Randy Monahan on the [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") comedy series [*Love*](/wiki/Love_%28TV_series%29 \"Love (TV series)\"). He also played Cowan in the 2021 movie *[The Tomorrow War](/wiki/The_Tomorrow_War \"The Tomorrow War\")*.{{Citation\\|title\\=The Tomorrow War \\- IMDb\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9777666/locations?ref\\_\\=tt\\_dt\\_dt\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-05}}",
"### The Birthday Boys",
"In 2007, at [UCB](/wiki/Upright_Citizens_Brigade_Theater \"Upright Citizens Brigade Theater\"), Mitchell formed the sketch comedy group The Birthday Boys{{cite news\\|last\\=Piccalo\\|first\\=Gina\\|title\\=The Birthday Boys' team approach to getting laughs\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=2010\\-05\\-11\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2010\\-may\\-11\\-la\\-et\\-birthday\\-boys\\-20100511\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-05}} with [Jefferson Dutton](/wiki/Jefferson_Dutton \"Jefferson Dutton\"), [Dave Ferguson](/wiki/Dave_Ferguson_%28comedian%29 \"Dave Ferguson (comedian)\"), [Mike Hanford](/wiki/Mike_Hanford \"Mike Hanford\"), [Tim Kalpakis](/wiki/Tim_Kalpakis \"Tim Kalpakis\"), [Matt Kowalick](/wiki/Matt_Kowalick \"Matt Kowalick\"), and [Chris VanArtsdalen](/wiki/Chris_VanArtsdalen \"Chris VanArtsdalen\"). With the exception of Kowalick, all members of The Birthday Boys graduated from [Ithaca College](/wiki/Ithaca_College \"Ithaca College\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ithaca.edu/intercom/article.php/20131108130652597\\|title\\=Intercom \\- The Park School Welcomes Back The Birthday Boys\\|website\\=www.ithaca.edu\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-10}}",
"Mitchell and The Birthday Boys performed regularly at [UCB](/wiki/Upright_Citizens_Brigade_Theater \"Upright Citizens Brigade Theater\") and the group uploaded original sketches to their [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\") page.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/user/TheBirthdayBoys\\|title \\= TheBirthdayBoys \\- YouTube\\|website \\= \\[\\[YouTube]]}}",
"The Birthday Boys gained notoriety within the LA comedy scene, appearing on *[Comedy Bang! Bang!](/wiki/Comedy_Bang%21_Bang%21 \"Comedy Bang! Bang!\")* and called [Adam McKay](/wiki/Adam_McKay \"Adam McKay\")'s \"favorite sketch group.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ucbtheatre.com/show/1916\\|title\\=UCB Theatre}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.earwolf.com/episode/the\\-wacky\\-ding\\-dongs/\\|title \\= The Wacky Ding Dongs, episode \\#54 of Comedy Bang Bang: The Podcast on Earwolf}} The group met [Bob Odenkirk](/wiki/Bob_Odenkirk \"Bob Odenkirk\") through a show that Odenkirk's wife, Naomi Yomtov, created at UCB. They began collaborating with Odenkirk and were picked up for a sketch show, *[The Birthday Boys](/wiki/The_Birthday_Boys_%28TV_series%29 \"The Birthday Boys (TV series)\")*, at [IFC](/wiki/IFC_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 \"IFC (U.S. TV channel)\"), with Odenkirk and [Ben Stiller](/wiki/Ben_Stiller \"Ben Stiller\") as executive producers.",
"Mitchell featured frequently in *The Birthday Boys* sketches. His notable characters include Woosh,{{cite AV media \\|url\\-status \\= live \\|archive\\-url \\= https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/Y6JnYnA9Tzo \\|archive\\-date \\= 2021\\-12\\-11\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Y6JnYnA9Tzo \\|title \\= Happy Birthday You! \\|website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} Pretty Dad, and September Santa. The series ran for two seasons before being canceled in 2014\\.",
"Mitchell still performs sketch comedy with The Birthday Boys and other projects.",
"### *Doughboys*",
"Mitchell created the comedy podcast *[Doughboys](/wiki/Doughboys_%28podcast%29 \"Doughboys (podcast)\")* with comedy writer [Nick Wiger](/wiki/Nick_Wiger \"Nick Wiger\") in 2015\\. *[Doughboys](/wiki/Doughboys_%28podcast%29 \"Doughboys (podcast)\")* was named \"The One Food Podcast to Start With\" by pop culture site Vulture.{{cite news\\|last\\=Legaspi\\|first\\=Althea\\|title\\=The One Podcast to Start With, Across 24 Topics\\|publisher\\=Vulture\\|date\\=2015\\-10\\-05\\|url\\=http://www.vulture.com/2015/10/one\\-podcast\\-to\\-start\\-with\\-across\\-24\\-topics.html\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-07\\-05}} The co\\-hosts review chain restaurants with a weekly guest, including [Nicole Byer](/wiki/Nicole_Byer \"Nicole Byer\"), [Haley Joel Osment](/wiki/Haley_Joel_Osment \"Haley Joel Osment\"), [Sarah Silverman](/wiki/Sarah_Silverman \"Sarah Silverman\"), and all of the Birthday Boys, among others.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://headgum.com/doughboys\\|title \\= Headgum // Doughboys}} Mitchell's fans call him \"The Spoonman\", \"Mitchy Two\\-Spoons\", \"Spoon\", \"The Artist Formerly Known as Spoon\", \"Night Spoon\", \"Dorito Kid\" and \"Mr. Slice\" all nicknames he gave himself. His co\\-host, Nick Wiger invites listeners to submit [roasts](/wiki/Roast_%28comedy%29 \"Roast (comedy)\") of Mitchell to be read at the beginning of each episode, which often involve pop culture references and puns based on food or physique.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://headgum.com/doughboys/mortons\\-the\\-steakhouse\\-with\\-tim\\-kalpakis\\#player\\|title \\= Doughboys \\- Morton's the Steakhouse with Tim Kalpakis}}",
"As of early 2018, the podcast is no longer associated with [Feral Audio](/wiki/Feral_Audio \"Feral Audio\") and is now a member of the [HeadGum](/wiki/HeadGum \"HeadGum\") network. Mitchell and Wiger use [Patreon](/wiki/Patreon \"Patreon\") to bring exclusive paid *Doughboys* content to their subscribers beyond the weekly episodes. As of June 2019, the *Doughboys* Patreon is the 9th most popular podcast Patreon and the 25th most popular Patreon in general.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://graphtreon.com/creator/doughboys\\|title \\= Doughboys: Patreon Earnings \\+ Statistics \\+ Graphs \\+ Rank}}",
"On the June 13, 2019 episode of *[Doughboys](/wiki/Doughboys_%28podcast%29 \"Doughboys (podcast)\")*, Wiger and [Jason Mantzoukas](/wiki/Jason_Mantzoukas \"Jason Mantzoukas\") offered Mitchell $15,000 if he could get an original song on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\") Hot 100 within a year. In 2020, the offer was extended indefinitely.",
""
] |
Public functions
----------------
Chacón was born on 9 November 1965{{cite web \|date\=10 November 2008 \|url\=http://politica.eluniversal.com/2008/11/10/ereg\_esp\_jesse\-chacon\_10A2120617\.shtml \|title\=25 preguntas para Jesse Chacon \|website\=El Universal \|language\=es \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710185400/http://politica.eluniversal.com/2008/11/10/ereg\_esp\_jesse\-chacon\_10A2120617\.shtml \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-10}} and studied Military Art and Sciences at the [Military Academy of Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuelan_Academy_of_Military_Sciences "Venezuelan Academy of Military Sciences") (the 'Instituto Politécnico de la Fuerza Armada Nacional', or Polytechnic Institute of the National Armed Forces). As a lieutenant in the military, he participated in the [November 1992 attempted coup](/wiki/1992_Venezuelan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempts "1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts") (the second attempted coup of that year), for which he spent time in jail. He participated in the occupation of the station of the state television station channel [Venezolana de Televisión](/wiki/Venezolana_de_Televisi%C3%B3n "Venezolana de Televisión") (VTV), where several workers of the station were killed.
In 1999 Chacón worked at the General Administration of Operations of the National Commission of Telecommunications (Conatel) coordinating the working teams that prepared the Organic Law on Telecommunications and the National Plan of Telecommunications. In May 2001 he was appointed General Director of Conatel.
.In July 2003 Jesse Chacón was appointed as the first Minister of Communications. He was Director of Communications for the option of “No” in the campaign for the [recall referendum in 2004](/wiki/2004_Venezuelan_recall_referendum "2004 Venezuelan recall referendum").
Chacon acted as Minister of Interior and Justice between 2004 {{cite news \|last1\=Ellsworth \|first1\=Brian \|last2\=Forero \|first2\=Juan \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=2 September 2004 \|url\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9B00EFD81531F931A3575AC0A9629C8B63 \|title\=Opposition Offers Compromise in Venezuela \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-12}} and January 2007, under the presidency of [Hugo Chávez](/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez "Hugo Chávez"). While in this post he achieved the creation of the National Commission on Police Reform (CONAREPOL).
On January 9, 2007, Chacón was appointed as Minister of Telecommunications and Informatics. During his administration the Venezuelan State could nationalize the provider company of phone and internet services CANTV, He presided over the closure of television broadcaster [RCTV](/wiki/RCTV "RCTV").
In January 2008 Jesse Chacón was appointed Minister of the Secretariat of the Presidency, where he supported the administration of president Hugo Chávez.
He held the post of Minister of Communications again between December 2008 and April 2009, which was named at the time Ministry of the People's Power for Communication and Information (MINCI). Chacón was the head of Publicity and Propaganda of the Socialist United Party of Venezuela for the option “YES” in the campaign for the constitutional amendment.
In April 2009 Chacón is appointed as Minister for Science, Technology and Intermediate Industries until December 6, 2009\. He submitted his resignation after the arrest of his brother Arné Chacón for his alleged links with an investigation started after the intervention of seven financial institutions in Venezuela.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId\=348565\&CategoryId\=10717\|title\=Key Chavez Minister Resigns Amid Banking Corruption Fallout\|last\=Morgan\|first\=Jeremy\|work\=Latin American Herald Tribune\|date\=7 December 2009\|accessdate\=8 December 2009\|archive\-date\=26 May 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526220832/http://www.laht.com/article.asp?CategoryId\=10717\&ArticleId\=348565\|url\-status\=dead}}
In April 2013, Jesse Chacón is appointed as Minister of Electric Power.
By the end of 2015 President Nicolás Maduro appointed Jesse Chacón as ambassador in Austria.
|
[
"Public functions\n----------------",
"Chacón was born on 9 November 1965{{cite web \\|date\\=10 November 2008 \\|url\\=http://politica.eluniversal.com/2008/11/10/ereg\\_esp\\_jesse\\-chacon\\_10A2120617\\.shtml \\|title\\=25 preguntas para Jesse Chacon \\|website\\=El Universal \\|language\\=es \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710185400/http://politica.eluniversal.com/2008/11/10/ereg\\_esp\\_jesse\\-chacon\\_10A2120617\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-10}} and studied Military Art and Sciences at the [Military Academy of Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuelan_Academy_of_Military_Sciences \"Venezuelan Academy of Military Sciences\") (the 'Instituto Politécnico de la Fuerza Armada Nacional', or Polytechnic Institute of the National Armed Forces). As a lieutenant in the military, he participated in the [November 1992 attempted coup](/wiki/1992_Venezuelan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempts \"1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts\") (the second attempted coup of that year), for which he spent time in jail. He participated in the occupation of the station of the state television station channel [Venezolana de Televisión](/wiki/Venezolana_de_Televisi%C3%B3n \"Venezolana de Televisión\") (VTV), where several workers of the station were killed.",
"In 1999 Chacón worked at the General Administration of Operations of the National Commission of Telecommunications (Conatel) coordinating the working teams that prepared the Organic Law on Telecommunications and the National Plan of Telecommunications. In May 2001 he was appointed General Director of Conatel.",
".In July 2003 Jesse Chacón was appointed as the first Minister of Communications. He was Director of Communications for the option of “No” in the campaign for the [recall referendum in 2004](/wiki/2004_Venezuelan_recall_referendum \"2004 Venezuelan recall referendum\").",
"Chacon acted as Minister of Interior and Justice between 2004 {{cite news \\|last1\\=Ellsworth \\|first1\\=Brian \\|last2\\=Forero \\|first2\\=Juan \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=2 September 2004 \\|url\\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9B00EFD81531F931A3575AC0A9629C8B63 \\|title\\=Opposition Offers Compromise in Venezuela \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-12}} and January 2007, under the presidency of [Hugo Chávez](/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez \"Hugo Chávez\"). While in this post he achieved the creation of the National Commission on Police Reform (CONAREPOL).",
"On January 9, 2007, Chacón was appointed as Minister of Telecommunications and Informatics. During his administration the Venezuelan State could nationalize the provider company of phone and internet services CANTV, He presided over the closure of television broadcaster [RCTV](/wiki/RCTV \"RCTV\").",
"In January 2008 Jesse Chacón was appointed Minister of the Secretariat of the Presidency, where he supported the administration of president Hugo Chávez.",
"He held the post of Minister of Communications again between December 2008 and April 2009, which was named at the time Ministry of the People's Power for Communication and Information (MINCI). Chacón was the head of Publicity and Propaganda of the Socialist United Party of Venezuela for the option “YES” in the campaign for the constitutional amendment.",
"In April 2009 Chacón is appointed as Minister for Science, Technology and Intermediate Industries until December 6, 2009\\. He submitted his resignation after the arrest of his brother Arné Chacón for his alleged links with an investigation started after the intervention of seven financial institutions in Venezuela.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId\\=348565\\&CategoryId\\=10717\\|title\\=Key Chavez Minister Resigns Amid Banking Corruption Fallout\\|last\\=Morgan\\|first\\=Jeremy\\|work\\=Latin American Herald Tribune\\|date\\=7 December 2009\\|accessdate\\=8 December 2009\\|archive\\-date\\=26 May 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526220832/http://www.laht.com/article.asp?CategoryId\\=10717\\&ArticleId\\=348565\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In April 2013, Jesse Chacón is appointed as Minister of Electric Power.",
"By the end of 2015 President Nicolás Maduro appointed Jesse Chacón as ambassador in Austria.",
""
] |
Player turn
-----------
### Turn order overview
At the beginning of each player's turn, based on the number of countries the player owns and whole continents the player holds, the player gains additional MODs and energy. The player places the MODs and then has the opportunity to buy additional commanders, cards, and space stations. Then the player may play command cards that they have sufficient energy to activate. Next comes the attack phase in which, if the player successfully takes three contested territories, the player receives one bonus energy and one bonus command card. After the attack phase, the player may move one group of units from any one of the player's territories to any other territory the player occupies, so long as both territories are connected by a path of their own territories.
### Collection of energy and deployment of MODs
Similar to the obtaining reinforcements in classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)"), players receive additional MODs and Energy at the beginning of their turn. The number of MODs received is a [function](/wiki/Function_%28mathematics%29 "Function (mathematics)") of the number of territories a player owns, a player's colony bonuses, and the number of space stations a player controls. Players divide their total number of territories, regardless of type, by three and receive that number of MODs rounded down to the nearest integer. If this result is less than three, round up to three MODs. The Score Chart is designed to aide players in this task. Additionally, players receive colony bonuses by occupying all the territories in a land, water, or lunar colony at the beginning of their turn. This is similar to continental bonuses in classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)"). These MODs are dispersed among the player's controlled territories as they choose.
Players receive Energy equal to the number of MODs received at this point in the turn.
Players also place one MOD on each territory that contains a Space Station they control.
### Commanders and space stations
After players have collected energy and deployed their MODs, players may purchase commanders and space stations. Commanders cost three energy while space stations cost five energy.
One of the biggest differences from classic *[Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)")* is the addition of commanders: land, naval, space, [nuclear](/wiki/Nuclear_warfare "Nuclear warfare"), and [diplomat](/wiki/Diplomacy "Diplomacy"). These fill a number of roles. Their most basic function is to act as an improved army unit, enabling players to roll eight\-sided [dice](/wiki/Dice "Dice") rather than the typical six\-sided ones. This is explained more thoroughly in the next section. Space and naval commanders allow movement into Moon or Water territories respectively.
### Command cards
Perhaps one of the most important functions of the commanders is allowing the purchase and use of commander cards. After players have purchased and placed their commanders or space station, players may purchase a maximum of four commander cards at a cost of one energy per card. Players may only purchase commander cards if they have the corresponding commander in play. The text of the commander card will illustrate when the card may, or must, be played. Many of the Commander cards have energy costs that must be paid if the card is to be put into play.
Each commander deck adds its own strategic elements to the game. Diplomat cards tend to be low cost cards that increase unit mobility or place a negative effect on other players. Land Cards tend to be low cost cards that increase the number of MODs available to a player. Naval cards tends to have the emphasize energy gain. The nuclear deck contains relatively higher cost cards with sweeping global effects. Space Cards tend to be a mixture of the elements already described.
If an Armageddon card is played, then even if your nuclear commander is destroyed mid turn you can finish playing the nuclear card.
### Invading territories
Three major elements differentiate invasion in Risk 2210 A.D. from classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)"): limitations in which territories may be invaded, how commanders affect dice, and how space stations affect dice. Players may only invade Water or Lunar territories if they have the corresponding commander in play. Additionally Lunar territories can only be invaded from the Earth game board by a territory containing a space station. Only three of the territories on the Moon game board can be invaded into from the Earth game board. These are the Sea of Crisis, Tycho, and Bay of Dew. Players can not invade from the Moon to Earth without the "Invading Earth" card found in the Space Deck.
If no commanders are attacking or defending a territory, play continues identically to classical [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)"). However, defending players may defend their territories using an 8\-sided die instead of a 6\-sided die if a commander is present in that territory. If two commanders are present in a defending territory, the defender may substitute both of the 6\-sided dice used in defense for two 8\-sided dice. This is true regardless of commander type for defending.
Substitution of 6\-sided dice with 8\-sided dice for invading players is contingent on the type of territory that player is invading into/from and the type of commander that player is invading into. The following table is provided in the Risk 2210 A.D. Gameplay Manual.
| Commander | Roll 8\-sided die when attacking |
| --- | --- |
| Diplomat | Never |
| Land | When invading from or into a land territory |
| Naval | When invading from or into a water territory |
| Space | When invading from or into a lunar territory |
| Nuclear | Always |
| Tech (Frontline Expansion 2\) | Never |
Players do not have to remove commanders if they suffer a loss while using an 8\-sided die. Players may remove MODs from their corresponding invading or defending territories first. Commanders are removed from a defending player if an invading player destroys all MODs in an defending player's territory. Commanders may be repurchased.
All units in space stations, regardless of type, defend with 8\-sided dice. If a territory with a space station is captured by an invading player, that space station is replaced with another of the invading player's same color.
Similar to classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)"), if an invading player captured three or more contested territories, territories defended by another player, the invading player receives one energy and one commander card. Commander cards received this way can only be chosen from Commanders that the invading player currently has in play.
### Fortifying
A player may end their turn by fortifying. To fortify, players move as many units as they desire from one territory, and only one territory, to another territory that is connected at all points by territories that player occupies. Players need not own a space or naval commander to fortify into lunar or water territories. However, to fortify from a territory on the Earth game board to a territory on the Moon game board, one of the connected territories must be a space station.
|
[
"Player turn\n-----------",
"### Turn order overview",
"At the beginning of each player's turn, based on the number of countries the player owns and whole continents the player holds, the player gains additional MODs and energy. The player places the MODs and then has the opportunity to buy additional commanders, cards, and space stations. Then the player may play command cards that they have sufficient energy to activate. Next comes the attack phase in which, if the player successfully takes three contested territories, the player receives one bonus energy and one bonus command card. After the attack phase, the player may move one group of units from any one of the player's territories to any other territory the player occupies, so long as both territories are connected by a path of their own territories.",
"### Collection of energy and deployment of MODs",
"Similar to the obtaining reinforcements in classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\"), players receive additional MODs and Energy at the beginning of their turn. The number of MODs received is a [function](/wiki/Function_%28mathematics%29 \"Function (mathematics)\") of the number of territories a player owns, a player's colony bonuses, and the number of space stations a player controls. Players divide their total number of territories, regardless of type, by three and receive that number of MODs rounded down to the nearest integer. If this result is less than three, round up to three MODs. The Score Chart is designed to aide players in this task. Additionally, players receive colony bonuses by occupying all the territories in a land, water, or lunar colony at the beginning of their turn. This is similar to continental bonuses in classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\"). These MODs are dispersed among the player's controlled territories as they choose.",
"Players receive Energy equal to the number of MODs received at this point in the turn.",
"Players also place one MOD on each territory that contains a Space Station they control.",
"### Commanders and space stations",
"After players have collected energy and deployed their MODs, players may purchase commanders and space stations. Commanders cost three energy while space stations cost five energy.",
"One of the biggest differences from classic *[Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\")* is the addition of commanders: land, naval, space, [nuclear](/wiki/Nuclear_warfare \"Nuclear warfare\"), and [diplomat](/wiki/Diplomacy \"Diplomacy\"). These fill a number of roles. Their most basic function is to act as an improved army unit, enabling players to roll eight\\-sided [dice](/wiki/Dice \"Dice\") rather than the typical six\\-sided ones. This is explained more thoroughly in the next section. Space and naval commanders allow movement into Moon or Water territories respectively.",
"### Command cards",
"Perhaps one of the most important functions of the commanders is allowing the purchase and use of commander cards. After players have purchased and placed their commanders or space station, players may purchase a maximum of four commander cards at a cost of one energy per card. Players may only purchase commander cards if they have the corresponding commander in play. The text of the commander card will illustrate when the card may, or must, be played. Many of the Commander cards have energy costs that must be paid if the card is to be put into play.",
"Each commander deck adds its own strategic elements to the game. Diplomat cards tend to be low cost cards that increase unit mobility or place a negative effect on other players. Land Cards tend to be low cost cards that increase the number of MODs available to a player. Naval cards tends to have the emphasize energy gain. The nuclear deck contains relatively higher cost cards with sweeping global effects. Space Cards tend to be a mixture of the elements already described.\nIf an Armageddon card is played, then even if your nuclear commander is destroyed mid turn you can finish playing the nuclear card.",
"### Invading territories",
"Three major elements differentiate invasion in Risk 2210 A.D. from classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\"): limitations in which territories may be invaded, how commanders affect dice, and how space stations affect dice. Players may only invade Water or Lunar territories if they have the corresponding commander in play. Additionally Lunar territories can only be invaded from the Earth game board by a territory containing a space station. Only three of the territories on the Moon game board can be invaded into from the Earth game board. These are the Sea of Crisis, Tycho, and Bay of Dew. Players can not invade from the Moon to Earth without the \"Invading Earth\" card found in the Space Deck.",
"If no commanders are attacking or defending a territory, play continues identically to classical [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\"). However, defending players may defend their territories using an 8\\-sided die instead of a 6\\-sided die if a commander is present in that territory. If two commanders are present in a defending territory, the defender may substitute both of the 6\\-sided dice used in defense for two 8\\-sided dice. This is true regardless of commander type for defending.",
"Substitution of 6\\-sided dice with 8\\-sided dice for invading players is contingent on the type of territory that player is invading into/from and the type of commander that player is invading into. The following table is provided in the Risk 2210 A.D. Gameplay Manual.",
"",
"| Commander | Roll 8\\-sided die when attacking |\n| --- | --- |\n| Diplomat | Never |\n| Land | When invading from or into a land territory |\n| Naval | When invading from or into a water territory |\n| Space | When invading from or into a lunar territory |\n| Nuclear | Always |\n| Tech (Frontline Expansion 2\\) | Never |",
"Players do not have to remove commanders if they suffer a loss while using an 8\\-sided die. Players may remove MODs from their corresponding invading or defending territories first. Commanders are removed from a defending player if an invading player destroys all MODs in an defending player's territory. Commanders may be repurchased.",
"All units in space stations, regardless of type, defend with 8\\-sided dice. If a territory with a space station is captured by an invading player, that space station is replaced with another of the invading player's same color.",
"Similar to classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\"), if an invading player captured three or more contested territories, territories defended by another player, the invading player receives one energy and one commander card. Commander cards received this way can only be chosen from Commanders that the invading player currently has in play.",
"### Fortifying",
"A player may end their turn by fortifying. To fortify, players move as many units as they desire from one territory, and only one territory, to another territory that is connected at all points by territories that player occupies. Players need not own a space or naval commander to fortify into lunar or water territories. However, to fortify from a territory on the Earth game board to a territory on the Moon game board, one of the connected territories must be a space station.",
""
] |
### Invading territories
Three major elements differentiate invasion in Risk 2210 A.D. from classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)"): limitations in which territories may be invaded, how commanders affect dice, and how space stations affect dice. Players may only invade Water or Lunar territories if they have the corresponding commander in play. Additionally Lunar territories can only be invaded from the Earth game board by a territory containing a space station. Only three of the territories on the Moon game board can be invaded into from the Earth game board. These are the Sea of Crisis, Tycho, and Bay of Dew. Players can not invade from the Moon to Earth without the "Invading Earth" card found in the Space Deck.
If no commanders are attacking or defending a territory, play continues identically to classical [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)"). However, defending players may defend their territories using an 8\-sided die instead of a 6\-sided die if a commander is present in that territory. If two commanders are present in a defending territory, the defender may substitute both of the 6\-sided dice used in defense for two 8\-sided dice. This is true regardless of commander type for defending.
Substitution of 6\-sided dice with 8\-sided dice for invading players is contingent on the type of territory that player is invading into/from and the type of commander that player is invading into. The following table is provided in the Risk 2210 A.D. Gameplay Manual.
| Commander | Roll 8\-sided die when attacking |
| --- | --- |
| Diplomat | Never |
| Land | When invading from or into a land territory |
| Naval | When invading from or into a water territory |
| Space | When invading from or into a lunar territory |
| Nuclear | Always |
| Tech (Frontline Expansion 2\) | Never |
Players do not have to remove commanders if they suffer a loss while using an 8\-sided die. Players may remove MODs from their corresponding invading or defending territories first. Commanders are removed from a defending player if an invading player destroys all MODs in an defending player's territory. Commanders may be repurchased.
All units in space stations, regardless of type, defend with 8\-sided dice. If a territory with a space station is captured by an invading player, that space station is replaced with another of the invading player's same color.
Similar to classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)"), if an invading player captured three or more contested territories, territories defended by another player, the invading player receives one energy and one commander card. Commander cards received this way can only be chosen from Commanders that the invading player currently has in play.
|
[
"### Invading territories",
"Three major elements differentiate invasion in Risk 2210 A.D. from classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\"): limitations in which territories may be invaded, how commanders affect dice, and how space stations affect dice. Players may only invade Water or Lunar territories if they have the corresponding commander in play. Additionally Lunar territories can only be invaded from the Earth game board by a territory containing a space station. Only three of the territories on the Moon game board can be invaded into from the Earth game board. These are the Sea of Crisis, Tycho, and Bay of Dew. Players can not invade from the Moon to Earth without the \"Invading Earth\" card found in the Space Deck.",
"If no commanders are attacking or defending a territory, play continues identically to classical [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\"). However, defending players may defend their territories using an 8\\-sided die instead of a 6\\-sided die if a commander is present in that territory. If two commanders are present in a defending territory, the defender may substitute both of the 6\\-sided dice used in defense for two 8\\-sided dice. This is true regardless of commander type for defending.",
"Substitution of 6\\-sided dice with 8\\-sided dice for invading players is contingent on the type of territory that player is invading into/from and the type of commander that player is invading into. The following table is provided in the Risk 2210 A.D. Gameplay Manual.",
"",
"| Commander | Roll 8\\-sided die when attacking |\n| --- | --- |\n| Diplomat | Never |\n| Land | When invading from or into a land territory |\n| Naval | When invading from or into a water territory |\n| Space | When invading from or into a lunar territory |\n| Nuclear | Always |\n| Tech (Frontline Expansion 2\\) | Never |",
"Players do not have to remove commanders if they suffer a loss while using an 8\\-sided die. Players may remove MODs from their corresponding invading or defending territories first. Commanders are removed from a defending player if an invading player destroys all MODs in an defending player's territory. Commanders may be repurchased.",
"All units in space stations, regardless of type, defend with 8\\-sided dice. If a territory with a space station is captured by an invading player, that space station is replaced with another of the invading player's same color.",
"Similar to classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\"), if an invading player captured three or more contested territories, territories defended by another player, the invading player receives one energy and one commander card. Commander cards received this way can only be chosen from Commanders that the invading player currently has in play.",
""
] |
Prominent differences from classic *Risk*
-----------------------------------------
* Only five players (classic *Risk* seats six)
* Addition of water and moon territories
* Addition of commanders (land, naval, space, nuclear, diplomat)
* Command card decks corresponding to each of the five commanders
* Players earn and spend "energy" to obtain commanders, cards, and space stations and to activate some command cards
* Players can roll an 8\-sided die in some instances
* Armies are not acquired through card trading
* The game is only 5 years (turns) long; the winner is the player with highest score at the end of the last year
* Players bid energy to determine turn order rather than following the same order determined by a dice from the beginning of the game.
### Territories
Geographically, the map is nearly identical to the classic *[Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)")* map. It has the same forty\-two territories as before, but they have somewhat different names; Greenland, for example, is now the Exiled States of America. There is a tendency for large territories to be given the name of a present\-day [microstate](/wiki/Microstate "Microstate") (Andorra, Djibouti, Hong Kong, and Lesotho). Additionally, a few connections are removed from the Earth board that are present in classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)") board; the picture shows that Egypt is the only African country to have a connection with Middle East.
Thirteen water territories divided into five colonies and fourteen lunar territories divided into three colonies have been added. Similar to continental bonuses, if a player controls all the territories in a lunar or water colony at the beginning of their turn, they will receive additional MODs and energy that turn.
The map changes each game: Before any units are placed, four Devastation markers are positioned randomly on the board. Those four territories are nuclear [wastelands](/wiki/Wasteland "Wasteland") that are impassable and uninhabitable during the game.
### Commanders and cards
One of the biggest differences from classic *[Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)")* is the addition of commanders: land, naval, space, [nuclear](/wiki/Nuclear_warfare "Nuclear warfare"), and [diplomat](/wiki/Diplomacy "Diplomacy"). These fill a number of roles. Card play can shift the balance of power rapidly. Players can only buy four cards at a time, and only for commanders in play. Like the new avenues of movement, cards open up the board by making no position impregnable, no attack a certainty. With cards in use, the game is more fluid and positions are constantly shifting. There is a separate deck of cards for each type of commander. Perhaps the most devastating card attacks are enabled by the nuclear commander: Playing a nuclear card has the potential to destroy all the armies on an entire continent.
### Energy
Energy also has a strategic importance. It is used to buy cards, to bring commanders and space stations into play, to bid for the most advantageous place in the turn order, and to play certain cards. Each round, players bid energy for the right to choose when they want to take their turns. But players who spend too much energy one turn may find themselves playing at a disadvantage the next turn, or even for the rest of the game.
### Turn limit
*Risk 2210 A.D.* includes a five\-turn limit, although it is possible to play as in normal *Risk* with unlimited turns. Whoever controls the most territories (and bonuses) at the end of the fifth year wins.
The game includes the necessary equipment and cards for playing the classic version of *Risk*.
|
[
"Prominent differences from classic *Risk*\n-----------------------------------------",
"* Only five players (classic *Risk* seats six)\n* Addition of water and moon territories\n* Addition of commanders (land, naval, space, nuclear, diplomat)\n* Command card decks corresponding to each of the five commanders\n* Players earn and spend \"energy\" to obtain commanders, cards, and space stations and to activate some command cards\n* Players can roll an 8\\-sided die in some instances\n* Armies are not acquired through card trading\n* The game is only 5 years (turns) long; the winner is the player with highest score at the end of the last year\n* Players bid energy to determine turn order rather than following the same order determined by a dice from the beginning of the game.",
"### Territories",
"Geographically, the map is nearly identical to the classic *[Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\")* map. It has the same forty\\-two territories as before, but they have somewhat different names; Greenland, for example, is now the Exiled States of America. There is a tendency for large territories to be given the name of a present\\-day [microstate](/wiki/Microstate \"Microstate\") (Andorra, Djibouti, Hong Kong, and Lesotho). Additionally, a few connections are removed from the Earth board that are present in classic [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\") board; the picture shows that Egypt is the only African country to have a connection with Middle East.",
"Thirteen water territories divided into five colonies and fourteen lunar territories divided into three colonies have been added. Similar to continental bonuses, if a player controls all the territories in a lunar or water colony at the beginning of their turn, they will receive additional MODs and energy that turn.",
"The map changes each game: Before any units are placed, four Devastation markers are positioned randomly on the board. Those four territories are nuclear [wastelands](/wiki/Wasteland \"Wasteland\") that are impassable and uninhabitable during the game.",
"### Commanders and cards",
"One of the biggest differences from classic *[Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\")* is the addition of commanders: land, naval, space, [nuclear](/wiki/Nuclear_warfare \"Nuclear warfare\"), and [diplomat](/wiki/Diplomacy \"Diplomacy\"). These fill a number of roles. Card play can shift the balance of power rapidly. Players can only buy four cards at a time, and only for commanders in play. Like the new avenues of movement, cards open up the board by making no position impregnable, no attack a certainty. With cards in use, the game is more fluid and positions are constantly shifting. There is a separate deck of cards for each type of commander. Perhaps the most devastating card attacks are enabled by the nuclear commander: Playing a nuclear card has the potential to destroy all the armies on an entire continent.",
"### Energy",
"Energy also has a strategic importance. It is used to buy cards, to bring commanders and space stations into play, to bid for the most advantageous place in the turn order, and to play certain cards. Each round, players bid energy for the right to choose when they want to take their turns. But players who spend too much energy one turn may find themselves playing at a disadvantage the next turn, or even for the rest of the game.",
"### Turn limit",
"*Risk 2210 A.D.* includes a five\\-turn limit, although it is possible to play as in normal *Risk* with unlimited turns. Whoever controls the most territories (and bonuses) at the end of the fifth year wins.",
"The game includes the necessary equipment and cards for playing the classic version of *Risk*.",
""
] |
History
-------
The club was founded in 1976 as Stafford and joined the Midland Combination Division two for the 1977–78 season, winning the league at their second attempt. They changed their name to Stafford Town in 1981[Football Clubs History database – Stafford](https://www.fchd.info/STAFFORD.HTM) and left the Midlands Combination the following year before entering local football in 1984 when they became a founder member of the [Staffordshire Senior League](/wiki/Staffordshire_Senior_League "Staffordshire Senior League"). They remained in that competition until 1993 and for two of those seasons the club was known as Stafford MSHD following the merger with Sunday League team MSHD. They joined the [West Midlands Regional League](/wiki/West_Midlands_Regional_League "West Midlands Regional League") for the 1993–94 season and won Division One in their debut season, earning them promotion to the Premier Division. They were champions of the Premier Division in 1999–2000 and earned promotion to the [Midland Football Alliance](/wiki/Midland_Football_Alliance "Midland Football Alliance") and in their debut season at that level they reached the 3rd Qualifying Round of the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup"), going down 3–1 to [Harrow Borough](/wiki/Harrow_Borough_F.C. "Harrow Borough F.C.") in a replay having achieved a 0–0 draw at Harrow's ground. The club finished bottom in 2003–04 and were relegated back to the West Midlands Regional Alliance Division One, getting back into the Premier Division in 2009–10 as runners\-up, losing the title on goal difference.{{fchd\|name\=Stafford Town\|id\=STAFFORT}}[Club Website – History page](http://www.staffordtown2006.moonfruit.co.uk/#/history/4518440378)
The team transferred to the Midland Football Combination Premier Division at the beginning of the 2012–13 season, for which the club appointed Adam Cunningham from [Stone Old Alleynians](/wiki/Stone_Old_Alleynians_F.C. "Stone Old Alleynians F.C.") as manager after Steve Dockerty had resigned.
Cunningham left the team in May 2016, after winning the Les James Challenge League Cup. Dave Downing was then appointed as manager in the summer of 2016\.
Downing departed the club in February 2018 with the club rooted to the bottom of the division. Jake Robinson and Paul Snape took the helm and guided the club to what was believed to be safety in a 20th\-place finish. The club fell foul to the restructure of step 6 and 5 and were relegated to the Staffordshire Senior League Premier. During close season Snape departed leaving Robinson working alongside long term club servant Calvin Bailey to rebuild the squad and adapt to a new division. Robinson, assisted by Bailey and Luke Williams then led Stafford to a top 5 finish the following season, and a League Cup win over [Leek CSOB](/wiki/Leek_CSOB_F.C. "Leek CSOB F.C."), prompting a return to the Midland Football League Division One ahead of the 2019\-20 campaign.
Following a disappointing 2019\-20 campaign which saw Town rock bottom before the league was abandoned due to the COVID\-19 outbreak, Jake Robinson was replaced as manager.
Steve Barrow and Dominic Heath were appointed as joint managers ahead of the 2020–21 season.
The 2020–21 season was again cut short due to the COVID\-19 outbreak at the end of 2020\. Ahead of the 2021–22 season, the club was moved sideways to the [North West Counties League](/wiki/North_West_Counties_League "North West Counties League") Division One South.
In 2022, many managerial problems came as Steve Barrow and Dominic Heath resigned as managers of the club, after winning 2 games from 10, they left the job as managers after {{frac\|2\|1\|2}} years at the job. Recently after the departure of Steve Barrow and Dominic stepping down as manager, the appointment of Anthony Malbon was made successful, but only after 27 days of taking charge of Stafford Town, he decided it was wrong place, wrong time and stepped down as manager just shortly after arriving. Stafford Town then appointed Adam Wall as manager of the first team assisted by Bill Bickley.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The club was founded in 1976 as Stafford and joined the Midland Combination Division two for the 1977–78 season, winning the league at their second attempt. They changed their name to Stafford Town in 1981[Football Clubs History database – Stafford](https://www.fchd.info/STAFFORD.HTM) and left the Midlands Combination the following year before entering local football in 1984 when they became a founder member of the [Staffordshire Senior League](/wiki/Staffordshire_Senior_League \"Staffordshire Senior League\"). They remained in that competition until 1993 and for two of those seasons the club was known as Stafford MSHD following the merger with Sunday League team MSHD. They joined the [West Midlands Regional League](/wiki/West_Midlands_Regional_League \"West Midlands Regional League\") for the 1993–94 season and won Division One in their debut season, earning them promotion to the Premier Division. They were champions of the Premier Division in 1999–2000 and earned promotion to the [Midland Football Alliance](/wiki/Midland_Football_Alliance \"Midland Football Alliance\") and in their debut season at that level they reached the 3rd Qualifying Round of the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\"), going down 3–1 to [Harrow Borough](/wiki/Harrow_Borough_F.C. \"Harrow Borough F.C.\") in a replay having achieved a 0–0 draw at Harrow's ground. The club finished bottom in 2003–04 and were relegated back to the West Midlands Regional Alliance Division One, getting back into the Premier Division in 2009–10 as runners\\-up, losing the title on goal difference.{{fchd\\|name\\=Stafford Town\\|id\\=STAFFORT}}[Club Website – History page](http://www.staffordtown2006.moonfruit.co.uk/#/history/4518440378)",
"The team transferred to the Midland Football Combination Premier Division at the beginning of the 2012–13 season, for which the club appointed Adam Cunningham from [Stone Old Alleynians](/wiki/Stone_Old_Alleynians_F.C. \"Stone Old Alleynians F.C.\") as manager after Steve Dockerty had resigned.",
"Cunningham left the team in May 2016, after winning the Les James Challenge League Cup. Dave Downing was then appointed as manager in the summer of 2016\\.",
"Downing departed the club in February 2018 with the club rooted to the bottom of the division. Jake Robinson and Paul Snape took the helm and guided the club to what was believed to be safety in a 20th\\-place finish. The club fell foul to the restructure of step 6 and 5 and were relegated to the Staffordshire Senior League Premier. During close season Snape departed leaving Robinson working alongside long term club servant Calvin Bailey to rebuild the squad and adapt to a new division. Robinson, assisted by Bailey and Luke Williams then led Stafford to a top 5 finish the following season, and a League Cup win over [Leek CSOB](/wiki/Leek_CSOB_F.C. \"Leek CSOB F.C.\"), prompting a return to the Midland Football League Division One ahead of the 2019\\-20 campaign.",
"Following a disappointing 2019\\-20 campaign which saw Town rock bottom before the league was abandoned due to the COVID\\-19 outbreak, Jake Robinson was replaced as manager.",
"Steve Barrow and Dominic Heath were appointed as joint managers ahead of the 2020–21 season.",
"The 2020–21 season was again cut short due to the COVID\\-19 outbreak at the end of 2020\\. Ahead of the 2021–22 season, the club was moved sideways to the [North West Counties League](/wiki/North_West_Counties_League \"North West Counties League\") Division One South.",
"In 2022, many managerial problems came as Steve Barrow and Dominic Heath resigned as managers of the club, after winning 2 games from 10, they left the job as managers after {{frac\\|2\\|1\\|2}} years at the job. Recently after the departure of Steve Barrow and Dominic stepping down as manager, the appointment of Anthony Malbon was made successful, but only after 27 days of taking charge of Stafford Town, he decided it was wrong place, wrong time and stepped down as manager just shortly after arriving. Stafford Town then appointed Adam Wall as manager of the first team assisted by Bill Bickley.",
""
] |
Texas Instruments
-----------------
In 1952 Dallas\-based Texas Instruments had purchased a license to produce germanium transistors from Western Electric, the manufacturing arm of AT\&T and placed an advertisement in the New York Times for a director of research. Teal, becoming homesick for his native Dallas, responded and was hired by [Patrick E. Haggerty](/wiki/Patrick_E._Haggerty "Patrick E. Haggerty"). Teal started at TI as an Assistant Vice President on 1 January 1953, bringing with him all his expertise in growing semiconductor crystals. Haggerty had hired him to establish a team of scientists and engineers to keep TI at the leading edge of the new and rapidly expanding semiconductor industry. Teal's first assignment was to organize what became TI's Central Research Laboratories (CRL). Because of Teal's background, this new department was modeled after Bell Labs.
### Silicon transistor
In April 1954 Teal's TI CRL team created the first commercial [silicon transistor](/wiki/Silicon_transistor "Silicon transistor") and tested it on 14 April 1954\. On 10 May 1954 at the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE) National Conference on Airborne Electronics, in Dayton, Ohio, Teal revealed this achievement to the world, when he announced: "Contrary to what my colleagues have told you about the bleak prospects for silicon transistors, I happen to have a few of them here in my pocket." Teal also presented a paper "Some Recent Developments in Silicon and Germanium Materials and Devices" at this conference.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/may04/3992 \|title\=The Lost History of the Transistor\|author1\-link\=Michael Riordan (physicist) \|last\=Riordan \|first\=Michael \|date\=May 2004 \|work\=IEEE Spectrum \|accessdate\=4 February 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409173015/http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/may04/3992 \|archive\-date\=April 9, 2008}}
### Other achievements
In 1957 Teal and the CRL developed a chemical reduction process for ultra\-pure silicon. In 1958 a CRL employee [Jack Kilby](/wiki/Jack_Kilby "Jack Kilby") created the first [integrated circuit](/wiki/Integrated_circuit "Integrated circuit"). Other breakthrough developments include many advancements in [infrared](/wiki/Infrared "Infrared") technology and [digital signal processing](/wiki/Digital_signal_processing "Digital signal processing"), initially developed for the oil exploration industry, then for space and defense applications.
During 1963 and 1964 Teal became the International Technical Director for TI, promoting TI's growth as an international company. He resided in England, France, and Italy and was most active in their scientific and industrial aspects.
### First Director of the Institute for Materials Research
In 1965, Teal, taking a leave of absence from Texas Instruments, took a role at the National Bureau of Standards (now named [National Institute of Standards and Technology](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology "National Institute of Standards and Technology")) to become the first Director of the Institute for Materials Research in Washington, D.C. After his two\-year term, he returned to Texas Instruments and remained there until he retired in 1972\.
### Retirement
After retiring from Texas Instruments Teal continued to work as a consultant for Texas Instruments and the [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") and participate in many scientific organizations.
|
[
"Texas Instruments\n-----------------",
"In 1952 Dallas\\-based Texas Instruments had purchased a license to produce germanium transistors from Western Electric, the manufacturing arm of AT\\&T and placed an advertisement in the New York Times for a director of research. Teal, becoming homesick for his native Dallas, responded and was hired by [Patrick E. Haggerty](/wiki/Patrick_E._Haggerty \"Patrick E. Haggerty\"). Teal started at TI as an Assistant Vice President on 1 January 1953, bringing with him all his expertise in growing semiconductor crystals. Haggerty had hired him to establish a team of scientists and engineers to keep TI at the leading edge of the new and rapidly expanding semiconductor industry. Teal's first assignment was to organize what became TI's Central Research Laboratories (CRL). Because of Teal's background, this new department was modeled after Bell Labs.",
"### Silicon transistor",
"In April 1954 Teal's TI CRL team created the first commercial [silicon transistor](/wiki/Silicon_transistor \"Silicon transistor\") and tested it on 14 April 1954\\. On 10 May 1954 at the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE) National Conference on Airborne Electronics, in Dayton, Ohio, Teal revealed this achievement to the world, when he announced: \"Contrary to what my colleagues have told you about the bleak prospects for silicon transistors, I happen to have a few of them here in my pocket.\" Teal also presented a paper \"Some Recent Developments in Silicon and Germanium Materials and Devices\" at this conference.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/may04/3992 \\|title\\=The Lost History of the Transistor\\|author1\\-link\\=Michael Riordan (physicist) \\|last\\=Riordan \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=May 2004 \\|work\\=IEEE Spectrum \\|accessdate\\=4 February 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409173015/http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/may04/3992 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 9, 2008}}",
"### Other achievements",
"In 1957 Teal and the CRL developed a chemical reduction process for ultra\\-pure silicon. In 1958 a CRL employee [Jack Kilby](/wiki/Jack_Kilby \"Jack Kilby\") created the first [integrated circuit](/wiki/Integrated_circuit \"Integrated circuit\"). Other breakthrough developments include many advancements in [infrared](/wiki/Infrared \"Infrared\") technology and [digital signal processing](/wiki/Digital_signal_processing \"Digital signal processing\"), initially developed for the oil exploration industry, then for space and defense applications.",
"During 1963 and 1964 Teal became the International Technical Director for TI, promoting TI's growth as an international company. He resided in England, France, and Italy and was most active in their scientific and industrial aspects.",
"### First Director of the Institute for Materials Research",
"In 1965, Teal, taking a leave of absence from Texas Instruments, took a role at the National Bureau of Standards (now named [National Institute of Standards and Technology](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology \"National Institute of Standards and Technology\")) to become the first Director of the Institute for Materials Research in Washington, D.C. After his two\\-year term, he returned to Texas Instruments and remained there until he retired in 1972\\.",
"### Retirement",
"After retiring from Texas Instruments Teal continued to work as a consultant for Texas Instruments and the [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense \"United States Department of Defense\") and participate in many scientific organizations.",
""
] |
Political career
----------------
Muraleedharan started his political career within the Congress party as a [Seva Dal](/wiki/Seva_Dal "Seva Dal") worker. Thereafter, he held the posts of District chairman and State Chief of Kerala Seva Dal.[Kerala Legislative Assembly: Member profile](http://www.keralaassembly.org/lok/sabha/biodata.php4?no=61&name=K.%20Muraleedharan) He was elected as Member of Parliament from the Calicut (Kozhikode) constituency in the [General Elections of 1989](/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election "1989 Indian general election") by defeating veteran [Communist Party of India (Marxist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Communist Party of India (Marxist)") leader [E. K. Imbichi Bava](/wiki/E._K._Imbichi_Bava "E. K. Imbichi Bava") and winning re\-election in [1991](/wiki/1991_Indian_general_election "1991 Indian general election") by defeating [Janata Dal](/wiki/Janata_Dal "Janata Dal") leader [M. P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar "M. P. Veerendra Kumar"). In the [1996 general election](/wiki/1996_Indian_general_election "1996 Indian general election"), he lost his seat to [M. P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar "M. P. Veerendra Kumar") and subsequently failed in [Thrissur](/wiki/Thrissur_%28Lok_Sabha_constituency%29 "Thrissur (Lok Sabha constituency)") Loksabha seat in his comeback attempt in the [1998 election](/wiki/1998_Indian_general_election "1998 Indian general election"), before regaining [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_%28Lok_Sabha_constituency%29 "Kozhikode (Lok Sabha constituency)") seat by defeating [Janata Dal](/wiki/Janata_Dal "Janata Dal") national leader and former Union Minister [C. M. Ibrahim](/wiki/C._M._Ibrahim "C. M. Ibrahim") in [1999](/wiki/1999_Indian_general_election "1999 Indian general election").[IBN Candidate profile: K Muraleedharan](https://web.archive.org/web/20090420135556/http://ibnlive.in.com/politics/keycandidate/3462.html) Thereafter, he held the roles of General secretary, Vice\-President of [Kerala Congress Committee](/wiki/Pradesh_Congress_Committee "Pradesh Congress Committee") (KPCC) and became the President of [KPCC](/wiki/Pradesh_Congress_Committee "Pradesh Congress Committee") during 2001–2004\.
In February 2004, Muraleedharan was appointed Minister of Power in the [A. K. Antony](/wiki/A._K._Antony "A. K. Antony") Ministry, though he was not a member of the [Kerala Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Kerala_Legislative_Assembly "Kerala Legislative Assembly").{{usurped\|\[https://archive.today/20130125083351/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2004/02/12/stories/2004021202580700\.htm Muraleedharan sworn in Minister]}} – *The Hindu*, 12 February 2004 He was required to win a seat within six months to continue as the minister but lost in by\-election from [Wadakkancherry](/wiki/Wadakkancherry "Wadakkancherry"). Subsequently, he resigned in May that year. He is the only state Minister who was never MLA and never faced the legislative assembly.{{Cite web\|url\=http://keralaassembly.org/min01\.html\|title\=Kerala Government: Council of Ministers (Cabinet) 2001\-2006}}
In 2005, when the Karunakaran faction of the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") party had differences with the party leadership and the [United Democratic Front](/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_%28India%29 "United Democratic Front (India)") (UDF), some members of the party quit and formed another party named [Democratic Indira Congress (Karunakaran)](/wiki/Democratic_Indira_Congress_%28Karunakaran%29 "Democratic Indira Congress (Karunakaran)") (DIC(K)). They allied with the [Left Democratic Front](/wiki/Left_Democratic_Front_%28Kerala%29 "Left Democratic Front (Kerala)") (LDF) for the local [panchayat](/wiki/Local_governance_in_Kerala "Local governance in Kerala") elections of 2005 and had some success.
However, for the Kerala Assembly elections of 2006, DIC(K) made a pact with UDF as LDF declined to make any electoral arrangements with DIC(K). DIC(K) contested in 17 constituencies but managed to get elected only from one seat mostly because of grassroots level cross\-voting by Congress. Muralidharan lost the election in Koduvally constituency to P.T.A. Rahim.
With the future of the DIC(K) party untenable, some party members of the DIC(K) returned to the Congress party whilst others, including Karunakaran and Muraleedharan, decided instead to join the [Nationalist Congress Party](/wiki/Nationalist_Congress_Party "Nationalist Congress Party") (NCP).
Later, Karunakaran rejoined the Congress party, while his son Muraleedharan opted to stay with the NCP, decrying his father's "betrayal".{{usurped\|\[https://web.archive.org/web/20080412023514/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2502/stories/20080201503303400\.htm Return of Leader ]}} *Frontline*, 19 January 2008 Muraleedharan contested the [2009 Lok Sabha polls](/wiki/2009_Indian_general_election "2009 Indian general election") from the [Wayanad](/wiki/Wayanad "Wayanad") constituency under the NCP ticket, but came only in third place, behind the Congress party and the [CPI](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India "Communist Party of India").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.keralaassembly.org/lok/sabha/poll\_results.php4?year\=2009\&no\=4\|title\=Indian Parliament Election Results 2009 (Lok Sabha polls 2009\)\- Kerala}}
In August 2009, he was expelled from the NCP and sacked as state chief of the party, as he openly expressed his desire to rejoin the Congress party.[Kerala leader K Muraleedharan refused re\-entry into Congress](http://www.newkerala.com/nkfullnews-1-88125.html) – *New Kerala*/IANS, 7 August 2009 He was subsequently refused re\-entry into the Congress party, the party leadership stating that the disparaging comments he had made about the party leadership whilst in opposition were too big a barrier to his re\-joining."Muraleedharan meets Antony", *[The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu "The Hindu")*, 21 November 2009 Muraleedharan pledged that he would "wait for any length of time" for the party to change its mind and readmit him, while his father Karunakaran stated that he would take up the matter with the national leadership of the Congress party, if necessary. He was readmitted to the Congress party in February 2011, after his father died, and was given a ticket to contest the Assembly election from the Vattiyurkavu Assembly constituency (former Thiruvananthapuram North Constituency). Subsequently, he won his first assembly election after he defeated ruling Communist Party of India\-Marxist (CPI\-M) supported independent candidate [Cherian Philip](/wiki/Cherian_Philip "Cherian Philip") by a margin of over 16,167 votes on 14 May 2011\.{{Cite web \|title\=Triangular fight in Vattiyoorkavu segment \|url\=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti\-feed/story/triangular\-fight\-in\-vattiyoorkavu\-segment\-591436\-2016\-04\-17 \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-24 \|website\=India Today \|language\=en}} He was re\-elected for the second time in 2016 defeating Kummanam Rajasekharan of [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") by a margin of 7622 votes.
In [Indian general election 2019](/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election "2019 Indian general election") he has been elected from [Vatakara](/wiki/Vatakara "Vatakara") with a tremendous margin by defeating [P. Jayarajan](/wiki/P._Jayarajan "P. Jayarajan") of [Communist Party of India (Marxist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Communist Party of India (Marxist)") by a margin of 84663 votes.
In [Indian general election 2024](/wiki/2024_Indian_general_election "2024 Indian general election") he was a candidate of Indian National Congress party from [Thrissur Constituency](/wiki/Thrissur_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency").{{Cite web \|last\=Raghunath \|first\=Arjun \|title\=LS polls 2024: Congress' surprise move to field Muraleedharan at Thrissur creates panic in BJP camp \|url\=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/kerala/congresss\-surprise\-move\-to\-field\-muraleedharan\-at\-thrissur\-creates\-panic\-in\-bjp\-camp\-2930378 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-26 \|website\=Deccan Herald \|language\=en}}{{Cite news \|last\=Bureau \|first\=The Hindu \|date\=2024\-03\-09 \|title\=K. Muraleedharan reaches Thrissur, takes out roadshow \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/k\-muraleedharan\-reaches\-thrissur\-takes\-out\-roadshow/article67932840\.ece \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-26 \|work\=The Hindu \|language\=en\-IN \|issn\=0971\-751X}}
| \+Election candidature history |
| --- |
| Election | Year | Party | | Constituency | Opponent | | | Result | Margin |
|[Loksabha](/wiki/Loksabha "Loksabha")
[1989](/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala "1989 Indian general election in Kerala") |
{{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} |
[Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency") |
{{party name with color\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} |
[E. K. Imbichi Bava](/wiki/E._K._Imbichi_Bava "E. K. Imbichi Bava") |
{{yes2\|Won}} |
{{yes2\|28,957}} |
| [1991](/wiki/1991_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala "1991 Indian general election in Kerala") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency") | {{party name with color\|Janata Dal (Secular)}} | [M.P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar "M. P. Veerendra Kumar") | {{yes2\|Won}} | {{yes2\|15,884}} |
| [1996](/wiki/1996_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala "1996 Indian general election in Kerala") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency") | {{party name with color\|Janata Dal (Secular)}} | [M.P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar "M. P. Veerendra Kumar") | {{no2\|Lost}} | {{no2\|38,703}} |
| [1998](/wiki/1998_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala "1998 Indian general election in Kerala") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [Thrissur](/wiki/Thrissur_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency") | {{party name with color\|Communist Party of India}} | [V. V. Raghavan](/wiki/V._V._Raghavan "V. V. Raghavan") | {{no2\|Lost}} | {{no2\|18,409}} |
| [1999](/wiki/1999_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala "1999 Indian general election in Kerala") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency") | {{party name with color\|Janata Dal (Secular)}} | [C. M. Ibrahim](/wiki/C._M._Ibrahim "C. M. Ibrahim") | {{yes2\|Won}} | {{yes2\|50,402}} |
| [2009](/wiki/2009_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala "2009 Indian general election in Kerala") | {{party name with color\|Nationalist Congress Party}} | [Wayanad](/wiki/Wayanad_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Wayanad Lok Sabha constituency") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [M. I. Shanavas](/wiki/M._I._Shanavas "M. I. Shanavas") | {{no2\|Lost}} | {{no2\|311,040}} |
| [**2019**](/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala "2019 Indian general election in Kerala") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [**Vatakara**](/wiki/Vatakara_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Vatakara Lok Sabha constituency") | {{party name with color\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} | [P. Jayarajan](/wiki/P._Jayarajan "P. Jayarajan") | {{yes2\|'''Won'''}} | {{yes2\|'''84,663'''}} |
| [2024](/wiki/2024_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala "2024 Indian general election in Kerala") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [Thrissur](/wiki/Thrissur_Lok_Sabha_constituency "Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency") | {{party name with color\|Bharatiya Janata Party}} | [Suresh Gopi](/wiki/Suresh_Gopi "Suresh Gopi") | {{no2\|Lost}} | {{no2\|84,214}} |
|[Kerala Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Kerala_Legislative_Assembly "Kerala Legislative Assembly")
2004 (By\-election) |
{{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} |
[Wadakkanchery](/wiki/Wadakkanchery_Assembly_constituency "Wadakkanchery Assembly constituency") |
{{party name with color\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} |
[A. C. Moideen](/wiki/A._C._Moideen "A. C. Moideen") |
{{no2\|Lost}} |
{{no2\|3,715}} |
| [2006](/wiki/2006_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election "2006 Kerala Legislative Assembly election") | {{Party name with color\|Democratic Indira Congress (Karunakaran)}} | [Koduvally](/wiki/Koduvally_Assembly_constituency "Koduvally Assembly constituency") | {{party name with color\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} | [P. T. A. Rahim](/wiki/P._T._A._Rahim "P. T. A. Rahim") | {{no2\|Lost}} | {{no2\|7,506}} |
| [2011](/wiki/2011_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election "2011 Kerala Legislative Assembly election") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [Vattiyoorkavu](/wiki/Vattiyoorkavu_Assembly_constituency "Vattiyoorkavu Assembly constituency") | {{party name with color\|Independent}} | [Cheriyan Phillip](/wiki/Cheriyan_Phillip "Cheriyan Phillip") | {{yes2\|Won}} | {{yes2\|16,167}} |
| [2016](/wiki/2016_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election "2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [Vattiyoorkavu](/wiki/Vattiyoorkavu_Assembly_constituency "Vattiyoorkavu Assembly constituency") | {{Party name with color\|Bharatiya Janata Party}} | [Kummanam Rajasekharan](/wiki/Kummanam_Rajasekharan "Kummanam Rajasekharan") | {{yes2\|Won}} | {{yes2\|7,622}} |
| [2021](/wiki/2021_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election "2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election") | {{party name with color\|Indian National Congress}} | [Nemom](/wiki/Nemom_Assembly_constituency "Nemom Assembly constituency") | {{party name with color\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} | [V. Sivankutty](/wiki/V._Sivankutty "V. Sivankutty") | {{no2\|Lost}} | {{no2\|19,313}} |
### Positions held
* [1989](/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election "1989 Indian general election") – [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament%2C_Lok_Sabha "Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha") [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode "Kozhikode")– by defeating [CPIM](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Communist Party of India (Marxist)") leader [E. K. Imbichi Bava](/wiki/E._K._Imbichi_Bava "E. K. Imbichi Bava")
* [1991](/wiki/1991_Indian_general_election "1991 Indian general election") – [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament%2C_Lok_Sabha "Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha") [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode "Kozhikode")– by defeating [JDS](/wiki/Janata_Dal_%28Secular%29 "Janata Dal (Secular)") leader [M.P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar "M. P. Veerendra Kumar")
* [1999](/wiki/1999_Indian_general_election "1999 Indian general election") – [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament%2C_Lok_Sabha "Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha") [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode "Kozhikode")– by defeating [JDS](/wiki/Janata_Dal_%28Secular%29 "Janata Dal (Secular)") leader [M.P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar "M. P. Veerendra Kumar")
* [2011](/wiki/2011_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election "2011 Kerala Legislative Assembly election") – MLA [Vattiyoorkavu](/wiki/Vattiyoorkavu "Vattiyoorkavu")– by defeating [Cherian Philip](/wiki/Cherian_Philip "Cherian Philip")
* [2016](/wiki/2016_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election "2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election") – MLA [Vattiyoorkavu](/wiki/Vattiyoorkavu "Vattiyoorkavu")– by defeating [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") leader [Kummanam Rajasekharan](/wiki/Kummanam_Rajasekharan "Kummanam Rajasekharan")
* [2019](/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election "2019 Indian general election") – MP from [Vatakara](/wiki/Vatakara "Vatakara") – by defeating [CPIM](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 "Communist Party of India (Marxist)") leader [P. Jayarajan](/wiki/P._Jayarajan "P. Jayarajan")
|
[
"Political career\n----------------",
"Muraleedharan started his political career within the Congress party as a [Seva Dal](/wiki/Seva_Dal \"Seva Dal\") worker. Thereafter, he held the posts of District chairman and State Chief of Kerala Seva Dal.[Kerala Legislative Assembly: Member profile](http://www.keralaassembly.org/lok/sabha/biodata.php4?no=61&name=K.%20Muraleedharan) He was elected as Member of Parliament from the Calicut (Kozhikode) constituency in the [General Elections of 1989](/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election \"1989 Indian general election\") by defeating veteran [Communist Party of India (Marxist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") leader [E. K. Imbichi Bava](/wiki/E._K._Imbichi_Bava \"E. K. Imbichi Bava\") and winning re\\-election in [1991](/wiki/1991_Indian_general_election \"1991 Indian general election\") by defeating [Janata Dal](/wiki/Janata_Dal \"Janata Dal\") leader [M. P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar \"M. P. Veerendra Kumar\"). In the [1996 general election](/wiki/1996_Indian_general_election \"1996 Indian general election\"), he lost his seat to [M. P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar \"M. P. Veerendra Kumar\") and subsequently failed in [Thrissur](/wiki/Thrissur_%28Lok_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Thrissur (Lok Sabha constituency)\") Loksabha seat in his comeback attempt in the [1998 election](/wiki/1998_Indian_general_election \"1998 Indian general election\"), before regaining [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_%28Lok_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Kozhikode (Lok Sabha constituency)\") seat by defeating [Janata Dal](/wiki/Janata_Dal \"Janata Dal\") national leader and former Union Minister [C. M. Ibrahim](/wiki/C._M._Ibrahim \"C. M. Ibrahim\") in [1999](/wiki/1999_Indian_general_election \"1999 Indian general election\").[IBN Candidate profile: K Muraleedharan](https://web.archive.org/web/20090420135556/http://ibnlive.in.com/politics/keycandidate/3462.html) Thereafter, he held the roles of General secretary, Vice\\-President of [Kerala Congress Committee](/wiki/Pradesh_Congress_Committee \"Pradesh Congress Committee\") (KPCC) and became the President of [KPCC](/wiki/Pradesh_Congress_Committee \"Pradesh Congress Committee\") during 2001–2004\\.",
"In February 2004, Muraleedharan was appointed Minister of Power in the [A. K. Antony](/wiki/A._K._Antony \"A. K. Antony\") Ministry, though he was not a member of the [Kerala Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Kerala_Legislative_Assembly \"Kerala Legislative Assembly\").{{usurped\\|\\[https://archive.today/20130125083351/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2004/02/12/stories/2004021202580700\\.htm Muraleedharan sworn in Minister]}} – *The Hindu*, 12 February 2004 He was required to win a seat within six months to continue as the minister but lost in by\\-election from [Wadakkancherry](/wiki/Wadakkancherry \"Wadakkancherry\"). Subsequently, he resigned in May that year. He is the only state Minister who was never MLA and never faced the legislative assembly.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://keralaassembly.org/min01\\.html\\|title\\=Kerala Government: Council of Ministers (Cabinet) 2001\\-2006}}",
"In 2005, when the Karunakaran faction of the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") party had differences with the party leadership and the [United Democratic Front](/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_%28India%29 \"United Democratic Front (India)\") (UDF), some members of the party quit and formed another party named [Democratic Indira Congress (Karunakaran)](/wiki/Democratic_Indira_Congress_%28Karunakaran%29 \"Democratic Indira Congress (Karunakaran)\") (DIC(K)). They allied with the [Left Democratic Front](/wiki/Left_Democratic_Front_%28Kerala%29 \"Left Democratic Front (Kerala)\") (LDF) for the local [panchayat](/wiki/Local_governance_in_Kerala \"Local governance in Kerala\") elections of 2005 and had some success.",
"However, for the Kerala Assembly elections of 2006, DIC(K) made a pact with UDF as LDF declined to make any electoral arrangements with DIC(K). DIC(K) contested in 17 constituencies but managed to get elected only from one seat mostly because of grassroots level cross\\-voting by Congress. Muralidharan lost the election in Koduvally constituency to P.T.A. Rahim.",
"With the future of the DIC(K) party untenable, some party members of the DIC(K) returned to the Congress party whilst others, including Karunakaran and Muraleedharan, decided instead to join the [Nationalist Congress Party](/wiki/Nationalist_Congress_Party \"Nationalist Congress Party\") (NCP).",
"Later, Karunakaran rejoined the Congress party, while his son Muraleedharan opted to stay with the NCP, decrying his father's \"betrayal\".{{usurped\\|\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20080412023514/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2502/stories/20080201503303400\\.htm Return of Leader ]}} *Frontline*, 19 January 2008 Muraleedharan contested the [2009 Lok Sabha polls](/wiki/2009_Indian_general_election \"2009 Indian general election\") from the [Wayanad](/wiki/Wayanad \"Wayanad\") constituency under the NCP ticket, but came only in third place, behind the Congress party and the [CPI](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India \"Communist Party of India\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.keralaassembly.org/lok/sabha/poll\\_results.php4?year\\=2009\\&no\\=4\\|title\\=Indian Parliament Election Results 2009 (Lok Sabha polls 2009\\)\\- Kerala}}",
"In August 2009, he was expelled from the NCP and sacked as state chief of the party, as he openly expressed his desire to rejoin the Congress party.[Kerala leader K Muraleedharan refused re\\-entry into Congress](http://www.newkerala.com/nkfullnews-1-88125.html) – *New Kerala*/IANS, 7 August 2009 He was subsequently refused re\\-entry into the Congress party, the party leadership stating that the disparaging comments he had made about the party leadership whilst in opposition were too big a barrier to his re\\-joining.\"Muraleedharan meets Antony\", *[The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu \"The Hindu\")*, 21 November 2009 Muraleedharan pledged that he would \"wait for any length of time\" for the party to change its mind and readmit him, while his father Karunakaran stated that he would take up the matter with the national leadership of the Congress party, if necessary. He was readmitted to the Congress party in February 2011, after his father died, and was given a ticket to contest the Assembly election from the Vattiyurkavu Assembly constituency (former Thiruvananthapuram North Constituency). Subsequently, he won his first assembly election after he defeated ruling Communist Party of India\\-Marxist (CPI\\-M) supported independent candidate [Cherian Philip](/wiki/Cherian_Philip \"Cherian Philip\") by a margin of over 16,167 votes on 14 May 2011\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Triangular fight in Vattiyoorkavu segment \\|url\\=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti\\-feed/story/triangular\\-fight\\-in\\-vattiyoorkavu\\-segment\\-591436\\-2016\\-04\\-17 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-24 \\|website\\=India Today \\|language\\=en}} He was re\\-elected for the second time in 2016 defeating Kummanam Rajasekharan of [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") by a margin of 7622 votes.",
"In [Indian general election 2019](/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election \"2019 Indian general election\") he has been elected from [Vatakara](/wiki/Vatakara \"Vatakara\") with a tremendous margin by defeating [P. Jayarajan](/wiki/P._Jayarajan \"P. Jayarajan\") of [Communist Party of India (Marxist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") by a margin of 84663 votes.",
"In [Indian general election 2024](/wiki/2024_Indian_general_election \"2024 Indian general election\") he was a candidate of Indian National Congress party from [Thrissur Constituency](/wiki/Thrissur_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Raghunath \\|first\\=Arjun \\|title\\=LS polls 2024: Congress' surprise move to field Muraleedharan at Thrissur creates panic in BJP camp \\|url\\=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/kerala/congresss\\-surprise\\-move\\-to\\-field\\-muraleedharan\\-at\\-thrissur\\-creates\\-panic\\-in\\-bjp\\-camp\\-2930378 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-26 \\|website\\=Deccan Herald \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Bureau \\|first\\=The Hindu \\|date\\=2024\\-03\\-09 \\|title\\=K. Muraleedharan reaches Thrissur, takes out roadshow \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/k\\-muraleedharan\\-reaches\\-thrissur\\-takes\\-out\\-roadshow/article67932840\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-26 \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X}}",
"",
"| \\+Election candidature history |\n| --- |\n| Election | Year | Party | | Constituency | Opponent | | | Result | Margin |\n|[Loksabha](/wiki/Loksabha \"Loksabha\")",
"[1989](/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala \"1989 Indian general election in Kerala\") |\n {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} |\n [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency\") |\n {{party name with color\\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} |\n [E. K. Imbichi Bava](/wiki/E._K._Imbichi_Bava \"E. K. Imbichi Bava\") |\n {{yes2\\|Won}} |\n {{yes2\\|28,957}} |\n| [1991](/wiki/1991_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala \"1991 Indian general election in Kerala\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Janata Dal (Secular)}} | [M.P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar \"M. P. Veerendra Kumar\") | {{yes2\\|Won}} | {{yes2\\|15,884}} |\n| [1996](/wiki/1996_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala \"1996 Indian general election in Kerala\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Janata Dal (Secular)}} | [M.P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar \"M. P. Veerendra Kumar\") | {{no2\\|Lost}} | {{no2\\|38,703}} |\n| [1998](/wiki/1998_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala \"1998 Indian general election in Kerala\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [Thrissur](/wiki/Thrissur_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Communist Party of India}} | [V. V. Raghavan](/wiki/V._V._Raghavan \"V. V. Raghavan\") | {{no2\\|Lost}} | {{no2\\|18,409}} |\n| [1999](/wiki/1999_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala \"1999 Indian general election in Kerala\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Janata Dal (Secular)}} | [C. M. Ibrahim](/wiki/C._M._Ibrahim \"C. M. Ibrahim\") | {{yes2\\|Won}} | {{yes2\\|50,402}} |\n| [2009](/wiki/2009_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala \"2009 Indian general election in Kerala\") | {{party name with color\\|Nationalist Congress Party}} | [Wayanad](/wiki/Wayanad_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Wayanad Lok Sabha constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [M. I. Shanavas](/wiki/M._I._Shanavas \"M. I. Shanavas\") | {{no2\\|Lost}} | {{no2\\|311,040}} |\n| [**2019**](/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala \"2019 Indian general election in Kerala\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [**Vatakara**](/wiki/Vatakara_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Vatakara Lok Sabha constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} | [P. Jayarajan](/wiki/P._Jayarajan \"P. Jayarajan\") | {{yes2\\|'''Won'''}} | {{yes2\\|'''84,663'''}} |\n| [2024](/wiki/2024_Indian_general_election_in_Kerala \"2024 Indian general election in Kerala\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [Thrissur](/wiki/Thrissur_Lok_Sabha_constituency \"Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Bharatiya Janata Party}} | [Suresh Gopi](/wiki/Suresh_Gopi \"Suresh Gopi\") | {{no2\\|Lost}} | {{no2\\|84,214}} |\n|[Kerala Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Kerala_Legislative_Assembly \"Kerala Legislative Assembly\")",
"2004 (By\\-election) |\n {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} |\n [Wadakkanchery](/wiki/Wadakkanchery_Assembly_constituency \"Wadakkanchery Assembly constituency\") |\n {{party name with color\\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} |\n [A. C. Moideen](/wiki/A._C._Moideen \"A. C. Moideen\") |\n {{no2\\|Lost}} |\n {{no2\\|3,715}} |\n| [2006](/wiki/2006_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2006 Kerala Legislative Assembly election\") | {{Party name with color\\|Democratic Indira Congress (Karunakaran)}} | [Koduvally](/wiki/Koduvally_Assembly_constituency \"Koduvally Assembly constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} | [P. T. A. Rahim](/wiki/P._T._A._Rahim \"P. T. A. Rahim\") | {{no2\\|Lost}} | {{no2\\|7,506}} |\n| [2011](/wiki/2011_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2011 Kerala Legislative Assembly election\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [Vattiyoorkavu](/wiki/Vattiyoorkavu_Assembly_constituency \"Vattiyoorkavu Assembly constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Independent}} | [Cheriyan Phillip](/wiki/Cheriyan_Phillip \"Cheriyan Phillip\") | {{yes2\\|Won}} | {{yes2\\|16,167}} |\n| [2016](/wiki/2016_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [Vattiyoorkavu](/wiki/Vattiyoorkavu_Assembly_constituency \"Vattiyoorkavu Assembly constituency\") | {{Party name with color\\|Bharatiya Janata Party}} | [Kummanam Rajasekharan](/wiki/Kummanam_Rajasekharan \"Kummanam Rajasekharan\") | {{yes2\\|Won}} | {{yes2\\|7,622}} |\n| [2021](/wiki/2021_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election\") | {{party name with color\\|Indian National Congress}} | [Nemom](/wiki/Nemom_Assembly_constituency \"Nemom Assembly constituency\") | {{party name with color\\|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} | [V. Sivankutty](/wiki/V._Sivankutty \"V. Sivankutty\") | {{no2\\|Lost}} | {{no2\\|19,313}} |",
"### Positions held",
"* [1989](/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election \"1989 Indian general election\") – [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament%2C_Lok_Sabha \"Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha\") [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode \"Kozhikode\")– by defeating [CPIM](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") leader [E. K. Imbichi Bava](/wiki/E._K._Imbichi_Bava \"E. K. Imbichi Bava\")\n* [1991](/wiki/1991_Indian_general_election \"1991 Indian general election\") – [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament%2C_Lok_Sabha \"Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha\") [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode \"Kozhikode\")– by defeating [JDS](/wiki/Janata_Dal_%28Secular%29 \"Janata Dal (Secular)\") leader [M.P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar \"M. P. Veerendra Kumar\")\n* [1999](/wiki/1999_Indian_general_election \"1999 Indian general election\") – [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament%2C_Lok_Sabha \"Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha\") [Kozhikode](/wiki/Kozhikode \"Kozhikode\")– by defeating [JDS](/wiki/Janata_Dal_%28Secular%29 \"Janata Dal (Secular)\") leader [M.P. Veerendra Kumar](/wiki/M._P._Veerendra_Kumar \"M. P. Veerendra Kumar\")\n* [2011](/wiki/2011_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2011 Kerala Legislative Assembly election\") – MLA [Vattiyoorkavu](/wiki/Vattiyoorkavu \"Vattiyoorkavu\")– by defeating [Cherian Philip](/wiki/Cherian_Philip \"Cherian Philip\")\n* [2016](/wiki/2016_Kerala_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election\") – MLA [Vattiyoorkavu](/wiki/Vattiyoorkavu \"Vattiyoorkavu\")– by defeating [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") leader [Kummanam Rajasekharan](/wiki/Kummanam_Rajasekharan \"Kummanam Rajasekharan\")\n* [2019](/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election \"2019 Indian general election\") – MP from [Vatakara](/wiki/Vatakara \"Vatakara\") – by defeating [CPIM](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_%28Marxist%29 \"Communist Party of India (Marxist)\") leader [P. Jayarajan](/wiki/P._Jayarajan \"P. Jayarajan\")"
] |
Professional wrestling career
-----------------------------
Fanning started wrestling in 1964 as "Big Jim Vallen". He went to the [World Wide Wrestling Federation](/wiki/World_Wide_Wrestling_Federation "World Wide Wrestling Federation") in the 1970s as "Handsome Jimmy Valiant" and formed a team with [Johnny Valiant](/wiki/Johnny_Valiant "Johnny Valiant") that would dominate the tag team scene for a while as [WWWF Tag Team champions](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28WWE%2C_1971%E2%80%932010%29 "World Tag Team Championship (WWE, 1971–2010)"). In the later 1960s in the [World Wrestling Association](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Association_%28Indianapolis%29 "World Wrestling Association (Indianapolis)"), they were managed by [Bobby Heenan](/wiki/Bobby_Heenan "Bobby Heenan").Heenan, B: "Bobby The Brain: Wrestling's Bad Boy Tells All.", page 18\. Triumph Books, 2002\.
[thumb\|250x250px\|Valiant (left) in a 1972 match against [Chief Jay Strongbow](/wiki/Chief_Jay_Strongbow "Chief Jay Strongbow")](/wiki/File:Chief_Jay_Strongbow_vs_Handsome_Jim_Valiant%2C_1972.png "Chief Jay Strongbow vs Handsome Jim Valiant, 1972.png")
Valiant had entered the WWWF in 1971 as a babyface, originally known as "Gentleman Jim Valiant," but quickly switched to heel.DVD Jimmy Valiant 50th Pro Wrestling Anniversary Celebration, Disc 2, Copyright 2014 Howard Rogofsky He had title matches against champion [Pedro Morales](/wiki/Pedro_Morales "Pedro Morales") in secondary arenas, such as Philadelphia, and feuded with short\-term tag partner [Chief Jay Strongbow](/wiki/Chief_Jay_Strongbow "Chief Jay Strongbow"). Jimmy and his kayfabe brother [Johnny Valiant](/wiki/Johnny_Valiant "Johnny Valiant") held the tag belts from 1974 to 1975 and main evented Madison Square Garden against Chief Jay Strongbow and [Bruno Sammartino](/wiki/Bruno_Sammartino "Bruno Sammartino") (Strongbow and Sammartino won 2 out of 3 falls, but one fall via disqualification; hence the belts didn't change hands).
During the late 1970s to early 1980s, Valiant was a central player in the [Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee "Memphis, Tennessee") wrestling scene. He [feuded](/wiki/Feud_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Feud (professional wrestling)") regularly with [Jerry Lawler](/wiki/Jerry_Lawler "Jerry Lawler") and teamed with [Bill Dundee](/wiki/Bill_Dundee "Bill Dundee") to dominate the tag team matches of that time. He even recorded a song, "The Ballad of Handsome Jimmy", which was used in wrestling arenas as his entry music and became a mainstay on some Memphis radio stations for a few years. Despite the Memphis promotion desperately wanting to keep him in Memphis full\-time, even offering to buy him a house in Memphis according to Jerry Lawler's biography, Valiant decided to move on after holding the [AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/AWA_Southern_Heavyweight_Championship "AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship") for roughly a year. Valiant also spent a brief amount of time in [Jim Crockett Promotions](/wiki/Jim_Crockett_Promotions "Jim Crockett Promotions") in the late 1970s as the heel "King James Valiant" managed by [Lord Alfred Hayes](/wiki/Lord_Alfred_Hayes "Lord Alfred Hayes").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.midatlanticgateway.com/Resource\_Center/interviews/valiant/valiant01\.htm \|title\=Mid\-Atlantic Gateway Interviews {{!}} Jimmy Valiant \|website\=www.midatlanticgateway.com \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051113182012/http://www.midatlanticgateway.com/Resource\_Center/interviews/valiant/valiant01\.htm \|archive\-date\=2005\-11\-13}}
In 1979, Jimmy returned to the WWWF with Johnny occasionally wrestling and went into the manager role. He managed Johnny and [Jerry Valiant](/wiki/Jerry_Valiant "Jerry Valiant") as they won the tag belts.
In the early 1980s, Valiant returned as a babyface to [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance "National Wrestling Alliance")'s [Jim Crockett Promotions](/wiki/Jim_Crockett_Promotions "Jim Crockett Promotions") as "Boogie Woogie Man" Jimmy Valiant and called his fans "the Street People". His theme music around this time was "Boy From New York City", by [The Manhattan Transfer](/wiki/The_Manhattan_Transfer "The Manhattan Transfer"). While in Jim Crockett Promotions, he would sometimes appear in a black bandit\-style mask and call himself "Charlie Brown from Outta Town". This usually occurred when Valiant was (in [kayfabe](/wiki/Kayfabe "Kayfabe")) banned from wrestling. Charlie Brown was billed as someone other than Valiant, despite "Brown" having Valiant's legendarily prodigious beard.
January 1984, Valiant was attacked by Paul Jones and The Assassins. They tied him to the wrestling ring ropes so that Jones could cut his beard off. This led to a grudge match with hyped supershow called 'Boogie Man Jam '84' in [Greensboro, North Carolina](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina "Greensboro, North Carolina"). For this match, Dusty Rhodes was in Valiant's corner and tied by a rope to Paul Jones. Valiant defeated Assassin II, who was unmasked and revealed as [Hercules Hernandez](/wiki/Hercules_%28wrestler%29 "Hercules (wrestler)"). Due to the beard cutting attack, he feuded heavily with [Paul Jones](/wiki/Paul_Jones_%28wrestler%29 "Paul Jones (wrestler)") and his army of wrestlers, from 1984 through to late 1986\. This army of wrestlers included [The Barbarian](/wiki/The_Barbarian_%28wrestler%29 "The Barbarian (wrestler)"), [Baron von Raschke](/wiki/Baron_von_Raschke "Baron von Raschke"), [Teijo Khan](/wiki/Teijo_Khan "Teijo Khan"), and [The Assassins](/wiki/The_Assassins_%28wrestling%29 "The Assassins (wrestling)"). During this three\-year feud, Valiant received help from [Héctor Guerrero](/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Guerrero "Héctor Guerrero") and ["Raging Bull" Manny Fernandez](/wiki/Manny_Fernandez_%28wrestler%29 "Manny Fernandez (wrestler)"). Although Jimmy Valiant would lose a Loser Leaves Town Tuxedo Street Fight to Paul Jones at [Starrcade 1984](/wiki/Starrcade_1984 "Starrcade 1984") in [Greensboro, North Carolina](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina "Greensboro, North Carolina") the feud with many from the Paul Jones stable continued, which would come to include [Abdullah The Butcher](/wiki/Abdullah_The_Butcher "Abdullah The Butcher"). In 1985, Valiant and Ragin' Bull Manny Fernandez formed a team called *B and B Connection* ("Boogie Woogie" and "Bull").
{{multiple image
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During [The Great American Bash 1986](/wiki/The_Great_American_Bash_%281986%29 "The Great American Bash (1986)") summer shows, Paul Jones adopted a military style look in his long feud with Valiant and labeled his stable of wrestlers *The Army*. Valiant would beat Shaska Whatley in a hair vs hair match, but with outside interference lost a hair vs hair match to Paul Jones only weeks later. In the fall of 1986, the Raging Bull Manny Fernandez, Valiant's best friend accepted Jones' money and turned on Valiant, starting a feud between the two. Paul Jones at this point shortened his army to his newly acquired tag team of Ragin Bull and Rick Rude. The war between Valiant and Paul Jones climaxed at [Starrcade 1986](/wiki/Starrcade_1986 "Starrcade 1986") with Valiant putting up the hair of his valet Big Mama against the hair of Paul Jones in a No DQ Match which Valiant won (while the Ragin Bull was placed in a cage above the ring).
In the late 1980s, he teamed with Hector Guerrero (then masked as Laser Tron) and [Bugsy McGraw](/wiki/Bugsy_McGraw "Bugsy McGraw") and feuded with The [New Breed](/wiki/The_New_Breed_%28professional_wrestling_tag_team%29 "The New Breed (professional wrestling tag team)"). When Jim Crockett Promotions became [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling "World Championship Wrestling"), Valiant left and returned to Memphis to wrestle in the [United States Wrestling Association](/wiki/United_States_Wrestling_Association "United States Wrestling Association"). In 1990 he twice won the [USWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/USWA_Unified_World_Heavyweight_Championship "USWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship") from Jerry Lawler, losing it back to him both times.
His last match was for WrestlePro in Rahway, New Jersey, where he teamed with Buster Jackson to defeat the team of Colt Cabana and CPA on February 8, 2020\.
He now enjoys his time with his wife Angel and training wrestlers at Boogie's Wrestling Camp located in [Shawsville, Virginia](/wiki/Shawsville%2C_Virginia "Shawsville, Virginia"). Jimmy currently wrestles under the ACW Banner (American Championship Wrestling) around the Roanoke Virginia Area. He has also recently wrestled with [George South](/wiki/George_South "George South"), Stan Lee and [Ricky Morton](/wiki/Ricky_Morton "Ricky Morton") in ASW Wrestling and New OCW in Ashland, KY with Matty B and Violet Rayne against Beau and Misty James and Scotty Ace.
Valiant remains in the wrestling world today with continuing to appear at independent shows signing autographs while his students appear in a few matches on the card.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2017}} He keeps in touch with fans through his official Weekly website.{{Citation needed\|date\=December 2019}}
Most recently, Valiant lent his name to a foreword for a fiction novel called "Only The Beginning". It is a book set in the 1980s about a girl's life during high school. While the book is not wrestling related, the author Jason Strecker is a personal friend of Valiant's and in the forward Valiant responds to his friendship with the author along with the book's message of being of strong character and doing positive actions for others. The book also has a foreword by [Nikolai Volkoff](/wiki/Nikolai_Volkoff "Nikolai Volkoff").{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2021}}
On May 14, 2022, Valiant came out of retirement at 79 years old winning a 6\-man tag team match at Patriotic Wrestling Federation in York, South Carolina.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.gerweck.net/2022/05/16/5\-14\-22\-pwf\-results\-ftr\-with\-mick\-foley\-lawler\-south\-valiant\-more/\|title\=5\-14\-22 PWF Results: FTR with Mick Foley, Lawler, South \& Valiant, more \|date\=16 May 2022 }}
Valiant debuted for [Beside the Ring Wrestling](/wiki/Scotty_Campbell "Scotty Campbell") in [Mountain City](/wiki/Mountain_City%2C_Tennessee "Mountain City, Tennessee") on August 31, 2024\. After unveiling the inaugural Beside the Ring Championship, Valiant excited the crowd before being interrupted by [Evan Golden](/wiki/Evan_Golden_%28wrestler%29 "Evan Golden (wrestler)").{{Cite web \|title\=KID KASH RETURNS TO THE RING, 8/31 BESIDE THE RING RESULTS FROM TN {{!}} PWInsider.com \|url\=https://www.pwinsider.com/article/187523/kid\-kash\-returns\-to\-the\-ring\-831\-beside\-the\-ring\-results\-from\-tn.html?p\=1 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-02 \|website\=www.pwinsider.com}}
|
[
"Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------",
"Fanning started wrestling in 1964 as \"Big Jim Vallen\". He went to the [World Wide Wrestling Federation](/wiki/World_Wide_Wrestling_Federation \"World Wide Wrestling Federation\") in the 1970s as \"Handsome Jimmy Valiant\" and formed a team with [Johnny Valiant](/wiki/Johnny_Valiant \"Johnny Valiant\") that would dominate the tag team scene for a while as [WWWF Tag Team champions](/wiki/World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28WWE%2C_1971%E2%80%932010%29 \"World Tag Team Championship (WWE, 1971–2010)\"). In the later 1960s in the [World Wrestling Association](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Association_%28Indianapolis%29 \"World Wrestling Association (Indianapolis)\"), they were managed by [Bobby Heenan](/wiki/Bobby_Heenan \"Bobby Heenan\").Heenan, B: \"Bobby The Brain: Wrestling's Bad Boy Tells All.\", page 18\\. Triumph Books, 2002\\.\n[thumb\\|250x250px\\|Valiant (left) in a 1972 match against [Chief Jay Strongbow](/wiki/Chief_Jay_Strongbow \"Chief Jay Strongbow\")](/wiki/File:Chief_Jay_Strongbow_vs_Handsome_Jim_Valiant%2C_1972.png \"Chief Jay Strongbow vs Handsome Jim Valiant, 1972.png\")\nValiant had entered the WWWF in 1971 as a babyface, originally known as \"Gentleman Jim Valiant,\" but quickly switched to heel.DVD Jimmy Valiant 50th Pro Wrestling Anniversary Celebration, Disc 2, Copyright 2014 Howard Rogofsky He had title matches against champion [Pedro Morales](/wiki/Pedro_Morales \"Pedro Morales\") in secondary arenas, such as Philadelphia, and feuded with short\\-term tag partner [Chief Jay Strongbow](/wiki/Chief_Jay_Strongbow \"Chief Jay Strongbow\"). Jimmy and his kayfabe brother [Johnny Valiant](/wiki/Johnny_Valiant \"Johnny Valiant\") held the tag belts from 1974 to 1975 and main evented Madison Square Garden against Chief Jay Strongbow and [Bruno Sammartino](/wiki/Bruno_Sammartino \"Bruno Sammartino\") (Strongbow and Sammartino won 2 out of 3 falls, but one fall via disqualification; hence the belts didn't change hands).",
"During the late 1970s to early 1980s, Valiant was a central player in the [Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee \"Memphis, Tennessee\") wrestling scene. He [feuded](/wiki/Feud_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Feud (professional wrestling)\") regularly with [Jerry Lawler](/wiki/Jerry_Lawler \"Jerry Lawler\") and teamed with [Bill Dundee](/wiki/Bill_Dundee \"Bill Dundee\") to dominate the tag team matches of that time. He even recorded a song, \"The Ballad of Handsome Jimmy\", which was used in wrestling arenas as his entry music and became a mainstay on some Memphis radio stations for a few years. Despite the Memphis promotion desperately wanting to keep him in Memphis full\\-time, even offering to buy him a house in Memphis according to Jerry Lawler's biography, Valiant decided to move on after holding the [AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/AWA_Southern_Heavyweight_Championship \"AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship\") for roughly a year. Valiant also spent a brief amount of time in [Jim Crockett Promotions](/wiki/Jim_Crockett_Promotions \"Jim Crockett Promotions\") in the late 1970s as the heel \"King James Valiant\" managed by [Lord Alfred Hayes](/wiki/Lord_Alfred_Hayes \"Lord Alfred Hayes\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.midatlanticgateway.com/Resource\\_Center/interviews/valiant/valiant01\\.htm \\|title\\=Mid\\-Atlantic Gateway Interviews {{!}} Jimmy Valiant \\|website\\=www.midatlanticgateway.com \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051113182012/http://www.midatlanticgateway.com/Resource\\_Center/interviews/valiant/valiant01\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-11\\-13}}",
"In 1979, Jimmy returned to the WWWF with Johnny occasionally wrestling and went into the manager role. He managed Johnny and [Jerry Valiant](/wiki/Jerry_Valiant \"Jerry Valiant\") as they won the tag belts.",
"In the early 1980s, Valiant returned as a babyface to [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance \"National Wrestling Alliance\")'s [Jim Crockett Promotions](/wiki/Jim_Crockett_Promotions \"Jim Crockett Promotions\") as \"Boogie Woogie Man\" Jimmy Valiant and called his fans \"the Street People\". His theme music around this time was \"Boy From New York City\", by [The Manhattan Transfer](/wiki/The_Manhattan_Transfer \"The Manhattan Transfer\"). While in Jim Crockett Promotions, he would sometimes appear in a black bandit\\-style mask and call himself \"Charlie Brown from Outta Town\". This usually occurred when Valiant was (in [kayfabe](/wiki/Kayfabe \"Kayfabe\")) banned from wrestling. Charlie Brown was billed as someone other than Valiant, despite \"Brown\" having Valiant's legendarily prodigious beard.",
"January 1984, Valiant was attacked by Paul Jones and The Assassins. They tied him to the wrestling ring ropes so that Jones could cut his beard off. This led to a grudge match with hyped supershow called 'Boogie Man Jam '84' in [Greensboro, North Carolina](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina \"Greensboro, North Carolina\"). For this match, Dusty Rhodes was in Valiant's corner and tied by a rope to Paul Jones. Valiant defeated Assassin II, who was unmasked and revealed as [Hercules Hernandez](/wiki/Hercules_%28wrestler%29 \"Hercules (wrestler)\"). Due to the beard cutting attack, he feuded heavily with [Paul Jones](/wiki/Paul_Jones_%28wrestler%29 \"Paul Jones (wrestler)\") and his army of wrestlers, from 1984 through to late 1986\\. This army of wrestlers included [The Barbarian](/wiki/The_Barbarian_%28wrestler%29 \"The Barbarian (wrestler)\"), [Baron von Raschke](/wiki/Baron_von_Raschke \"Baron von Raschke\"), [Teijo Khan](/wiki/Teijo_Khan \"Teijo Khan\"), and [The Assassins](/wiki/The_Assassins_%28wrestling%29 \"The Assassins (wrestling)\"). During this three\\-year feud, Valiant received help from [Héctor Guerrero](/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Guerrero \"Héctor Guerrero\") and [\"Raging Bull\" Manny Fernandez](/wiki/Manny_Fernandez_%28wrestler%29 \"Manny Fernandez (wrestler)\"). Although Jimmy Valiant would lose a Loser Leaves Town Tuxedo Street Fight to Paul Jones at [Starrcade 1984](/wiki/Starrcade_1984 \"Starrcade 1984\") in [Greensboro, North Carolina](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina \"Greensboro, North Carolina\") the feud with many from the Paul Jones stable continued, which would come to include [Abdullah The Butcher](/wiki/Abdullah_The_Butcher \"Abdullah The Butcher\"). In 1985, Valiant and Ragin' Bull Manny Fernandez formed a team called *B and B Connection* (\"Boogie Woogie\" and \"Bull\").",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= horizontal\n\\| width \\= \n\\| total\\_width \\= 300\n\\| image1 \\= JimmyValiant11\\.14\\.08ByLuigiNovi1\\.jpg\n\\| image2 \\= JimmyValiant11\\.14\\.08ByLuigiNovi2\\.jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= \n\\| caption2 \\= \n\\| caption3 \\= \n\\| caption\\_align \\= center\n\\| footer \\= Valiant in 2008\n\\| footer\\_align \\= centre\n\\| alt1 \\= \n}}",
"During [The Great American Bash 1986](/wiki/The_Great_American_Bash_%281986%29 \"The Great American Bash (1986)\") summer shows, Paul Jones adopted a military style look in his long feud with Valiant and labeled his stable of wrestlers *The Army*. Valiant would beat Shaska Whatley in a hair vs hair match, but with outside interference lost a hair vs hair match to Paul Jones only weeks later. In the fall of 1986, the Raging Bull Manny Fernandez, Valiant's best friend accepted Jones' money and turned on Valiant, starting a feud between the two. Paul Jones at this point shortened his army to his newly acquired tag team of Ragin Bull and Rick Rude. The war between Valiant and Paul Jones climaxed at [Starrcade 1986](/wiki/Starrcade_1986 \"Starrcade 1986\") with Valiant putting up the hair of his valet Big Mama against the hair of Paul Jones in a No DQ Match which Valiant won (while the Ragin Bull was placed in a cage above the ring).",
"In the late 1980s, he teamed with Hector Guerrero (then masked as Laser Tron) and [Bugsy McGraw](/wiki/Bugsy_McGraw \"Bugsy McGraw\") and feuded with The [New Breed](/wiki/The_New_Breed_%28professional_wrestling_tag_team%29 \"The New Breed (professional wrestling tag team)\"). When Jim Crockett Promotions became [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling \"World Championship Wrestling\"), Valiant left and returned to Memphis to wrestle in the [United States Wrestling Association](/wiki/United_States_Wrestling_Association \"United States Wrestling Association\"). In 1990 he twice won the [USWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/USWA_Unified_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"USWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship\") from Jerry Lawler, losing it back to him both times.",
"His last match was for WrestlePro in Rahway, New Jersey, where he teamed with Buster Jackson to defeat the team of Colt Cabana and CPA on February 8, 2020\\.",
"He now enjoys his time with his wife Angel and training wrestlers at Boogie's Wrestling Camp located in [Shawsville, Virginia](/wiki/Shawsville%2C_Virginia \"Shawsville, Virginia\"). Jimmy currently wrestles under the ACW Banner (American Championship Wrestling) around the Roanoke Virginia Area. He has also recently wrestled with [George South](/wiki/George_South \"George South\"), Stan Lee and [Ricky Morton](/wiki/Ricky_Morton \"Ricky Morton\") in ASW Wrestling and New OCW in Ashland, KY with Matty B and Violet Rayne against Beau and Misty James and Scotty Ace.",
"Valiant remains in the wrestling world today with continuing to appear at independent shows signing autographs while his students appear in a few matches on the card.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2017}} He keeps in touch with fans through his official Weekly website.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=December 2019}}",
"Most recently, Valiant lent his name to a foreword for a fiction novel called \"Only The Beginning\". It is a book set in the 1980s about a girl's life during high school. While the book is not wrestling related, the author Jason Strecker is a personal friend of Valiant's and in the forward Valiant responds to his friendship with the author along with the book's message of being of strong character and doing positive actions for others. The book also has a foreword by [Nikolai Volkoff](/wiki/Nikolai_Volkoff \"Nikolai Volkoff\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2021}}",
"On May 14, 2022, Valiant came out of retirement at 79 years old winning a 6\\-man tag team match at Patriotic Wrestling Federation in York, South Carolina.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.gerweck.net/2022/05/16/5\\-14\\-22\\-pwf\\-results\\-ftr\\-with\\-mick\\-foley\\-lawler\\-south\\-valiant\\-more/\\|title\\=5\\-14\\-22 PWF Results: FTR with Mick Foley, Lawler, South \\& Valiant, more \\|date\\=16 May 2022 }}",
"Valiant debuted for [Beside the Ring Wrestling](/wiki/Scotty_Campbell \"Scotty Campbell\") in [Mountain City](/wiki/Mountain_City%2C_Tennessee \"Mountain City, Tennessee\") on August 31, 2024\\. After unveiling the inaugural Beside the Ring Championship, Valiant excited the crowd before being interrupted by [Evan Golden](/wiki/Evan_Golden_%28wrestler%29 \"Evan Golden (wrestler)\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=KID KASH RETURNS TO THE RING, 8/31 BESIDE THE RING RESULTS FROM TN {{!}} PWInsider.com \\|url\\=https://www.pwinsider.com/article/187523/kid\\-kash\\-returns\\-to\\-the\\-ring\\-831\\-beside\\-the\\-ring\\-results\\-from\\-tn.html?p\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-02 \\|website\\=www.pwinsider.com}}",
""
] |
Gameplay
--------
[left\|thumb\|Players must be aware of the wind conditions in addition to the amount of strength that they apply to their golf clubs while swinging.](/wiki/File:ArnoldPalmerTournamentGolfSwingGenesis.jpg "ArnoldPalmerTournamentGolfSwingGenesis.jpg")
The game features two game play modes: tournament and practice. Tournament mode consists of 12 rounds, each with 18 holes of golf. There are three different golf courses, one each in the United States, Japan, and Great Britain (although the background and the scenery does not vary). As the player progresses in the tournament mode, their skill level is increased allowing them to hit the ball farther with greater control. They can also upgrade their [golf clubs](/wiki/Golf_club_%28equipment%29 "Golf club (equipment)") from the initial [black carbon](/wiki/Carbon_fiber_reinforced_plastic "Carbon fiber reinforced plastic") club set, to [glass fiber](/wiki/Glass_fiber "Glass fiber") and [ceramic](/wiki/Ceramic "Ceramic") clubs. This also increases the distance the player is able to hit the ball. *Arnold Palmer Tournament Golf* has no save feature, but instead provides a password after each round of the tournament that allows the player to pick up where they left off.
In practice mode, one or two players can play a complete 18 rounds of golf on one of the three courses. Each player can set their skill level and use any of the three golf club sets available in the game.
Before each turn, the player's caddy will give advice based on its skill level. At first, the caddy can only give the distance from the ball's current position to the tee. As the game progresses, more skilled caddies can give distances to various landmarks and information about how the ball is lying. The player then selects which club to use during the shot. After this, the player can adjust their golfer's stance in order to put a draw or fade on the ball (all golfers in the game are right\-handed).
To control the swing, the player uses a power gauge to select the strength and height of the shot. When the player first presses the shot button, a marker starts to upwards to the top of the gauge. If the player hits the shot button again before it reaches the top (this controls how hard the shot will be), the marker will then move back down towards the starting position. The player then must hit the button a third time inside of a green area on the power gauge (this controls how high the shot will go in the air). If the player fails to hit the shot button a third time, the sequence will start over from the beginning.
When the ball reaches the putting green, a close\-up of the screen will appear. The game will first show the distance from the ball to the tee, and then show a simple diagram of the lie on the green. The player will then be able to select how hard to hit the ball and in what direction.
|
[
"Gameplay\n--------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Players must be aware of the wind conditions in addition to the amount of strength that they apply to their golf clubs while swinging.](/wiki/File:ArnoldPalmerTournamentGolfSwingGenesis.jpg \"ArnoldPalmerTournamentGolfSwingGenesis.jpg\")",
"The game features two game play modes: tournament and practice. Tournament mode consists of 12 rounds, each with 18 holes of golf. There are three different golf courses, one each in the United States, Japan, and Great Britain (although the background and the scenery does not vary). As the player progresses in the tournament mode, their skill level is increased allowing them to hit the ball farther with greater control. They can also upgrade their [golf clubs](/wiki/Golf_club_%28equipment%29 \"Golf club (equipment)\") from the initial [black carbon](/wiki/Carbon_fiber_reinforced_plastic \"Carbon fiber reinforced plastic\") club set, to [glass fiber](/wiki/Glass_fiber \"Glass fiber\") and [ceramic](/wiki/Ceramic \"Ceramic\") clubs. This also increases the distance the player is able to hit the ball. *Arnold Palmer Tournament Golf* has no save feature, but instead provides a password after each round of the tournament that allows the player to pick up where they left off.",
"In practice mode, one or two players can play a complete 18 rounds of golf on one of the three courses. Each player can set their skill level and use any of the three golf club sets available in the game.",
"Before each turn, the player's caddy will give advice based on its skill level. At first, the caddy can only give the distance from the ball's current position to the tee. As the game progresses, more skilled caddies can give distances to various landmarks and information about how the ball is lying. The player then selects which club to use during the shot. After this, the player can adjust their golfer's stance in order to put a draw or fade on the ball (all golfers in the game are right\\-handed).",
"To control the swing, the player uses a power gauge to select the strength and height of the shot. When the player first presses the shot button, a marker starts to upwards to the top of the gauge. If the player hits the shot button again before it reaches the top (this controls how hard the shot will be), the marker will then move back down towards the starting position. The player then must hit the button a third time inside of a green area on the power gauge (this controls how high the shot will go in the air). If the player fails to hit the shot button a third time, the sequence will start over from the beginning.",
"When the ball reaches the putting green, a close\\-up of the screen will appear. The game will first show the distance from the ball to the tee, and then show a simple diagram of the lie on the green. The player will then be able to select how hard to hit the ball and in what direction.",
""
] |
Diagnosis
---------
{{transcluded section\|source\=Diagnosis of schizophrenia}}
{{\#section\-h:Diagnosis of schizophrenia\|Criteria}}
The same criteria are used to diagnose children and adults. Diagnosis is based on reports by parents or caretakers, teachers, school officials, and others close to the child.
A professional who believes a child has schizophrenia usually conducts a series of tests to rule out other causes of [behavior](/wiki/Behavior "Behavior"), and pinpoint a diagnosis. Three different types of study are performed: physical, laboratory, and psychological. Physical exams usually cover the basic assessments, including but not limited to; height, weight, blood pressure, and checking all vital signs to make sure the child is healthy.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/childhood\-schizophrenia/DS00868/DSECTION\=tests\-and\-diagnosis\|title\=Childhood schizophrenia: Tests and diagnosis\|date\=17 December 2010\|publisher\=Mayo Clinic}} Laboratory tests include electroencephalogram [EEG](/wiki/EEG "EEG") screening and [brain imaging scans](/wiki/Brain_imaging "Brain imaging"). Blood tests are used to rule out alcohol or drug effects, and thyroid hormone levels are tested to rule out [hyper\-](/wiki/Hyperthyroidism "Hyperthyroidism") or [hypothyroidism](/wiki/Hypothyroidism "Hypothyroidism").{{medcn\|date\=April 2015}} A [psychologist](/wiki/Psychologist "Psychologist") or [psychiatrist](/wiki/Psychiatrist "Psychiatrist") talks to a child about their thoughts, feelings, and behavior patterns. They also inquire about the severity of the [symptoms](/wiki/Symptom "Symptom"), and the effects they have on the child's daily life. They may also discuss thoughts of [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") or [self\-harm](/wiki/Self-harm "Self-harm") in these one\-on\-one sessions. Some symptoms that may be looked at are early language delays, early motor development delays, and school problems.
Many people with childhood schizophrenia are initially misdiagnosed as having [pervasive developmental disorders](/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder "Pervasive developmental disorder") ([autism spectrum disorder](/wiki/Autism_spectrum "Autism spectrum"), for example).
### Age of first episode of psychosis
Childhood schizophrenia manifests before the age of 13 and is also known as very early\-onset schizophrenia. Onset before the age of 18 is known as early\-onset schizophrenia, and is rare; very early\-onset is even rarer with a frequency of 1 in 40,000\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hayes \|first1\=D \|last2\=Kyriakopoulos \|first2\=M \|title\=Dilemmas in the treatment of early\-onset first\-episode psychosis. \|journal\=Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology \|date\=August 2018 \|volume\=8 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=231–239 \|doi\=10\.1177/2045125318765725 \|pmid\=30065814\|pmc\=6058451 }}
### Differential diagnosis
The onset of childhood schizophrenia usually follows a period of normal, or near normal, [development](/wiki/Child_development "Child development"). Strange interests, unusual beliefs, and social impairment can be [prodromal](/wiki/Prodromal "Prodromal") symptoms of childhood schizophrenia, but can also be signs of [autism spectrum disorder](/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder "Autism spectrum disorder"). Hallucinations and delusions are typical for schizophrenia, but not features of autism spectrum disorder.{{cite book \|author\=American Psychiatric Association \|title\=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM\-5\) \|chapter\=Autism Spectrum Disorder. 299\.00 (F84\.0\). Differential Diagnosis \|year\=2013 \|pages\=58 \|location\=Arlington, VA \|publisher\=American Psychiatric Publishing \|isbn\=978\-0\-89042\-559\-6 \|doi\=10\.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 \|hdl\=2027\.42/138395 }} In children hallucinations must be separated from typical childhood fantasies. Since [childhood disintegrative disorder](/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder "Childhood disintegrative disorder") (CDD) has a very similar set of symptoms and high comorbidity it can be misdiagnosed as childhood schizophrenia, which can lead to prescribing ineffective medications.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Sawant\|first1\=Neena Sanjiv\|last2\=Parkar\|first2\=Shubhangi\|last3\=Kulkarni\|first3\=Prathamesh\|date\=2014\-08\-30\|title\=Childhood disintegrative disorder misdiagnosed as childhood\-onset schizophrenia\|url\=http://sajp.org.za/index.php/sajp/article/view/518\|journal\=South African Journal of Psychiatry\|volume\=20\|issue\=3\|pages\=2\|doi\=10\.4102/sajpsychiatry.v20i3\.518\|issn\=2078\-6786\|doi\-access\=free}}
Childhood schizophrenia can be difficult to diagnosis simply because of how many disorders mimic the symptoms of CS. Though it can be difficult, that is why it is important to examine the whole mental state of the child at that time. Individuals who experience disorders such as major depressive disorder, schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, delusional disorder and schizotypal personality disorder have all been known to exhibit similar symptoms to children who have been diagnosed with CS.{{Cite journal \|last\=Bartlett \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=2014\-01\-01 \|title\=Childhood\-onset schizophrenia: what do we really know? \|journal\=Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine \|volume\=2 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=735–747 \|doi\=10\.1080/21642850\.2014\.927738 \|issn\=2164\-2850 \|pmc\=4345999 \|pmid\=25750815}}
The three most common disorders that are difficult to distinguish are bipolar disorder (BD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). BD, ASD, and ADHD overlap with symptom patterns in CS but a few distinguishing factors helps differentiate the disorders. Understanding these differences is crucial to diagnosing the child.
Individuals with bipolar disorder and childhood schizophrenia can both present psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized behaviors. A distinguishing feature in childhood schizophrenia, the hallucination, aren't taking place during a 'depressive or manic' episode as it would for an individual diagnosed with bipolar disorder. An individual with bipolar disorder has both low and high moods while one with CS, exhibits elements of depression.
Autism spectrum disorder share many features that are present in CS such as disorganized speech, social deficits, and extremely bizarre and repetitive behaviors. A hallmark of CS and distinguishing factor is when hallucinations last longer than one month. Should this occur, further examinations are necessary to determine if the child has ASD or CS.
Unlike the previous two disorders, ADHD and CS have fewer commonalities. Both individuals who have been diagnosed with CS and ADHD may appear to exhibit a poor attention span and disorganization. "Psychotic episodes are absent in ADHD, a distinct difference from CS".
It is important to understand that children diagnosed with childhood schizophrenia have higher rates of comorbidity, so exploring all resources is necessary to properly diagnose the child.
|
[
"Diagnosis\n---------",
"{{transcluded section\\|source\\=Diagnosis of schizophrenia}}\n{{\\#section\\-h:Diagnosis of schizophrenia\\|Criteria}}\nThe same criteria are used to diagnose children and adults. Diagnosis is based on reports by parents or caretakers, teachers, school officials, and others close to the child.",
"A professional who believes a child has schizophrenia usually conducts a series of tests to rule out other causes of [behavior](/wiki/Behavior \"Behavior\"), and pinpoint a diagnosis. Three different types of study are performed: physical, laboratory, and psychological. Physical exams usually cover the basic assessments, including but not limited to; height, weight, blood pressure, and checking all vital signs to make sure the child is healthy.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/childhood\\-schizophrenia/DS00868/DSECTION\\=tests\\-and\\-diagnosis\\|title\\=Childhood schizophrenia: Tests and diagnosis\\|date\\=17 December 2010\\|publisher\\=Mayo Clinic}} Laboratory tests include electroencephalogram [EEG](/wiki/EEG \"EEG\") screening and [brain imaging scans](/wiki/Brain_imaging \"Brain imaging\"). Blood tests are used to rule out alcohol or drug effects, and thyroid hormone levels are tested to rule out [hyper\\-](/wiki/Hyperthyroidism \"Hyperthyroidism\") or [hypothyroidism](/wiki/Hypothyroidism \"Hypothyroidism\").{{medcn\\|date\\=April 2015}} A [psychologist](/wiki/Psychologist \"Psychologist\") or [psychiatrist](/wiki/Psychiatrist \"Psychiatrist\") talks to a child about their thoughts, feelings, and behavior patterns. They also inquire about the severity of the [symptoms](/wiki/Symptom \"Symptom\"), and the effects they have on the child's daily life. They may also discuss thoughts of [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") or [self\\-harm](/wiki/Self-harm \"Self-harm\") in these one\\-on\\-one sessions. Some symptoms that may be looked at are early language delays, early motor development delays, and school problems.",
"Many people with childhood schizophrenia are initially misdiagnosed as having [pervasive developmental disorders](/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder \"Pervasive developmental disorder\") ([autism spectrum disorder](/wiki/Autism_spectrum \"Autism spectrum\"), for example).",
"### Age of first episode of psychosis",
"Childhood schizophrenia manifests before the age of 13 and is also known as very early\\-onset schizophrenia. Onset before the age of 18 is known as early\\-onset schizophrenia, and is rare; very early\\-onset is even rarer with a frequency of 1 in 40,000\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hayes \\|first1\\=D \\|last2\\=Kyriakopoulos \\|first2\\=M \\|title\\=Dilemmas in the treatment of early\\-onset first\\-episode psychosis. \\|journal\\=Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology \\|date\\=August 2018 \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=231–239 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/2045125318765725 \\|pmid\\=30065814\\|pmc\\=6058451 }}",
"### Differential diagnosis",
"The onset of childhood schizophrenia usually follows a period of normal, or near normal, [development](/wiki/Child_development \"Child development\"). Strange interests, unusual beliefs, and social impairment can be [prodromal](/wiki/Prodromal \"Prodromal\") symptoms of childhood schizophrenia, but can also be signs of [autism spectrum disorder](/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder \"Autism spectrum disorder\"). Hallucinations and delusions are typical for schizophrenia, but not features of autism spectrum disorder.{{cite book \\|author\\=American Psychiatric Association \\|title\\=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM\\-5\\) \\|chapter\\=Autism Spectrum Disorder. 299\\.00 (F84\\.0\\). Differential Diagnosis \\|year\\=2013 \\|pages\\=58 \\|location\\=Arlington, VA \\|publisher\\=American Psychiatric Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89042\\-559\\-6 \\|doi\\=10\\.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 \\|hdl\\=2027\\.42/138395 }} In children hallucinations must be separated from typical childhood fantasies. Since [childhood disintegrative disorder](/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder \"Childhood disintegrative disorder\") (CDD) has a very similar set of symptoms and high comorbidity it can be misdiagnosed as childhood schizophrenia, which can lead to prescribing ineffective medications.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Sawant\\|first1\\=Neena Sanjiv\\|last2\\=Parkar\\|first2\\=Shubhangi\\|last3\\=Kulkarni\\|first3\\=Prathamesh\\|date\\=2014\\-08\\-30\\|title\\=Childhood disintegrative disorder misdiagnosed as childhood\\-onset schizophrenia\\|url\\=http://sajp.org.za/index.php/sajp/article/view/518\\|journal\\=South African Journal of Psychiatry\\|volume\\=20\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=2\\|doi\\=10\\.4102/sajpsychiatry.v20i3\\.518\\|issn\\=2078\\-6786\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"Childhood schizophrenia can be difficult to diagnosis simply because of how many disorders mimic the symptoms of CS. Though it can be difficult, that is why it is important to examine the whole mental state of the child at that time. Individuals who experience disorders such as major depressive disorder, schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, delusional disorder and schizotypal personality disorder have all been known to exhibit similar symptoms to children who have been diagnosed with CS.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Bartlett \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=2014\\-01\\-01 \\|title\\=Childhood\\-onset schizophrenia: what do we really know? \\|journal\\=Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=735–747 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/21642850\\.2014\\.927738 \\|issn\\=2164\\-2850 \\|pmc\\=4345999 \\|pmid\\=25750815}}",
"The three most common disorders that are difficult to distinguish are bipolar disorder (BD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). BD, ASD, and ADHD overlap with symptom patterns in CS but a few distinguishing factors helps differentiate the disorders. Understanding these differences is crucial to diagnosing the child.",
"Individuals with bipolar disorder and childhood schizophrenia can both present psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized behaviors. A distinguishing feature in childhood schizophrenia, the hallucination, aren't taking place during a 'depressive or manic' episode as it would for an individual diagnosed with bipolar disorder. An individual with bipolar disorder has both low and high moods while one with CS, exhibits elements of depression.",
"Autism spectrum disorder share many features that are present in CS such as disorganized speech, social deficits, and extremely bizarre and repetitive behaviors. A hallmark of CS and distinguishing factor is when hallucinations last longer than one month. Should this occur, further examinations are necessary to determine if the child has ASD or CS.",
"Unlike the previous two disorders, ADHD and CS have fewer commonalities. Both individuals who have been diagnosed with CS and ADHD may appear to exhibit a poor attention span and disorganization. \"Psychotic episodes are absent in ADHD, a distinct difference from CS\".",
"It is important to understand that children diagnosed with childhood schizophrenia have higher rates of comorbidity, so exploring all resources is necessary to properly diagnose the child.",
""
] |
### Differential diagnosis
The onset of childhood schizophrenia usually follows a period of normal, or near normal, [development](/wiki/Child_development "Child development"). Strange interests, unusual beliefs, and social impairment can be [prodromal](/wiki/Prodromal "Prodromal") symptoms of childhood schizophrenia, but can also be signs of [autism spectrum disorder](/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder "Autism spectrum disorder"). Hallucinations and delusions are typical for schizophrenia, but not features of autism spectrum disorder.{{cite book \|author\=American Psychiatric Association \|title\=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM\-5\) \|chapter\=Autism Spectrum Disorder. 299\.00 (F84\.0\). Differential Diagnosis \|year\=2013 \|pages\=58 \|location\=Arlington, VA \|publisher\=American Psychiatric Publishing \|isbn\=978\-0\-89042\-559\-6 \|doi\=10\.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 \|hdl\=2027\.42/138395 }} In children hallucinations must be separated from typical childhood fantasies. Since [childhood disintegrative disorder](/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder "Childhood disintegrative disorder") (CDD) has a very similar set of symptoms and high comorbidity it can be misdiagnosed as childhood schizophrenia, which can lead to prescribing ineffective medications.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Sawant\|first1\=Neena Sanjiv\|last2\=Parkar\|first2\=Shubhangi\|last3\=Kulkarni\|first3\=Prathamesh\|date\=2014\-08\-30\|title\=Childhood disintegrative disorder misdiagnosed as childhood\-onset schizophrenia\|url\=http://sajp.org.za/index.php/sajp/article/view/518\|journal\=South African Journal of Psychiatry\|volume\=20\|issue\=3\|pages\=2\|doi\=10\.4102/sajpsychiatry.v20i3\.518\|issn\=2078\-6786\|doi\-access\=free}}
Childhood schizophrenia can be difficult to diagnosis simply because of how many disorders mimic the symptoms of CS. Though it can be difficult, that is why it is important to examine the whole mental state of the child at that time. Individuals who experience disorders such as major depressive disorder, schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, delusional disorder and schizotypal personality disorder have all been known to exhibit similar symptoms to children who have been diagnosed with CS.{{Cite journal \|last\=Bartlett \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=2014\-01\-01 \|title\=Childhood\-onset schizophrenia: what do we really know? \|journal\=Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine \|volume\=2 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=735–747 \|doi\=10\.1080/21642850\.2014\.927738 \|issn\=2164\-2850 \|pmc\=4345999 \|pmid\=25750815}}
The three most common disorders that are difficult to distinguish are bipolar disorder (BD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). BD, ASD, and ADHD overlap with symptom patterns in CS but a few distinguishing factors helps differentiate the disorders. Understanding these differences is crucial to diagnosing the child.
Individuals with bipolar disorder and childhood schizophrenia can both present psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized behaviors. A distinguishing feature in childhood schizophrenia, the hallucination, aren't taking place during a 'depressive or manic' episode as it would for an individual diagnosed with bipolar disorder. An individual with bipolar disorder has both low and high moods while one with CS, exhibits elements of depression.
Autism spectrum disorder share many features that are present in CS such as disorganized speech, social deficits, and extremely bizarre and repetitive behaviors. A hallmark of CS and distinguishing factor is when hallucinations last longer than one month. Should this occur, further examinations are necessary to determine if the child has ASD or CS.
Unlike the previous two disorders, ADHD and CS have fewer commonalities. Both individuals who have been diagnosed with CS and ADHD may appear to exhibit a poor attention span and disorganization. "Psychotic episodes are absent in ADHD, a distinct difference from CS".
It is important to understand that children diagnosed with childhood schizophrenia have higher rates of comorbidity, so exploring all resources is necessary to properly diagnose the child.
|
[
"### Differential diagnosis",
"The onset of childhood schizophrenia usually follows a period of normal, or near normal, [development](/wiki/Child_development \"Child development\"). Strange interests, unusual beliefs, and social impairment can be [prodromal](/wiki/Prodromal \"Prodromal\") symptoms of childhood schizophrenia, but can also be signs of [autism spectrum disorder](/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder \"Autism spectrum disorder\"). Hallucinations and delusions are typical for schizophrenia, but not features of autism spectrum disorder.{{cite book \\|author\\=American Psychiatric Association \\|title\\=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM\\-5\\) \\|chapter\\=Autism Spectrum Disorder. 299\\.00 (F84\\.0\\). Differential Diagnosis \\|year\\=2013 \\|pages\\=58 \\|location\\=Arlington, VA \\|publisher\\=American Psychiatric Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89042\\-559\\-6 \\|doi\\=10\\.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 \\|hdl\\=2027\\.42/138395 }} In children hallucinations must be separated from typical childhood fantasies. Since [childhood disintegrative disorder](/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder \"Childhood disintegrative disorder\") (CDD) has a very similar set of symptoms and high comorbidity it can be misdiagnosed as childhood schizophrenia, which can lead to prescribing ineffective medications.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Sawant\\|first1\\=Neena Sanjiv\\|last2\\=Parkar\\|first2\\=Shubhangi\\|last3\\=Kulkarni\\|first3\\=Prathamesh\\|date\\=2014\\-08\\-30\\|title\\=Childhood disintegrative disorder misdiagnosed as childhood\\-onset schizophrenia\\|url\\=http://sajp.org.za/index.php/sajp/article/view/518\\|journal\\=South African Journal of Psychiatry\\|volume\\=20\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=2\\|doi\\=10\\.4102/sajpsychiatry.v20i3\\.518\\|issn\\=2078\\-6786\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"Childhood schizophrenia can be difficult to diagnosis simply because of how many disorders mimic the symptoms of CS. Though it can be difficult, that is why it is important to examine the whole mental state of the child at that time. Individuals who experience disorders such as major depressive disorder, schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, delusional disorder and schizotypal personality disorder have all been known to exhibit similar symptoms to children who have been diagnosed with CS.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Bartlett \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=2014\\-01\\-01 \\|title\\=Childhood\\-onset schizophrenia: what do we really know? \\|journal\\=Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=735–747 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/21642850\\.2014\\.927738 \\|issn\\=2164\\-2850 \\|pmc\\=4345999 \\|pmid\\=25750815}}",
"The three most common disorders that are difficult to distinguish are bipolar disorder (BD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). BD, ASD, and ADHD overlap with symptom patterns in CS but a few distinguishing factors helps differentiate the disorders. Understanding these differences is crucial to diagnosing the child.",
"Individuals with bipolar disorder and childhood schizophrenia can both present psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized behaviors. A distinguishing feature in childhood schizophrenia, the hallucination, aren't taking place during a 'depressive or manic' episode as it would for an individual diagnosed with bipolar disorder. An individual with bipolar disorder has both low and high moods while one with CS, exhibits elements of depression.",
"Autism spectrum disorder share many features that are present in CS such as disorganized speech, social deficits, and extremely bizarre and repetitive behaviors. A hallmark of CS and distinguishing factor is when hallucinations last longer than one month. Should this occur, further examinations are necessary to determine if the child has ASD or CS.",
"Unlike the previous two disorders, ADHD and CS have fewer commonalities. Both individuals who have been diagnosed with CS and ADHD may appear to exhibit a poor attention span and disorganization. \"Psychotic episodes are absent in ADHD, a distinct difference from CS\".",
"It is important to understand that children diagnosed with childhood schizophrenia have higher rates of comorbidity, so exploring all resources is necessary to properly diagnose the child.",
""
] |
Supporting characters
---------------------
### Aunt Nakahara
{{anime voices\|\[\[Yuka Komatsu]]\|\[\[Tiffany Grant]]}} Live\-Action: [Reiko Takashima](/wiki/Reiko_Takashima "Reiko Takashima")
Sunako's aunt (addressed as *Oba\-san* or "Auntie"), who expects Kyohei, Takenaga, Yuki, and Ranmaru to make Sunako into a lady. Called the "infamous [Marie Antoinette](/wiki/Marie_Antoinette "Marie Antoinette") of the East", Miss Nakahara is extremely wealthy and usually travels unconventionally, such as in a fleet of [helicopters](/wiki/Helicopter "Helicopter"). The Landlady is rarely around (she is usually in [France](/wiki/France "France") with her latest boyfriend or fiancé) and the four males have managed to convince her that Sunako is on the fast track to becoming a lady when in reality she is not. However, the Landlady has also been known to make unexpected visits, which often leads to the boys putting on an act of some sort with Sunako to make her appear more ladylike and, occasionally, resulting in raised rent when all does not go as planned.
The Landlady is the younger sister of Sunako's father and, like her niece, requires very little effort to frighten the boys. It is known that her husband is dead and the apparent reason why she keeps getting a new boyfriend is that she is lonely, but she loves none of these men in the same way she loved her husband. While their interaction is relatively limited, Sunako admires her aunt a great deal and considers her the most beautiful woman she knows; Nakahara, in turn, simply wants Sunako to be happy and believes that helping her niece become a lady will do so, especially since as a child Sunako always wanted to be like her aunt. She gradually turns her focus away from trying to shape Sunako into an elegant lady, believing that Sunako is perfectly capable of acting as such, and attempting to change Kyohei into a suitable partner for her niece. She is fluent in various languages like French, Russian, and Tagalog.
In the live\-action series, her name is Mine Nakahara and she has a son.
### Takeru Nakahara
Live\-Action: [Seishiro Kato](/wiki/Seishiro_Kato "Seishiro Kato")
{{nihongo\|Takeru Nakahara\|中原 タケル\|Nakahara Takeru}} is the Landlady's son and Sunako's cousin. Unlike most children his age, Takeru has a courageous personality (although he can be frightened as well). He only appears in the drama.
### Noi Kasahara
{{anime voices\|\[\[Mai Nakahara]]\|\[\[Jessica Boone]]}}
Live\-Action: Ranko Kobe
{{nihongo\|Noi Kasahara\|笠原 乃依\|Kasahara Noi\|}} is a very pretty and exceedingly popular girl who becomes Sunako's closest female friend at school. She loves being called beautiful by others, especially Sunako. She admires Sunako's tough attitude and is often very protective of her when someone insults her. She believes that Sunako and Kyohei are compatible as a couple. Noi is in love with Takenaga, though she tends to be insecure about their relationship because Takenaga is too shy to openly admit that he likes her. As stated in recent chapters, she is a fan of shoujo manga.
### Hiroshi\-Kun
{{anime voices\|Norihisa Mori\|\[\[Matt Greenfield]]}}
Hiroshi\-Kun is an [anatomical figure](/wiki/Anatomy "Anatomy"), Sunako's most precious possession and best friend. Sunako often confides in him regarding her feelings about the boys and different situations, although she does not get a reply. Despite not being alive, Hiroshi\-Kun is treated as a living person, narrating the opening of each anime episode, and dancing during the anime's end credits. Hiroshi\-Kun was found by Sunako in a pile of rubbish shortly after she was called ugly by her first crush, and she formed a bond with Hiroshi\-Kun, both being "discarded" from the world.
Sunako takes good care of Hiroshi\-Kun, along with her other anatomical friends (Josephine, Akira\-kun, and Sergeant George). His fake organs have a habit of falling out or being removed by Sunako. The boys at first are dismissive of Sunako's relationship with Hiroshi\-Kun, but eventually come to accept it over the course of the manga and anime, treating him the same way Sunako does but remembering that he is not alive. On several occasions, Hiroshi\-Kun is kidnapped by other characters and held to ransom. These characters include The Boss so he could meet Sunako, and a trio of obsessive fan girls of Kyouhei, which results in Sunako risking life and limb to save Hiroshi\-Kun.
### Tamao Kikunoi
{{anime voices\|Erika\|\[\[Luci Christian]]}}
{{nihongo\|Tamao Kikunoi\|菊之井 玉绪\|Kikunoi Tamao}} is the fiancée of Ranmaru because of an arranged marriage by both their parents. She is extremely wealthy and studies at an all\-girls school. Aside from hoping Tamao's calm demeanor will change Ranmaru's womanizing habits, both Ranmaru's parents are extremely fond of her and would like her to become their daughter\-in\-law. Her character is a perfect example of a "lady" as she foils Noi's loud mouth and Sunako's un\-ladylike nature. In her first meeting with the boys, she is unfazed by any of their attempts to portray Ranmaru as a ladies' man or someone undesirable. Despite Ranmaru's playboy qualities, she has fallen in love with him, to the extent of admitting her feelings. His rejection of her does not faze her, hoping that eventually he would come to feel the same way.
### Sebastian
Sebastian is the Landlady's butler, and is often seen when the Landlady returns to the mansion, often assisting in her schemes towards the four boys and Sunako. Despite her outwardly concealing it, the Landlady cares for Sebastian greatly, as seen when she gave him time off in care for his health, albeit in a roundabout way. Sebastian is shown to be very devoted to the Landlady, often putting up with her many extravagant actions, and when he is not serving the Landlady, he is shown to be at a loss over what to do. He has been serving the Landlady for a long while, and is presumed to have known her deceased husband as well.
|
[
"Supporting characters\n---------------------",
"### Aunt Nakahara",
"{{anime voices\\|\\[\\[Yuka Komatsu]]\\|\\[\\[Tiffany Grant]]}} Live\\-Action: [Reiko Takashima](/wiki/Reiko_Takashima \"Reiko Takashima\")",
"Sunako's aunt (addressed as *Oba\\-san* or \"Auntie\"), who expects Kyohei, Takenaga, Yuki, and Ranmaru to make Sunako into a lady. Called the \"infamous [Marie Antoinette](/wiki/Marie_Antoinette \"Marie Antoinette\") of the East\", Miss Nakahara is extremely wealthy and usually travels unconventionally, such as in a fleet of [helicopters](/wiki/Helicopter \"Helicopter\"). The Landlady is rarely around (she is usually in [France](/wiki/France \"France\") with her latest boyfriend or fiancé) and the four males have managed to convince her that Sunako is on the fast track to becoming a lady when in reality she is not. However, the Landlady has also been known to make unexpected visits, which often leads to the boys putting on an act of some sort with Sunako to make her appear more ladylike and, occasionally, resulting in raised rent when all does not go as planned.",
"The Landlady is the younger sister of Sunako's father and, like her niece, requires very little effort to frighten the boys. It is known that her husband is dead and the apparent reason why she keeps getting a new boyfriend is that she is lonely, but she loves none of these men in the same way she loved her husband. While their interaction is relatively limited, Sunako admires her aunt a great deal and considers her the most beautiful woman she knows; Nakahara, in turn, simply wants Sunako to be happy and believes that helping her niece become a lady will do so, especially since as a child Sunako always wanted to be like her aunt. She gradually turns her focus away from trying to shape Sunako into an elegant lady, believing that Sunako is perfectly capable of acting as such, and attempting to change Kyohei into a suitable partner for her niece. She is fluent in various languages like French, Russian, and Tagalog.",
"In the live\\-action series, her name is Mine Nakahara and she has a son.",
"### Takeru Nakahara",
"Live\\-Action: [Seishiro Kato](/wiki/Seishiro_Kato \"Seishiro Kato\")",
"{{nihongo\\|Takeru Nakahara\\|中原 タケル\\|Nakahara Takeru}} is the Landlady's son and Sunako's cousin. Unlike most children his age, Takeru has a courageous personality (although he can be frightened as well). He only appears in the drama.",
"### Noi Kasahara",
"{{anime voices\\|\\[\\[Mai Nakahara]]\\|\\[\\[Jessica Boone]]}}\nLive\\-Action: Ranko Kobe",
"{{nihongo\\|Noi Kasahara\\|笠原 乃依\\|Kasahara Noi\\|}} is a very pretty and exceedingly popular girl who becomes Sunako's closest female friend at school. She loves being called beautiful by others, especially Sunako. She admires Sunako's tough attitude and is often very protective of her when someone insults her. She believes that Sunako and Kyohei are compatible as a couple. Noi is in love with Takenaga, though she tends to be insecure about their relationship because Takenaga is too shy to openly admit that he likes her. As stated in recent chapters, she is a fan of shoujo manga.",
"### Hiroshi\\-Kun",
"{{anime voices\\|Norihisa Mori\\|\\[\\[Matt Greenfield]]}}",
"Hiroshi\\-Kun is an [anatomical figure](/wiki/Anatomy \"Anatomy\"), Sunako's most precious possession and best friend. Sunako often confides in him regarding her feelings about the boys and different situations, although she does not get a reply. Despite not being alive, Hiroshi\\-Kun is treated as a living person, narrating the opening of each anime episode, and dancing during the anime's end credits. Hiroshi\\-Kun was found by Sunako in a pile of rubbish shortly after she was called ugly by her first crush, and she formed a bond with Hiroshi\\-Kun, both being \"discarded\" from the world.",
"Sunako takes good care of Hiroshi\\-Kun, along with her other anatomical friends (Josephine, Akira\\-kun, and Sergeant George). His fake organs have a habit of falling out or being removed by Sunako. The boys at first are dismissive of Sunako's relationship with Hiroshi\\-Kun, but eventually come to accept it over the course of the manga and anime, treating him the same way Sunako does but remembering that he is not alive. On several occasions, Hiroshi\\-Kun is kidnapped by other characters and held to ransom. These characters include The Boss so he could meet Sunako, and a trio of obsessive fan girls of Kyouhei, which results in Sunako risking life and limb to save Hiroshi\\-Kun.",
"### Tamao Kikunoi",
"{{anime voices\\|Erika\\|\\[\\[Luci Christian]]}}",
"{{nihongo\\|Tamao Kikunoi\\|菊之井 玉绪\\|Kikunoi Tamao}} is the fiancée of Ranmaru because of an arranged marriage by both their parents. She is extremely wealthy and studies at an all\\-girls school. Aside from hoping Tamao's calm demeanor will change Ranmaru's womanizing habits, both Ranmaru's parents are extremely fond of her and would like her to become their daughter\\-in\\-law. Her character is a perfect example of a \"lady\" as she foils Noi's loud mouth and Sunako's un\\-ladylike nature. In her first meeting with the boys, she is unfazed by any of their attempts to portray Ranmaru as a ladies' man or someone undesirable. Despite Ranmaru's playboy qualities, she has fallen in love with him, to the extent of admitting her feelings. His rejection of her does not faze her, hoping that eventually he would come to feel the same way.",
"### Sebastian",
"Sebastian is the Landlady's butler, and is often seen when the Landlady returns to the mansion, often assisting in her schemes towards the four boys and Sunako. Despite her outwardly concealing it, the Landlady cares for Sebastian greatly, as seen when she gave him time off in care for his health, albeit in a roundabout way. Sebastian is shown to be very devoted to the Landlady, often putting up with her many extravagant actions, and when he is not serving the Landlady, he is shown to be at a loss over what to do. He has been serving the Landlady for a long while, and is presumed to have known her deceased husband as well.",
""
] |
Other characters
----------------
### Sunako's parents
Sunako's parents live abroad, supposedly in [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), and have left Sunako under the care of her aunt. The boys are not surprised to discover that Sunako's father is physically huge and not particularly attractive and are more worried about his protective streak towards his daughter, who became increasingly distant from him and refused to let him into her room. He later discovers that his daughter still loves him; she just did not want him to see the inside of her room because it was filled with things that would horrify him. He has a bad back as a result of saving Sunako from a [bear](/wiki/Bear "Bear") as a child.
Sunako's mother is a very attractive and petite woman, something that the boys did not expect from their knowledge of Sunako and her father's appearances. She is surprisingly strong and is able to lift her husband off the ground effortlessly. She thinks nothing of Sunako's morbid habits as long as they make her happy and she scolds Sunako's father for pleading for Kyohei to change Sunako into a normal girl. A [flashback](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 "Flashback (narrative)") reveals that Sunako's mother is actually younger than most women with daughters of Sunako's age.
### Sunako's classmates
Sunako's classmates initially both fear her terrifying demeanor and scorn her association with the four boys. However, after she wins an athletic competition for their class, they come to respect and admire her, though they remain somewhat frightened of her more morbid habits. In addition, Sunako becomes popular with the cooking club for her domestic abilities and they frequently ask her to join them when they are trying new recipes. Her classmates include a trio of girls named Nana, Nene, and Nono who are friendliest with her.
### Machiko
Machiko is Yuki's girlfriend. In chapter 55, she moved to Florida, where it was shown that Yuki got jealous over a photo she took with an American, and vows to become more of a gentleman himself, which unfortunately resulted in a misunderstanding between the two. In more recent chapters, she has moved back to Japan, and is often seen going on dates with Yuki \- though both Yuki and Machiko are afraid the other thinks their dates are too childish, eventually both come to realize they are just right for the each other. She is also seen in recent chapters as Yuki's date when the four boys go out to events (along with Noi, Tamao, and an often unwilling Sunako).
### Goth\-Loli Sisters
{{nihongo\|Goth\-Loli Sisters\|ゴスロリ シスターズ\|Gosu\-Rori Shisutāzu}}
*Yvonne*: {{anime voices\|Niina Kumagaya\|\[\[Kira Vincent\-Davis]] (Epi. 1\-9\), \[\[Allison Sumrall]] (Epi. 10\-25\)}}
*Laseine*: {{anime voices\|Hiromi Konno\|\[\[Brittney Karbowski]]}}
*Madeleine*: {{anime voices\|\[\[Kimiko Koyama]]\|Tiffany Terrell}}
*Roxane*: {{anime voices\|Erika\|Monica Passley}}
{{nihongo\|Lassine\|ラセーヌ\|Rasēnu}}, {{nihongo\|Madeline\|マドレーヌ\|Madorēnu}}, {{nihongo\|Roxanne\|ロクサーヌ\|Rokusānu}}, and {{nihongo\|Yvonne\|イヴォンヌ\|Ivonnu}} are four girls who are completely obsessed with the main boys of the series. Initially their roles in the storyline were much smaller, but were expanded within the [anime](/wiki/Anime "Anime") to provide [comic relief](/wiki/Comic_relief "Comic relief"). They usually have a [cameo appearance](/wiki/Cameo_appearance "Cameo appearance") in each episode saying their catch phrase "Goth\-Goth, Loli\-Loli" while crossing their own fingers. A notable aspect to their characters is that instead of actively pursuing their crushes, they sit in the background and wait for them to notice them. Their appearance is an exaggeration of the [Gothic Lolita](/wiki/Gothic_Lolita "Gothic Lolita") phenomenon, and they are very unattractive. Their names are given as Ierie, Machapi, Maririn and Mintan in the Singaporean English\-language translation.
### The Prince of Grimel
The Prince of Grimel first appears in chapter 79\. The prince's parents, the king and queen of Grimel (a fictional European country), invite Sunako to their country, and she brings the four boys along with her. There, it was discovered that the king and queen hoped to marry their son, the prince, to Sunako. The prince shares a love of horror and darkness with Sunako, and falls in love with her. Sunako was enchanted with the purportedly haunted forests and crypts of Grimel and unknowingly accepted the proposal. However, on the day of the wedding, Kyohei took Sunako away as he was sick of European food and wanted to eat Japanese food. Sunako has since not reinstated the proposal, but the prince has continued to pursue Sunako, studying Japanese horror stories such as the famous [Yotsuya Kaidan](/wiki/Yotsuya_Kaidan "Yotsuya Kaidan").
### The "Boss"
{{anime voices\|\[\[Tsuyoshi Koyama]]\|\[\[John Swasey]]}}
The self\-proclaimed "Head of the National Boss Association", a street gangster from Kumagoroshi who falls for the [SD](/wiki/Super_deformed "Super deformed") Sunako, much to the surprise of everyone surrounding him. Originally, he wanted to challenge Kyohei to a fight to see who was stronger, but later changed it to a fight for Sunako's affections, believing that Kyohei was Sunako's boyfriend. He can be seen both in the manga and in the anime version. In the anime, his name is given as Hiromi Hanayashiki.
### Yuki
Yuki is Sunako's friend in [Hokkaido](/wiki/Hokkaido "Hokkaido"), who is revealed early on to be a descendant of [Yuki\-onna](/wiki/Yuki-onna "Yuki-onna"). Due to her heritage, Yuki has powers over ice and snow, as shown when she accidentally freezes Yukinojo (who is also coincidentally nicknamed "Yuki") with a handshake. Her powers also seem to be connected to her emotions, as a blizzard almost formed when she started crying. Despite Yuki's selfish reasons for inviting Sunako (which was to take pictures of her male companions and sell them to get a gift for her boyfriend), it is shown that the two do care for one another as Yuki considers Sunako her only friend and Sunako doesn't want to see Yuki get hurt and cry.
### Ginshiro and Yae
Gin and Yae are Yuki's two younger siblings, who have a fond attachment to Yuki. Because Yuki left the house during their younger ages, he was rarely around them as they were growing up, and is shown to want to be a big brother to them now, despite it often causing misunderstandings with them. Yae is also shown to have a fondness for Sunako, while Ginshiro shares Yuki's fear of Sunako's horror items.
### Kyohei's mother
Kyohei's mother appears in chapter 37, when Kyohei's father takes Sunako to Kyohei's childhood home. As Kyohei's popularity in his hometown often caused a lot of problems for their household, Kyohei's mother developed a slight hatred for her son, often breaking down in his presence and yelling at him. She is insecure about her looks (a combination of her husband often being away for work and Kyohei's own blinding beauty), and as a result, having Kyohei around only worsened her insecurity, which lead to Kyohei leaving home.
|
[
"Other characters\n----------------",
"### Sunako's parents",
"Sunako's parents live abroad, supposedly in [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), and have left Sunako under the care of her aunt. The boys are not surprised to discover that Sunako's father is physically huge and not particularly attractive and are more worried about his protective streak towards his daughter, who became increasingly distant from him and refused to let him into her room. He later discovers that his daughter still loves him; she just did not want him to see the inside of her room because it was filled with things that would horrify him. He has a bad back as a result of saving Sunako from a [bear](/wiki/Bear \"Bear\") as a child.",
"Sunako's mother is a very attractive and petite woman, something that the boys did not expect from their knowledge of Sunako and her father's appearances. She is surprisingly strong and is able to lift her husband off the ground effortlessly. She thinks nothing of Sunako's morbid habits as long as they make her happy and she scolds Sunako's father for pleading for Kyohei to change Sunako into a normal girl. A [flashback](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 \"Flashback (narrative)\") reveals that Sunako's mother is actually younger than most women with daughters of Sunako's age.",
"### Sunako's classmates",
"Sunako's classmates initially both fear her terrifying demeanor and scorn her association with the four boys. However, after she wins an athletic competition for their class, they come to respect and admire her, though they remain somewhat frightened of her more morbid habits. In addition, Sunako becomes popular with the cooking club for her domestic abilities and they frequently ask her to join them when they are trying new recipes. Her classmates include a trio of girls named Nana, Nene, and Nono who are friendliest with her.",
"### Machiko",
"Machiko is Yuki's girlfriend. In chapter 55, she moved to Florida, where it was shown that Yuki got jealous over a photo she took with an American, and vows to become more of a gentleman himself, which unfortunately resulted in a misunderstanding between the two. In more recent chapters, she has moved back to Japan, and is often seen going on dates with Yuki \\- though both Yuki and Machiko are afraid the other thinks their dates are too childish, eventually both come to realize they are just right for the each other. She is also seen in recent chapters as Yuki's date when the four boys go out to events (along with Noi, Tamao, and an often unwilling Sunako).",
"### Goth\\-Loli Sisters",
"{{nihongo\\|Goth\\-Loli Sisters\\|ゴスロリ シスターズ\\|Gosu\\-Rori Shisutāzu}}\n*Yvonne*: {{anime voices\\|Niina Kumagaya\\|\\[\\[Kira Vincent\\-Davis]] (Epi. 1\\-9\\), \\[\\[Allison Sumrall]] (Epi. 10\\-25\\)}} \n*Laseine*: {{anime voices\\|Hiromi Konno\\|\\[\\[Brittney Karbowski]]}} \n*Madeleine*: {{anime voices\\|\\[\\[Kimiko Koyama]]\\|Tiffany Terrell}} \n*Roxane*: {{anime voices\\|Erika\\|Monica Passley}}\n{{nihongo\\|Lassine\\|ラセーヌ\\|Rasēnu}}, {{nihongo\\|Madeline\\|マドレーヌ\\|Madorēnu}}, {{nihongo\\|Roxanne\\|ロクサーヌ\\|Rokusānu}}, and {{nihongo\\|Yvonne\\|イヴォンヌ\\|Ivonnu}} are four girls who are completely obsessed with the main boys of the series. Initially their roles in the storyline were much smaller, but were expanded within the [anime](/wiki/Anime \"Anime\") to provide [comic relief](/wiki/Comic_relief \"Comic relief\"). They usually have a [cameo appearance](/wiki/Cameo_appearance \"Cameo appearance\") in each episode saying their catch phrase \"Goth\\-Goth, Loli\\-Loli\" while crossing their own fingers. A notable aspect to their characters is that instead of actively pursuing their crushes, they sit in the background and wait for them to notice them. Their appearance is an exaggeration of the [Gothic Lolita](/wiki/Gothic_Lolita \"Gothic Lolita\") phenomenon, and they are very unattractive. Their names are given as Ierie, Machapi, Maririn and Mintan in the Singaporean English\\-language translation.",
"### The Prince of Grimel",
"The Prince of Grimel first appears in chapter 79\\. The prince's parents, the king and queen of Grimel (a fictional European country), invite Sunako to their country, and she brings the four boys along with her. There, it was discovered that the king and queen hoped to marry their son, the prince, to Sunako. The prince shares a love of horror and darkness with Sunako, and falls in love with her. Sunako was enchanted with the purportedly haunted forests and crypts of Grimel and unknowingly accepted the proposal. However, on the day of the wedding, Kyohei took Sunako away as he was sick of European food and wanted to eat Japanese food. Sunako has since not reinstated the proposal, but the prince has continued to pursue Sunako, studying Japanese horror stories such as the famous [Yotsuya Kaidan](/wiki/Yotsuya_Kaidan \"Yotsuya Kaidan\").",
"### The \"Boss\"",
"{{anime voices\\|\\[\\[Tsuyoshi Koyama]]\\|\\[\\[John Swasey]]}}",
"The self\\-proclaimed \"Head of the National Boss Association\", a street gangster from Kumagoroshi who falls for the [SD](/wiki/Super_deformed \"Super deformed\") Sunako, much to the surprise of everyone surrounding him. Originally, he wanted to challenge Kyohei to a fight to see who was stronger, but later changed it to a fight for Sunako's affections, believing that Kyohei was Sunako's boyfriend. He can be seen both in the manga and in the anime version. In the anime, his name is given as Hiromi Hanayashiki.",
"### Yuki",
"Yuki is Sunako's friend in [Hokkaido](/wiki/Hokkaido \"Hokkaido\"), who is revealed early on to be a descendant of [Yuki\\-onna](/wiki/Yuki-onna \"Yuki-onna\"). Due to her heritage, Yuki has powers over ice and snow, as shown when she accidentally freezes Yukinojo (who is also coincidentally nicknamed \"Yuki\") with a handshake. Her powers also seem to be connected to her emotions, as a blizzard almost formed when she started crying. Despite Yuki's selfish reasons for inviting Sunako (which was to take pictures of her male companions and sell them to get a gift for her boyfriend), it is shown that the two do care for one another as Yuki considers Sunako her only friend and Sunako doesn't want to see Yuki get hurt and cry.",
"### Ginshiro and Yae",
"Gin and Yae are Yuki's two younger siblings, who have a fond attachment to Yuki. Because Yuki left the house during their younger ages, he was rarely around them as they were growing up, and is shown to want to be a big brother to them now, despite it often causing misunderstandings with them. Yae is also shown to have a fondness for Sunako, while Ginshiro shares Yuki's fear of Sunako's horror items.",
"### Kyohei's mother",
"Kyohei's mother appears in chapter 37, when Kyohei's father takes Sunako to Kyohei's childhood home. As Kyohei's popularity in his hometown often caused a lot of problems for their household, Kyohei's mother developed a slight hatred for her son, often breaking down in his presence and yelling at him. She is insecure about her looks (a combination of her husband often being away for work and Kyohei's own blinding beauty), and as a result, having Kyohei around only worsened her insecurity, which lead to Kyohei leaving home.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Ellie Harris goes to her sister Kate's residential home, Woodlane, in search of a job. Ellie has some trouble adjusting to her new job but quickly befriends a resident named Alice. Ellie decides to have talks with Alice and neglects parts of her job, much to her sister's annoyance. She also has trouble doing what she is told by the residents. Because of her friendship with Alice, Ellie decides to help her feel better by taking her down to the river (which is against the nurse's orders) and giving her [marijuana](/wiki/Marijuana "Marijuana") to ease her pain. The next day, however, Ellie finds out that Alice has died.
Kate gets news that their mother had a stroke and decides to be with her. She asks Ellie to stay behind with the four residents that are staying over the Christmas holiday because Ellie and her mother do not get along. Georgia Platts is a former actress and singer. The Nightingale sisters, Heather and Hazel, are spinsters who moved in after spending years taking care of their mother. Donald Vanston is a recovering alcoholic who enjoys playing piano and used to be a judge. These four residents are driving out others with their eccentric ways. They also seem to believe that, because they pay to be there, they can act however they please.
While Ellie is watching over them, she learns more about the residents. Donald requests his breakfast in his room at 6 o'clock instead of in the dining room at the usual time at 8\. After he gets upset that his order is wrong, she tells him that he can have breakfast in the dining room like everyone else. Donald reveals to Ellie that the music he plays at night is his late wife's favourite song and that he regrets not sobering up before she died.
Heather demands that she be given any letters addressed to her sister to keep from upsetting her. However, Kate neglected to tell Ellie this and she got a letter for Hazel from the postman. When Ellie goes to give the letter to Hazel in her room, she notices sketches and paintings in her room and realises that Hazel is a talented artist. Hazel finds Ellie in her room and demands that she leave. Ellie then slips the letter under the door. It is then revealed that Heather has been writing as Hazel when Hazel's son Simon, whom she was forced to give up for adoption, tried to find her. Heather later tells Hazel that she was afraid that Simon would take Hazel away from her. Hazel then tells Heather that she will always love her and they decide to meet Simon together in the new year.
Georgia constantly asks for Ellie to make her martinis and makes frequent trips to the local pub to entertain the patrons. Georgia tells Ellie that after her husband died, she decided to get back into the theatre, but realised that everything had changed since she was young. She then moved into Woodlane because she hated being alone and that abusing everyone is "part of the fun".
Ellie decides to have a Christmas dinner with the residents and they all go out to buy decorations and food (Including Hazel, who is terrified of being outside the Woodlane property). They decide to have a drink in the pub and Ellie points out Hazel's paintings hung on the wall behind them. Heather then shows everyone her talent at playing pool. They all drive back to the home while singing carols. They then have their Christmas dinner together and start to get along with each other.
The next day, Mr. Evans (Darragh Kelly), from the Department of Health, arrives and is shocked that Kate would leave residents alone. The residents band together saying that they wanted to stay and that they are a family. Donald then asks if he wants to stay for dinner, but Mr. Evans leaves, startled. He then comes back saying that he was upset because his wife just left him and he stays for dinner.
Later, when Kate returns, Heather is shown keeping a garden, Hazel is painting outside, and Donald and Georgia are handing out tea to some boys who are raking the lawn. Ellie then tells Kate that she has decided to leave and will spend some time with their mother. At the end, Donald and Georgia are dancing outside, singing "[How About You?](/wiki/How_About_You%3F "How About You?")".
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Ellie Harris goes to her sister Kate's residential home, Woodlane, in search of a job. Ellie has some trouble adjusting to her new job but quickly befriends a resident named Alice. Ellie decides to have talks with Alice and neglects parts of her job, much to her sister's annoyance. She also has trouble doing what she is told by the residents. Because of her friendship with Alice, Ellie decides to help her feel better by taking her down to the river (which is against the nurse's orders) and giving her [marijuana](/wiki/Marijuana \"Marijuana\") to ease her pain. The next day, however, Ellie finds out that Alice has died.",
"Kate gets news that their mother had a stroke and decides to be with her. She asks Ellie to stay behind with the four residents that are staying over the Christmas holiday because Ellie and her mother do not get along. Georgia Platts is a former actress and singer. The Nightingale sisters, Heather and Hazel, are spinsters who moved in after spending years taking care of their mother. Donald Vanston is a recovering alcoholic who enjoys playing piano and used to be a judge. These four residents are driving out others with their eccentric ways. They also seem to believe that, because they pay to be there, they can act however they please.",
"While Ellie is watching over them, she learns more about the residents. Donald requests his breakfast in his room at 6 o'clock instead of in the dining room at the usual time at 8\\. After he gets upset that his order is wrong, she tells him that he can have breakfast in the dining room like everyone else. Donald reveals to Ellie that the music he plays at night is his late wife's favourite song and that he regrets not sobering up before she died.",
"Heather demands that she be given any letters addressed to her sister to keep from upsetting her. However, Kate neglected to tell Ellie this and she got a letter for Hazel from the postman. When Ellie goes to give the letter to Hazel in her room, she notices sketches and paintings in her room and realises that Hazel is a talented artist. Hazel finds Ellie in her room and demands that she leave. Ellie then slips the letter under the door. It is then revealed that Heather has been writing as Hazel when Hazel's son Simon, whom she was forced to give up for adoption, tried to find her. Heather later tells Hazel that she was afraid that Simon would take Hazel away from her. Hazel then tells Heather that she will always love her and they decide to meet Simon together in the new year.",
"Georgia constantly asks for Ellie to make her martinis and makes frequent trips to the local pub to entertain the patrons. Georgia tells Ellie that after her husband died, she decided to get back into the theatre, but realised that everything had changed since she was young. She then moved into Woodlane because she hated being alone and that abusing everyone is \"part of the fun\".",
"Ellie decides to have a Christmas dinner with the residents and they all go out to buy decorations and food (Including Hazel, who is terrified of being outside the Woodlane property). They decide to have a drink in the pub and Ellie points out Hazel's paintings hung on the wall behind them. Heather then shows everyone her talent at playing pool. They all drive back to the home while singing carols. They then have their Christmas dinner together and start to get along with each other.",
"The next day, Mr. Evans (Darragh Kelly), from the Department of Health, arrives and is shocked that Kate would leave residents alone. The residents band together saying that they wanted to stay and that they are a family. Donald then asks if he wants to stay for dinner, but Mr. Evans leaves, startled. He then comes back saying that he was upset because his wife just left him and he stays for dinner.",
"Later, when Kate returns, Heather is shown keeping a garden, Hazel is painting outside, and Donald and Georgia are handing out tea to some boys who are raking the lawn. Ellie then tells Kate that she has decided to leave and will spend some time with their mother. At the end, Donald and Georgia are dancing outside, singing \"[How About You?](/wiki/How_About_You%3F \"How About You?\")\".",
""
] |
History
-------
### Roman times
In the [Roman period](/wiki/Roman_Britain "Roman Britain"), the place was named **[Lindinis](/wiki/Lindinis "Lindinis")** and was the site of a [fort](/wiki/Roman_forts "Roman forts") and then a town on the [Fosse Way](/wiki/Fosse_Way "Fosse Way"). Finds from a large 4th\-century cemetery at Northover House suggest [Christian worship](/wiki/Celtic_Christianity "Celtic Christianity").{{cite book\|last1\=Webster\|first1\=Chris\|last2\=Mayberry\|first2\=Tom\|title\=The archaeology of Somerset\|year\=2007\|publisher\=Somerset Books\|location\=Wellington\|isbn\=978\-0\-86183\-437\-2\|chapter\=The Roman Period\|page\=56}} It eventually served as one of two regional capitals for the [Durotriges](/wiki/Durotriges "Durotriges") [tribe](/wiki/List_of_Celtic_tribes "List of Celtic tribes").{{cite book \|last\=Dunning \|first\=Robert \|title\=A History of Somerset \|year\=1983 \|publisher\=Phillimore \& Co \|location\=Chichester \|isbn\=0\-85033\-461\-6 }}
### Medieval times
The place\-name 'Ilchester' is first attested in the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book") of 1086, where it appears as *Givelcestre*. The name means 'Roman fort on the [River Yeo](/wiki/River_Yeo_%28South_Somerset%29 "River Yeo (South Somerset)")'.[Eilert Ekwall](/wiki/Eilert_Ekwall "Eilert Ekwall"), *The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place\-names*, p.262\.
There is evidence of continuous occupation of Ilchester despite the [Roman withdrawal from Britain](/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Britain "Roman withdrawal from Britain") around 410\.{{cite book\|last\=Havinden\|first\=Michael\|title\=The Somerset Landscape\|publisher\=Hodder and Stoughton\|location\=London\|series\=The making of the English landscape\|year\=1981\|pages\=73\|isbn\=0\-340\-20116\-9}} Ilchester has been associated with the {{nowrap\|''Cair Pensa vel Coyt'' }}[Nennius](/wiki/Nennius "Nennius") ({{abbr\|attrib.\|Traditional attribution}}). [Theodor Mommsen](/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen "Theodor Mommsen") ({{abbr\|ed.\|Editor}}). [*Historia Brittonum*, VI.](/wiki/s:La:Historia_Brittonum%23VI._CIVITATES_BRITANNIAE "La:Historia Brittonum#VI. CIVITATES BRITANNIAE") Composed after AD 830\. {{in lang\|la}} Hosted at [Latin Wikisource](/wiki/s:La:Main_Page "La:Main Page"). listed among the [28 cities of Britain](/wiki/28_Cities_of_Britain "28 Cities of Britain") by the *[History of the Britons](/wiki/Historia_Brittonum "Historia Brittonum")*, on the basis that it should be read as an [Old Welsh](/wiki/Old_Welsh "Old Welsh") form of '[Penselwood](/wiki/Penselwood "Penselwood")'Ford, David Nash. "[The 28 Cities of Britain](http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120312/http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html \|date\=15 April 2016 }}" at Britannia. 2000\. (*coit* being Welsh for "forest"), although others view it as three separate words: Pensa *or* Coyt. [Bishop Ussher](/wiki/Bishop_Ussher "Bishop Ussher") believed the listing referred to [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter "Exeter") instead.Newman, John Henry \& al. [*Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre*, Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92\.](http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321234154/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives\-of\-the\-English\-Saints\-St\-Gilbert\-Prior\-of\-Sempringham\-Volume\-3/527392/459 \|date\=21 March 2016 }} James Toovey (London), 1844\.
Around the year 1000, there was a [mint](/wiki/Mint_%28coin%29 "Mint (coin)") at Ilchester, which was moved to [South Cadbury](/wiki/South_Cadbury "South Cadbury") following attacks by the Danes, and prior to the Siege of Ilchester in 1088\.
The parish of Ilchester was part of the [Tintinhull](/wiki/Tintinhull_%28hundred%29 "Tintinhull (hundred)") [Hundred](/wiki/Hundred_%28county_subdivision%29 "Hundred (county subdivision)").{{cite web\|title\=Somerset Hundreds\|url\=http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/SOM/Miscellaneous/\|publisher\=GENUKI\|access\-date\=22 October 2011}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|right\|The old market place in Ilchester](/wiki/File:Ilchester%2C_The_Market_Cross_-_geograph.org.uk_-_431687.jpg "Ilchester, The Market Cross - geograph.org.uk - 431687.jpg")
[Ilchester Friary](/wiki/Ilchester_Friary "Ilchester Friary") was founded between 1221 and 1260 as a [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order "Dominican Order") monastery. The buildings were restored in the 13th and 14th centuries until the site occupied a {{convert\|1\.6\|ha\|acre}} site, and by the 15th century it extended beyond the town walls.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53016\|title\=Dominican friary, West Street, Ilchester\|work\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\|publisher\=Somerset County Council\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} It is believed to be the birthplace of [Roger Bacon](/wiki/Roger_Bacon "Roger Bacon"), possibly in 1213 or 1214\.{{cite journal\|last\=James \|first\=R.R. \|year\=1928 \|title\=THE FATHER OF BRITISH OPTICS: ROGER BACON, c. 1214\-1294 \|journal\=British Journal of Ophthalmology \|pmid\=18168687 \|volume\=12 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=1–14 \|pmc\=511940 \|url\=http://bjo.bmj.com/content/12/1/1\.citation\|doi\=10\.1136/bjo.12\.1\.1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708080733/http://bjo.bmj.com/content/12/1/1\.citation \|archive\-date\=8 July 2011 }} It was dissolved in 1538, as part of the [dissolution of the monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries "Dissolution of the monasteries"), but the buildings continued to be used, as a silk mill and relief prison, particularly for [Quakers](/wiki/Quakers "Quakers"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=66498\|title\=Ilchester\|last\=Dunning \|first\=Robert W\|work\=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 3\|publisher\=British History Online\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} until it was finally demolished in the early 19th century.
[Ilchester Nunnery](/wiki/Ilchester_Nunnery "Ilchester Nunnery") was founded around 1217–1220 originally as White Hall Hospital (Latin: *Alba Aula*, French: *Blanche Halle/Blanche Salle*) and, by 1281, had been converted into an [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians "Augustinians") nunnery. The original White Hall hospital had been created after the gift of a house and other property by William "The Dane" (Norman\-French: *Le Deneis* etc., [Latinised](/wiki/List_of_Latinised_names "List of Latinised names") to *Dacus* {not in the least bit related to [Dacia](/wiki/Dacia "Dacia")}, modernised to "Dennis") of Sock Dennis.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=40946\#s2\|title\=Hospitals: Ilchester and mike \=live and not evil and relations with love alLangport'\|last\=Page\|first\=William\|year\=1911\|work\=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 2\|publisher\=British History Online\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} From a branch of this family was possibly descended the influential Denys family of Devon, (arms: three Danish battle axes) seated at [Orleigh](/wiki/Orleigh_Court "Orleigh Court"), near [Buckland Brewer](/wiki/Buckland_Brewer "Buckland Brewer"), Devon, from the 12th. to 17th. centuries[The Battle Abbey Roll by The Duchess of Cleveland, Vol.1, "Denise"](http://www.1066.co.nz/library/battle_abbey_roll1/subchap178.htm) In the early 14th century concerns were raised about the management of the nunnery and the poverty of the nuns.{{cite book\|last\=Power\|first\=Eileen\|title\=Medieval English Nunneries, c. 1275 to 1535\|publisher\=Biblo \& Tannen Booksellers \& Publishers Incorporat\|year\=1988\|pages\=233\|isbn\=978\-0\-8196\-0140\-7\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1ll6BuF4\-kgC\&q\=Ilchester\+Nunnery\&pg\=PA233}} The building was expanded in 1370\. The nunnery was dissolved in 1463 and the chapel become a free chapel,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53010\|title\=Chapel, Whitehall hospital and nunnery, High Street, Ilchester\|work\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\|publisher\=Somerset County Council\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} which itself was dissolved in 1548\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53046\|title\=Augustinian nunnery, High Street, Ilchester\|work\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\|publisher\=Somerset County Council\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} A ruined building still existed in 1791, but the stone was then used to build the nearby Castle Farm.
Ilchester was a base for [Henry III of England](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England "Henry III of England") for a short period in 1250\.
During the 12th century it was the [county town](/wiki/County_town "County town") of Somerset. The town has a 13th\-century [mace](/wiki/Ceremonial_mace "Ceremonial mace") with three kings and an angel on it, which is the oldest [staff of office](/wiki/Staff_of_office "Staff of office") in England.{{cite book \|title\=Curiosities of Somerset \|last\=Leete\-Hodge \|first\=Lornie \|year\=1985 \|publisher\=Bossiney Books \|location\=Bodmin \|isbn\=0\-906456\-98\-3 \|pages\=73 }} It can be seen at [Ilchester Museum](/wiki/Ilchester_Museum "Ilchester Museum"), which is located at the Town Hall House.
### Later times
In July 1645 during the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War "English Civil War"), Ilchester was the scene of several skirmishes between Royalist and Parliamentary forces fighting for control of the bridges over the [River Parrett](/wiki/River_Parrett "River Parrett") and [River Yeo](/wiki/River_Yeo_%28South_Somerset%29 "River Yeo (South Somerset)") before the [Battle of Langport](/wiki/Battle_of_Langport "Battle of Langport").{{cite book \|title\=The civil war in the south west \|last\=Barratt \|first\=John \|year\=2005 \|publisher\=Pen \& Sword Military\|location\=Barnsley \|isbn\=1\-84415\-146\-8 \|page\=116 }}
In 1795 work began on the [Ivelchester and Langport Navigation](/wiki/Ivelchester_and_Langport_Navigation "Ivelchester and Langport Navigation"), a canal linking Ilchester with [Langport](/wiki/Langport "Langport"), but the scheme was soon bankrupted.
From 1621 to 1832, [Ilchester](/wiki/Ilchester_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Ilchester (UK Parliament constituency)") was a Parliamentary constituency and a notorious [rotten borough](/wiki/Rotten_borough "Rotten borough").{{cite web\|url\=https://hansard.parliament.uk/lords/1832\-05\-30/debates/0811c028\-a6f5\-4bd9\-8b59\-f5bb0601a9fa/ParliamentaryReform%E2%80%94BillForEngland%E2%80%94Committee%E2%80%94SeventhDay \|title\=Parliamentary Reform Bill, For England\|volume\=13\|date\= 30 May 1832\|publisher\=Hansard\| access\-date\=10 August 2023}} Ilchester was the parliamentary seat of [Sir William Manners](/wiki/Sir_William_Talmash%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir William Talmash, 1st Baronet") (later Lord Huntingtower) in 1803 and 1806; however, it is said that he maintained his position by demolishing the houses of his opponents and putting them in the [workhouse](/wiki/Workhouse "Workhouse") which meant they were not able to vote. When his son was not elected in 1818 he demolished the workhouse. He was succeeded as [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") by the Irish playwright [Richard Brinsley Sheridan](/wiki/Richard_Brinsley_Sheridan "Richard Brinsley Sheridan"), author of *[The School for Scandal](/wiki/The_School_for_Scandal "The School for Scandal")*.{{cite book\| last \= Moore\| first \= Thomas\| author\-link \= Thomas Moore\| title \= Memoirs of the Life of the Right Honourable Richard Brinsley Sheridan\| publisher \= H.C. Carey and I. Lea\| year \= 1825\| location \= Philadelphia\| pages \= 138–55\| url \= https://archive.org/details/memoirsliferigh00shergoog}}
In 1962 the [Ilchester Cheese Company](/wiki/Ilchester_Cheese_Company "Ilchester Cheese Company") was formed.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ilchester.co.uk/story.php?id\=1\|title\=The story\|publisher\=Ilchester Cheese Company\|access\-date\=28 September 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100912020702/http://www.ilchester.co.uk/story.php?id\=1\|archive\-date\=12 September 2010}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Roman times",
"In the [Roman period](/wiki/Roman_Britain \"Roman Britain\"), the place was named **[Lindinis](/wiki/Lindinis \"Lindinis\")** and was the site of a [fort](/wiki/Roman_forts \"Roman forts\") and then a town on the [Fosse Way](/wiki/Fosse_Way \"Fosse Way\"). Finds from a large 4th\\-century cemetery at Northover House suggest [Christian worship](/wiki/Celtic_Christianity \"Celtic Christianity\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=Webster\\|first1\\=Chris\\|last2\\=Mayberry\\|first2\\=Tom\\|title\\=The archaeology of Somerset\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Somerset Books\\|location\\=Wellington\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-86183\\-437\\-2\\|chapter\\=The Roman Period\\|page\\=56}} It eventually served as one of two regional capitals for the [Durotriges](/wiki/Durotriges \"Durotriges\") [tribe](/wiki/List_of_Celtic_tribes \"List of Celtic tribes\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Dunning \\|first\\=Robert \\|title\\=A History of Somerset \\|year\\=1983 \\|publisher\\=Phillimore \\& Co \\|location\\=Chichester \\|isbn\\=0\\-85033\\-461\\-6 }}",
"### Medieval times",
"The place\\-name 'Ilchester' is first attested in the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") of 1086, where it appears as *Givelcestre*. The name means 'Roman fort on the [River Yeo](/wiki/River_Yeo_%28South_Somerset%29 \"River Yeo (South Somerset)\")'.[Eilert Ekwall](/wiki/Eilert_Ekwall \"Eilert Ekwall\"), *The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place\\-names*, p.262\\.",
"There is evidence of continuous occupation of Ilchester despite the [Roman withdrawal from Britain](/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Britain \"Roman withdrawal from Britain\") around 410\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Havinden\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=The Somerset Landscape\\|publisher\\=Hodder and Stoughton\\|location\\=London\\|series\\=The making of the English landscape\\|year\\=1981\\|pages\\=73\\|isbn\\=0\\-340\\-20116\\-9}} Ilchester has been associated with the {{nowrap\\|''Cair Pensa vel Coyt'' }}[Nennius](/wiki/Nennius \"Nennius\") ({{abbr\\|attrib.\\|Traditional attribution}}). [Theodor Mommsen](/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen \"Theodor Mommsen\") ({{abbr\\|ed.\\|Editor}}). [*Historia Brittonum*, VI.](/wiki/s:La:Historia_Brittonum%23VI._CIVITATES_BRITANNIAE \"La:Historia Brittonum#VI. CIVITATES BRITANNIAE\") Composed after AD 830\\. {{in lang\\|la}} Hosted at [Latin Wikisource](/wiki/s:La:Main_Page \"La:Main Page\"). listed among the [28 cities of Britain](/wiki/28_Cities_of_Britain \"28 Cities of Britain\") by the *[History of the Britons](/wiki/Historia_Brittonum \"Historia Brittonum\")*, on the basis that it should be read as an [Old Welsh](/wiki/Old_Welsh \"Old Welsh\") form of '[Penselwood](/wiki/Penselwood \"Penselwood\")'Ford, David Nash. \"[The 28 Cities of Britain](http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120312/http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html \\|date\\=15 April 2016 }}\" at Britannia. 2000\\. (*coit* being Welsh for \"forest\"), although others view it as three separate words: Pensa *or* Coyt. [Bishop Ussher](/wiki/Bishop_Ussher \"Bishop Ussher\") believed the listing referred to [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter \"Exeter\") instead.Newman, John Henry \\& al. [*Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre*, Ch. X: \"Britain in 429, A. D.\", p. 92\\.](http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321234154/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives\\-of\\-the\\-English\\-Saints\\-St\\-Gilbert\\-Prior\\-of\\-Sempringham\\-Volume\\-3/527392/459 \\|date\\=21 March 2016 }} James Toovey (London), 1844\\.",
"Around the year 1000, there was a [mint](/wiki/Mint_%28coin%29 \"Mint (coin)\") at Ilchester, which was moved to [South Cadbury](/wiki/South_Cadbury \"South Cadbury\") following attacks by the Danes, and prior to the Siege of Ilchester in 1088\\.",
"The parish of Ilchester was part of the [Tintinhull](/wiki/Tintinhull_%28hundred%29 \"Tintinhull (hundred)\") [Hundred](/wiki/Hundred_%28county_subdivision%29 \"Hundred (county subdivision)\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Somerset Hundreds\\|url\\=http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/SOM/Miscellaneous/\\|publisher\\=GENUKI\\|access\\-date\\=22 October 2011}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|right\\|The old market place in Ilchester](/wiki/File:Ilchester%2C_The_Market_Cross_-_geograph.org.uk_-_431687.jpg \"Ilchester, The Market Cross - geograph.org.uk - 431687.jpg\")\n[Ilchester Friary](/wiki/Ilchester_Friary \"Ilchester Friary\") was founded between 1221 and 1260 as a [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order \"Dominican Order\") monastery. The buildings were restored in the 13th and 14th centuries until the site occupied a {{convert\\|1\\.6\\|ha\\|acre}} site, and by the 15th century it extended beyond the town walls.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53016\\|title\\=Dominican friary, West Street, Ilchester\\|work\\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\\|publisher\\=Somerset County Council\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} It is believed to be the birthplace of [Roger Bacon](/wiki/Roger_Bacon \"Roger Bacon\"), possibly in 1213 or 1214\\.{{cite journal\\|last\\=James \\|first\\=R.R. \\|year\\=1928 \\|title\\=THE FATHER OF BRITISH OPTICS: ROGER BACON, c. 1214\\-1294 \\|journal\\=British Journal of Ophthalmology \\|pmid\\=18168687 \\|volume\\=12 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=1–14 \\|pmc\\=511940 \\|url\\=http://bjo.bmj.com/content/12/1/1\\.citation\\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bjo.12\\.1\\.1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708080733/http://bjo.bmj.com/content/12/1/1\\.citation \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2011 }} It was dissolved in 1538, as part of the [dissolution of the monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries \"Dissolution of the monasteries\"), but the buildings continued to be used, as a silk mill and relief prison, particularly for [Quakers](/wiki/Quakers \"Quakers\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=66498\\|title\\=Ilchester\\|last\\=Dunning \\|first\\=Robert W\\|work\\=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 3\\|publisher\\=British History Online\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} until it was finally demolished in the early 19th century.",
"[Ilchester Nunnery](/wiki/Ilchester_Nunnery \"Ilchester Nunnery\") was founded around 1217–1220 originally as White Hall Hospital (Latin: *Alba Aula*, French: *Blanche Halle/Blanche Salle*) and, by 1281, had been converted into an [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians \"Augustinians\") nunnery. The original White Hall hospital had been created after the gift of a house and other property by William \"The Dane\" (Norman\\-French: *Le Deneis* etc., [Latinised](/wiki/List_of_Latinised_names \"List of Latinised names\") to *Dacus* {not in the least bit related to [Dacia](/wiki/Dacia \"Dacia\")}, modernised to \"Dennis\") of Sock Dennis.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=40946\\#s2\\|title\\=Hospitals: Ilchester and mike \\=live and not evil and relations with love alLangport'\\|last\\=Page\\|first\\=William\\|year\\=1911\\|work\\=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 2\\|publisher\\=British History Online\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} From a branch of this family was possibly descended the influential Denys family of Devon, (arms: three Danish battle axes) seated at [Orleigh](/wiki/Orleigh_Court \"Orleigh Court\"), near [Buckland Brewer](/wiki/Buckland_Brewer \"Buckland Brewer\"), Devon, from the 12th. to 17th. centuries[The Battle Abbey Roll by The Duchess of Cleveland, Vol.1, \"Denise\"](http://www.1066.co.nz/library/battle_abbey_roll1/subchap178.htm) In the early 14th century concerns were raised about the management of the nunnery and the poverty of the nuns.{{cite book\\|last\\=Power\\|first\\=Eileen\\|title\\=Medieval English Nunneries, c. 1275 to 1535\\|publisher\\=Biblo \\& Tannen Booksellers \\& Publishers Incorporat\\|year\\=1988\\|pages\\=233\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8196\\-0140\\-7\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1ll6BuF4\\-kgC\\&q\\=Ilchester\\+Nunnery\\&pg\\=PA233}} The building was expanded in 1370\\. The nunnery was dissolved in 1463 and the chapel become a free chapel,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53010\\|title\\=Chapel, Whitehall hospital and nunnery, High Street, Ilchester\\|work\\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\\|publisher\\=Somerset County Council\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} which itself was dissolved in 1548\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53046\\|title\\=Augustinian nunnery, High Street, Ilchester\\|work\\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\\|publisher\\=Somerset County Council\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} A ruined building still existed in 1791, but the stone was then used to build the nearby Castle Farm.",
"Ilchester was a base for [Henry III of England](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England \"Henry III of England\") for a short period in 1250\\.",
"During the 12th century it was the [county town](/wiki/County_town \"County town\") of Somerset. The town has a 13th\\-century [mace](/wiki/Ceremonial_mace \"Ceremonial mace\") with three kings and an angel on it, which is the oldest [staff of office](/wiki/Staff_of_office \"Staff of office\") in England.{{cite book \\|title\\=Curiosities of Somerset \\|last\\=Leete\\-Hodge \\|first\\=Lornie \\|year\\=1985 \\|publisher\\=Bossiney Books \\|location\\=Bodmin \\|isbn\\=0\\-906456\\-98\\-3 \\|pages\\=73 }} It can be seen at [Ilchester Museum](/wiki/Ilchester_Museum \"Ilchester Museum\"), which is located at the Town Hall House.",
"### Later times",
"In July 1645 during the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"), Ilchester was the scene of several skirmishes between Royalist and Parliamentary forces fighting for control of the bridges over the [River Parrett](/wiki/River_Parrett \"River Parrett\") and [River Yeo](/wiki/River_Yeo_%28South_Somerset%29 \"River Yeo (South Somerset)\") before the [Battle of Langport](/wiki/Battle_of_Langport \"Battle of Langport\").{{cite book \\|title\\=The civil war in the south west \\|last\\=Barratt \\|first\\=John \\|year\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Pen \\& Sword Military\\|location\\=Barnsley \\|isbn\\=1\\-84415\\-146\\-8 \\|page\\=116 }}",
"In 1795 work began on the [Ivelchester and Langport Navigation](/wiki/Ivelchester_and_Langport_Navigation \"Ivelchester and Langport Navigation\"), a canal linking Ilchester with [Langport](/wiki/Langport \"Langport\"), but the scheme was soon bankrupted.",
"From 1621 to 1832, [Ilchester](/wiki/Ilchester_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Ilchester (UK Parliament constituency)\") was a Parliamentary constituency and a notorious [rotten borough](/wiki/Rotten_borough \"Rotten borough\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://hansard.parliament.uk/lords/1832\\-05\\-30/debates/0811c028\\-a6f5\\-4bd9\\-8b59\\-f5bb0601a9fa/ParliamentaryReform%E2%80%94BillForEngland%E2%80%94Committee%E2%80%94SeventhDay \\|title\\=Parliamentary Reform Bill, For England\\|volume\\=13\\|date\\= 30 May 1832\\|publisher\\=Hansard\\| access\\-date\\=10 August 2023}} Ilchester was the parliamentary seat of [Sir William Manners](/wiki/Sir_William_Talmash%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir William Talmash, 1st Baronet\") (later Lord Huntingtower) in 1803 and 1806; however, it is said that he maintained his position by demolishing the houses of his opponents and putting them in the [workhouse](/wiki/Workhouse \"Workhouse\") which meant they were not able to vote. When his son was not elected in 1818 he demolished the workhouse. He was succeeded as [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") by the Irish playwright [Richard Brinsley Sheridan](/wiki/Richard_Brinsley_Sheridan \"Richard Brinsley Sheridan\"), author of *[The School for Scandal](/wiki/The_School_for_Scandal \"The School for Scandal\")*.{{cite book\\| last \\= Moore\\| first \\= Thomas\\| author\\-link \\= Thomas Moore\\| title \\= Memoirs of the Life of the Right Honourable Richard Brinsley Sheridan\\| publisher \\= H.C. Carey and I. Lea\\| year \\= 1825\\| location \\= Philadelphia\\| pages \\= 138–55\\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/memoirsliferigh00shergoog}}",
"In 1962 the [Ilchester Cheese Company](/wiki/Ilchester_Cheese_Company \"Ilchester Cheese Company\") was formed.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilchester.co.uk/story.php?id\\=1\\|title\\=The story\\|publisher\\=Ilchester Cheese Company\\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100912020702/http://www.ilchester.co.uk/story.php?id\\=1\\|archive\\-date\\=12 September 2010}}",
""
] |
### Medieval times
The place\-name 'Ilchester' is first attested in the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book") of 1086, where it appears as *Givelcestre*. The name means 'Roman fort on the [River Yeo](/wiki/River_Yeo_%28South_Somerset%29 "River Yeo (South Somerset)")'.[Eilert Ekwall](/wiki/Eilert_Ekwall "Eilert Ekwall"), *The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place\-names*, p.262\.
There is evidence of continuous occupation of Ilchester despite the [Roman withdrawal from Britain](/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Britain "Roman withdrawal from Britain") around 410\.{{cite book\|last\=Havinden\|first\=Michael\|title\=The Somerset Landscape\|publisher\=Hodder and Stoughton\|location\=London\|series\=The making of the English landscape\|year\=1981\|pages\=73\|isbn\=0\-340\-20116\-9}} Ilchester has been associated with the {{nowrap\|''Cair Pensa vel Coyt'' }}[Nennius](/wiki/Nennius "Nennius") ({{abbr\|attrib.\|Traditional attribution}}). [Theodor Mommsen](/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen "Theodor Mommsen") ({{abbr\|ed.\|Editor}}). [*Historia Brittonum*, VI.](/wiki/s:La:Historia_Brittonum%23VI._CIVITATES_BRITANNIAE "La:Historia Brittonum#VI. CIVITATES BRITANNIAE") Composed after AD 830\. {{in lang\|la}} Hosted at [Latin Wikisource](/wiki/s:La:Main_Page "La:Main Page"). listed among the [28 cities of Britain](/wiki/28_Cities_of_Britain "28 Cities of Britain") by the *[History of the Britons](/wiki/Historia_Brittonum "Historia Brittonum")*, on the basis that it should be read as an [Old Welsh](/wiki/Old_Welsh "Old Welsh") form of '[Penselwood](/wiki/Penselwood "Penselwood")'Ford, David Nash. "[The 28 Cities of Britain](http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120312/http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html \|date\=15 April 2016 }}" at Britannia. 2000\. (*coit* being Welsh for "forest"), although others view it as three separate words: Pensa *or* Coyt. [Bishop Ussher](/wiki/Bishop_Ussher "Bishop Ussher") believed the listing referred to [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter "Exeter") instead.Newman, John Henry \& al. [*Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre*, Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92\.](http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321234154/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives\-of\-the\-English\-Saints\-St\-Gilbert\-Prior\-of\-Sempringham\-Volume\-3/527392/459 \|date\=21 March 2016 }} James Toovey (London), 1844\.
Around the year 1000, there was a [mint](/wiki/Mint_%28coin%29 "Mint (coin)") at Ilchester, which was moved to [South Cadbury](/wiki/South_Cadbury "South Cadbury") following attacks by the Danes, and prior to the Siege of Ilchester in 1088\.
The parish of Ilchester was part of the [Tintinhull](/wiki/Tintinhull_%28hundred%29 "Tintinhull (hundred)") [Hundred](/wiki/Hundred_%28county_subdivision%29 "Hundred (county subdivision)").{{cite web\|title\=Somerset Hundreds\|url\=http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/SOM/Miscellaneous/\|publisher\=GENUKI\|access\-date\=22 October 2011}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|right\|The old market place in Ilchester](/wiki/File:Ilchester%2C_The_Market_Cross_-_geograph.org.uk_-_431687.jpg "Ilchester, The Market Cross - geograph.org.uk - 431687.jpg")
[Ilchester Friary](/wiki/Ilchester_Friary "Ilchester Friary") was founded between 1221 and 1260 as a [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order "Dominican Order") monastery. The buildings were restored in the 13th and 14th centuries until the site occupied a {{convert\|1\.6\|ha\|acre}} site, and by the 15th century it extended beyond the town walls.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53016\|title\=Dominican friary, West Street, Ilchester\|work\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\|publisher\=Somerset County Council\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} It is believed to be the birthplace of [Roger Bacon](/wiki/Roger_Bacon "Roger Bacon"), possibly in 1213 or 1214\.{{cite journal\|last\=James \|first\=R.R. \|year\=1928 \|title\=THE FATHER OF BRITISH OPTICS: ROGER BACON, c. 1214\-1294 \|journal\=British Journal of Ophthalmology \|pmid\=18168687 \|volume\=12 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=1–14 \|pmc\=511940 \|url\=http://bjo.bmj.com/content/12/1/1\.citation\|doi\=10\.1136/bjo.12\.1\.1 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708080733/http://bjo.bmj.com/content/12/1/1\.citation \|archive\-date\=8 July 2011 }} It was dissolved in 1538, as part of the [dissolution of the monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries "Dissolution of the monasteries"), but the buildings continued to be used, as a silk mill and relief prison, particularly for [Quakers](/wiki/Quakers "Quakers"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=66498\|title\=Ilchester\|last\=Dunning \|first\=Robert W\|work\=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 3\|publisher\=British History Online\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} until it was finally demolished in the early 19th century.
[Ilchester Nunnery](/wiki/Ilchester_Nunnery "Ilchester Nunnery") was founded around 1217–1220 originally as White Hall Hospital (Latin: *Alba Aula*, French: *Blanche Halle/Blanche Salle*) and, by 1281, had been converted into an [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians "Augustinians") nunnery. The original White Hall hospital had been created after the gift of a house and other property by William "The Dane" (Norman\-French: *Le Deneis* etc., [Latinised](/wiki/List_of_Latinised_names "List of Latinised names") to *Dacus* {not in the least bit related to [Dacia](/wiki/Dacia "Dacia")}, modernised to "Dennis") of Sock Dennis.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=40946\#s2\|title\=Hospitals: Ilchester and mike \=live and not evil and relations with love alLangport'\|last\=Page\|first\=William\|year\=1911\|work\=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 2\|publisher\=British History Online\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} From a branch of this family was possibly descended the influential Denys family of Devon, (arms: three Danish battle axes) seated at [Orleigh](/wiki/Orleigh_Court "Orleigh Court"), near [Buckland Brewer](/wiki/Buckland_Brewer "Buckland Brewer"), Devon, from the 12th. to 17th. centuries[The Battle Abbey Roll by The Duchess of Cleveland, Vol.1, "Denise"](http://www.1066.co.nz/library/battle_abbey_roll1/subchap178.htm) In the early 14th century concerns were raised about the management of the nunnery and the poverty of the nuns.{{cite book\|last\=Power\|first\=Eileen\|title\=Medieval English Nunneries, c. 1275 to 1535\|publisher\=Biblo \& Tannen Booksellers \& Publishers Incorporat\|year\=1988\|pages\=233\|isbn\=978\-0\-8196\-0140\-7\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1ll6BuF4\-kgC\&q\=Ilchester\+Nunnery\&pg\=PA233}} The building was expanded in 1370\. The nunnery was dissolved in 1463 and the chapel become a free chapel,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53010\|title\=Chapel, Whitehall hospital and nunnery, High Street, Ilchester\|work\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\|publisher\=Somerset County Council\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} which itself was dissolved in 1548\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53046\|title\=Augustinian nunnery, High Street, Ilchester\|work\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\|publisher\=Somerset County Council\|access\-date\=9 January 2010}} A ruined building still existed in 1791, but the stone was then used to build the nearby Castle Farm.
Ilchester was a base for [Henry III of England](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England "Henry III of England") for a short period in 1250\.
During the 12th century it was the [county town](/wiki/County_town "County town") of Somerset. The town has a 13th\-century [mace](/wiki/Ceremonial_mace "Ceremonial mace") with three kings and an angel on it, which is the oldest [staff of office](/wiki/Staff_of_office "Staff of office") in England.{{cite book \|title\=Curiosities of Somerset \|last\=Leete\-Hodge \|first\=Lornie \|year\=1985 \|publisher\=Bossiney Books \|location\=Bodmin \|isbn\=0\-906456\-98\-3 \|pages\=73 }} It can be seen at [Ilchester Museum](/wiki/Ilchester_Museum "Ilchester Museum"), which is located at the Town Hall House.
|
[
"### Medieval times",
"The place\\-name 'Ilchester' is first attested in the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") of 1086, where it appears as *Givelcestre*. The name means 'Roman fort on the [River Yeo](/wiki/River_Yeo_%28South_Somerset%29 \"River Yeo (South Somerset)\")'.[Eilert Ekwall](/wiki/Eilert_Ekwall \"Eilert Ekwall\"), *The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place\\-names*, p.262\\.",
"There is evidence of continuous occupation of Ilchester despite the [Roman withdrawal from Britain](/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Britain \"Roman withdrawal from Britain\") around 410\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Havinden\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=The Somerset Landscape\\|publisher\\=Hodder and Stoughton\\|location\\=London\\|series\\=The making of the English landscape\\|year\\=1981\\|pages\\=73\\|isbn\\=0\\-340\\-20116\\-9}} Ilchester has been associated with the {{nowrap\\|''Cair Pensa vel Coyt'' }}[Nennius](/wiki/Nennius \"Nennius\") ({{abbr\\|attrib.\\|Traditional attribution}}). [Theodor Mommsen](/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen \"Theodor Mommsen\") ({{abbr\\|ed.\\|Editor}}). [*Historia Brittonum*, VI.](/wiki/s:La:Historia_Brittonum%23VI._CIVITATES_BRITANNIAE \"La:Historia Brittonum#VI. CIVITATES BRITANNIAE\") Composed after AD 830\\. {{in lang\\|la}} Hosted at [Latin Wikisource](/wiki/s:La:Main_Page \"La:Main Page\"). listed among the [28 cities of Britain](/wiki/28_Cities_of_Britain \"28 Cities of Britain\") by the *[History of the Britons](/wiki/Historia_Brittonum \"Historia Brittonum\")*, on the basis that it should be read as an [Old Welsh](/wiki/Old_Welsh \"Old Welsh\") form of '[Penselwood](/wiki/Penselwood \"Penselwood\")'Ford, David Nash. \"[The 28 Cities of Britain](http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120312/http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html \\|date\\=15 April 2016 }}\" at Britannia. 2000\\. (*coit* being Welsh for \"forest\"), although others view it as three separate words: Pensa *or* Coyt. [Bishop Ussher](/wiki/Bishop_Ussher \"Bishop Ussher\") believed the listing referred to [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter \"Exeter\") instead.Newman, John Henry \\& al. [*Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre*, Ch. X: \"Britain in 429, A. D.\", p. 92\\.](http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321234154/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives\\-of\\-the\\-English\\-Saints\\-St\\-Gilbert\\-Prior\\-of\\-Sempringham\\-Volume\\-3/527392/459 \\|date\\=21 March 2016 }} James Toovey (London), 1844\\.",
"Around the year 1000, there was a [mint](/wiki/Mint_%28coin%29 \"Mint (coin)\") at Ilchester, which was moved to [South Cadbury](/wiki/South_Cadbury \"South Cadbury\") following attacks by the Danes, and prior to the Siege of Ilchester in 1088\\.",
"The parish of Ilchester was part of the [Tintinhull](/wiki/Tintinhull_%28hundred%29 \"Tintinhull (hundred)\") [Hundred](/wiki/Hundred_%28county_subdivision%29 \"Hundred (county subdivision)\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Somerset Hundreds\\|url\\=http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/SOM/Miscellaneous/\\|publisher\\=GENUKI\\|access\\-date\\=22 October 2011}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|right\\|The old market place in Ilchester](/wiki/File:Ilchester%2C_The_Market_Cross_-_geograph.org.uk_-_431687.jpg \"Ilchester, The Market Cross - geograph.org.uk - 431687.jpg\")\n[Ilchester Friary](/wiki/Ilchester_Friary \"Ilchester Friary\") was founded between 1221 and 1260 as a [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order \"Dominican Order\") monastery. The buildings were restored in the 13th and 14th centuries until the site occupied a {{convert\\|1\\.6\\|ha\\|acre}} site, and by the 15th century it extended beyond the town walls.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53016\\|title\\=Dominican friary, West Street, Ilchester\\|work\\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\\|publisher\\=Somerset County Council\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} It is believed to be the birthplace of [Roger Bacon](/wiki/Roger_Bacon \"Roger Bacon\"), possibly in 1213 or 1214\\.{{cite journal\\|last\\=James \\|first\\=R.R. \\|year\\=1928 \\|title\\=THE FATHER OF BRITISH OPTICS: ROGER BACON, c. 1214\\-1294 \\|journal\\=British Journal of Ophthalmology \\|pmid\\=18168687 \\|volume\\=12 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=1–14 \\|pmc\\=511940 \\|url\\=http://bjo.bmj.com/content/12/1/1\\.citation\\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bjo.12\\.1\\.1 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708080733/http://bjo.bmj.com/content/12/1/1\\.citation \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2011 }} It was dissolved in 1538, as part of the [dissolution of the monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries \"Dissolution of the monasteries\"), but the buildings continued to be used, as a silk mill and relief prison, particularly for [Quakers](/wiki/Quakers \"Quakers\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=66498\\|title\\=Ilchester\\|last\\=Dunning \\|first\\=Robert W\\|work\\=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 3\\|publisher\\=British History Online\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} until it was finally demolished in the early 19th century.",
"[Ilchester Nunnery](/wiki/Ilchester_Nunnery \"Ilchester Nunnery\") was founded around 1217–1220 originally as White Hall Hospital (Latin: *Alba Aula*, French: *Blanche Halle/Blanche Salle*) and, by 1281, had been converted into an [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians \"Augustinians\") nunnery. The original White Hall hospital had been created after the gift of a house and other property by William \"The Dane\" (Norman\\-French: *Le Deneis* etc., [Latinised](/wiki/List_of_Latinised_names \"List of Latinised names\") to *Dacus* {not in the least bit related to [Dacia](/wiki/Dacia \"Dacia\")}, modernised to \"Dennis\") of Sock Dennis.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=40946\\#s2\\|title\\=Hospitals: Ilchester and mike \\=live and not evil and relations with love alLangport'\\|last\\=Page\\|first\\=William\\|year\\=1911\\|work\\=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 2\\|publisher\\=British History Online\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} From a branch of this family was possibly descended the influential Denys family of Devon, (arms: three Danish battle axes) seated at [Orleigh](/wiki/Orleigh_Court \"Orleigh Court\"), near [Buckland Brewer](/wiki/Buckland_Brewer \"Buckland Brewer\"), Devon, from the 12th. to 17th. centuries[The Battle Abbey Roll by The Duchess of Cleveland, Vol.1, \"Denise\"](http://www.1066.co.nz/library/battle_abbey_roll1/subchap178.htm) In the early 14th century concerns were raised about the management of the nunnery and the poverty of the nuns.{{cite book\\|last\\=Power\\|first\\=Eileen\\|title\\=Medieval English Nunneries, c. 1275 to 1535\\|publisher\\=Biblo \\& Tannen Booksellers \\& Publishers Incorporat\\|year\\=1988\\|pages\\=233\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8196\\-0140\\-7\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1ll6BuF4\\-kgC\\&q\\=Ilchester\\+Nunnery\\&pg\\=PA233}} The building was expanded in 1370\\. The nunnery was dissolved in 1463 and the chapel become a free chapel,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53010\\|title\\=Chapel, Whitehall hospital and nunnery, High Street, Ilchester\\|work\\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\\|publisher\\=Somerset County Council\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} which itself was dissolved in 1548\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.somersetheritage.org.uk/record/53046\\|title\\=Augustinian nunnery, High Street, Ilchester\\|work\\=Somerset Historic Environment Record\\|publisher\\=Somerset County Council\\|access\\-date\\=9 January 2010}} A ruined building still existed in 1791, but the stone was then used to build the nearby Castle Farm.",
"Ilchester was a base for [Henry III of England](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England \"Henry III of England\") for a short period in 1250\\.",
"During the 12th century it was the [county town](/wiki/County_town \"County town\") of Somerset. The town has a 13th\\-century [mace](/wiki/Ceremonial_mace \"Ceremonial mace\") with three kings and an angel on it, which is the oldest [staff of office](/wiki/Staff_of_office \"Staff of office\") in England.{{cite book \\|title\\=Curiosities of Somerset \\|last\\=Leete\\-Hodge \\|first\\=Lornie \\|year\\=1985 \\|publisher\\=Bossiney Books \\|location\\=Bodmin \\|isbn\\=0\\-906456\\-98\\-3 \\|pages\\=73 }} It can be seen at [Ilchester Museum](/wiki/Ilchester_Museum \"Ilchester Museum\"), which is located at the Town Hall House.",
""
] |
{{anchor\|1987}} First generation (1987–1996\)
----------------------------------------------
{{See also\|Shelby Dakota}}
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= First generation
\| caption \= 1992–1996 Dodge Dakota V8
\| image \= 1st gen Dodge Dakota V8 at Radwood Austin (cropped).jpg
\| production \= 1986–1996
\| model\_years \= 1987–1996
\| platform \= \[\[Chrysler N platform\|Chrysler AN platform]]
\| related \= \[\[Shelby Dakota]]
\| body\_style \= 2\-door \[\[pickup truck]]
2\-door \[\[convertible (car)\|convertible]]
2\-door \[\[extended cab]]
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|111\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
{{convert\|123\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
{{convert\|130\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} (Club Cab)
\| length \= 1987–1990: {{convert\|185\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}/{{convert\|204\.4\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1989–1990 Club Cab: {{convert\|211\.1\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1991–93: {{convert\|184\.2\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}/{{convert\|202\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1991–93 Club Cab: {{convert\|203\.2\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1994–96: {{convert\|195\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}/{{convert\|213\.8\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1994–96 Club Cab: {{convert\|214\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| weight \=
\| height \= 1987–1990: {{convert\|64\.2\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}/{{convert\|67\.1\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1989–1993 Club Cab: {{convert\|64\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1991–93 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\|67\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1994–96 4WD: {{convert\|67\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1994–96 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\|68\.5\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1994–96 2WD: {{convert\|65\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1994–96 2WD Club Cab: {{convert\|65\.6\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| width \= 1987–88: {{convert\|68\.4\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}/{{convert\|68\.1\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1989–1996: {{convert\|69\.4\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| transmission \= 3\-speed \[\[TorqueFlite\#A998 (31RH)\|A998]] \[\[automatic transmission\|automatic]]
4\-speed \[\[TorqueFlite\#A500 (40RH/42RH/40RE/42RE/44RE)\|A500]] automatic
5\-speed \[\[manual transmission\|manual]]
\| engine \= {{convert\|2\.2\|L\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} ''\[\[Chrysler 2\.2 \& 2\.5 engine\#2\.2\|K]]'' \[\[Inline\-four engine\|I4]]
{{convert\|150\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} ''\[\[Chrysler 2\.2 \& 2\.5 engine\#2\.5\|K]]'' I4
{{convert\|150\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} ''\[\[AMC straight\-4 engine\|AMC]]'' I4
{{convert\|239\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} ''\[\[Chrysler LA engine\#239 V6\|LA]]''/''\[\[Chrysler LA engine\#Magnum 3\.9L\|Magnum]]'' \[\[V6]]
{{convert\|318\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} ''\[\[Chrysler LA engine\#318 V8\|LA]]''/''\[\[Chrysler LA engine\#Magnum 5\.2 L V8\|Magnum]]'' \[\[V8 engine\|V8]]
}}
The Dodge Dakota was developed by [Chrysler](/wiki/Chrysler "Chrysler") as a mid\-sized pickup. To keep investment low, many components were shared with existing Chrysler products and the manufacturing plant was shared with the full\-size [Dodge D/W series](/wiki/Dodge_D_series "Dodge D series"). The N\-body platform was the result of operational efforts by Harold K. Sperlich, who was in charge of Chrysler's product planning in the early 1980s.{{CN\|date\=June 2024}}
The first generation of the Dakota was produced from 1986 through 1996 (for the 1987–1996 model years). The Dakota was the first pickup truck with rack\-and\-pinion steering (2WD only, and early years were available without power steering). [Inline\-four](/wiki/Inline-four "Inline-four") and [V6 engines](/wiki/V6_engine "V6 engine") were offered along with either a five\-speed [manual](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission") or three\-speed [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission"). [Four\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") was available only with the V6\. Both 6\.5\- and 8\-foot beds were offered.
Additional options in first\-generation trucks included:
* Lowered suspension
* 15\-inch chromed road wheels
* Chrome bars along the beds
* AM/FM stereo that optionally included a cassette player, CD player, or both
* Sliding rear windows
* Chromed bumpers
* 5\.2L V8 engine
* Infinity sound systems
The sport package was added as a mid\-year release. Exterior colors came in black, bright white, and graphic red. Available in both 2WD and 4WD, the sport option included:
* AM/FM stereo radio with cassette player
* Carpeted logo floor mats
* Center armrest bench seat
* Charcoal\-silver deluxe cloth interior with fold\-down armrest
* Color\-keyed leather\-wrapped sport steering wheel
* Deluxe wipers
* Dual remote control outside mirrors
* Floor carpet
* Gauge package
* Mopar air dam with Bosch fog lamps
* Mopar light\-bar with Bosch off\-road lamps (4WD only)
* Bodyside tape stripes
* Black grille and bumpers
* Sliding rear window
* 3\.9L V6 engine
* 15\-inch aluminum wheels
{{multiple image
\| align \= right
\| direction \= vertical
\| image1 \= 89 Dakota Sport conv.jpg
\| widths \= 200
\| caption1 \=
\| image2 \= 1989 Dodge Dakota Convertible Pick\-Up 2\.jpg
\| width2 \=
\| caption2 \= 1989 Dodge Dakota Sport convertible
}}
[Fuel injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection "Fuel injection") was added to the 3\.9L V6 for 1988, but the rated output remained the same. Power windows and locks were now optional.
For 1989, the Dakota [convertible](/wiki/Convertible "Convertible") was introduced. It featured a fixed roll bar and a simple manual top. The idea came from [Jerry York](/wiki/Jerry_York_%28businessman%29 "Jerry York (businessman)") and they were manufactured by [ASC](/wiki/American_Specialty_Cars "American Specialty Cars") (American Sunroof Company).{{cite news\|url\= http://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2011/09/cars\-only\-bob\-lutz\-remembers\-the\-dodge\-dakota\-convertible/\|title\=Cars Only Bob Lutz Remembers: The Dodge Dakota Convertible \- The Truth About Cars\|date\=2011\-09\-06 \|work\=The Truth About Cars \|access\-date\=2018\-05\-03}} About 2,482 were sold during the first year.
Another addition that year was [Carroll Shelby](/wiki/Carroll_Shelby "Carroll Shelby")'s [V8](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine")\-powered [Shelby Dakota](/wiki/Shelby_Dakota "Shelby Dakota"), his first [rear\-wheel drive](/wiki/Rear-wheel_drive "Rear-wheel drive") vehicle in two decades.
An extended Club Cab model was added for 1990, still with two doors. This model offered six\-passenger seating, though the rear seat was best suited for cargo, children, and shorter adults.
[thumb\|1990 Dodge Dakota](/wiki/File:1990_Dodge_Dakota%2C_Front_Right%2C_09-09-2019.jpg "1990 Dodge Dakota, Front Right, 09-09-2019.jpg")
[thumb\|1991–1996 Dodge Dakota Club Cab](/wiki/File:Dodge_Dakota_1994_SLT.JPG "Dodge Dakota 1994 SLT.JPG")
[thumb\|1991\-only facelifted Dodge Dakota with sealed\-beam headlights](/wiki/File:1991_Dodge_Dakota_regular_cab.jpg "1991 Dodge Dakota regular cab.jpg")
The 1991 model year featured a new grille and hood for better access with optional {{convert\|170\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} 5\.2 L V8, which was included with the previous [Shelby Dakota](/wiki/Shelby_Dakota "Shelby Dakota") V8 option. By the end of 1991, the standard square sealed\-beam glass headlamps were phased out for the aerodynamic\-style molded plastic headlamps attached to the grille components. It was equipped with halogen lights, making 1991 the only model year for a unique front\-end for the Dakota. Also debuting on 1991 models were six\-bolt road wheels (replacing the earlier five\-bolt versions).
This was the last year for the Dakota convertible. To fulfill the Dodge division's commitment to the American Sunroof Company, production of the convertible version was extended into the 1991 model year. A total of eight were built. Unlike the previous years, colors and options varied more than before. This version was not advertised and did not appear in sales literature.
The 3\.9L V6 and 5\.2L V8 engines were updated to Magnum specifications for 1992, increasing rated power to about {{cvt\|230\|hp\|kW\|0}} for the V8\. The engines now had multiport electronic fuel injection (EFI) with Chrysler's [powertrain control module](/wiki/Powertrain_control_module "Powertrain control module") which was partially responsible for the improved performance.
The 1994 model year had a few minor changes, with the most notable being the addition of a standard driver's\-side airbag, located in a new, two\-spoke steering wheel (also found in the Ram). Other changes included the discontinuation of the "SE" and "LE" trims. In following with the all\-new Ram full\-sized pickups, the top\-end trim was renamed to "SLT," with these models (along with select others) including new chrome\-finished, styled six\-bolt steel wheels styled similar to the five\-bolt type found on the larger Ram. Other changes included revisions to color and overall trim options. [SRS](/wiki/Supplementary_Restraint_System "Supplementary Restraint System") [airbags](/wiki/Airbags "Airbags") were also added for 1994\. A [CD player](/wiki/CD_player "CD player") became optional, as did a combination cassette player and CD player unit. Leather seats were also available on LE models. New [alloy wheels](/wiki/Alloy_wheels "Alloy wheels") were available.
The 1996 model was the final year of the first\-generation. The base [K\-based](/wiki/Chrysler_K_engine "Chrysler K engine") 2\.5\-liter SOHC I4 engine was discontinued; it had been considered vastly underpowered compared to the competition. It was replaced by the 2\.5L [AMC straight\-4 engine](/wiki/AMC_straight-4_engine "AMC straight-4 engine"), with an OHV valvetrain and rated at {{convert\|120\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}. This was the only major change for 1996, and the AMC 2\.5L engine continued as the standard engine in the new, larger 1997 model.
### Li'l Red Express Dakota and Dakota Warrior
[thumb\|Dodge Dakota Li'l Red Express next to four of the original Dodge Lil Red Express trucks](/wiki/File:Dodge_L%27il_Red_Express_Trucks.jpg "Dodge L'il Red Express Trucks.jpg")
Two special editions of the first were constructed with step\-side beds. Both were constructed by L.E.R. Industries of Edwardsburg, Michigan. The step\-side beds were constructed out of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass "Fiberglass") and [galvanneal](/wiki/Galvanneal "Galvanneal").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cardomain.com/ride/505243/1992\-dodge\-dakota\-regular\-cab\-chassis/ \|title\=Cujo317 1992 Dodge Dakota Regular Cab \& Chassis Specs, Photos, Modification Info \|website\=CarDomain.com \|access\-date\=9 April 2019 \|archive\-date\=25 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625223649/http://www.cardomain.com/ride/505243/1992\-dodge\-dakota\-regular\-cab\-chassis/ \|url\-status\=dead }} Wooden bed rails were also available.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.oocities.org/tomcat98\.geo/warrior.html \|title\=Dakota Warrior Page \|website\=oocities.org\|access\-date\=9 April 2019}}
The Li'l Red Express Dakota was made to resemble the original 1978–1979 Express models that were based on the [Dodge D series](/wiki/Dodge_D_series%23Third_generation_%281972%E2%80%9393%29 "Dodge D series#Third generation (1972–93)"). It featured the step\-side bed and dual vertical exhaust stacks behind the cab that were non\-functional. The Dakota Warrior was made to resemble the Warlock trim from the late 1970s. Warriors included the bed as the Express, but lacked the vertical exhaust stacks. Both the Express and Warrior Dakotas had a graphics package made to resemble those of the original models.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dakota\-durango.com/forum/showthread.php?t\=3956\&page\=2\|title\=Lil' Red Express \- Page 2 \- Dakota Durango Forum \|website\=dakota\-durango.com\|access\-date\=9 April 2019}}
Production numbers for the Expresses and Warriors were in the hundreds.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.dodgedakota.net/boards/gen/25232\.html \|title\=1992 Dakota warrior \- Dodge Dakota Forum \|website\=dodgedakota.net \|access\-date\=9 April 2019}} A few were made with the 5\.2L Magnum V8 engine, which was only an option during 1992, the final model year of Express and Warrior.
### Models
The 1987–1996 Dodge Dakota came in three basic models:
[thumb\|1989 [Dodge Shelby Dakota](/wiki/Shelby_Dakota "Shelby Dakota")](/wiki/File:1989_Dodge_Dakota_Shelby.jpg "1989 Dodge Dakota Shelby.jpg")
The Dakota S was the base trim level. It included the following standard features: base vinyl seating surfaces, radio delete package, and audio system delete package (later, an AM/FM stereo with a two\-speaker audio system became standard equipment on the Dakota model with a two\-speaker audio system), a heater with fan control, vinyl flooring, a black front grille and front bumper, full\-faced steel wheels, all\-season tires, and manual "roll\-up" windows and door locks. A black painted back step bumper, air conditioning, AM/FM or AM/FM/cassette radio, and power steering were extra\-cost options. This model was not typically seen as a Club Cab model, and also was not available with a V8 engine option like the other Dakota models were.
The Sport was the mid\-range trim level. It added features such as vinyl\-and\-cloth\-trimmed seating surfaces, an AM/FM stereo with a two\-speaker audio system, sport\-styled steel wheels, bodyside cladding delete, a tilt\-adjustable steering column and wheel, and interior accents to the base Dakota model. Later, it also added chrome\-clad steel wheels, as well as a color\-keyed front fascia and front grille, and "Sport" decals that adorned the doors and pickup bed sides of the Dakota. V6 and V8 engines were available on the Sport model.
The Sport convertible was the only convertible Dakota available, and only from 1989 until 1991, when it was discontinued. It added the following features to the mid\-range Sport trim level: sport\-styled alloy wheels, cloth seating surfaces with vinyl inserts and accents, an AM/FM stereo with cassette player and a four\-speaker audio system, air conditioning, a manual\-folding vinyl convertible roof, and "Sport" decals on the doors of the Dakota. The V6 engine and two\-door regular cab was the only available configuration of the Sport convertible.
The LE, later renamed SLT, was the top\-of\-the\-line trim level. It added features such as cloth seating surfaces, air conditioning, an AM/FM stereo with cassette player and a four\-speaker audio system, alloy wheels, bodyside cladding, carpeted flooring, and power windows and door locks to the mid\-range Sport model. V6 and V8 engines were available on LE or SLT models.
### Engines
* 1987–1988: {{convert\|135\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [K](/wiki/Chrysler_2.2_%26_2.5_engine%232.2 "Chrysler 2.2 & 2.5 engine#2.2") [I4](/wiki/I4_engine "I4 engine"), [SOHC](/wiki/SOHC "SOHC"), {{convert\|94\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}
* 1987–1991: {{convert\|239\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [LA](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23239_V6 "Chrysler LA engine#239 V6") [V6](/wiki/V6_engine "V6 engine"), {{convert\|125\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}}
* 1989–1995: {{convert\|150\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [K](/wiki/Chrysler_2.2_%26_2.5_engine%232.5 "Chrysler 2.2 & 2.5 engine#2.5") I4, {{convert\|100\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}}
* 1991: {{convert\|318\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [LA](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23318_V8 "Chrysler LA engine#318 V8") [V8](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine"), {{convert\|170\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}
* 1992–1993: {{convert\|239\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_3.9_L_V6 "Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 3.9 L V6") V6, {{convert\|180\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}
* 1992–1993: {{convert\|318\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_5.2_L_V8 "Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 5.2 L V8") V8, {{convert\|230\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}
* 1994–1996: {{convert\|239\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_3.9_L_V6 "Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 3.9 L V6") V6, {{convert\|175\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}
* 1994–1996: {{convert\|318\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_5.2_L_V8 "Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 5.2 L V8") V8, {{convert\|225\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}}
* 1996: {{convert\|150\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [AMC](/wiki/AMC_straight-4_engine "AMC straight-4 engine") I4, {{convert\|120\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}}
{{clear}}
|
[
"{{anchor\\|1987}} First generation (1987–1996\\)\n----------------------------------------------",
"{{See also\\|Shelby Dakota}}\n{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= First generation\n\\| caption \\= 1992–1996 Dodge Dakota V8\n\\| image \\= 1st gen Dodge Dakota V8 at Radwood Austin (cropped).jpg\n\\| production \\= 1986–1996\n\\| model\\_years \\= 1987–1996\n\\| platform \\= \\[\\[Chrysler N platform\\|Chrysler AN platform]]\n\\| related \\= \\[\\[Shelby Dakota]]\n\\| body\\_style \\= 2\\-door \\[\\[pickup truck]] \n2\\-door \\[\\[convertible (car)\\|convertible]] \n2\\-door \\[\\[extended cab]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|111\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n{{convert\\|123\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n{{convert\\|130\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (Club Cab)\n\\| length \\= 1987–1990: {{convert\\|185\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}/{{convert\\|204\\.4\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1989–1990 Club Cab: {{convert\\|211\\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1991–93: {{convert\\|184\\.2\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}/{{convert\\|202\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1991–93 Club Cab: {{convert\\|203\\.2\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1994–96: {{convert\\|195\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}/{{convert\\|213\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1994–96 Club Cab: {{convert\\|214\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= \n\\| height \\= 1987–1990: {{convert\\|64\\.2\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}/{{convert\\|67\\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1989–1993 Club Cab: {{convert\\|64\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1991–93 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\\|67\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1994–96 4WD: {{convert\\|67\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1994–96 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\\|68\\.5\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1994–96 2WD: {{convert\\|65\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1994–96 2WD Club Cab: {{convert\\|65\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= 1987–88: {{convert\\|68\\.4\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}/{{convert\\|68\\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1989–1996: {{convert\\|69\\.4\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| transmission \\= 3\\-speed \\[\\[TorqueFlite\\#A998 (31RH)\\|A998]] \\[\\[automatic transmission\\|automatic]] \n 4\\-speed \\[\\[TorqueFlite\\#A500 (40RH/42RH/40RE/42RE/44RE)\\|A500]] automatic \n5\\-speed \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n\\| engine \\= {{convert\\|2\\.2\\|L\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} ''\\[\\[Chrysler 2\\.2 \\& 2\\.5 engine\\#2\\.2\\|K]]'' \\[\\[Inline\\-four engine\\|I4]] \n{{convert\\|150\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} ''\\[\\[Chrysler 2\\.2 \\& 2\\.5 engine\\#2\\.5\\|K]]'' I4 \n{{convert\\|150\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} ''\\[\\[AMC straight\\-4 engine\\|AMC]]'' I4 \n{{convert\\|239\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} ''\\[\\[Chrysler LA engine\\#239 V6\\|LA]]''/''\\[\\[Chrysler LA engine\\#Magnum 3\\.9L\\|Magnum]]'' \\[\\[V6]] \n{{convert\\|318\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} ''\\[\\[Chrysler LA engine\\#318 V8\\|LA]]''/''\\[\\[Chrysler LA engine\\#Magnum 5\\.2 L V8\\|Magnum]]'' \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]]\n}}",
"The Dodge Dakota was developed by [Chrysler](/wiki/Chrysler \"Chrysler\") as a mid\\-sized pickup. To keep investment low, many components were shared with existing Chrysler products and the manufacturing plant was shared with the full\\-size [Dodge D/W series](/wiki/Dodge_D_series \"Dodge D series\"). The N\\-body platform was the result of operational efforts by Harold K. Sperlich, who was in charge of Chrysler's product planning in the early 1980s.{{CN\\|date\\=June 2024}}",
"The first generation of the Dakota was produced from 1986 through 1996 (for the 1987–1996 model years). The Dakota was the first pickup truck with rack\\-and\\-pinion steering (2WD only, and early years were available without power steering). [Inline\\-four](/wiki/Inline-four \"Inline-four\") and [V6 engines](/wiki/V6_engine \"V6 engine\") were offered along with either a five\\-speed [manual](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\") or three\\-speed [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\"). [Four\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") was available only with the V6\\. Both 6\\.5\\- and 8\\-foot beds were offered.",
"Additional options in first\\-generation trucks included:\n* Lowered suspension\n* 15\\-inch chromed road wheels\n* Chrome bars along the beds\n* AM/FM stereo that optionally included a cassette player, CD player, or both\n* Sliding rear windows\n* Chromed bumpers\n* 5\\.2L V8 engine\n* Infinity sound systems",
"The sport package was added as a mid\\-year release. Exterior colors came in black, bright white, and graphic red. Available in both 2WD and 4WD, the sport option included:\n* AM/FM stereo radio with cassette player\n* Carpeted logo floor mats\n* Center armrest bench seat\n* Charcoal\\-silver deluxe cloth interior with fold\\-down armrest\n* Color\\-keyed leather\\-wrapped sport steering wheel\n* Deluxe wipers\n* Dual remote control outside mirrors\n* Floor carpet\n* Gauge package\n* Mopar air dam with Bosch fog lamps\n* Mopar light\\-bar with Bosch off\\-road lamps (4WD only)\n* Bodyside tape stripes\n* Black grille and bumpers\n* Sliding rear window\n* 3\\.9L V6 engine\n* 15\\-inch aluminum wheels",
"{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| image1 \\= 89 Dakota Sport conv.jpg\n\\| widths \\= 200\n\\| caption1 \\=\n\\| image2 \\= 1989 Dodge Dakota Convertible Pick\\-Up 2\\.jpg\n\\| width2 \\= \n\\| caption2 \\= 1989 Dodge Dakota Sport convertible\n}}\n[Fuel injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection \"Fuel injection\") was added to the 3\\.9L V6 for 1988, but the rated output remained the same. Power windows and locks were now optional.",
"For 1989, the Dakota [convertible](/wiki/Convertible \"Convertible\") was introduced. It featured a fixed roll bar and a simple manual top. The idea came from [Jerry York](/wiki/Jerry_York_%28businessman%29 \"Jerry York (businessman)\") and they were manufactured by [ASC](/wiki/American_Specialty_Cars \"American Specialty Cars\") (American Sunroof Company).{{cite news\\|url\\= http://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2011/09/cars\\-only\\-bob\\-lutz\\-remembers\\-the\\-dodge\\-dakota\\-convertible/\\|title\\=Cars Only Bob Lutz Remembers: The Dodge Dakota Convertible \\- The Truth About Cars\\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-06 \\|work\\=The Truth About Cars \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-03}} About 2,482 were sold during the first year.",
"Another addition that year was [Carroll Shelby](/wiki/Carroll_Shelby \"Carroll Shelby\")'s [V8](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\")\\-powered [Shelby Dakota](/wiki/Shelby_Dakota \"Shelby Dakota\"), his first [rear\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Rear-wheel_drive \"Rear-wheel drive\") vehicle in two decades.",
"An extended Club Cab model was added for 1990, still with two doors. This model offered six\\-passenger seating, though the rear seat was best suited for cargo, children, and shorter adults.\n[thumb\\|1990 Dodge Dakota](/wiki/File:1990_Dodge_Dakota%2C_Front_Right%2C_09-09-2019.jpg \"1990 Dodge Dakota, Front Right, 09-09-2019.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|1991–1996 Dodge Dakota Club Cab](/wiki/File:Dodge_Dakota_1994_SLT.JPG \"Dodge Dakota 1994 SLT.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|1991\\-only facelifted Dodge Dakota with sealed\\-beam headlights](/wiki/File:1991_Dodge_Dakota_regular_cab.jpg \"1991 Dodge Dakota regular cab.jpg\")",
"The 1991 model year featured a new grille and hood for better access with optional {{convert\\|170\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} 5\\.2 L V8, which was included with the previous [Shelby Dakota](/wiki/Shelby_Dakota \"Shelby Dakota\") V8 option. By the end of 1991, the standard square sealed\\-beam glass headlamps were phased out for the aerodynamic\\-style molded plastic headlamps attached to the grille components. It was equipped with halogen lights, making 1991 the only model year for a unique front\\-end for the Dakota. Also debuting on 1991 models were six\\-bolt road wheels (replacing the earlier five\\-bolt versions).",
"This was the last year for the Dakota convertible. To fulfill the Dodge division's commitment to the American Sunroof Company, production of the convertible version was extended into the 1991 model year. A total of eight were built. Unlike the previous years, colors and options varied more than before. This version was not advertised and did not appear in sales literature.",
"The 3\\.9L V6 and 5\\.2L V8 engines were updated to Magnum specifications for 1992, increasing rated power to about {{cvt\\|230\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} for the V8\\. The engines now had multiport electronic fuel injection (EFI) with Chrysler's [powertrain control module](/wiki/Powertrain_control_module \"Powertrain control module\") which was partially responsible for the improved performance.",
"The 1994 model year had a few minor changes, with the most notable being the addition of a standard driver's\\-side airbag, located in a new, two\\-spoke steering wheel (also found in the Ram). Other changes included the discontinuation of the \"SE\" and \"LE\" trims. In following with the all\\-new Ram full\\-sized pickups, the top\\-end trim was renamed to \"SLT,\" with these models (along with select others) including new chrome\\-finished, styled six\\-bolt steel wheels styled similar to the five\\-bolt type found on the larger Ram. Other changes included revisions to color and overall trim options. [SRS](/wiki/Supplementary_Restraint_System \"Supplementary Restraint System\") [airbags](/wiki/Airbags \"Airbags\") were also added for 1994\\. A [CD player](/wiki/CD_player \"CD player\") became optional, as did a combination cassette player and CD player unit. Leather seats were also available on LE models. New [alloy wheels](/wiki/Alloy_wheels \"Alloy wheels\") were available.",
"The 1996 model was the final year of the first\\-generation. The base [K\\-based](/wiki/Chrysler_K_engine \"Chrysler K engine\") 2\\.5\\-liter SOHC I4 engine was discontinued; it had been considered vastly underpowered compared to the competition. It was replaced by the 2\\.5L [AMC straight\\-4 engine](/wiki/AMC_straight-4_engine \"AMC straight-4 engine\"), with an OHV valvetrain and rated at {{convert\\|120\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. This was the only major change for 1996, and the AMC 2\\.5L engine continued as the standard engine in the new, larger 1997 model.",
"### Li'l Red Express Dakota and Dakota Warrior",
"[thumb\\|Dodge Dakota Li'l Red Express next to four of the original Dodge Lil Red Express trucks](/wiki/File:Dodge_L%27il_Red_Express_Trucks.jpg \"Dodge L'il Red Express Trucks.jpg\")\nTwo special editions of the first were constructed with step\\-side beds. Both were constructed by L.E.R. Industries of Edwardsburg, Michigan. The step\\-side beds were constructed out of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass \"Fiberglass\") and [galvanneal](/wiki/Galvanneal \"Galvanneal\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cardomain.com/ride/505243/1992\\-dodge\\-dakota\\-regular\\-cab\\-chassis/ \\|title\\=Cujo317 1992 Dodge Dakota Regular Cab \\& Chassis Specs, Photos, Modification Info \\|website\\=CarDomain.com \\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625223649/http://www.cardomain.com/ride/505243/1992\\-dodge\\-dakota\\-regular\\-cab\\-chassis/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Wooden bed rails were also available.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.oocities.org/tomcat98\\.geo/warrior.html \\|title\\=Dakota Warrior Page \\|website\\=oocities.org\\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2019}}",
"The Li'l Red Express Dakota was made to resemble the original 1978–1979 Express models that were based on the [Dodge D series](/wiki/Dodge_D_series%23Third_generation_%281972%E2%80%9393%29 \"Dodge D series#Third generation (1972–93)\"). It featured the step\\-side bed and dual vertical exhaust stacks behind the cab that were non\\-functional. The Dakota Warrior was made to resemble the Warlock trim from the late 1970s. Warriors included the bed as the Express, but lacked the vertical exhaust stacks. Both the Express and Warrior Dakotas had a graphics package made to resemble those of the original models.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dakota\\-durango.com/forum/showthread.php?t\\=3956\\&page\\=2\\|title\\=Lil' Red Express \\- Page 2 \\- Dakota Durango Forum \\|website\\=dakota\\-durango.com\\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2019}}",
"Production numbers for the Expresses and Warriors were in the hundreds.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.dodgedakota.net/boards/gen/25232\\.html \\|title\\=1992 Dakota warrior \\- Dodge Dakota Forum \\|website\\=dodgedakota.net \\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2019}} A few were made with the 5\\.2L Magnum V8 engine, which was only an option during 1992, the final model year of Express and Warrior.",
"### Models",
"The 1987–1996 Dodge Dakota came in three basic models:\n[thumb\\|1989 [Dodge Shelby Dakota](/wiki/Shelby_Dakota \"Shelby Dakota\")](/wiki/File:1989_Dodge_Dakota_Shelby.jpg \"1989 Dodge Dakota Shelby.jpg\")\nThe Dakota S was the base trim level. It included the following standard features: base vinyl seating surfaces, radio delete package, and audio system delete package (later, an AM/FM stereo with a two\\-speaker audio system became standard equipment on the Dakota model with a two\\-speaker audio system), a heater with fan control, vinyl flooring, a black front grille and front bumper, full\\-faced steel wheels, all\\-season tires, and manual \"roll\\-up\" windows and door locks. A black painted back step bumper, air conditioning, AM/FM or AM/FM/cassette radio, and power steering were extra\\-cost options. This model was not typically seen as a Club Cab model, and also was not available with a V8 engine option like the other Dakota models were.",
"The Sport was the mid\\-range trim level. It added features such as vinyl\\-and\\-cloth\\-trimmed seating surfaces, an AM/FM stereo with a two\\-speaker audio system, sport\\-styled steel wheels, bodyside cladding delete, a tilt\\-adjustable steering column and wheel, and interior accents to the base Dakota model. Later, it also added chrome\\-clad steel wheels, as well as a color\\-keyed front fascia and front grille, and \"Sport\" decals that adorned the doors and pickup bed sides of the Dakota. V6 and V8 engines were available on the Sport model.",
"The Sport convertible was the only convertible Dakota available, and only from 1989 until 1991, when it was discontinued. It added the following features to the mid\\-range Sport trim level: sport\\-styled alloy wheels, cloth seating surfaces with vinyl inserts and accents, an AM/FM stereo with cassette player and a four\\-speaker audio system, air conditioning, a manual\\-folding vinyl convertible roof, and \"Sport\" decals on the doors of the Dakota. The V6 engine and two\\-door regular cab was the only available configuration of the Sport convertible.",
"The LE, later renamed SLT, was the top\\-of\\-the\\-line trim level. It added features such as cloth seating surfaces, air conditioning, an AM/FM stereo with cassette player and a four\\-speaker audio system, alloy wheels, bodyside cladding, carpeted flooring, and power windows and door locks to the mid\\-range Sport model. V6 and V8 engines were available on LE or SLT models.",
"### Engines",
"* 1987–1988: {{convert\\|135\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [K](/wiki/Chrysler_2.2_%26_2.5_engine%232.2 \"Chrysler 2.2 & 2.5 engine#2.2\") [I4](/wiki/I4_engine \"I4 engine\"), [SOHC](/wiki/SOHC \"SOHC\"), {{convert\\|94\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n* 1987–1991: {{convert\\|239\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [LA](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23239_V6 \"Chrysler LA engine#239 V6\") [V6](/wiki/V6_engine \"V6 engine\"), {{convert\\|125\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}}\n* 1989–1995: {{convert\\|150\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [K](/wiki/Chrysler_2.2_%26_2.5_engine%232.5 \"Chrysler 2.2 & 2.5 engine#2.5\") I4, {{convert\\|100\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}}\n* 1991: {{convert\\|318\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [LA](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23318_V8 \"Chrysler LA engine#318 V8\") [V8](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\"), {{convert\\|170\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n* 1992–1993: {{convert\\|239\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_3.9_L_V6 \"Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 3.9 L V6\") V6, {{convert\\|180\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n* 1992–1993: {{convert\\|318\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_5.2_L_V8 \"Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 5.2 L V8\") V8, {{convert\\|230\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n* 1994–1996: {{convert\\|239\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_3.9_L_V6 \"Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 3.9 L V6\") V6, {{convert\\|175\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n* 1994–1996: {{convert\\|318\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_5.2_L_V8 \"Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 5.2 L V8\") V8, {{convert\\|225\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}}\n* 1996: {{convert\\|150\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [AMC](/wiki/AMC_straight-4_engine \"AMC straight-4 engine\") I4, {{convert\\|120\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}}\n{{clear}}"
] |
{{anchor\|1997}} Second generation (1997–2004\)
-----------------------------------------------
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= Second generation
\| image \= 2nd\-Dodge\-Dakota\-extcab.jpg
\| production \= July 1996 – July 2004 (North America)
1998–2001 (\[\[Brazil]])
\| model\_years \= 1997–2004
\| platform \= \[\[Chrysler N platform\|Chrysler DN platform]]
\| body\_style \= 2\-door \[\[pickup truck]]
4\-door \[\[pickup truck]]
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|111\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} (regular cab/6\.5' bed)
{{convert\|123\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} (regular cab/8' bed)
{{convert\|131\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} (Club Cab, Quad Cab)
\| transmission \= 4\-speed \[\[TorqueFlite\#A500 (40RH/42RH/40RE/42RE/44RE)\|42RE]] \[\[automatic transmission\|automatic]]
4\-speed \[\[TorqueFlite\#A500 (40RH/42RH/40RE/42RE/44RE)\|44RE]] automatic
4\-speed \[\[TorqueFlite\#A518 (46RH/46RE)\|46RE]] automatic
4\-speed \[\[Chrysler 45RFE transmission\|45RFE]] automatic
5\-speed \[\[Chrysler 45RFE transmission\|545RFE]] automatic
5\-speed NV1500 \[\[manual transmission\|manual]]
5\-speed \[\[New Venture Gear 3500 transmission\|NV3500]] \[\[manual transmission\|manual]]
5\-speed \[\[Aisin AX15 transmission\|AX\-15]] manual
\| length \= 1997–2001 Regular Cab: {{convert\|195\.8\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1997–2001 Club Cab \& 2002\-04 Quad Cab: {{convert\|215\.1\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1997–2001 Club Cab: {{convert\|214\.8\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2002–04: {{convert\|196\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}/{{convert\|215\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| width \= {{convert\|71\.5\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= 1997–99 4WD: {{convert\|68\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1997–99 \& 2002–04 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\|68\.5\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
1997–2001 2WD: {{convert\|65\.6\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}/{{convert\|65\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2000–01 4WD: {{convert\|67\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2000–01 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\|68\.6\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2000–01 Quad Cab Sport 4WD: {{convert\|68\.8\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2000–01 Quad Cab Sport 2WD: {{convert\|66\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2002–04 4WD: {{convert\|67\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2002–04 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\|67\.4\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2002\-04 Quad Cab 4WD: {{convert\|68\.5\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2002–04 2WD: {{convert\|64\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2002–04 Club Cab 2WD: {{convert\|64\.9\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
2002–04 Quad Cab 4WD: {{convert\|65\.6\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| engine \= 2\.5 L ''\[\[AMC straight\-4 engine\|AMC]]'' \[\[I4 engine\|I4]]
2\.5 L ''\[\[List of VM Motori engines\#425 OHV\|425 OHV]]'' I4 \[\[Diesel engine\|Diesel]] (Brazil)
3\.9 L ''\[\[Chrysler LA engine\#Magnum 3\.9 L V6\|Magnum]]'' \[\[V6 engine\|V6]]
5\.2 L ''\[\[Chrysler LA engine\#Magnum 5\.2 L V8\|Magnum]]'' \[\[V8 engine\|V8]]
5\.9 L ''\[\[Chrysler LA engine\#5\.9 L Magnum V8\|Magnum]]'' V8
4\.7 L ''\[\[Chrysler PowerTech engine\#4\.7\|PowerTech]]'' V8
3\.7 L ''\[\[Chrysler PowerTech engine\#3\.7 EKG\|PowerTech]]'' V6
\| related \= \[\[Dodge Durango\#First generation (DN; 1998\)\|Dodge Durango (DN)]]
\| designer \= Dennis Myles (1993\)
\| predecessor \=
}}
The second\-generation Dakota began development in 1991, with an exterior design proposal by Dennis Myles under design director John R. Starr being approved in mid\-1993 and frozen for production in January 1994, 30 months ahead of Job 1\. Design patents were filed on May 20, 1994, under D373,979 at the USPTO. The 1997 model year Dakota was unveiled via press release in the summer of 1996 and built from July 1996 through July 2004\. It inherited the [semi truck](/wiki/Semi_truck "Semi truck") look of the larger Ram, but remained largely the same underneath, although steering was updated on two\-wheel drive models to a rack\-and\-pinion system as a part of the redesign. That year had the introduction of the "R/T" model with the 5\.9L {{convert\|250\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%235.9_L_Magnum_V8 "Chrysler LA engine#5.9 L Magnum V8") V8\. At the time of its introduction, it was seen as one of the most radical in its class, not only for its styling, but also because it remained the only truck in its class with an available V8 engine that rivaled many V8s found in full\-sized trucks with payloads up to {{convert\|1500\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}.
[left\|thumb\|Interior](/wiki/File:DAKOTA_INTERIOR.JPG "DAKOTA INTERIOR.JPG")
In the spring of 1998, a new limited\-edition R/T package was available as an option on the Dakota Sport model from 1998 to 2003\. This version is considered a true street/sport truck, acting as a spiritual successor to the [Shelby Dakota](/wiki/Shelby_Dakota "Shelby Dakota"). Only available in 2WD, it included a 360 cid/5\.9\-liter V8 which produced {{convert\|250\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,400 rpm and 345 lb\-ft of torque at 3,200 rpm, mated to a 46RE four\-speed automatic. Notable features included special 17×9" cast aluminum wheels mounted on P255/55R17 tires, monotone paint, bucket seats (with optional center console), thicker front and rear stabilizer bars, a rear axle with limited\-slip differential, and suspension, braking, exhaust, and steering systems that were tuned for performance (the steering system from the R/T is the same as that from the standard Dakota), giving the R/T a ride height that was one inch lower than the standard Dakota. Chrome wheels were available on 2002 and 2003 models. Some of the last models made in 2003 came with the new stampede lower body cladding package and a chromed version of the original cast 17×9" aluminum wheels at no extra charge. This version of the R/T Dakota was produced through 2003, with the newer 2003 R/T trucks designated as their own trim line, and no longer as part of an option package on the Dakota Sport trim. The Dakota R/T could accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 6\.9 seconds and complete a quarter\-mile sprint in just over 15 seconds. It had a maximum towing capacity of {{convert\|1800\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} and a maximum payload capacity of {{convert\|970\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}.
Also in 1998, the Dakota R1 was released for production in Brazil through the efforts of a small team known as *Truck Special Programs* and featured a base four\-cylinder engine and offered a 2\.5L VMI turbodiesel along with a V8, all designed around a reinforced four\-wheel\-drive chassis used on both two\- and four\-wheel\-drive models. Altogether, 28 roll\-in\-chassis R1 configurations were designed for the Brazilian market to be built at the Curitiba assembly facility as CKDs. This program was cancelled when Chrysler was purchased by Daimler.
[thumb\|Dodge Dakota Sport Quad Cab](/wiki/File:Dodge_Dakota_Quad_Cab_Sport.jpg "Dodge Dakota Quad Cab Sport.jpg")
[thumb\|Dodge Dakota 5\.9 R/T Extended Cab, with the colour\-keyed front bumper](/wiki/File:2000_Dodge_Dakota_R-T_Pick-Up_%2834301885784%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "2000 Dodge Dakota R-T Pick-Up (34301885784) (cropped).jpg")
Gone for 2000 was the 8\-foot bed on the regular cab, but new for that year was the Quad Cab. Four\-door Quad Cab models had a slightly shorter bed, {{convert\|63\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}, but riding on the Club Cab's {{convert\|131\.0\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} wheelbase. The Quad Cab featured a full\-sized flip\-up rear seat to provide room for three passengers in the back or room for cargo. The aging 5\.2L Magnum V8 was replaced by the 4\.7L [SOHC](/wiki/SOHC "SOHC") PowerTech V8 that year, and the new 45RFE automatic transmission was introduced.
A revision of the interior was made for the 2001 models, including a completely redesigned dash, door panels, and revised seats. Other minor trim revisions were made, including redesigned aluminum wheels on various models. There were also new radio options, with only the standard AM/FM radio (with no cassette deck) being discontinued, making an AM/FM radio with a [cassette deck](/wiki/Cassette_deck "Cassette deck") standard on all models. The AM/FM radio with CD player or with both the cassette and CD players was also available.
The 2002 model was the final year for the [four\-cylinder engine](/wiki/Straight-4 "Straight-4") in the Dakota, as Chrysler ended production of the [American Motors Corporation](/wiki/American_Motors_Corporation "American Motors Corporation") design. Most were built with the V6 or V8 engines that were more powerful. An automatic transmission was not available with the four\-cylinder engine. [SIRIUS Satellite Radio](/wiki/SIRIUS_Satellite_Radio "SIRIUS Satellite Radio") was also now available as an option, and revised radios with new wiring harnesses could accommodate this new feature. A [CD changer](/wiki/CD_changer "CD changer") radio was also available, eliminating the need for a separately mounted unit located elsewhere inside the truck. The drivers could load up to six discs into the unit at a time and could switch out the discs at any time. [Radio Data System](/wiki/Radio_Data_System "Radio Data System") became standard equipment on some radios.
The 2003 model marked the end of the [OHV](/wiki/Pushrod_engine "Pushrod engine") V6 and the big R/T V8; the 2004 model year vehicles were available with a new 3\.7 L [PowerTech](/wiki/Chrysler_PowerTech_engine%233.7_EKG "Chrysler PowerTech engine#3.7 EKG") V6 engine and the 4\.7 L V8 variant.
In 2004, the cassette deck option was discontinued, and a [CD player](/wiki/CD_player "CD player") became standard equipment on all models.
This generation was also assembled and sold in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") from 1998 to 2001\.
### Trim levels
The 1997–2004 Dodge Dakota was available in several different trim levels:
The **ST** served as the base model of the Dakota. It included features such as an AM/FM stereo (later with cassette player) and a four\-speaker sound system, vinyl\-trimmed seating surfaces, front (or front and rear) bench seats, styled steel fifteen\-inch (later sixteen\-inch) wheels, and vinyl flooring. It also included, and was only available with, the 3\.9L (later 3\.7L) V6 engine. The **ST** was not offered as a four\-door Quad Cab model.
The **Sport** served as the "step\-up" Dakota model. It added the following features to the **ST** model: an AM/FM stereo with a cassette player (later, a single\-disc CD player), cloth seating surfaces, sport\-styled alloy wheels, and carpeted flooring. It was available with all engines except for the high\-performance 5\.9L V8 engine.
The **SXT**, introduced for the 2001 model year served as the "mid\-range" Dakota model. It added the following features to the **Sport** model: an AM/FM stereo with a single\-disc CD player, air conditioning, power windows and door locks with keyless entry (available as an option), and a premium interior. It was available with all engines except for the high\-performance 5\.9L V8 engine. An **SXT Plus** model was available that added "value" features such as an AM/FM stereo with cassette and single\-disc CD players with integral CD changer controls, a premium cloth interior, and sixteen\-inch alloy wheels.
The **SLT** was the "top\-line" Dakota model from late 2000\. It added the following features to the **SXT** model (2001 to 2004 model years) or the **Sport** model (1997 to 2000 model years): power windows and door locks (Sport only) with keyless entry, a premium interior (Sport only), and premium\-styled alloy or chrome\-clad wheels. It was available with all available engines on the Dakota. An **SLT Plus** Package was available that added "value" features to the **SLT** model, such as sixteen\-inch alloy wheels, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players (and integral CD changer controls on 2001 through 2004 model years), and a premium cloth interior.
The **R/T**, otherwise known as the **5\.9 R/T**, was known as the "high\-performance" and "top\-line" Dakota model from 1997 to 2003\. It added the following features to the **SLT** model: sport front seats, sport\-styled chrome\-clad wheels, larger performance\-rated tires, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and single\-disc CD players, a six\-speaker Infinity amplified premium audio system, and the high\-performance 5\.9L V8 engine. It was available in all available Dakota models except for the 4\-door Quad Cab model.
### Engines
| Years | Engine | Power | Torque | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1997–2002 | {{convert\|150\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [AMC](/wiki/AMC_straight-4_engine "AMC straight-4 engine") [I4](/wiki/I4_engine "I4 engine") | {{convert\|120\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|140\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} | |
| 1997–2003 | {{convert\|239\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_3.9_L_V6 "Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 3.9 L V6") [V6](/wiki/V6_engine "V6 engine") | {{convert\|175\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|225\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} | |
| 1997–1999 | {{convert\|318\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_5.2_L_V8 "Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 5.2 L V8") [V8](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine") | {{convert\|225\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|295\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} | |
| 1998–2003 | {{convert\|360\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%235.9_L_Magnum_V8 "Chrysler LA engine#5.9 L Magnum V8") V8 | {{convert\|250\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|345\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} | R/T |
| 1999–2001 | {{convert\|152\.5\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [VM](/wiki/VM_Motori "VM Motori")\-[425 OHV](/wiki/List_of_VM_Motori_engines%23425_OHV "List of VM Motori engines#425 OHV") I4 | {{convert\|114\|hp\|kW\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|221\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} | Brazil only |
| 2000–2004 | {{convert\|287\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [PowerTech](/wiki/Chrysler_PowerTech_engine%234.7 "Chrysler PowerTech engine#4.7") V8 | {{convert\|230\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|295\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} | |
| 2004 | {{convert\|226\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} [PowerTech](/wiki/Chrysler_PowerTech_engine%233.7_EKG "Chrysler PowerTech engine#3.7 EKG") V6 | {{convert\|210\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|235\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} | |
{{cite web \|url\= http://www.media.chrysler.com/dcxms/assets/specs/2006DodgeDakotaSpecifications.pdf \|title\=2006 Dodge Dakota Specifications \|work\=Chrysler Media \|publisher\=DaimlerChrysler \|access\-date\=April 26, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130402233608/http://www.media.chrysler.com/dcxms/assets/specs/2006DodgeDakotaSpecifications.pdf \|archive\-date\=April 2, 2013 }}
### Safety
| \+1998 Dodge Dakota (2\-door) on IIHS{{Cite web \|title\=1998 Dodge Dakota Regular cab pickup \|url\=https://www.iihs.org/ratings/vehicle/Dodge/dakota\-regular\-cab\-pickup/1998 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-23 \|website\=IIHS\-HLDI crash testing and highway safety \|language\=en}} | Category | Rating |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Moderate overlap front | Poor |
**[NHTSA](/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration "National Highway Traffic Safety Administration") crash test ratings (2003, 4\-door):**{{Cite web \|title\=2003 DODGE DAKOTA 4 DR {{!}} NHTSA \|url\=https://www.nhtsa.gov/vehicle/2003/DODGE/DAKOTA/4%2520DR \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-23 \|website\=www.nhtsa.gov \|language\=en}}
* Frontal Crash Test – Driver: {{Rating\|4\|5}}
* Frontal Crash Test – Passenger: {{Rating\|4\|5}}
* Side Impact Rating – Driver: {{Rating\|5\|5}}
* Side Impact Rating – Rear Passenger: {{Rating\|5\|5}}
* Rollover Rating: {{Rating\|3\|5}}
{{clear}}
|
[
"{{anchor\\|1997}} Second generation (1997–2004\\)\n-----------------------------------------------",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Second generation\n\\| image \\= 2nd\\-Dodge\\-Dakota\\-extcab.jpg\n\\| production \\= July 1996 – July 2004 (North America) \n1998–2001 (\\[\\[Brazil]])\n\\| model\\_years \\= 1997–2004\n\\| platform \\= \\[\\[Chrysler N platform\\|Chrysler DN platform]]\n\\| body\\_style \\= 2\\-door \\[\\[pickup truck]] \n4\\-door \\[\\[pickup truck]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|111\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (regular cab/6\\.5' bed) \n{{convert\\|123\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (regular cab/8' bed) \n{{convert\\|131\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (Club Cab, Quad Cab)\n\\| transmission \\= 4\\-speed \\[\\[TorqueFlite\\#A500 (40RH/42RH/40RE/42RE/44RE)\\|42RE]] \\[\\[automatic transmission\\|automatic]] \n4\\-speed \\[\\[TorqueFlite\\#A500 (40RH/42RH/40RE/42RE/44RE)\\|44RE]] automatic \n4\\-speed \\[\\[TorqueFlite\\#A518 (46RH/46RE)\\|46RE]] automatic \n4\\-speed \\[\\[Chrysler 45RFE transmission\\|45RFE]] automatic \n5\\-speed \\[\\[Chrysler 45RFE transmission\\|545RFE]] automatic \n5\\-speed NV1500 \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]] \n5\\-speed \\[\\[New Venture Gear 3500 transmission\\|NV3500]] \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]] \n5\\-speed \\[\\[Aisin AX15 transmission\\|AX\\-15]] manual\n\\| length \\= 1997–2001 Regular Cab: {{convert\\|195\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1997–2001 Club Cab \\& 2002\\-04 Quad Cab: {{convert\\|215\\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1997–2001 Club Cab: {{convert\\|214\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2002–04: {{convert\\|196\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}/{{convert\\|215\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|71\\.5\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= 1997–99 4WD: {{convert\\|68\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1997–99 \\& 2002–04 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\\|68\\.5\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n1997–2001 2WD: {{convert\\|65\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}/{{convert\\|65\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2000–01 4WD: {{convert\\|67\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2000–01 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\\|68\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2000–01 Quad Cab Sport 4WD: {{convert\\|68\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2000–01 Quad Cab Sport 2WD: {{convert\\|66\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2002–04 4WD: {{convert\\|67\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2002–04 Club Cab 4WD: {{convert\\|67\\.4\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2002\\-04 Quad Cab 4WD: {{convert\\|68\\.5\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2002–04 2WD: {{convert\\|64\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2002–04 Club Cab 2WD: {{convert\\|64\\.9\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \n2002–04 Quad Cab 4WD: {{convert\\|65\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| engine \\= 2\\.5 L ''\\[\\[AMC straight\\-4 engine\\|AMC]]'' \\[\\[I4 engine\\|I4]] \n2\\.5 L ''\\[\\[List of VM Motori engines\\#425 OHV\\|425 OHV]]'' I4 \\[\\[Diesel engine\\|Diesel]] (Brazil) \n3\\.9 L ''\\[\\[Chrysler LA engine\\#Magnum 3\\.9 L V6\\|Magnum]]'' \\[\\[V6 engine\\|V6]] \n5\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Chrysler LA engine\\#Magnum 5\\.2 L V8\\|Magnum]]'' \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]] \n5\\.9 L ''\\[\\[Chrysler LA engine\\#5\\.9 L Magnum V8\\|Magnum]]'' V8 \n4\\.7 L ''\\[\\[Chrysler PowerTech engine\\#4\\.7\\|PowerTech]]'' V8 \n3\\.7 L ''\\[\\[Chrysler PowerTech engine\\#3\\.7 EKG\\|PowerTech]]'' V6\n\\| related \\= \\[\\[Dodge Durango\\#First generation (DN; 1998\\)\\|Dodge Durango (DN)]]\n\\| designer \\= Dennis Myles (1993\\)\n\\| predecessor \\=\n}}",
"The second\\-generation Dakota began development in 1991, with an exterior design proposal by Dennis Myles under design director John R. Starr being approved in mid\\-1993 and frozen for production in January 1994, 30 months ahead of Job 1\\. Design patents were filed on May 20, 1994, under D373,979 at the USPTO. The 1997 model year Dakota was unveiled via press release in the summer of 1996 and built from July 1996 through July 2004\\. It inherited the [semi truck](/wiki/Semi_truck \"Semi truck\") look of the larger Ram, but remained largely the same underneath, although steering was updated on two\\-wheel drive models to a rack\\-and\\-pinion system as a part of the redesign. That year had the introduction of the \"R/T\" model with the 5\\.9L {{convert\\|250\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%235.9_L_Magnum_V8 \"Chrysler LA engine#5.9 L Magnum V8\") V8\\. At the time of its introduction, it was seen as one of the most radical in its class, not only for its styling, but also because it remained the only truck in its class with an available V8 engine that rivaled many V8s found in full\\-sized trucks with payloads up to {{convert\\|1500\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Interior](/wiki/File:DAKOTA_INTERIOR.JPG \"DAKOTA INTERIOR.JPG\")\nIn the spring of 1998, a new limited\\-edition R/T package was available as an option on the Dakota Sport model from 1998 to 2003\\. This version is considered a true street/sport truck, acting as a spiritual successor to the [Shelby Dakota](/wiki/Shelby_Dakota \"Shelby Dakota\"). Only available in 2WD, it included a 360 cid/5\\.9\\-liter V8 which produced {{convert\\|250\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,400 rpm and 345 lb\\-ft of torque at 3,200 rpm, mated to a 46RE four\\-speed automatic. Notable features included special 17×9\" cast aluminum wheels mounted on P255/55R17 tires, monotone paint, bucket seats (with optional center console), thicker front and rear stabilizer bars, a rear axle with limited\\-slip differential, and suspension, braking, exhaust, and steering systems that were tuned for performance (the steering system from the R/T is the same as that from the standard Dakota), giving the R/T a ride height that was one inch lower than the standard Dakota. Chrome wheels were available on 2002 and 2003 models. Some of the last models made in 2003 came with the new stampede lower body cladding package and a chromed version of the original cast 17×9\" aluminum wheels at no extra charge. This version of the R/T Dakota was produced through 2003, with the newer 2003 R/T trucks designated as their own trim line, and no longer as part of an option package on the Dakota Sport trim. The Dakota R/T could accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 6\\.9 seconds and complete a quarter\\-mile sprint in just over 15 seconds. It had a maximum towing capacity of {{convert\\|1800\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and a maximum payload capacity of {{convert\\|970\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
"Also in 1998, the Dakota R1 was released for production in Brazil through the efforts of a small team known as *Truck Special Programs* and featured a base four\\-cylinder engine and offered a 2\\.5L VMI turbodiesel along with a V8, all designed around a reinforced four\\-wheel\\-drive chassis used on both two\\- and four\\-wheel\\-drive models. Altogether, 28 roll\\-in\\-chassis R1 configurations were designed for the Brazilian market to be built at the Curitiba assembly facility as CKDs. This program was cancelled when Chrysler was purchased by Daimler.",
"[thumb\\|Dodge Dakota Sport Quad Cab](/wiki/File:Dodge_Dakota_Quad_Cab_Sport.jpg \"Dodge Dakota Quad Cab Sport.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Dodge Dakota 5\\.9 R/T Extended Cab, with the colour\\-keyed front bumper](/wiki/File:2000_Dodge_Dakota_R-T_Pick-Up_%2834301885784%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"2000 Dodge Dakota R-T Pick-Up (34301885784) (cropped).jpg\")\nGone for 2000 was the 8\\-foot bed on the regular cab, but new for that year was the Quad Cab. Four\\-door Quad Cab models had a slightly shorter bed, {{convert\\|63\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, but riding on the Club Cab's {{convert\\|131\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} wheelbase. The Quad Cab featured a full\\-sized flip\\-up rear seat to provide room for three passengers in the back or room for cargo. The aging 5\\.2L Magnum V8 was replaced by the 4\\.7L [SOHC](/wiki/SOHC \"SOHC\") PowerTech V8 that year, and the new 45RFE automatic transmission was introduced.",
"A revision of the interior was made for the 2001 models, including a completely redesigned dash, door panels, and revised seats. Other minor trim revisions were made, including redesigned aluminum wheels on various models. There were also new radio options, with only the standard AM/FM radio (with no cassette deck) being discontinued, making an AM/FM radio with a [cassette deck](/wiki/Cassette_deck \"Cassette deck\") standard on all models. The AM/FM radio with CD player or with both the cassette and CD players was also available.",
"The 2002 model was the final year for the [four\\-cylinder engine](/wiki/Straight-4 \"Straight-4\") in the Dakota, as Chrysler ended production of the [American Motors Corporation](/wiki/American_Motors_Corporation \"American Motors Corporation\") design. Most were built with the V6 or V8 engines that were more powerful. An automatic transmission was not available with the four\\-cylinder engine. [SIRIUS Satellite Radio](/wiki/SIRIUS_Satellite_Radio \"SIRIUS Satellite Radio\") was also now available as an option, and revised radios with new wiring harnesses could accommodate this new feature. A [CD changer](/wiki/CD_changer \"CD changer\") radio was also available, eliminating the need for a separately mounted unit located elsewhere inside the truck. The drivers could load up to six discs into the unit at a time and could switch out the discs at any time. [Radio Data System](/wiki/Radio_Data_System \"Radio Data System\") became standard equipment on some radios.",
"The 2003 model marked the end of the [OHV](/wiki/Pushrod_engine \"Pushrod engine\") V6 and the big R/T V8; the 2004 model year vehicles were available with a new 3\\.7 L [PowerTech](/wiki/Chrysler_PowerTech_engine%233.7_EKG \"Chrysler PowerTech engine#3.7 EKG\") V6 engine and the 4\\.7 L V8 variant.",
"In 2004, the cassette deck option was discontinued, and a [CD player](/wiki/CD_player \"CD player\") became standard equipment on all models.",
"This generation was also assembled and sold in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\") from 1998 to 2001\\.",
"### Trim levels",
"The 1997–2004 Dodge Dakota was available in several different trim levels:",
"The **ST** served as the base model of the Dakota. It included features such as an AM/FM stereo (later with cassette player) and a four\\-speaker sound system, vinyl\\-trimmed seating surfaces, front (or front and rear) bench seats, styled steel fifteen\\-inch (later sixteen\\-inch) wheels, and vinyl flooring. It also included, and was only available with, the 3\\.9L (later 3\\.7L) V6 engine. The **ST** was not offered as a four\\-door Quad Cab model.",
"The **Sport** served as the \"step\\-up\" Dakota model. It added the following features to the **ST** model: an AM/FM stereo with a cassette player (later, a single\\-disc CD player), cloth seating surfaces, sport\\-styled alloy wheels, and carpeted flooring. It was available with all engines except for the high\\-performance 5\\.9L V8 engine.",
"The **SXT**, introduced for the 2001 model year served as the \"mid\\-range\" Dakota model. It added the following features to the **Sport** model: an AM/FM stereo with a single\\-disc CD player, air conditioning, power windows and door locks with keyless entry (available as an option), and a premium interior. It was available with all engines except for the high\\-performance 5\\.9L V8 engine. An **SXT Plus** model was available that added \"value\" features such as an AM/FM stereo with cassette and single\\-disc CD players with integral CD changer controls, a premium cloth interior, and sixteen\\-inch alloy wheels.",
"The **SLT** was the \"top\\-line\" Dakota model from late 2000\\. It added the following features to the **SXT** model (2001 to 2004 model years) or the **Sport** model (1997 to 2000 model years): power windows and door locks (Sport only) with keyless entry, a premium interior (Sport only), and premium\\-styled alloy or chrome\\-clad wheels. It was available with all available engines on the Dakota. An **SLT Plus** Package was available that added \"value\" features to the **SLT** model, such as sixteen\\-inch alloy wheels, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players (and integral CD changer controls on 2001 through 2004 model years), and a premium cloth interior.",
"The **R/T**, otherwise known as the **5\\.9 R/T**, was known as the \"high\\-performance\" and \"top\\-line\" Dakota model from 1997 to 2003\\. It added the following features to the **SLT** model: sport front seats, sport\\-styled chrome\\-clad wheels, larger performance\\-rated tires, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and single\\-disc CD players, a six\\-speaker Infinity amplified premium audio system, and the high\\-performance 5\\.9L V8 engine. It was available in all available Dakota models except for the 4\\-door Quad Cab model.",
"### Engines",
"",
"| Years | Engine | Power | Torque | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1997–2002 | {{convert\\|150\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [AMC](/wiki/AMC_straight-4_engine \"AMC straight-4 engine\") [I4](/wiki/I4_engine \"I4 engine\") | {{convert\\|120\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|140\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | |\n| 1997–2003 | {{convert\\|239\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_3.9_L_V6 \"Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 3.9 L V6\") [V6](/wiki/V6_engine \"V6 engine\") | {{convert\\|175\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|225\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | |\n| 1997–1999 | {{convert\\|318\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%23Magnum_5.2_L_V8 \"Chrysler LA engine#Magnum 5.2 L V8\") [V8](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\") | {{convert\\|225\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|295\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | |\n| 1998–2003 | {{convert\\|360\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [Magnum](/wiki/Chrysler_LA_engine%235.9_L_Magnum_V8 \"Chrysler LA engine#5.9 L Magnum V8\") V8 | {{convert\\|250\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|345\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | R/T |\n| 1999–2001 | {{convert\\|152\\.5\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [VM](/wiki/VM_Motori \"VM Motori\")\\-[425 OHV](/wiki/List_of_VM_Motori_engines%23425_OHV \"List of VM Motori engines#425 OHV\") I4 | {{convert\\|114\\|hp\\|kW\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|221\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | Brazil only |\n| 2000–2004 | {{convert\\|287\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [PowerTech](/wiki/Chrysler_PowerTech_engine%234.7 \"Chrysler PowerTech engine#4.7\") V8 | {{convert\\|230\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|295\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | |\n| 2004 | {{convert\\|226\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} [PowerTech](/wiki/Chrysler_PowerTech_engine%233.7_EKG \"Chrysler PowerTech engine#3.7 EKG\") V6 | {{convert\\|210\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|235\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | |",
"{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.media.chrysler.com/dcxms/assets/specs/2006DodgeDakotaSpecifications.pdf \\|title\\=2006 Dodge Dakota Specifications \\|work\\=Chrysler Media \\|publisher\\=DaimlerChrysler \\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130402233608/http://www.media.chrysler.com/dcxms/assets/specs/2006DodgeDakotaSpecifications.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2013 }}",
"### Safety",
"",
"| \\+1998 Dodge Dakota (2\\-door) on IIHS{{Cite web \\|title\\=1998 Dodge Dakota Regular cab pickup \\|url\\=https://www.iihs.org/ratings/vehicle/Dodge/dakota\\-regular\\-cab\\-pickup/1998 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-23 \\|website\\=IIHS\\-HLDI crash testing and highway safety \\|language\\=en}} | Category | Rating |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Moderate overlap front | Poor |",
"**[NHTSA](/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration \"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration\") crash test ratings (2003, 4\\-door):**{{Cite web \\|title\\=2003 DODGE DAKOTA 4 DR {{!}} NHTSA \\|url\\=https://www.nhtsa.gov/vehicle/2003/DODGE/DAKOTA/4%2520DR \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-23 \\|website\\=www.nhtsa.gov \\|language\\=en}}",
"* Frontal Crash Test – Driver: {{Rating\\|4\\|5}}\n* Frontal Crash Test – Passenger: {{Rating\\|4\\|5}}\n* Side Impact Rating – Driver: {{Rating\\|5\\|5}}\n* Side Impact Rating – Rear Passenger: {{Rating\\|5\\|5}}\n* Rollover Rating: {{Rating\\|3\\|5}}\n{{clear}}"
] |
### Trim levels
The 1997–2004 Dodge Dakota was available in several different trim levels:
The **ST** served as the base model of the Dakota. It included features such as an AM/FM stereo (later with cassette player) and a four\-speaker sound system, vinyl\-trimmed seating surfaces, front (or front and rear) bench seats, styled steel fifteen\-inch (later sixteen\-inch) wheels, and vinyl flooring. It also included, and was only available with, the 3\.9L (later 3\.7L) V6 engine. The **ST** was not offered as a four\-door Quad Cab model.
The **Sport** served as the "step\-up" Dakota model. It added the following features to the **ST** model: an AM/FM stereo with a cassette player (later, a single\-disc CD player), cloth seating surfaces, sport\-styled alloy wheels, and carpeted flooring. It was available with all engines except for the high\-performance 5\.9L V8 engine.
The **SXT**, introduced for the 2001 model year served as the "mid\-range" Dakota model. It added the following features to the **Sport** model: an AM/FM stereo with a single\-disc CD player, air conditioning, power windows and door locks with keyless entry (available as an option), and a premium interior. It was available with all engines except for the high\-performance 5\.9L V8 engine. An **SXT Plus** model was available that added "value" features such as an AM/FM stereo with cassette and single\-disc CD players with integral CD changer controls, a premium cloth interior, and sixteen\-inch alloy wheels.
The **SLT** was the "top\-line" Dakota model from late 2000\. It added the following features to the **SXT** model (2001 to 2004 model years) or the **Sport** model (1997 to 2000 model years): power windows and door locks (Sport only) with keyless entry, a premium interior (Sport only), and premium\-styled alloy or chrome\-clad wheels. It was available with all available engines on the Dakota. An **SLT Plus** Package was available that added "value" features to the **SLT** model, such as sixteen\-inch alloy wheels, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players (and integral CD changer controls on 2001 through 2004 model years), and a premium cloth interior.
The **R/T**, otherwise known as the **5\.9 R/T**, was known as the "high\-performance" and "top\-line" Dakota model from 1997 to 2003\. It added the following features to the **SLT** model: sport front seats, sport\-styled chrome\-clad wheels, larger performance\-rated tires, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and single\-disc CD players, a six\-speaker Infinity amplified premium audio system, and the high\-performance 5\.9L V8 engine. It was available in all available Dakota models except for the 4\-door Quad Cab model.
|
[
"### Trim levels",
"The 1997–2004 Dodge Dakota was available in several different trim levels:",
"The **ST** served as the base model of the Dakota. It included features such as an AM/FM stereo (later with cassette player) and a four\\-speaker sound system, vinyl\\-trimmed seating surfaces, front (or front and rear) bench seats, styled steel fifteen\\-inch (later sixteen\\-inch) wheels, and vinyl flooring. It also included, and was only available with, the 3\\.9L (later 3\\.7L) V6 engine. The **ST** was not offered as a four\\-door Quad Cab model.",
"The **Sport** served as the \"step\\-up\" Dakota model. It added the following features to the **ST** model: an AM/FM stereo with a cassette player (later, a single\\-disc CD player), cloth seating surfaces, sport\\-styled alloy wheels, and carpeted flooring. It was available with all engines except for the high\\-performance 5\\.9L V8 engine.",
"The **SXT**, introduced for the 2001 model year served as the \"mid\\-range\" Dakota model. It added the following features to the **Sport** model: an AM/FM stereo with a single\\-disc CD player, air conditioning, power windows and door locks with keyless entry (available as an option), and a premium interior. It was available with all engines except for the high\\-performance 5\\.9L V8 engine. An **SXT Plus** model was available that added \"value\" features such as an AM/FM stereo with cassette and single\\-disc CD players with integral CD changer controls, a premium cloth interior, and sixteen\\-inch alloy wheels.",
"The **SLT** was the \"top\\-line\" Dakota model from late 2000\\. It added the following features to the **SXT** model (2001 to 2004 model years) or the **Sport** model (1997 to 2000 model years): power windows and door locks (Sport only) with keyless entry, a premium interior (Sport only), and premium\\-styled alloy or chrome\\-clad wheels. It was available with all available engines on the Dakota. An **SLT Plus** Package was available that added \"value\" features to the **SLT** model, such as sixteen\\-inch alloy wheels, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players (and integral CD changer controls on 2001 through 2004 model years), and a premium cloth interior.",
"The **R/T**, otherwise known as the **5\\.9 R/T**, was known as the \"high\\-performance\" and \"top\\-line\" Dakota model from 1997 to 2003\\. It added the following features to the **SLT** model: sport front seats, sport\\-styled chrome\\-clad wheels, larger performance\\-rated tires, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and single\\-disc CD players, a six\\-speaker Infinity amplified premium audio system, and the high\\-performance 5\\.9L V8 engine. It was available in all available Dakota models except for the 4\\-door Quad Cab model.",
""
] |
{{anchor\|2005}} Third generation (2005–2011\)
----------------------------------------------
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= Third generation
\| image \= Dodge\-Dakota\-extended.jpg
\| aka \= Ram Dakota (2011\)
\| production \= August 2004 – August 23, 2011
\| model\_years \= 2005–2011
\| platform \= ''ND''
\| body\_style \= 4\-door \[\[pickup truck]]
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|131\.3\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| engine \= {{convert\|226\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} ''\[\[Chrysler PowerTech engine\#3\.7 EKG\|PowerTech]]'' \[\[V6 engine\|V6]]
{{convert\|287\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} ''\[\[Chrysler PowerTech engine\#4\.7\|PowerTech]]'' \[\[V8 engine\|V8]]
\| transmission \= 4\-speed \[\[Ultradrive\#42RLE\|42RLE]] \[\[automatic transmission\|automatic]]
5\-speed \[\[Chrysler RFE transmission\#45RFE and 545RFE\|545RFE]] automatic
6\-speed \[\[Getrag]] 238 \[\[manual transmission\|manual]]
\| length \= {{convert\|218\.8\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| width \= {{convert\|76\.4\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= Club Cab: {{convert\|68\.6\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
Quad Cab: {{convert\|68\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| related \= \[\[Mitsubishi Raider]]
\[\[Dodge Durango\#Second generation (HB; 2004\)\|Dodge Durango (HB)]]
\| designer \= Cliff Wilkins (2001\)
}}
The redesigned 2005 Dakota still shared its [platform](/wiki/Automobile_platform "Automobile platform") with the new [Dodge Durango](/wiki/Dodge_Durango "Dodge Durango") [SUV](/wiki/SUV "SUV") (which was now even more similar to the Ram platform). This model was {{convert\|3\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} longer and {{convert\|2\.7\|in\|mm\|0\|abbr\=on}} wider, and features a new front and rear suspension, and rack\-and\-pinion steering. This new generation model also reverted to five\-lug wheels from the prior generation's six\-lug wheels to reduce costs and assembly times.
[left\|thumb\|2006 Dodge Dakota R/T](/wiki/File:2006_Dodge_Dakota_RT.jpg "2006 Dodge Dakota RT.jpg")
A V6 and two V8 engines were available: The standard engine is a 3\.7L PowerTech V6; the two 4\.7L V8 engines are the standard PowerTech V8 and the V8 High Output or HO. The 3\.7L V6 produces {{convert\|210\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|235\|lbft\|N.m\|abbr\=on}} of torque. The standard\-output 4\.7L V8 produces {{convert\|230\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|295\|lbft\|N.m\|abbr\=on}} of torque. The high\-output 4\.7L V8 produces {{convert\|260\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|310\|lbft\|N.m\|0\|abbr\=on}} of torque. Both the 3\.7L and standard output 4\.7L V8s were available with the six\-speed manual transmission in 2005 and 2006\. For 2007, that option was deleted on the V8 models.
In addition to a refresh of the styling, this generation was not offered in a regular cab model. Only the Club and Quad Cab configurations were available. The Dakota R/T returned in late 2005 for the 2006 model year, but only with cosmetic modifications. Despite the "R/T" moniker which signifies "Road and Track," the newest Dakota R/T was simply an option package, characterized by a non\-functional hood scoop, exclusive gauge cluster, and hockey stick–style side stripes. The package was available on both two\- and four\-wheel\-drive models.
[thumb\|2008 Dakota Quad Cab](/wiki/File:2008_Dodge_Dakota.jpg "2008 Dodge Dakota.jpg")
The facelifted third\-generation Dakota was unveiled at the [2007 Chicago Auto Show](/wiki/Chicago_Auto_Show%232007 "Chicago Auto Show#2007") as a 2008 model. The Dakota received another facelift and interior upgrade along with a few other upgrades, including built\-in cargo\-box utility rails, heated bench seats, best\-in\-class towing (up to {{convert\|7050\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}}), the largest and longest standard bed in the class, and the largest mid\-size truck cab. Its new 4\.7L V8 produced {{convert\|310\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|330\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} of torque. The standard engine remained the 3\.7L V6 with {{convert\|210\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|235\|lbft\|Nm\|0\|abbr\=on}} of torque. Production began in August 2007\.
As of 2010, the Dakota was considered a part of the [Ram](/wiki/Ram_Trucks "Ram Trucks") lineup. However, the "Dodge" emblem still existed on the tailgate, and the truck was interchangeably referred to as a Ram Dakota or Dodge Dakota. Its [Mitsubishi Raider](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Raider "Mitsubishi Raider") sibling was discontinued in 2009\.
[thumb\|Rear view of a 2007 Dakota Quad Cab](/wiki/File:2007_Dodge_Dakota_SLT_4x4_Crew_Cab%2C_rear_view.jpg "2007 Dodge Dakota SLT 4x4 Crew Cab, rear view.jpg")
The [IIHS](/wiki/Insurance_Institute_for_Highway_Safety "Insurance Institute for Highway Safety") gave this generation a "Good" rating in the frontal offset crash test.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.iihs.org/ratings/rating.aspx?id\=929 \|title\=IIHS\-HLDI:Dodge Dakota crew cab \|publisher\=Insurance Institute for Highway Safety \|access\-date\=July 10, 2012 \|archive\-date\=October 2, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002231302/http://www.iihs.org/ratings/rating.aspx?id\=929 \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Models
Throughout its production run, the 2005 to 2011 Dodge Dakota was available in three basic models:
The **ST** served as the base Dakota model. It included the following features: sixteen\-inch styled steel wheels, sixteen\-inch tires, front cloth bench seats, vinyl\-trimmed seating surfaces, manual windows and door locks, black plastic bumpers, an AM/FM stereo with a single\-disc CD player (later, single\-disc CD/MP3 player), and auxiliary audio input jack (on most models), a four\-speaker sound system, air conditioning, a 3\.7L "PowerTech" V6 engine came standard, or the optional 4\.7L "PowerTech" V8 Engine also available on the **ST** model.
The **SLT** served as the "mid\-level" Dakota model. It added the following features to the base **ST** model: sixteen\-inch sport\-styled alloy wheels, cloth seating surfaces, and power windows and door locks with keyless entry. The **SLT** was available with any engine offered on the Dakota. A **Big Horn** (or **Lone Star** in Texas) package was also available for the **SLT** model, which included "value\-added" features, as was an **SXT** package that added a color\-keyed front grille, color\-keyed front and rear bumpers, and "sport" cloth seating surfaces.
The **Laramie**, otherwise known as the **SLT Laramie**, was the "top\-line" Dakota model. It added the following features to the "mid\-level" SLT model: seventeen\-inch chrome\-clad alloy wheels, seventeen\-inch tires, an AM/FM stereo with a six\-disc, in\-dash CD/MP3 changer and auxiliary audio input jack (on most models), a premium Infinity (later Alpine) six\-speaker amplified audio system, leather\-trimmed heated seating surfaces, power front seats, a security system, a five\-speed automatic transmission, and the base 4\.7L "PowerTech" V8 engine, though the high\-output version of the same engine was also available on the **Laramie** or **SLT Laramie**.
### Safety
| \+2008 Dodge Dakota (quad cab) on IIHS{{Cite web \|title\=2007 Dodge Dakota Crew cab pickup \|url\=https://www.iihs.org/ratings/vehicle/dodge/dakota\-crew\-cab\-pickup/2007 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-23 \|website\=IIHS\-HLDI crash testing and highway safety \|language\=en}} | Category | Rating |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Moderate overlap front | {{yes\|Good}} |
| Side impact | Marginal |
| Roof strength | Marginal |
| Head restraints \& seats | {{maybe\|Acceptable}} |
|
[
"{{anchor\\|2005}} Third generation (2005–2011\\)\n----------------------------------------------",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Third generation\n\\| image \\= Dodge\\-Dakota\\-extended.jpg\n\\| aka \\= Ram Dakota (2011\\)\n\\| production \\= August 2004 – August 23, 2011\n\\| model\\_years \\= 2005–2011\n\\| platform \\= ''ND''\n\\| body\\_style \\= 4\\-door \\[\\[pickup truck]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|131\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| engine \\= {{convert\\|226\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} ''\\[\\[Chrysler PowerTech engine\\#3\\.7 EKG\\|PowerTech]]'' \\[\\[V6 engine\\|V6]] \n{{convert\\|287\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} ''\\[\\[Chrysler PowerTech engine\\#4\\.7\\|PowerTech]]'' \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]]\n\\| transmission \\= 4\\-speed \\[\\[Ultradrive\\#42RLE\\|42RLE]] \\[\\[automatic transmission\\|automatic]] \n5\\-speed \\[\\[Chrysler RFE transmission\\#45RFE and 545RFE\\|545RFE]] automatic \n6\\-speed \\[\\[Getrag]] 238 \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|218\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|76\\.4\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= Club Cab: {{convert\\|68\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \nQuad Cab: {{convert\\|68\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| related \\= \\[\\[Mitsubishi Raider]] \n\\[\\[Dodge Durango\\#Second generation (HB; 2004\\)\\|Dodge Durango (HB)]]\n\\| designer \\= Cliff Wilkins (2001\\)\n}}",
"The redesigned 2005 Dakota still shared its [platform](/wiki/Automobile_platform \"Automobile platform\") with the new [Dodge Durango](/wiki/Dodge_Durango \"Dodge Durango\") [SUV](/wiki/SUV \"SUV\") (which was now even more similar to the Ram platform). This model was {{convert\\|3\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} longer and {{convert\\|2\\.7\\|in\\|mm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} wider, and features a new front and rear suspension, and rack\\-and\\-pinion steering. This new generation model also reverted to five\\-lug wheels from the prior generation's six\\-lug wheels to reduce costs and assembly times.\n[left\\|thumb\\|2006 Dodge Dakota R/T](/wiki/File:2006_Dodge_Dakota_RT.jpg \"2006 Dodge Dakota RT.jpg\")\nA V6 and two V8 engines were available: The standard engine is a 3\\.7L PowerTech V6; the two 4\\.7L V8 engines are the standard PowerTech V8 and the V8 High Output or HO. The 3\\.7L V6 produces {{convert\\|210\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|235\\|lbft\\|N.m\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque. The standard\\-output 4\\.7L V8 produces {{convert\\|230\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|295\\|lbft\\|N.m\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque. The high\\-output 4\\.7L V8 produces {{convert\\|260\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|310\\|lbft\\|N.m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque. Both the 3\\.7L and standard output 4\\.7L V8s were available with the six\\-speed manual transmission in 2005 and 2006\\. For 2007, that option was deleted on the V8 models.",
"In addition to a refresh of the styling, this generation was not offered in a regular cab model. Only the Club and Quad Cab configurations were available. The Dakota R/T returned in late 2005 for the 2006 model year, but only with cosmetic modifications. Despite the \"R/T\" moniker which signifies \"Road and Track,\" the newest Dakota R/T was simply an option package, characterized by a non\\-functional hood scoop, exclusive gauge cluster, and hockey stick–style side stripes. The package was available on both two\\- and four\\-wheel\\-drive models.",
"[thumb\\|2008 Dakota Quad Cab](/wiki/File:2008_Dodge_Dakota.jpg \"2008 Dodge Dakota.jpg\")",
"The facelifted third\\-generation Dakota was unveiled at the [2007 Chicago Auto Show](/wiki/Chicago_Auto_Show%232007 \"Chicago Auto Show#2007\") as a 2008 model. The Dakota received another facelift and interior upgrade along with a few other upgrades, including built\\-in cargo\\-box utility rails, heated bench seats, best\\-in\\-class towing (up to {{convert\\|7050\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}), the largest and longest standard bed in the class, and the largest mid\\-size truck cab. Its new 4\\.7L V8 produced {{convert\\|310\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|330\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque. The standard engine remained the 3\\.7L V6 with {{convert\\|210\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|235\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque. Production began in August 2007\\.",
"As of 2010, the Dakota was considered a part of the [Ram](/wiki/Ram_Trucks \"Ram Trucks\") lineup. However, the \"Dodge\" emblem still existed on the tailgate, and the truck was interchangeably referred to as a Ram Dakota or Dodge Dakota. Its [Mitsubishi Raider](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Raider \"Mitsubishi Raider\") sibling was discontinued in 2009\\.",
"[thumb\\|Rear view of a 2007 Dakota Quad Cab](/wiki/File:2007_Dodge_Dakota_SLT_4x4_Crew_Cab%2C_rear_view.jpg \"2007 Dodge Dakota SLT 4x4 Crew Cab, rear view.jpg\")",
"The [IIHS](/wiki/Insurance_Institute_for_Highway_Safety \"Insurance Institute for Highway Safety\") gave this generation a \"Good\" rating in the frontal offset crash test.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.iihs.org/ratings/rating.aspx?id\\=929 \\|title\\=IIHS\\-HLDI:Dodge Dakota crew cab \\|publisher\\=Insurance Institute for Highway Safety \\|access\\-date\\=July 10, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 2, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002231302/http://www.iihs.org/ratings/rating.aspx?id\\=929 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### Models",
"Throughout its production run, the 2005 to 2011 Dodge Dakota was available in three basic models:",
"The **ST** served as the base Dakota model. It included the following features: sixteen\\-inch styled steel wheels, sixteen\\-inch tires, front cloth bench seats, vinyl\\-trimmed seating surfaces, manual windows and door locks, black plastic bumpers, an AM/FM stereo with a single\\-disc CD player (later, single\\-disc CD/MP3 player), and auxiliary audio input jack (on most models), a four\\-speaker sound system, air conditioning, a 3\\.7L \"PowerTech\" V6 engine came standard, or the optional 4\\.7L \"PowerTech\" V8 Engine also available on the **ST** model.",
"The **SLT** served as the \"mid\\-level\" Dakota model. It added the following features to the base **ST** model: sixteen\\-inch sport\\-styled alloy wheels, cloth seating surfaces, and power windows and door locks with keyless entry. The **SLT** was available with any engine offered on the Dakota. A **Big Horn** (or **Lone Star** in Texas) package was also available for the **SLT** model, which included \"value\\-added\" features, as was an **SXT** package that added a color\\-keyed front grille, color\\-keyed front and rear bumpers, and \"sport\" cloth seating surfaces.",
"The **Laramie**, otherwise known as the **SLT Laramie**, was the \"top\\-line\" Dakota model. It added the following features to the \"mid\\-level\" SLT model: seventeen\\-inch chrome\\-clad alloy wheels, seventeen\\-inch tires, an AM/FM stereo with a six\\-disc, in\\-dash CD/MP3 changer and auxiliary audio input jack (on most models), a premium Infinity (later Alpine) six\\-speaker amplified audio system, leather\\-trimmed heated seating surfaces, power front seats, a security system, a five\\-speed automatic transmission, and the base 4\\.7L \"PowerTech\" V8 engine, though the high\\-output version of the same engine was also available on the **Laramie** or **SLT Laramie**.",
"### Safety",
"",
"| \\+2008 Dodge Dakota (quad cab) on IIHS{{Cite web \\|title\\=2007 Dodge Dakota Crew cab pickup \\|url\\=https://www.iihs.org/ratings/vehicle/dodge/dakota\\-crew\\-cab\\-pickup/2007 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-23 \\|website\\=IIHS\\-HLDI crash testing and highway safety \\|language\\=en}} | Category | Rating |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Moderate overlap front | {{yes\\|Good}} |\n| Side impact | Marginal |\n| Roof strength | Marginal |\n| Head restraints \\& seats | {{maybe\\|Acceptable}} |",
""
] |
History
-------
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=May 2021}}
*The Beaver* was founded in 1920 as part of the [Hudson's Bay Company](/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company "Hudson's Bay Company")'s 250th anniversary celebrations. It was seen as a staff publication "devoted to the Interests of Those Who Serve the Hudson's Bay Company."
The first issue appeared in October 1920, under the banner, *The Beaver, A Journal of Progress*—the "successful name" in a staff competition. Five thousand copies were printed and distributed at a total cost of $570\.
According to Charles Sale, who became the 29th Governor of HBC, there was a "purely personal and domestic character" to the initial magazine. Sale felt this approach was too narrow. He envisioned *The Beaver* as "one of exceeding use to ...Staff; but also a publication that could ...be distributed to customers to their benefit and is, at the same time a practical reminder (through advertising) of the Company's existence and of the goods which it offers."
Beginning with the December 1923 issue, the company began offering the magazine to non\-Hudson's Bay employees at a rate of one dollar a year – a rate still in effect well into the '30s. The following year, the magazine ceased being a monthly publication and became a quarterly.
Significant changes took place in 1933 with the September issue. The original [digest format](/wiki/Digest_size "Digest size") was replaced by a standard magazine design. The magazine also re\-focussed its content, transitioning from "A Journal of Progress" to "A Magazine of the North."
### From digest to magazine
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=May 2021}}
The content of the new *Beaver* was broadened to "include the whole field of travel, exploration and the trade in the Canadian North as well as the current activities and historical background of the Hudson's Bay Company and all its departments throughout Canada." Staff news was de\-emphasized and would be handled by other company publications. Over the next 50 years, the magazine came into its stride. *The Beaver* came to offer a wealth of information on Canada's social, cultural, economic and commercial past.
Some of Canada's leading historians have written for the magazine including:
* [Pierre Berton](/wiki/Pierre_Berton "Pierre Berton")
* [Michael Bliss](/wiki/Michael_Bliss "Michael Bliss")
* [Donald Creighton](/wiki/Donald_Creighton "Donald Creighton")
* [Desmond Morton](/wiki/Desmond_Morton_%28historian%29 "Desmond Morton (historian)")
* [Peter C. Newman](/wiki/Peter_C._Newman "Peter C. Newman")
* [Veronica Strong\-Boag](/wiki/Veronica_Strong-Boag "Veronica Strong-Boag")
*The Beaver* was also one of the first magazines to publish the works of wildlife artist [Clarence Tillenius](/wiki/Clarence_Tillenius "Clarence Tillenius") and Arctic photographer [Richard Harrington](/wiki/Richard_Harrington_%28photographer%29 "Richard Harrington (photographer)").
In 1986, *The Beaver* became a bimonthly magazine. The publisher also decided to break with tradition and expand the focus of the magazine to include all Canadian history—introducing Atlantic and Central Canadian stories for the first time. This was reflected by the creation of a new masthead: "Exploring Canada's History."
### Acquisition by Canada's National History Society
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=May 2021}}[right\|thumb\|125px\|*Canada's History* in its former title](/wiki/Image:Beaver_2007.JPG "Beaver 2007.JPG")
In 1994, [Canada's National History Society](/wiki/Canada%27s_National_History_Society "Canada's National History Society") was founded; that same year, it acquired *The Beaver* from the [Hudson's Bay Company](/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company "Hudson's Bay Company").
While still named *The Beaver*, the [masthead](/wiki/Masthead_%28American_publishing%29 "Masthead (American publishing)") carried a new slogan: "Canada's History Magazine," and continued to publish a bimonthly mix of features, columns, reviews, notes and commentary. Under the leadership of the History Society the magazine modernized its production and promotion programs.
In 2004, the Society launched its "baby" edition, *Kayak: Canada's History Magazine for Kids*, with a French version available quarterly as an insert in [Les Debrouillards](/wiki/Les_Debrouillards "Les Debrouillards"). The magazine aims to show Canadian history in a way that children find engaging, relevant and fun.
Access to the full *Beaver* archive was achieved through the creation of an online index. With close to 15,000 records entered, visitors can conduct searches free\-of\-charge and read over five decades of articles. The creation of the index made it possible to participate in the [Canadian Content Online Program](/wiki/Canadian_Content_Online_Program "Canadian Content Online Program") and use *The Beaver* archive to highlight Canada's fur trade history with the digital project *Fur Trade Stories*.
### 2010 title change
Since the April–May 2010 issue, the magazine has been renamed *Canada's History*. At the time of the name change, the magazine was in the process of redesigning its website, and also, rebranding its publishing activities. The name change was enacted in order to unify both the print and online banners under a single Canada's History brand. The fact that there has been some confusion by people believing that the publication is a nature magazine was also cited, as well as the use of the word "beaver" in slang to refer to a [vagina](/wiki/Vagina "Vagina"), which would often result in promotional emails from the magazine being sent to the [spam](/wiki/Spamming "Spamming") folder.{{Cite web\|last\=Patriquin\|first\=Martin\|date\=2010\-02\-17\|title\=How 'The Beaver' lost its name\|url\=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/how\-the\-beaver\-lost\-its\-name/\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-02\|website\=Macleans.ca\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408052503/http://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/how\-the\-beaver\-lost\-its\-name/ \|archive\-date\=April 8, 2014 }}{{Cite web\|date\=2010\-01\-12\|title\=The Beaver changes name due to sexual connotation\|url\=https://www.ctvnews.ca/the\-beaver\-changes\-name\-due\-to\-sexual\-connotation\-1\.472975\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-02\|website\=CTVNews\|language\=en}}
American news satirist [Stephen Colbert](/wiki/Stephen_Colbert_%28character%29 "Stephen Colbert (character)") poked fun at the decision.{{cite news\|url\=https://vancouversun.com/sports/Canada\+Stephen\+Colbert\+crudely\+redefines\+national\+history/2532832/story.html\|title\=Stephen Colbert crudely redefines national history\|work\=Vancouver Sun\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211121924/http://www.vancouversun.com/sports/Canada%2BStephen%2BColbert%2Bcrudely%2Bredefines%2Bnational%2Bhistory/2532832/story.html\|archivedate\=February 11, 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=mdy\-all}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=May 2021}}\n*The Beaver* was founded in 1920 as part of the [Hudson's Bay Company](/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company \"Hudson's Bay Company\")'s 250th anniversary celebrations. It was seen as a staff publication \"devoted to the Interests of Those Who Serve the Hudson's Bay Company.\"",
"The first issue appeared in October 1920, under the banner, *The Beaver, A Journal of Progress*—the \"successful name\" in a staff competition. Five thousand copies were printed and distributed at a total cost of $570\\.",
"According to Charles Sale, who became the 29th Governor of HBC, there was a \"purely personal and domestic character\" to the initial magazine. Sale felt this approach was too narrow. He envisioned *The Beaver* as \"one of exceeding use to ...Staff; but also a publication that could ...be distributed to customers to their benefit and is, at the same time a practical reminder (through advertising) of the Company's existence and of the goods which it offers.\"",
"Beginning with the December 1923 issue, the company began offering the magazine to non\\-Hudson's Bay employees at a rate of one dollar a year – a rate still in effect well into the '30s. The following year, the magazine ceased being a monthly publication and became a quarterly.",
"Significant changes took place in 1933 with the September issue. The original [digest format](/wiki/Digest_size \"Digest size\") was replaced by a standard magazine design. The magazine also re\\-focussed its content, transitioning from \"A Journal of Progress\" to \"A Magazine of the North.\"",
"### From digest to magazine",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=May 2021}}\nThe content of the new *Beaver* was broadened to \"include the whole field of travel, exploration and the trade in the Canadian North as well as the current activities and historical background of the Hudson's Bay Company and all its departments throughout Canada.\" Staff news was de\\-emphasized and would be handled by other company publications. Over the next 50 years, the magazine came into its stride. *The Beaver* came to offer a wealth of information on Canada's social, cultural, economic and commercial past.\nSome of Canada's leading historians have written for the magazine including:\n* [Pierre Berton](/wiki/Pierre_Berton \"Pierre Berton\")\n* [Michael Bliss](/wiki/Michael_Bliss \"Michael Bliss\")\n* [Donald Creighton](/wiki/Donald_Creighton \"Donald Creighton\")\n* [Desmond Morton](/wiki/Desmond_Morton_%28historian%29 \"Desmond Morton (historian)\")\n* [Peter C. Newman](/wiki/Peter_C._Newman \"Peter C. Newman\")\n* [Veronica Strong\\-Boag](/wiki/Veronica_Strong-Boag \"Veronica Strong-Boag\")",
"*The Beaver* was also one of the first magazines to publish the works of wildlife artist [Clarence Tillenius](/wiki/Clarence_Tillenius \"Clarence Tillenius\") and Arctic photographer [Richard Harrington](/wiki/Richard_Harrington_%28photographer%29 \"Richard Harrington (photographer)\").",
"In 1986, *The Beaver* became a bimonthly magazine. The publisher also decided to break with tradition and expand the focus of the magazine to include all Canadian history—introducing Atlantic and Central Canadian stories for the first time. This was reflected by the creation of a new masthead: \"Exploring Canada's History.\"",
"### Acquisition by Canada's National History Society",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=May 2021}}[right\\|thumb\\|125px\\|*Canada's History* in its former title](/wiki/Image:Beaver_2007.JPG \"Beaver 2007.JPG\")\nIn 1994, [Canada's National History Society](/wiki/Canada%27s_National_History_Society \"Canada's National History Society\") was founded; that same year, it acquired *The Beaver* from the [Hudson's Bay Company](/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company \"Hudson's Bay Company\").",
"While still named *The Beaver*, the [masthead](/wiki/Masthead_%28American_publishing%29 \"Masthead (American publishing)\") carried a new slogan: \"Canada's History Magazine,\" and continued to publish a bimonthly mix of features, columns, reviews, notes and commentary. Under the leadership of the History Society the magazine modernized its production and promotion programs.",
"In 2004, the Society launched its \"baby\" edition, *Kayak: Canada's History Magazine for Kids*, with a French version available quarterly as an insert in [Les Debrouillards](/wiki/Les_Debrouillards \"Les Debrouillards\"). The magazine aims to show Canadian history in a way that children find engaging, relevant and fun.",
"Access to the full *Beaver* archive was achieved through the creation of an online index. With close to 15,000 records entered, visitors can conduct searches free\\-of\\-charge and read over five decades of articles. The creation of the index made it possible to participate in the [Canadian Content Online Program](/wiki/Canadian_Content_Online_Program \"Canadian Content Online Program\") and use *The Beaver* archive to highlight Canada's fur trade history with the digital project *Fur Trade Stories*.",
"### 2010 title change",
"Since the April–May 2010 issue, the magazine has been renamed *Canada's History*. At the time of the name change, the magazine was in the process of redesigning its website, and also, rebranding its publishing activities. The name change was enacted in order to unify both the print and online banners under a single Canada's History brand. The fact that there has been some confusion by people believing that the publication is a nature magazine was also cited, as well as the use of the word \"beaver\" in slang to refer to a [vagina](/wiki/Vagina \"Vagina\"), which would often result in promotional emails from the magazine being sent to the [spam](/wiki/Spamming \"Spamming\") folder.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Patriquin\\|first\\=Martin\\|date\\=2010\\-02\\-17\\|title\\=How 'The Beaver' lost its name\\|url\\=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/how\\-the\\-beaver\\-lost\\-its\\-name/\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-02\\|website\\=Macleans.ca\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408052503/http://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/how\\-the\\-beaver\\-lost\\-its\\-name/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 8, 2014 }}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-12\\|title\\=The Beaver changes name due to sexual connotation\\|url\\=https://www.ctvnews.ca/the\\-beaver\\-changes\\-name\\-due\\-to\\-sexual\\-connotation\\-1\\.472975\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-02\\|website\\=CTVNews\\|language\\=en}}",
"American news satirist [Stephen Colbert](/wiki/Stephen_Colbert_%28character%29 \"Stephen Colbert (character)\") poked fun at the decision.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://vancouversun.com/sports/Canada\\+Stephen\\+Colbert\\+crudely\\+redefines\\+national\\+history/2532832/story.html\\|title\\=Stephen Colbert crudely redefines national history\\|work\\=Vancouver Sun\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211121924/http://www.vancouversun.com/sports/Canada%2BStephen%2BColbert%2Bcrudely%2Bredefines%2Bnational%2Bhistory/2532832/story.html\\|archivedate\\=February 11, 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}",
""
] |
Notable examples
----------------
[thumb\|right\|225px\|[Caesar Augustus](/wiki/Caesar_Augustus "Caesar Augustus") and other powerful leaders of [Imperial Rome](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") have had a wide\-ranging influence upon fictional empires.](/wiki/File:Statue-Augustus.jpg "Statue-Augustus.jpg")
### Star Wars
The best known such organization to the general public today is [the Galactic Empire from *Star Wars*](/wiki/Galactic_Empire_%28Star_Wars%29 "Galactic Empire (Star Wars)"), which was formed in turn from the [Galactic Republic](/wiki/Galactic_Republic "Galactic Republic").
*Star Wars* depicts an empire ruled autocratically by [Darth Sidious](/wiki/Palpatine "Palpatine"), supported by a powerful space navy. It is stated in the [original *Star Wars* film](/wiki/Star_Wars_%28film%29 "Star Wars (film)") that there was an Imperial Senate that was later disbanded by the Emperor. There was a galactic empire called the Sith Empire founded by Darth Revan. This galactic power was close to overthrowing the Jedi's Republic during the Jedi Civil War.
As a [military dictatorship](/wiki/Military_dictatorship "Military dictatorship") based upon fear and terror, the Empire is an explicitly [villainous force](/wiki/Villain "Villain") with linguistic and visual traits directly reminiscent of [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany"). For example, their armored forces known as "[stormtroopers](/wiki/Stormtrooper_%28Star_Wars%29 "Stormtrooper (Star Wars)")" are named analogously to the *[Sturmabteilung](/wiki/Sturmabteilung "Sturmabteilung")* (often known as the *SA*), a paramilitary entity created by the Nazis in 1920\.{{cite web \|last1\=Klein \|first1\=Christopher \|title\=The Real History That Inspired "Star Wars" \|url\=https://www.history.com/news/the\-real\-history\-that\-inspired\-star\-wars \|website\=History \|access\-date\=16 March 2021}} Their best\-known weapon is the iconic [Death Star](/wiki/Death_Star "Death Star"), a [Moon](/wiki/Moon "Moon")\-sized [space platform](/wiki/Space_station "Space station") that can destroy entire planets.
In the *[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars "Star Wars")* universe, the fall of the Galactic Republic and its replacement by the Galactic Empire – as depicted in *[Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith "Episode III – Revenge of the Sith")* – recall the historic fall of the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic") and its replacement by the Roman Empire headed by [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus "Augustus").
The term "galactic empire" has, perhaps because of association with the Empire from *[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars "Star Wars")*, gained a pejorative meaning.
### Foundation and CoDominium
In contrast to Star Wars, the galactic empires from the *[Foundation](/wiki/Foundation_%28book_series%29 "Foundation (book series)")* universe and the *[CoDominium](/wiki/CoDominium "CoDominium")* universe are relatively benign organizations. Much of the plot of the *Foundation* series, authored by [Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov "Isaac Asimov"), revolves around who can best and most quickly revive the [fallen galactic empire](/wiki/Galactic_Empire_%28Isaac_Asimov%29 "Galactic Empire (Isaac Asimov)"); it is taken for granted that this is a positive and worthy aim. In writer [Jerry Pournelle](/wiki/Jerry_Pournelle "Jerry Pournelle")'s *CoDominium* series, members of the empire often work to maintain the best interests of humanity despite efforts by violent political extremists to pursue their own ends.
Galactic empires are in many cases consciously modeled on historical Earth\-bound empires. Asimov stated explicitly that the Galactic Empire whose fall is depicted in his *Foundation* books is also modeled on the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"), with the author taking direct inspiration from the [historical writings](/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire") of [Edward Gibbon](/wiki/Edward_Gibbon "Edward Gibbon"), even to the point of basing some [individual characters](/wiki/Bel_Riose%23Origin "Bel Riose#Origin") on historical figures. Specifically, *[Pebble in the Sky](/wiki/Pebble_in_the_Sky "Pebble in the Sky")*, which is set on Earth – a poor and backward province of the Galactic Empire – is modeled on Roman\-ruled [Judea](/wiki/Judea_%28Roman_province%29 "Judea (Roman province)") in the 1st century AD. Asimov's Earth – like the historical Judea – is sharply polarized between those who accept the Imperial authority and the fanatic "[Zealots](/wiki/Zealots "Zealots")" who hatch violent plots of bloody rebellion and are the book's clear villains.{{cite journal\|last\=Gallant\|first\=Joseph\|date\=January 1, 1951\|title\=Earth People vs. the Galaxy\|journal\=Commentary\|volume\=12\|pages\=303–304\|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1290130442\|id\={{ProQuest\|1290130442}}}}
*Foundation* is depicted as having started life as a Foundation of scholars, taking up just one city on one faraway planet and setting up a modest municipal government headed, naturally, by a [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor "Mayor"). Through a centuries\-long series of developments which are the main subject matter of the [Foundation Series](/wiki/Foundation_Series "Foundation Series"), the Foundation gains enormous power and territory and comes to rule virtually as many stellar systems as the earlier fallen Empire \- but continues to call itself "Foundation" rather than "Empire", and its ruler \- though wielding as much power as any Emperor \- retains the title of "Mayor".
### Dominic Flandry
Writer [Poul Anderson](/wiki/Poul_Anderson "Poul Anderson") makes the point that the declining empire depicted in his *[Dominic Flandry](/wiki/Dominic_Flandry "Dominic Flandry")* series does not span the entire galaxy but only a fraction of one of its spiral arms. Nevertheless, the institution is vast beyond a regular human's ability to truly comprehend, and it is in the process of collapsing under its own weight.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2017}} This series also consciously compares its imperial organization with the Roman Empire, to the point of tracing out the space equivalents of the Roman '[Principate](/wiki/Principate "Principate")' and '[Dominate](/wiki/Dominate "Dominate")' phases.
### Dune
The universe established in [Frank Herbert](/wiki/Frank_Herbert "Frank Herbert")'s *[Dune](/wiki/Dune_%28novel%29 "Dune (novel)")* once again recalls the Holy Roman Empire, as well as the [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") and [Islamic](/wiki/List_of_Muslim_empires_and_dynasties "List of Muslim empires and dynasties") empires, especially given the role of hitherto disregarded desert\-dwellers who, due to a powerful new religion, expand to topple an old empire and build a new one. For example, the Egyptian\-Canadian commentator Khalid M. Baheyeldin has enumerated the obviously Islamic concepts and references appearing in *Dune* to the level of finding multiple similarities between the career of Herbert's [Paul Atreides](/wiki/Paul_Atreides "Paul Atreides") and that of the Islamic prophet [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad "Muhammad").{{cite web \| url\=http://islamscifi.com/frank\-herberts\-dune/ \| title\=Frank Herbert's Dune – Islam and Science Fiction }}
In *Dune*, the empire's power is held within three organizations: the Imperial family; the [Landsraad](/wiki/Landsraad "Landsraad"), representing the [nobility](/wiki/Nobility "Nobility"); and the [Spacing Guild](/wiki/Spacing_Guild "Spacing Guild"), an interstellar travel monopoly.
### Warhammer 40,000
Another notable example of a galactic empire is the [Imperium of Man](/wiki/Imperium_of_Man "Imperium of Man") from the [Warhammer 40,000](/wiki/Warhammer_40%2C000 "Warhammer 40,000") universe, which is a [feudal](/wiki/Feudal "Feudal") [theocratic](/wiki/Theocracy "Theocracy") industrial and [militaristic](/wiki/Militaristic "Militaristic") [totalitarian](/wiki/Totalitarian "Totalitarian") regime (nominally an [absolute monarchy](/wiki/Absolute_monarchy "Absolute monarchy")) that does in fact span almost the entirety of the [Milky Way Galaxy](/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxy "Milky Way Galaxy"). Despite massive strength, the institution's territories are constantly at risk due to unending conflicts with various [alien races and rebel factions](/wiki/Warhammer_40%2C000_species "Warhammer 40,000 species"). The Imperium of Man is managed by a vast bureaucracy, ranging from the High Lords of Terra to various mostly\-autonomous planetary governors (they can do whatever they like so long as they pay taxes), all of whom govern the Imperium's territories on behalf of the comatose God\-Emperor. It is supported by several organisations, such as the Ecclesiarchy, its state church; and the Adeptus Mechanicus, which produces most of its military equipment, which also operate independently from each other and the central Terran government.
### Others
In the final arc of the *[Sailor Moon](/wiki/Sailor_Moon "Sailor Moon")* manga series by [Naoko Takeuchi](/wiki/Naoko_Takeuchi "Naoko Takeuchi"), a fictional organization called [Shadow Galactica](/wiki/Shadow_Galactica "Shadow Galactica") has established an empire all over the Milky Way. Shadow Galactica is stealing "starseeds", the essence of sentient life in the galaxy. Its members come from different Star Systems and Sailor Galaxia, the self\-proclaimed "Golden Queen of Shadow Galactica", has built her palace around the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all life in the Milky Way located in [Galactic Center](/wiki/Galactic_Center "Galactic Center").
[Bertram Chandler](/wiki/Bertram_Chandler "Bertram Chandler") wrote two interstellar series – one [featuring a Galactic Empire](/wiki/A._Bertram_Chandler%23Empress_Irene_series "A. Bertram Chandler#Empress Irene series") ruled by a series of non\-hereditary Empresses while the other has [a Republican Galactic Federation](/wiki/A._Bertram_Chandler%23John_Grimes_novels "A. Bertram Chandler#John Grimes novels"). Chandler's Empire and Federation, both relatively benign, have much in common – both covering the same volume of space, having much the same kind of Space Navy and both having the same commercial spaceflight company called "The Dog Star Line", suggesting that these are two [alternate history](/wiki/Alternate_history "Alternate history") timelines which branched off from the same original space travelling culture.
In [Ursula K. Le Guin](/wiki/Ursula_K._Le_Guin "Ursula K. Le Guin")'s [Hainish Cycle](/wiki/Hainish_Cycle "Hainish Cycle"), the interstellar entity known as "The League of All Worlds" and later as "The Ekumen" is in possession of the '[ansible](/wiki/Ansible "Ansible")' (a tachyonic device). Technology makes possible instantaneous interstellar communications, and the ability to send instantaneous unmanned ships carrying bombs to another planet is exploited as well. However, living beings cannot survive such travel, and thus humans are limited to space exploration at relativistic speeds. Correspondingly, this organization, despite on occasion waging war across interstellar distances, ends up being looser than a true empire.
Author [Orson Scott Card](/wiki/Orson_Scott_Card "Orson Scott Card")'s "Starways Congress", an organization featured in the work *[Speaker for the Dead](/wiki/Speaker_for_the_Dead "Speaker for the Dead")* (the follow\-up to *[Ender's Game](/wiki/Ender%27s_Game "Ender's Game")*), similarly relies on the ansible. Yet it is more [authoritarian](/wiki/Authoritarian "Authoritarian") and less benevolent than Le Guin's creation. Much of the story\-line of the book and its sequels involves attempts to avoid interstellar bloodshed despite difficult circumstances.
|
[
"Notable examples\n----------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|225px\\|[Caesar Augustus](/wiki/Caesar_Augustus \"Caesar Augustus\") and other powerful leaders of [Imperial Rome](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") have had a wide\\-ranging influence upon fictional empires.](/wiki/File:Statue-Augustus.jpg \"Statue-Augustus.jpg\")\n### Star Wars",
"The best known such organization to the general public today is [the Galactic Empire from *Star Wars*](/wiki/Galactic_Empire_%28Star_Wars%29 \"Galactic Empire (Star Wars)\"), which was formed in turn from the [Galactic Republic](/wiki/Galactic_Republic \"Galactic Republic\").",
"*Star Wars* depicts an empire ruled autocratically by [Darth Sidious](/wiki/Palpatine \"Palpatine\"), supported by a powerful space navy. It is stated in the [original *Star Wars* film](/wiki/Star_Wars_%28film%29 \"Star Wars (film)\") that there was an Imperial Senate that was later disbanded by the Emperor. There was a galactic empire called the Sith Empire founded by Darth Revan. This galactic power was close to overthrowing the Jedi's Republic during the Jedi Civil War.",
"As a [military dictatorship](/wiki/Military_dictatorship \"Military dictatorship\") based upon fear and terror, the Empire is an explicitly [villainous force](/wiki/Villain \"Villain\") with linguistic and visual traits directly reminiscent of [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\"). For example, their armored forces known as \"[stormtroopers](/wiki/Stormtrooper_%28Star_Wars%29 \"Stormtrooper (Star Wars)\")\" are named analogously to the *[Sturmabteilung](/wiki/Sturmabteilung \"Sturmabteilung\")* (often known as the *SA*), a paramilitary entity created by the Nazis in 1920\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Klein \\|first1\\=Christopher \\|title\\=The Real History That Inspired \"Star Wars\" \\|url\\=https://www.history.com/news/the\\-real\\-history\\-that\\-inspired\\-star\\-wars \\|website\\=History \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2021}} Their best\\-known weapon is the iconic [Death Star](/wiki/Death_Star \"Death Star\"), a [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\")\\-sized [space platform](/wiki/Space_station \"Space station\") that can destroy entire planets.",
"In the *[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars \"Star Wars\")* universe, the fall of the Galactic Republic and its replacement by the Galactic Empire – as depicted in *[Revenge of the Sith](/wiki/Star_Wars:Episode_III_%E2%80%93_Revenge_of_the_Sith \"Episode III – Revenge of the Sith\")* – recall the historic fall of the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\") and its replacement by the Roman Empire headed by [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\").",
"The term \"galactic empire\" has, perhaps because of association with the Empire from *[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars \"Star Wars\")*, gained a pejorative meaning.",
"### Foundation and CoDominium",
"In contrast to Star Wars, the galactic empires from the *[Foundation](/wiki/Foundation_%28book_series%29 \"Foundation (book series)\")* universe and the *[CoDominium](/wiki/CoDominium \"CoDominium\")* universe are relatively benign organizations. Much of the plot of the *Foundation* series, authored by [Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov \"Isaac Asimov\"), revolves around who can best and most quickly revive the [fallen galactic empire](/wiki/Galactic_Empire_%28Isaac_Asimov%29 \"Galactic Empire (Isaac Asimov)\"); it is taken for granted that this is a positive and worthy aim. In writer [Jerry Pournelle](/wiki/Jerry_Pournelle \"Jerry Pournelle\")'s *CoDominium* series, members of the empire often work to maintain the best interests of humanity despite efforts by violent political extremists to pursue their own ends.",
"Galactic empires are in many cases consciously modeled on historical Earth\\-bound empires. Asimov stated explicitly that the Galactic Empire whose fall is depicted in his *Foundation* books is also modeled on the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"), with the author taking direct inspiration from the [historical writings](/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire \"The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\") of [Edward Gibbon](/wiki/Edward_Gibbon \"Edward Gibbon\"), even to the point of basing some [individual characters](/wiki/Bel_Riose%23Origin \"Bel Riose#Origin\") on historical figures. Specifically, *[Pebble in the Sky](/wiki/Pebble_in_the_Sky \"Pebble in the Sky\")*, which is set on Earth – a poor and backward province of the Galactic Empire – is modeled on Roman\\-ruled [Judea](/wiki/Judea_%28Roman_province%29 \"Judea (Roman province)\") in the 1st century AD. Asimov's Earth – like the historical Judea – is sharply polarized between those who accept the Imperial authority and the fanatic \"[Zealots](/wiki/Zealots \"Zealots\")\" who hatch violent plots of bloody rebellion and are the book's clear villains.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Gallant\\|first\\=Joseph\\|date\\=January 1, 1951\\|title\\=Earth People vs. the Galaxy\\|journal\\=Commentary\\|volume\\=12\\|pages\\=303–304\\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1290130442\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|1290130442}}}}",
"*Foundation* is depicted as having started life as a Foundation of scholars, taking up just one city on one faraway planet and setting up a modest municipal government headed, naturally, by a [Mayor](/wiki/Mayor \"Mayor\"). Through a centuries\\-long series of developments which are the main subject matter of the [Foundation Series](/wiki/Foundation_Series \"Foundation Series\"), the Foundation gains enormous power and territory and comes to rule virtually as many stellar systems as the earlier fallen Empire \\- but continues to call itself \"Foundation\" rather than \"Empire\", and its ruler \\- though wielding as much power as any Emperor \\- retains the title of \"Mayor\".",
"### Dominic Flandry",
"Writer [Poul Anderson](/wiki/Poul_Anderson \"Poul Anderson\") makes the point that the declining empire depicted in his *[Dominic Flandry](/wiki/Dominic_Flandry \"Dominic Flandry\")* series does not span the entire galaxy but only a fraction of one of its spiral arms. Nevertheless, the institution is vast beyond a regular human's ability to truly comprehend, and it is in the process of collapsing under its own weight.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2017}} This series also consciously compares its imperial organization with the Roman Empire, to the point of tracing out the space equivalents of the Roman '[Principate](/wiki/Principate \"Principate\")' and '[Dominate](/wiki/Dominate \"Dominate\")' phases.",
"### Dune",
"The universe established in [Frank Herbert](/wiki/Frank_Herbert \"Frank Herbert\")'s *[Dune](/wiki/Dune_%28novel%29 \"Dune (novel)\")* once again recalls the Holy Roman Empire, as well as the [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") and [Islamic](/wiki/List_of_Muslim_empires_and_dynasties \"List of Muslim empires and dynasties\") empires, especially given the role of hitherto disregarded desert\\-dwellers who, due to a powerful new religion, expand to topple an old empire and build a new one. For example, the Egyptian\\-Canadian commentator Khalid M. Baheyeldin has enumerated the obviously Islamic concepts and references appearing in *Dune* to the level of finding multiple similarities between the career of Herbert's [Paul Atreides](/wiki/Paul_Atreides \"Paul Atreides\") and that of the Islamic prophet [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad \"Muhammad\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://islamscifi.com/frank\\-herberts\\-dune/ \\| title\\=Frank Herbert's Dune – Islam and Science Fiction }}",
"In *Dune*, the empire's power is held within three organizations: the Imperial family; the [Landsraad](/wiki/Landsraad \"Landsraad\"), representing the [nobility](/wiki/Nobility \"Nobility\"); and the [Spacing Guild](/wiki/Spacing_Guild \"Spacing Guild\"), an interstellar travel monopoly.",
"### Warhammer 40,000",
"Another notable example of a galactic empire is the [Imperium of Man](/wiki/Imperium_of_Man \"Imperium of Man\") from the [Warhammer 40,000](/wiki/Warhammer_40%2C000 \"Warhammer 40,000\") universe, which is a [feudal](/wiki/Feudal \"Feudal\") [theocratic](/wiki/Theocracy \"Theocracy\") industrial and [militaristic](/wiki/Militaristic \"Militaristic\") [totalitarian](/wiki/Totalitarian \"Totalitarian\") regime (nominally an [absolute monarchy](/wiki/Absolute_monarchy \"Absolute monarchy\")) that does in fact span almost the entirety of the [Milky Way Galaxy](/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxy \"Milky Way Galaxy\"). Despite massive strength, the institution's territories are constantly at risk due to unending conflicts with various [alien races and rebel factions](/wiki/Warhammer_40%2C000_species \"Warhammer 40,000 species\"). The Imperium of Man is managed by a vast bureaucracy, ranging from the High Lords of Terra to various mostly\\-autonomous planetary governors (they can do whatever they like so long as they pay taxes), all of whom govern the Imperium's territories on behalf of the comatose God\\-Emperor. It is supported by several organisations, such as the Ecclesiarchy, its state church; and the Adeptus Mechanicus, which produces most of its military equipment, which also operate independently from each other and the central Terran government.",
"### Others",
"In the final arc of the *[Sailor Moon](/wiki/Sailor_Moon \"Sailor Moon\")* manga series by [Naoko Takeuchi](/wiki/Naoko_Takeuchi \"Naoko Takeuchi\"), a fictional organization called [Shadow Galactica](/wiki/Shadow_Galactica \"Shadow Galactica\") has established an empire all over the Milky Way. Shadow Galactica is stealing \"starseeds\", the essence of sentient life in the galaxy. Its members come from different Star Systems and Sailor Galaxia, the self\\-proclaimed \"Golden Queen of Shadow Galactica\", has built her palace around the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all life in the Milky Way located in [Galactic Center](/wiki/Galactic_Center \"Galactic Center\").",
"[Bertram Chandler](/wiki/Bertram_Chandler \"Bertram Chandler\") wrote two interstellar series – one [featuring a Galactic Empire](/wiki/A._Bertram_Chandler%23Empress_Irene_series \"A. Bertram Chandler#Empress Irene series\") ruled by a series of non\\-hereditary Empresses while the other has [a Republican Galactic Federation](/wiki/A._Bertram_Chandler%23John_Grimes_novels \"A. Bertram Chandler#John Grimes novels\"). Chandler's Empire and Federation, both relatively benign, have much in common – both covering the same volume of space, having much the same kind of Space Navy and both having the same commercial spaceflight company called \"The Dog Star Line\", suggesting that these are two [alternate history](/wiki/Alternate_history \"Alternate history\") timelines which branched off from the same original space travelling culture.",
"In [Ursula K. Le Guin](/wiki/Ursula_K._Le_Guin \"Ursula K. Le Guin\")'s [Hainish Cycle](/wiki/Hainish_Cycle \"Hainish Cycle\"), the interstellar entity known as \"The League of All Worlds\" and later as \"The Ekumen\" is in possession of the '[ansible](/wiki/Ansible \"Ansible\")' (a tachyonic device). Technology makes possible instantaneous interstellar communications, and the ability to send instantaneous unmanned ships carrying bombs to another planet is exploited as well. However, living beings cannot survive such travel, and thus humans are limited to space exploration at relativistic speeds. Correspondingly, this organization, despite on occasion waging war across interstellar distances, ends up being looser than a true empire.",
"Author [Orson Scott Card](/wiki/Orson_Scott_Card \"Orson Scott Card\")'s \"Starways Congress\", an organization featured in the work *[Speaker for the Dead](/wiki/Speaker_for_the_Dead \"Speaker for the Dead\")* (the follow\\-up to *[Ender's Game](/wiki/Ender%27s_Game \"Ender's Game\")*), similarly relies on the ansible. Yet it is more [authoritarian](/wiki/Authoritarian \"Authoritarian\") and less benevolent than Le Guin's creation. Much of the story\\-line of the book and its sequels involves attempts to avoid interstellar bloodshed despite difficult circumstances.",
""
] |
Mixed martial arts career
-------------------------
### Background and early career
Silva comes from [Vila Velha](/wiki/Vila_Velha "Vila Velha"), Brazil and was an X\-Gym training partner for the likes of [Anderson Silva](/wiki/Anderson_Silva "Anderson Silva"), [Rafael Feijao](/wiki/Rafael_Cavalcante "Rafael Cavalcante") and [Jacare Souza](/wiki/Ronaldo_Souza "Ronaldo Souza").
### Jungle Fight Championship
Silva joined Jungle Fight, appearing at Jungle Fight 9 against Carlos Eduardo dos Santos. In the third and final round, Silva defeated dos Santos via rear naked choke.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/events/JF\-9\-Warriors\-7799\|title\=Jungle Fight 9 \- Warriors\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|date\=May 31, 2008}}
At Jungle Fight 11, he defeated Igor Fernandes via unanimous decision.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/pictures/event/2/Jungle\-Fight\-11\-Pictures\-14445\|title\=Jungle Fight 11 Pictures: Erick Silva vs. Igor Santos\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|date\=September 18, 2008}} Silva followed that up with two further victories in the promotion.
Silva then competed in a unique fight of his career, at Jungle Fight 17, which was held outdoors. On the day of the event, the weather was clear throughout, until less than an hour before the start, when rain began to fall and never stopped.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Rain\-Falls\-on\-Jungle\-Fight\-17\-Mondragon\-Loses\-22951\|title\=Rain falls on Jungle Fight 17; Mondragon loses\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|date\=February 28, 2010}} The event, which went down as one of the wettest in MMA history was not a successful one for Silva who hit his downed opponent with a knee, resulting in a no contest verdict.
Silva won his next fight, at Jungle Fight 21, via TKO (knee and punches) in the second round.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/pictures/event/8/Pictures\-Jungle\-Fight\-21\-26041\|title\=Pictures: Jungle Fight 21: Erick Silva vs. Jose Gomes de Ribamar\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|date\=August 11, 2010}}
Silva then entered into the tournament for the inaugural Jungle Fight Welterweight Championship at Jungle Fight 23\. Silva defeated both opponents on the same night to win the tournament.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Hot\-Prospect\-Erick\-Silva\-Wins\-Jungle\-Fight\-Title\-in\-Belem\-27862\|title\=Hot prospect Erick Silva wins Jungle Fight title in Belem\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|date\=October 31, 2010}} His opening round matchup was against Gil de Freitas. The opening round saw Silva utilize his striking game to take the first round, though de Freitas came back strongly in the second round with his take downs and effective ground game. In the final round, Silva caught de Freitas with a roundhouse kick to the liver, dropping him. After Silva used ground\-and\-pound to set up a guillotine choke, de Freitas was forced to tap out.
Silva progressed to the tournament final, where he faced the Mexican, Francisco Ayon. Ayon had just come off a split decision victory in the semi\-final and he wasn't able to mount any offense against Silva, who took him down. After hitting him with several punches, Silva locked in an arm triangle choke to force the tap out with just 67 seconds on the clock. Silva therefore became the inaugural Jungle Fight Welterweight champion.
### Ultimate Fighting Championship
Silva signed with the UFC in early 2011\. He was expected to make his debut against [Mike Swick](/wiki/Mike_Swick "Mike Swick") at [UFC 134](/wiki/UFC_134 "UFC 134"). However, on August 4, 2011, it was announced that Swick had to withdraw from the bout due to a knee injury and was replaced by [Luis Ramos](/wiki/Luis_Ramos_%28fighter%29 "Luis Ramos (fighter)"). Silva won quickly via first round TKO due to punches.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tatame.com/2011/08/05/Breaking\-\-Luis\-Ramos\-replaces\-Mike\-Swick\-fights\-Erick\-Silva\-at\-UFC\-Rio\|title\=Luis Ramos replaces Mike Swick, fights Erick Silva at UFC Rio\|publisher\=tatame.com\|date\=August 5, 2011\|access\-date\=August 5, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326083131/http://www.tatame.com/2011/08/05/Breaking\-\-Luis\-Ramos\-replaces\-Mike\-Swick\-fights\-Erick\-Silva\-at\-UFC\-Rio\|archive\-date\=March 26, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}}
Silva was expected to face promotional newcomer [Siyar Bahadurzada](/wiki/Siyar_Bahadurzada "Siyar Bahadurzada") on January 14, 2012, at [UFC 142](/wiki/UFC_142 "UFC 142").{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/26091/siyar\-bahadurzada\-im\-facing\-erick\-silva\-at\-ufc\-142\-in\-brazil.mma\|title\=Siyar Bahadurzada: I'm facing Erick Silva at UFC 142 in Brazil\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|date\=November 14, 2011\|access\-date\=November 14, 2011\|archive\-date\=July 10, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120710093618/mmajunkie.com/news/26091/siyar\-bahadurzada\-im\-facing\-erick\-silva\-at\-ufc\-142\-in\-brazil.mma\|url\-status\=dead}} However, Bahadurzada was forced out of the bout with an injury and replaced by [Carlo Prater](/wiki/Carlo_Prater "Carlo Prater").{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/26582/wec\-vet\-carlo\-prater\-meets\-erick\-silva\-as\-injury\-replacement\-at\-ufc\-142\.mma\|title\=WEC vet Carlo Prater meets Erick Silva as injury replacement at UFC 142\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|date\=December 16, 2011\|access\-date\=January 4, 2012\|archive\-date\=July 12, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120712211919/mmajunkie.com/news/26582/wec\-vet\-carlo\-prater\-meets\-erick\-silva\-as\-injury\-replacement\-at\-ufc\-142\.mma\|url\-status\=dead}} After missing a looping right hook in the opening seconds of the fight, Silva quickly followed with a left knee to the body which effectively knocked Prater down. Prater caught Silva's knee and held on to his leg as Silva began attacking with hammer fists and punches to the head. During the attack, the referee, [Mario Yamasaki](/wiki/Mario_Yamasaki "Mario Yamasaki"), repeatedly warned Silva not to hit the back of the head. When Prater appeared to go unconscious and could no longer intelligently defend himself, Yamasaki stepped in and stopped the fight. Although Silva appeared victorious, Yamasaki disqualified Silva for strikes to the back of the head. The disqualification was later upheld by the UFC.{{cite web \|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/27052/ufc\-makes\-ruling\-on\-erick\-silvas\-ufc\-142\-disqualification\-the\-loss\-stands.mma \|title\=UFC makes ruling on Erick Silva's UFC 142 disqualification: The loss stands \|publisher\=mmajunkie.com \|date\=January 19, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122091614/http://mmajunkie.com/news/27052/ufc\-makes\-ruling\-on\-erick\-silvas\-ufc\-142\-disqualification\-the\-loss\-stands.mma \|archive\-date\=2012\-01\-22 }}
Silva then faced [Charlie Brenneman](/wiki/Charlie_Brenneman "Charlie Brenneman") on June 8, 2012, at [UFC on FX 3](/wiki/UFC_on_FX:Johnson_vs._McCall "Johnson vs. McCall").{{cite web \|url\=http://sportv.globo.com/site/eventos/combate/noticia/2012/03/americano\-charlie\-brenneman\-sera\-o\-proximo\-adversario\-de\-erick\-silva.html\|title\=American Silva next faced Charile Brenneman \|work\=sport.tv.globo.com \|date\=2012\-03\-30}} Silva won the fight with a rear\-naked choke late in the first round.
Silva faced [Jon Fitch](/wiki/Jon_Fitch "Jon Fitch") on October 13, 2012, at [UFC 153](/wiki/UFC_153 "UFC 153") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), Brazil. After three rounds, Silva lost the fight via unanimous decision (30–27, 29–28, and 29–28\). The performance earned both participants *Fight of the Night* honors.
Silva was expected to face [Jay Hieron](/wiki/Jay_Hieron "Jay Hieron") on February 2, 2013, at [UFC 156](/wiki/UFC_156 "UFC 156").{{cite web \|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/31747/jay\-hieron\-vs\-erick\-silva\-added\-to\-ufc\-156\-in\-february.mma \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130111074628/http://mmajunkie.com/news/31747/jay\-hieron\-vs\-erick\-silva\-added\-to\-ufc\-156\-in\-february.mma \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=January 11, 2013 \|title\=Jay Hieron vs. Erick Silva added to February's UFC 156 event \|publisher\=MMAjunkie.com \|date\=November 21, 2012 }} However, Silva pulled out of the bout citing an injury and was replaced by promotional newcomer [Tyron Woodley](/wiki/Tyron_Woodley "Tyron Woodley").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mmajunkie.com/news/2013/01/tyron\-woodley\-replaced\-injured\-erick\-silva\-faces\-jay\-hieron\-at\-ufc\-156 \|title\=Tyron Woodley replaces injured Erick Silva, faces Jay Hieron at UFC 156 \|publisher\=MMAjunkie.com \|date\=January 2, 2013}}
Silva was expected to face [John Hathaway](/wiki/John_Hathaway "John Hathaway") on June 8, 2013, at [UFC on Fuel TV 10](/wiki/UFC_on_Fuel_TV_10 "UFC on Fuel TV 10").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bloodyelbow.com/2013/3/7/4074660/mma\-news\-erick\-silva\-vs\-john\-hathaway\-tuf\-brazil\-2\-finale\-ufc\-on\-fuel\-10 \|title\=Erick Silva fights John Hathaway at TUF Brazil 2 Finale on June 8th \|publisher\=bloodyelbow.com \|author\=Mookie Alexander \|date\=March 7, 2013}} However, Hathaway was pulled from the bout in late April and replaced by [Jason High](/wiki/Jason_High "Jason High"), who was already scheduled on the card against [Ildemar Alcantara](/wiki/Ildemar_Alcantara "Ildemar Alcantara").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmajunkie.com/news/2013/04/jason\-high\-replaces\-john\-hathaway\-meets\-erick\-silva\-at\-ufc\-on\-fuel\-tv\-10\|title\=Jason High replaces John Hathaway, meets Erick Silva at UFC on FUEL TV 10\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Staff \|date\=2013\-04\-25\|access\-date\=2013\-04\-25}} Silva won the fight via triangle armbar submission. The finished earned him his second *Submission of the Night* bonus.
Silva faced [Dong Hyun Kim](/wiki/Dong_Hyun_Kim "Dong Hyun Kim") on October 9, 2013, at [UFC Fight Night 29](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_29 "UFC Fight Night 29").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2013/8/7/4599874/coach\-erick\-silva\-will\-fight\-dong\-hyun\-kim\-at\-ufc\-fight\-night\-29\|title\=Erick Silva will fight Dong Hyun Kim at UFC Fight Night 29 \|publisher\=mmafighting.com\|author\=Guilherme Cruz\|date\=2013\-08\-07\|access\-date\=2013\-08\-07}} Kim defeated Silva via second round KO.
Silva was expected to face returning veteran [Nate Loughran](/wiki/Nate_Loughran "Nate Loughran") on February 15, 2014, at [UFC Fight Night 36](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_36 "UFC Fight Night 36").{{cite web\|url\=http://sportv.globo.com/site/combate/noticia/2013/12/erick\-silva\-enfrenta\-nate\-loughran\-no\-ufc\-em\-jaragua\-do\-sul\-em\-fevereiro.html\|title\=Erick Silva enfrenta Nate Loughran no UFC de Jaraguá do Sul em fevereiro (Brazilian Portuguese)\|publisher\=sportv.globo.com\|author\=Ivan Raupp\|date\=2013\-12\-10\|access\-date\=2013\-12\-10}} However, Loughran was forced out of the bout with an injury.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/01/nate\-loughran\-out\-at\-ufc\-fight\-night\-36\-promotion\-seeks\-new\-opponent\-for\-erick\-silva/\|title\=Nate Loughran out at UFC Fight Night 36, promotion seeks new opponent for Erick Silva\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=John Morgan\|date\=2014\-01\-04\|access\-date\=2013\-01\-04}} Silva instead faced promotional newcomer [Takenori Sato](/wiki/Takenori_Sato "Takenori Sato").{{cite web\|url\=http://sportv.globo.com/site/combate/noticia/2014/01/campeao\-do\-pancrase\-e\-contratado\-pelo\-ufc\-e\-estreia\-contra\-erick\-silva.html\|title\=Campeão do Pancrase é contratado pelo UFC e estreia contra Erick Silva (Brazilian Portuguese)\|publisher\=sportv.globo.com\|author\=Ivan Raupp\|date\=2013\-12\-11\|access\-date\=2013\-12\-11}} He won the fight via TKO early in the first round. The win also earned him one of the first UFC *Performance of the Night* bonus awards.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/02/ufc\-fight\-night\-36\-bonuses\-silva\-oliveira\-earn\-first\-performance\-bonuses/\|title\=UFC Fight Night 36 bonuses: Silva, Oliveira earn first 'performance' bonuses\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Staff\|access\-date\=2014\-02\-16\|date\=2014\-02\-16}}
Silva faced [Matt Brown](/wiki/Matt_Brown_%28fighter%29 "Matt Brown (fighter)") in the main event at [UFC Fight Night 40](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_40 "UFC Fight Night 40").{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/03/matt\-brown\-vs\-erick\-silva\-headlines\-ufc\-fight\-night\-40\-in\-cincinnati/\|title\=Matt Brown vs. Erick Silva headlines UFC Fight Night 40 in Cincinnati\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Staff\|access\-date\=2014\-03\-03\|date\=2014\-03\-03}} He lost the fight via TKO due to punches in the third round. Despite the loss, Silva was given a *Fight of the Night* bonus award for his performance.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/05/ufc\-fight\-night\-40\-bonuses\-matt\-brown\-scoops\-up\-100k\|title\=UFC Fight Night 40 bonuses: Matt Brown scoops up $100K \|publisher\=mmajunkie.com \|author\=Staff\|access\-date\=2014\-05\-11\|date\=2014\-05\-11}}
Silva faced [Mike Rhodes](/wiki/Mike_Rhodes_%28fighter%29 "Mike Rhodes (fighter)") on December 20, 2014, at [UFC Fight Night 58](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_58 "UFC Fight Night 58").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2014/10/21/7027939/erick\-silva\-returns\-at\-ufc\-fight\-night\-58\-against\-mike\-rhodes\|title\=Erick Silva returns at UFC Fight Night 58 against Mike Rhodes\|publisher\=mmafighting.com\|author\=Guilherme Cruz\|date\=2014\-10\-21}} He won the fight by technical submission in the first round. The win also earned Silva his second *Performance of the Night* bonus award.{{cite news\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/12/ufc\-fight\-night\-58\-bonuses\-machida\-barao\-silva\-miranda\-win\-50000\|title\=UFC Fight Night 58 bonuses: Machida, Barao, Silva, Miranda win $50,000\|author\=Staff\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|date\=December 21, 2014}}
Silva was expected to face [Ben Saunders](/wiki/Ben_Saunders_%28fighter%29 "Ben Saunders (fighter)") on March 21, 2015, at [UFC Fight Night 62](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_62 "UFC Fight Night 62").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2015/1/22/7871171/ben\-saunders\-vs\-erick\-silva\-added\-to\-ufc\-fight\-night\-62\-in\-rio\-de\|title\=Ben Saunders vs. Erick Silva added to UFC Fight Night 62 in Rio de Janeiro\|publisher\=mmafighting.com\|author\=Guilherme Cruz\|date\=2015\-01\-22\|access\-date\=2015\-01\-22}} However, on March 6, Saunders was forced from the fight citing an injury and was replaced by [Josh Koscheck](/wiki/Josh_Koscheck "Josh Koscheck").{{cite web\|url\=http://mmacrazytv.com/2015/03/08/josh\-koscheck\-set\-to\-face\-erick\-silva\-at\-ufc\-fight\-night/\|title\=Josh Koscheck vs. Erick Silva added to UFC Fight Night 62 in Rio de Janeiro\|publisher\=mmacrazytv.com\|author\=MMA Crazy Staff\|date\=March 8, 2015\|access\-date\=March 8, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402133744/http://mmacrazytv.com/2015/03/08/josh\-koscheck\-set\-to\-face\-erick\-silva\-at\-ufc\-fight\-night/\|archive\-date\=April 2, 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} Silva won the fight by submission in the first round.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com/ufc/story/erick\-silva\-gets\-guillotine\-choke\-win\-at\-home\-over\-josh\-koscheck\-032115\|title\=Erick Silva gets guillotine choke win at home over Josh Koscheck\|work\=foxsports.com\|author\=Elias Cepeda\|access\-date\=2015\-03\-21\|date\=2015\-03\-21}}
Silva was expected to face [Rick Story](/wiki/Rick_Story "Rick Story") on June 27, 2015, at [UFC Fight Night 70](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_70 "UFC Fight Night 70").{{cite web\|url\=http://cagepages.com/2015/04/22/rick\-story\-vs\-erick\-silva\-headlines\-the\-ultimate\-fighter\-brazil\-4\-finale\-in\-sao\-paulo/\|title\=Rick Story vs. Erick Silva headlines The Ultimate Fighter Brazil 4 Finale in Sao Paulo\|publisher\=cagepages.com\|author\=Sean Bio\|access\-date\=2015\-04\-22\|date\=2015\-04\-22}} However, Silva was removed from the card on June 19, after [visa](/wiki/Visa_%28document%29 "Visa (document)") issues restricted his entry to the United States. In turn, Story was removed from the card as well.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2015/6/19/8811849/visa\-issues\-forces\-changes\-at\-ufc\-fight\-night\-70\-ufc\-190\|title\=Visa issues forces changes at UFC Fight Night 70, UFC 190\|publisher\=mmafighting.com\|author\=Guilherme Cruz\|date\=2015\-06\-19\|access\-date\=2015\-06\-19}} The bout with Story was rescheduled and was expected to take place on August 23, 2015, at [UFC Fight Night 74](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_74 "UFC Fight Night 74").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2015/6/24/8839335/rick\-story\-vs\-erick\-silva\-to\-serve\-as\-ufc\-saskatoon\-co\-main\-event\|title\=Rick Story vs. Erick Silva to serve as UFC Saskatoon co\-main event; other fights added to card\|publisher\=mmafighting.com\|author\=Ariel Helwani\|date\=2015\-06\-24\|access\-date\=2015\-06\-24}} Subsequently, Story pulled out of the bout on August 11 citing injury and was replaced by [Neil Magny](/wiki/Neil_Magny "Neil Magny").{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2015/08/neil\-magny\-in\-for\-injured\-rick\-story\-faces\-erick\-silva\-at\-ufc\-fight\-night\-74\|title\=Neil Magny in for injured Rick Story, faces Erick Silva at UFC Fight Night 74
\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Staff\|date\=2015\-08\-11\|access\-date\=2015\-08\-11}} Silva lost the fight via split decision.{{cite web \|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2015/08/ufc\-fight\-night\-74\-results\-neil\-magny\-outworks\-erick\-silva\-settles\-for\-suspect\-split\-call\|title\=UFC Fight Night 74 results: Neil Magny outworks Erick Silva, settles for suspect split\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Ben Fowlkes\|date\=2015\-08\-23\|access\-date\=2015\-08\-23}}
On March 5, 2016, Silva faced [Nordine Taleb](/wiki/Nordine_Taleb "Nordine Taleb") at [UFC 196](/wiki/UFC_196 "UFC 196") at the [MGM Grand](/wiki/MGM_Grand_Las_Vegas "MGM Grand Las Vegas") in Las Vegas.{{cite news\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2016/01/erick\-silva\-vs\-nordine\-taleb\-joins\-recently\-announced\-ufc\-197\-lineup\|title\=Erick Silva vs. Nordine Taleb joins recently announced UFC 196 lineup\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Staff\|date\=2016\-01\-13\|access\-date\=2016\-01\-13}} He lost the fight via knockout in the second round.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2016/03/ufc\-196\-results\-nordine\-taleb\-leaves\-erick\-silva\-out\-cold\-in\-second\|title\=UFC 196 results: Nordine Taleb leaves Erick Silva out cold in second\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|date\=2016\-03\-05\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-05\|author\=Steven Marrocco}} During the opening round, Silva extended his fist to Taleb to touch gloves in a sign of sportsmanship, but immediately landed a right hook as Taleb attempted to reciprocate it and respond to Silva's gesture. Taleb called the move dirty in a post\-fight interview and stated he knew Silva was a "dirty" fighter. He received heavy criticism from fans and media and later apologized on his [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter") account, releasing a statement and admitting it was "unethical".{{cite web\| url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/platform/amp/2016/3/10/11186236/erick\-silva\-admits\-he\-threw\-unethical\-punch\-at\-ufc\-196\| access\-date\=February 5, 2018\| website\=mmafighting.com\| title\=Erick Silva admits he threw 'unethical' punch at UFC 196\| date\=10 March 2016}}{{cite web\| title\=Fighting dirty? Watch Erick Silva fake out Nordine Taleb with glove touch at UFC 196\| url\=https://www.mmajunkie.com/2016/03/fighting\-dirty\-watch\-erick\-silva\-fake\-out\-nordine\-taleb\-with\-glove\-touch\-at\-ufc\-196/amp\| access\-date\=February 5, 2018\| website\=mmajunkie.com\| date\=March 5, 2016}}
After the loss, Silva decided to establish his own fight team, Tiger's Den MMA, to be closer to his son, Kalleu. He brought in Andre Benkei to be his head coach. Silva was briefly scheduled to face [Brandon Thatch](/wiki/Brandon_Thatch "Brandon Thatch") on September 24, 2016, at [UFC Fight Night 95](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_95 "UFC Fight Night 95").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.bloodyelbow.com/2016/8/2/12354490/report\-erick\-silva\-meets\-brandon\-thatch\-at\-ufc\-fight\-night\-95\|title\=Erick Silva meets Brandon Thatch at UFC Fight Night 95\|publisher\=mmamania.com\|author\=Lucas Rezende\|date\=2016\-08\-02\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-02}} However, Thatch pulled out of the fight with an undisclosed injury and was subsequently replaced by [Luan Chagas](/wiki/Luan_Chagas "Luan Chagas").{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2016/08/injuries\-force\-several\-changes\-to\-ufc\-fight\-night\-95\-in\-brasilia\|title\=Injuries force several changes to UFC Fight Night 95 in Brasilia\|author\=Staff\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|date\=2016\-08\-13\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-13}} He won the back and forth fight via submission in the third round. Both participants were awarded *Fight of the Night* honors.{{cite news\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2016/09/ufc\-fight\-night\-95\-results\-erick\-silva\-chokes\-out\-luan\-chagas\-in\-third\-with\-sneaky\-step\-behind\-move\|title\=UFC Fight Night 95 results: Erick Silva chokes out Luan Chagas in third with sneaky step behind move\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Ben Fowlkes\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-24\|date\=2016\-09\-24}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/UFC\-Fight\-Night\-Brasilia\-Bonuses\-Spicely\-Silva\-Chagas\-Luque\-Pocket\-3650K\-Apiece\-111613\|title\=UFC Fight Night Brasilia bonuses: Spicely, Silva, Chagas, Luque pocket $50K apiece\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|author\=Tristen Critchfield\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-25\|date\=2016\-09\-24}}
Silva faced [Yancy Medeiros](/wiki/Yancy_Medeiros "Yancy Medeiros") on June 3, 2017, at [UFC 212](/wiki/UFC_212 "UFC 212").{{cite news\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2017/03/report\-yancy\-medeiros\-meets\-erick\-silva\-at\-ufc\-212\-in\-rio\-de\-janerio\|title\=Yancy Medeiros meets Erick Silva at UFC 212 in Rio de Janeiro\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Staff\|date\=2017\-03\-24\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-24}} He lost the fight via TKO in the second round.{{cite news\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2017/06/ufc\-212\-results\-yancy\-medeiros\-tko\-win\-over\-erick\-silva\-comes\-with\-protest\|title\=UFC 212 results: Yancy Medeiros' TKO win over Erick Silva comes with protest\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Steven Marrocco\|access\-date\=2017\-06\-03\|date\=2017\-06\-03}}
Silva faced [Jordan Mein](/wiki/Jordan_Mein "Jordan Mein") on December 16, 2017, at [UFC on Fox: Lawler vs. dos Anjos](/wiki/UFC_on_Fox:Lawler_vs._dos_Anjos "Lawler vs. dos Anjos").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.bjpenn.com/mma\-news/three\-major\-fights\-added\-ufc\-fox\-winnipeg/\|title\=Three Major Fights Added to UFC on FOX in Winnipeg {{!}} BJPenn.com\|date\=2017\-10\-13\|work\={{!}} BJPenn.com\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-13\|language\=en\-US}} He lost the fight by unanimous decision.{{Cite news\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2017/12/ufc\-on\-fox\-26\-results\-jordan\-mein\-dominates\-erick\-silva\|title\=UFC on FOX 26 results: Jordan Mein dominates Erick Silva for first win since 2014\|date\=2017\-12\-16\|work\=MMAjunkie\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-17\|language\=en\-US}} The fight with Mein was the last of his contract with UFC.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2018/3/6/17087630/erick\-silva\-in\-talks\-ufc\-other\-promotions\-after\-ufc\-contract\-expired\|title\=Erick Silva in talks with UFC, other promotions after UFC contract expired\|author\=Guilherme Cruz\|date\=2018\-03\-06\|publisher\=mmafighting.com}}
### Legacy Fighting Alliance
Following his departure from the UFC, Silva signed with Legacy Fighting Alliance and debuted in the main event at [LFA 45](/wiki/Legacy_Fighting_Alliance_in_2018%23Legacy_Fighting_Alliance_45:Silva_vs._Barnes "Silva vs. Barnes") against Nick Barnes on July 20, 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=https://mmajunkie.com/2018/06/erick\-silva\-kicks\-off\-post\-ufc\-run\-headlines\-lfa\-45\-on\-july\-20\|title\=Erick Silva kicks off post\-UFC run, headlines LFA 45 on July 20\|date\=June 14, 2018\|author\=John Morgan\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com}} He won the fight via submission in the first round.
### Bellator MMA
On September 6, 2018, it was announced that Silva had signed a multi\-fight deal with Bellator MMA. Silva was expected to make his promotional debut against [Lorenz Larkin](/wiki/Lorenz_Larkin "Lorenz Larkin") at [Bellator 207](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2018%23Bellator_207 "Bellator MMA in 2018#Bellator 207"), but was forced to pull out due to an injury on October 1, 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/platform/amp/2018/9/6/17828088/erick\-silva\-signs\-exclusive\-deal\-bellator\|title\=Erick Silva signs exclusive deal with Bellator\|work\=MMAFighting.com\|date\=September 6, 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://mmajunkie.com/2018/09/lorenz\-larkin\-vs\-erick\-silva\-welterweight\-bellator\-207\|title\=Lorenz Larkin meets Erick Silva at Bellator 207 in October\|author\=Mike Bohn\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|date\=September 8, 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://mmajunkie.com/2018/10/erick\-silva\-out\-bellator\-207\-vs\-lorenz\-larkin\|title\=Erick Silva out of grand prix alternate bout vs. Lorenz Larkin at Bellator 207\|author\=Mike Bohn\|date\=October 1, 2018\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com}}
Silva made his promotional debut against Yaroslav Amosov at [Bellator 216](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2019%23Bellator_216 "Bellator MMA in 2019#Bellator 216") on February 16, 2019\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2019/1/10/18177585/erick\-silva\-bellator\-216\-debut\-yaroslav\-amosov\|title\=Erick Silva will face undefeated Yaroslav Amosov at Bellator 216\|date\=January 10, 2019\|author\=Guilherme Cruz\|publisher\=mmafighting.com}} He lost the fight via unanimous decision.
Silva faced [Paul Daley](/wiki/Paul_Daley "Paul Daley") at [Bellator 223](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2019%23Bellator_223 "Bellator MMA in 2019#Bellator 223") on June 22, 2019\.{{cite web\|url\=https://mmajunkie.com/2019/04/bellator\-london\-paul\-daley\-vs\-erick\-silva\-james\-gallagher\-vs\-jeremiah\-labiano\|title\=Paul Daley vs. Erick Silva, James Gallagher vs. Jeremiah Labiano set for Bellator London\|date\=April 2, 2019\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com}} He lost the fight by unanimous decision.{{Cite web\|date\=2019\-06\-22\|title\=Bellator 223 results: Paul Daley wins wild three\-round slugfest over Erick Silva\|url\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2019/06/bellator\-223\-results\-paul\-daley\-wins\-wild\-three\-round\-slugfest\-over\-erick\-silva\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-17\|website\=MMA Junkie\|language\=en\-US}}
Silva announced his retirement from MMA in 2022 after revealing that he had suffered a heart attack due to complications from Covid\-19\.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-08\-20 \|title\=Ex\-UFC fighter Erick Silva confirms MMA retirement, says heart attack was 'decisive point' to end career \|url\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2022/08/ufc\-news\-erick\-silva\-confirms\-mma\-retirement\-heart\-attack\-reason\-why \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-22 \|website\=MMA Junkie \|language\=en\-US}}
|
[
"Mixed martial arts career\n-------------------------",
"### Background and early career",
"Silva comes from [Vila Velha](/wiki/Vila_Velha \"Vila Velha\"), Brazil and was an X\\-Gym training partner for the likes of [Anderson Silva](/wiki/Anderson_Silva \"Anderson Silva\"), [Rafael Feijao](/wiki/Rafael_Cavalcante \"Rafael Cavalcante\") and [Jacare Souza](/wiki/Ronaldo_Souza \"Ronaldo Souza\").",
"### Jungle Fight Championship",
"Silva joined Jungle Fight, appearing at Jungle Fight 9 against Carlos Eduardo dos Santos. In the third and final round, Silva defeated dos Santos via rear naked choke.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/events/JF\\-9\\-Warriors\\-7799\\|title\\=Jungle Fight 9 \\- Warriors\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|date\\=May 31, 2008}}",
"At Jungle Fight 11, he defeated Igor Fernandes via unanimous decision.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/pictures/event/2/Jungle\\-Fight\\-11\\-Pictures\\-14445\\|title\\=Jungle Fight 11 Pictures: Erick Silva vs. Igor Santos\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|date\\=September 18, 2008}} Silva followed that up with two further victories in the promotion.",
"Silva then competed in a unique fight of his career, at Jungle Fight 17, which was held outdoors. On the day of the event, the weather was clear throughout, until less than an hour before the start, when rain began to fall and never stopped.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Rain\\-Falls\\-on\\-Jungle\\-Fight\\-17\\-Mondragon\\-Loses\\-22951\\|title\\=Rain falls on Jungle Fight 17; Mondragon loses\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|date\\=February 28, 2010}} The event, which went down as one of the wettest in MMA history was not a successful one for Silva who hit his downed opponent with a knee, resulting in a no contest verdict.",
"Silva won his next fight, at Jungle Fight 21, via TKO (knee and punches) in the second round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/pictures/event/8/Pictures\\-Jungle\\-Fight\\-21\\-26041\\|title\\=Pictures: Jungle Fight 21: Erick Silva vs. Jose Gomes de Ribamar\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|date\\=August 11, 2010}}",
"Silva then entered into the tournament for the inaugural Jungle Fight Welterweight Championship at Jungle Fight 23\\. Silva defeated both opponents on the same night to win the tournament.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Hot\\-Prospect\\-Erick\\-Silva\\-Wins\\-Jungle\\-Fight\\-Title\\-in\\-Belem\\-27862\\|title\\=Hot prospect Erick Silva wins Jungle Fight title in Belem\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|date\\=October 31, 2010}} His opening round matchup was against Gil de Freitas. The opening round saw Silva utilize his striking game to take the first round, though de Freitas came back strongly in the second round with his take downs and effective ground game. In the final round, Silva caught de Freitas with a roundhouse kick to the liver, dropping him. After Silva used ground\\-and\\-pound to set up a guillotine choke, de Freitas was forced to tap out.",
"Silva progressed to the tournament final, where he faced the Mexican, Francisco Ayon. Ayon had just come off a split decision victory in the semi\\-final and he wasn't able to mount any offense against Silva, who took him down. After hitting him with several punches, Silva locked in an arm triangle choke to force the tap out with just 67 seconds on the clock. Silva therefore became the inaugural Jungle Fight Welterweight champion.",
"### Ultimate Fighting Championship",
"Silva signed with the UFC in early 2011\\. He was expected to make his debut against [Mike Swick](/wiki/Mike_Swick \"Mike Swick\") at [UFC 134](/wiki/UFC_134 \"UFC 134\"). However, on August 4, 2011, it was announced that Swick had to withdraw from the bout due to a knee injury and was replaced by [Luis Ramos](/wiki/Luis_Ramos_%28fighter%29 \"Luis Ramos (fighter)\"). Silva won quickly via first round TKO due to punches.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tatame.com/2011/08/05/Breaking\\-\\-Luis\\-Ramos\\-replaces\\-Mike\\-Swick\\-fights\\-Erick\\-Silva\\-at\\-UFC\\-Rio\\|title\\=Luis Ramos replaces Mike Swick, fights Erick Silva at UFC Rio\\|publisher\\=tatame.com\\|date\\=August 5, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=August 5, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326083131/http://www.tatame.com/2011/08/05/Breaking\\-\\-Luis\\-Ramos\\-replaces\\-Mike\\-Swick\\-fights\\-Erick\\-Silva\\-at\\-UFC\\-Rio\\|archive\\-date\\=March 26, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Silva was expected to face promotional newcomer [Siyar Bahadurzada](/wiki/Siyar_Bahadurzada \"Siyar Bahadurzada\") on January 14, 2012, at [UFC 142](/wiki/UFC_142 \"UFC 142\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/26091/siyar\\-bahadurzada\\-im\\-facing\\-erick\\-silva\\-at\\-ufc\\-142\\-in\\-brazil.mma\\|title\\=Siyar Bahadurzada: I'm facing Erick Silva at UFC 142 in Brazil\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|date\\=November 14, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=July 10, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120710093618/mmajunkie.com/news/26091/siyar\\-bahadurzada\\-im\\-facing\\-erick\\-silva\\-at\\-ufc\\-142\\-in\\-brazil.mma\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} However, Bahadurzada was forced out of the bout with an injury and replaced by [Carlo Prater](/wiki/Carlo_Prater \"Carlo Prater\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/26582/wec\\-vet\\-carlo\\-prater\\-meets\\-erick\\-silva\\-as\\-injury\\-replacement\\-at\\-ufc\\-142\\.mma\\|title\\=WEC vet Carlo Prater meets Erick Silva as injury replacement at UFC 142\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|date\\=December 16, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=January 4, 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=July 12, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120712211919/mmajunkie.com/news/26582/wec\\-vet\\-carlo\\-prater\\-meets\\-erick\\-silva\\-as\\-injury\\-replacement\\-at\\-ufc\\-142\\.mma\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} After missing a looping right hook in the opening seconds of the fight, Silva quickly followed with a left knee to the body which effectively knocked Prater down. Prater caught Silva's knee and held on to his leg as Silva began attacking with hammer fists and punches to the head. During the attack, the referee, [Mario Yamasaki](/wiki/Mario_Yamasaki \"Mario Yamasaki\"), repeatedly warned Silva not to hit the back of the head. When Prater appeared to go unconscious and could no longer intelligently defend himself, Yamasaki stepped in and stopped the fight. Although Silva appeared victorious, Yamasaki disqualified Silva for strikes to the back of the head. The disqualification was later upheld by the UFC.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/27052/ufc\\-makes\\-ruling\\-on\\-erick\\-silvas\\-ufc\\-142\\-disqualification\\-the\\-loss\\-stands.mma \\|title\\=UFC makes ruling on Erick Silva's UFC 142 disqualification: The loss stands \\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com \\|date\\=January 19, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122091614/http://mmajunkie.com/news/27052/ufc\\-makes\\-ruling\\-on\\-erick\\-silvas\\-ufc\\-142\\-disqualification\\-the\\-loss\\-stands.mma \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-22 }}",
"Silva then faced [Charlie Brenneman](/wiki/Charlie_Brenneman \"Charlie Brenneman\") on June 8, 2012, at [UFC on FX 3](/wiki/UFC_on_FX:Johnson_vs._McCall \"Johnson vs. McCall\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://sportv.globo.com/site/eventos/combate/noticia/2012/03/americano\\-charlie\\-brenneman\\-sera\\-o\\-proximo\\-adversario\\-de\\-erick\\-silva.html\\|title\\=American Silva next faced Charile Brenneman \\|work\\=sport.tv.globo.com \\|date\\=2012\\-03\\-30}} Silva won the fight with a rear\\-naked choke late in the first round.",
"Silva faced [Jon Fitch](/wiki/Jon_Fitch \"Jon Fitch\") on October 13, 2012, at [UFC 153](/wiki/UFC_153 \"UFC 153\") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), Brazil. After three rounds, Silva lost the fight via unanimous decision (30–27, 29–28, and 29–28\\). The performance earned both participants *Fight of the Night* honors.",
"Silva was expected to face [Jay Hieron](/wiki/Jay_Hieron \"Jay Hieron\") on February 2, 2013, at [UFC 156](/wiki/UFC_156 \"UFC 156\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/news/31747/jay\\-hieron\\-vs\\-erick\\-silva\\-added\\-to\\-ufc\\-156\\-in\\-february.mma \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130111074628/http://mmajunkie.com/news/31747/jay\\-hieron\\-vs\\-erick\\-silva\\-added\\-to\\-ufc\\-156\\-in\\-february.mma \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=January 11, 2013 \\|title\\=Jay Hieron vs. Erick Silva added to February's UFC 156 event \\|publisher\\=MMAjunkie.com \\|date\\=November 21, 2012 }} However, Silva pulled out of the bout citing an injury and was replaced by promotional newcomer [Tyron Woodley](/wiki/Tyron_Woodley \"Tyron Woodley\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mmajunkie.com/news/2013/01/tyron\\-woodley\\-replaced\\-injured\\-erick\\-silva\\-faces\\-jay\\-hieron\\-at\\-ufc\\-156 \\|title\\=Tyron Woodley replaces injured Erick Silva, faces Jay Hieron at UFC 156 \\|publisher\\=MMAjunkie.com \\|date\\=January 2, 2013}}",
"Silva was expected to face [John Hathaway](/wiki/John_Hathaway \"John Hathaway\") on June 8, 2013, at [UFC on Fuel TV 10](/wiki/UFC_on_Fuel_TV_10 \"UFC on Fuel TV 10\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bloodyelbow.com/2013/3/7/4074660/mma\\-news\\-erick\\-silva\\-vs\\-john\\-hathaway\\-tuf\\-brazil\\-2\\-finale\\-ufc\\-on\\-fuel\\-10 \\|title\\=Erick Silva fights John Hathaway at TUF Brazil 2 Finale on June 8th \\|publisher\\=bloodyelbow.com \\|author\\=Mookie Alexander \\|date\\=March 7, 2013}} However, Hathaway was pulled from the bout in late April and replaced by [Jason High](/wiki/Jason_High \"Jason High\"), who was already scheduled on the card against [Ildemar Alcantara](/wiki/Ildemar_Alcantara \"Ildemar Alcantara\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmajunkie.com/news/2013/04/jason\\-high\\-replaces\\-john\\-hathaway\\-meets\\-erick\\-silva\\-at\\-ufc\\-on\\-fuel\\-tv\\-10\\|title\\=Jason High replaces John Hathaway, meets Erick Silva at UFC on FUEL TV 10\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Staff \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-25\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-25}} Silva won the fight via triangle armbar submission. The finished earned him his second *Submission of the Night* bonus.",
"Silva faced [Dong Hyun Kim](/wiki/Dong_Hyun_Kim \"Dong Hyun Kim\") on October 9, 2013, at [UFC Fight Night 29](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_29 \"UFC Fight Night 29\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2013/8/7/4599874/coach\\-erick\\-silva\\-will\\-fight\\-dong\\-hyun\\-kim\\-at\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-29\\|title\\=Erick Silva will fight Dong Hyun Kim at UFC Fight Night 29 \\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\|author\\=Guilherme Cruz\\|date\\=2013\\-08\\-07\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-08\\-07}} Kim defeated Silva via second round KO.",
"Silva was expected to face returning veteran [Nate Loughran](/wiki/Nate_Loughran \"Nate Loughran\") on February 15, 2014, at [UFC Fight Night 36](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_36 \"UFC Fight Night 36\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sportv.globo.com/site/combate/noticia/2013/12/erick\\-silva\\-enfrenta\\-nate\\-loughran\\-no\\-ufc\\-em\\-jaragua\\-do\\-sul\\-em\\-fevereiro.html\\|title\\=Erick Silva enfrenta Nate Loughran no UFC de Jaraguá do Sul em fevereiro (Brazilian Portuguese)\\|publisher\\=sportv.globo.com\\|author\\=Ivan Raupp\\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-10\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-10}} However, Loughran was forced out of the bout with an injury.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/01/nate\\-loughran\\-out\\-at\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-36\\-promotion\\-seeks\\-new\\-opponent\\-for\\-erick\\-silva/\\|title\\=Nate Loughran out at UFC Fight Night 36, promotion seeks new opponent for Erick Silva\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=John Morgan\\|date\\=2014\\-01\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-04}} Silva instead faced promotional newcomer [Takenori Sato](/wiki/Takenori_Sato \"Takenori Sato\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sportv.globo.com/site/combate/noticia/2014/01/campeao\\-do\\-pancrase\\-e\\-contratado\\-pelo\\-ufc\\-e\\-estreia\\-contra\\-erick\\-silva.html\\|title\\=Campeão do Pancrase é contratado pelo UFC e estreia contra Erick Silva (Brazilian Portuguese)\\|publisher\\=sportv.globo.com\\|author\\=Ivan Raupp\\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-11\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-11}} He won the fight via TKO early in the first round. The win also earned him one of the first UFC *Performance of the Night* bonus awards.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/02/ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-36\\-bonuses\\-silva\\-oliveira\\-earn\\-first\\-performance\\-bonuses/\\|title\\=UFC Fight Night 36 bonuses: Silva, Oliveira earn first 'performance' bonuses\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Staff\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-16\\|date\\=2014\\-02\\-16}}",
"Silva faced [Matt Brown](/wiki/Matt_Brown_%28fighter%29 \"Matt Brown (fighter)\") in the main event at [UFC Fight Night 40](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_40 \"UFC Fight Night 40\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/03/matt\\-brown\\-vs\\-erick\\-silva\\-headlines\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-40\\-in\\-cincinnati/\\|title\\=Matt Brown vs. Erick Silva headlines UFC Fight Night 40 in Cincinnati\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Staff\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-03\\|date\\=2014\\-03\\-03}} He lost the fight via TKO due to punches in the third round. Despite the loss, Silva was given a *Fight of the Night* bonus award for his performance.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/05/ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-40\\-bonuses\\-matt\\-brown\\-scoops\\-up\\-100k\\|title\\=UFC Fight Night 40 bonuses: Matt Brown scoops up $100K \\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com \\|author\\=Staff\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-11\\|date\\=2014\\-05\\-11}}",
"Silva faced [Mike Rhodes](/wiki/Mike_Rhodes_%28fighter%29 \"Mike Rhodes (fighter)\") on December 20, 2014, at [UFC Fight Night 58](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_58 \"UFC Fight Night 58\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2014/10/21/7027939/erick\\-silva\\-returns\\-at\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-58\\-against\\-mike\\-rhodes\\|title\\=Erick Silva returns at UFC Fight Night 58 against Mike Rhodes\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\|author\\=Guilherme Cruz\\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-21}} He won the fight by technical submission in the first round. The win also earned Silva his second *Performance of the Night* bonus award.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2014/12/ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-58\\-bonuses\\-machida\\-barao\\-silva\\-miranda\\-win\\-50000\\|title\\=UFC Fight Night 58 bonuses: Machida, Barao, Silva, Miranda win $50,000\\|author\\=Staff\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|date\\=December 21, 2014}}",
"Silva was expected to face [Ben Saunders](/wiki/Ben_Saunders_%28fighter%29 \"Ben Saunders (fighter)\") on March 21, 2015, at [UFC Fight Night 62](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_62 \"UFC Fight Night 62\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2015/1/22/7871171/ben\\-saunders\\-vs\\-erick\\-silva\\-added\\-to\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-62\\-in\\-rio\\-de\\|title\\=Ben Saunders vs. Erick Silva added to UFC Fight Night 62 in Rio de Janeiro\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\|author\\=Guilherme Cruz\\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-22\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-01\\-22}} However, on March 6, Saunders was forced from the fight citing an injury and was replaced by [Josh Koscheck](/wiki/Josh_Koscheck \"Josh Koscheck\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmacrazytv.com/2015/03/08/josh\\-koscheck\\-set\\-to\\-face\\-erick\\-silva\\-at\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night/\\|title\\=Josh Koscheck vs. Erick Silva added to UFC Fight Night 62 in Rio de Janeiro\\|publisher\\=mmacrazytv.com\\|author\\=MMA Crazy Staff\\|date\\=March 8, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402133744/http://mmacrazytv.com/2015/03/08/josh\\-koscheck\\-set\\-to\\-face\\-erick\\-silva\\-at\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night/\\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Silva won the fight by submission in the first round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com/ufc/story/erick\\-silva\\-gets\\-guillotine\\-choke\\-win\\-at\\-home\\-over\\-josh\\-koscheck\\-032115\\|title\\=Erick Silva gets guillotine choke win at home over Josh Koscheck\\|work\\=foxsports.com\\|author\\=Elias Cepeda\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-03\\-21\\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-21}}",
"Silva was expected to face [Rick Story](/wiki/Rick_Story \"Rick Story\") on June 27, 2015, at [UFC Fight Night 70](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_70 \"UFC Fight Night 70\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cagepages.com/2015/04/22/rick\\-story\\-vs\\-erick\\-silva\\-headlines\\-the\\-ultimate\\-fighter\\-brazil\\-4\\-finale\\-in\\-sao\\-paulo/\\|title\\=Rick Story vs. Erick Silva headlines The Ultimate Fighter Brazil 4 Finale in Sao Paulo\\|publisher\\=cagepages.com\\|author\\=Sean Bio\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-22\\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-22}} However, Silva was removed from the card on June 19, after [visa](/wiki/Visa_%28document%29 \"Visa (document)\") issues restricted his entry to the United States. In turn, Story was removed from the card as well.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2015/6/19/8811849/visa\\-issues\\-forces\\-changes\\-at\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-70\\-ufc\\-190\\|title\\=Visa issues forces changes at UFC Fight Night 70, UFC 190\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\|author\\=Guilherme Cruz\\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-19\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-06\\-19}} The bout with Story was rescheduled and was expected to take place on August 23, 2015, at [UFC Fight Night 74](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_74 \"UFC Fight Night 74\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.mmafighting.com/2015/6/24/8839335/rick\\-story\\-vs\\-erick\\-silva\\-to\\-serve\\-as\\-ufc\\-saskatoon\\-co\\-main\\-event\\|title\\=Rick Story vs. Erick Silva to serve as UFC Saskatoon co\\-main event; other fights added to card\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\|author\\=Ariel Helwani\\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-24\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-06\\-24}} Subsequently, Story pulled out of the bout on August 11 citing injury and was replaced by [Neil Magny](/wiki/Neil_Magny \"Neil Magny\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2015/08/neil\\-magny\\-in\\-for\\-injured\\-rick\\-story\\-faces\\-erick\\-silva\\-at\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-74\\|title\\=Neil Magny in for injured Rick Story, faces Erick Silva at UFC Fight Night 74\n\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Staff\\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-11\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-11}} Silva lost the fight via split decision.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2015/08/ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-74\\-results\\-neil\\-magny\\-outworks\\-erick\\-silva\\-settles\\-for\\-suspect\\-split\\-call\\|title\\=UFC Fight Night 74 results: Neil Magny outworks Erick Silva, settles for suspect split\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Ben Fowlkes\\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-23\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-23}}",
"On March 5, 2016, Silva faced [Nordine Taleb](/wiki/Nordine_Taleb \"Nordine Taleb\") at [UFC 196](/wiki/UFC_196 \"UFC 196\") at the [MGM Grand](/wiki/MGM_Grand_Las_Vegas \"MGM Grand Las Vegas\") in Las Vegas.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2016/01/erick\\-silva\\-vs\\-nordine\\-taleb\\-joins\\-recently\\-announced\\-ufc\\-197\\-lineup\\|title\\=Erick Silva vs. Nordine Taleb joins recently announced UFC 196 lineup\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Staff\\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-13\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-13}} He lost the fight via knockout in the second round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2016/03/ufc\\-196\\-results\\-nordine\\-taleb\\-leaves\\-erick\\-silva\\-out\\-cold\\-in\\-second\\|title\\=UFC 196 results: Nordine Taleb leaves Erick Silva out cold in second\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-05\\|author\\=Steven Marrocco}} During the opening round, Silva extended his fist to Taleb to touch gloves in a sign of sportsmanship, but immediately landed a right hook as Taleb attempted to reciprocate it and respond to Silva's gesture. Taleb called the move dirty in a post\\-fight interview and stated he knew Silva was a \"dirty\" fighter. He received heavy criticism from fans and media and later apologized on his [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\") account, releasing a statement and admitting it was \"unethical\".{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/platform/amp/2016/3/10/11186236/erick\\-silva\\-admits\\-he\\-threw\\-unethical\\-punch\\-at\\-ufc\\-196\\| access\\-date\\=February 5, 2018\\| website\\=mmafighting.com\\| title\\=Erick Silva admits he threw 'unethical' punch at UFC 196\\| date\\=10 March 2016}}{{cite web\\| title\\=Fighting dirty? Watch Erick Silva fake out Nordine Taleb with glove touch at UFC 196\\| url\\=https://www.mmajunkie.com/2016/03/fighting\\-dirty\\-watch\\-erick\\-silva\\-fake\\-out\\-nordine\\-taleb\\-with\\-glove\\-touch\\-at\\-ufc\\-196/amp\\| access\\-date\\=February 5, 2018\\| website\\=mmajunkie.com\\| date\\=March 5, 2016}}",
"After the loss, Silva decided to establish his own fight team, Tiger's Den MMA, to be closer to his son, Kalleu. He brought in Andre Benkei to be his head coach. Silva was briefly scheduled to face [Brandon Thatch](/wiki/Brandon_Thatch \"Brandon Thatch\") on September 24, 2016, at [UFC Fight Night 95](/wiki/UFC_Fight_Night_95 \"UFC Fight Night 95\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.bloodyelbow.com/2016/8/2/12354490/report\\-erick\\-silva\\-meets\\-brandon\\-thatch\\-at\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-95\\|title\\=Erick Silva meets Brandon Thatch at UFC Fight Night 95\\|publisher\\=mmamania.com\\|author\\=Lucas Rezende\\|date\\=2016\\-08\\-02\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-02}} However, Thatch pulled out of the fight with an undisclosed injury and was subsequently replaced by [Luan Chagas](/wiki/Luan_Chagas \"Luan Chagas\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2016/08/injuries\\-force\\-several\\-changes\\-to\\-ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-95\\-in\\-brasilia\\|title\\=Injuries force several changes to UFC Fight Night 95 in Brasilia\\|author\\=Staff\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|date\\=2016\\-08\\-13\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-13}} He won the back and forth fight via submission in the third round. Both participants were awarded *Fight of the Night* honors.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2016/09/ufc\\-fight\\-night\\-95\\-results\\-erick\\-silva\\-chokes\\-out\\-luan\\-chagas\\-in\\-third\\-with\\-sneaky\\-step\\-behind\\-move\\|title\\=UFC Fight Night 95 results: Erick Silva chokes out Luan Chagas in third with sneaky step behind move\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Ben Fowlkes\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-24\\|date\\=2016\\-09\\-24}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/UFC\\-Fight\\-Night\\-Brasilia\\-Bonuses\\-Spicely\\-Silva\\-Chagas\\-Luque\\-Pocket\\-3650K\\-Apiece\\-111613\\|title\\=UFC Fight Night Brasilia bonuses: Spicely, Silva, Chagas, Luque pocket $50K apiece\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|author\\=Tristen Critchfield\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-25\\|date\\=2016\\-09\\-24}}",
"Silva faced [Yancy Medeiros](/wiki/Yancy_Medeiros \"Yancy Medeiros\") on June 3, 2017, at [UFC 212](/wiki/UFC_212 \"UFC 212\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2017/03/report\\-yancy\\-medeiros\\-meets\\-erick\\-silva\\-at\\-ufc\\-212\\-in\\-rio\\-de\\-janerio\\|title\\=Yancy Medeiros meets Erick Silva at UFC 212 in Rio de Janeiro\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Staff\\|date\\=2017\\-03\\-24\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-24}} He lost the fight via TKO in the second round.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2017/06/ufc\\-212\\-results\\-yancy\\-medeiros\\-tko\\-win\\-over\\-erick\\-silva\\-comes\\-with\\-protest\\|title\\=UFC 212 results: Yancy Medeiros' TKO win over Erick Silva comes with protest\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Steven Marrocco\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-03\\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-03}}",
"Silva faced [Jordan Mein](/wiki/Jordan_Mein \"Jordan Mein\") on December 16, 2017, at [UFC on Fox: Lawler vs. dos Anjos](/wiki/UFC_on_Fox:Lawler_vs._dos_Anjos \"Lawler vs. dos Anjos\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.bjpenn.com/mma\\-news/three\\-major\\-fights\\-added\\-ufc\\-fox\\-winnipeg/\\|title\\=Three Major Fights Added to UFC on FOX in Winnipeg {{!}} BJPenn.com\\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-13\\|work\\={{!}} BJPenn.com\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-13\\|language\\=en\\-US}} He lost the fight by unanimous decision.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2017/12/ufc\\-on\\-fox\\-26\\-results\\-jordan\\-mein\\-dominates\\-erick\\-silva\\|title\\=UFC on FOX 26 results: Jordan Mein dominates Erick Silva for first win since 2014\\|date\\=2017\\-12\\-16\\|work\\=MMAjunkie\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-17\\|language\\=en\\-US}} The fight with Mein was the last of his contract with UFC.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2018/3/6/17087630/erick\\-silva\\-in\\-talks\\-ufc\\-other\\-promotions\\-after\\-ufc\\-contract\\-expired\\|title\\=Erick Silva in talks with UFC, other promotions after UFC contract expired\\|author\\=Guilherme Cruz\\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-06\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com}}",
"### Legacy Fighting Alliance",
"Following his departure from the UFC, Silva signed with Legacy Fighting Alliance and debuted in the main event at [LFA 45](/wiki/Legacy_Fighting_Alliance_in_2018%23Legacy_Fighting_Alliance_45:Silva_vs._Barnes \"Silva vs. Barnes\") against Nick Barnes on July 20, 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.com/2018/06/erick\\-silva\\-kicks\\-off\\-post\\-ufc\\-run\\-headlines\\-lfa\\-45\\-on\\-july\\-20\\|title\\=Erick Silva kicks off post\\-UFC run, headlines LFA 45 on July 20\\|date\\=June 14, 2018\\|author\\=John Morgan\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com}} He won the fight via submission in the first round.",
"### Bellator MMA",
"On September 6, 2018, it was announced that Silva had signed a multi\\-fight deal with Bellator MMA. Silva was expected to make his promotional debut against [Lorenz Larkin](/wiki/Lorenz_Larkin \"Lorenz Larkin\") at [Bellator 207](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2018%23Bellator_207 \"Bellator MMA in 2018#Bellator 207\"), but was forced to pull out due to an injury on October 1, 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/platform/amp/2018/9/6/17828088/erick\\-silva\\-signs\\-exclusive\\-deal\\-bellator\\|title\\=Erick Silva signs exclusive deal with Bellator\\|work\\=MMAFighting.com\\|date\\=September 6, 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.com/2018/09/lorenz\\-larkin\\-vs\\-erick\\-silva\\-welterweight\\-bellator\\-207\\|title\\=Lorenz Larkin meets Erick Silva at Bellator 207 in October\\|author\\=Mike Bohn\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|date\\=September 8, 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.com/2018/10/erick\\-silva\\-out\\-bellator\\-207\\-vs\\-lorenz\\-larkin\\|title\\=Erick Silva out of grand prix alternate bout vs. Lorenz Larkin at Bellator 207\\|author\\=Mike Bohn\\|date\\=October 1, 2018\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com}}",
"Silva made his promotional debut against Yaroslav Amosov at [Bellator 216](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2019%23Bellator_216 \"Bellator MMA in 2019#Bellator 216\") on February 16, 2019\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2019/1/10/18177585/erick\\-silva\\-bellator\\-216\\-debut\\-yaroslav\\-amosov\\|title\\=Erick Silva will face undefeated Yaroslav Amosov at Bellator 216\\|date\\=January 10, 2019\\|author\\=Guilherme Cruz\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com}} He lost the fight via unanimous decision.",
"Silva faced [Paul Daley](/wiki/Paul_Daley \"Paul Daley\") at [Bellator 223](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2019%23Bellator_223 \"Bellator MMA in 2019#Bellator 223\") on June 22, 2019\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.com/2019/04/bellator\\-london\\-paul\\-daley\\-vs\\-erick\\-silva\\-james\\-gallagher\\-vs\\-jeremiah\\-labiano\\|title\\=Paul Daley vs. Erick Silva, James Gallagher vs. Jeremiah Labiano set for Bellator London\\|date\\=April 2, 2019\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com}} He lost the fight by unanimous decision.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-22\\|title\\=Bellator 223 results: Paul Daley wins wild three\\-round slugfest over Erick Silva\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2019/06/bellator\\-223\\-results\\-paul\\-daley\\-wins\\-wild\\-three\\-round\\-slugfest\\-over\\-erick\\-silva\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-17\\|website\\=MMA Junkie\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Silva announced his retirement from MMA in 2022 after revealing that he had suffered a heart attack due to complications from Covid\\-19\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-20 \\|title\\=Ex\\-UFC fighter Erick Silva confirms MMA retirement, says heart attack was 'decisive point' to end career \\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2022/08/ufc\\-news\\-erick\\-silva\\-confirms\\-mma\\-retirement\\-heart\\-attack\\-reason\\-why \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-22 \\|website\\=MMA Junkie \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1870\= 232
\|1880\= 203
\|1890\= 222
\|1970\= 624
\|1980\= 590
\|1990\= 552
\|2000\= 496
\|2010\= 490
\|2020\= 536
\|footnote\=Sources:{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=March 4, 2012\|title\=Census of Population and Housing: Decennial Censuses}}{{cite web\|title\=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Resident Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012\|url\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\-EST2012\.html\|work\=Population Estimates\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=December 11, 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611010502/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\-EST2012\.html\|archive\-date\=June 11, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:47\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=October 15, 2022}}
}}
### 2020 census
| \+Calhoun racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US4710440\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 27, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race
Number
Percentage
| --- |
| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic)
476 |
88\.81% |
| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic)
12 |
2\.24% |
| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)")
34 |
6\.34% |
| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)")
14 |
2\.61% |
As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 536 people, 230 households, and 144 families residing in the town.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 496 people, 205 households, and 148 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|486\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 225 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|220\.6\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 97\.78% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.81% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.01% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.40% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.43% of the population.
There were 205 households, out of which 28\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\.8% were non\-families. 25\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.42 and the average family size was 2\.86\.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 22\.6% under the age of 18, 6\.0% from 18 to 24, 25\.2% from 25 to 44, 29\.2% from 45 to 64, and 16\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93\.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $38,438, and the median income for a family was $44,688\. Males had a median income of $36,563 versus $20,333 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $19,984\. About 5\.3% of families and 10\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 3\.5% of those under age 18 and 9\.5% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1870\\= 232\n\\|1880\\= 203\n\\|1890\\= 222\n\\|1970\\= 624\n\\|1980\\= 590\n\\|1990\\= 552\n\\|2000\\= 496\n\\|2010\\= 490\n\\|2020\\= 536\n\\|footnote\\=Sources:{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2012\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing: Decennial Censuses}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Resident Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\\-EST2012\\.html\\|work\\=Population Estimates\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=December 11, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611010502/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\\-EST2012\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 11, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:47\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=October 15, 2022}}\n}}",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+Calhoun racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US4710440\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 27, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race",
"Number",
"Percentage",
"| --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)",
"476 |\n 88\\.81% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)",
"12 |\n 2\\.24% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\")",
"34 |\n 6\\.34% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\")",
"14 |\n 2\\.61% |",
"As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 536 people, 230 households, and 144 families residing in the town.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 496 people, 205 households, and 148 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|486\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 225 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|220\\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 97\\.78% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.81% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.01% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.40% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.43% of the population.",
"There were 205 households, out of which 28\\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\\.8% were non\\-families. 25\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.42 and the average family size was 2\\.86\\.",
"In the town, the population was spread out, with 22\\.6% under the age of 18, 6\\.0% from 18 to 24, 25\\.2% from 25 to 44, 29\\.2% from 45 to 64, and 16\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93\\.9 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $38,438, and the median income for a family was $44,688\\. Males had a median income of $36,563 versus $20,333 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $19,984\\. About 5\\.3% of families and 10\\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 3\\.5% of those under age 18 and 9\\.5% of those age 65 or over.",
"",
"",
""
] |
History
-------
### Foundation
[thumb\|The Old Buildings, showing the West House, as it was rebuilt in 1687, viewed from the south](/wiki/File:Wilsonsoldbuildings.png "Wilsonsoldbuildings.png")
The school was founded by Edward Wilson in 1615 and was located in [Camberwell](/wiki/Camberwell "Camberwell") in Surrey, but now part of [Greater London](/wiki/Greater_London "Greater London"). At that time it was a small village of cottages, homesteads, inns and larger buildings grouped around a village green. Wilson was born around 1550 in Cartmel, Lancashire, which had its own grammar school, from where he passed on to Cambridge University. No record remains of him taking a degree, although it is known that he went into the Church, being appointed [Deacon](/wiki/Deacon "Deacon") at Ely in Norfolk in 1576\. He subsequently became Vicar of the Parish of Camberwell, which was presented to him by [Queen Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England") in person. It is thought that this indicated that he favoured the settlement of the Church of England, which the Queen was thought to have been resolved to make. His nephew Peter Danson became a governor of the new school at its founding. Danson was also vicar of [Carshalton](/wiki/Carshalton "Carshalton") in Surrey, only one mile from the present site of the school. A further member of the Wilson family, a [namesake](/wiki/Namesake "Namesake") of Edward Wilson, is named in the charter of the school as the Master.
After his wife died, and having had no children, he decided to set up a school using his available resources to create a legacy\- saying in the royal charter that for all time there would be a school in Camberwell named after him. At the time, the establishment of a grammar school in England required the assent of the crown. This was obtained after the first school buildings were constructed. The original charter bearing this assent has since been lost, although in 1929 the governors of the school obtained a certified extract from the [Patent Rolls](/wiki/Patent_Rolls "Patent Rolls"). This requirement for the agreement of the Crown explains the legend "Founded in 1615 by Royal Charter" that appears in various places beneath the school name. The charter was granted by [King James I](/wiki/James_VI_and_I "James VI and I"), who had succeeded his cousin Elizabeth by this time.
The charter names the school as "The Free Grammar School of Edward Wilson, clerk, in Camberwell, otherwise Camerwell, in the County of Surrey."
### Reconstitution
In 1845 the school was forced to close as a result of a financial scandal. This was the result of Governor James Goulston, who sued the school. Following an [Order in Council](/wiki/Order_in_Council "Order in Council") of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria") in 1880, which superseded the previous Royal Charter, the school was rebuilt on a different site in Camberwell, opening in 1883\. It again catered to the need for schooling of boys in Camberwell, which was thought to have grown considerably from its rustic origins by this time. Its working population largely consisted of men working in the professions, clerks, journalists, tradesmen and labourers. It was thought that a grammar school provided an asset to the neighbourhood, with the prospect for boys to go on to University education.
For five and a half years during the Second World War, Wilson's was evacuated to a Camp School at Itchingfield near Horsham, Sussex, and for the only period in its history became a boarding school. The whole compound stood around a broad elliptical area, set in large part to grass and the remainder, an asphalt quadrangle. Radiating from this central area, in spoke\-like fashion, was a series of large cedarwood huts. These were the dormitories, ablution blocks and classrooms. Two larger buildings stood adjacent to the asphalted space, one the dining hall and the other the assembly hall which also functioned as the gym, cinema and church. The whole establishment catered for four hundred plus boys forming six houses, all named after past headmasters of the school, Nairn, Macdowell, Wilson, Kelly, Whiteley and Jephson. The Head Master of [Christ's Hospital](/wiki/Christ%27s_Hospital "Christ's Hospital") allowed Wilson's the use of the school's cricket pitches, swimming bath and other facilities, including the Great Hall for Speech Day.
In 1958, an elementary school in Camberwell known as the Greencoat School was closed after a 250\-year history and part of its assets passed to Wilson's Grammar School. The funds were used to provide a new science facility, the Greencoat Building, which was constructed opposite the main school site in Wilson Road. Two carved figures of a boy and a girl which are believed to have stood over the boys' and girls' entrances to the school were installed first in the Greencoat Building, and later in the Greencoat Courtyard in the new school at Wallington.
While information on pupils taught at the school before 1843 has been lost, Wilson's has a long list of noted Old Boys across the fields of entertainment, science, the military and the church. *A Short History of Wilson's School*,{{citation \| last1 \= Allport \| first1 \= D.H. \| last2 \= Friskney \| first2 \= N.J. \| title \= A Short History of Wilson's School \| publisher\=Wilson's School Charitable Trust \| year \= 1987}} from which much of the information below was taken, was first published in 1951; its most recent edition was in 1987\.
### Relocation
In 1975 the school moved to the current site. A three part plan for expansion only saw part one carried out, though subsequent construction has included additional science blocks, the Sixth Form Centre, the Foundation Building, the Venner Building (for Art and Design), the Lower School (to accommodate Year 7 and 8 teaching), and the Britton Centre (for Music).{{Cite web \|title\=School Facilities and Lettings \|url\=https://www.wilsons.school/facilities/index.php \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-06 \|website\=Wilson’s School \|language\=en}}
### Recognition
In November 2018, *The Times*{{'}} School Guide declared Wilson's the "State Secondary School of the Year". Wilson's was later awarded "London State Secondary School of the Decade" by *The Times* in 2020\.{{Cite news \|title\=Regional State Secondary Schools of the Decade \|newspaper\=\[\[The Times]] \|language\=en \|url\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/regional\-state\-secondary\-schools\-of\-the\-decade\-s77sb2fp8 \|access\-date\=2020\-12\-05 \|issn\=0140\-0460}} The school was named "Secondary School of the Year" again in 2024 by The Sunday Times newspaper.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.thetimes.com/uncategorized/news/article/best\-uk\-secondary\-schools\-league\-table\-f8fk0q560 \|title\=School league tables 2024: the best UK secondary schools revealed \|publisher\=The Times \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30}}
The school's last [Ofsted](/wiki/Ofsted "Ofsted") inspection{{Cite web\|title\=Inspection Reports\|url\=https://www.wilsons.school/reports/}} took place in September 2022 and rated the school as "Outstanding" in all categories.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Foundation",
"[thumb\\|The Old Buildings, showing the West House, as it was rebuilt in 1687, viewed from the south](/wiki/File:Wilsonsoldbuildings.png \"Wilsonsoldbuildings.png\")\nThe school was founded by Edward Wilson in 1615 and was located in [Camberwell](/wiki/Camberwell \"Camberwell\") in Surrey, but now part of [Greater London](/wiki/Greater_London \"Greater London\"). At that time it was a small village of cottages, homesteads, inns and larger buildings grouped around a village green. Wilson was born around 1550 in Cartmel, Lancashire, which had its own grammar school, from where he passed on to Cambridge University. No record remains of him taking a degree, although it is known that he went into the Church, being appointed [Deacon](/wiki/Deacon \"Deacon\") at Ely in Norfolk in 1576\\. He subsequently became Vicar of the Parish of Camberwell, which was presented to him by [Queen Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\") in person. It is thought that this indicated that he favoured the settlement of the Church of England, which the Queen was thought to have been resolved to make. His nephew Peter Danson became a governor of the new school at its founding. Danson was also vicar of [Carshalton](/wiki/Carshalton \"Carshalton\") in Surrey, only one mile from the present site of the school. A further member of the Wilson family, a [namesake](/wiki/Namesake \"Namesake\") of Edward Wilson, is named in the charter of the school as the Master.",
"After his wife died, and having had no children, he decided to set up a school using his available resources to create a legacy\\- saying in the royal charter that for all time there would be a school in Camberwell named after him. At the time, the establishment of a grammar school in England required the assent of the crown. This was obtained after the first school buildings were constructed. The original charter bearing this assent has since been lost, although in 1929 the governors of the school obtained a certified extract from the [Patent Rolls](/wiki/Patent_Rolls \"Patent Rolls\"). This requirement for the agreement of the Crown explains the legend \"Founded in 1615 by Royal Charter\" that appears in various places beneath the school name. The charter was granted by [King James I](/wiki/James_VI_and_I \"James VI and I\"), who had succeeded his cousin Elizabeth by this time.",
"The charter names the school as \"The Free Grammar School of Edward Wilson, clerk, in Camberwell, otherwise Camerwell, in the County of Surrey.\"",
"### Reconstitution",
"In 1845 the school was forced to close as a result of a financial scandal. This was the result of Governor James Goulston, who sued the school. Following an [Order in Council](/wiki/Order_in_Council \"Order in Council\") of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\") in 1880, which superseded the previous Royal Charter, the school was rebuilt on a different site in Camberwell, opening in 1883\\. It again catered to the need for schooling of boys in Camberwell, which was thought to have grown considerably from its rustic origins by this time. Its working population largely consisted of men working in the professions, clerks, journalists, tradesmen and labourers. It was thought that a grammar school provided an asset to the neighbourhood, with the prospect for boys to go on to University education.",
"For five and a half years during the Second World War, Wilson's was evacuated to a Camp School at Itchingfield near Horsham, Sussex, and for the only period in its history became a boarding school. The whole compound stood around a broad elliptical area, set in large part to grass and the remainder, an asphalt quadrangle. Radiating from this central area, in spoke\\-like fashion, was a series of large cedarwood huts. These were the dormitories, ablution blocks and classrooms. Two larger buildings stood adjacent to the asphalted space, one the dining hall and the other the assembly hall which also functioned as the gym, cinema and church. The whole establishment catered for four hundred plus boys forming six houses, all named after past headmasters of the school, Nairn, Macdowell, Wilson, Kelly, Whiteley and Jephson. The Head Master of [Christ's Hospital](/wiki/Christ%27s_Hospital \"Christ's Hospital\") allowed Wilson's the use of the school's cricket pitches, swimming bath and other facilities, including the Great Hall for Speech Day.",
"In 1958, an elementary school in Camberwell known as the Greencoat School was closed after a 250\\-year history and part of its assets passed to Wilson's Grammar School. The funds were used to provide a new science facility, the Greencoat Building, which was constructed opposite the main school site in Wilson Road. Two carved figures of a boy and a girl which are believed to have stood over the boys' and girls' entrances to the school were installed first in the Greencoat Building, and later in the Greencoat Courtyard in the new school at Wallington.",
"While information on pupils taught at the school before 1843 has been lost, Wilson's has a long list of noted Old Boys across the fields of entertainment, science, the military and the church. *A Short History of Wilson's School*,{{citation \\| last1 \\= Allport \\| first1 \\= D.H. \\| last2 \\= Friskney \\| first2 \\= N.J. \\| title \\= A Short History of Wilson's School \\| publisher\\=Wilson's School Charitable Trust \\| year \\= 1987}} from which much of the information below was taken, was first published in 1951; its most recent edition was in 1987\\.",
"### Relocation",
"In 1975 the school moved to the current site. A three part plan for expansion only saw part one carried out, though subsequent construction has included additional science blocks, the Sixth Form Centre, the Foundation Building, the Venner Building (for Art and Design), the Lower School (to accommodate Year 7 and 8 teaching), and the Britton Centre (for Music).{{Cite web \\|title\\=School Facilities and Lettings \\|url\\=https://www.wilsons.school/facilities/index.php \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-06 \\|website\\=Wilson’s School \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Recognition",
"In November 2018, *The Times*{{'}} School Guide declared Wilson's the \"State Secondary School of the Year\". Wilson's was later awarded \"London State Secondary School of the Decade\" by *The Times* in 2020\\.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Regional State Secondary Schools of the Decade \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Times]] \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/regional\\-state\\-secondary\\-schools\\-of\\-the\\-decade\\-s77sb2fp8 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-05 \\|issn\\=0140\\-0460}} The school was named \"Secondary School of the Year\" again in 2024 by The Sunday Times newspaper.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.com/uncategorized/news/article/best\\-uk\\-secondary\\-schools\\-league\\-table\\-f8fk0q560 \\|title\\=School league tables 2024: the best UK secondary schools revealed \\|publisher\\=The Times \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30}}",
"The school's last [Ofsted](/wiki/Ofsted \"Ofsted\") inspection{{Cite web\\|title\\=Inspection Reports\\|url\\=https://www.wilsons.school/reports/}} took place in September 2022 and rated the school as \"Outstanding\" in all categories.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Jack B. Nife is a children's author whose happy marriage has been destroyed by his obsession with his unpublished first book, *Harold the Hedgehog*. He is working on a series of manuscripts titled *Decades of Death*, about [Victorian era](/wiki/Victorian_era "Victorian era") serial killers. He has become obsessed with serial killers and paranoid that people are watching him and trying to kill him, which isn't helped by the fact that a serial killer called the [Hanoi](/wiki/Hanoi "Hanoi") Handshake Killer, who cuts off the fingers of his victims, has been active in his neighbourhood.
While trying to give money in a sock to carolers, Jack is startled by a phone call from his agent, Clair. She tells him that Harvey Humphries, the head of scripts at the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC"), is interested in Jack's scripts and arranges a meeting between the two in just a few hours. Jack convinces himself that Humphries is a serial killer but plans to attend the meeting anyway.
Jack tries to clean his clothes in the oven to be presentable for his meeting with Humphries, only to find that he has [super\-glued](/wiki/Super-glued "Super-glued") a carving knife to his hand. After trying to remove the knife, he discovers that his clothes are ruined. Jack realises that he has to go to the [laundrette](/wiki/Laundrette "Laundrette"). Since he is terrified of the prospect, he calls Professor Friedkin, an old friend, and asks for help. After listening to Jack's traumatic memories of the launderette, Friedkin convinces Jack that he must confront his fears and go there.
While at the laundrette, he doesn't understand how the machines work, and he fails to add laundry soap to his load. Frustrating the fellow patrons, he decides to just dry the clothes because he doesn't have time to wash them again. A beautiful young woman then enters, causing Jack further distress, so he rushes to remove his damp clothes from the dryer so he can leave. Forgetting that the carving knife is still glued to his hand, he removes his hand from his pocket and causes the other customers to panic and lock him in the laundrette.
The police arrive, break into the laundrette and subdue Jack. The police remove the knife from his hand and treat his wounds. They are about to take him to the police station when a helicopter flies over and announces that there is an emergency and they are needed elsewhere. They hastily throw Jack into the back of the police van and drive off, but they fail to latch the doors and he falls out of the vehicle as it accelerates off.
Perkins, a [community support police officer](/wiki/Community_support_police_officer "Community support police officer"), follows the young woman while Jack returns to the laundrette to get his clean shirt for his meeting. While Jack is changing into his shirt, he notices that a back door that had been locked is now open. He goes through the door and finds a hatch in the floor. As he looks through the hatch, someone hits him from behind.
Jack wakes up in the basement of the laundrette tied up next to the young woman. As they begin to panic, Perkins comes down the stairs. They urge him to get help but he reveals that he is the Hanoi Handshake Killer; he cuts the fingers off of his victims and blames the killings on the [Vietnamese](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") [mafia](/wiki/Mafia "Mafia"). Perkins says the laundrette used to belong to his grandmother until the Vietnamese immigrants pushed her out, and he now murders for revenge. He then goes upstairs to sharpen his knife.
Jack tells the woman about the traumatic events in his childhood regarding the launderette, and she comforts him and urges him not to give up hope. She says her name is Sangeet and Jack asks her if she will have dinner with him if they survive. Perkins returns carrying a [boombox](/wiki/Boombox "Boombox") playing the song "[The Final Countdown](/wiki/The_Final_Countdown_%28song%29 "The Final Countdown (song)")" by [Europe](/wiki/Europe_%28band%29 "Europe (band)"). Perkins and Jack argue about the song's genre, causing Perkins to tell them about his childhood. His mother died when he was very young and his grandmother took him in and gave him a room in the cellar. During this story we see that this was the same launderette that Jack was abandoned in and he was being watched by Perkins from the back room.
Jack and Sangeet try to get Perkins to admit that his grandmother did not take proper care of him. Jack argues that Tony is not a good serial killer because he is not original (he supposedly has his grandmother's body in a rocking chair, which references the film *[Psycho](/wiki/Psycho_%281960_film%29 "Psycho (1960 film)")*).
Sangeet frees herself and injures Perkins as he is about to murder Jack. Sangeet tries to escape but Perkins recovers and drags her back into the cellar. As Perkins is struggling with Sangeet, she frantically suggests that Jack tell a story. Jack convinces Perkins to listen to a story as his final request. Jack tells a story called *Brian the Hedgehog*; Perkins relates to the story and cries, admitting that he didn't kill the first victim and he had only found the body. The owner of the launderette opens the hatch, prompting Jack and Sangeet to scream for help.
Several months later, we see a well\-groomed Jack reading his book about Harold and Brian to a group of children. Sangeet and Professor Friedkin are there. Clair finally introduces Jack to Humphries, causing Jack to become briefly fearful. Sangeet reminds Jack that they are going to dinner, and so they leave the event and catch a taxi as the credits roll over the frame.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Jack B. Nife is a children's author whose happy marriage has been destroyed by his obsession with his unpublished first book, *Harold the Hedgehog*. He is working on a series of manuscripts titled *Decades of Death*, about [Victorian era](/wiki/Victorian_era \"Victorian era\") serial killers. He has become obsessed with serial killers and paranoid that people are watching him and trying to kill him, which isn't helped by the fact that a serial killer called the [Hanoi](/wiki/Hanoi \"Hanoi\") Handshake Killer, who cuts off the fingers of his victims, has been active in his neighbourhood.",
"While trying to give money in a sock to carolers, Jack is startled by a phone call from his agent, Clair. She tells him that Harvey Humphries, the head of scripts at the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\"), is interested in Jack's scripts and arranges a meeting between the two in just a few hours. Jack convinces himself that Humphries is a serial killer but plans to attend the meeting anyway.",
"Jack tries to clean his clothes in the oven to be presentable for his meeting with Humphries, only to find that he has [super\\-glued](/wiki/Super-glued \"Super-glued\") a carving knife to his hand. After trying to remove the knife, he discovers that his clothes are ruined. Jack realises that he has to go to the [laundrette](/wiki/Laundrette \"Laundrette\"). Since he is terrified of the prospect, he calls Professor Friedkin, an old friend, and asks for help. After listening to Jack's traumatic memories of the launderette, Friedkin convinces Jack that he must confront his fears and go there.",
"While at the laundrette, he doesn't understand how the machines work, and he fails to add laundry soap to his load. Frustrating the fellow patrons, he decides to just dry the clothes because he doesn't have time to wash them again. A beautiful young woman then enters, causing Jack further distress, so he rushes to remove his damp clothes from the dryer so he can leave. Forgetting that the carving knife is still glued to his hand, he removes his hand from his pocket and causes the other customers to panic and lock him in the laundrette.",
"The police arrive, break into the laundrette and subdue Jack. The police remove the knife from his hand and treat his wounds. They are about to take him to the police station when a helicopter flies over and announces that there is an emergency and they are needed elsewhere. They hastily throw Jack into the back of the police van and drive off, but they fail to latch the doors and he falls out of the vehicle as it accelerates off.",
"Perkins, a [community support police officer](/wiki/Community_support_police_officer \"Community support police officer\"), follows the young woman while Jack returns to the laundrette to get his clean shirt for his meeting. While Jack is changing into his shirt, he notices that a back door that had been locked is now open. He goes through the door and finds a hatch in the floor. As he looks through the hatch, someone hits him from behind.",
"Jack wakes up in the basement of the laundrette tied up next to the young woman. As they begin to panic, Perkins comes down the stairs. They urge him to get help but he reveals that he is the Hanoi Handshake Killer; he cuts the fingers off of his victims and blames the killings on the [Vietnamese](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\") [mafia](/wiki/Mafia \"Mafia\"). Perkins says the laundrette used to belong to his grandmother until the Vietnamese immigrants pushed her out, and he now murders for revenge. He then goes upstairs to sharpen his knife.",
"Jack tells the woman about the traumatic events in his childhood regarding the launderette, and she comforts him and urges him not to give up hope. She says her name is Sangeet and Jack asks her if she will have dinner with him if they survive. Perkins returns carrying a [boombox](/wiki/Boombox \"Boombox\") playing the song \"[The Final Countdown](/wiki/The_Final_Countdown_%28song%29 \"The Final Countdown (song)\")\" by [Europe](/wiki/Europe_%28band%29 \"Europe (band)\"). Perkins and Jack argue about the song's genre, causing Perkins to tell them about his childhood. His mother died when he was very young and his grandmother took him in and gave him a room in the cellar. During this story we see that this was the same launderette that Jack was abandoned in and he was being watched by Perkins from the back room.",
"Jack and Sangeet try to get Perkins to admit that his grandmother did not take proper care of him. Jack argues that Tony is not a good serial killer because he is not original (he supposedly has his grandmother's body in a rocking chair, which references the film *[Psycho](/wiki/Psycho_%281960_film%29 \"Psycho (1960 film)\")*).",
"Sangeet frees herself and injures Perkins as he is about to murder Jack. Sangeet tries to escape but Perkins recovers and drags her back into the cellar. As Perkins is struggling with Sangeet, she frantically suggests that Jack tell a story. Jack convinces Perkins to listen to a story as his final request. Jack tells a story called *Brian the Hedgehog*; Perkins relates to the story and cries, admitting that he didn't kill the first victim and he had only found the body. The owner of the launderette opens the hatch, prompting Jack and Sangeet to scream for help.",
"Several months later, we see a well\\-groomed Jack reading his book about Harold and Brian to a group of children. Sangeet and Professor Friedkin are there. Clair finally introduces Jack to Humphries, causing Jack to become briefly fearful. Sangeet reminds Jack that they are going to dinner, and so they leave the event and catch a taxi as the credits roll over the frame.",
""
] |
Design
------
The Marlow\-Hunter 50 is a recreational [keelboat](/wiki/Keelboat "Keelboat"), built predominantly of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass "Fiberglass"). It has a [B\&R rig](/wiki/B%26R_rig "B&R rig") [masthead sloop](/wiki/Masthead_sloop "Masthead sloop") rig, a [raked stem](/wiki/Raked_stem "Raked stem"), an aft cockpit, a walk\-through [reverse transom](/wiki/Reverse_transom "Reverse transom") with a swimming platform and folding ladder, an internally mounted spade\-type [rudder](/wiki/Rudder "Rudder") controlled by dual [wheels](/wiki/Ship%27s_wheel "Ship's wheel") and a fixed fin [keel](/wiki/Keel "Keel") or [wing keel](/wiki/Wing_keel "Wing keel"). The fin keel version it displaces {{convert\|29406\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} and carries {{convert\|9093\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} of ballast, while the wing keel version displaces {{convert\|32813\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} and carries {{convert\|12500\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on}} of ballast.
The boat has a draft of {{convert\|7\.00\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} with the standard keel and {{convert\|5\.5\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} with the optional shoal draft wing keel.
The boat is fitted with a Japanese [Yanmar](/wiki/Yanmar "Yanmar") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") of {{convert\|75\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbr\=on}}. The fuel tank holds {{convert\|150\|u.s.gal}} and the fresh water tank has a capacity of {{convert\|200\|u.s.gal}}.
Standard equipment includes a [mast furling](/wiki/Roller_furling "Roller furling") [mainsail](/wiki/Mainsail "Mainsail"), [mainsheet traveler](/wiki/Mainsheet_traveler "Mainsheet traveler") on a [stainless steel](/wiki/Stainless_steel "Stainless steel") arch. Options include a single self\-tacking [jib](/wiki/Jib "Jib") or a self\-tacking staysail with overlapping jib in a [cutter rig](/wiki/Cutter_rig "Cutter rig"). There are two window arrangements, an earlier one with five individual side ports and a later one with five ports in a sweeping arch.
The design has a [hull speed](/wiki/Hull_speed "Hull speed") of {{convert\|8\.87\|kn\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}.
|
[
"Design\n------",
"The Marlow\\-Hunter 50 is a recreational [keelboat](/wiki/Keelboat \"Keelboat\"), built predominantly of [fiberglass](/wiki/Fiberglass \"Fiberglass\"). It has a [B\\&R rig](/wiki/B%26R_rig \"B&R rig\") [masthead sloop](/wiki/Masthead_sloop \"Masthead sloop\") rig, a [raked stem](/wiki/Raked_stem \"Raked stem\"), an aft cockpit, a walk\\-through [reverse transom](/wiki/Reverse_transom \"Reverse transom\") with a swimming platform and folding ladder, an internally mounted spade\\-type [rudder](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") controlled by dual [wheels](/wiki/Ship%27s_wheel \"Ship's wheel\") and a fixed fin [keel](/wiki/Keel \"Keel\") or [wing keel](/wiki/Wing_keel \"Wing keel\"). The fin keel version it displaces {{convert\\|29406\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and carries {{convert\\|9093\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of ballast, while the wing keel version displaces {{convert\\|32813\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and carries {{convert\\|12500\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} of ballast.",
"The boat has a draft of {{convert\\|7\\.00\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with the standard keel and {{convert\\|5\\.5\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} with the optional shoal draft wing keel.",
"The boat is fitted with a Japanese [Yanmar](/wiki/Yanmar \"Yanmar\") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") of {{convert\\|75\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. The fuel tank holds {{convert\\|150\\|u.s.gal}} and the fresh water tank has a capacity of {{convert\\|200\\|u.s.gal}}.",
"Standard equipment includes a [mast furling](/wiki/Roller_furling \"Roller furling\") [mainsail](/wiki/Mainsail \"Mainsail\"), [mainsheet traveler](/wiki/Mainsheet_traveler \"Mainsheet traveler\") on a [stainless steel](/wiki/Stainless_steel \"Stainless steel\") arch. Options include a single self\\-tacking [jib](/wiki/Jib \"Jib\") or a self\\-tacking staysail with overlapping jib in a [cutter rig](/wiki/Cutter_rig \"Cutter rig\"). There are two window arrangements, an earlier one with five individual side ports and a later one with five ports in a sweeping arch.",
"The design has a [hull speed](/wiki/Hull_speed \"Hull speed\") of {{convert\\|8\\.87\\|kn\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The Green Lantern of Earth, Kyle Rayner, crashes at Highway Hill on Earth in a [spacecraft](/wiki/Spacecraft "Spacecraft"), mumbling to the two hikers who find him, "It has a name". His power ring begins speaking, "Parallax is coming…"
A series of strange and disturbing incidents then begins to occur. Jordan, pronouncing judgment on the villain [Black Hand](/wiki/Black_Hand_%28comics%29 "Black Hand (comics)"), becomes unable to focus clearly, and senses that something is wrong, telling his friend Oliver Queen (a.k.a. [Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow "Green Arrow")), "None of this should have happened. This isn't me. This isn't who I am". The [shape\-shifting](/wiki/Shape-shifting "Shape-shifting") [Vuldarian](/wiki/Vuldarians "Vuldarians") [physiology](/wiki/Physiology "Physiology") of former Green Lantern Guy Gardner begins going haywire. Coast City, long destroyed, suddenly reappears to two pilots flying over it, though the only building that is restored is Hal Jordan's old home.{{cite comic\|writer\=\[\[Johns, Geoff]]\|artist\=\[\[Van Sciver, Ethan]]\|story\=Blackest Night\|title\=Green Lantern: Rebirth\|issue\=1\|date\=December 2004\|publisher\=\[\[DC Comics]]}}
When confronted, Jordan tells the [Justice League](/wiki/Justice_League "Justice League") that he is not responsible for the restored Coast City. Suddenly, John Stewart goes berserk, attacking the other heroes, his ring now intoning, "Parallax is coming". Meanwhile, at the Justice League Watchtower on the [Moon](/wiki/Moon "Moon"), the emergency power ring that Jordan once gave [Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow "Green Arrow") duplicates itself, and flies to Gardner's finger, restoring him as a Green Lantern.
Back at Highway Hill, the extraterrestrial Green Lantern [Kilowog](/wiki/Kilowog "Kilowog") appears, and inexplicably attacks Kyle Rayner. However, [Ganthet](/wiki/Ganthet "Ganthet"), one of the [Guardians of the Universe](/wiki/Guardians_of_the_Universe "Guardians of the Universe"), appears to stop Kilowog, attempting to protect the coffin, which it is revealed holds the corpse of Hal Jordan. He and Kilowog engage in a fierce battle, and Rayner himself feels something within his ring attempting to take over his will, much as with Stewart and Kilowog. Ganthet teleports Rayner and Jordan's corpse to the Watchtower. Meanwhile, Jordan investigates the appearance of his old apartment building, where he is confronted by the [Parallax](/wiki/Parallax_%28comics%29 "Parallax (comics)") version of himself, who engages in a battle of wills with the Spirit of Vengeance bonded to Jordan's soul.
It is then that the Spectre explains to Jordan the truth about Parallax, while simultaneously on the Moon, Rayner does so to Queen. Rayner explains that he journeyed to the edge of the universe within Sector 3599, and on the 10th planet from the star Pagallus, the inhabitants told him that Parallax was actually a yellow demonic parasitic entity that was born at the beginning of sentience, feeding on fear, creating terror in anything it came into contact with, and causing entire civilizations to destroy themselves out of paranoia. It was this creature that the Guardians of the Universe imprisoned within the Central Power Battery on Oa, using fear's opposite energy, willpower. Rayner explains that there is an emotional [electromagnetic spectrum](/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum "Electromagnetic spectrum") into which the collective willpower of the universe is collected by the Central Power Battery, and that green willpower is the most pure. Parallax had lain dormant for billions of years, his true nature covered up by the Guardians to prevent anyone from trying to free it, and thus, it had eventually come to be referred to as simply "the yellow impurity". This was the reason why the rings were useless against the color yellow: Parallax weakened its power over the corresponding spectrum, and hence only someone capable of overcoming great fear could master the power ring. The Guardians, therefore, selected only such persons to become Green Lanterns.
At some point in recent history, Parallax was awakened, weak and hungry. It reached out to Jordan through his own ring when Jordan was at his weakest, spending years influencing him, causing him increasing self\-doubt and fear. Parallax's control over Jordan exploded with his grief over the destruction of Coast City. It was Parallax's influence that was responsible for Jordan's subsequent murderous activity. When Jordan destroyed the Central Power Battery, he unknowingly freed Parallax, which grafted itself onto his soul, and suppressed Ganthet's memories of the parasite. It was because Parallax was now free that Kyle Rayner's own ring did not have any weakness against yellow. Following Jordan's sacrifice of his own life during the *Final Night* storyline (a momentary glimpse of his true heroic soul shining through Parallax's influence), the Spirit of Vengeance drew in Hal's soul in order to eradicate the parasitic Parallax from it.{{cite comic\|writer\=Johns, Geoff\|penciller\=Van Sciver, Ethan\|inker\=Gray, Mick\|coinkers\=Rollins, Prentis\|story\=Rings\|title\=Green Lantern: Rebirth\|issue\=5\|date\=April 2005\|publisher\=DC Comics}}
Green Arrow and Rayner are then attacked by Sinestro, apparently very much alive, who explains that it was he who used his Qwardian yellow power ring to tap into Parallax's power and awakened it, and that the Sinestro whom Jordan killed was an illusory construct of Parallax's, created so that his murder would serve as the final stage of Jordan's susceptibility to the impurity in order to break his will.
The Justice League of America, [Justice Society](/wiki/Justice_Society_of_America "Justice Society of America"), and the [Teen Titans](/wiki/Teen_Titans "Teen Titans") arrive in Coast City to attack Parallax, but the entity inhibits their efforts by causing them to feel fear. The Spirit of Vengeance, however, manages to overpower Parallax, and finally removes the parasite from Jordan's soul. Needing a soul to inhabit, Parallax attacks Ganthet, while Jordan's soul is pulled toward the light of the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife"). Ganthet manages to guide Jordan's soul back to his corporeal body on the Moon. His soul and thoughts clear for the first time in a long time, Jordan emerges from the coffin resurrected as a mortal human again, once again taking his place as a Green Lantern, the white portions of his hair even restored to their original brown. He and Sinestro engage in a fierce battle on the Moon, and across entire star systems. Eventually, Jordan and Rayner force the renegade back into the [antimatter](/wiki/Antimatter "Antimatter") universe to which he was first banished. Jordan and Rayner then journey to Coast City, where they, along with John Stewart, Guy Gardner and Kilowog, free Ganthet from Parallax's possession, and imprison the parasite back in the Central Power Battery on Oa. The Guardians then announce that "it is time", referring to rebuild the Green Lantern Corps.
After the battle, Batman remains unconvinced that Jordan was not responsible for his actions as Parallax, but nevertheless decides that the universe "needs a little more light anyway", thus acknowledging that Jordan is back. Hal reestablishes his relationships with his former paramour Carol Ferris, who decides to reopen the Ferris Airfield, and Oliver Queen, who offers to let him stay in his home while Jordan rebuilds his life. Elsewhere, at Belle Reve Prison, [Hector Hammond](/wiki/Hector_Hammond "Hector Hammond") senses Jordan's resurrection, and is delighted and awaiting the opportunity to engage with his foe once more.{{cite comic\|writer\=Johns, Geoff\|penciller\=Van Sciver, Ethan\|inker\=various\|story\=Brightest Day\|title\=Green Lantern: Rebirth\|issue\=6\|date\=May 2005\|publisher\=DC Comics}}
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The Green Lantern of Earth, Kyle Rayner, crashes at Highway Hill on Earth in a [spacecraft](/wiki/Spacecraft \"Spacecraft\"), mumbling to the two hikers who find him, \"It has a name\". His power ring begins speaking, \"Parallax is coming…\"",
"A series of strange and disturbing incidents then begins to occur. Jordan, pronouncing judgment on the villain [Black Hand](/wiki/Black_Hand_%28comics%29 \"Black Hand (comics)\"), becomes unable to focus clearly, and senses that something is wrong, telling his friend Oliver Queen (a.k.a. [Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow \"Green Arrow\")), \"None of this should have happened. This isn't me. This isn't who I am\". The [shape\\-shifting](/wiki/Shape-shifting \"Shape-shifting\") [Vuldarian](/wiki/Vuldarians \"Vuldarians\") [physiology](/wiki/Physiology \"Physiology\") of former Green Lantern Guy Gardner begins going haywire. Coast City, long destroyed, suddenly reappears to two pilots flying over it, though the only building that is restored is Hal Jordan's old home.{{cite comic\\|writer\\=\\[\\[Johns, Geoff]]\\|artist\\=\\[\\[Van Sciver, Ethan]]\\|story\\=Blackest Night\\|title\\=Green Lantern: Rebirth\\|issue\\=1\\|date\\=December 2004\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[DC Comics]]}}",
"When confronted, Jordan tells the [Justice League](/wiki/Justice_League \"Justice League\") that he is not responsible for the restored Coast City. Suddenly, John Stewart goes berserk, attacking the other heroes, his ring now intoning, \"Parallax is coming\". Meanwhile, at the Justice League Watchtower on the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\"), the emergency power ring that Jordan once gave [Green Arrow](/wiki/Green_Arrow \"Green Arrow\") duplicates itself, and flies to Gardner's finger, restoring him as a Green Lantern.",
"Back at Highway Hill, the extraterrestrial Green Lantern [Kilowog](/wiki/Kilowog \"Kilowog\") appears, and inexplicably attacks Kyle Rayner. However, [Ganthet](/wiki/Ganthet \"Ganthet\"), one of the [Guardians of the Universe](/wiki/Guardians_of_the_Universe \"Guardians of the Universe\"), appears to stop Kilowog, attempting to protect the coffin, which it is revealed holds the corpse of Hal Jordan. He and Kilowog engage in a fierce battle, and Rayner himself feels something within his ring attempting to take over his will, much as with Stewart and Kilowog. Ganthet teleports Rayner and Jordan's corpse to the Watchtower. Meanwhile, Jordan investigates the appearance of his old apartment building, where he is confronted by the [Parallax](/wiki/Parallax_%28comics%29 \"Parallax (comics)\") version of himself, who engages in a battle of wills with the Spirit of Vengeance bonded to Jordan's soul.",
"It is then that the Spectre explains to Jordan the truth about Parallax, while simultaneously on the Moon, Rayner does so to Queen. Rayner explains that he journeyed to the edge of the universe within Sector 3599, and on the 10th planet from the star Pagallus, the inhabitants told him that Parallax was actually a yellow demonic parasitic entity that was born at the beginning of sentience, feeding on fear, creating terror in anything it came into contact with, and causing entire civilizations to destroy themselves out of paranoia. It was this creature that the Guardians of the Universe imprisoned within the Central Power Battery on Oa, using fear's opposite energy, willpower. Rayner explains that there is an emotional [electromagnetic spectrum](/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum \"Electromagnetic spectrum\") into which the collective willpower of the universe is collected by the Central Power Battery, and that green willpower is the most pure. Parallax had lain dormant for billions of years, his true nature covered up by the Guardians to prevent anyone from trying to free it, and thus, it had eventually come to be referred to as simply \"the yellow impurity\". This was the reason why the rings were useless against the color yellow: Parallax weakened its power over the corresponding spectrum, and hence only someone capable of overcoming great fear could master the power ring. The Guardians, therefore, selected only such persons to become Green Lanterns.",
"At some point in recent history, Parallax was awakened, weak and hungry. It reached out to Jordan through his own ring when Jordan was at his weakest, spending years influencing him, causing him increasing self\\-doubt and fear. Parallax's control over Jordan exploded with his grief over the destruction of Coast City. It was Parallax's influence that was responsible for Jordan's subsequent murderous activity. When Jordan destroyed the Central Power Battery, he unknowingly freed Parallax, which grafted itself onto his soul, and suppressed Ganthet's memories of the parasite. It was because Parallax was now free that Kyle Rayner's own ring did not have any weakness against yellow. Following Jordan's sacrifice of his own life during the *Final Night* storyline (a momentary glimpse of his true heroic soul shining through Parallax's influence), the Spirit of Vengeance drew in Hal's soul in order to eradicate the parasitic Parallax from it.{{cite comic\\|writer\\=Johns, Geoff\\|penciller\\=Van Sciver, Ethan\\|inker\\=Gray, Mick\\|coinkers\\=Rollins, Prentis\\|story\\=Rings\\|title\\=Green Lantern: Rebirth\\|issue\\=5\\|date\\=April 2005\\|publisher\\=DC Comics}}",
"Green Arrow and Rayner are then attacked by Sinestro, apparently very much alive, who explains that it was he who used his Qwardian yellow power ring to tap into Parallax's power and awakened it, and that the Sinestro whom Jordan killed was an illusory construct of Parallax's, created so that his murder would serve as the final stage of Jordan's susceptibility to the impurity in order to break his will.",
"The Justice League of America, [Justice Society](/wiki/Justice_Society_of_America \"Justice Society of America\"), and the [Teen Titans](/wiki/Teen_Titans \"Teen Titans\") arrive in Coast City to attack Parallax, but the entity inhibits their efforts by causing them to feel fear. The Spirit of Vengeance, however, manages to overpower Parallax, and finally removes the parasite from Jordan's soul. Needing a soul to inhabit, Parallax attacks Ganthet, while Jordan's soul is pulled toward the light of the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife \"Afterlife\"). Ganthet manages to guide Jordan's soul back to his corporeal body on the Moon. His soul and thoughts clear for the first time in a long time, Jordan emerges from the coffin resurrected as a mortal human again, once again taking his place as a Green Lantern, the white portions of his hair even restored to their original brown. He and Sinestro engage in a fierce battle on the Moon, and across entire star systems. Eventually, Jordan and Rayner force the renegade back into the [antimatter](/wiki/Antimatter \"Antimatter\") universe to which he was first banished. Jordan and Rayner then journey to Coast City, where they, along with John Stewart, Guy Gardner and Kilowog, free Ganthet from Parallax's possession, and imprison the parasite back in the Central Power Battery on Oa. The Guardians then announce that \"it is time\", referring to rebuild the Green Lantern Corps.",
"After the battle, Batman remains unconvinced that Jordan was not responsible for his actions as Parallax, but nevertheless decides that the universe \"needs a little more light anyway\", thus acknowledging that Jordan is back. Hal reestablishes his relationships with his former paramour Carol Ferris, who decides to reopen the Ferris Airfield, and Oliver Queen, who offers to let him stay in his home while Jordan rebuilds his life. Elsewhere, at Belle Reve Prison, [Hector Hammond](/wiki/Hector_Hammond \"Hector Hammond\") senses Jordan's resurrection, and is delighted and awaiting the opportunity to engage with his foe once more.{{cite comic\\|writer\\=Johns, Geoff\\|penciller\\=Van Sciver, Ethan\\|inker\\=various\\|story\\=Brightest Day\\|title\\=Green Lantern: Rebirth\\|issue\\=6\\|date\\=May 2005\\|publisher\\=DC Comics}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
{{Long plot\|film\|date\=September 2021}}
The film depicts a period in our society, not so long past when the postcard was a trusted and cheap means of communication and the cycle the most common mode of commuting; when people were sensitive to the sufferings of others in their neighborhood and faith was the rule rather than the exception in social relationships.
The film relates the inspiring story of a boy Sadanand and his sister Nandini who endeavor to live with honor after their father(poet Milind Madhav) died in penury. Many people who were uprooted from familiar surroundings following the partition of the country and had to endure numerous struggles to survive, rebuild their lives, and bring up their families in new surroundings will be able to identify themselves with the travails of Sadanand and his sister.
The boy, aptly called Sadanand, is ever cheerful and active and assumes the responsibility of his sister and their sick mother. The boy sacrifices his studies to do several odd jobs \-selling vegetables, newspapers, carrying luggage at the railway station, etc.\- while his simple and sensitive elder sister Nandini chips in with preparing and feeding lunch to a few regulars who conduct themselves more like family members than customers. The regulars include young Satish Sharma (called Masterji by Sadanand) a college student with scholarly inclinations. A mutual affection develops between Masterji and Nandini which is a regular topic of playful banter between the siblings.
The film opens with Masterji being presented with a gold medal for his literary essay on the poetic works of the late Milind Madhav. Masterji shares the happy tidings with Chachiji (widow of the deceased poet )who is moved to tears seeing on the gold medal the image of her late husband who never got recognition for his works and had to battle with poverty throughout his life.
Sometime thereafter, Masterji having completed his course, decides to take up employment nearer to his native village so as to help his father who has run into debt for educating him. Chachiji tells him that her end is nearing and requests him to marry Nandini so that she can die peacefully. However, Masterji is not ready to marry as he has three unmarried younger sisters at home and takes leave wishing well for Nandini's marriage into a good family.
When their mother dies, the siblings decide to move away from painful memories associated with the familiar surroundings and sell away their meager possessions including their father's collection of books and Sadanand's beloved ("pyari") cycle to settle their debts. They leave the town and take shelter in a remote temple with the permission of a Sanyasi who meditates there in seclusion. Assured that her sister is safe with the holy man around, Sadanand goes daily to the nearby town selling vegetable door to door to earn a living. One day, he comes across Alkaji, a dancer whose luggage he had earlier carried at the railway station. She takes an instant liking for him as she sees the likeness of her own son in Sadanand. She assures him that she will be the first customer of whatever wares he sells and asks him to visit her regularly. One day when Sadanand asks why her son is not staying with her, the dancer confides that she sends money regularly for his upkeep in a different town and if she keeps him with her, she will have to live in poverty as she will not be able to pursue her dancing business. This upsets Sadanand who walks away saying he will come back only when her son comes to live with her.
Knowing the mutual affection between Nandini and Masterji, Sadanand writes regularly to Masterji to keep him informed of their welfare. However, the course of life does not run smoothly for them as Nandini who has been long complaining of watering in her eyes, becomes blind. Sadanand is devastated with grief and guilt when he learns this. He holds himself responsible for not arranging timely medical treatment for her and runs to jump into the river. The holy man saves him in time and reprimands him for trying to run away from the problem. He assures him that Nandini will recover her sight with treatment as she was not born blind. With monetary help from the kindly dancer, Sadanand gets the operation done and Nandini recovers her eyesight.
While they are still rejoicing over this, news comes that Masterji is bedridden with typhoid in a nearby town and there is no one to take care of him. Sadanand rushes there to learn that his condition is serious and he needs urgent treatment with some costly medicines. With self\-belief and faith in God, he toils day and night and arranges the medicines, and Masterji recovers.
Masterji and Nandini get married in the temple and after a tearful departure of the newlywed couple, Sadanand bursts out crying that he is now left all alone. The holy man assures him that he is not alone as his sense of purpose, selfless dedication, and determination have compelled a Sanyasi to willingly give up his “Sanyas“. He will now take care of Sadanand so that he completes his studies as he foresees that Sadanand is destined to achieve great accomplishments for the country in the future. The film ends with a grateful and beaming Sadanand hugging the holy man.
While Sadanand is away to take care of Masterji, Alkaji, the dancer goes to the temple looking for him. Learning that he is away, she asks the Sanyasi to inform Sadanand that he has helped a woman gone astray to mend her ways and reform and she is leaving the town to live with her son.
The lyrics by Bharat Vyas and music by Vasant Desai only add to the inspirational and sublime tenor of the story. The film's title song (nirbal ki ladai balwaan) soulfully rendered by the inimitable Manna De, recurs several times during the film highlighting the exigent situation the protagonist is faced with. The song will continue to ring in your ears long after the film has ended conveying the sublime message of hope and belief that with determination, unstinting efforts, and faith in God, no adversity is impossible to overcome.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"{{Long plot\\|film\\|date\\=September 2021}}\nThe film depicts a period in our society, not so long past when the postcard was a trusted and cheap means of communication and the cycle the most common mode of commuting; when people were sensitive to the sufferings of others in their neighborhood and faith was the rule rather than the exception in social relationships.",
"The film relates the inspiring story of a boy Sadanand and his sister Nandini who endeavor to live with honor after their father(poet Milind Madhav) died in penury. Many people who were uprooted from familiar surroundings following the partition of the country and had to endure numerous struggles to survive, rebuild their lives, and bring up their families in new surroundings will be able to identify themselves with the travails of Sadanand and his sister.",
"The boy, aptly called Sadanand, is ever cheerful and active and assumes the responsibility of his sister and their sick mother. The boy sacrifices his studies to do several odd jobs \\-selling vegetables, newspapers, carrying luggage at the railway station, etc.\\- while his simple and sensitive elder sister Nandini chips in with preparing and feeding lunch to a few regulars who conduct themselves more like family members than customers. The regulars include young Satish Sharma (called Masterji by Sadanand) a college student with scholarly inclinations. A mutual affection develops between Masterji and Nandini which is a regular topic of playful banter between the siblings.",
"The film opens with Masterji being presented with a gold medal for his literary essay on the poetic works of the late Milind Madhav. Masterji shares the happy tidings with Chachiji (widow of the deceased poet )who is moved to tears seeing on the gold medal the image of her late husband who never got recognition for his works and had to battle with poverty throughout his life.",
"Sometime thereafter, Masterji having completed his course, decides to take up employment nearer to his native village so as to help his father who has run into debt for educating him. Chachiji tells him that her end is nearing and requests him to marry Nandini so that she can die peacefully. However, Masterji is not ready to marry as he has three unmarried younger sisters at home and takes leave wishing well for Nandini's marriage into a good family.",
"When their mother dies, the siblings decide to move away from painful memories associated with the familiar surroundings and sell away their meager possessions including their father's collection of books and Sadanand's beloved (\"pyari\") cycle to settle their debts. They leave the town and take shelter in a remote temple with the permission of a Sanyasi who meditates there in seclusion. Assured that her sister is safe with the holy man around, Sadanand goes daily to the nearby town selling vegetable door to door to earn a living. One day, he comes across Alkaji, a dancer whose luggage he had earlier carried at the railway station. She takes an instant liking for him as she sees the likeness of her own son in Sadanand. She assures him that she will be the first customer of whatever wares he sells and asks him to visit her regularly. One day when Sadanand asks why her son is not staying with her, the dancer confides that she sends money regularly for his upkeep in a different town and if she keeps him with her, she will have to live in poverty as she will not be able to pursue her dancing business. This upsets Sadanand who walks away saying he will come back only when her son comes to live with her.",
"Knowing the mutual affection between Nandini and Masterji, Sadanand writes regularly to Masterji to keep him informed of their welfare. However, the course of life does not run smoothly for them as Nandini who has been long complaining of watering in her eyes, becomes blind. Sadanand is devastated with grief and guilt when he learns this. He holds himself responsible for not arranging timely medical treatment for her and runs to jump into the river. The holy man saves him in time and reprimands him for trying to run away from the problem. He assures him that Nandini will recover her sight with treatment as she was not born blind. With monetary help from the kindly dancer, Sadanand gets the operation done and Nandini recovers her eyesight.",
"While they are still rejoicing over this, news comes that Masterji is bedridden with typhoid in a nearby town and there is no one to take care of him. Sadanand rushes there to learn that his condition is serious and he needs urgent treatment with some costly medicines. With self\\-belief and faith in God, he toils day and night and arranges the medicines, and Masterji recovers.",
"Masterji and Nandini get married in the temple and after a tearful departure of the newlywed couple, Sadanand bursts out crying that he is now left all alone. The holy man assures him that he is not alone as his sense of purpose, selfless dedication, and determination have compelled a Sanyasi to willingly give up his “Sanyas“. He will now take care of Sadanand so that he completes his studies as he foresees that Sadanand is destined to achieve great accomplishments for the country in the future. The film ends with a grateful and beaming Sadanand hugging the holy man.",
"While Sadanand is away to take care of Masterji, Alkaji, the dancer goes to the temple looking for him. Learning that he is away, she asks the Sanyasi to inform Sadanand that he has helped a woman gone astray to mend her ways and reform and she is leaving the town to live with her son.",
"The lyrics by Bharat Vyas and music by Vasant Desai only add to the inspirational and sublime tenor of the story. The film's title song (nirbal ki ladai balwaan) soulfully rendered by the inimitable Manna De, recurs several times during the film highlighting the exigent situation the protagonist is faced with. The song will continue to ring in your ears long after the film has ended conveying the sublime message of hope and belief that with determination, unstinting efforts, and faith in God, no adversity is impossible to overcome.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Ancient era, first uses
{{See also\|Early thermal weapons}}
[thumb\|Chinese fire ships of the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty "Song dynasty") (960–1279\)](/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81_%E6%9B%BE%E5%85%AC%E4%BA%AE%E5%92%8C%E4%B8%81%E5%BA%A6_%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D_%E4%BA%8C_35.jpg "武经总要 曾公亮和丁度 宋朝 二 35.jpg")
The [Tyrians](/wiki/Tyre%2C_Lebanon "Tyre, Lebanon") launched a fire ship that destroyed two [Macedonian](/wiki/Macedonia_%28ancient_kingdom%29 "Macedonia (ancient kingdom)") [siege towers](/wiki/Siege_tower "Siege tower") and other siege engines at the [Siege of Tyre (332 BC)](/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_%28332_BC%29 "Siege of Tyre (332 BC)").
[Carthaginian](/wiki/Ancient_Carthage "Ancient Carthage") fire ships destroyed many [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome") vessels and came close to burning the entire Roman fleet in a [battle](/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Tunis "Battle of Lake Tunis") in 149 BC during the [Third Punic War](/wiki/Third_Punic_War "Third Punic War").
In [ancient China](/wiki/Ancient_China "Ancient China") in the [Battle of Red Cliffs](/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs "Battle of Red Cliffs") (208\) on the [Yangtze River](/wiki/Yangtze_River "Yangtze River") [Huang Gai](/wiki/Huang_Gai "Huang Gai") assaulted [Cao Cao](/wiki/Cao_Cao "Cao Cao")'s naval forces with a fire ship filled with bundles of kindling, dry reeds, and fatty oil.
Fire ships were employed to decisive effect by the [Vandals](/wiki/Vandals "Vandals") against the armada sent by the [Eastern Roman Empire](/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire "Eastern Roman Empire"), in the [Battle of Cape Bon (468\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Bon_%28468%29 "Battle of Cape Bon (468)").
The invention of [Greek fire](/wiki/Greek_fire "Greek fire") in 673 increased the use of fire ships, at first by the Greeks and afterward by other nations as they came into possession of the secret of manufacturing this substance. In 951 and again in 953 [Russian](/wiki/Russia "Russia") fleets narrowly escaped destruction by fire ships.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2018}}
### Age of fighting sail, refinement
{{More citations needed section\|date\=February 2021}}
[thumb\|French fireship at anchorage. Note specialized features including the exit door between the two aftmost gunports; the chain securing an escape boat; an aperture below the exit door to light a [fuse](/wiki/Fuse_%28explosives%29 "Fuse (explosives)"); and grappling hooks on the yardarms.](/wiki/File:Brulot10.jpg "Brulot10.jpg")
While fire ships were used in the Medieval period, notably during the [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades"), these were typically ships that were set up with combustibles on an *ad hoc* basis. The career of the modern fire ship, as a naval vessel type designed for this particular function and made a permanent addition to a fleet, roughly parallels the era of cannon\-armed sailing ships, beginning with the defeat of the [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada "Spanish Armada") in 1588 and lasting until the Allied victory over the Turks at the [Battle of Navarino](/wiki/Battle_of_Navarino "Battle of Navarino") in 1827\. The first modern fireships were put to use in early 17th century Dutch and Spanish fleet actions during the [Thirty Years War](/wiki/Thirty_Years_War "Thirty Years War"). Their use increased throughout that century, with purpose\-built fireships a permanent part of many naval fleets, ready to be deployed whenever necessary. Initially small and often obsolete smaller warships were chosen as fireships but by 1700 fireships were being purpose\-built with specific features for their role. Most were adaptations of the usual small warships of the day – [brigs](/wiki/Brig "Brig") or ship\-rigged [sloops\-of\-war](/wiki/Sloop-of-war "Sloop-of-war") with between 10 and 16 guns. The practical design features of purpose\-built fireships included a lattice\-work false deck below the planks of the main deck – the planks would be removed and the combustibles and explosives stacked on the lattice, which gave good draught and ensured the fire would hold and spread. A number of square\-section [chimneys](/wiki/Chimney "Chimney") would be let into the forecastle and quarterdeck to also help ensure a good draught for the fire. The gunports would be hinged at the bottom (rather than the top as on other warships) so that they would be kept open by gravity rather than ropes (which would otherwise burn thorough), further ensuring a good air supply. On the other hand, the lower parts of the masts would be surrounded by 'coffer dams' to ensure that the fire would not bring down the masts prematurely and thus deprive the fireship of motive power. [Grappling hooks](/wiki/Grappling_hook "Grappling hook") would be fitted to the ends of the yardarms so that the fireship would become entangled in its target's rigging. A large sally\-port door was let into the rear quarter of the ship (usually the starboard side) to allow easy exit for the crew once the fire had been set and lit. There was often a chain fixed here for mooring the escape boat rather than a rope that may have been damaged by the fire. Because fireships were used relatively rarely and only in specific tactical conditions even in their heyday, and there was always demand for small cruisers and warships, most purpose\-built 'fireships' served long careers as ordinary warships without ever being used for their actual purpose. Of the five fireships used in [Holmes's Bonfire](/wiki/Holmes%27s_Bonfire "Holmes's Bonfire") of 1666 three had been in service with the Royal Navy for over a decade before being deployed on their final mission.
While only used sparingly during the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"), fire ships as a distinct class were part of the [British Royal Navy](/wiki/British_Royal_Navy "British Royal Navy") until 1808, at which point the use of permanently designated fire ships attached to British squadrons disappeared.{{rp\|2}} Fire ships continued to be used, sometimes to great effect, such as by the US Navy at the [Battle of Tripoli Harbor](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Tripoli_Harbor "Second Battle of Tripoli Harbor") in 1804 and by the British Navy's [Thomas Cochrane](/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane%2C_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald "Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald") at the [Battle of the Basque Roads](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Basque_Roads "Battle of the Basque Roads") in 1809, but for the most part they were considered an obsolete weapon by the early 19th century.
Warships of the [age of sail](/wiki/Age_of_sail "Age of sail") were highly vulnerable to fire. Made of wood, with seams caulked with tar, ropes greased with fat, and stores of gunpowder, there was little that would not burn. Accidental fires destroyed many ships, so fire ships presented a terrifying threat. With the wind in exactly the right direction a fire ship could be cast loose and allowed to drift onto its target, but in most battles fire ships were equipped with [skeleton crews](/wiki/Skeleton_crew "Skeleton crew") to steer the ship to the target (the crew were expected to abandon ship at the last moment and escape in the ship's boat). Fire ships were most devastating against fleets which were at anchor or otherwise restricted in movement. At sea, a well\-handled ship could evade a fire ship and disable it with cannon fire. Other tactics were to fire at the ship's boats and other vessels in the vicinity, so that the crew could not escape and therefore might decide not to ignite the ship, or to wait until the fire ship had been abandoned and then tow it aside with small maneuverable vessels such as [galleys](/wiki/Galley "Galley").
The role of incendiary vessels changed throughout the age of the modern fire ship. The systematic use of fire ships as part of naval actions peaked around the [Third Anglo\-Dutch War](/wiki/Third_Anglo-Dutch_War "Third Anglo-Dutch War"). Whereas just twenty years before a naval fleet might have six to seven fire ships, by the [Battle of Solebay](/wiki/Battle_of_Solebay "Battle of Solebay") in 1672 both the Dutch and English fleets employed typically between 20 and 30 fire ships, and sometimes more.{{rp\|15}} By this time, however, admirals and captains had become very experienced with the limitations of fire ship attacks and had learned how to avoid them during battle. Great numbers of fire ships were expended during the Third Dutch War without destroying enemy men\-of\-war, and fire ships had become a way to harass and annoy the enemy, rather than destroy him.{{rp\|16}} The successful use of fire ships at the [Battle of La Hogue](/wiki/Battle_of_La_Hogue "Battle of La Hogue") and Cherbourg in 1692 marked both the greatest achievement of a fire ship attack since the Spanish Armada, and also the last significant success for fire ships. Though fire ships as a specified class sailed with the British Royal Navy for another century, they would never have a significant impact on a naval victory. Once the most feared weapons in naval arsenals, fire ships had declined in both importance and numbers, so that by the mid\-18th century only five to six British fire ships would be at sea at a time, and the Royal Navy attempted only four attacks using modern fire ships between 1697 and 1800\.{{rp\|17–18}} Hastily outfitted ad hoc fire ships continued to be used in naval warfare; for example, a large number of fire rafts were used in mostly ineffective attacks on the British fleet by American forces during the American Revolution at Philadelphia, on the Hudson River, and elsewhere. The end of the modern fire ship came in the early 19th century, when the British began to use hastily outfitted fire ships at engagements such as Boulogne and Dunkirk despite the presence of purpose\-built fire ships in the fleet. The last modern fire ship in the British Royal Navy was *Thais*, the only designated fire ship out of the entire navy of 638 warships when she was converted to a ship sloop in 1808\.{{rp\|18–19}}
### Use in the Greek War of Independence
[thumb\|The attack on the Ottoman [ship of the line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line "Ship of the line") in the Gulf of Eressos at the Greek island of Lesvos by a fire ship commanded by [Dimitrios Papanikolis](/wiki/Dimitrios_Papanikolis "Dimitrios Papanikolis") during the Greek War of Independence. Painting by [Konstantinos Volanakis](/wiki/Konstantinos_Volanakis "Konstantinos Volanakis").](/wiki/File:Fire_ship_by_Volanakis.jpg "Fire ship by Volanakis.jpg")
[thumb\|The [attack on the Ottoman flagship at the Greek island of Chios](/wiki/Burning_of_the_Ottoman_flagship_off_Chios "Burning of the Ottoman flagship off Chios") by a fire ship commanded by [Konstantinos Kanaris](/wiki/Konstantinos_Kanaris "Konstantinos Kanaris") during the Greek War of Independence. Painting by [Ivan Aivazovsky](/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky "Ivan Aivazovsky").](/wiki/File:The_Burning_of_the_Turkish_Flagship_by_Kanaris_-_Ivan_Aivazovsky%2C_1881.png "The Burning of the Turkish Flagship by Kanaris - Ivan Aivazovsky, 1881.png")
In the [Greek War of Independence](/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence "Greek War of Independence"), 1821–1832, the extensive use of fire ships by the Greeks allowed them to counterbalance the Turkish naval superiority in terms of ship size and artillery power.Brewer, David (2003\). *The Greek War of Independence: The Struggle for Freedom from Ottoman Oppression and the Birth of the Modern Greek Nation*. Overlook Press. p 93\. As the small fire ships were much more maneuverable than enemy [ships of the line](/wiki/Ships_of_the_line "Ships of the line"), especially in the coasts of the Aegean Sea where the islands, islets, reefs, gulfs and straits restrained big ships from being easily moved, they were a serious danger for the ships of the Turkish fleet. Many naval battles of the Greek war of independence were won by the use of fire ships, notably the [burning of the Ottoman flagship off Chios](/wiki/Burning_of_the_Ottoman_flagship_off_Chios "Burning of the Ottoman flagship off Chios") in June 1822\.{{Cite book \|last1\=Anderson \|first1\=Roger C. \|title\=Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 \|publisher\=Princeton University Press \|pages\=487–488 \|url\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=mdp.39015005292860\&view\=1up\&seq\=9}} The successful use of fireships required the use of the element of surprise (a visible similarity with modern\-day naval special operations). It is considered an important landmark in [Greek naval tradition](/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%9C%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BF_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82 "Ναυτικό Μουσείο Ελλάδος").{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2021}}
### 19th and 20th centuries, obsolescence
From the beginning of the 19th century, [steam](/wiki/Steam_engine "Steam engine") propulsion and the use of iron, rather than wood, in shipbuilding gradually came into use, making fire ships less of a threat.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2021}}
During the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), the [Confederate States Navy](/wiki/Confederate_States_Navy "Confederate States Navy") occasionally used fire rafts on the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River"). These were [flatboats](/wiki/Flatboats "Flatboats") loaded with flammable materials such as pine knots and [rosin](/wiki/Rosin "Rosin").{{Cite book \|last1\=Foote \|first1\=Shelby \|title\=The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 1: Fort Sumter to Perryville \|publisher\=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group \|isbn\=9780307744678 \|page\=355 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=s\_UB3DZu\_RgC\&q\=fire\+raft\+civil\+war\&pg\=PA355 \|access\-date\=6 March 2017\|language\=en\|date\=2011\-01\-26 }} The fire rafts were set alight and either loosed to drift on the river's current towards the enemy (for example at the [Battle of the Head of Passes](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Head_of_Passes "Battle of the Head of Passes")) or else pushed against Union ships by tugboats (as at the [Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip](/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip "Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip")).{{Cite book \|last1\=Tucker \|first1\=Spencer \|title\=A Short History of the Civil War at Sea \|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield \|isbn\=9780842028684 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fHZuqCB\-cRQC\&q\=fire\+raft\+civil\+war\&pg\=PA78 \|access\-date\=6 March 2017 \|language\=en\|year\=2002 }}
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") in September 1940, there was a British sortie codenamed [Operation Lucid](/wiki/Operation_Lucid "Operation Lucid") to send old [oil tankers](/wiki/Oil_tanker "Oil tanker") into French ports to destroy barges intended for [the planned invasion of Britain](/wiki/Operation_Sealion "Operation Sealion"); it was abandoned when both tankers broke down.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.naval\-history.net/xDKWW2\-4009\-22SEP02\.htm\|title\=Battle of Britain, September 1940 \|work\=naval\-history.net\| first\= Don \|last\= Kindell\| access\-date\= December 20, 2023}} Ships or boats packed with explosives could still be effective. Such a case was [Operation Chariot](/wiki/Operation_Chariot "Operation Chariot") of 1942, in which the old destroyer {{HMS\|Campbeltown\|I42\|6}} was packed with explosives and rammed into the dry dock at [Saint\-Nazaire](/wiki/Saint-Nazaire "Saint-Nazaire"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), to deny its use to the battleship *[Tirpitz](/wiki/German_battleship_Tirpitz "German battleship Tirpitz")*, which could not drydock anywhere else on the French west coast. In the Mediterranean, the [Italian Navy](/wiki/Regia_Marina "Regia Marina") made good use of high\-speed boats filled with explosives, mostly against moored targets. Each boat, called by the Italians [MTM (*Motoscafo da Turismo Modificato*)](/wiki/MT_explosive_motor_boat "MT explosive motor boat"), carried {{convert\|300\|kg}} of explosive charge inside its [bow](/wiki/Bow_%28ship%29 "Bow (ship)"). Their best\-known action was the 1941 [assault on Souda Bay](/wiki/Sinking_of_HMS_York "Sinking of HMS York"), which resulted in the destruction of cruiser {{HMS\|York\|90\|6}} and the [Norwegian](/wiki/Norway "Norway") tanker *Pericles*, of 8,300 [tons](/wiki/Tonnage "Tonnage").{{cite book\| last1\= Greene\| first1\= Jack \|last2\= Massignani\| first2\= Alessandro\| title\= The Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1940–1943\| publisher\= Chatham Publishing\| place \= London\| year\= 1998\| page\= 141 \|isbn\= 1\-86176\-057\-4}}{{cite book\| last\= Sadkovich\| first\= James\| title\= The Italian Navy in World War II\| publisher\= Greenwood Press\| place\= Westport\| year\= 1994\| page\= 25 \|isbn\= 0\-313\-28797\-X}}
The successful [attack](/wiki/USS_Cole_bombing "USS Cole bombing") by Yemeni insurgents in a speedboat packed with explosives on the guided missile destroyer {{USS\|Cole\|DDG\-67\|6}} in 2000 could be described as an extension of the idea of a fireship. Another explosive ship attack took place in April 2004, during the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War"), when three motor craft laden with explosives attempted the bombing of Khawr Al Amaya Oil Terminal in the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf"). In an apparent [suicide bombing](/wiki/Suicide_bombing "Suicide bombing"), one blew up and sank a [rigid inflatable boat](/wiki/Rigid_inflatable_boat "Rigid inflatable boat") from {{USS\|Firebolt\|PC\-10\|6}} as it pulled up alongside, killing two US Navy personnel and one member of the [US Coast Guard](/wiki/US_Coast_Guard "US Coast Guard").{{cite web\| url\= http://www.stripes.com/news/suicide\-bombing\-attack\-claims\-first\-coast\-guardsman\-since\-vietnam\-war\-1\.19271 \|title\= Suicide bombing attack claims first Coast Guardsman since Vietnam War\| first\= Kendra \|last\= Helmer\| work\= \[\[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)\|Stars and Stripes]]\| date\= 27 April 2004\| access\-date\= December 20, 2023}}
### 21st century, revival with kamikaze USVs
In October 2022, during the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine"), several kamikaze [unmanned surface vehicles](/wiki/Unmanned_surface_vehicle "Unmanned surface vehicle") were used against Russian naval vessels at the [Sevastopol Naval Base](/wiki/Sevastopol_Naval_Base "Sevastopol Naval Base"), with support of [UAVs](/wiki/UAV "UAV").
During operation prosperity guardian Houthis used several kamikaze [unmanned surface vehicles](/wiki/Unmanned_surface_vehicle "Unmanned surface vehicle") to attack ships in the red sea
{{cite news \|title\=Analysis: Ukraine Strikes With Kamikaze USVs – Russian Bases Are Not Safe Anymore \|url\=https://www.navalnews.com/naval\-news/2022/10/analysis\-ukraine\-strikes\-with\-kamikaze\-usvs\-russian\-bases\-are\-not\-safe\-anymore/ \|work\=Naval News \|last\=Ozberk \|first\=Tayfun \|date\=30 October 2022 \|access\-date\=31 October 2022 \|archive\-date\=8 November 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108161028/https://www.navalnews.com/naval\-news/2022/10/analysis\-ukraine\-strikes\-with\-kamikaze\-usvs\-russian\-bases\-are\-not\-safe\-anymore/ \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Ancient era, first uses",
"{{See also\\|Early thermal weapons}}\n[thumb\\|Chinese fire ships of the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty \"Song dynasty\") (960–1279\\)](/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%80%BB%E8%A6%81_%E6%9B%BE%E5%85%AC%E4%BA%AE%E5%92%8C%E4%B8%81%E5%BA%A6_%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D_%E4%BA%8C_35.jpg \"武经总要 曾公亮和丁度 宋朝 二 35.jpg\")",
"The [Tyrians](/wiki/Tyre%2C_Lebanon \"Tyre, Lebanon\") launched a fire ship that destroyed two [Macedonian](/wiki/Macedonia_%28ancient_kingdom%29 \"Macedonia (ancient kingdom)\") [siege towers](/wiki/Siege_tower \"Siege tower\") and other siege engines at the [Siege of Tyre (332 BC)](/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_%28332_BC%29 \"Siege of Tyre (332 BC)\").",
"[Carthaginian](/wiki/Ancient_Carthage \"Ancient Carthage\") fire ships destroyed many [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") vessels and came close to burning the entire Roman fleet in a [battle](/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Tunis \"Battle of Lake Tunis\") in 149 BC during the [Third Punic War](/wiki/Third_Punic_War \"Third Punic War\").",
"In [ancient China](/wiki/Ancient_China \"Ancient China\") in the [Battle of Red Cliffs](/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs \"Battle of Red Cliffs\") (208\\) on the [Yangtze River](/wiki/Yangtze_River \"Yangtze River\") [Huang Gai](/wiki/Huang_Gai \"Huang Gai\") assaulted [Cao Cao](/wiki/Cao_Cao \"Cao Cao\")'s naval forces with a fire ship filled with bundles of kindling, dry reeds, and fatty oil.",
"Fire ships were employed to decisive effect by the [Vandals](/wiki/Vandals \"Vandals\") against the armada sent by the [Eastern Roman Empire](/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire \"Eastern Roman Empire\"), in the [Battle of Cape Bon (468\\)](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Bon_%28468%29 \"Battle of Cape Bon (468)\").",
"The invention of [Greek fire](/wiki/Greek_fire \"Greek fire\") in 673 increased the use of fire ships, at first by the Greeks and afterward by other nations as they came into possession of the secret of manufacturing this substance. In 951 and again in 953 [Russian](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") fleets narrowly escaped destruction by fire ships.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2018}}",
"### Age of fighting sail, refinement",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=February 2021}}\n[thumb\\|French fireship at anchorage. Note specialized features including the exit door between the two aftmost gunports; the chain securing an escape boat; an aperture below the exit door to light a [fuse](/wiki/Fuse_%28explosives%29 \"Fuse (explosives)\"); and grappling hooks on the yardarms.](/wiki/File:Brulot10.jpg \"Brulot10.jpg\")",
"While fire ships were used in the Medieval period, notably during the [Crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\"), these were typically ships that were set up with combustibles on an *ad hoc* basis. The career of the modern fire ship, as a naval vessel type designed for this particular function and made a permanent addition to a fleet, roughly parallels the era of cannon\\-armed sailing ships, beginning with the defeat of the [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada \"Spanish Armada\") in 1588 and lasting until the Allied victory over the Turks at the [Battle of Navarino](/wiki/Battle_of_Navarino \"Battle of Navarino\") in 1827\\. The first modern fireships were put to use in early 17th century Dutch and Spanish fleet actions during the [Thirty Years War](/wiki/Thirty_Years_War \"Thirty Years War\"). Their use increased throughout that century, with purpose\\-built fireships a permanent part of many naval fleets, ready to be deployed whenever necessary. Initially small and often obsolete smaller warships were chosen as fireships but by 1700 fireships were being purpose\\-built with specific features for their role. Most were adaptations of the usual small warships of the day – [brigs](/wiki/Brig \"Brig\") or ship\\-rigged [sloops\\-of\\-war](/wiki/Sloop-of-war \"Sloop-of-war\") with between 10 and 16 guns. The practical design features of purpose\\-built fireships included a lattice\\-work false deck below the planks of the main deck – the planks would be removed and the combustibles and explosives stacked on the lattice, which gave good draught and ensured the fire would hold and spread. A number of square\\-section [chimneys](/wiki/Chimney \"Chimney\") would be let into the forecastle and quarterdeck to also help ensure a good draught for the fire. The gunports would be hinged at the bottom (rather than the top as on other warships) so that they would be kept open by gravity rather than ropes (which would otherwise burn thorough), further ensuring a good air supply. On the other hand, the lower parts of the masts would be surrounded by 'coffer dams' to ensure that the fire would not bring down the masts prematurely and thus deprive the fireship of motive power. [Grappling hooks](/wiki/Grappling_hook \"Grappling hook\") would be fitted to the ends of the yardarms so that the fireship would become entangled in its target's rigging. A large sally\\-port door was let into the rear quarter of the ship (usually the starboard side) to allow easy exit for the crew once the fire had been set and lit. There was often a chain fixed here for mooring the escape boat rather than a rope that may have been damaged by the fire. Because fireships were used relatively rarely and only in specific tactical conditions even in their heyday, and there was always demand for small cruisers and warships, most purpose\\-built 'fireships' served long careers as ordinary warships without ever being used for their actual purpose. Of the five fireships used in [Holmes's Bonfire](/wiki/Holmes%27s_Bonfire \"Holmes's Bonfire\") of 1666 three had been in service with the Royal Navy for over a decade before being deployed on their final mission.",
"While only used sparingly during the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"), fire ships as a distinct class were part of the [British Royal Navy](/wiki/British_Royal_Navy \"British Royal Navy\") until 1808, at which point the use of permanently designated fire ships attached to British squadrons disappeared.{{rp\\|2}} Fire ships continued to be used, sometimes to great effect, such as by the US Navy at the [Battle of Tripoli Harbor](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Tripoli_Harbor \"Second Battle of Tripoli Harbor\") in 1804 and by the British Navy's [Thomas Cochrane](/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane%2C_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald \"Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald\") at the [Battle of the Basque Roads](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Basque_Roads \"Battle of the Basque Roads\") in 1809, but for the most part they were considered an obsolete weapon by the early 19th century.",
"Warships of the [age of sail](/wiki/Age_of_sail \"Age of sail\") were highly vulnerable to fire. Made of wood, with seams caulked with tar, ropes greased with fat, and stores of gunpowder, there was little that would not burn. Accidental fires destroyed many ships, so fire ships presented a terrifying threat. With the wind in exactly the right direction a fire ship could be cast loose and allowed to drift onto its target, but in most battles fire ships were equipped with [skeleton crews](/wiki/Skeleton_crew \"Skeleton crew\") to steer the ship to the target (the crew were expected to abandon ship at the last moment and escape in the ship's boat). Fire ships were most devastating against fleets which were at anchor or otherwise restricted in movement. At sea, a well\\-handled ship could evade a fire ship and disable it with cannon fire. Other tactics were to fire at the ship's boats and other vessels in the vicinity, so that the crew could not escape and therefore might decide not to ignite the ship, or to wait until the fire ship had been abandoned and then tow it aside with small maneuverable vessels such as [galleys](/wiki/Galley \"Galley\").",
"The role of incendiary vessels changed throughout the age of the modern fire ship. The systematic use of fire ships as part of naval actions peaked around the [Third Anglo\\-Dutch War](/wiki/Third_Anglo-Dutch_War \"Third Anglo-Dutch War\"). Whereas just twenty years before a naval fleet might have six to seven fire ships, by the [Battle of Solebay](/wiki/Battle_of_Solebay \"Battle of Solebay\") in 1672 both the Dutch and English fleets employed typically between 20 and 30 fire ships, and sometimes more.{{rp\\|15}} By this time, however, admirals and captains had become very experienced with the limitations of fire ship attacks and had learned how to avoid them during battle. Great numbers of fire ships were expended during the Third Dutch War without destroying enemy men\\-of\\-war, and fire ships had become a way to harass and annoy the enemy, rather than destroy him.{{rp\\|16}} The successful use of fire ships at the [Battle of La Hogue](/wiki/Battle_of_La_Hogue \"Battle of La Hogue\") and Cherbourg in 1692 marked both the greatest achievement of a fire ship attack since the Spanish Armada, and also the last significant success for fire ships. Though fire ships as a specified class sailed with the British Royal Navy for another century, they would never have a significant impact on a naval victory. Once the most feared weapons in naval arsenals, fire ships had declined in both importance and numbers, so that by the mid\\-18th century only five to six British fire ships would be at sea at a time, and the Royal Navy attempted only four attacks using modern fire ships between 1697 and 1800\\.{{rp\\|17–18}} Hastily outfitted ad hoc fire ships continued to be used in naval warfare; for example, a large number of fire rafts were used in mostly ineffective attacks on the British fleet by American forces during the American Revolution at Philadelphia, on the Hudson River, and elsewhere. The end of the modern fire ship came in the early 19th century, when the British began to use hastily outfitted fire ships at engagements such as Boulogne and Dunkirk despite the presence of purpose\\-built fire ships in the fleet. The last modern fire ship in the British Royal Navy was *Thais*, the only designated fire ship out of the entire navy of 638 warships when she was converted to a ship sloop in 1808\\.{{rp\\|18–19}}",
"### Use in the Greek War of Independence",
"[thumb\\|The attack on the Ottoman [ship of the line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line \"Ship of the line\") in the Gulf of Eressos at the Greek island of Lesvos by a fire ship commanded by [Dimitrios Papanikolis](/wiki/Dimitrios_Papanikolis \"Dimitrios Papanikolis\") during the Greek War of Independence. Painting by [Konstantinos Volanakis](/wiki/Konstantinos_Volanakis \"Konstantinos Volanakis\").](/wiki/File:Fire_ship_by_Volanakis.jpg \"Fire ship by Volanakis.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The [attack on the Ottoman flagship at the Greek island of Chios](/wiki/Burning_of_the_Ottoman_flagship_off_Chios \"Burning of the Ottoman flagship off Chios\") by a fire ship commanded by [Konstantinos Kanaris](/wiki/Konstantinos_Kanaris \"Konstantinos Kanaris\") during the Greek War of Independence. Painting by [Ivan Aivazovsky](/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky \"Ivan Aivazovsky\").](/wiki/File:The_Burning_of_the_Turkish_Flagship_by_Kanaris_-_Ivan_Aivazovsky%2C_1881.png \"The Burning of the Turkish Flagship by Kanaris - Ivan Aivazovsky, 1881.png\")",
"In the [Greek War of Independence](/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence \"Greek War of Independence\"), 1821–1832, the extensive use of fire ships by the Greeks allowed them to counterbalance the Turkish naval superiority in terms of ship size and artillery power.Brewer, David (2003\\). *The Greek War of Independence: The Struggle for Freedom from Ottoman Oppression and the Birth of the Modern Greek Nation*. Overlook Press. p 93\\. As the small fire ships were much more maneuverable than enemy [ships of the line](/wiki/Ships_of_the_line \"Ships of the line\"), especially in the coasts of the Aegean Sea where the islands, islets, reefs, gulfs and straits restrained big ships from being easily moved, they were a serious danger for the ships of the Turkish fleet. Many naval battles of the Greek war of independence were won by the use of fire ships, notably the [burning of the Ottoman flagship off Chios](/wiki/Burning_of_the_Ottoman_flagship_off_Chios \"Burning of the Ottoman flagship off Chios\") in June 1822\\.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Anderson \\|first1\\=Roger C. \\|title\\=Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 \\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press \\|pages\\=487–488 \\|url\\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=mdp.39015005292860\\&view\\=1up\\&seq\\=9}} The successful use of fireships required the use of the element of surprise (a visible similarity with modern\\-day naval special operations). It is considered an important landmark in [Greek naval tradition](/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%9C%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BF_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82 \"Ναυτικό Μουσείο Ελλάδος\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}",
"### 19th and 20th centuries, obsolescence",
"From the beginning of the 19th century, [steam](/wiki/Steam_engine \"Steam engine\") propulsion and the use of iron, rather than wood, in shipbuilding gradually came into use, making fire ships less of a threat.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}",
"During the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), the [Confederate States Navy](/wiki/Confederate_States_Navy \"Confederate States Navy\") occasionally used fire rafts on the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\"). These were [flatboats](/wiki/Flatboats \"Flatboats\") loaded with flammable materials such as pine knots and [rosin](/wiki/Rosin \"Rosin\").{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Foote \\|first1\\=Shelby \\|title\\=The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 1: Fort Sumter to Perryville \\|publisher\\=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group \\|isbn\\=9780307744678 \\|page\\=355 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=s\\_UB3DZu\\_RgC\\&q\\=fire\\+raft\\+civil\\+war\\&pg\\=PA355 \\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=2011\\-01\\-26 }} The fire rafts were set alight and either loosed to drift on the river's current towards the enemy (for example at the [Battle of the Head of Passes](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Head_of_Passes \"Battle of the Head of Passes\")) or else pushed against Union ships by tugboats (as at the [Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip](/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip \"Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip\")).{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Tucker \\|first1\\=Spencer \\|title\\=A Short History of the Civil War at Sea \\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield \\|isbn\\=9780842028684 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fHZuqCB\\-cRQC\\&q\\=fire\\+raft\\+civil\\+war\\&pg\\=PA78 \\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2017 \\|language\\=en\\|year\\=2002 }}",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in September 1940, there was a British sortie codenamed [Operation Lucid](/wiki/Operation_Lucid \"Operation Lucid\") to send old [oil tankers](/wiki/Oil_tanker \"Oil tanker\") into French ports to destroy barges intended for [the planned invasion of Britain](/wiki/Operation_Sealion \"Operation Sealion\"); it was abandoned when both tankers broke down.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.naval\\-history.net/xDKWW2\\-4009\\-22SEP02\\.htm\\|title\\=Battle of Britain, September 1940 \\|work\\=naval\\-history.net\\| first\\= Don \\|last\\= Kindell\\| access\\-date\\= December 20, 2023}} Ships or boats packed with explosives could still be effective. Such a case was [Operation Chariot](/wiki/Operation_Chariot \"Operation Chariot\") of 1942, in which the old destroyer {{HMS\\|Campbeltown\\|I42\\|6}} was packed with explosives and rammed into the dry dock at [Saint\\-Nazaire](/wiki/Saint-Nazaire \"Saint-Nazaire\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), to deny its use to the battleship *[Tirpitz](/wiki/German_battleship_Tirpitz \"German battleship Tirpitz\")*, which could not drydock anywhere else on the French west coast. In the Mediterranean, the [Italian Navy](/wiki/Regia_Marina \"Regia Marina\") made good use of high\\-speed boats filled with explosives, mostly against moored targets. Each boat, called by the Italians [MTM (*Motoscafo da Turismo Modificato*)](/wiki/MT_explosive_motor_boat \"MT explosive motor boat\"), carried {{convert\\|300\\|kg}} of explosive charge inside its [bow](/wiki/Bow_%28ship%29 \"Bow (ship)\"). Their best\\-known action was the 1941 [assault on Souda Bay](/wiki/Sinking_of_HMS_York \"Sinking of HMS York\"), which resulted in the destruction of cruiser {{HMS\\|York\\|90\\|6}} and the [Norwegian](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") tanker *Pericles*, of 8,300 [tons](/wiki/Tonnage \"Tonnage\").{{cite book\\| last1\\= Greene\\| first1\\= Jack \\|last2\\= Massignani\\| first2\\= Alessandro\\| title\\= The Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1940–1943\\| publisher\\= Chatham Publishing\\| place \\= London\\| year\\= 1998\\| page\\= 141 \\|isbn\\= 1\\-86176\\-057\\-4}}{{cite book\\| last\\= Sadkovich\\| first\\= James\\| title\\= The Italian Navy in World War II\\| publisher\\= Greenwood Press\\| place\\= Westport\\| year\\= 1994\\| page\\= 25 \\|isbn\\= 0\\-313\\-28797\\-X}}",
"The successful [attack](/wiki/USS_Cole_bombing \"USS Cole bombing\") by Yemeni insurgents in a speedboat packed with explosives on the guided missile destroyer {{USS\\|Cole\\|DDG\\-67\\|6}} in 2000 could be described as an extension of the idea of a fireship. Another explosive ship attack took place in April 2004, during the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\"), when three motor craft laden with explosives attempted the bombing of Khawr Al Amaya Oil Terminal in the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\"). In an apparent [suicide bombing](/wiki/Suicide_bombing \"Suicide bombing\"), one blew up and sank a [rigid inflatable boat](/wiki/Rigid_inflatable_boat \"Rigid inflatable boat\") from {{USS\\|Firebolt\\|PC\\-10\\|6}} as it pulled up alongside, killing two US Navy personnel and one member of the [US Coast Guard](/wiki/US_Coast_Guard \"US Coast Guard\").{{cite web\\| url\\= http://www.stripes.com/news/suicide\\-bombing\\-attack\\-claims\\-first\\-coast\\-guardsman\\-since\\-vietnam\\-war\\-1\\.19271 \\|title\\= Suicide bombing attack claims first Coast Guardsman since Vietnam War\\| first\\= Kendra \\|last\\= Helmer\\| work\\= \\[\\[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)\\|Stars and Stripes]]\\| date\\= 27 April 2004\\| access\\-date\\= December 20, 2023}}",
"### 21st century, revival with kamikaze USVs",
"In October 2022, during the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\"), several kamikaze [unmanned surface vehicles](/wiki/Unmanned_surface_vehicle \"Unmanned surface vehicle\") were used against Russian naval vessels at the [Sevastopol Naval Base](/wiki/Sevastopol_Naval_Base \"Sevastopol Naval Base\"), with support of [UAVs](/wiki/UAV \"UAV\").",
"During operation prosperity guardian Houthis used several kamikaze [unmanned surface vehicles](/wiki/Unmanned_surface_vehicle \"Unmanned surface vehicle\") to attack ships in the red sea \n{{cite news \\|title\\=Analysis: Ukraine Strikes With Kamikaze USVs – Russian Bases Are Not Safe Anymore \\|url\\=https://www.navalnews.com/naval\\-news/2022/10/analysis\\-ukraine\\-strikes\\-with\\-kamikaze\\-usvs\\-russian\\-bases\\-are\\-not\\-safe\\-anymore/ \\|work\\=Naval News \\|last\\=Ozberk \\|first\\=Tayfun \\|date\\=30 October 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 November 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108161028/https://www.navalnews.com/naval\\-news/2022/10/analysis\\-ukraine\\-strikes\\-with\\-kamikaze\\-usvs\\-russian\\-bases\\-are\\-not\\-safe\\-anymore/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
Career
------
In 1992, Chbosky graduated from the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California "University of Southern California")'s Filmic Writing, screenwriting program.{{cite news \|last\=Owen \|first\=Rob \|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/pg/06253/719941\-237\.stm \|title\=Upper St. Clair graduate writes for CBS's 'Jericho' \|newspaper\=\[\[Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette]] \|date\=September 10, 2006 \|access\-date\=4 January 2007}} He wrote, directed, and acted in the 1995 independent film *[The Four Corners of Nowhere](/wiki/The_Four_Corners_of_Nowhere "The Four Corners of Nowhere")*, which gained Chbosky his first agent. It also was accepted by the [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival "Sundance Film Festival"), and became one of the first films shown on the [Sundance Channel](/wiki/Sundance_Channel_%28United_States%29 "Sundance Channel (United States)"). In the late 1990s, Chbosky wrote several unproduced screenplays, including ones titled *Audrey Hepburn's Neck* and *Schoolhouse Rock*.{{Cite web \|last\=Bing \|first\=Jonathan \|url\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117787257\.html?categoryid\=1007\&cs\=1\&query\=chbosky \|title\='Perks' guy in pics; Nerve racking up deals \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]] \|date\=October 4, 2000 \|access\-date\=4 January 2008}}
In 1994, Chbosky was working on a "very different type of book" than *[The Perks of Being a Wallflower](/wiki/The_Perks_of_Being_a_Wallflower "The Perks of Being a Wallflower")* when he wrote the line, "I guess that's just one of the perks of being a wallflower." Chbosky recalled that he "wrote that line. And stopped. And realized that somewhere in that \[sentence] was the kid I was really trying to find." After several years of gestation, Chbosky began researching and writing *The Perks of Being a Wallflower*, an [epistolary novel](/wiki/Epistolary_novel "Epistolary novel") that follows the intellectual and emotional maturation of a teenager who uses the alias Charlie over the course of his first year of high school. The book is semi\-autobiographical; Chbosky has said that he "relate\[s] to Charlie\[...] But my life in high school was in many ways different."
The book, Chbosky's first novel, was published by [Pocket Books](/wiki/Pocket_Books "Pocket Books") in 1999, and was an immediate popular success with teenage readers; by 2000, the novel was MTV Books' best\-selling title, and *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* noted in 2007 that it had sold more than 700,000 copies and "is passed from adolescent to adolescent like a hot potato".{{Cite news \|url\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9D01E0DC153EF93BA35754C0A9619C8B63 \|title\=THE ISLAND; Reluctant Readers? Try Resistant Parents \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=July 8, 2007 \|access\-date\=4 January 2008}} As of May 2013, the number of copies in print reached over two million. *Wallflower* also stirred up controversy due to Chbosky's portrayal of [teen sexuality](/wiki/Youth_sexuality "Youth sexuality") and [drug use](/wiki/Recreational_drug_use "Recreational drug use").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.wordriot.org/template.php?ID\=552 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050113162049/http://wordriot.org/template.php?ID\=552 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2005\-01\-13 \|title\=An Interview with Stephen Chbosky by Marty Beckerman \|publisher\=Word Riot \|date\=December 9, 2004 \|access\-date\=7 November 2013 }} The book has been removed from circulation in several schools and appeared on the [American Library Association](/wiki/American_Library_Association "American Library Association")'s 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2014, 2022<http://www.ala.org/ala/issuesadvocacy/banned/frequentlychallenged/21stcenturychallenged/2008/index.cfm> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019113033/http://www.ala.org/ala/issuesadvocacy/banned/frequentlychallenged/21stcenturychallenged/2008/index.cfm\|date\=October 19, 2009}}{{Cite web \|title\=Top 10 Most Challenged Books and Frequently Challenged Books Archive {{!}} Banned Books \|url\=https://www.ala.org/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10/archive \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-04 \|website\=www.ala.org \|language\=en}} and 2023{{Cite web \|title\=Top 10 Most Challenged Books of 2023 {{!}} Banned Books \|url\=https://www.ala.org/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10 \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-04 \|website\=www.ala.org \|language\=en}} lists of the 10 most frequently challenged books. In July 2013, *The Perks of Being a Wallflower* had spent over a year on the *New York Times* Bestseller list, and was published in 31 languages.
In 2000, Chbosky edited *Pieces*, an anthology of short stories. The same year, he worked with director Jon Sherman on a film adaptation of [Michael Chabon](/wiki/Michael_Chabon "Michael Chabon")'s novel *[The Mysteries of Pittsburgh](/wiki/The_Mysteries_of_Pittsburgh "The Mysteries of Pittsburgh")*, though the project fell apart by August 2000\.{{cite web \| url \= http://home.earthlink.net/\~mchabon/current.html \|date \= August 14, 2000 \| title \= In the Works \| publisher \= Michael Chabon's Web Site: Rattling Around \| access\-date \= 4 February 2007 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20000926003509/http://home.earthlink.net/\~mchabon/current.html \| archive\-date \= September 26, 2000}} Chbosky wrote the screenplay for the [2005 film adaptation](/wiki/Rent_%28film%29 "Rent (film)") of the Broadway [rock musical](/wiki/Rock_opera "Rock opera") *[Rent](/wiki/Rent_%28musical%29 "Rent (musical)")*, which received mixed reviews.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/rent/ \|title\=Rent \|website\=Rotten Tomatoes \|access\-date\=7 November 2013}} In late 2005, Chbosky said that he was writing a film adaptation of *The Perks of Being a Wallflower*.
In the mid\-2000s, Chbosky decided, on the advice of his agent, to begin looking for work in television in addition to film. Finding he "enjoyed the people \[he met who were working] in television", Chbosky agreed to serve as co\-creator, executive producer, and writer of the [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") [serial television drama](/wiki/Serial_drama "Serial drama") *[Jericho](/wiki/Jericho_%282006_TV_series%29 "Jericho (2006 TV series)")*, which premiered in September 2006\. The series revolves around the inhabitants of the fictional small town of [Jericho, Kansas](/wiki/Jericho%2C_Kansas_%28fictional_town%29 "Jericho, Kansas (fictional town)") in the aftermath of several nuclear attacks. Chbosky has said the relationship between Jake Green, the main character, and his mother, reflected "me and my mother in a lot of ways". The first season of *Jericho* had lackluster [ratings](/wiki/Nielsen_ratings "Nielsen ratings"), and CBS canceled the show in May 2007\.{{cite web \|last\=Fitzgerald \|first\=Toni \|url\=http://www.medialifemagazine.com/cgi\-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive\=499\#\=11271 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205020011/http://www.medialifemagazine.com/cgi\-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive\=499\#\=11271 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=December 5, 2008 \|title\=Flop sweat: 'Jericho' dips to new low \|work\=\[\[Media Life Magazine]] \|date\=April 5, 2007 \|access\-date\=4 January 2008 }}{{Cite web \|last\=Adalian \|first\=Josef \|url\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117964967\.html?categoryid\=14\&cs\=1 \|title\=CBS cancels 'Jericho,' two others \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]] \|date\=May 15, 2007 \|access\-date\=4 January 2008}} A [grassroots](/wiki/Grassroots "Grassroots") campaign to revive the series convinced CBS to renew the series for a second season, which premiered on February 12, 2008, before being canceled once more in March 2008\.{{cite web \| url\=http://jerichoboard.cbs.com/n/pfx/forum.aspx?tsn\=1\&nav\=messages\&webtag\=CBSMBJericho\&tid\=13329 \| title\=A Message From CBS Entertainment \| publisher\=CBS \| author\=Nina Tassler \| date\=June 6, 2007 \| access\-date\=6 June 2007 \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327131139/http://jerichoboard.cbs.com/n/pfx/forum.aspx?tsn\=1\&nav\=messages\&webtag\=CBSMBJericho\&tid\=13329 \| archive\-date\=March 27, 2008 \| df\=mdy\-all }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/news.aspx?id\=20071203cbs03 \|title\=Season Premieres of Two Returning Scripted Programs, and the Debut of a New Comedy Join CBS's Primetime Schedule in January and February \|publisher\=TheFutonCritic.com \|access\-date\=7 November 2013}}
Chbosky wrote the screenplay of and directed the film *[The Perks of Being a Wallflower](/wiki/The_Perks_of_Being_a_Wallflower_%28film%29 "The Perks of Being a Wallflower (film)")*, based on his novel. Production took place in mid\-2011, and the film was released in fall 2012\. The film starred [Logan Lerman](/wiki/Logan_Lerman "Logan Lerman"), [Emma Watson](/wiki/Emma_Watson "Emma Watson") and [Ezra Miller](/wiki/Ezra_Miller "Ezra Miller"). Chbosky was nominated in the Best Adapted Screenplay category for the 2013 [Writers Guild Awards](/wiki/Writers_Guild_of_America_Award "Writers Guild of America Award"),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/wga\-awards\-nominations\-408430 \|title\=WGA Announces Nominations Ranging from 'Lincoln' to 'Looper' \|work\=The Hollywood Reporter \|date\=January 4, 2013 \|access\-date\=7 November 2013}} and the film won the 2013 Independent Spirit Awards for Best First Feature, as well as the 2013 People's Choice Award for Best Dramatic Movie.
Chbosky re\-wrote [Evan Spiliotopoulos](/wiki/Evan_Spiliotopoulos "Evan Spiliotopoulos") original script for the 2017 live action reboot of Disney's *[Beauty and the Beast](/wiki/Beauty_and_the_Beast_%282017_film%29 "Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)")*, directed by [Bill Condon](/wiki/Bill_Condon "Bill Condon") and starring Emma Watson as [Belle](/wiki/Belle_%28Disney_character%29 "Belle (Disney character)") and [Dan Stevens](/wiki/Dan_Stevens "Dan Stevens") as the Beast. Chbosky and Watson developed a close relationship during the production of *The Perks of Being a Wallflower*. The adaptation was faithful to the original 1991 animated film *[Beauty and the Beast](/wiki/Beauty_and_the_Beast_%281991_film%29 "Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)")*, with all the original musical numbers included.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2771200/trivia?ref\_\=tt\_trv\_trv\|title\=Beauty and the Beast (2017\)\|website\=IMDb\|access\-date\=September 11, 2015}} The film was released on March 17, 2017\.
Chbosky directed the 2017 film *[Wonder](/wiki/Wonder_%28film%29 "Wonder (film)")*, co\-written by Chbosky, [Jack Thorne](/wiki/Jack_Thorne "Jack Thorne"), and [Steve Conrad](/wiki/Steve_Conrad "Steve Conrad") and based on the 2012 [novel of the same name](/wiki/Wonder_%28Palacio_novel%29 "Wonder (Palacio novel)") by R. J. Palacio. The film starred [Julia Roberts](/wiki/Julia_Roberts "Julia Roberts"), [Owen Wilson](/wiki/Owen_Wilson "Owen Wilson"), and [Jacob Tremblay](/wiki/Jacob_Tremblay "Jacob Tremblay"),{{cite news\|last1\=Kit\|first1\=Borys\|last2\=Ford\|first2\=Rebecca\|title\=Julia Roberts to Play Jacob Tremblay's Mother in 'Wonder'\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/julia\-roberts\-play\-jacob\-tremblays\-891160\|access\-date\=July 16, 2016\|work\=The Hollywood Reporter\|date\=May 5, 2016}} and was released on November 17, 2017\.
On November 29, 2018, [Universal Pictures](/wiki/Universal_Pictures "Universal Pictures") announced that Chbosky was in talks to direct the [film adaptation](/wiki/Dear_Evan_Hansen_%28film%29 "Dear Evan Hansen (film)") of [Steven Levenson](/wiki/Steven_Levenson "Steven Levenson") and [Pasek \& Paul](/wiki/Pasek_and_Paul "Pasek and Paul")'s [Tony Award](/wiki/Tony_Award "Tony Award")\-winning musical, *[Dear Evan Hansen](/wiki/Dear_Evan_Hansen "Dear Evan Hansen")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://deadline.com/2018/11/dear\-evan\-hansen\-film\-tony\-award\-winning\-musical\-wonder\-stephen\-chbosky\-marc\-platt\-1202222391/\|title\=Tony Award\-Winning Musical 'Dear Evan Hansen' Will be Universal Pictures, Marc Platt Film; 'Wonder's Stephen Chbosky May Direct\|date\=November 29, 2018}} On June 11, 2020, he was officially confirmed to direct the film.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.broadway.com/buzz/199433/booksmart\-unbelievable\-star\-kaitlyn\-dever\-eyes\-role\-in\-dear\-evan\-hansen\-movie/\|title \= Booksmart \& Unbelievable Star Kaitlyn Dever Eyes Role in Dear Evan Hansen Movie}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/kaitlyn\-dever\-talks\-dear\-evan\-hansen\-film\-adaptation\-at\-universal\-1298027\|title \= Kaitlyn Dever in Talks for 'Dear Evan Hansen' Film Adaptation at Universal\|website \= \[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\|date \= June 11, 2020}} It stars [Ben Platt](/wiki/Ben_Platt "Ben Platt") in the [title role](/wiki/Evan_Hansen "Evan Hansen"), which he originated on Broadway, along with [Kaitlyn Dever](/wiki/Kaitlyn_Dever "Kaitlyn Dever"), [Amandla Stenberg](/wiki/Amandla_Stenberg "Amandla Stenberg"), [Nik Dodani](/wiki/Nik_Dodani "Nik Dodani"), [Colton Ryan](/wiki/Colton_Ryan "Colton Ryan"), [Amy Adams](/wiki/Amy_Adams "Amy Adams"), [Danny Pino](/wiki/Danny_Pino "Danny Pino") and [Julianne Moore](/wiki/Julianne_Moore "Julianne Moore").Nepales, Ruben V. (June 18, 2020\). [https://entertainment.inquirer.net/379610/ben\-platt\-talks\-about\-dear\-evan\-hansen\-film\-boyfriend\-noah\-galvin\-and\-the\-politician\-highlight](https://entertainment.inquirer.net/379610/ben-platt-talks-about-dear-evan-hansen-film-boyfriend-noah-galvin-and-the-politician-highlight) *Inquirer Entertainment*. The film had its world premiere at the [2021 Toronto International Film Festival](/wiki/2021_Toronto_International_Film_Festival "2021 Toronto International Film Festival") on September 9, 2021 as its Opening Night Gala Presentation,{{cite news\|title\=Toronto Festival Unveils 'Dear Evan Hansen' As Opening\-Night Premiere, Zhang Yimou's 'One Second' As Closer; Check Out First Slated Films \|url\=https://deadline.com/2021/07/2021\-toronto\-film\-festival\-slate\-dear\-evan\-hansen\-1234796440/ \|work\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]\|date \= July 20, 2021\|last \= Fleming\|first \= Mike Jr. \|access\-date\=July 20, 2021}} and was released in theaters on September 24, 2021\.
In October 2019, Chbosky's second novel, *[Imaginary Friend](/wiki/Imaginary_Friend_%28novel%29 "Imaginary Friend (novel)")*, debuted as a Top 10 New York Times Best Seller.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/books/best\-sellers/2019/10/19/hardcover\-fiction/ \|title \= Hardcover Fiction Books \- Best Sellers \- Books \- Oct. 20, 2019\|newspaper \= The New York Times}}{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://ew.com/author\-interviews/2019/05/28/stephen\-chbosky\-imaginary\-friend/\|title\='Perks of Being a Wallflower' author Stephen Chbosky ventures to dark place with 'Imaginary Friend'\|magazine\=Entertainment Weekly\|access\-date\=15 July 2019}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In 1992, Chbosky graduated from the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California \"University of Southern California\")'s Filmic Writing, screenwriting program.{{cite news \\|last\\=Owen \\|first\\=Rob \\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/pg/06253/719941\\-237\\.stm \\|title\\=Upper St. Clair graduate writes for CBS's 'Jericho' \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette]] \\|date\\=September 10, 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2007}} He wrote, directed, and acted in the 1995 independent film *[The Four Corners of Nowhere](/wiki/The_Four_Corners_of_Nowhere \"The Four Corners of Nowhere\")*, which gained Chbosky his first agent. It also was accepted by the [Sundance Film Festival](/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival \"Sundance Film Festival\"), and became one of the first films shown on the [Sundance Channel](/wiki/Sundance_Channel_%28United_States%29 \"Sundance Channel (United States)\"). In the late 1990s, Chbosky wrote several unproduced screenplays, including ones titled *Audrey Hepburn's Neck* and *Schoolhouse Rock*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bing \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|url\\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117787257\\.html?categoryid\\=1007\\&cs\\=1\\&query\\=chbosky \\|title\\='Perks' guy in pics; Nerve racking up deals \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]] \\|date\\=October 4, 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2008}}",
"In 1994, Chbosky was working on a \"very different type of book\" than *[The Perks of Being a Wallflower](/wiki/The_Perks_of_Being_a_Wallflower \"The Perks of Being a Wallflower\")* when he wrote the line, \"I guess that's just one of the perks of being a wallflower.\" Chbosky recalled that he \"wrote that line. And stopped. And realized that somewhere in that \\[sentence] was the kid I was really trying to find.\" After several years of gestation, Chbosky began researching and writing *The Perks of Being a Wallflower*, an [epistolary novel](/wiki/Epistolary_novel \"Epistolary novel\") that follows the intellectual and emotional maturation of a teenager who uses the alias Charlie over the course of his first year of high school. The book is semi\\-autobiographical; Chbosky has said that he \"relate\\[s] to Charlie\\[...] But my life in high school was in many ways different.\"",
"The book, Chbosky's first novel, was published by [Pocket Books](/wiki/Pocket_Books \"Pocket Books\") in 1999, and was an immediate popular success with teenage readers; by 2000, the novel was MTV Books' best\\-selling title, and *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* noted in 2007 that it had sold more than 700,000 copies and \"is passed from adolescent to adolescent like a hot potato\".{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9D01E0DC153EF93BA35754C0A9619C8B63 \\|title\\=THE ISLAND; Reluctant Readers? Try Resistant Parents \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=July 8, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2008}} As of May 2013, the number of copies in print reached over two million. *Wallflower* also stirred up controversy due to Chbosky's portrayal of [teen sexuality](/wiki/Youth_sexuality \"Youth sexuality\") and [drug use](/wiki/Recreational_drug_use \"Recreational drug use\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wordriot.org/template.php?ID\\=552 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050113162049/http://wordriot.org/template.php?ID\\=552 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-01\\-13 \\|title\\=An Interview with Stephen Chbosky by Marty Beckerman \\|publisher\\=Word Riot \\|date\\=December 9, 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=7 November 2013 }} The book has been removed from circulation in several schools and appeared on the [American Library Association](/wiki/American_Library_Association \"American Library Association\")'s 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2014, 2022<http://www.ala.org/ala/issuesadvocacy/banned/frequentlychallenged/21stcenturychallenged/2008/index.cfm> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019113033/http://www.ala.org/ala/issuesadvocacy/banned/frequentlychallenged/21stcenturychallenged/2008/index.cfm\\|date\\=October 19, 2009}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Top 10 Most Challenged Books and Frequently Challenged Books Archive {{!}} Banned Books \\|url\\=https://www.ala.org/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10/archive \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-04 \\|website\\=www.ala.org \\|language\\=en}} and 2023{{Cite web \\|title\\=Top 10 Most Challenged Books of 2023 {{!}} Banned Books \\|url\\=https://www.ala.org/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-04 \\|website\\=www.ala.org \\|language\\=en}} lists of the 10 most frequently challenged books. In July 2013, *The Perks of Being a Wallflower* had spent over a year on the *New York Times* Bestseller list, and was published in 31 languages.",
"In 2000, Chbosky edited *Pieces*, an anthology of short stories. The same year, he worked with director Jon Sherman on a film adaptation of [Michael Chabon](/wiki/Michael_Chabon \"Michael Chabon\")'s novel *[The Mysteries of Pittsburgh](/wiki/The_Mysteries_of_Pittsburgh \"The Mysteries of Pittsburgh\")*, though the project fell apart by August 2000\\.{{cite web \\| url \\= http://home.earthlink.net/\\~mchabon/current.html \\|date \\= August 14, 2000 \\| title \\= In the Works \\| publisher \\= Michael Chabon's Web Site: Rattling Around \\| access\\-date \\= 4 February 2007 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20000926003509/http://home.earthlink.net/\\~mchabon/current.html \\| archive\\-date \\= September 26, 2000}} Chbosky wrote the screenplay for the [2005 film adaptation](/wiki/Rent_%28film%29 \"Rent (film)\") of the Broadway [rock musical](/wiki/Rock_opera \"Rock opera\") *[Rent](/wiki/Rent_%28musical%29 \"Rent (musical)\")*, which received mixed reviews.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/rent/ \\|title\\=Rent \\|website\\=Rotten Tomatoes \\|access\\-date\\=7 November 2013}} In late 2005, Chbosky said that he was writing a film adaptation of *The Perks of Being a Wallflower*.",
"In the mid\\-2000s, Chbosky decided, on the advice of his agent, to begin looking for work in television in addition to film. Finding he \"enjoyed the people \\[he met who were working] in television\", Chbosky agreed to serve as co\\-creator, executive producer, and writer of the [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") [serial television drama](/wiki/Serial_drama \"Serial drama\") *[Jericho](/wiki/Jericho_%282006_TV_series%29 \"Jericho (2006 TV series)\")*, which premiered in September 2006\\. The series revolves around the inhabitants of the fictional small town of [Jericho, Kansas](/wiki/Jericho%2C_Kansas_%28fictional_town%29 \"Jericho, Kansas (fictional town)\") in the aftermath of several nuclear attacks. Chbosky has said the relationship between Jake Green, the main character, and his mother, reflected \"me and my mother in a lot of ways\". The first season of *Jericho* had lackluster [ratings](/wiki/Nielsen_ratings \"Nielsen ratings\"), and CBS canceled the show in May 2007\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Fitzgerald \\|first\\=Toni \\|url\\=http://www.medialifemagazine.com/cgi\\-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive\\=499\\#\\=11271 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205020011/http://www.medialifemagazine.com/cgi\\-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive\\=499\\#\\=11271 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=December 5, 2008 \\|title\\=Flop sweat: 'Jericho' dips to new low \\|work\\=\\[\\[Media Life Magazine]] \\|date\\=April 5, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2008 }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Adalian \\|first\\=Josef \\|url\\=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117964967\\.html?categoryid\\=14\\&cs\\=1 \\|title\\=CBS cancels 'Jericho,' two others \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]] \\|date\\=May 15, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=4 January 2008}} A [grassroots](/wiki/Grassroots \"Grassroots\") campaign to revive the series convinced CBS to renew the series for a second season, which premiered on February 12, 2008, before being canceled once more in March 2008\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://jerichoboard.cbs.com/n/pfx/forum.aspx?tsn\\=1\\&nav\\=messages\\&webtag\\=CBSMBJericho\\&tid\\=13329 \\| title\\=A Message From CBS Entertainment \\| publisher\\=CBS \\| author\\=Nina Tassler \\| date\\=June 6, 2007 \\| access\\-date\\=6 June 2007 \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327131139/http://jerichoboard.cbs.com/n/pfx/forum.aspx?tsn\\=1\\&nav\\=messages\\&webtag\\=CBSMBJericho\\&tid\\=13329 \\| archive\\-date\\=March 27, 2008 \\| df\\=mdy\\-all }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/news.aspx?id\\=20071203cbs03 \\|title\\=Season Premieres of Two Returning Scripted Programs, and the Debut of a New Comedy Join CBS's Primetime Schedule in January and February \\|publisher\\=TheFutonCritic.com \\|access\\-date\\=7 November 2013}}",
"Chbosky wrote the screenplay of and directed the film *[The Perks of Being a Wallflower](/wiki/The_Perks_of_Being_a_Wallflower_%28film%29 \"The Perks of Being a Wallflower (film)\")*, based on his novel. Production took place in mid\\-2011, and the film was released in fall 2012\\. The film starred [Logan Lerman](/wiki/Logan_Lerman \"Logan Lerman\"), [Emma Watson](/wiki/Emma_Watson \"Emma Watson\") and [Ezra Miller](/wiki/Ezra_Miller \"Ezra Miller\"). Chbosky was nominated in the Best Adapted Screenplay category for the 2013 [Writers Guild Awards](/wiki/Writers_Guild_of_America_Award \"Writers Guild of America Award\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/wga\\-awards\\-nominations\\-408430 \\|title\\=WGA Announces Nominations Ranging from 'Lincoln' to 'Looper' \\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter \\|date\\=January 4, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=7 November 2013}} and the film won the 2013 Independent Spirit Awards for Best First Feature, as well as the 2013 People's Choice Award for Best Dramatic Movie.",
"Chbosky re\\-wrote [Evan Spiliotopoulos](/wiki/Evan_Spiliotopoulos \"Evan Spiliotopoulos\") original script for the 2017 live action reboot of Disney's *[Beauty and the Beast](/wiki/Beauty_and_the_Beast_%282017_film%29 \"Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)\")*, directed by [Bill Condon](/wiki/Bill_Condon \"Bill Condon\") and starring Emma Watson as [Belle](/wiki/Belle_%28Disney_character%29 \"Belle (Disney character)\") and [Dan Stevens](/wiki/Dan_Stevens \"Dan Stevens\") as the Beast. Chbosky and Watson developed a close relationship during the production of *The Perks of Being a Wallflower*. The adaptation was faithful to the original 1991 animated film *[Beauty and the Beast](/wiki/Beauty_and_the_Beast_%281991_film%29 \"Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)\")*, with all the original musical numbers included.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2771200/trivia?ref\\_\\=tt\\_trv\\_trv\\|title\\=Beauty and the Beast (2017\\)\\|website\\=IMDb\\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2015}} The film was released on March 17, 2017\\.",
"Chbosky directed the 2017 film *[Wonder](/wiki/Wonder_%28film%29 \"Wonder (film)\")*, co\\-written by Chbosky, [Jack Thorne](/wiki/Jack_Thorne \"Jack Thorne\"), and [Steve Conrad](/wiki/Steve_Conrad \"Steve Conrad\") and based on the 2012 [novel of the same name](/wiki/Wonder_%28Palacio_novel%29 \"Wonder (Palacio novel)\") by R. J. Palacio. The film starred [Julia Roberts](/wiki/Julia_Roberts \"Julia Roberts\"), [Owen Wilson](/wiki/Owen_Wilson \"Owen Wilson\"), and [Jacob Tremblay](/wiki/Jacob_Tremblay \"Jacob Tremblay\"),{{cite news\\|last1\\=Kit\\|first1\\=Borys\\|last2\\=Ford\\|first2\\=Rebecca\\|title\\=Julia Roberts to Play Jacob Tremblay's Mother in 'Wonder'\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/julia\\-roberts\\-play\\-jacob\\-tremblays\\-891160\\|access\\-date\\=July 16, 2016\\|work\\=The Hollywood Reporter\\|date\\=May 5, 2016}} and was released on November 17, 2017\\.",
"On November 29, 2018, [Universal Pictures](/wiki/Universal_Pictures \"Universal Pictures\") announced that Chbosky was in talks to direct the [film adaptation](/wiki/Dear_Evan_Hansen_%28film%29 \"Dear Evan Hansen (film)\") of [Steven Levenson](/wiki/Steven_Levenson \"Steven Levenson\") and [Pasek \\& Paul](/wiki/Pasek_and_Paul \"Pasek and Paul\")'s [Tony Award](/wiki/Tony_Award \"Tony Award\")\\-winning musical, *[Dear Evan Hansen](/wiki/Dear_Evan_Hansen \"Dear Evan Hansen\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2018/11/dear\\-evan\\-hansen\\-film\\-tony\\-award\\-winning\\-musical\\-wonder\\-stephen\\-chbosky\\-marc\\-platt\\-1202222391/\\|title\\=Tony Award\\-Winning Musical 'Dear Evan Hansen' Will be Universal Pictures, Marc Platt Film; 'Wonder's Stephen Chbosky May Direct\\|date\\=November 29, 2018}} On June 11, 2020, he was officially confirmed to direct the film.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.broadway.com/buzz/199433/booksmart\\-unbelievable\\-star\\-kaitlyn\\-dever\\-eyes\\-role\\-in\\-dear\\-evan\\-hansen\\-movie/\\|title \\= Booksmart \\& Unbelievable Star Kaitlyn Dever Eyes Role in Dear Evan Hansen Movie}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/kaitlyn\\-dever\\-talks\\-dear\\-evan\\-hansen\\-film\\-adaptation\\-at\\-universal\\-1298027\\|title \\= Kaitlyn Dever in Talks for 'Dear Evan Hansen' Film Adaptation at Universal\\|website \\= \\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\\|date \\= June 11, 2020}} It stars [Ben Platt](/wiki/Ben_Platt \"Ben Platt\") in the [title role](/wiki/Evan_Hansen \"Evan Hansen\"), which he originated on Broadway, along with [Kaitlyn Dever](/wiki/Kaitlyn_Dever \"Kaitlyn Dever\"), [Amandla Stenberg](/wiki/Amandla_Stenberg \"Amandla Stenberg\"), [Nik Dodani](/wiki/Nik_Dodani \"Nik Dodani\"), [Colton Ryan](/wiki/Colton_Ryan \"Colton Ryan\"), [Amy Adams](/wiki/Amy_Adams \"Amy Adams\"), [Danny Pino](/wiki/Danny_Pino \"Danny Pino\") and [Julianne Moore](/wiki/Julianne_Moore \"Julianne Moore\").Nepales, Ruben V. (June 18, 2020\\). [https://entertainment.inquirer.net/379610/ben\\-platt\\-talks\\-about\\-dear\\-evan\\-hansen\\-film\\-boyfriend\\-noah\\-galvin\\-and\\-the\\-politician\\-highlight](https://entertainment.inquirer.net/379610/ben-platt-talks-about-dear-evan-hansen-film-boyfriend-noah-galvin-and-the-politician-highlight) *Inquirer Entertainment*. The film had its world premiere at the [2021 Toronto International Film Festival](/wiki/2021_Toronto_International_Film_Festival \"2021 Toronto International Film Festival\") on September 9, 2021 as its Opening Night Gala Presentation,{{cite news\\|title\\=Toronto Festival Unveils 'Dear Evan Hansen' As Opening\\-Night Premiere, Zhang Yimou's 'One Second' As Closer; Check Out First Slated Films \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2021/07/2021\\-toronto\\-film\\-festival\\-slate\\-dear\\-evan\\-hansen\\-1234796440/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]\\|date \\= July 20, 2021\\|last \\= Fleming\\|first \\= Mike Jr. \\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2021}} and was released in theaters on September 24, 2021\\.",
"In October 2019, Chbosky's second novel, *[Imaginary Friend](/wiki/Imaginary_Friend_%28novel%29 \"Imaginary Friend (novel)\")*, debuted as a Top 10 New York Times Best Seller.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/books/best\\-sellers/2019/10/19/hardcover\\-fiction/ \\|title \\= Hardcover Fiction Books \\- Best Sellers \\- Books \\- Oct. 20, 2019\\|newspaper \\= The New York Times}}{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://ew.com/author\\-interviews/2019/05/28/stephen\\-chbosky\\-imaginary\\-friend/\\|title\\='Perks of Being a Wallflower' author Stephen Chbosky ventures to dark place with 'Imaginary Friend'\\|magazine\\=Entertainment Weekly\\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2019}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early life
Mahmoud entered the Qur'an School at the age of four, and by age 9 (or by 11\), he had already memorized the entire Qur'an. By age 11, he had enrolled for training at the acclaimed [al\-Badawi Mosque](/wiki/Ahmad_Al-Badawi_Mosque "Ahmad Al-Badawi Mosque") in [Tanta](/wiki/Tanta "Tanta"). He later joined [Al\-Azhar University](/wiki/Al-Azhar_University "Al-Azhar University") in Cairo and was conferred with diploma in *al\-Qirāʾāt al\-ʿAshar* ({{lang\-ar\|الْقِرَاءَات الْعَشَر\|lit\=the ten recitations}}).{{Cite web \|url\=https://kisahmuslim.com/5887\-syaikh\-mahmud\-khalil\-al\-hushari\-imam\-dalam\-qiraat.html \|title\=Shaykh Mahmud Khalil al\-Hushari, Imam In Qiraat \|website\=kisahmuslim.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607033803/https://kisahmuslim.com/5887\-syaikh\-mahmud\-khalil\-al\-hushari\-imam\-dalam\-qiraat.html \|archive\-date\=7 June 2019 \|language\=id}}
### Service
{{Circular\|section\|date\=March 2024\|talk\=y\|small\=no}}
He moved to [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") and joined Egypt's official Qur'an radio station as a reciter making his first appearance on February 16, 1944\. Just a year later, in 1945, al\-Hussary was appointed reciter at the [Ahmad al\-Badawi](/wiki/Ahmad_al-Badawi "Ahmad al-Badawi") mosque. On August 7, 1948, he was nominated *[mu'adhin](/wiki/Mu%27adhin "Mu'adhin")* of the *Sidi Hamza Mosque* and later, a *muqriʾ* ({{lang\-ar\|مُقْرِئ\|lit\=reciter}}) at the same mosque.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.assabile.com/mahmoud\-khalil\-al\-hussary\-27/mahmoud\-khalil\-al\-hussary.htm \|title\=Biography of Mahmoud Khalil Al Hussary \|archive\-date\=24 December 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224080355/https://www.assabile.com/mahmoud\-khalil\-al\-hussary\-27/mahmoud\-khalil\-al\-hussary.htm \|website\=assabile.com\|url\-status\=usurped}} He also supervised recitation centers in the [al\-Gharbia](/wiki/Gharbia_Governorate "Gharbia Governorate") province. Though a conflicting report claims he served at the Ahmad al\-Badawi mosque for 10 straight years.
In 1955, he was appointed to the [Al\-Hussein Mosque](/wiki/Al-Hussein_Mosque "Al-Hussein Mosque") in Cairo and remained in\-service there for 29 years, until his death.
He achieved numerous accolades during this time.
### At Al\-Azhar
After returning to Cairo, al\-Hussary studied and taught at [Al\-Azhar University](/wiki/Al-Azhar_University "Al-Azhar University"). In 1960, he led the department of *al\-Ḥadīth bi\-Jāmiʿ al\-Buḥūth al\-ʾIslāmiyya* ({{lang\-ar\|الْحَدِيث بِجَامِع الْبُحُوث الْإِسْلَامِيَّة}}) for correcting Quranic codexes present in the al\-Azhar libraries.
As one of the four top\-ranking reciters in Egypt, he recorded the complete Quranic text in both styles of recitation, *murattal* (*[tarteel](/wiki/Tarteel "Tarteel")*) and *[mujawwad](/wiki/Mujawwad "Mujawwad")* (*[tajwid](/wiki/Tajwid "Tajwid")*) and was, in fact, first\-ever qāriʾ to record and broadcast the *murattal* style. He recorded and wrote treatises on various Qur'an recital styles: [Ḥafs ʿan ʿĀṣim](/wiki/Hafs "Hafs") in 1961, [Warsh ʿan Nāfiʾ](/wiki/Warsh "Warsh") in 1964, [Qālān ʿan Nāfiʾ](/wiki/Qalun "Qalun") and [ad\-Dūrī ʿan Abi ʿAmr](/wiki/Al-Duri "Al-Duri") in 1968\. In the same year, he recorded the Qu'ran in the style known as *al\-Muṣḥaf al\-Muʿallim* ({{lang\-ar\|المصحف المُعلّم\|lit\=the Teaching Qur'an}}), a technique of *tartīl* with exclusive focus on pedagogy.
Al\-Hussary authored 12 books on Qur'anic sciences in a bid to end corruption of both the text and the recitation styles.
### Recognition and awards
In 1944, Al\-Hussary won Egypt Radio's *Qu'ran Recitation* competition which had around 200 participants, among them some veterans like Muhammad Rifat, Ali Mahmud, and Abd Al\-Fattah Ash\-Sha'sha'i.
Al\-Azhar awarded him the title *[Shaykh al\-Maqāriʾ](/wiki/Shaykh_al-Maq%C3%A2ri "Shaykh al-Maqâri")* ({{lang\-ar\| شـيخ المقارِئ \|lit\=Scholar of the Reciting Schools}}) in 1957\. He was also appointed to the board of Islamic research on [Hadith](/wiki/Hadith "Hadith") and the Qur'an at Al\-Azhar.
He was a recipient of the Egyptian *Medal of Honour for Arts and Sciences*, *First Grade*, from the Egyptian president Gamal 'Abd Al\-Nasir, in 1967\. The same year, he was elected the President of the *Islamic World League of Qur'an Reciters*.
### Tours
In 1960, he travelled to [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") and [India](/wiki/India "India"), the first Egyptian qāriʾ to do so, to recite at a conference{{Cite web\|url\=http://logos.nationalinterest.in/2014/01/nehrus\-friendship\-for\-nassers\-egypt\-was\-a\-tunnel\-vision\-policy/\|title\=Nehru’s friendship for Nasser’s Egypt was a ‘tunnel\-vision’ policy\|date\=19 Jan 2014\|author\=Kabir Taneja\|website\=}} in the presence of the first Prime Minister of India, [Jawaharlal Nehru](/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru "Jawaharlal Nehru"), and the first Egyptian President, [Gamal Abdul Nasir](/wiki/Gamal_Abdul_Nasir "Gamal Abdul Nasir"). He accompanied the Rector of Al\-Azhar University on their travels. He was invited to participate in the *World of Islam Festival*{{Cite web \| url\=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/197603/the.world.of.islam\-its.festival.htm \|title\=The World of Islam \- Its Festival \|date\=June 1976 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518201422/https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/197603/the.world.of.islam\-its.festival.htm \|archive\-date\=18 May 2020 \|website\=archive.aramcoworld.com \|author\=John Sabini}} in London (1976\).{{Cite web \| title\=Classical musician's brave journey from Mozart to Morisco \|url\=https://www.overgrownpath.com/2015/11/classical\-musicians\-brave\-journey\-from.html \|date\=9 Nov 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518201156/https://www.overgrownpath.com/2015/11/classical\-musicians\-brave\-journey\-from.html \|archive\-date\=18 May 2020 \|website\=overgrownpath.com \|author\=Pliable}} He has recited the Quran in front of the [American Congress](/wiki/American_Congress "American Congress"), the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") in 1977,{{Cite web \|url\=https://republika.co.id/berita/p75jzm282/lantunan\-syahdu\-shalawat\-tarhim\-dari\-kairo\-hingga\-solo\-part1 \|title\=Shalawat Tarhim dari Syekh Al\-Husary dinilai mampu membuat hati pendengarnya terenyuh \|date\=14 Apr 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519130415/https://republika.co.id/berita/p75jzm282/lantunan\-syahdu\-shalawat\-tarhim\-dari\-kairo\-hingga\-solo\-part1 \|archive\-date\=19 May 2020 \|website\=republike.co.id\| author\=Karta Raharja Ucu \|language\=id}} and at the [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace "Buckingham Palace") in 1978\. He has been on Qur'an recital tours to the Philippines, China, France, and Singapore; in addition to touring other Muslim countries, mostly during the month of [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan "Ramadan").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early life",
"Mahmoud entered the Qur'an School at the age of four, and by age 9 (or by 11\\), he had already memorized the entire Qur'an. By age 11, he had enrolled for training at the acclaimed [al\\-Badawi Mosque](/wiki/Ahmad_Al-Badawi_Mosque \"Ahmad Al-Badawi Mosque\") in [Tanta](/wiki/Tanta \"Tanta\"). He later joined [Al\\-Azhar University](/wiki/Al-Azhar_University \"Al-Azhar University\") in Cairo and was conferred with diploma in *al\\-Qirāʾāt al\\-ʿAshar* ({{lang\\-ar\\|الْقِرَاءَات الْعَشَر\\|lit\\=the ten recitations}}).{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://kisahmuslim.com/5887\\-syaikh\\-mahmud\\-khalil\\-al\\-hushari\\-imam\\-dalam\\-qiraat.html \\|title\\=Shaykh Mahmud Khalil al\\-Hushari, Imam In Qiraat \\|website\\=kisahmuslim.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607033803/https://kisahmuslim.com/5887\\-syaikh\\-mahmud\\-khalil\\-al\\-hushari\\-imam\\-dalam\\-qiraat.html \\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2019 \\|language\\=id}}",
"### Service",
"{{Circular\\|section\\|date\\=March 2024\\|talk\\=y\\|small\\=no}} \nHe moved to [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") and joined Egypt's official Qur'an radio station as a reciter making his first appearance on February 16, 1944\\. Just a year later, in 1945, al\\-Hussary was appointed reciter at the [Ahmad al\\-Badawi](/wiki/Ahmad_al-Badawi \"Ahmad al-Badawi\") mosque. On August 7, 1948, he was nominated *[mu'adhin](/wiki/Mu%27adhin \"Mu'adhin\")* of the *Sidi Hamza Mosque* and later, a *muqriʾ* ({{lang\\-ar\\|مُقْرِئ\\|lit\\=reciter}}) at the same mosque.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.assabile.com/mahmoud\\-khalil\\-al\\-hussary\\-27/mahmoud\\-khalil\\-al\\-hussary.htm \\|title\\=Biography of Mahmoud Khalil Al Hussary \\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224080355/https://www.assabile.com/mahmoud\\-khalil\\-al\\-hussary\\-27/mahmoud\\-khalil\\-al\\-hussary.htm \\|website\\=assabile.com\\|url\\-status\\=usurped}} He also supervised recitation centers in the [al\\-Gharbia](/wiki/Gharbia_Governorate \"Gharbia Governorate\") province. Though a conflicting report claims he served at the Ahmad al\\-Badawi mosque for 10 straight years.",
"In 1955, he was appointed to the [Al\\-Hussein Mosque](/wiki/Al-Hussein_Mosque \"Al-Hussein Mosque\") in Cairo and remained in\\-service there for 29 years, until his death.",
"He achieved numerous accolades during this time.",
"### At Al\\-Azhar",
"After returning to Cairo, al\\-Hussary studied and taught at [Al\\-Azhar University](/wiki/Al-Azhar_University \"Al-Azhar University\"). In 1960, he led the department of *al\\-Ḥadīth bi\\-Jāmiʿ al\\-Buḥūth al\\-ʾIslāmiyya* ({{lang\\-ar\\|الْحَدِيث بِجَامِع الْبُحُوث الْإِسْلَامِيَّة}}) for correcting Quranic codexes present in the al\\-Azhar libraries.",
"As one of the four top\\-ranking reciters in Egypt, he recorded the complete Quranic text in both styles of recitation, *murattal* (*[tarteel](/wiki/Tarteel \"Tarteel\")*) and *[mujawwad](/wiki/Mujawwad \"Mujawwad\")* (*[tajwid](/wiki/Tajwid \"Tajwid\")*) and was, in fact, first\\-ever qāriʾ to record and broadcast the *murattal* style. He recorded and wrote treatises on various Qur'an recital styles: [Ḥafs ʿan ʿĀṣim](/wiki/Hafs \"Hafs\") in 1961, [Warsh ʿan Nāfiʾ](/wiki/Warsh \"Warsh\") in 1964, [Qālān ʿan Nāfiʾ](/wiki/Qalun \"Qalun\") and [ad\\-Dūrī ʿan Abi ʿAmr](/wiki/Al-Duri \"Al-Duri\") in 1968\\. In the same year, he recorded the Qu'ran in the style known as *al\\-Muṣḥaf al\\-Muʿallim* ({{lang\\-ar\\|المصحف المُعلّم\\|lit\\=the Teaching Qur'an}}), a technique of *tartīl* with exclusive focus on pedagogy.",
"Al\\-Hussary authored 12 books on Qur'anic sciences in a bid to end corruption of both the text and the recitation styles.",
"### Recognition and awards",
"In 1944, Al\\-Hussary won Egypt Radio's *Qu'ran Recitation* competition which had around 200 participants, among them some veterans like Muhammad Rifat, Ali Mahmud, and Abd Al\\-Fattah Ash\\-Sha'sha'i.",
"Al\\-Azhar awarded him the title *[Shaykh al\\-Maqāriʾ](/wiki/Shaykh_al-Maq%C3%A2ri \"Shaykh al-Maqâri\")* ({{lang\\-ar\\| شـيخ المقارِئ \\|lit\\=Scholar of the Reciting Schools}}) in 1957\\. He was also appointed to the board of Islamic research on [Hadith](/wiki/Hadith \"Hadith\") and the Qur'an at Al\\-Azhar.",
"He was a recipient of the Egyptian *Medal of Honour for Arts and Sciences*, *First Grade*, from the Egyptian president Gamal 'Abd Al\\-Nasir, in 1967\\. The same year, he was elected the President of the *Islamic World League of Qur'an Reciters*.",
"### Tours",
"In 1960, he travelled to [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") and [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), the first Egyptian qāriʾ to do so, to recite at a conference{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://logos.nationalinterest.in/2014/01/nehrus\\-friendship\\-for\\-nassers\\-egypt\\-was\\-a\\-tunnel\\-vision\\-policy/\\|title\\=Nehru’s friendship for Nasser’s Egypt was a ‘tunnel\\-vision’ policy\\|date\\=19 Jan 2014\\|author\\=Kabir Taneja\\|website\\=}} in the presence of the first Prime Minister of India, [Jawaharlal Nehru](/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru \"Jawaharlal Nehru\"), and the first Egyptian President, [Gamal Abdul Nasir](/wiki/Gamal_Abdul_Nasir \"Gamal Abdul Nasir\"). He accompanied the Rector of Al\\-Azhar University on their travels. He was invited to participate in the *World of Islam Festival*{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/197603/the.world.of.islam\\-its.festival.htm \\|title\\=The World of Islam \\- Its Festival \\|date\\=June 1976 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518201422/https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/197603/the.world.of.islam\\-its.festival.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2020 \\|website\\=archive.aramcoworld.com \\|author\\=John Sabini}} in London (1976\\).{{Cite web \\| title\\=Classical musician's brave journey from Mozart to Morisco \\|url\\=https://www.overgrownpath.com/2015/11/classical\\-musicians\\-brave\\-journey\\-from.html \\|date\\=9 Nov 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518201156/https://www.overgrownpath.com/2015/11/classical\\-musicians\\-brave\\-journey\\-from.html \\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2020 \\|website\\=overgrownpath.com \\|author\\=Pliable}} He has recited the Quran in front of the [American Congress](/wiki/American_Congress \"American Congress\"), the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") in 1977,{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://republika.co.id/berita/p75jzm282/lantunan\\-syahdu\\-shalawat\\-tarhim\\-dari\\-kairo\\-hingga\\-solo\\-part1 \\|title\\=Shalawat Tarhim dari Syekh Al\\-Husary dinilai mampu membuat hati pendengarnya terenyuh \\|date\\=14 Apr 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519130415/https://republika.co.id/berita/p75jzm282/lantunan\\-syahdu\\-shalawat\\-tarhim\\-dari\\-kairo\\-hingga\\-solo\\-part1 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 May 2020 \\|website\\=republike.co.id\\| author\\=Karta Raharja Ucu \\|language\\=id}} and at the [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace \"Buckingham Palace\") in 1978\\. He has been on Qur'an recital tours to the Philippines, China, France, and Singapore; in addition to touring other Muslim countries, mostly during the month of [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan \"Ramadan\").",
""
] |
Life and works
--------------
Melrose was born in [Midlothian](/wiki/Midlothian "Midlothian"). Much of his early career was spent at the London [Ludgate Hill](/wiki/Ludgate_Hill "Ludgate Hill") offices of the Sunday School Union, where from 1893 he published the *Sunday School Chronicle*.
He began publishing under his own name around 1899 in York Street, [Covent Garden](/wiki/Covent_Garden "Covent Garden"), finally moving to an address next door to [Macmillan](/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers "Macmillan Publishers") in St. Martin Street, [Leicester Square](/wiki/Leicester_Square "Leicester Square"). Among the early writers he encouraged and published was [W.E. Cule](/wiki/W.E._Cule "W.E. Cule"), a friend and colleague from the Sunday School Union.
Between 1900 and 1903 Melrose published and contributed to a weekly paper *Boys of the Empire*, the official organ of the Boys Empire League. The League's stated purpose was" to promote and strengthen a worthy Imperial Spirit in British\-born boys".Rashna B. Singh. *Goodly is our Heritage: Children's Literature, Empire, and the Certitude of Character*, Scarecrow Press, 2004 (p.43\) {{ISBN\|0\-8108\-5043\-5}} The paper was edited by [Howard Spicer](/wiki/Howard_Spicer "Howard Spicer") (later Sir Howard).
In 1911, Melrose was living at 68 Southwood Lane, [Highgate](/wiki/Highgate "Highgate"), with his wife Margaret and their children Ernest (20\), Douglas (17\), Allan (14\), Kenneth (11\) and Marjorie (9\).1911 Census
Melrose gained a reputation for publishing distinctive books of a theological kind.[*The Publishers' Circular and Booksellers' Record*, Vol. 116, p.107](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGxNAAAAYAAJ&q=Melrose+novel+prize+1914) He was described as "an extremely shrewd, somewhat dour Scotsman, possessing a keen sense of literary values". He was one of the pioneers of offering substantial money prizes to aspiring authors. Two early winners of the 250\-guinea prize were [Agnes E.Jacomb](/wiki/Agnes_E.Jacomb "Agnes E.Jacomb") for her first novel *The Faith of His Fathers* (1909\) and [Patricia Wentworth](/wiki/Patricia_Wentworth "Patricia Wentworth") for *A Marriage Under The Terror* (1910\).James Milne, "Best Novel Competition Won by a Woman With Her First Book: Some Inferences Drawn" *New York Times*, 9 April 1910 [https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1910/04/09/104929210\.pdf](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1910/04/09/104929210.pdf) In 1913, [Margaret Peterson](/wiki/Margaret_Peterson "Margaret Peterson") won the prize for her novel *The Lure of the Little Drum*.A.S. Barnes, [*Educational Foundations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vScVAAAAIAAJ&q=Margaret+Peterson+Andrew+Melrose+drum), New York, 1914, p.371 A notable winner was [Catherine Carswell](/wiki/Catherine_Carswell "Catherine Carswell") for her novel *Open the Door* (1920\). Melrose also had a keen sense of book design, commissioning illustrations from some of the leading illustrators of his day such as [Charles Robinson](/wiki/Charles_Robinson_%28illustrator%29 "Charles Robinson (illustrator)"), [Florence Meyerheim](/wiki/Florence_Meyerheim "Florence Meyerheim"), [Amelia Bauerle](/wiki/Amelia_Bauerle "Amelia Bauerle") and [William Gordon Mein](/wiki/Will_G._Mein "Will G. Mein").
Melrose was not afraid of courting controversy in his choice of authors. In 1915 he published [Caradoc Evans](/wiki/Caradoc_Evans "Caradoc Evans")'s story collection *[My People](/wiki/My_People_%28story_collection%29 "My People (story collection)")*, a work that provoked outrage for its depiction of Welsh society. He was also responsible for introducing [David Grayson](/wiki/Ray_Stannard_Baker "Ray Stannard Baker") to English readers and for publishing the letters of [Donald Hankey](/wiki/Donald_Hankey "Donald Hankey").
The book on which Melrose chiefly prided himself was *[The House with the Green Shutters](/wiki/The_House_with_the_Green_Shutters "The House with the Green Shutters")* by [George Douglas Brown](/wiki/George_Douglas_Brown "George Douglas Brown"). Melrose had met Brown through Howard Spicer, and the two encouraged Brown to write his grim story of a Scottish village. The following year, Brown died unexpectedly of pneumonia at Melrose's house in [Hornsey](/wiki/Hornsey "Hornsey").Andrew Melrose, *George Douglas Brown, Reminiscences of a Friendship and a Notable Novel*; Cuthbert LennoxGeorge Douglas Brown. [*The House with the Green Shutters: A Biographical Memoir*](https://archive.org/stream/georgedouglasbro00lennuoft/georgedouglasbro00lennuoft_djvu.txt), Hodder and Stoughton, 1903\. Melrose published a memorial edition of Brown's *House with the Green Shutters* in 1923 and subsequently unveiled a memorial to the author in his [Ayrshire](/wiki/Ayrshire "Ayrshire") birthplace.
Under the pseudonym of A. E. Macdonald, Melrose wrote popular biographies of missionary [Alexander Murdoch Mackay](/wiki/Alexander_Murdoch_Mackay "Alexander Murdoch Mackay"),A.E. Macdonald (pseud.Andrew Melrose). *Alexander Mackay, Missionary Hero of Uganda*. London, 1893\. British statesman [William Ewart Gladstone](/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone "William Ewart Gladstone")E. A. Macdonald (pseud.Andrew Melrose), *Mr. Gladstone: A Popular Biography*, 1891 and explorer [Henry Morton Stanley](/wiki/Henry_Morton_Stanley "Henry Morton Stanley").E.A. Macdonald (pseud.Andrew Melrose. *The Story of Stanley, the Hero of Africa*, 1890
In 1927 Melrose's publishing business was taken over by the [Hutchinson](/wiki/Hutchinson_%28publisher%29 "Hutchinson (publisher)") group and became known as Andrew Melrose Limited. It published religious and general titles and the imprint lasted until the mid\-1950s. Melrose's son Douglas Melrose, who was associated with his father's business, founded the publishing firm of Melrose and Co. of [St Martin's Lane](/wiki/St_Martin%27s_Lane "St Martin's Lane").
|
[
"Life and works\n--------------",
"Melrose was born in [Midlothian](/wiki/Midlothian \"Midlothian\"). Much of his early career was spent at the London [Ludgate Hill](/wiki/Ludgate_Hill \"Ludgate Hill\") offices of the Sunday School Union, where from 1893 he published the *Sunday School Chronicle*.",
"He began publishing under his own name around 1899 in York Street, [Covent Garden](/wiki/Covent_Garden \"Covent Garden\"), finally moving to an address next door to [Macmillan](/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers \"Macmillan Publishers\") in St. Martin Street, [Leicester Square](/wiki/Leicester_Square \"Leicester Square\"). Among the early writers he encouraged and published was [W.E. Cule](/wiki/W.E._Cule \"W.E. Cule\"), a friend and colleague from the Sunday School Union.",
"Between 1900 and 1903 Melrose published and contributed to a weekly paper *Boys of the Empire*, the official organ of the Boys Empire League. The League's stated purpose was\" to promote and strengthen a worthy Imperial Spirit in British\\-born boys\".Rashna B. Singh. *Goodly is our Heritage: Children's Literature, Empire, and the Certitude of Character*, Scarecrow Press, 2004 (p.43\\) {{ISBN\\|0\\-8108\\-5043\\-5}} The paper was edited by [Howard Spicer](/wiki/Howard_Spicer \"Howard Spicer\") (later Sir Howard).",
"In 1911, Melrose was living at 68 Southwood Lane, [Highgate](/wiki/Highgate \"Highgate\"), with his wife Margaret and their children Ernest (20\\), Douglas (17\\), Allan (14\\), Kenneth (11\\) and Marjorie (9\\).1911 Census",
"Melrose gained a reputation for publishing distinctive books of a theological kind.[*The Publishers' Circular and Booksellers' Record*, Vol. 116, p.107](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGxNAAAAYAAJ&q=Melrose+novel+prize+1914) He was described as \"an extremely shrewd, somewhat dour Scotsman, possessing a keen sense of literary values\". He was one of the pioneers of offering substantial money prizes to aspiring authors. Two early winners of the 250\\-guinea prize were [Agnes E.Jacomb](/wiki/Agnes_E.Jacomb \"Agnes E.Jacomb\") for her first novel *The Faith of His Fathers* (1909\\) and [Patricia Wentworth](/wiki/Patricia_Wentworth \"Patricia Wentworth\") for *A Marriage Under The Terror* (1910\\).James Milne, \"Best Novel Competition Won by a Woman With Her First Book: Some Inferences Drawn\" *New York Times*, 9 April 1910 [https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1910/04/09/104929210\\.pdf](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1910/04/09/104929210.pdf) In 1913, [Margaret Peterson](/wiki/Margaret_Peterson \"Margaret Peterson\") won the prize for her novel *The Lure of the Little Drum*.A.S. Barnes, [*Educational Foundations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vScVAAAAIAAJ&q=Margaret+Peterson+Andrew+Melrose+drum), New York, 1914, p.371 A notable winner was [Catherine Carswell](/wiki/Catherine_Carswell \"Catherine Carswell\") for her novel *Open the Door* (1920\\). Melrose also had a keen sense of book design, commissioning illustrations from some of the leading illustrators of his day such as [Charles Robinson](/wiki/Charles_Robinson_%28illustrator%29 \"Charles Robinson (illustrator)\"), [Florence Meyerheim](/wiki/Florence_Meyerheim \"Florence Meyerheim\"), [Amelia Bauerle](/wiki/Amelia_Bauerle \"Amelia Bauerle\") and [William Gordon Mein](/wiki/Will_G._Mein \"Will G. Mein\").",
"Melrose was not afraid of courting controversy in his choice of authors. In 1915 he published [Caradoc Evans](/wiki/Caradoc_Evans \"Caradoc Evans\")'s story collection *[My People](/wiki/My_People_%28story_collection%29 \"My People (story collection)\")*, a work that provoked outrage for its depiction of Welsh society. He was also responsible for introducing [David Grayson](/wiki/Ray_Stannard_Baker \"Ray Stannard Baker\") to English readers and for publishing the letters of [Donald Hankey](/wiki/Donald_Hankey \"Donald Hankey\").",
"The book on which Melrose chiefly prided himself was *[The House with the Green Shutters](/wiki/The_House_with_the_Green_Shutters \"The House with the Green Shutters\")* by [George Douglas Brown](/wiki/George_Douglas_Brown \"George Douglas Brown\"). Melrose had met Brown through Howard Spicer, and the two encouraged Brown to write his grim story of a Scottish village. The following year, Brown died unexpectedly of pneumonia at Melrose's house in [Hornsey](/wiki/Hornsey \"Hornsey\").Andrew Melrose, *George Douglas Brown, Reminiscences of a Friendship and a Notable Novel*; Cuthbert LennoxGeorge Douglas Brown. [*The House with the Green Shutters: A Biographical Memoir*](https://archive.org/stream/georgedouglasbro00lennuoft/georgedouglasbro00lennuoft_djvu.txt), Hodder and Stoughton, 1903\\. Melrose published a memorial edition of Brown's *House with the Green Shutters* in 1923 and subsequently unveiled a memorial to the author in his [Ayrshire](/wiki/Ayrshire \"Ayrshire\") birthplace.",
"Under the pseudonym of A. E. Macdonald, Melrose wrote popular biographies of missionary [Alexander Murdoch Mackay](/wiki/Alexander_Murdoch_Mackay \"Alexander Murdoch Mackay\"),A.E. Macdonald (pseud.Andrew Melrose). *Alexander Mackay, Missionary Hero of Uganda*. London, 1893\\. British statesman [William Ewart Gladstone](/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone \"William Ewart Gladstone\")E. A. Macdonald (pseud.Andrew Melrose), *Mr. Gladstone: A Popular Biography*, 1891 and explorer [Henry Morton Stanley](/wiki/Henry_Morton_Stanley \"Henry Morton Stanley\").E.A. Macdonald (pseud.Andrew Melrose. *The Story of Stanley, the Hero of Africa*, 1890",
"In 1927 Melrose's publishing business was taken over by the [Hutchinson](/wiki/Hutchinson_%28publisher%29 \"Hutchinson (publisher)\") group and became known as Andrew Melrose Limited. It published religious and general titles and the imprint lasted until the mid\\-1950s. Melrose's son Douglas Melrose, who was associated with his father's business, founded the publishing firm of Melrose and Co. of [St Martin's Lane](/wiki/St_Martin%27s_Lane \"St Martin's Lane\").",
""
] |
Early years
-----------
Joseph Grinnell was born February 27, 1877, the first of three children by his father Fordyce Grinnell MD and mother [Sarah Elizabeth Pratt](/wiki/Elizabeth_Pratt_Grinnell "Elizabeth Pratt Grinnell"). Grinnell's father worked as the physician for the Kiowa, Comanche and Wichita Indian Agency near [Fort Sill, Oklahoma](/wiki/Fort_Sill%2C_Oklahoma "Fort Sill, Oklahoma"). His distant cousins included the Massachusetts politician [Joseph Grinnell](/wiki/Joseph_Grinnell_%28politician%29 "Joseph Grinnell (politician)") (1788–1885\) and [George Bird Grinnell](/wiki/George_Bird_Grinnell "George Bird Grinnell") (1849–1938\) who founded the [Audubon Society](/wiki/Audubon_Society "Audubon Society").
The Grinnells moved to the [Pine Ridge Indian Agency](/wiki/Pine_Ridge_Indian_Reservation "Pine Ridge Indian Reservation") in 1880\.
In 1885 the Grinnell family moved to [Pasadena, California](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California "Pasadena, California"), but the collapse of Southern California's boom forced Dr. Grinnell in 1888 to accept a position at the Indian school in [Carlisle, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Pennsylvania "Carlisle, Pennsylvania"). The Carlisle Indian school commander was Captain [Richard Henry Pratt](/wiki/Richard_Henry_Pratt "Richard Henry Pratt"), a friend of the Grinnells.
Joseph Grinnell worked in a printing shop in Carlisle and collected his first specimen, a toad, before the family returned to Pasadena two years later.
### First Alaska trip
Captain Pratt visited the Grinnells in Pasadena in 1896 while on a new assignment to inspect Indian Schools on the Pacific coast up to [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska"). The captain obtained permission from the family to take young Grinnell with him. Grinnell sent home bird specimens of the San Francisco Bay area, en route to Alaska. Captain Pratt completed his assignment and returned home. Grinnell remained in Alaska and continued collecting with the assistance of the [Sheldon Jackson Museum](/wiki/Sheldon_Jackson_Museum "Sheldon Jackson Museum") in [Haines, Alaska](/wiki/Haines%2C_Alaska "Haines, Alaska").
Grinnell went on field trips throughout the area, including remote [Saint Lazaria Island](/wiki/Saint_Lazaria_Wilderness "Saint Lazaria Wilderness"). An unintended overnight stay on the island enabled him to study [storm\-petrels](/wiki/Storm-petrel "Storm-petrel"), an account of which he published in the March 1897 issue of the *Nidologist*, an early publication of the Cooper Ornithological Club.
Grinnell's expanding collection attracted visitors who were tourists, summer residents and visiting naturalists, including [John Muir](/wiki/John_Muir "John Muir"), [Henry Fairfield Osborn](/wiki/Henry_Fairfield_Osborn "Henry Fairfield Osborn"), and ornithologist Joseph Mailliard. Grinnell returned to Pasadena in the fall of 1897 where he continued field work in the nearby mountains and canyons.
### Second Alaska trip
[thumb\|right\|Gold Hunting in Alaska,
published in 1901](/wiki/File:Gold_Hunting_in_Alaska.jpg "Gold Hunting in Alaska.jpg")
Grinnell's second visit to the far north began in 1898 on the schooner *Penelope*. He spent 18 months in Alaska during the [Klondike Gold Rush](/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush "Klondike Gold Rush"). Grinnell corresponded regularly with his family, the letters were later compiled and edited into the book *Gold Hunting in Alaska*, published by David C. Cook Publishing Company in 1901\.
Grinnell joined the Long Beach and Alaska Mining and Trading Company to [Kotzebue Sound](/wiki/Kotzebue_Sound "Kotzebue Sound"), Alaska. The company landed at [Cape Blossom](/wiki/Cape_Blossom%2C_Alaska "Cape Blossom, Alaska") in Kotzebue Sound in July 1898\. Grinnell collected and observed the summer migrant bird life; Gambel's sparrow, barn swallow, and Savannah sparrow, among others. By August, Grinnell had 75 bird specimens preserved, including a [Siberian yellow wagtail](/wiki/Yellow_wagtail_%28disambiguation%29 "Yellow wagtail (disambiguation)"). The miners spent the winter inland on the Kowak River \[Kobuk River], then returned to the coast that spring.
The company sailed on the *Penelope* to [Cape Nome](/wiki/Cape_Nome "Cape Nome") in July 1899\. At Cape Nome, Grinnell's job was [amalgamating](/wiki/Amalgam_%28chemistry%29 "Amalgam (chemistry)") the gold using mercury. The gold stampede to the Nome area in the period 1899–1900 was Alaska's largest in both amount of gold recovered and population increase. The gold fields yielded more than $57 million from 1898 to 1910\. The site is now a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark "National Historic Landmark"), the [Cape Nome Mining District Discovery Sites](/wiki/Cape_Nome_Mining_District_Discovery_Sites "Cape Nome Mining District Discovery Sites").
In Grinnell's letters, he described a chaotic scene as "the entire eight miles there is scarcely one hundred feet without one or more tents on it ... our claims are now covered with beach jumpers and we cannot get them off. Mob law rules."
The Cooper Ornithological Club published Grinnell's field notes in 1900 as *Pacific Coast Avifauna, no. 1*.
|
[
"Early years\n-----------",
"Joseph Grinnell was born February 27, 1877, the first of three children by his father Fordyce Grinnell MD and mother [Sarah Elizabeth Pratt](/wiki/Elizabeth_Pratt_Grinnell \"Elizabeth Pratt Grinnell\"). Grinnell's father worked as the physician for the Kiowa, Comanche and Wichita Indian Agency near [Fort Sill, Oklahoma](/wiki/Fort_Sill%2C_Oklahoma \"Fort Sill, Oklahoma\"). His distant cousins included the Massachusetts politician [Joseph Grinnell](/wiki/Joseph_Grinnell_%28politician%29 \"Joseph Grinnell (politician)\") (1788–1885\\) and [George Bird Grinnell](/wiki/George_Bird_Grinnell \"George Bird Grinnell\") (1849–1938\\) who founded the [Audubon Society](/wiki/Audubon_Society \"Audubon Society\").\nThe Grinnells moved to the [Pine Ridge Indian Agency](/wiki/Pine_Ridge_Indian_Reservation \"Pine Ridge Indian Reservation\") in 1880\\.",
"In 1885 the Grinnell family moved to [Pasadena, California](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California \"Pasadena, California\"), but the collapse of Southern California's boom forced Dr. Grinnell in 1888 to accept a position at the Indian school in [Carlisle, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Pennsylvania \"Carlisle, Pennsylvania\"). The Carlisle Indian school commander was Captain [Richard Henry Pratt](/wiki/Richard_Henry_Pratt \"Richard Henry Pratt\"), a friend of the Grinnells.\nJoseph Grinnell worked in a printing shop in Carlisle and collected his first specimen, a toad, before the family returned to Pasadena two years later.",
"### First Alaska trip",
"Captain Pratt visited the Grinnells in Pasadena in 1896 while on a new assignment to inspect Indian Schools on the Pacific coast up to [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\"). The captain obtained permission from the family to take young Grinnell with him. Grinnell sent home bird specimens of the San Francisco Bay area, en route to Alaska. Captain Pratt completed his assignment and returned home. Grinnell remained in Alaska and continued collecting with the assistance of the [Sheldon Jackson Museum](/wiki/Sheldon_Jackson_Museum \"Sheldon Jackson Museum\") in [Haines, Alaska](/wiki/Haines%2C_Alaska \"Haines, Alaska\").",
"Grinnell went on field trips throughout the area, including remote [Saint Lazaria Island](/wiki/Saint_Lazaria_Wilderness \"Saint Lazaria Wilderness\"). An unintended overnight stay on the island enabled him to study [storm\\-petrels](/wiki/Storm-petrel \"Storm-petrel\"), an account of which he published in the March 1897 issue of the *Nidologist*, an early publication of the Cooper Ornithological Club.",
"Grinnell's expanding collection attracted visitors who were tourists, summer residents and visiting naturalists, including [John Muir](/wiki/John_Muir \"John Muir\"), [Henry Fairfield Osborn](/wiki/Henry_Fairfield_Osborn \"Henry Fairfield Osborn\"), and ornithologist Joseph Mailliard. Grinnell returned to Pasadena in the fall of 1897 where he continued field work in the nearby mountains and canyons.",
"",
"### Second Alaska trip",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Gold Hunting in Alaska, \npublished in 1901](/wiki/File:Gold_Hunting_in_Alaska.jpg \"Gold Hunting in Alaska.jpg\")\nGrinnell's second visit to the far north began in 1898 on the schooner *Penelope*. He spent 18 months in Alaska during the [Klondike Gold Rush](/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush \"Klondike Gold Rush\"). Grinnell corresponded regularly with his family, the letters were later compiled and edited into the book *Gold Hunting in Alaska*, published by David C. Cook Publishing Company in 1901\\.\nGrinnell joined the Long Beach and Alaska Mining and Trading Company to [Kotzebue Sound](/wiki/Kotzebue_Sound \"Kotzebue Sound\"), Alaska. The company landed at [Cape Blossom](/wiki/Cape_Blossom%2C_Alaska \"Cape Blossom, Alaska\") in Kotzebue Sound in July 1898\\. Grinnell collected and observed the summer migrant bird life; Gambel's sparrow, barn swallow, and Savannah sparrow, among others. By August, Grinnell had 75 bird specimens preserved, including a [Siberian yellow wagtail](/wiki/Yellow_wagtail_%28disambiguation%29 \"Yellow wagtail (disambiguation)\"). The miners spent the winter inland on the Kowak River \\[Kobuk River], then returned to the coast that spring.",
"The company sailed on the *Penelope* to [Cape Nome](/wiki/Cape_Nome \"Cape Nome\") in July 1899\\. At Cape Nome, Grinnell's job was [amalgamating](/wiki/Amalgam_%28chemistry%29 \"Amalgam (chemistry)\") the gold using mercury. The gold stampede to the Nome area in the period 1899–1900 was Alaska's largest in both amount of gold recovered and population increase. The gold fields yielded more than $57 million from 1898 to 1910\\. The site is now a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark \"National Historic Landmark\"), the [Cape Nome Mining District Discovery Sites](/wiki/Cape_Nome_Mining_District_Discovery_Sites \"Cape Nome Mining District Discovery Sites\").\nIn Grinnell's letters, he described a chaotic scene as \"the entire eight miles there is scarcely one hundred feet without one or more tents on it ... our claims are now covered with beach jumpers and we cannot get them off. Mob law rules.\"",
"The Cooper Ornithological Club published Grinnell's field notes in 1900 as *Pacific Coast Avifauna, no. 1*.",
""
] |
Education
---------
Grinnell was graduated from Pasadena High School in 1893 and enrolled in Throop Polytechnic Institute (now [California Institute of Technology](/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology "California Institute of Technology")) that autumn, where he received his bachelor's degree in 1897\.
In 1901 Grinnell received his master's degree from [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University"). At Stanford, he met several influential people, among them were [Edmund Heller](/wiki/Edmund_Heller "Edmund Heller"). Heller would later join an expedition to Peru in 1915 to explore newly discovered ruins of an [Incan civilization](/wiki/Inca "Inca") at [Machu Picchu](/wiki/Machu_Picchu "Machu Picchu").
During his time at Stanford Grinnell formed the plan for a list of birds of California. He worked on that project for the next 38 years. He was finishing the third installment to *Bibliography of California Ornithology* when he died in 1939\.
Grinnell supported himself at Stanford by teaching at [Palo Alto High School](/wiki/Palo_Alto_High_School "Palo Alto High School") and working in Stanford's [Hopkins Seaside Laboratory](/wiki/Hopkins_Marine_Station "Hopkins Marine Station"). At Hopkins, Grinnell taught embryology in the summer of 1900 and in the summers of 1901 and 1902, ornithology.
A case of [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever "Typhoid fever") interrupted Grinnell's academic track and he returned to Pasadena in 1903 to recover. Grinnell accepted an offer as biology instructor at Throop Polytechnic during this time. Grinnell finished his Stanford Doctorate requirements—essentially by mail—with submission of his thesis *An Account of the Mammals and Birds of the Lower Colorado Valley with Especial Reference to the Distributional Problems Presented* and received his Doctorate in Zoology on May 19, 1913\.{{cite thesis \|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/301760520/ \|title\=An account of the mammals and birds of the lower Colorado Valley, with especial reference to the distributional problems presented \|date\=1913 \|publisher\=\[\[Stanford University]] \|type\=Ph.D. \|last\=Grinnell \|first\=Joseph \|via\=\[\[ProQuest]] \|url\-access\=subscription \|oclc\=2807652}}
[thumb\|left\|Grinnell in the Mojave Desert, 1914](/wiki/File:Grinnell1914.jpg "Grinnell1914.jpg")
Students of Grinnell's biology class at Throop included [Charles Lewis Camp](/wiki/Charles_Lewis_Camp "Charles Lewis Camp") and Joseph S. Dixon. Charles Camp would become the director of the [University of California Museum of Paleontology](/wiki/University_of_California_Museum_of_Paleontology "University of California Museum of Paleontology"). Joseph Dixon would join [John Thayer](/wiki/John_Thayer_%28ornithologist%29 "John Thayer (ornithologist)")'s sponsored expedition in 1913 to Alaska. The Thayer expedition almost perished when their ship became locked in ice {{convert\|7\|nmi\|km\|0}} off the coast, east of [Point Barrow](/wiki/Point_Barrow "Point Barrow") until the summer of 1914\. Dixon collected specimens during this time, including a new species of gull, *[Larus thayeri](/wiki/Larus_thayeri "Larus thayeri")* which was named for the expedition's sponsor.
### Hilda Wood Grinnell
Grinnell married Hilda Wood on June 22, 1906\. Wood was born in [Tombstone, Arizona](/wiki/Tombstone%2C_Arizona "Tombstone, Arizona") May 29, 1883\. She was one of Grinnell's students at Throop and later his teaching assistant in zoology. Wood received her bachelor's degree from Throop in 1906\. The Grinnells moved to Berkeley in 1908 and in 1913, Hilda earned her master's degree at the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley "University of California, Berkeley"). She wrote articles for publications in *The Condor* and the *Journal of Mammalogy* and was a member of the American Ornithologists' Union and the California Academy of Sciences. Hilda Grinnell authored a 32\-page biography in the January–February 1940 issue of *The Condor*.
Hilda continued Grinnell's work on *The Distribution of the Birds of California*; maintained Grinnell's system of bibliographic entries, consulted the catalogs for accuracy, and read proofs and copy with the book's junior author, [Alden H. Miller](/wiki/Alden_H._Miller "Alden H. Miller").
|
[
"Education\n---------",
"Grinnell was graduated from Pasadena High School in 1893 and enrolled in Throop Polytechnic Institute (now [California Institute of Technology](/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology \"California Institute of Technology\")) that autumn, where he received his bachelor's degree in 1897\\.",
"In 1901 Grinnell received his master's degree from [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\"). At Stanford, he met several influential people, among them were [Edmund Heller](/wiki/Edmund_Heller \"Edmund Heller\"). Heller would later join an expedition to Peru in 1915 to explore newly discovered ruins of an [Incan civilization](/wiki/Inca \"Inca\") at [Machu Picchu](/wiki/Machu_Picchu \"Machu Picchu\").",
"During his time at Stanford Grinnell formed the plan for a list of birds of California. He worked on that project for the next 38 years. He was finishing the third installment to *Bibliography of California Ornithology* when he died in 1939\\.",
"Grinnell supported himself at Stanford by teaching at [Palo Alto High School](/wiki/Palo_Alto_High_School \"Palo Alto High School\") and working in Stanford's [Hopkins Seaside Laboratory](/wiki/Hopkins_Marine_Station \"Hopkins Marine Station\"). At Hopkins, Grinnell taught embryology in the summer of 1900 and in the summers of 1901 and 1902, ornithology.",
"A case of [typhoid fever](/wiki/Typhoid_fever \"Typhoid fever\") interrupted Grinnell's academic track and he returned to Pasadena in 1903 to recover. Grinnell accepted an offer as biology instructor at Throop Polytechnic during this time. Grinnell finished his Stanford Doctorate requirements—essentially by mail—with submission of his thesis *An Account of the Mammals and Birds of the Lower Colorado Valley with Especial Reference to the Distributional Problems Presented* and received his Doctorate in Zoology on May 19, 1913\\.{{cite thesis \\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/301760520/ \\|title\\=An account of the mammals and birds of the lower Colorado Valley, with especial reference to the distributional problems presented \\|date\\=1913 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Stanford University]] \\|type\\=Ph.D. \\|last\\=Grinnell \\|first\\=Joseph \\|via\\=\\[\\[ProQuest]] \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|oclc\\=2807652}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Grinnell in the Mojave Desert, 1914](/wiki/File:Grinnell1914.jpg \"Grinnell1914.jpg\")\nStudents of Grinnell's biology class at Throop included [Charles Lewis Camp](/wiki/Charles_Lewis_Camp \"Charles Lewis Camp\") and Joseph S. Dixon. Charles Camp would become the director of the [University of California Museum of Paleontology](/wiki/University_of_California_Museum_of_Paleontology \"University of California Museum of Paleontology\"). Joseph Dixon would join [John Thayer](/wiki/John_Thayer_%28ornithologist%29 \"John Thayer (ornithologist)\")'s sponsored expedition in 1913 to Alaska. The Thayer expedition almost perished when their ship became locked in ice {{convert\\|7\\|nmi\\|km\\|0}} off the coast, east of [Point Barrow](/wiki/Point_Barrow \"Point Barrow\") until the summer of 1914\\. Dixon collected specimens during this time, including a new species of gull, *[Larus thayeri](/wiki/Larus_thayeri \"Larus thayeri\")* which was named for the expedition's sponsor.",
"### Hilda Wood Grinnell",
"Grinnell married Hilda Wood on June 22, 1906\\. Wood was born in [Tombstone, Arizona](/wiki/Tombstone%2C_Arizona \"Tombstone, Arizona\") May 29, 1883\\. She was one of Grinnell's students at Throop and later his teaching assistant in zoology. Wood received her bachelor's degree from Throop in 1906\\. The Grinnells moved to Berkeley in 1908 and in 1913, Hilda earned her master's degree at the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley \"University of California, Berkeley\"). She wrote articles for publications in *The Condor* and the *Journal of Mammalogy* and was a member of the American Ornithologists' Union and the California Academy of Sciences. Hilda Grinnell authored a 32\\-page biography in the January–February 1940 issue of *The Condor*.",
"Hilda continued Grinnell's work on *The Distribution of the Birds of California*; maintained Grinnell's system of bibliographic entries, consulted the catalogs for accuracy, and read proofs and copy with the book's junior author, [Alden H. Miller](/wiki/Alden_H._Miller \"Alden H. Miller\").",
""
] |
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology
----------------------------
[Annie Montague Alexander](/wiki/Annie_Montague_Alexander "Annie Montague Alexander"), [philanthropist](/wiki/Philanthropist "Philanthropist"), naturalist and explorer, founded the [Museum of Vertebrate Zoology](/wiki/Museum_of_Vertebrate_Zoology "Museum of Vertebrate Zoology") at the University of California (UC) in 1908\. Alexander named Grinnell as museum director the same year. She believed that Grinnell was the right choice as director to the point that she was prepared to withdraw the endowment if UC officials objected to Grinnell.
### Historic meeting
Alexander met Grinnell in January 1907 while preparing for her expedition to Alaska; she came to Throop's biology department to find Joseph Dixon, Grinnell's student. Dixon had been recommended to Alexander by [Frank Stephens](/wiki/Frank_Stephens_%28naturalist%29 "Frank Stephens (naturalist)"), author of *California Mammals*. Grinnell endorsed Dixon as a member of Alexander's expedition, as they discussed Alaska. Grinnell invited Alexander to his home to view his collections, which she did before returning to Oakland. The name Annie M. Alexander seemed familiar and Grinnell found reprints among his papers from paleontologist [John C. Merriam](/wiki/John_C._Merriam "John C. Merriam") to Alexander, thanking her for her work and financial support. Satisfied of her commitment to research, he sent her a letter outlining specific points on field work that would maximize scientific results from the seven\-member expedition.
Alexander returned to California in the summer of 1907\. She invited Grinnell to view the Alaska specimens. During the Thanksgiving holiday he met with Alexander at her home. The pair exchanged ideas for a museum on the West Coast that would be on par with the institutions of the eastern United States, such as the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution"). Alexander and Grinnell believed the fauna and flora of the western territory was fast disappearing as a result of human impact, thus detailed documentation was essential for both posterity and knowledge. This foresight proved useful almost a century later, when researchers at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology would use the Grinnell field notes to compare changes in California fauna.
Grinnell and Alexander differed on where the museum should be located. Grinnell advocated for Stanford while Alexander, impressed by the University of California (UC) paleontology lectures she had attended, determined that the museum would be at UC.
Alexander elaborated on the job requirements in a letter to Grinnell dated September, 1907 after she returned from Alaska: "I should like to see a collection developed (more especially of the California fauna) and would be glad to give what support I could if I could find the right man to take hold; someone interested not only in bringing a collection together but with the larger object in view, namely gathering data in connection with the work that would have direct bearing on the important biological issues of the day. Work systematically and intelligently carried on is the work that counts."
Alexander appointed Grinnell director for one year, although he held that post for the remainder of his life.
He named the museum and in 1909, donated his collection of mammals, also his bound files of *The Auk*, *The Condor* and other publications. He gave his entire collection of bird specimens to the museum in 1920\. The bird collection numbered more than 8,000\.
The relationship between museum director and benefactess was unusual. Grinnell deferred to Alexander's wishes in almost every aspect of the museum's business. Alexander, in turn, expected Grinnell to devote all his time and energy to the enterprise, to continue research and publishing, in addition to the duties of director.
In 1908, Alexander had written to Grinnell asking for a recommendation of someone suitable for the upcoming 1908 expedition. His reply elicited a sharp response from Alexander: "Am rather relieved you could not recommend a lady for our trip, though regret your evident contempt of women as naturalists ... ." Alexander found Louise Kellogg to join the Alaska trip. A subsequent letter from Grinnell was even more frank, "I do hope your discovery \[of a companion] proves tractable and industrious. One good test might be to have her string tags \[specimen labels] for five hours straight!"
Alexander supported the museum financially; during the ensuing 46 years, she contributed more than $1\.5 million.
|
[
"Museum of Vertebrate Zoology\n----------------------------",
"[Annie Montague Alexander](/wiki/Annie_Montague_Alexander \"Annie Montague Alexander\"), [philanthropist](/wiki/Philanthropist \"Philanthropist\"), naturalist and explorer, founded the [Museum of Vertebrate Zoology](/wiki/Museum_of_Vertebrate_Zoology \"Museum of Vertebrate Zoology\") at the University of California (UC) in 1908\\. Alexander named Grinnell as museum director the same year. She believed that Grinnell was the right choice as director to the point that she was prepared to withdraw the endowment if UC officials objected to Grinnell.",
"### Historic meeting",
"Alexander met Grinnell in January 1907 while preparing for her expedition to Alaska; she came to Throop's biology department to find Joseph Dixon, Grinnell's student. Dixon had been recommended to Alexander by [Frank Stephens](/wiki/Frank_Stephens_%28naturalist%29 \"Frank Stephens (naturalist)\"), author of *California Mammals*. Grinnell endorsed Dixon as a member of Alexander's expedition, as they discussed Alaska. Grinnell invited Alexander to his home to view his collections, which she did before returning to Oakland. The name Annie M. Alexander seemed familiar and Grinnell found reprints among his papers from paleontologist [John C. Merriam](/wiki/John_C._Merriam \"John C. Merriam\") to Alexander, thanking her for her work and financial support. Satisfied of her commitment to research, he sent her a letter outlining specific points on field work that would maximize scientific results from the seven\\-member expedition.",
"Alexander returned to California in the summer of 1907\\. She invited Grinnell to view the Alaska specimens. During the Thanksgiving holiday he met with Alexander at her home. The pair exchanged ideas for a museum on the West Coast that would be on par with the institutions of the eastern United States, such as the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\"). Alexander and Grinnell believed the fauna and flora of the western territory was fast disappearing as a result of human impact, thus detailed documentation was essential for both posterity and knowledge. This foresight proved useful almost a century later, when researchers at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology would use the Grinnell field notes to compare changes in California fauna.",
"Grinnell and Alexander differed on where the museum should be located. Grinnell advocated for Stanford while Alexander, impressed by the University of California (UC) paleontology lectures she had attended, determined that the museum would be at UC.",
"Alexander elaborated on the job requirements in a letter to Grinnell dated September, 1907 after she returned from Alaska: \"I should like to see a collection developed (more especially of the California fauna) and would be glad to give what support I could if I could find the right man to take hold; someone interested not only in bringing a collection together but with the larger object in view, namely gathering data in connection with the work that would have direct bearing on the important biological issues of the day. Work systematically and intelligently carried on is the work that counts.\"",
"Alexander appointed Grinnell director for one year, although he held that post for the remainder of his life.\nHe named the museum and in 1909, donated his collection of mammals, also his bound files of *The Auk*, *The Condor* and other publications. He gave his entire collection of bird specimens to the museum in 1920\\. The bird collection numbered more than 8,000\\.",
"The relationship between museum director and benefactess was unusual. Grinnell deferred to Alexander's wishes in almost every aspect of the museum's business. Alexander, in turn, expected Grinnell to devote all his time and energy to the enterprise, to continue research and publishing, in addition to the duties of director.",
"In 1908, Alexander had written to Grinnell asking for a recommendation of someone suitable for the upcoming 1908 expedition. His reply elicited a sharp response from Alexander: \"Am rather relieved you could not recommend a lady for our trip, though regret your evident contempt of women as naturalists ... .\" Alexander found Louise Kellogg to join the Alaska trip. A subsequent letter from Grinnell was even more frank, \"I do hope your discovery \\[of a companion] proves tractable and industrious. One good test might be to have her string tags \\[specimen labels] for five hours straight!\"",
"Alexander supported the museum financially; during the ensuing 46 years, she contributed more than $1\\.5 million.",
""
] |
### Historic meeting
Alexander met Grinnell in January 1907 while preparing for her expedition to Alaska; she came to Throop's biology department to find Joseph Dixon, Grinnell's student. Dixon had been recommended to Alexander by [Frank Stephens](/wiki/Frank_Stephens_%28naturalist%29 "Frank Stephens (naturalist)"), author of *California Mammals*. Grinnell endorsed Dixon as a member of Alexander's expedition, as they discussed Alaska. Grinnell invited Alexander to his home to view his collections, which she did before returning to Oakland. The name Annie M. Alexander seemed familiar and Grinnell found reprints among his papers from paleontologist [John C. Merriam](/wiki/John_C._Merriam "John C. Merriam") to Alexander, thanking her for her work and financial support. Satisfied of her commitment to research, he sent her a letter outlining specific points on field work that would maximize scientific results from the seven\-member expedition.
Alexander returned to California in the summer of 1907\. She invited Grinnell to view the Alaska specimens. During the Thanksgiving holiday he met with Alexander at her home. The pair exchanged ideas for a museum on the West Coast that would be on par with the institutions of the eastern United States, such as the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution"). Alexander and Grinnell believed the fauna and flora of the western territory was fast disappearing as a result of human impact, thus detailed documentation was essential for both posterity and knowledge. This foresight proved useful almost a century later, when researchers at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology would use the Grinnell field notes to compare changes in California fauna.
Grinnell and Alexander differed on where the museum should be located. Grinnell advocated for Stanford while Alexander, impressed by the University of California (UC) paleontology lectures she had attended, determined that the museum would be at UC.
Alexander elaborated on the job requirements in a letter to Grinnell dated September, 1907 after she returned from Alaska: "I should like to see a collection developed (more especially of the California fauna) and would be glad to give what support I could if I could find the right man to take hold; someone interested not only in bringing a collection together but with the larger object in view, namely gathering data in connection with the work that would have direct bearing on the important biological issues of the day. Work systematically and intelligently carried on is the work that counts."
Alexander appointed Grinnell director for one year, although he held that post for the remainder of his life.
He named the museum and in 1909, donated his collection of mammals, also his bound files of *The Auk*, *The Condor* and other publications. He gave his entire collection of bird specimens to the museum in 1920\. The bird collection numbered more than 8,000\.
The relationship between museum director and benefactess was unusual. Grinnell deferred to Alexander's wishes in almost every aspect of the museum's business. Alexander, in turn, expected Grinnell to devote all his time and energy to the enterprise, to continue research and publishing, in addition to the duties of director.
In 1908, Alexander had written to Grinnell asking for a recommendation of someone suitable for the upcoming 1908 expedition. His reply elicited a sharp response from Alexander: "Am rather relieved you could not recommend a lady for our trip, though regret your evident contempt of women as naturalists ... ." Alexander found Louise Kellogg to join the Alaska trip. A subsequent letter from Grinnell was even more frank, "I do hope your discovery \[of a companion] proves tractable and industrious. One good test might be to have her string tags \[specimen labels] for five hours straight!"
Alexander supported the museum financially; during the ensuing 46 years, she contributed more than $1\.5 million.
|
[
"### Historic meeting",
"Alexander met Grinnell in January 1907 while preparing for her expedition to Alaska; she came to Throop's biology department to find Joseph Dixon, Grinnell's student. Dixon had been recommended to Alexander by [Frank Stephens](/wiki/Frank_Stephens_%28naturalist%29 \"Frank Stephens (naturalist)\"), author of *California Mammals*. Grinnell endorsed Dixon as a member of Alexander's expedition, as they discussed Alaska. Grinnell invited Alexander to his home to view his collections, which she did before returning to Oakland. The name Annie M. Alexander seemed familiar and Grinnell found reprints among his papers from paleontologist [John C. Merriam](/wiki/John_C._Merriam \"John C. Merriam\") to Alexander, thanking her for her work and financial support. Satisfied of her commitment to research, he sent her a letter outlining specific points on field work that would maximize scientific results from the seven\\-member expedition.",
"Alexander returned to California in the summer of 1907\\. She invited Grinnell to view the Alaska specimens. During the Thanksgiving holiday he met with Alexander at her home. The pair exchanged ideas for a museum on the West Coast that would be on par with the institutions of the eastern United States, such as the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\"). Alexander and Grinnell believed the fauna and flora of the western territory was fast disappearing as a result of human impact, thus detailed documentation was essential for both posterity and knowledge. This foresight proved useful almost a century later, when researchers at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology would use the Grinnell field notes to compare changes in California fauna.",
"Grinnell and Alexander differed on where the museum should be located. Grinnell advocated for Stanford while Alexander, impressed by the University of California (UC) paleontology lectures she had attended, determined that the museum would be at UC.",
"Alexander elaborated on the job requirements in a letter to Grinnell dated September, 1907 after she returned from Alaska: \"I should like to see a collection developed (more especially of the California fauna) and would be glad to give what support I could if I could find the right man to take hold; someone interested not only in bringing a collection together but with the larger object in view, namely gathering data in connection with the work that would have direct bearing on the important biological issues of the day. Work systematically and intelligently carried on is the work that counts.\"",
"Alexander appointed Grinnell director for one year, although he held that post for the remainder of his life.\nHe named the museum and in 1909, donated his collection of mammals, also his bound files of *The Auk*, *The Condor* and other publications. He gave his entire collection of bird specimens to the museum in 1920\\. The bird collection numbered more than 8,000\\.",
"The relationship between museum director and benefactess was unusual. Grinnell deferred to Alexander's wishes in almost every aspect of the museum's business. Alexander, in turn, expected Grinnell to devote all his time and energy to the enterprise, to continue research and publishing, in addition to the duties of director.",
"In 1908, Alexander had written to Grinnell asking for a recommendation of someone suitable for the upcoming 1908 expedition. His reply elicited a sharp response from Alexander: \"Am rather relieved you could not recommend a lady for our trip, though regret your evident contempt of women as naturalists ... .\" Alexander found Louise Kellogg to join the Alaska trip. A subsequent letter from Grinnell was even more frank, \"I do hope your discovery \\[of a companion] proves tractable and industrious. One good test might be to have her string tags \\[specimen labels] for five hours straight!\"",
"Alexander supported the museum financially; during the ensuing 46 years, she contributed more than $1\\.5 million.",
""
] |
Survey of California fauna
--------------------------
[upright\|thumb\|Grinnell in the field, 1914\.](/wiki/File:Grinnell1915.jpg "Grinnell1915.jpg")
Grinnell's goal for the museum was to build a collection primarily of California species, with comparative examples from outside the state. Representative sample areas of California were surveyed broadly, then in detail. The first field expedition for the new museum was to the [Colorado Desert](/wiki/Colorado_Desert "Colorado Desert") in April 1908\. In 1910 three months were spent in the field along the Colorado River to study the river's effect as a barrier in the distribution of desert mammals. The [Mount Whitney](/wiki/Mount_Whitney "Mount Whitney") area, called the Whitney transect, was studied in 1911, the [San Jacinto Mountains](/wiki/San_Jacinto_Mountains "San Jacinto Mountains") in 1913 and from 1914 to 1920, a cross\-section of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, including [Yosemite](/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park "Yosemite National Park") was surveyed. The [Lassen Peak](/wiki/Lassen_National_Park "Lassen National Park") area was studied by Grinnell, Joseph S. Dixon and Jean M. Linsdale from 1924 to 1929\.
The field surveys also provided source material for *Game Birds of California* (1918\) and *Fur\-bearing Mammals of California* (1937\).
### Yosemite
The 1914 Yosemite survey area consisted of {{convert\|1547\|sqmi\|km2\|sigfig\=3}} in a narrow rectangle from eastern [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley "San Joaquin Valley"), across the Sierra Nevada Range to the western edge of the [Great Basin](/wiki/Great_Basin "Great Basin"), including [Mono Lake](/wiki/Mono_Lake "Mono Lake"). There were 40 collecting stations, with one to five persons per station. The survey team collected animal specimens by shooting and setting out traps. Observations were recorded for animal behavior including their "workings", meaning nests or burrows. The survey team of eight researchers, including Grinnell and Joseph Dixon, produced 2,001 pages of field notes and 700 photographs . The research was published in 1924 as *Animal Life in the Yosemite*.
### Lassen Peak area
[thumb\|left\|Sketch of owl species from *Animal Life of the Yosemite*.](/wiki/File:Owls.jpg "Owls.jpg")
There were 50 sites surveyed throughout the Lassen region of northern California which documented the distributions of more than 350 species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and collected more than 4,500 specimens. The results were published in the 1930 monograph *Vertebrate Natural History of a Section of Northern California through the Lassen Peak Region*. More than just a species checklist, this 600\-page volume has behavioral observations and historic photographs. For many areas in the transect, the Lassen survey remains the most comprehensive vertebrate inventory yet conducted.
The survey of California fauna was a test of Grinnell's [theory](/wiki/Theory "Theory") that differences between species are driven by ecological and geographical barriers, a new idea in the science of biology of the 1940s. “He was looking at geographic variation and change of characters in space and time. He wanted to understand the kinds of factors that might influence local adaptation and … variation among individuals and within populations. These ideas were unique at the time because they called into question the accepted notion that species are static and unchanging.", noted Jim Patten, Professor Emeritus, in *Berkeley Science Review*.
### Grinnell Resurvey Project
The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology began the Grinnell Resurvey Project in 2002 using Grinnell's original survey of California fauna for comparison. The resurvey team encountered difficulties, as the 2007 report on Yosemite noted "the data from the original and current surveys cannot be directly compared because of differences in observer effort."
Project researchers worked in Yosemite National Park from 2003 to 2006\. Using colorfully annotated maps dating from the late 1800s, the biologists revisited about 40 sites. Some sites could not be resurveyed because they are no longer accessible; one example is [Lake McClure](/wiki/Lake_McClure "Lake McClure"), a reservoir constructed in 1926\. Lassen National Park was resurveyed in 2006, and the [Warner Mountains](/wiki/Warner_Mountains "Warner Mountains") in northeast California and south to the [White Mountains](/wiki/White_Mountains_%28California%29 "White Mountains (California)") in 2007\.
[right\|thumb\|upright\|Pinyon mouse (*Peromyscus truei*)](/wiki/File:Pinyon_mouse1.jpg "Pinyon mouse1.jpg")
The resurvey report's section on birds noted problems in comparing the censuses: "In the original survey there was a large difference in terms of birds observed per unit time between J. Grinnell and [T. Storer](/wiki/Tracy_Irwin_Storer "Tracy Irwin Storer"), with Grinnell having much higher scores than Storer for the same area. Grinnell and Storer counts also had a larger variation among their own censuses for a single site than we did during our survey."
The Yosemite resurvey documented shifts in the geographic ranges of some mammals. The majority of change is to higher elevation by a ratio of 2\.5 to 1\. A notable alteration in range is shown by the [pinyon mouse](/wiki/Pinyon_mouse "Pinyon mouse") (*Peromyscus truei*), where both the upper and lower range limits have moved upward in elevation. The resurvey biologists documented the pinyon mouse on [Mount Lyell](/wiki/Mount_Lyell_%28California%29 "Mount Lyell (California)") at elevation 10,500 feet. In Grinnell's *Animal Life of the Yosemite*, the pinyon mouse (or big\-eared white\-footed mouse) is described as occurring in the Upper Sonoran Zone on the west slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.
[left\|thumb\|Diagram of elevation change of *Peromyscus truei*](/wiki/File:Pinyon_mouse_range.jpg "Pinyon mouse range.jpg")
The Upper Sonoran is a [life zone](/wiki/Life_zone "Life zone") between 1,000 and 3,500 feet above sea level.
Researchers have also observed selection\-driven physical and genetic changes in populations of the [Alpine chipmunk](/wiki/Alpine_chipmunk "Alpine chipmunk") (*Tamias alpinus*), which was affected by contraction of its elevational range. While most parts of the chipmunk genome had not changed, there were shifts in variants of a gene related to regulation of the animals’ ability to survive in low\-oxygen environments (*[ALOX15](/wiki/ALOX15 "ALOX15")*).{{cite journal \|last1\=Card \|first1\=Daren C. \|last2\=Shapiro \|first2\=Beth \|last3\=Giribet \|first3\=Gonzalo \|last4\=Moritz \|first4\=Craig \|last5\=Edwards \|first5\=Scott V. \|title\=Museum Genomics \|journal\=Annual Review of Genetics \|date\=23 November 2021 \|volume\=55 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=633–659 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-genet\-071719\-020506 \|pmid\=34555285 \|issn\=0066\-4197\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Brown \|first1\=Eryn \|title\=Mining museums' genomic treasures \|journal\=Knowable Magazine \|publisher\= Annual Reviews \|date\=27 April 2022 \|doi\=10\.1146/knowable\-042522\-2\|doi\-access\=free \|url\=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living\-world/2022/mining\-museums\-genomic\-treasures \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|language\=en}}
In the Yosemite transect, no significant change in avian [species abundance](/wiki/Species_abundance "Species abundance") was found. Grinnell documented 133 species and the resurvey team reported 140 bird species.
The report's section on amphibians and reptiles noted healthy populations of [mountain yellow\-legged frog](/wiki/Mountain_yellow-legged_frog "Mountain yellow-legged frog") (*Rana muscosa*) at Yosemite's Dorothy Lake and breeding populations near Evelyn Lake. This species (or [Distinct population segment](/wiki/Distinct_population_segment "Distinct population segment")) is listed as [endangered](/wiki/Endangered "Endangered") by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.
In 2013 a team of researchers from the [San Diego Natural History Museum](/wiki/San_Diego_Natural_History_Museum "San Diego Natural History Museum") completed a five\-year survey of the Grinnell Transect, Grinnell's 1908 study of the flora and fauna of [Mount San Jacinto](/wiki/San_Jacinto_Peak "San Jacinto Peak"). In 60 surveys across 20 sites, they found the forest to be much denser than in Grinnell's time, with the loss of three species including a flying squirrel, and an increase in birds that like thick brush, such as the hermit thrush, the brown creeper and the Townsend's solitaire. The relative lack of leaf litter and decayed ground cover in Grinnell's time was considered to make the occurrence of hot and lasting fires in the forest impossible. With a much thicker understory in 2013, the team of researchers were forced by the [Mountain Fire](/wiki/Mountain_Fire "Mountain Fire") to evacuate their camp.{{cite news\|title\=The Big Burn: Scientists say Mountain fire ecologically necessary in area with a century of overgrowth\|last\=Brennan\|first\=Deborah Sullivan\|date\=July 29, 2013\|work\=San Diego Union Tribune}}
|
[
"Survey of California fauna\n--------------------------",
"[upright\\|thumb\\|Grinnell in the field, 1914\\.](/wiki/File:Grinnell1915.jpg \"Grinnell1915.jpg\")\nGrinnell's goal for the museum was to build a collection primarily of California species, with comparative examples from outside the state. Representative sample areas of California were surveyed broadly, then in detail. The first field expedition for the new museum was to the [Colorado Desert](/wiki/Colorado_Desert \"Colorado Desert\") in April 1908\\. In 1910 three months were spent in the field along the Colorado River to study the river's effect as a barrier in the distribution of desert mammals. The [Mount Whitney](/wiki/Mount_Whitney \"Mount Whitney\") area, called the Whitney transect, was studied in 1911, the [San Jacinto Mountains](/wiki/San_Jacinto_Mountains \"San Jacinto Mountains\") in 1913 and from 1914 to 1920, a cross\\-section of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, including [Yosemite](/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park \"Yosemite National Park\") was surveyed. The [Lassen Peak](/wiki/Lassen_National_Park \"Lassen National Park\") area was studied by Grinnell, Joseph S. Dixon and Jean M. Linsdale from 1924 to 1929\\.",
"The field surveys also provided source material for *Game Birds of California* (1918\\) and *Fur\\-bearing Mammals of California* (1937\\).",
"### Yosemite",
"The 1914 Yosemite survey area consisted of {{convert\\|1547\\|sqmi\\|km2\\|sigfig\\=3}} in a narrow rectangle from eastern [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley \"San Joaquin Valley\"), across the Sierra Nevada Range to the western edge of the [Great Basin](/wiki/Great_Basin \"Great Basin\"), including [Mono Lake](/wiki/Mono_Lake \"Mono Lake\"). There were 40 collecting stations, with one to five persons per station. The survey team collected animal specimens by shooting and setting out traps. Observations were recorded for animal behavior including their \"workings\", meaning nests or burrows. The survey team of eight researchers, including Grinnell and Joseph Dixon, produced 2,001 pages of field notes and 700 photographs . The research was published in 1924 as *Animal Life in the Yosemite*.",
"### Lassen Peak area",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Sketch of owl species from *Animal Life of the Yosemite*.](/wiki/File:Owls.jpg \"Owls.jpg\")\nThere were 50 sites surveyed throughout the Lassen region of northern California which documented the distributions of more than 350 species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and collected more than 4,500 specimens. The results were published in the 1930 monograph *Vertebrate Natural History of a Section of Northern California through the Lassen Peak Region*. More than just a species checklist, this 600\\-page volume has behavioral observations and historic photographs. For many areas in the transect, the Lassen survey remains the most comprehensive vertebrate inventory yet conducted.",
"The survey of California fauna was a test of Grinnell's [theory](/wiki/Theory \"Theory\") that differences between species are driven by ecological and geographical barriers, a new idea in the science of biology of the 1940s. “He was looking at geographic variation and change of characters in space and time. He wanted to understand the kinds of factors that might influence local adaptation and … variation among individuals and within populations. These ideas were unique at the time because they called into question the accepted notion that species are static and unchanging.\", noted Jim Patten, Professor Emeritus, in *Berkeley Science Review*.",
"### Grinnell Resurvey Project",
"The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology began the Grinnell Resurvey Project in 2002 using Grinnell's original survey of California fauna for comparison. The resurvey team encountered difficulties, as the 2007 report on Yosemite noted \"the data from the original and current surveys cannot be directly compared because of differences in observer effort.\"",
"Project researchers worked in Yosemite National Park from 2003 to 2006\\. Using colorfully annotated maps dating from the late 1800s, the biologists revisited about 40 sites. Some sites could not be resurveyed because they are no longer accessible; one example is [Lake McClure](/wiki/Lake_McClure \"Lake McClure\"), a reservoir constructed in 1926\\. Lassen National Park was resurveyed in 2006, and the [Warner Mountains](/wiki/Warner_Mountains \"Warner Mountains\") in northeast California and south to the [White Mountains](/wiki/White_Mountains_%28California%29 \"White Mountains (California)\") in 2007\\.\n[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\|Pinyon mouse (*Peromyscus truei*)](/wiki/File:Pinyon_mouse1.jpg \"Pinyon mouse1.jpg\")",
"The resurvey report's section on birds noted problems in comparing the censuses: \"In the original survey there was a large difference in terms of birds observed per unit time between J. Grinnell and [T. Storer](/wiki/Tracy_Irwin_Storer \"Tracy Irwin Storer\"), with Grinnell having much higher scores than Storer for the same area. Grinnell and Storer counts also had a larger variation among their own censuses for a single site than we did during our survey.\"",
"The Yosemite resurvey documented shifts in the geographic ranges of some mammals. The majority of change is to higher elevation by a ratio of 2\\.5 to 1\\. A notable alteration in range is shown by the [pinyon mouse](/wiki/Pinyon_mouse \"Pinyon mouse\") (*Peromyscus truei*), where both the upper and lower range limits have moved upward in elevation. The resurvey biologists documented the pinyon mouse on [Mount Lyell](/wiki/Mount_Lyell_%28California%29 \"Mount Lyell (California)\") at elevation 10,500 feet. In Grinnell's *Animal Life of the Yosemite*, the pinyon mouse (or big\\-eared white\\-footed mouse) is described as occurring in the Upper Sonoran Zone on the west slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Diagram of elevation change of *Peromyscus truei*](/wiki/File:Pinyon_mouse_range.jpg \"Pinyon mouse range.jpg\")\nThe Upper Sonoran is a [life zone](/wiki/Life_zone \"Life zone\") between 1,000 and 3,500 feet above sea level.",
"Researchers have also observed selection\\-driven physical and genetic changes in populations of the [Alpine chipmunk](/wiki/Alpine_chipmunk \"Alpine chipmunk\") (*Tamias alpinus*), which was affected by contraction of its elevational range. While most parts of the chipmunk genome had not changed, there were shifts in variants of a gene related to regulation of the animals’ ability to survive in low\\-oxygen environments (*[ALOX15](/wiki/ALOX15 \"ALOX15\")*).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Card \\|first1\\=Daren C. \\|last2\\=Shapiro \\|first2\\=Beth \\|last3\\=Giribet \\|first3\\=Gonzalo \\|last4\\=Moritz \\|first4\\=Craig \\|last5\\=Edwards \\|first5\\=Scott V. \\|title\\=Museum Genomics \\|journal\\=Annual Review of Genetics \\|date\\=23 November 2021 \\|volume\\=55 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=633–659 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-genet\\-071719\\-020506 \\|pmid\\=34555285 \\|issn\\=0066\\-4197\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Brown \\|first1\\=Eryn \\|title\\=Mining museums' genomic treasures \\|journal\\=Knowable Magazine \\|publisher\\= Annual Reviews \\|date\\=27 April 2022 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/knowable\\-042522\\-2\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|url\\=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living\\-world/2022/mining\\-museums\\-genomic\\-treasures \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
"In the Yosemite transect, no significant change in avian [species abundance](/wiki/Species_abundance \"Species abundance\") was found. Grinnell documented 133 species and the resurvey team reported 140 bird species.",
"The report's section on amphibians and reptiles noted healthy populations of [mountain yellow\\-legged frog](/wiki/Mountain_yellow-legged_frog \"Mountain yellow-legged frog\") (*Rana muscosa*) at Yosemite's Dorothy Lake and breeding populations near Evelyn Lake. This species (or [Distinct population segment](/wiki/Distinct_population_segment \"Distinct population segment\")) is listed as [endangered](/wiki/Endangered \"Endangered\") by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.",
"In 2013 a team of researchers from the [San Diego Natural History Museum](/wiki/San_Diego_Natural_History_Museum \"San Diego Natural History Museum\") completed a five\\-year survey of the Grinnell Transect, Grinnell's 1908 study of the flora and fauna of [Mount San Jacinto](/wiki/San_Jacinto_Peak \"San Jacinto Peak\"). In 60 surveys across 20 sites, they found the forest to be much denser than in Grinnell's time, with the loss of three species including a flying squirrel, and an increase in birds that like thick brush, such as the hermit thrush, the brown creeper and the Townsend's solitaire. The relative lack of leaf litter and decayed ground cover in Grinnell's time was considered to make the occurrence of hot and lasting fires in the forest impossible. With a much thicker understory in 2013, the team of researchers were forced by the [Mountain Fire](/wiki/Mountain_Fire \"Mountain Fire\") to evacuate their camp.{{cite news\\|title\\=The Big Burn: Scientists say Mountain fire ecologically necessary in area with a century of overgrowth\\|last\\=Brennan\\|first\\=Deborah Sullivan\\|date\\=July 29, 2013\\|work\\=San Diego Union Tribune}}",
""
] |
Conservation
------------
Grinnell worked on conservation issues in the latter part of his life. He wrote several articles: "Bird Life as a Community Asset" (1914\), A Conservationist's Creed as to Wild\-Life Administration" (1925\), "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks" (1916\), and " Bats As Disirable Citizens" (1916\). He tried to change National Park Service policies on predator control and on forest management. Additionally, he promoted the idea of a trained biologist or naturalist in national parks to conduct public education programs for visitors. He studied and published on the Point Lobos area on the California coast, and during the last two years of his life, studied animal life at Hastings Reserve in [Santa Lucia Mountains](/wiki/Santa_Lucia_Mountains "Santa Lucia Mountains") of [Carmel Valley, California](/wiki/Carmel_Valley%2C_California "Carmel Valley, California").
### National parks
The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology's Yosemite survey of 1914–1924 documented the area's wildlife. A second goal of the survey was education of the public as a means to protect the park. Yosemite was established in 1890\. Total land area (excluding the valley, which was state\-owned) was more than {{convert\|1500\|sqmi\|km2\|sigfig\=2}}. Congress reduced the park boundaries by one\-third in 1905 in response to pressure from mining, grazing and logging interests. "Ultimately, Grinnell realized, whether in Yosemite, or across the nation, further assaults on wildlife habitat would only be blocked by a concerned and knowledgeable public." wrote historian Alfred Runte.
Grinnell and [Tracy I. Storer's](/wiki/Tracy_Irwin_Storer "Tracy Irwin Storer") article "Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks" was published in *Science* on September 15, 1916, and presented two major points. First, national parks could be examples of pristine nature and were valuable to science and the public. Second, parks could be outdoor classrooms for a trained naturalist to offer natural history classes, conduct walks, and provide other educational activities for park visitors.
The newly created [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service"), in the Department of Interior, had no public education programs in 1916, although director designate [Stephen Mather](/wiki/Stephen_Mather "Stephen Mather") had read Grinnell's article in *Science*. Grinnell was not the only advocate for education in the national parks. A letter from Interior Secretary [Franklin Knight Lane](/wiki/Franklin_Knight_Lane "Franklin Knight Lane") to Director Mather in May 1918, constituted the Service's first administrative policy statement on the concept of the parks as educational media: "The educational, as well as the recreational, use of the national parks should be encouraged in every practicable way." Despite this high\-level expression of support, the idea of the park service being in the education business – beyond dispensing basic tourist information – was not widely accepted.
The first official natural history program at Yosemite began in 1920 with Harold C. Bryant and [Loye Holmes Miller](/wiki/Loye_Holmes_Miller "Loye Holmes Miller") as park\-employed naturalists. Bryant viewed Grinnell as a mentor and went on to help design the interpretive program. He was awarded the Cornelius Armory Pugsley Medal in 1954 for his contributions to parks and conservation.
#### Predator control
Grinnell argued in "Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks" against several park service management policies; one of which was the predator control program. Congress had passed legislation a year earlier that instructed the [Bureau of Biological Survey](/wiki/Bureau_of_Biological_Survey "Bureau of Biological Survey") (now the [US Fish and Wildlife Service](/wiki/US_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service "US Fish and Wildlife Service")) to destroy predators that "are injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry on the national forests and the public domain ...".
The new National Park Service agency used predator control agents from the bureau to trap wolves, coyotes, and mountain lions within park boundaries. The agency's first director, Stephen Mather saw his primary responsibility to the new national\-park idea as one of building a constituency to support the parks, and feared that if predator populations were not controlled inside park boundaries, they would wander to adjoining private lands to kill livestock. Mather did not want angry ranchers complaining to their congressional representatives that the national parks were bad for the ranching business.
[thumb\|right\|Jay Bruce, 1927\. Yosemite National Park.](/wiki/File:JayBruce.jpg "JayBruce.jpg")
Grinnell, [George Melendez Wright](/wiki/George_Melendez_Wright "George Melendez Wright"), a student of Grinnell's, and others objected to the predator control policy. Grinnell argued that, "As a rule, predaceous animals should be left unmolested and allowed to retain their primitive relation to the rest of the fauna ... as their number is already kept within proper limits by the available food supply, nothing is to be gained by reducing it still further." But trapping of rare animals for scientific study was an exception, he added "A justifiable exception may be made when specimens are required for scientific purposes by authorized representatives of public institutions, and it should be remarked in this connection that without a scientific investigation of the animal life in the parks, and an extensive collection of specimens, no thorough understanding of the conditions or of the practical problems they involve is possible."
[thumb\|left\|upright\|A [wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine "Wolverine").](/wiki/File:Wolverinesmall.jpg "Wolverinesmall.jpg")
In July 1915, during the Yosemite survey, [Charles Lewis Camp](/wiki/Charles_Lewis_Camp "Charles Lewis Camp") trapped two wolverines, a male and female. The survey results were published in *Animal Life of the Yosemite* with an entry on wolverine (*Gulo gulo*): "the wolverine is a rare animal anywhere in the Sierra Nevada. Its inclusion here is based upon the capture of two individuals at the head of Lyell Canyon."
The last confirmed California wolverine was killed seven years later by local trapper and miner Albert J. Gardisky in Mono County near Saddlebag Lake on February 22, 1922\. This complete specimen is located in the mammal collection at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Since hunting and [trapping](/wiki/Trapping_%28Animal%29 "Trapping (Animal)") had not yet been outlawed in national parks, Grinnell, the museum's director, initially took advantage of the situation, purchasing skins, skeletons and carcasses for the museum.
Trapping was banned in Yosemite National Park by 1925, and in all national parks by 1931\.
Grinnell was aware of the possible [extirpation](/wiki/Local_extinction "Local extinction") of the wolverine in California by 1937, if not earlier, for he wrote a summary of all documentation, sightings, captures and stories on wolverines in *Fur\-bearing Mammals of California*, with the last known sighting listed at 1924\. Grinnell estimated " at the present time (1933\) there are at most no more than 15 pairs of wolverine left in the State." He warned that there was a " necessity of a closed season for the wolverine if it was to escape the fate of the grizzly bear."
### Point Lobos State Reserve
A year\-long study by Joseph Grinnell and the museum began in 1934 of the [Point Lobos State Reserve](/wiki/Point_Lobos_State_Reserve "Point Lobos State Reserve") in [Monterey County](/wiki/Monterey_County%2C_California "Monterey County, California") for gathering "information which would show the kinds of land vertebrates present within the reserve, frequency of occurrence and relative abundance, habitat, relationship with the physical environment, and the annual cycle of its activity". The research was published in 1935 as "Vertebrate Animals of Point Lobos Reserve".
Point Lobos nearly became a residential development before 1900\. Preservationist Alexander McMillan Allen, the [Save the Redwoods League](/wiki/Save_the_Redwoods_League "Save the Redwoods League") environmental group and others began to buy back the residential lots in 1898\. By 1933 it was added to the new state park system. In 1960, {{convert\|750\|acre\|km2\|sigfig\=2}} undersea was added which created the first underwater reserve in the nation. The reserve's name is from the offshore rocks at Punta de los Lobos Marinos, or Point of the Sea Wolves.
### Hastings Reserve
Russell P. Hastings offered the Hastings cattle ranch of {{convert\|2000\|acre\|km2\|sigfig\=1}} to the University of California for faunal studies, after learning about the research at Point Lobos. Grinnell began long\-term faunal surveys on the Hastings ranch in upper Carmel Valley, Monterey County at the end of 1936 through 1939\.
The ranch became a field research station in 1937, and is the oldest and most productive unit in what is now the University's Natural Land and Water Reserves System, a system of 27
natural areas and biological field stations. Since its inception, Hastings has been managed by the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. The Hastings Reserve in one of only three fully protected reserves in the [North Coast Ranges](/wiki/Northern_California_Coast_Range "Northern California Coast Range") of California.
|
[
"Conservation\n------------",
"Grinnell worked on conservation issues in the latter part of his life. He wrote several articles: \"Bird Life as a Community Asset\" (1914\\), A Conservationist's Creed as to Wild\\-Life Administration\" (1925\\), \"Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks\" (1916\\), and \" Bats As Disirable Citizens\" (1916\\). He tried to change National Park Service policies on predator control and on forest management. Additionally, he promoted the idea of a trained biologist or naturalist in national parks to conduct public education programs for visitors. He studied and published on the Point Lobos area on the California coast, and during the last two years of his life, studied animal life at Hastings Reserve in [Santa Lucia Mountains](/wiki/Santa_Lucia_Mountains \"Santa Lucia Mountains\") of [Carmel Valley, California](/wiki/Carmel_Valley%2C_California \"Carmel Valley, California\").",
"### National parks",
"The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology's Yosemite survey of 1914–1924 documented the area's wildlife. A second goal of the survey was education of the public as a means to protect the park. Yosemite was established in 1890\\. Total land area (excluding the valley, which was state\\-owned) was more than {{convert\\|1500\\|sqmi\\|km2\\|sigfig\\=2}}. Congress reduced the park boundaries by one\\-third in 1905 in response to pressure from mining, grazing and logging interests. \"Ultimately, Grinnell realized, whether in Yosemite, or across the nation, further assaults on wildlife habitat would only be blocked by a concerned and knowledgeable public.\" wrote historian Alfred Runte.",
"Grinnell and [Tracy I. Storer's](/wiki/Tracy_Irwin_Storer \"Tracy Irwin Storer\") article \"Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks\" was published in *Science* on September 15, 1916, and presented two major points. First, national parks could be examples of pristine nature and were valuable to science and the public. Second, parks could be outdoor classrooms for a trained naturalist to offer natural history classes, conduct walks, and provide other educational activities for park visitors.",
"The newly created [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\"), in the Department of Interior, had no public education programs in 1916, although director designate [Stephen Mather](/wiki/Stephen_Mather \"Stephen Mather\") had read Grinnell's article in *Science*. Grinnell was not the only advocate for education in the national parks. A letter from Interior Secretary [Franklin Knight Lane](/wiki/Franklin_Knight_Lane \"Franklin Knight Lane\") to Director Mather in May 1918, constituted the Service's first administrative policy statement on the concept of the parks as educational media: \"The educational, as well as the recreational, use of the national parks should be encouraged in every practicable way.\" Despite this high\\-level expression of support, the idea of the park service being in the education business – beyond dispensing basic tourist information – was not widely accepted.",
"The first official natural history program at Yosemite began in 1920 with Harold C. Bryant and [Loye Holmes Miller](/wiki/Loye_Holmes_Miller \"Loye Holmes Miller\") as park\\-employed naturalists. Bryant viewed Grinnell as a mentor and went on to help design the interpretive program. He was awarded the Cornelius Armory Pugsley Medal in 1954 for his contributions to parks and conservation.",
"#### Predator control",
"Grinnell argued in \"Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks\" against several park service management policies; one of which was the predator control program. Congress had passed legislation a year earlier that instructed the [Bureau of Biological Survey](/wiki/Bureau_of_Biological_Survey \"Bureau of Biological Survey\") (now the [US Fish and Wildlife Service](/wiki/US_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service \"US Fish and Wildlife Service\")) to destroy predators that \"are injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry on the national forests and the public domain ...\".\nThe new National Park Service agency used predator control agents from the bureau to trap wolves, coyotes, and mountain lions within park boundaries. The agency's first director, Stephen Mather saw his primary responsibility to the new national\\-park idea as one of building a constituency to support the parks, and feared that if predator populations were not controlled inside park boundaries, they would wander to adjoining private lands to kill livestock. Mather did not want angry ranchers complaining to their congressional representatives that the national parks were bad for the ranching business.\n[thumb\\|right\\|Jay Bruce, 1927\\. Yosemite National Park.](/wiki/File:JayBruce.jpg \"JayBruce.jpg\")\nGrinnell, [George Melendez Wright](/wiki/George_Melendez_Wright \"George Melendez Wright\"), a student of Grinnell's, and others objected to the predator control policy. Grinnell argued that, \"As a rule, predaceous animals should be left unmolested and allowed to retain their primitive relation to the rest of the fauna ... as their number is already kept within proper limits by the available food supply, nothing is to be gained by reducing it still further.\" But trapping of rare animals for scientific study was an exception, he added \"A justifiable exception may be made when specimens are required for scientific purposes by authorized representatives of public institutions, and it should be remarked in this connection that without a scientific investigation of the animal life in the parks, and an extensive collection of specimens, no thorough understanding of the conditions or of the practical problems they involve is possible.\"\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|A [wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine \"Wolverine\").](/wiki/File:Wolverinesmall.jpg \"Wolverinesmall.jpg\")\nIn July 1915, during the Yosemite survey, [Charles Lewis Camp](/wiki/Charles_Lewis_Camp \"Charles Lewis Camp\") trapped two wolverines, a male and female. The survey results were published in *Animal Life of the Yosemite* with an entry on wolverine (*Gulo gulo*): \"the wolverine is a rare animal anywhere in the Sierra Nevada. Its inclusion here is based upon the capture of two individuals at the head of Lyell Canyon.\"",
"The last confirmed California wolverine was killed seven years later by local trapper and miner Albert J. Gardisky in Mono County near Saddlebag Lake on February 22, 1922\\. This complete specimen is located in the mammal collection at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Since hunting and [trapping](/wiki/Trapping_%28Animal%29 \"Trapping (Animal)\") had not yet been outlawed in national parks, Grinnell, the museum's director, initially took advantage of the situation, purchasing skins, skeletons and carcasses for the museum.",
"Trapping was banned in Yosemite National Park by 1925, and in all national parks by 1931\\.",
"Grinnell was aware of the possible [extirpation](/wiki/Local_extinction \"Local extinction\") of the wolverine in California by 1937, if not earlier, for he wrote a summary of all documentation, sightings, captures and stories on wolverines in *Fur\\-bearing Mammals of California*, with the last known sighting listed at 1924\\. Grinnell estimated \" at the present time (1933\\) there are at most no more than 15 pairs of wolverine left in the State.\" He warned that there was a \" necessity of a closed season for the wolverine if it was to escape the fate of the grizzly bear.\"",
"### Point Lobos State Reserve",
"A year\\-long study by Joseph Grinnell and the museum began in 1934 of the [Point Lobos State Reserve](/wiki/Point_Lobos_State_Reserve \"Point Lobos State Reserve\") in [Monterey County](/wiki/Monterey_County%2C_California \"Monterey County, California\") for gathering \"information which would show the kinds of land vertebrates present within the reserve, frequency of occurrence and relative abundance, habitat, relationship with the physical environment, and the annual cycle of its activity\". The research was published in 1935 as \"Vertebrate Animals of Point Lobos Reserve\".",
"Point Lobos nearly became a residential development before 1900\\. Preservationist Alexander McMillan Allen, the [Save the Redwoods League](/wiki/Save_the_Redwoods_League \"Save the Redwoods League\") environmental group and others began to buy back the residential lots in 1898\\. By 1933 it was added to the new state park system. In 1960, {{convert\\|750\\|acre\\|km2\\|sigfig\\=2}} undersea was added which created the first underwater reserve in the nation. The reserve's name is from the offshore rocks at Punta de los Lobos Marinos, or Point of the Sea Wolves.",
"### Hastings Reserve",
"Russell P. Hastings offered the Hastings cattle ranch of {{convert\\|2000\\|acre\\|km2\\|sigfig\\=1}} to the University of California for faunal studies, after learning about the research at Point Lobos. Grinnell began long\\-term faunal surveys on the Hastings ranch in upper Carmel Valley, Monterey County at the end of 1936 through 1939\\.",
"The ranch became a field research station in 1937, and is the oldest and most productive unit in what is now the University's Natural Land and Water Reserves System, a system of 27\nnatural areas and biological field stations. Since its inception, Hastings has been managed by the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. The Hastings Reserve in one of only three fully protected reserves in the [North Coast Ranges](/wiki/Northern_California_Coast_Range \"Northern California Coast Range\") of California.",
""
] |
### National parks
The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology's Yosemite survey of 1914–1924 documented the area's wildlife. A second goal of the survey was education of the public as a means to protect the park. Yosemite was established in 1890\. Total land area (excluding the valley, which was state\-owned) was more than {{convert\|1500\|sqmi\|km2\|sigfig\=2}}. Congress reduced the park boundaries by one\-third in 1905 in response to pressure from mining, grazing and logging interests. "Ultimately, Grinnell realized, whether in Yosemite, or across the nation, further assaults on wildlife habitat would only be blocked by a concerned and knowledgeable public." wrote historian Alfred Runte.
Grinnell and [Tracy I. Storer's](/wiki/Tracy_Irwin_Storer "Tracy Irwin Storer") article "Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks" was published in *Science* on September 15, 1916, and presented two major points. First, national parks could be examples of pristine nature and were valuable to science and the public. Second, parks could be outdoor classrooms for a trained naturalist to offer natural history classes, conduct walks, and provide other educational activities for park visitors.
The newly created [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service"), in the Department of Interior, had no public education programs in 1916, although director designate [Stephen Mather](/wiki/Stephen_Mather "Stephen Mather") had read Grinnell's article in *Science*. Grinnell was not the only advocate for education in the national parks. A letter from Interior Secretary [Franklin Knight Lane](/wiki/Franklin_Knight_Lane "Franklin Knight Lane") to Director Mather in May 1918, constituted the Service's first administrative policy statement on the concept of the parks as educational media: "The educational, as well as the recreational, use of the national parks should be encouraged in every practicable way." Despite this high\-level expression of support, the idea of the park service being in the education business – beyond dispensing basic tourist information – was not widely accepted.
The first official natural history program at Yosemite began in 1920 with Harold C. Bryant and [Loye Holmes Miller](/wiki/Loye_Holmes_Miller "Loye Holmes Miller") as park\-employed naturalists. Bryant viewed Grinnell as a mentor and went on to help design the interpretive program. He was awarded the Cornelius Armory Pugsley Medal in 1954 for his contributions to parks and conservation.
#### Predator control
Grinnell argued in "Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks" against several park service management policies; one of which was the predator control program. Congress had passed legislation a year earlier that instructed the [Bureau of Biological Survey](/wiki/Bureau_of_Biological_Survey "Bureau of Biological Survey") (now the [US Fish and Wildlife Service](/wiki/US_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service "US Fish and Wildlife Service")) to destroy predators that "are injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry on the national forests and the public domain ...".
The new National Park Service agency used predator control agents from the bureau to trap wolves, coyotes, and mountain lions within park boundaries. The agency's first director, Stephen Mather saw his primary responsibility to the new national\-park idea as one of building a constituency to support the parks, and feared that if predator populations were not controlled inside park boundaries, they would wander to adjoining private lands to kill livestock. Mather did not want angry ranchers complaining to their congressional representatives that the national parks were bad for the ranching business.
[thumb\|right\|Jay Bruce, 1927\. Yosemite National Park.](/wiki/File:JayBruce.jpg "JayBruce.jpg")
Grinnell, [George Melendez Wright](/wiki/George_Melendez_Wright "George Melendez Wright"), a student of Grinnell's, and others objected to the predator control policy. Grinnell argued that, "As a rule, predaceous animals should be left unmolested and allowed to retain their primitive relation to the rest of the fauna ... as their number is already kept within proper limits by the available food supply, nothing is to be gained by reducing it still further." But trapping of rare animals for scientific study was an exception, he added "A justifiable exception may be made when specimens are required for scientific purposes by authorized representatives of public institutions, and it should be remarked in this connection that without a scientific investigation of the animal life in the parks, and an extensive collection of specimens, no thorough understanding of the conditions or of the practical problems they involve is possible."
[thumb\|left\|upright\|A [wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine "Wolverine").](/wiki/File:Wolverinesmall.jpg "Wolverinesmall.jpg")
In July 1915, during the Yosemite survey, [Charles Lewis Camp](/wiki/Charles_Lewis_Camp "Charles Lewis Camp") trapped two wolverines, a male and female. The survey results were published in *Animal Life of the Yosemite* with an entry on wolverine (*Gulo gulo*): "the wolverine is a rare animal anywhere in the Sierra Nevada. Its inclusion here is based upon the capture of two individuals at the head of Lyell Canyon."
The last confirmed California wolverine was killed seven years later by local trapper and miner Albert J. Gardisky in Mono County near Saddlebag Lake on February 22, 1922\. This complete specimen is located in the mammal collection at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Since hunting and [trapping](/wiki/Trapping_%28Animal%29 "Trapping (Animal)") had not yet been outlawed in national parks, Grinnell, the museum's director, initially took advantage of the situation, purchasing skins, skeletons and carcasses for the museum.
Trapping was banned in Yosemite National Park by 1925, and in all national parks by 1931\.
Grinnell was aware of the possible [extirpation](/wiki/Local_extinction "Local extinction") of the wolverine in California by 1937, if not earlier, for he wrote a summary of all documentation, sightings, captures and stories on wolverines in *Fur\-bearing Mammals of California*, with the last known sighting listed at 1924\. Grinnell estimated " at the present time (1933\) there are at most no more than 15 pairs of wolverine left in the State." He warned that there was a " necessity of a closed season for the wolverine if it was to escape the fate of the grizzly bear."
|
[
"### National parks",
"The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology's Yosemite survey of 1914–1924 documented the area's wildlife. A second goal of the survey was education of the public as a means to protect the park. Yosemite was established in 1890\\. Total land area (excluding the valley, which was state\\-owned) was more than {{convert\\|1500\\|sqmi\\|km2\\|sigfig\\=2}}. Congress reduced the park boundaries by one\\-third in 1905 in response to pressure from mining, grazing and logging interests. \"Ultimately, Grinnell realized, whether in Yosemite, or across the nation, further assaults on wildlife habitat would only be blocked by a concerned and knowledgeable public.\" wrote historian Alfred Runte.",
"Grinnell and [Tracy I. Storer's](/wiki/Tracy_Irwin_Storer \"Tracy Irwin Storer\") article \"Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks\" was published in *Science* on September 15, 1916, and presented two major points. First, national parks could be examples of pristine nature and were valuable to science and the public. Second, parks could be outdoor classrooms for a trained naturalist to offer natural history classes, conduct walks, and provide other educational activities for park visitors.",
"The newly created [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\"), in the Department of Interior, had no public education programs in 1916, although director designate [Stephen Mather](/wiki/Stephen_Mather \"Stephen Mather\") had read Grinnell's article in *Science*. Grinnell was not the only advocate for education in the national parks. A letter from Interior Secretary [Franklin Knight Lane](/wiki/Franklin_Knight_Lane \"Franklin Knight Lane\") to Director Mather in May 1918, constituted the Service's first administrative policy statement on the concept of the parks as educational media: \"The educational, as well as the recreational, use of the national parks should be encouraged in every practicable way.\" Despite this high\\-level expression of support, the idea of the park service being in the education business – beyond dispensing basic tourist information – was not widely accepted.",
"The first official natural history program at Yosemite began in 1920 with Harold C. Bryant and [Loye Holmes Miller](/wiki/Loye_Holmes_Miller \"Loye Holmes Miller\") as park\\-employed naturalists. Bryant viewed Grinnell as a mentor and went on to help design the interpretive program. He was awarded the Cornelius Armory Pugsley Medal in 1954 for his contributions to parks and conservation.",
"#### Predator control",
"Grinnell argued in \"Animal Life as an Asset to National Parks\" against several park service management policies; one of which was the predator control program. Congress had passed legislation a year earlier that instructed the [Bureau of Biological Survey](/wiki/Bureau_of_Biological_Survey \"Bureau of Biological Survey\") (now the [US Fish and Wildlife Service](/wiki/US_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service \"US Fish and Wildlife Service\")) to destroy predators that \"are injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry on the national forests and the public domain ...\".\nThe new National Park Service agency used predator control agents from the bureau to trap wolves, coyotes, and mountain lions within park boundaries. The agency's first director, Stephen Mather saw his primary responsibility to the new national\\-park idea as one of building a constituency to support the parks, and feared that if predator populations were not controlled inside park boundaries, they would wander to adjoining private lands to kill livestock. Mather did not want angry ranchers complaining to their congressional representatives that the national parks were bad for the ranching business.\n[thumb\\|right\\|Jay Bruce, 1927\\. Yosemite National Park.](/wiki/File:JayBruce.jpg \"JayBruce.jpg\")\nGrinnell, [George Melendez Wright](/wiki/George_Melendez_Wright \"George Melendez Wright\"), a student of Grinnell's, and others objected to the predator control policy. Grinnell argued that, \"As a rule, predaceous animals should be left unmolested and allowed to retain their primitive relation to the rest of the fauna ... as their number is already kept within proper limits by the available food supply, nothing is to be gained by reducing it still further.\" But trapping of rare animals for scientific study was an exception, he added \"A justifiable exception may be made when specimens are required for scientific purposes by authorized representatives of public institutions, and it should be remarked in this connection that without a scientific investigation of the animal life in the parks, and an extensive collection of specimens, no thorough understanding of the conditions or of the practical problems they involve is possible.\"\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|A [wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine \"Wolverine\").](/wiki/File:Wolverinesmall.jpg \"Wolverinesmall.jpg\")\nIn July 1915, during the Yosemite survey, [Charles Lewis Camp](/wiki/Charles_Lewis_Camp \"Charles Lewis Camp\") trapped two wolverines, a male and female. The survey results were published in *Animal Life of the Yosemite* with an entry on wolverine (*Gulo gulo*): \"the wolverine is a rare animal anywhere in the Sierra Nevada. Its inclusion here is based upon the capture of two individuals at the head of Lyell Canyon.\"",
"The last confirmed California wolverine was killed seven years later by local trapper and miner Albert J. Gardisky in Mono County near Saddlebag Lake on February 22, 1922\\. This complete specimen is located in the mammal collection at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Since hunting and [trapping](/wiki/Trapping_%28Animal%29 \"Trapping (Animal)\") had not yet been outlawed in national parks, Grinnell, the museum's director, initially took advantage of the situation, purchasing skins, skeletons and carcasses for the museum.",
"Trapping was banned in Yosemite National Park by 1925, and in all national parks by 1931\\.",
"Grinnell was aware of the possible [extirpation](/wiki/Local_extinction \"Local extinction\") of the wolverine in California by 1937, if not earlier, for he wrote a summary of all documentation, sightings, captures and stories on wolverines in *Fur\\-bearing Mammals of California*, with the last known sighting listed at 1924\\. Grinnell estimated \" at the present time (1933\\) there are at most no more than 15 pairs of wolverine left in the State.\" He warned that there was a \" necessity of a closed season for the wolverine if it was to escape the fate of the grizzly bear.\"",
""
] |
Investigation and evidence
--------------------------
On the evening of 21 January, the day after the murders are believed to have been committed, police officers visited the Entwistles' home after Rachel's friend reported her [missing](/wiki/Missing_person "Missing person"). Though the police conducted a cursory inspection of the house, they failed to notice Rachel's and Lillian's bodies, obscured under a pile of bedding in the master bedroom. A second and more thorough search the following evening discovered their bodies.[US Police 'failed to spot bodies'](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7448870.stm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224200926/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7448870\.stm \|date\=24 December 2008}}, BBC News, 11 June 2008\.
On 23 January, a [Massachusetts State Police](/wiki/Massachusetts_State_Police "Massachusetts State Police") trooper called Entwistle at his parents' home in Worksop. The call lasted two hours and was recorded. Entwistle told the trooper that, on the morning of the murders, he had left his Hopkinton home at around 9:00 a.m. (EST) to run an errand and that his wife and daughter had both been alive and well, in the bed in the couple's master bedroom. He claimed that when he returned, at around 11:00 a.m., he found both had been shot dead, and had no idea who had killed them. Entwistle covered their bodies with a blanket and did not alert authorities. Entwistle claimed that he was so distraught upon seeing the corpses of his wife and daughter that he decided to kill himself. However, because he was unable to bring himself to end his life with a knife, he drove the family car to the Materazzos' house to get a .22 caliber [revolver](/wiki/Revolver "Revolver"). Finding the house locked, he told police that he decided to fly home to England to see his parents.
Police subsequently named Entwistle as a [person of interest](/wiki/Person_of_interest "Person of interest") in the investigation, and later issued an international arrest warrant. On 9 February 2006, Entwistle was arrested on a [London Underground](/wiki/London_Underground "London Underground") train at [Royal Oak station](/wiki/Royal_Oak_tube_station "Royal Oak tube station") following a detailed search of his parents' house. After an initial request that he not be sent back to the US, he later agreed to be [extradited](/wiki/Extradition "Extradition"). [Middlesex County](/wiki/Middlesex_County%2C_Massachusetts "Middlesex County, Massachusetts") [district attorney](/wiki/District_attorney "District attorney") [Martha Coakley](/wiki/Martha_Coakley "Martha Coakley") (who had successfully prosecuted British au pair [Louise Woodward](/wiki/Louise_Woodward "Louise Woodward") in 1997\) told a press conference after Entwistle's arrest:{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2017}} {{quote\|text\=On Thursday night \[19 January 2006], Rachel was alive and had spoken with family members.
At some time on Friday morning, Neil Entwistle — with a firearm we believe he had secured at sometime before that from father\-in\-law Joseph Materazzo — shot Rachel Entwistle in the head and then proceeded to shoot baby Lillian, who was lying on the bed next to her mother.
We believe possibly this was intended to be a \[\[murder\-suicide]], but we cannot confirm that. Obviously the murder was effected, but the suicide was not.
What we believe happened next was that Neil Entwistle returned the gun to his father\-in\-law's home in Carver, then made preparations to leave the country. As we know, he was observed at Logan International Airport.
He purchased a one\-way ticket on British Airways at approximately 5:00 a.m. on Saturday morning, 22 January. He was on an 8:15 a.m. flight to the United Kingdom on that day. Based upon \[\[forensics\|forensic]] information late Tuesday afternoon that linked the .22 handgun owned by Joseph Materazzo both to Neil Entwistle and to Rachel, we believed we had probable cause to seek an arrest warrant for Neil Entwistle's arrest.}}
|
[
"Investigation and evidence\n--------------------------",
"On the evening of 21 January, the day after the murders are believed to have been committed, police officers visited the Entwistles' home after Rachel's friend reported her [missing](/wiki/Missing_person \"Missing person\"). Though the police conducted a cursory inspection of the house, they failed to notice Rachel's and Lillian's bodies, obscured under a pile of bedding in the master bedroom. A second and more thorough search the following evening discovered their bodies.[US Police 'failed to spot bodies'](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7448870.stm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224200926/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7448870\\.stm \\|date\\=24 December 2008}}, BBC News, 11 June 2008\\.",
"On 23 January, a [Massachusetts State Police](/wiki/Massachusetts_State_Police \"Massachusetts State Police\") trooper called Entwistle at his parents' home in Worksop. The call lasted two hours and was recorded. Entwistle told the trooper that, on the morning of the murders, he had left his Hopkinton home at around 9:00 a.m. (EST) to run an errand and that his wife and daughter had both been alive and well, in the bed in the couple's master bedroom. He claimed that when he returned, at around 11:00 a.m., he found both had been shot dead, and had no idea who had killed them. Entwistle covered their bodies with a blanket and did not alert authorities. Entwistle claimed that he was so distraught upon seeing the corpses of his wife and daughter that he decided to kill himself. However, because he was unable to bring himself to end his life with a knife, he drove the family car to the Materazzos' house to get a .22 caliber [revolver](/wiki/Revolver \"Revolver\"). Finding the house locked, he told police that he decided to fly home to England to see his parents.",
"Police subsequently named Entwistle as a [person of interest](/wiki/Person_of_interest \"Person of interest\") in the investigation, and later issued an international arrest warrant. On 9 February 2006, Entwistle was arrested on a [London Underground](/wiki/London_Underground \"London Underground\") train at [Royal Oak station](/wiki/Royal_Oak_tube_station \"Royal Oak tube station\") following a detailed search of his parents' house. After an initial request that he not be sent back to the US, he later agreed to be [extradited](/wiki/Extradition \"Extradition\"). [Middlesex County](/wiki/Middlesex_County%2C_Massachusetts \"Middlesex County, Massachusetts\") [district attorney](/wiki/District_attorney \"District attorney\") [Martha Coakley](/wiki/Martha_Coakley \"Martha Coakley\") (who had successfully prosecuted British au pair [Louise Woodward](/wiki/Louise_Woodward \"Louise Woodward\") in 1997\\) told a press conference after Entwistle's arrest:{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2017}} {{quote\\|text\\=On Thursday night \\[19 January 2006], Rachel was alive and had spoken with family members.",
"At some time on Friday morning, Neil Entwistle — with a firearm we believe he had secured at sometime before that from father\\-in\\-law Joseph Materazzo — shot Rachel Entwistle in the head and then proceeded to shoot baby Lillian, who was lying on the bed next to her mother.",
"We believe possibly this was intended to be a \\[\\[murder\\-suicide]], but we cannot confirm that. Obviously the murder was effected, but the suicide was not.",
"What we believe happened next was that Neil Entwistle returned the gun to his father\\-in\\-law's home in Carver, then made preparations to leave the country. As we know, he was observed at Logan International Airport.",
"He purchased a one\\-way ticket on British Airways at approximately 5:00 a.m. on Saturday morning, 22 January. He was on an 8:15 a.m. flight to the United Kingdom on that day. Based upon \\[\\[forensics\\|forensic]] information late Tuesday afternoon that linked the .22 handgun owned by Joseph Materazzo both to Neil Entwistle and to Rachel, we believed we had probable cause to seek an arrest warrant for Neil Entwistle's arrest.}}",
"",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early history
The site where St. John's stands today was originally the site of the residence of the bishop of New Westminster, built by [Adam de Pencier](/wiki/Adam_de_Pencier "Adam de Pencier") in 1910\.{{cite web \|title\=Heritage and History \|url\=https://www.stjohnsshaughnessy.org/inspire/heritage\-and\-history/ \|website\=St. John's Shaughnessy \|access\-date\=10 December 2022}} In 1924, de Pencier's wife began teaching an [evangelistic](/wiki/Evangelism "Evangelism") [Sunday school](/wiki/Sunday_school "Sunday school") in her kitchen.{{cite web \|title\=Our Story of Blessing \|url\=https://static1\.squarespace.com/static/55998056e4b06cf8b408b7ac/t/6168c5b3d039d20accd0db8e/1634256325836/2021\-10\-13\-SJV\-are\-you\-ready\-big\-boards.pdf \|website\=St. John's Vancouver \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|page\=9}} It grew substantially, and the de Penciers added a chapel in the basement of the residence. When the chapel was itself outgrown, de Pencier authorized the building of a wood\-frame church on the property at the corner of [Granville Street](/wiki/Granville_Street "Granville Street") and Nanton Avenue in 1925\.
The Rev. Norman Larmonth was called as rector in 1941\. Strongly opposed to church debt, he drove down St. John's $4,400 debt and began a fundraising campaign to build a larger church capable of seating 500 on the Shaughnessy site.{{cite book \|last1\=McInnes \|first1\=Craig \|title\=The Mighty Hughes: From Prairie Lawyer to Western Canada's Moral Compass \|date\=2017 \|publisher\=Heritage House \|isbn\=9781772032062}} It was designed in a late [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") style by prominent Vancouver architect George Lister Thornton Sharp, whose other works included the [Victory Square](/wiki/Victory_Square%2C_Vancouver "Victory Square, Vancouver") monument and the [Burrard Street Bridge](/wiki/Burrard_Street_Bridge "Burrard Street Bridge"). The church was built as a [war memorial](/wiki/War_memorial "War memorial") church “that it be a joyful song unto the Lord; and that it stand as a memorial honouring all Vancouver’s sons and daughters who answer the call to serve their country.” Two hundred thousand dollars was raised from the parish and from across lower mainland B.C. for the project.{{cite news \|last1\=Graham \|first1\=Jonathan \|title\=A House Divided \|url\=https://www.vanmag.com/city/general/a\-house\-divided/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|work\=Vancouver Magazine \|issue\=September 2008}} In 1949, construction began on the present church; it was dedicated on June 18, 1950\.
### Transition to evangelicalism
After the dedication, Larmonth moved to [Saskatoon](/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Saskatoon "Anglican Diocese of Saskatoon") to take up the deanship of [St. John's Cathedral](/wiki/Cathedral_of_St._John_the_Evangelist_%28Saskatoon%29 "Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist (Saskatoon)"). In the mid\-20th century, St. John's became known for [high\-church](/wiki/High_church "High church") [Anglo\-Catholic](/wiki/Anglo-Catholicism "Anglo-Catholicism") liturgies. By the 1970s, however, St. John's membership had significantly declined and the church's finances were deteriorating. The vestry called the Rev. Harry Robinson, rector of [Little Trinity Anglican Church](/wiki/Little_Trinity_Anglican_Church "Little Trinity Anglican Church") in Toronto, as rector in 1978\. Robinson was a prominent low\-church evangelical within the Anglican Church of Canada; during his theological studies in England, he had befriended notable evangelicals like [John R. W. Stott](/wiki/John_Stott "John Stott"), [J. I. Packer](/wiki/J._I._Packer "J. I. Packer"), and [Dick Lucas](/wiki/Dick_Lucas_%28minister%29 "Dick Lucas (minister)"). He had also built a robust ministry to [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto "University of Toronto") students at Little Trinity.{{cite web \|last1\=Lewis \|first1\=Donald M. \|title\=The Passing of Harry Robinson \|url\=https://www.regent\-college.edu/about\-us/news/2011/the\-passing\-of\-harry\-robinson \|website\=Regent College News \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|date\=April 8, 2011}}
In response, some older members of St. John's began to leave. But far more people came, many of them students at the nearby [University of British Columbia](/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia "University of British Columbia"). By 1981, weekly attendance had climbed from 70 to 300\. A year after Robinson's arrival, Packer took an appointment at [Regent College](/wiki/Regent_College "Regent College"), where he remained for the rest of his life. Packer, considered one of the preeminent evangelical theologians,{{cite book \|last1\=Ryken \|first1\=Leland \|title\=J. I. Packer: An Evangelical Life \|date\=2015 \|publisher\=Crossway \|isbn\=9781433542558}} received an appointment as honorary assistant priest at St. John's, which he held until 2008\.{{cite news \|last1\=Careless \|first1\=Sue \|title\=Anglican Evangelical J. I. Packer Dies at 93 \|url\=https://livingchurch.org/2020/07/20/anglican\-evangelical\-j\-i\-packer\-dies\-at\-93/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|work\=The Living Church \|date\=July 20, 2020}}
Robinson presided over significant growth and renewal at St. John's. Future [Saskatchewan Bishop](/wiki/Diocese_of_Saskatchewan "Diocese of Saskatchewan") [Tony Burton](/wiki/Tony_Burton_%28bishop%29 "Tony Burton (bishop)") said that Robinson took over "a moribund, complacent small congregation, and at considerable personal cost set it on the path to becoming Canada's largest Anglican community, and one of its liveliest and most creative." By the time Robinson retired in 1992, St. John's had grown to an average weekly attendance of 800 and was widely reported to be the largest Anglican church in Canada.{{cite news \|last1\=Matas \|first1\=Robert \|title\=Anglican church seeks oversight from bishop in South America \|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/anglican\-church\-seeks\-oversight\-from\-bishop\-in\-south\-america/article18444599/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|work\=The Globe and Mail \|date\=February 15, 2008}}{{cite news \|last1\=Lewis \|first1\=Charles \|title\=Dissident Anglicans can't keep churches, B.C. court rules \|url\=https://nationalpost.com/holy\-post/dissident\-anglicans\-cant\-keep\-churches\-court\-rules \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|work\=National Post \|date\=November 15, 2010}} Robinson also oversaw a $1\.2 million renovation in 1990\.
Robinson was succeeded by the Rev. David Short, a priest from the [Anglican Diocese of Sydney](/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Sydney "Anglican Diocese of Sydney") and the son of Bishop [Ken Short](/wiki/Ken_Short "Ken Short"), who continued Robinson's low\-church evangelical practices and teaching.{{cite news \|last1\=Percy \|first1\=Natasha \|title\=Canada bishop threatens Short \|url\=https://sydneyanglicans.net/news/david\_short/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|work\=SydneyAnglicans.net \|date\=June 5, 2008}} In 1998, Short launched Artizo, a training program for priests that has graduated over 100 clergy. The church also developed educational resources used by more than 90 other churches. In 2007, St. John's [planted](/wiki/Church_planting "Church planting") a church in [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_British_Columbia "Richmond, British Columbia").
### Anglican realignment
In 2002, the New Westminster [synod](/wiki/Synod "Synod") controversially approved the [blessing of same\-sex unions](/wiki/Blessing_of_same-sex_unions_in_Christian_churches "Blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches"). Packer, Short, and other delegates from St. John's, along with delegates from seven other churches, walked out of the synod in objection.{{cite news \|last1\=Packer \|first1\=J. I. \|title\=Why I Walked \|url\=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2003/january/6\.46\.html \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|work\=Christianity Today \|date\=January 1, 2003}} The dissenting churches formed a group called the Anglican Communion in New Westminster (ACiNW) and declared impaired communion with Bishop [Michael Ingham](/wiki/Michael_Ingham_%28bishop%29 "Michael Ingham (bishop)").{{cite book \|last1\=Ferguson \|first1\=Julie H. \|title\=Sing a New Song: Portraits of Canada's Crusading Bishops \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Dundurn \|location\=Toronto \|isbn\=9781550026092 \|page\=265}}{{cite news \|title\=New West approves same\-sex blessings \|url\=https://anglicanjournal.com/new\-west\-approves\-same\-sex\-blessings\-1757/ \|access\-date\=8 December 2022 \|work\=Anglican Journal \|date\=September 1, 2002}} Short and the other clergy walking out faced canonical charges from Ingham.{{cite news \|last1\=Hume \|first1\=Mark \|title\=Anglican priests face sanctions as same\-sex fight grows \|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/anglican\-priests\-face\-sanctions\-as\-same\-sex\-fight\-grows/article18434166/ \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|work\=The Globe and Mail \|date\=October 28, 2003}}
The synod decision became a major flashpoint in the Anglican realignment.{{cite news \|last1\=Larmondin \|first1\=Leanne \|title\=New Westminster Synod and Bishop approve same\-sex blessings \|url\=https://www.anglicannews.org/news/2002/06/new\-westminster\-synod\-and\-bishop\-approve\-same\-sex\-blessings.aspx \|access\-date\=8 December 2022 \|agency\=Anglican Communion News Service \|date\=June 18, 2002}} After the failure of the ACiNW churches to obtain alternative episcopal oversight from within the Anglican Church of Canada,{{cite news \|last1\=Davies \|first1\=Matthew \|title\=Episcopal oversight debated in New Westminster \|url\=https://www.anglicannews.org/news/2003/11/episcopal\-oversight\-debated\-in\-new\-westminster.aspx \|agency\=Anglican Communion News Service \|date\=November 21, 2003}}{{cite news \|title\=Canadian conservatives plead case to sympathizers at U.S. conference \|url\=https://anglicanjournal.com/canadian\-conservatives\-plead\-case\-to\-sympathizers\-at\-us\-conference\-2076/ \|access\-date\=8 December 2022 \|work\=Anglican Journal \|date\=November 1, 2003}} in February 2008 St. John's membership voted with 96 percent in favor to disaffiliate from the Anglican Church of Canada and become canonically resident in the [Anglican Church of the Southern Cone](/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_South_America "Anglican Church of South America"). The Southern Cone agreed to provide primatial oversight for traditionalist Anglican churches in Canada as an interim step to creating an eventual parallel province in North America.{{cite news \|last1\=DeSantis \|first1\=Solange \|title\=South American province opens arms to dissenting Canadian parishes \|url\=https://anglicanjournal.com/south\-american\-province\-opens\-arms\-to\-dissenting\-canadian\-parishes\-7567/ \|access\-date\=8 December 2022 \|work\=Anglican Journal \|date\=November 22, 2007}}
In April 2008, Short, Packer and St. John's vicar [Dan Gifford](/wiki/Dan_Gifford "Dan Gifford") formally relinquished their ministry in the Anglican Church of Canada and join the Anglican Network in Canada.{{cite web \|title\=Nine priests, two deacons, hand in their licences from the Bishop \|url\=https://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/news/nine\-priests\-two\-deacons\-hand\-in\-their\-licences\-from\-the\-bishop \|website\=Diocese of New Westminster \|date\=April 23, 2008}} The church was involved in litigation over the ownership of its $13 million property; the [Supreme Court of British Columbia](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_British_Columbia "Supreme Court of British Columbia") (a trial court jurisdiction) in 2009 affirmed that the property belonged to the Diocese of New Westminster.{{cite news \|last1\=Todd \|first1\=Douglas \|title\=Anglican diocese retains ownership of four disputed church properties \|url\=https://vancouversun.com/news/anglican\-diocese\-retains\-ownership\-of\-four\-disputed\-church\-properties \|access\-date\=1 November 2022 \|work\=Vancouver Sun \|date\=24 November 2009}} The higher [B.C. Court of Appeal](/wiki/British_Columbia_Court_of_Appeal "British Columbia Court of Appeal") affirmed the ruling, and the [Supreme Court of Canada](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada "Supreme Court of Canada") declined to hear the case,resulting in all of the clergy and the bulk of the congregation leaving the 1950 building on September 18, 2011\. The departing clergy members relaunched their church as [St. John's Vancouver](/wiki/St._John%27s_Vancouver "St. John's Vancouver") with about 700 members in rented facilities.
After the departure of the St. John's Vancouver group, the Diocese of New Westminster restarted worship services at St. John's Shaughnessy with a rotation of clergy.{{cite web \|title\=ACoC Worship Returns to St. John's Shaughnessy SEPTEMBER 25th, 2011 \|url\=https://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/news/acoc\-worship\-returns\-to\-st\-johns\-shaughnessy\-september\-25th\-2011 \|website\=Diocese of New Westminster \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|date\=September 9, 2011}} Attendance and giving at St. John's was reduced substantially by the departures. In 2015, the diocesan offices and archives moved to excess space on the St. John's campus.{{cite web \|last1\=Mackey \|first1\=Lloyd \|title\=St. John’s Shaughnessy and St. John’s Vancouver each share their space \|url\=https://churchforvancouver.ca/st\-johns\-shaughnessy\-and\-st\-johns\-vancouver\-each\-share\-their\-space/ \|website\=Church for Vancouver \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|date\=July 16, 2015}} In 2016, the Ven. [John Stephens](/wiki/John_Stephens_%28bishop%29 "John Stephens (bishop)") was appointed rector; he would serve until being elected bishop of New Westminster in 2021\.{{cite web \|title\=St. John's, Shaughnessy Announces New Rector \|url\=https://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/news/st\-johns\-shaughnessy\-announces\-new\-rector \|website\=Diocese of New Westminster \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|date\=January 18, 2016}} In 2020, a [labyrinth](/wiki/Labyrinth "Labyrinth") was installed in the church, reducing seating capacity to 450\.{{cite web \|title\=St. John's Shaughnessy Parish Profile \|url\=https://churchos\-uploads.s3\.amazonaws.com/2021/03/04/11/01/12/4cbcf5fc\-7191\-4718\-9cb2\-5d2131a22419/St%20John,%20Shaughnessy%20\-%20Parish%20Profile%20\-%202021\.03\.04\.pdf \|website\=St. John's Shaughnessy \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|date\=2021}} By 2021, St. John's had grown to 80–100 in weekly attendance, still far below the pre\-schism levels but reaching medium\-sized parish status in the diocese.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early history",
"The site where St. John's stands today was originally the site of the residence of the bishop of New Westminster, built by [Adam de Pencier](/wiki/Adam_de_Pencier \"Adam de Pencier\") in 1910\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Heritage and History \\|url\\=https://www.stjohnsshaughnessy.org/inspire/heritage\\-and\\-history/ \\|website\\=St. John's Shaughnessy \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022}} In 1924, de Pencier's wife began teaching an [evangelistic](/wiki/Evangelism \"Evangelism\") [Sunday school](/wiki/Sunday_school \"Sunday school\") in her kitchen.{{cite web \\|title\\=Our Story of Blessing \\|url\\=https://static1\\.squarespace.com/static/55998056e4b06cf8b408b7ac/t/6168c5b3d039d20accd0db8e/1634256325836/2021\\-10\\-13\\-SJV\\-are\\-you\\-ready\\-big\\-boards.pdf \\|website\\=St. John's Vancouver \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|page\\=9}} It grew substantially, and the de Penciers added a chapel in the basement of the residence. When the chapel was itself outgrown, de Pencier authorized the building of a wood\\-frame church on the property at the corner of [Granville Street](/wiki/Granville_Street \"Granville Street\") and Nanton Avenue in 1925\\.",
"The Rev. Norman Larmonth was called as rector in 1941\\. Strongly opposed to church debt, he drove down St. John's $4,400 debt and began a fundraising campaign to build a larger church capable of seating 500 on the Shaughnessy site.{{cite book \\|last1\\=McInnes \\|first1\\=Craig \\|title\\=The Mighty Hughes: From Prairie Lawyer to Western Canada's Moral Compass \\|date\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=Heritage House \\|isbn\\=9781772032062}} It was designed in a late [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") style by prominent Vancouver architect George Lister Thornton Sharp, whose other works included the [Victory Square](/wiki/Victory_Square%2C_Vancouver \"Victory Square, Vancouver\") monument and the [Burrard Street Bridge](/wiki/Burrard_Street_Bridge \"Burrard Street Bridge\"). The church was built as a [war memorial](/wiki/War_memorial \"War memorial\") church “that it be a joyful song unto the Lord; and that it stand as a memorial honouring all Vancouver’s sons and daughters who answer the call to serve their country.” Two hundred thousand dollars was raised from the parish and from across lower mainland B.C. for the project.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Graham \\|first1\\=Jonathan \\|title\\=A House Divided \\|url\\=https://www.vanmag.com/city/general/a\\-house\\-divided/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|work\\=Vancouver Magazine \\|issue\\=September 2008}} In 1949, construction began on the present church; it was dedicated on June 18, 1950\\.",
"### Transition to evangelicalism",
"After the dedication, Larmonth moved to [Saskatoon](/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Saskatoon \"Anglican Diocese of Saskatoon\") to take up the deanship of [St. John's Cathedral](/wiki/Cathedral_of_St._John_the_Evangelist_%28Saskatoon%29 \"Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist (Saskatoon)\"). In the mid\\-20th century, St. John's became known for [high\\-church](/wiki/High_church \"High church\") [Anglo\\-Catholic](/wiki/Anglo-Catholicism \"Anglo-Catholicism\") liturgies. By the 1970s, however, St. John's membership had significantly declined and the church's finances were deteriorating. The vestry called the Rev. Harry Robinson, rector of [Little Trinity Anglican Church](/wiki/Little_Trinity_Anglican_Church \"Little Trinity Anglican Church\") in Toronto, as rector in 1978\\. Robinson was a prominent low\\-church evangelical within the Anglican Church of Canada; during his theological studies in England, he had befriended notable evangelicals like [John R. W. Stott](/wiki/John_Stott \"John Stott\"), [J. I. Packer](/wiki/J._I._Packer \"J. I. Packer\"), and [Dick Lucas](/wiki/Dick_Lucas_%28minister%29 \"Dick Lucas (minister)\"). He had also built a robust ministry to [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\") students at Little Trinity.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Lewis \\|first1\\=Donald M. \\|title\\=The Passing of Harry Robinson \\|url\\=https://www.regent\\-college.edu/about\\-us/news/2011/the\\-passing\\-of\\-harry\\-robinson \\|website\\=Regent College News \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|date\\=April 8, 2011}}",
"In response, some older members of St. John's began to leave. But far more people came, many of them students at the nearby [University of British Columbia](/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia \"University of British Columbia\"). By 1981, weekly attendance had climbed from 70 to 300\\. A year after Robinson's arrival, Packer took an appointment at [Regent College](/wiki/Regent_College \"Regent College\"), where he remained for the rest of his life. Packer, considered one of the preeminent evangelical theologians,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ryken \\|first1\\=Leland \\|title\\=J. I. Packer: An Evangelical Life \\|date\\=2015 \\|publisher\\=Crossway \\|isbn\\=9781433542558}} received an appointment as honorary assistant priest at St. John's, which he held until 2008\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Careless \\|first1\\=Sue \\|title\\=Anglican Evangelical J. I. Packer Dies at 93 \\|url\\=https://livingchurch.org/2020/07/20/anglican\\-evangelical\\-j\\-i\\-packer\\-dies\\-at\\-93/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|work\\=The Living Church \\|date\\=July 20, 2020}}",
"Robinson presided over significant growth and renewal at St. John's. Future [Saskatchewan Bishop](/wiki/Diocese_of_Saskatchewan \"Diocese of Saskatchewan\") [Tony Burton](/wiki/Tony_Burton_%28bishop%29 \"Tony Burton (bishop)\") said that Robinson took over \"a moribund, complacent small congregation, and at considerable personal cost set it on the path to becoming Canada's largest Anglican community, and one of its liveliest and most creative.\" By the time Robinson retired in 1992, St. John's had grown to an average weekly attendance of 800 and was widely reported to be the largest Anglican church in Canada.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Matas \\|first1\\=Robert \\|title\\=Anglican church seeks oversight from bishop in South America \\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/anglican\\-church\\-seeks\\-oversight\\-from\\-bishop\\-in\\-south\\-america/article18444599/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|work\\=The Globe and Mail \\|date\\=February 15, 2008}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Lewis \\|first1\\=Charles \\|title\\=Dissident Anglicans can't keep churches, B.C. court rules \\|url\\=https://nationalpost.com/holy\\-post/dissident\\-anglicans\\-cant\\-keep\\-churches\\-court\\-rules \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|work\\=National Post \\|date\\=November 15, 2010}} Robinson also oversaw a $1\\.2 million renovation in 1990\\.",
"Robinson was succeeded by the Rev. David Short, a priest from the [Anglican Diocese of Sydney](/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Sydney \"Anglican Diocese of Sydney\") and the son of Bishop [Ken Short](/wiki/Ken_Short \"Ken Short\"), who continued Robinson's low\\-church evangelical practices and teaching.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Percy \\|first1\\=Natasha \\|title\\=Canada bishop threatens Short \\|url\\=https://sydneyanglicans.net/news/david\\_short/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|work\\=SydneyAnglicans.net \\|date\\=June 5, 2008}} In 1998, Short launched Artizo, a training program for priests that has graduated over 100 clergy. The church also developed educational resources used by more than 90 other churches. In 2007, St. John's [planted](/wiki/Church_planting \"Church planting\") a church in [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_British_Columbia \"Richmond, British Columbia\").",
"### Anglican realignment",
"In 2002, the New Westminster [synod](/wiki/Synod \"Synod\") controversially approved the [blessing of same\\-sex unions](/wiki/Blessing_of_same-sex_unions_in_Christian_churches \"Blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches\"). Packer, Short, and other delegates from St. John's, along with delegates from seven other churches, walked out of the synod in objection.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Packer \\|first1\\=J. I. \\|title\\=Why I Walked \\|url\\=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2003/january/6\\.46\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|work\\=Christianity Today \\|date\\=January 1, 2003}} The dissenting churches formed a group called the Anglican Communion in New Westminster (ACiNW) and declared impaired communion with Bishop [Michael Ingham](/wiki/Michael_Ingham_%28bishop%29 \"Michael Ingham (bishop)\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ferguson \\|first1\\=Julie H. \\|title\\=Sing a New Song: Portraits of Canada's Crusading Bishops \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Dundurn \\|location\\=Toronto \\|isbn\\=9781550026092 \\|page\\=265}}{{cite news \\|title\\=New West approves same\\-sex blessings \\|url\\=https://anglicanjournal.com/new\\-west\\-approves\\-same\\-sex\\-blessings\\-1757/ \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2022 \\|work\\=Anglican Journal \\|date\\=September 1, 2002}} Short and the other clergy walking out faced canonical charges from Ingham.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Hume \\|first1\\=Mark \\|title\\=Anglican priests face sanctions as same\\-sex fight grows \\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/anglican\\-priests\\-face\\-sanctions\\-as\\-same\\-sex\\-fight\\-grows/article18434166/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|work\\=The Globe and Mail \\|date\\=October 28, 2003}}",
"The synod decision became a major flashpoint in the Anglican realignment.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Larmondin \\|first1\\=Leanne \\|title\\=New Westminster Synod and Bishop approve same\\-sex blessings \\|url\\=https://www.anglicannews.org/news/2002/06/new\\-westminster\\-synod\\-and\\-bishop\\-approve\\-same\\-sex\\-blessings.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2022 \\|agency\\=Anglican Communion News Service \\|date\\=June 18, 2002}} After the failure of the ACiNW churches to obtain alternative episcopal oversight from within the Anglican Church of Canada,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Davies \\|first1\\=Matthew \\|title\\=Episcopal oversight debated in New Westminster \\|url\\=https://www.anglicannews.org/news/2003/11/episcopal\\-oversight\\-debated\\-in\\-new\\-westminster.aspx \\|agency\\=Anglican Communion News Service \\|date\\=November 21, 2003}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Canadian conservatives plead case to sympathizers at U.S. conference \\|url\\=https://anglicanjournal.com/canadian\\-conservatives\\-plead\\-case\\-to\\-sympathizers\\-at\\-us\\-conference\\-2076/ \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2022 \\|work\\=Anglican Journal \\|date\\=November 1, 2003}} in February 2008 St. John's membership voted with 96 percent in favor to disaffiliate from the Anglican Church of Canada and become canonically resident in the [Anglican Church of the Southern Cone](/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_South_America \"Anglican Church of South America\"). The Southern Cone agreed to provide primatial oversight for traditionalist Anglican churches in Canada as an interim step to creating an eventual parallel province in North America.{{cite news \\|last1\\=DeSantis \\|first1\\=Solange \\|title\\=South American province opens arms to dissenting Canadian parishes \\|url\\=https://anglicanjournal.com/south\\-american\\-province\\-opens\\-arms\\-to\\-dissenting\\-canadian\\-parishes\\-7567/ \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2022 \\|work\\=Anglican Journal \\|date\\=November 22, 2007}}",
"In April 2008, Short, Packer and St. John's vicar [Dan Gifford](/wiki/Dan_Gifford \"Dan Gifford\") formally relinquished their ministry in the Anglican Church of Canada and join the Anglican Network in Canada.{{cite web \\|title\\=Nine priests, two deacons, hand in their licences from the Bishop \\|url\\=https://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/news/nine\\-priests\\-two\\-deacons\\-hand\\-in\\-their\\-licences\\-from\\-the\\-bishop \\|website\\=Diocese of New Westminster \\|date\\=April 23, 2008}} The church was involved in litigation over the ownership of its $13 million property; the [Supreme Court of British Columbia](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_British_Columbia \"Supreme Court of British Columbia\") (a trial court jurisdiction) in 2009 affirmed that the property belonged to the Diocese of New Westminster.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Todd \\|first1\\=Douglas \\|title\\=Anglican diocese retains ownership of four disputed church properties \\|url\\=https://vancouversun.com/news/anglican\\-diocese\\-retains\\-ownership\\-of\\-four\\-disputed\\-church\\-properties \\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2022 \\|work\\=Vancouver Sun \\|date\\=24 November 2009}} The higher [B.C. Court of Appeal](/wiki/British_Columbia_Court_of_Appeal \"British Columbia Court of Appeal\") affirmed the ruling, and the [Supreme Court of Canada](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada \"Supreme Court of Canada\") declined to hear the case,resulting in all of the clergy and the bulk of the congregation leaving the 1950 building on September 18, 2011\\. The departing clergy members relaunched their church as [St. John's Vancouver](/wiki/St._John%27s_Vancouver \"St. John's Vancouver\") with about 700 members in rented facilities.",
"After the departure of the St. John's Vancouver group, the Diocese of New Westminster restarted worship services at St. John's Shaughnessy with a rotation of clergy.{{cite web \\|title\\=ACoC Worship Returns to St. John's Shaughnessy SEPTEMBER 25th, 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/news/acoc\\-worship\\-returns\\-to\\-st\\-johns\\-shaughnessy\\-september\\-25th\\-2011 \\|website\\=Diocese of New Westminster \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|date\\=September 9, 2011}} Attendance and giving at St. John's was reduced substantially by the departures. In 2015, the diocesan offices and archives moved to excess space on the St. John's campus.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Mackey \\|first1\\=Lloyd \\|title\\=St. John’s Shaughnessy and St. John’s Vancouver each share their space \\|url\\=https://churchforvancouver.ca/st\\-johns\\-shaughnessy\\-and\\-st\\-johns\\-vancouver\\-each\\-share\\-their\\-space/ \\|website\\=Church for Vancouver \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|date\\=July 16, 2015}} In 2016, the Ven. [John Stephens](/wiki/John_Stephens_%28bishop%29 \"John Stephens (bishop)\") was appointed rector; he would serve until being elected bishop of New Westminster in 2021\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=St. John's, Shaughnessy Announces New Rector \\|url\\=https://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/news/st\\-johns\\-shaughnessy\\-announces\\-new\\-rector \\|website\\=Diocese of New Westminster \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|date\\=January 18, 2016}} In 2020, a [labyrinth](/wiki/Labyrinth \"Labyrinth\") was installed in the church, reducing seating capacity to 450\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=St. John's Shaughnessy Parish Profile \\|url\\=https://churchos\\-uploads.s3\\.amazonaws.com/2021/03/04/11/01/12/4cbcf5fc\\-7191\\-4718\\-9cb2\\-5d2131a22419/St%20John,%20Shaughnessy%20\\-%20Parish%20Profile%20\\-%202021\\.03\\.04\\.pdf \\|website\\=St. John's Shaughnessy \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|date\\=2021}} By 2021, St. John's had grown to 80–100 in weekly attendance, still far below the pre\\-schism levels but reaching medium\\-sized parish status in the diocese.",
""
] |
Architecture
------------
[left\|thumb\|A side view of St. John's Shaughnessy showing narrow windows and moderne buttress arches.The](/wiki/File:St-john-shaughnessy-side-view.jpg "St-john-shaughnessy-side-view.jpg") 1990 renovation uncovered gray [Roman brick](/wiki/Roman_brick "Roman brick") above the bullet windows and in bands on the church, as well as red tile sills, that were among "much of the fine detailing of this [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture "Gothic Revival architecture")\-inspired [moderne](/wiki/Moderne_architecture "Moderne architecture") church" that had been hidden by a layer of asphalt siding installed shortly after construction for weatherproofing.{{cite book \|last1\=Kalman \|first1\=Harold \|last2\=Phillips \|first2\=Ron \|last3\=Ward \|first3\=Robin \|title\=Exploring Vancouver: The Essential Architectural Guide \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=UBC Press \|location\=Vancouver \|isbn\=0774804106 \|page\=155}} The renovation dramatically expanded the natural inside and allowed for disabled access. Additional renovations in the 2010s removed shutters from the front door and replaced the cross on the roof.
The church contains a number of sculptural elements. Just above the main entrance, an Art Deco [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") depicts three incidents in the life of [John the Evangelist](/wiki/John_the_Evangelist "John the Evangelist"): John and [James](/wiki/James_the_Great "James the Great") mending their nets by their fishing boat, the risen Christ with James and John seated at his feet, and John with [Mary](/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_Jesus "Mary, mother of Jesus"), the mother of Jesus, at the foot of the Cross. The frieze, as well as [reliefs](/wiki/Relief "Relief") in the bell tower, are the work of sculptor [Beatrice Lennie](/wiki/Beatrice_Lennie "Beatrice Lennie").
The interior of the church also features several carvings. The pulpit and lectern were built from mahogany and yellow cedar, with a black walnut cross on the front of the pulpit along with a frieze of [dogwood](/wiki/Cornus "Cornus") flowers and [arbutus](/wiki/Arbutus "Arbutus") leaves. The wooden pews date to the construction of the church and feature hand\-painted flowers on yellow cedar panels at the end of each pew, artwork done by Barbara Sharp, whose father designed the church.
The church originally included two side chapels. Today, the [lady chapel](/wiki/Lady_chapel "Lady chapel") on the south side of the nave is used for the traditional\-language early Sunday Holy Communion service. The north side chapel was converted to flexible space for families with children or pre\-function purposes.
The former parish hall—now the diocesan headquarters—was built from 1955 to 1956 to the east of the church. The parish hall is connected to the church by a [cloister](/wiki/Cloister "Cloister"), both to a design by G. L. Thornton Sharp.
### Windows
[thumb\|right\|The interior of St. John's Shaughnessy during a church service.Many](/wiki/File:St-john-shaughnessy-interior.jpg "St-john-shaughnessy-interior.jpg") of St. John's windows are memorial windows in keeping with the church's purpose as a [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") memorial. The most prominent window is a five\-panel stained\-glass window in a large arch across the south side of the nave. It was designed by prominent Canadian [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass "Stained glass") artist [Yvonne Williams](/wiki/Yvonne_Williams "Yvonne Williams") and was installed and dedicated in 1951 “in loving memory of all those who fell in the world wars in service of their country." The window depicts Christ on the cross with the words “[Lift up your hearts](/wiki/Sursum_corda "Sursum corda")” inscribed in an arch beneath him. Beneath the cross, two disciples kneel before a communion table containing a chalice with rays of light shining on it. The central panel depicts the [coat of arms of British Columbia](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_British_Columbia "Coat of arms of British Columbia"). Side panels depict men and women in the [Canadian Forces](/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces "Canadian Armed Forces").{{cite web \|title\=Stained Glass \|url\=https://www.stjohnsshaughnessy.org/inspire/stained\-glass/ \|website\=St. John's Shaughnessy \|access\-date\=11 December 2022}}
Two narrow windows in the chancel are made of 11th century glass fragments from [Canterbury Cathedral](/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral "Canterbury Cathedral"), whose windows were shattered during [German bombing raids](/wiki/The_Blitz "The Blitz") during the war. The Canterbury windows were dedicated in 1970\. Stained glass windows in the street\-facing west wall of the bell tower depict [St. Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 "Michael (archangel)") and [St. George](/wiki/Saint_George "Saint George"). The windows are respectively dedicated to Oscar Beale, killed in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), and [George Alexander Walkem](/wiki/George_Alexander_Walkem "George Alexander Walkem") and his son, George Rodney A. Walkem, who was killed in World War II.
### Organ
St. John's features two [organs](/wiki/Pipe_organ "Pipe organ"). The main organ, built by Hallman Organ Company, has four manuals and six divisions, with sixty\-six ranks and 3,686 organ pipes. It was installed in 1968 at a cost of more than $100,000\. During the organ's installation, the choir moved to the gallery and formed a new ensemble called the Gallery Singers.{{cite web \|last1\=Murray \|first1\=Randy \|title\=Choral Evensong for SS. Simon and Jude \|url\=https://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/news/choral\-evensong\-for\-ss\-simon\-and\-jude \|website\=Diocese of New Westminster \|access\-date\=11 December 2022 \|date\=October 30, 2018}} A separate organ in the gallery has 700 pipes and its own console.
### Heritage listing
St. John's is one of only a few modern Art Deco buildings on the [Vancouver Heritage Register](/wiki/List_of_heritage_buildings_in_Vancouver "List of heritage buildings in Vancouver"), where it is listed as a C\-class entry so classified for its character and contextual significance.{{cite web \|title\=Vancouver Heritage Register \|url\=https://guidelines.vancouver.ca/policy\-vancouver\-heritage\-register.pdf \|publisher\=City of Vancouver \|access\-date\=10 December 2022 \|page\=25 \|date\=2022}}
|
[
"Architecture\n------------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|A side view of St. John's Shaughnessy showing narrow windows and moderne buttress arches.The](/wiki/File:St-john-shaughnessy-side-view.jpg \"St-john-shaughnessy-side-view.jpg\") 1990 renovation uncovered gray [Roman brick](/wiki/Roman_brick \"Roman brick\") above the bullet windows and in bands on the church, as well as red tile sills, that were among \"much of the fine detailing of this [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture \"Gothic Revival architecture\")\\-inspired [moderne](/wiki/Moderne_architecture \"Moderne architecture\") church\" that had been hidden by a layer of asphalt siding installed shortly after construction for weatherproofing.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Kalman \\|first1\\=Harold \\|last2\\=Phillips \\|first2\\=Ron \\|last3\\=Ward \\|first3\\=Robin \\|title\\=Exploring Vancouver: The Essential Architectural Guide \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=UBC Press \\|location\\=Vancouver \\|isbn\\=0774804106 \\|page\\=155}} The renovation dramatically expanded the natural inside and allowed for disabled access. Additional renovations in the 2010s removed shutters from the front door and replaced the cross on the roof.",
"The church contains a number of sculptural elements. Just above the main entrance, an Art Deco [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") depicts three incidents in the life of [John the Evangelist](/wiki/John_the_Evangelist \"John the Evangelist\"): John and [James](/wiki/James_the_Great \"James the Great\") mending their nets by their fishing boat, the risen Christ with James and John seated at his feet, and John with [Mary](/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_Jesus \"Mary, mother of Jesus\"), the mother of Jesus, at the foot of the Cross. The frieze, as well as [reliefs](/wiki/Relief \"Relief\") in the bell tower, are the work of sculptor [Beatrice Lennie](/wiki/Beatrice_Lennie \"Beatrice Lennie\").",
"The interior of the church also features several carvings. The pulpit and lectern were built from mahogany and yellow cedar, with a black walnut cross on the front of the pulpit along with a frieze of [dogwood](/wiki/Cornus \"Cornus\") flowers and [arbutus](/wiki/Arbutus \"Arbutus\") leaves. The wooden pews date to the construction of the church and feature hand\\-painted flowers on yellow cedar panels at the end of each pew, artwork done by Barbara Sharp, whose father designed the church.",
"The church originally included two side chapels. Today, the [lady chapel](/wiki/Lady_chapel \"Lady chapel\") on the south side of the nave is used for the traditional\\-language early Sunday Holy Communion service. The north side chapel was converted to flexible space for families with children or pre\\-function purposes.",
"The former parish hall—now the diocesan headquarters—was built from 1955 to 1956 to the east of the church. The parish hall is connected to the church by a [cloister](/wiki/Cloister \"Cloister\"), both to a design by G. L. Thornton Sharp.",
"### Windows",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The interior of St. John's Shaughnessy during a church service.Many](/wiki/File:St-john-shaughnessy-interior.jpg \"St-john-shaughnessy-interior.jpg\") of St. John's windows are memorial windows in keeping with the church's purpose as a [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") memorial. The most prominent window is a five\\-panel stained\\-glass window in a large arch across the south side of the nave. It was designed by prominent Canadian [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass \"Stained glass\") artist [Yvonne Williams](/wiki/Yvonne_Williams \"Yvonne Williams\") and was installed and dedicated in 1951 “in loving memory of all those who fell in the world wars in service of their country.\" The window depicts Christ on the cross with the words “[Lift up your hearts](/wiki/Sursum_corda \"Sursum corda\")” inscribed in an arch beneath him. Beneath the cross, two disciples kneel before a communion table containing a chalice with rays of light shining on it. The central panel depicts the [coat of arms of British Columbia](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_British_Columbia \"Coat of arms of British Columbia\"). Side panels depict men and women in the [Canadian Forces](/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces \"Canadian Armed Forces\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Stained Glass \\|url\\=https://www.stjohnsshaughnessy.org/inspire/stained\\-glass/ \\|website\\=St. John's Shaughnessy \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2022}}",
"Two narrow windows in the chancel are made of 11th century glass fragments from [Canterbury Cathedral](/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral \"Canterbury Cathedral\"), whose windows were shattered during [German bombing raids](/wiki/The_Blitz \"The Blitz\") during the war. The Canterbury windows were dedicated in 1970\\. Stained glass windows in the street\\-facing west wall of the bell tower depict [St. Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 \"Michael (archangel)\") and [St. George](/wiki/Saint_George \"Saint George\"). The windows are respectively dedicated to Oscar Beale, killed in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), and [George Alexander Walkem](/wiki/George_Alexander_Walkem \"George Alexander Walkem\") and his son, George Rodney A. Walkem, who was killed in World War II.",
"### Organ",
"St. John's features two [organs](/wiki/Pipe_organ \"Pipe organ\"). The main organ, built by Hallman Organ Company, has four manuals and six divisions, with sixty\\-six ranks and 3,686 organ pipes. It was installed in 1968 at a cost of more than $100,000\\. During the organ's installation, the choir moved to the gallery and formed a new ensemble called the Gallery Singers.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Murray \\|first1\\=Randy \\|title\\=Choral Evensong for SS. Simon and Jude \\|url\\=https://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/news/choral\\-evensong\\-for\\-ss\\-simon\\-and\\-jude \\|website\\=Diocese of New Westminster \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2022 \\|date\\=October 30, 2018}} A separate organ in the gallery has 700 pipes and its own console.",
"### Heritage listing",
"St. John's is one of only a few modern Art Deco buildings on the [Vancouver Heritage Register](/wiki/List_of_heritage_buildings_in_Vancouver \"List of heritage buildings in Vancouver\"), where it is listed as a C\\-class entry so classified for its character and contextual significance.{{cite web \\|title\\=Vancouver Heritage Register \\|url\\=https://guidelines.vancouver.ca/policy\\-vancouver\\-heritage\\-register.pdf \\|publisher\\=City of Vancouver \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|page\\=25 \\|date\\=2022}}",
""
] |
Career
------
At a young age Eladia believed she was meant to work in the fields of medicine or law enforcement as she is White Wolf Clan, a subset of Bear Clan which is about healing and protection. Influenced by her father, Dale, a northern builder, she eventually chose the field of architecture and has seen been working as an Architect since 2002\. Her career includes being principal architect at Architecture 49 in Thunder Bay, ON and architect with Prairie Architects in Winnipeg, MB. She was a master lecturer as Laurentian’s [McEwen School of Architecture](/wiki/McEwen_School_of_Architecture "McEwen School of Architecture") in [Sudbury.](/wiki/Greater_Sudbury "Greater Sudbury") Smoke is a member of the [RAIC](/wiki/Royal_Architectural_Institute_of_Canada "Royal Architectural Institute of Canada") Architecture Canada Indigenous Task Force and was a council member of the Manitoba Association of Architects from 2011\-2014\. She then founded her firm Smoke Architecture as principal architect in 2014\. Smoke Architecture is one of the few indigenous owned firms in [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario") and is an all\-female, award\-winning company based in Hamilton.
### Mukqua Waakaa’igan
Mi’kmaq’s concept of viewing the world through both Indigenous and Western Lens is stated as “Two\-Eyed Seeing.” The phenomenon was implemented when [Centennial College](/wiki/Centennial_College_%28Canada%29 "Centennial College (Canada)") requested designs for the A\-Block expansion project that DIALOG and Smoke Architecture were a part of. Two\-Eyed Seeing creates a path of potential solutions to climate change and inequity for architects.
The Mukwa Waakaa'igan Indigenous Centre of Cultural Excellence, a new hub for [Algoma University](/wiki/Algoma_University "Algoma University") in [Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario](/wiki/Sault_Ste._Marie%2C_Ontario "Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario"), aims to create a secure environment that welcomes guests from all over the world to engage with and learn from Indigenous traditions. Indigenous learnings have been considered throughout the architectural design process, from the building form to the use of materials. The idea depicts a sloping arrangement that is reminiscent of Mukwa, the bear\-like healer and protector, rising from the earth and moving toward the North from the source of life, the water, towards the direction of the Spirits. The architectural design of the new Cultural Centre is inspired by the landscape; it rises above the residential school along three paths that stand for the past, present, and future. Visitors may view the site's history from a stronger, more powerful, and dignified vantage point because of its elevated location. Mukwa Waakaa’igan Indigenous Centre of Cultural Excellence will be a facility of healing, cultural preservation, dialogue, and transformation.
### Centennial College, A\-Block Expansion
Centennial College located in [Scarborough, Ontario](/wiki/Scarborough%2C_Ontario "Scarborough, Ontario") added a 150,000 square foot extension to their existing A\-block campus building.{{Cite web \|last\=Tenpenny \|first\=John \|date\=2022\-01\-24 \|title\=Centennial College's A Block Expansion Project achieves zero carbon certification. \- ReNew Canada \|url\=https://www.renewcanada.net/feature/centennial\-colleges\-a\-block\-expansion\-project\-achieves\-zero\-carbon\-certification \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|language\=en\-US}} Over 133,000 square feet of that space is new construction, and the other 16,000 is the renovation of the existing facility. This six storey and $105 million addition included new labs for the School of Engineering Technology and Applied Science program, flexible classrooms, collaborative spaces, administrative offices, food services as well as student support areas. Smoke Architecture worked in collaboration with the Toronto design practice, DIALOG, and the construction company, [EllisDon](/wiki/EllisDon "EllisDon").{{Cite web \|title\=Centennial College \- Building the Indigenous, Zero\-Carbon, Mass Timber Future of Higher Education \|url\=http://www.centennialcollege.ca/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|website\=www.centennialcollege.ca \|language\=en}} Work commenced in June 2020 and is scheduled to be completed in the beginning months of 2023\. The project’s concept and form were designed using the [Mi’kmaq](/wiki/Mi%27kmaq "Mi'kmaq") philosophy “two\-eyed seeing” which combines indigenous values and western knowledge.{{Cite web \|last\=College \|first\=Centennial \|title\=Ontario's first mass timber academic building is taking shape at Centennial College \|url\=https://www.newswire.ca/news\-releases/ontario\-s\-first\-mass\-timber\-academic\-building\-is\-taking\-shape\-at\-centennial\-college\-828707635\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|website\=www.newswire.ca \|language\=en}}
The projects programmatic elements consist of an open kitchen specifically for indigenous faculty, convergence spaces for students and visitors as well as flexible learning spaces to allow for the gatherings and teachings of Traditionalists, Elders, citizens of Indigenous Nations, and members of Indigenous communities. The building’s central avenue, known as the Wisdom Hall, is a double heighted space supported by ceiling joists representing the paddles of [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe") canoe. Indigenous artwork from the Haudenosaunee and Anishinaabe people line the walls of the Wisdom Hall.{{Cite web \|last\=Novakovic \|first\=Stefan \|date\=2022\-09\-30 \|title\=Indigenous Campus: Truth and Reconciliation in the Built Environment \|url\=https://www.azuremagazine.com/article/indigenous\-design\-projects\-toronto\-universities/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-11 \|website\=Azure Magazine}} Aluminum panels line the building’s faced. The geometric pattern of the aluminum façade represents the scales of a fish when in motion.
This addition is one of the first zero\-carbon, mass timber higher\-education building in Canada. The zero\-carbon design is achieved in the construction of a mass timber structure. Mass timber structures have the capability to store thousands of tonnes of carbon thereby reducing its greenhouse gas emissions. The mass timber structure is composed of cross and glue\-laminated wood creating robust structural components. These structural components consist of Glulam columns, CLT floor slabs and laminated beams. The timber construction is composed of roughly 3,600 square meters of FSC\-certified black spruce from northern Quebec’s boreal forest.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"At a young age Eladia believed she was meant to work in the fields of medicine or law enforcement as she is White Wolf Clan, a subset of Bear Clan which is about healing and protection. Influenced by her father, Dale, a northern builder, she eventually chose the field of architecture and has seen been working as an Architect since 2002\\. Her career includes being principal architect at Architecture 49 in Thunder Bay, ON and architect with Prairie Architects in Winnipeg, MB. She was a master lecturer as Laurentian’s [McEwen School of Architecture](/wiki/McEwen_School_of_Architecture \"McEwen School of Architecture\") in [Sudbury.](/wiki/Greater_Sudbury \"Greater Sudbury\") Smoke is a member of the [RAIC](/wiki/Royal_Architectural_Institute_of_Canada \"Royal Architectural Institute of Canada\") Architecture Canada Indigenous Task Force and was a council member of the Manitoba Association of Architects from 2011\\-2014\\. She then founded her firm Smoke Architecture as principal architect in 2014\\. Smoke Architecture is one of the few indigenous owned firms in [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\") and is an all\\-female, award\\-winning company based in Hamilton.",
"### Mukqua Waakaa’igan",
"Mi’kmaq’s concept of viewing the world through both Indigenous and Western Lens is stated as “Two\\-Eyed Seeing.” The phenomenon was implemented when [Centennial College](/wiki/Centennial_College_%28Canada%29 \"Centennial College (Canada)\") requested designs for the A\\-Block expansion project that DIALOG and Smoke Architecture were a part of. Two\\-Eyed Seeing creates a path of potential solutions to climate change and inequity for architects.",
"The Mukwa Waakaa'igan Indigenous Centre of Cultural Excellence, a new hub for [Algoma University](/wiki/Algoma_University \"Algoma University\") in [Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario](/wiki/Sault_Ste._Marie%2C_Ontario \"Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario\"), aims to create a secure environment that welcomes guests from all over the world to engage with and learn from Indigenous traditions. Indigenous learnings have been considered throughout the architectural design process, from the building form to the use of materials. The idea depicts a sloping arrangement that is reminiscent of Mukwa, the bear\\-like healer and protector, rising from the earth and moving toward the North from the source of life, the water, towards the direction of the Spirits. The architectural design of the new Cultural Centre is inspired by the landscape; it rises above the residential school along three paths that stand for the past, present, and future. Visitors may view the site's history from a stronger, more powerful, and dignified vantage point because of its elevated location. Mukwa Waakaa’igan Indigenous Centre of Cultural Excellence will be a facility of healing, cultural preservation, dialogue, and transformation.",
"### Centennial College, A\\-Block Expansion",
"Centennial College located in [Scarborough, Ontario](/wiki/Scarborough%2C_Ontario \"Scarborough, Ontario\") added a 150,000 square foot extension to their existing A\\-block campus building.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Tenpenny \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=2022\\-01\\-24 \\|title\\=Centennial College's A Block Expansion Project achieves zero carbon certification. \\- ReNew Canada \\|url\\=https://www.renewcanada.net/feature/centennial\\-colleges\\-a\\-block\\-expansion\\-project\\-achieves\\-zero\\-carbon\\-certification \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Over 133,000 square feet of that space is new construction, and the other 16,000 is the renovation of the existing facility. This six storey and $105 million addition included new labs for the School of Engineering Technology and Applied Science program, flexible classrooms, collaborative spaces, administrative offices, food services as well as student support areas. Smoke Architecture worked in collaboration with the Toronto design practice, DIALOG, and the construction company, [EllisDon](/wiki/EllisDon \"EllisDon\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Centennial College \\- Building the Indigenous, Zero\\-Carbon, Mass Timber Future of Higher Education \\|url\\=http://www.centennialcollege.ca/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|website\\=www.centennialcollege.ca \\|language\\=en}} Work commenced in June 2020 and is scheduled to be completed in the beginning months of 2023\\. The project’s concept and form were designed using the [Mi’kmaq](/wiki/Mi%27kmaq \"Mi'kmaq\") philosophy “two\\-eyed seeing” which combines indigenous values and western knowledge.{{Cite web \\|last\\=College \\|first\\=Centennial \\|title\\=Ontario's first mass timber academic building is taking shape at Centennial College \\|url\\=https://www.newswire.ca/news\\-releases/ontario\\-s\\-first\\-mass\\-timber\\-academic\\-building\\-is\\-taking\\-shape\\-at\\-centennial\\-college\\-828707635\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|website\\=www.newswire.ca \\|language\\=en}}",
"The projects programmatic elements consist of an open kitchen specifically for indigenous faculty, convergence spaces for students and visitors as well as flexible learning spaces to allow for the gatherings and teachings of Traditionalists, Elders, citizens of Indigenous Nations, and members of Indigenous communities. The building’s central avenue, known as the Wisdom Hall, is a double heighted space supported by ceiling joists representing the paddles of [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\") canoe. Indigenous artwork from the Haudenosaunee and Anishinaabe people line the walls of the Wisdom Hall.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Novakovic \\|first\\=Stefan \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-30 \\|title\\=Indigenous Campus: Truth and Reconciliation in the Built Environment \\|url\\=https://www.azuremagazine.com/article/indigenous\\-design\\-projects\\-toronto\\-universities/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-11 \\|website\\=Azure Magazine}} Aluminum panels line the building’s faced. The geometric pattern of the aluminum façade represents the scales of a fish when in motion.",
"This addition is one of the first zero\\-carbon, mass timber higher\\-education building in Canada. The zero\\-carbon design is achieved in the construction of a mass timber structure. Mass timber structures have the capability to store thousands of tonnes of carbon thereby reducing its greenhouse gas emissions. The mass timber structure is composed of cross and glue\\-laminated wood creating robust structural components. These structural components consist of Glulam columns, CLT floor slabs and laminated beams. The timber construction is composed of roughly 3,600 square meters of FSC\\-certified black spruce from northern Quebec’s boreal forest.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1833–1877
[thumb\|[Robert Stephenson](/wiki/Robert_Stephenson "Robert Stephenson") (1803–59\) was the engineer of Egypt's first railway](/wiki/Image:Robertstephenson.jpg "Robertstephenson.jpg")
In 1833, [Muhammad Ali](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt "Muhammad Ali of Egypt") [Pasha](/wiki/Pasha "Pasha") considered building a railway between [Suez](/wiki/Suez "Suez") and [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") to improve transit between Europe and India. Muhammad Ali had proceeded to buy the rail when the project was abandoned due to pressure by the French who had an interest in building a canal instead.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2011}}
{{multiple image
\| direction \= vertical
\| width \= 230
\| align \= left
\| footer \= Proposed railway from Cairo to the Sea of Suez by \[\[C.F. Cheffins]], 1840s; state carriage by \[\[Wason Manufacturing Company\|Wason Manufacturing]] built for \[\[Sa'id of Egypt\|Sa'id Pasha]] for state functions, included with 161 less ornate railcars sent by the company in 1860{{cite book\|title\=Lost Springfield, Massachusetts\|last\=Strahan\|first\=Derek\|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing\|year\=2017\|page\=70\|isbn\=9781467136662\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YpOPDQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA70}}
\| image1 \= Proposed railway from Cairo to the Sea of Suez by C.F. Cheffins, 1840s.jpg
\| image2 \= State carriage for his highness the Vice\-roy of Egypt\-Built by T.W. Wason \& Co., Springfield, Mass., U.S. \- Des. \& lith. by Bingham, Dodd \& Co., Hartford, Conn. LCCN92501105\.jpg}}
Muhammad Ali died in 1848, and in 1851 his successor [Abbas I](/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Egypt "Abbas I of Egypt") contracted [Robert Stephenson](/wiki/Robert_Stephenson "Robert Stephenson") to build Egypt's first [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard_gauge "Standard gauge") railway. The first section, between [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria") on the Mediterranean coast and [Kafr el\-Zayyat](/wiki/Kafr_el-Zayyat "Kafr el-Zayyat") on the [Rosetta branch of the Nile](/wiki/Nile_Delta%23Geography "Nile Delta#Geography") was opened in 1854\.Hughes, 1981, page 12 This was the first railway in the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") as well as [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa") and the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East").{{cite news\|last\=Raafat \|first\=Jordan \|publisher\=Jordan Star \|date\=1998\-03\-05 \|url\=http://www.egy.com/community/98\-03\-05\.shtml \|access\-date\=2007\-03\-18 \|title\=Desert Train Heralds Train Tourism In Egypt \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207064829/http://www.egy.com/community/98\-03\-05\.shtml \|archive\-date\= 7 December 2006 \|df\=dmy\-all }} In the same year Abbas died and was succeeded by [Sa'id Pasha](/wiki/Sa%27id_of_Egypt "Sa'id of Egypt"), in whose reign the section between Kafr el\-Zayyat and [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") was completed in 1856 followed by an extension from Cairo to [Suez](/wiki/Suez "Suez") in 1858\. This completed the first modern transport link between the Mediterranean and the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"), as [Ferdinand de Lesseps](/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Lesseps "Ferdinand de Lesseps") did not complete the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal") until 1869\.
[thumb\|right\|[Ahmad Rifaat Pasha](/wiki/Ahmad_Rifaat_Pasha "Ahmad Rifaat Pasha") (1825–63\) drowned when his train fell off a [car float](/wiki/Car_float "Car float") into the Nile](/wiki/Image:ModernEgypt%2C_Prince_Ahmed_Rifaat_Pasha%2C_PRS_2030_1.JPG "ModernEgypt, Prince Ahmed Rifaat Pasha, PRS 2030 1.JPG")
At Kafr el\-Zayyat the line between Cairo and Alexandria originally crossed the Nile with an {{convert\|80\|ft\|m}} [car float](/wiki/Car_float "Car float").Hughes, 1981, page 17 However, on 15 May 1858 a special train conveying Sa'id's [heir presumptive](/wiki/Heir_presumptive "Heir presumptive") [Ahmad Rifaat Pasha](/wiki/Ahmad_Rifaat_Pasha "Ahmad Rifaat Pasha") fell off the float into the river and the prince was drowned. Stephenson therefore replaced the car float with a [swing bridge](/wiki/Swing_bridge "Swing bridge") nearly {{convert\|500\|m\|ft}} long. By the end of Sa'id's reign branches had been completed from [Banha](/wiki/Banha "Banha") to [Zagazig](/wiki/Zagazig "Zagazig") on the [Damietta branch of the Nile](/wiki/Nile_Delta%23Geography "Nile Delta#Geography") in 1860, to [Mit Bera](/wiki/Mit_Bera "Mit Bera") in 1861 and from [Tanta](/wiki/Tanta "Tanta") to [Talkha](/wiki/Talkha "Talkha") further down the Damietta Nile in 1863\.
Sa'id's successor [Isma'il Pasha](/wiki/Isma%27il_Pasha "Isma'il Pasha") strove to modernise Egypt and added momentum to railway development. In 1865 a new branch reached [Desouk](/wiki/Desouk "Desouk") on the Rosetta Nile and a second route between Cairo and Talkha was opened, giving a more direct link between Cairo and Zagazig. The following year a branch southwards from Tanta reached [Shibin El Kom](/wiki/Shibin_El_Kom "Shibin El Kom"). The network started to push southwards along the west side of the Nile with the opening of the line between [Imbaba](/wiki/Imbaba "Imbaba") near Cairo and [Minya](/wiki/Minya%2C_Egypt "Minya, Egypt") in 1867\.Hughes, 1981, page 15 A short branch to [Faiyum](/wiki/Faiyum "Faiyum") was added in 1868\. A line between Zagazig and Suez via [Nifisha](/wiki/Nifisha "Nifisha") was completed in the same year. The following year the line to Talkha was extended to Damietta on the Mediterranean coast and a branch opened to [Salhiya](/wiki/Salhiya "Salhiya") and [Sama'ana](/wiki/Sama%27ana "Sama'ana").
Imbaba had no rail bridge across the Nile to Cairo until 1891\. However, a long line between there and a junction west of Kafr el\-Zayyat opened in 1872, linking Imbaba with the national network. From Minya the line southwards made slower progress, reaching [Mallawi](/wiki/Mallawi "Mallawi") in 1870 and [Assiut](/wiki/Assiut "Assiut") in 1874\. On the west bank till Najee Hammady from which goes on east bank of the Nile till Aswan. A shorter line southwards linked Cairo with [Tura](/wiki/Tura%2C_Egypt "Tura, Egypt") in 1872 and was extended to [Helwan](/wiki/Helwan "Helwan") in 1875\. In the Nile Delta the same year a short branch reached [Kafr el\-Sheikh](/wiki/Kafr_el-Sheikh "Kafr el-Sheikh") and in 1876 a line along the Mediterranean coast linking the termini at Alexandra and Rosetta was completed.
### 1877–1888
By 1877, Egypt had a network of key main lines and the Nile Delta had quite a network, but with this and other development investments, Isma'il had gotten the country deeply into debt. For its first 25 years of operation Egypt's national railway had never even produced an annual report.Hughes, 1981, page 13 A Council of Administration with Egyptian, British and French members was appointed in 1877 to put the railway's affairs in order. They published its first annual report in 1879, and in the same year, the British Government had Isma'il Pasha deposed, exiled and replaced with his son [Tewfik Pasha](/wiki/Tewfik_Pasha "Tewfik Pasha"). In 1882, the British essentially [invaded and occupied Egypt](/wiki/Battle_of_Tel_el-Kebir "Battle of Tel el-Kebir").
With these developments, the Egyptian Railway Administration's rail network stagnated until 1888, but it also put its management in much better order. In 1883 the ERA appointed Frederick Harvey Trevithick, nephew of [Francis Trevithick](/wiki/Francis_Trevithick "Francis Trevithick"), as Chief Mechanical Engineer.Hughes, 1981, page 32 Trevithick found a heterogeneous fleet of up to 246 [steam locomotives](/wiki/Steam_locomotive "Steam locomotive") of many different designs from very different builders in England, Scotland, France and the USA. This lack of standardisation of locomotives or components complicated both locomotive maintenance and general railway operation.
From 1877 to 1888, the ERA struggled to keep up with even basic maintenance but by 1887 Trevithick managed to start a programme to renew 85 of the very mixed fleet of locomotives with new boilers, cylinders and motion. He started to replace the others with four standard locomotive types introduced from 1889 onwards: one class of [0\-6\-0](/wiki/0-6-0 "0-6-0") for freight, one class of [2\-4\-0](/wiki/2-4-0 "2-4-0") for mixed traffic, one 0\-6\-0T [tank locomotive](/wiki/Tank_locomotive "Tank locomotive") for [shunting](/wiki/Shunt_%28rail%29 "Shunt (rail)") and one class of only ten [2\-2\-2](/wiki/2-2-2 "2-2-2") locomotives for express passenger trains. Trevithick ensured that these four classes shared as many common components as possible, which simplified maintenance and reduced costs still further.
### 1888–1914
[thumb\|right\|300px\|4\-4\-0 locomotive number 694: one of a class of 15 built by the [North British Locomotive Company](/wiki/North_British_Locomotive_Company "North British Locomotive Company") in Scotland for Egyptian State Railways in 1905\-06](/wiki/File:North_British_locomotive_for_Egyptian_State_Railways_%28Howden%2C_Boys%27_Book_of_Locomotives%2C_1907%29.jpg "North British locomotive for Egyptian State Railways (Howden, Boys' Book of Locomotives, 1907).jpg")
[thumb\|right\|300px\|[Wagons\-Lits](/wiki/Compagnie_Internationale_des_Wagons-Lits "Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits") coaches at the inauguration of a new service between Luxor and Aswan in 1926](/wiki/File:ModernEgypt%2C_Opening_of_Luxor-Aswan_rail_line%2C_Album-2-BAL-00000606-0002.jpg "ModernEgypt, Opening of Luxor-Aswan rail line, Album-2-BAL-00000606-0002.jpg")
By 1888, the ERA was in better order and could resume expanding its network. In 1890 a second line between Cairo and Tura opened. On 15 May 1892 the [Imbaba Bridge](/wiki/Imbaba_Bridge "Imbaba Bridge") was built across the Nile, linking Cairo with the line south following the west bank of the river. The civil engineer for the bridge was [Gustave Eiffel](/wiki/Gustave_Eiffel "Gustave Eiffel"). (It was reformed and renewed in 1924 which is still the only railway bridge across the Nile in Cairo.){{citation needed\|date\=May 2011}} Cairo's main [Misr Station](/wiki/Ramses_Station "Ramses Station") was rebuilt in 1892\. The line south was extended further upriver from Assiut reaching [Girga](/wiki/Girga "Girga") in 1892, [Nag Hammadi](/wiki/Nag_Hammadi "Nag Hammadi") in 1896, [Qena](/wiki/Qena "Qena") in 1897 and [Luxor](/wiki/Luxor "Luxor") and [Aswan](/wiki/Aswan "Aswan") in 1898\. With the railroad's completion, construction began the same year on the [first Aswan Dam](/wiki/Aswan_Low_Dam "Aswan Low Dam") and the [Assiut Barrage](/wiki/Assiut_Barrage "Assiut Barrage"), main elements of a plan initiated in 1890 by the government[Sidney Peel](/wiki/Sidney_Peel "Sidney Peel"), [The Binding of the Nile and the New Soudan](http://www.electronicsudan.com/cgi-bin/sdb/2bb.cgi?seq=print&board=200&msg=1242047480&rn=3){{dead link\|date\=September 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}, Oxford, 1904 to modernize and more fully develop Egypt's existing irrigated agriculture, export potential, and ability to repay debts to European creditors.Ewald Bloche, [Constructing Modern Egypt:Modernization and Development Discourses in the Context of British and Egyptian Water Engineering](http://www.univie.ac.at/colonial-development/docs/Programme%20Workshop%20Developing%20Africa.pdf), p.6\-7 (Abstract)
[thumb\|Map from "Egypt \& how to see it"](/wiki/File:The_Railway_System_of_Egypt.jpg "The Railway System of Egypt.jpg")
In the north in 1891, a link line was opened between Damanhur and Desouk. The line to Shibin El Kom was extended south to [Menouf](/wiki/Menouf "Menouf") in the same year and reached [Ashmoun](/wiki/Ashmoun "Ashmoun") in 1896\. By then a line across the Nile Delta from a junction north of Talkha on the line to Damietta had reached [Biyala](/wiki/Biyala "Biyala"). By 1898 this reached Kafr el\-Sheikh, completing a more direct route between Damietta and Alexandria. An important extension along the west bank of the Suez Canal linking Nifisha with [Ismaïlia](/wiki/Isma%C3%AFlia "Ismaïlia"), [Al Qantarah](/wiki/Al_Qantarah_El_Sharqiyya "Al Qantarah El Sharqiyya") West and [Port Said](/wiki/Port_Said "Port Said") was completed in 1904\. Thereafter network expansion was slower but two short link lines north of Cairo were completed in 1911 followed by a link between Zagazig and Zifta in 1914\.
### Sinai
The first [El Ferdan Railway Bridge](/wiki/El_Ferdan_Railway_Bridge "El Ferdan Railway Bridge") over the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal") was completed in April 1918 for the [Palestine Military Railway](/wiki/Palestine_Railways%23Palestine_Military_Railway "Palestine Railways#Palestine Military Railway"). It was considered a hindrance to shipping so after the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") it was removed. During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") a steel swing bridge was built in 1942 but this was damaged by a steamship and removed in 1947\. A double swing bridge was completed in 1954 but the [1956 Israeli invasion of Sinai](/wiki/Suez_Crisis "Suez Crisis") severed rail traffic across the canal for a third time. A replacement bridge was completed in 1963{{cite web \|url\=http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID\=s0002510 \|title\=El Ferdan Swing Bridge \|date\=1998–2011 \|work\=Structurae \|publisher\=Nicolas Janberg Internet Content Services \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-28 \|df\=dmy\-all}} but destroyed in the [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") in 1967\. A new double swing bridge was completed in 2001 and is the largest swing bridge in the world. However, the construction of the [New Suez Canal](/wiki/New_Suez_Canal "New Suez Canal") has since disconnected the Sinai from the rest of Egypt’s rail network again. Instead of the bridge, two rail tunnels are planned under the canal, one near Ismailia and one in Port Said.
Historically, the [Palestine Railways](/wiki/Palestine_Railways "Palestine Railways") main line linked [Al Qantarah](/wiki/Al_Qantarah_El_Sharqiyya "Al Qantarah El Sharqiyya") East with [Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") and [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"). It was built in three phases during the [First](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and [Second](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") [World Wars](/wiki/World_War "World War"). Commenced in 1916, it was extended to [Rafah](/wiki/Rafah "Rafah") on the border with [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29%23Ottoman_rule_%281841%E2%80%931917%29 "Palestine (region)#Ottoman rule (1841–1917)") as part of the [Egyptian Expeditionary Force](/wiki/Egyptian_Expeditionary_Force "Egyptian Expeditionary Force")'s [Sinai and Palestine Campaign](/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_Campaign "Sinai and Palestine Campaign") against the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). The route was extended through to [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa "Haifa") in [Mandate Palestine](/wiki/Mandate_Palestine "Mandate Palestine") after World War I, to [Tripoli, Lebanon](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Lebanon "Tripoli, Lebanon") in 1942 and became a vital part of the wartime supply route for Egypt.
As a result of the [1947–1949 Palestine war](/wiki/1947%E2%80%931949_Palestine_war "1947–1949 Palestine war"), the Palestine Railways main line was severed at the [1949 Armistice Line](/wiki/Green_Line_%28Israel%29 "Green Line (Israel)"). The 1956 Israeli invasion severed Sinai's rail link with the rest of Egypt was reconnected its rail link with Israel. Israel captured a [4211 class](/wiki/Egyptian_Republic_Railways_4211_class "Egyptian Republic Railways 4211 class") 0\-6\-0 [diesel shunting locomotive](/wiki/Switcher%23Diesel "Switcher#Diesel") and five [545 class](/wiki/Egyptian_State_Railways_545_class "Egyptian State Railways 545 class") [2\-6\-0](/wiki/2-6-0 "2-6-0") steam locomotives.Cotterell, 1984, page 137 Israel also captured rolling stock including a six\-wheel coach dating from 1893 and a 30\-ton [steam crane](/wiki/Steam_crane "Steam crane") built in 1950, both of which Israel Railways then appropriated into its breakdown fleet.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx \|title\=Gallery \|work\=Fun \|publisher\=Israel Railways \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-25 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619041704/http://rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx \|archive\-date\=2012\-06\-19 \|df\=dmy\-all }} Before being forced to withdraw from Sinai in March 1957, Israel systematically destroyed infrastructure including the railway.{{cite book \|last\=Chomsky \|first\=Noam \|author\-link\=Noam Chomsky \|title\=The Fateful Triangle \|url\=https://archive.org/details/fatefultriangleu00chom \|url\-access\=registration \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[South End Press]] \|year\=1983 \|isbn\= 0\-89608\-187\-7 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/fatefultriangleu00chom/page/194 194]}} By 1963 the railway in Sinai was reconnected to the rest of Egypt but remained disconnected from Israel.
In the [1967 Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War"), Israel captured more Egyptian railway equipment including one [EMD G8](/wiki/EMD_G8 "EMD G8"), four [EMD G12](/wiki/EMD_G12 "EMD G12") and three [EMD G16](/wiki/EMD_G16 "EMD G16") diesel locomotivesCotterell, 1984, page 136 all of which were appropriated into Israel Railways stock. After 1967 Israel again destroyed the railway across occupied Sinai and this time used the materials in the construction of the [Bar Lev Line](/wiki/Bar_Lev_Line "Bar Lev Line") of fortifications along the Suez Canal.
After long service on Israel Railways, the 30\-ton crane, 1893 Belgian 6\-wheel coach and one of the EMD G16 diesels are all preserved in the [Israel Railway Museum](/wiki/Israel_Railway_Museum "Israel Railway Museum") in Haifa.
### Museum
Egypt's railway museum was built in 1932 next to Misr Station (now [Ramses Station](/wiki/Ramses_Station "Ramses Station")) in Cairo.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.egyptrail.gov.eg/docs/museum/museum.html \|title\=Welcome to the ENR Museum Page \|year\=2010 \|work\=Egyptian National Railways \|publisher\=Egyptian National Railways \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707210352/http://www.egyptrail.gov.eg/docs/museum/museum.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-07 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy\-all }} The museum opened in January 1933 to mark the city's hosting of the International Railway Congress. Its stock of over 700 items includes models, historic drawings and photographs. Among its most prominent exhibits are three preserved steam locomotives:
* [2\-2\-4](/wiki/2-2-4 "2-2-4") no. 30, built by Robert Stephenson and Company in 1862Proud \& Smith, 1946, page 7
* [0\-6\-0](/wiki/0-6-0 "0-6-0") no. 986 (originally 189, then 142\), built by Robert Stephenson and Company in 1861
* [4\-4\-2](/wiki/4-4-2_%28locomotive%29 "4-4-2 (locomotive)") no. 194 (originally 678\) built by the North British Locomotive Company in 1905
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1833–1877",
"[thumb\\|[Robert Stephenson](/wiki/Robert_Stephenson \"Robert Stephenson\") (1803–59\\) was the engineer of Egypt's first railway](/wiki/Image:Robertstephenson.jpg \"Robertstephenson.jpg\")\nIn 1833, [Muhammad Ali](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt \"Muhammad Ali of Egypt\") [Pasha](/wiki/Pasha \"Pasha\") considered building a railway between [Suez](/wiki/Suez \"Suez\") and [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") to improve transit between Europe and India. Muhammad Ali had proceeded to buy the rail when the project was abandoned due to pressure by the French who had an interest in building a canal instead.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2011}}\n{{multiple image\n \\| direction \\= vertical\n \\| width \\= 230\n \\| align \\= left\n \\| footer \\= Proposed railway from Cairo to the Sea of Suez by \\[\\[C.F. Cheffins]], 1840s; state carriage by \\[\\[Wason Manufacturing Company\\|Wason Manufacturing]] built for \\[\\[Sa'id of Egypt\\|Sa'id Pasha]] for state functions, included with 161 less ornate railcars sent by the company in 1860{{cite book\\|title\\=Lost Springfield, Massachusetts\\|last\\=Strahan\\|first\\=Derek\\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing\\|year\\=2017\\|page\\=70\\|isbn\\=9781467136662\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YpOPDQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA70}}\n \\| image1 \\= Proposed railway from Cairo to the Sea of Suez by C.F. Cheffins, 1840s.jpg\n \\| image2 \\= State carriage for his highness the Vice\\-roy of Egypt\\-Built by T.W. Wason \\& Co., Springfield, Mass., U.S. \\- Des. \\& lith. by Bingham, Dodd \\& Co., Hartford, Conn. LCCN92501105\\.jpg}}",
"Muhammad Ali died in 1848, and in 1851 his successor [Abbas I](/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Egypt \"Abbas I of Egypt\") contracted [Robert Stephenson](/wiki/Robert_Stephenson \"Robert Stephenson\") to build Egypt's first [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard_gauge \"Standard gauge\") railway. The first section, between [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\") on the Mediterranean coast and [Kafr el\\-Zayyat](/wiki/Kafr_el-Zayyat \"Kafr el-Zayyat\") on the [Rosetta branch of the Nile](/wiki/Nile_Delta%23Geography \"Nile Delta#Geography\") was opened in 1854\\.Hughes, 1981, page 12 This was the first railway in the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") as well as [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\") and the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\").{{cite news\\|last\\=Raafat \\|first\\=Jordan \\|publisher\\=Jordan Star \\|date\\=1998\\-03\\-05 \\|url\\=http://www.egy.com/community/98\\-03\\-05\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-03\\-18 \\|title\\=Desert Train Heralds Train Tourism In Egypt \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207064829/http://www.egy.com/community/98\\-03\\-05\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\= 7 December 2006 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} In the same year Abbas died and was succeeded by [Sa'id Pasha](/wiki/Sa%27id_of_Egypt \"Sa'id of Egypt\"), in whose reign the section between Kafr el\\-Zayyat and [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") was completed in 1856 followed by an extension from Cairo to [Suez](/wiki/Suez \"Suez\") in 1858\\. This completed the first modern transport link between the Mediterranean and the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"), as [Ferdinand de Lesseps](/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Lesseps \"Ferdinand de Lesseps\") did not complete the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\") until 1869\\.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Ahmad Rifaat Pasha](/wiki/Ahmad_Rifaat_Pasha \"Ahmad Rifaat Pasha\") (1825–63\\) drowned when his train fell off a [car float](/wiki/Car_float \"Car float\") into the Nile](/wiki/Image:ModernEgypt%2C_Prince_Ahmed_Rifaat_Pasha%2C_PRS_2030_1.JPG \"ModernEgypt, Prince Ahmed Rifaat Pasha, PRS 2030 1.JPG\")\nAt Kafr el\\-Zayyat the line between Cairo and Alexandria originally crossed the Nile with an {{convert\\|80\\|ft\\|m}} [car float](/wiki/Car_float \"Car float\").Hughes, 1981, page 17 However, on 15 May 1858 a special train conveying Sa'id's [heir presumptive](/wiki/Heir_presumptive \"Heir presumptive\") [Ahmad Rifaat Pasha](/wiki/Ahmad_Rifaat_Pasha \"Ahmad Rifaat Pasha\") fell off the float into the river and the prince was drowned. Stephenson therefore replaced the car float with a [swing bridge](/wiki/Swing_bridge \"Swing bridge\") nearly {{convert\\|500\\|m\\|ft}} long. By the end of Sa'id's reign branches had been completed from [Banha](/wiki/Banha \"Banha\") to [Zagazig](/wiki/Zagazig \"Zagazig\") on the [Damietta branch of the Nile](/wiki/Nile_Delta%23Geography \"Nile Delta#Geography\") in 1860, to [Mit Bera](/wiki/Mit_Bera \"Mit Bera\") in 1861 and from [Tanta](/wiki/Tanta \"Tanta\") to [Talkha](/wiki/Talkha \"Talkha\") further down the Damietta Nile in 1863\\.",
"Sa'id's successor [Isma'il Pasha](/wiki/Isma%27il_Pasha \"Isma'il Pasha\") strove to modernise Egypt and added momentum to railway development. In 1865 a new branch reached [Desouk](/wiki/Desouk \"Desouk\") on the Rosetta Nile and a second route between Cairo and Talkha was opened, giving a more direct link between Cairo and Zagazig. The following year a branch southwards from Tanta reached [Shibin El Kom](/wiki/Shibin_El_Kom \"Shibin El Kom\"). The network started to push southwards along the west side of the Nile with the opening of the line between [Imbaba](/wiki/Imbaba \"Imbaba\") near Cairo and [Minya](/wiki/Minya%2C_Egypt \"Minya, Egypt\") in 1867\\.Hughes, 1981, page 15 A short branch to [Faiyum](/wiki/Faiyum \"Faiyum\") was added in 1868\\. A line between Zagazig and Suez via [Nifisha](/wiki/Nifisha \"Nifisha\") was completed in the same year. The following year the line to Talkha was extended to Damietta on the Mediterranean coast and a branch opened to [Salhiya](/wiki/Salhiya \"Salhiya\") and [Sama'ana](/wiki/Sama%27ana \"Sama'ana\").",
"Imbaba had no rail bridge across the Nile to Cairo until 1891\\. However, a long line between there and a junction west of Kafr el\\-Zayyat opened in 1872, linking Imbaba with the national network. From Minya the line southwards made slower progress, reaching [Mallawi](/wiki/Mallawi \"Mallawi\") in 1870 and [Assiut](/wiki/Assiut \"Assiut\") in 1874\\. On the west bank till Najee Hammady from which goes on east bank of the Nile till Aswan. A shorter line southwards linked Cairo with [Tura](/wiki/Tura%2C_Egypt \"Tura, Egypt\") in 1872 and was extended to [Helwan](/wiki/Helwan \"Helwan\") in 1875\\. In the Nile Delta the same year a short branch reached [Kafr el\\-Sheikh](/wiki/Kafr_el-Sheikh \"Kafr el-Sheikh\") and in 1876 a line along the Mediterranean coast linking the termini at Alexandra and Rosetta was completed.",
"### 1877–1888",
"By 1877, Egypt had a network of key main lines and the Nile Delta had quite a network, but with this and other development investments, Isma'il had gotten the country deeply into debt. For its first 25 years of operation Egypt's national railway had never even produced an annual report.Hughes, 1981, page 13 A Council of Administration with Egyptian, British and French members was appointed in 1877 to put the railway's affairs in order. They published its first annual report in 1879, and in the same year, the British Government had Isma'il Pasha deposed, exiled and replaced with his son [Tewfik Pasha](/wiki/Tewfik_Pasha \"Tewfik Pasha\"). In 1882, the British essentially [invaded and occupied Egypt](/wiki/Battle_of_Tel_el-Kebir \"Battle of Tel el-Kebir\").",
"With these developments, the Egyptian Railway Administration's rail network stagnated until 1888, but it also put its management in much better order. In 1883 the ERA appointed Frederick Harvey Trevithick, nephew of [Francis Trevithick](/wiki/Francis_Trevithick \"Francis Trevithick\"), as Chief Mechanical Engineer.Hughes, 1981, page 32 Trevithick found a heterogeneous fleet of up to 246 [steam locomotives](/wiki/Steam_locomotive \"Steam locomotive\") of many different designs from very different builders in England, Scotland, France and the USA. This lack of standardisation of locomotives or components complicated both locomotive maintenance and general railway operation.",
"From 1877 to 1888, the ERA struggled to keep up with even basic maintenance but by 1887 Trevithick managed to start a programme to renew 85 of the very mixed fleet of locomotives with new boilers, cylinders and motion. He started to replace the others with four standard locomotive types introduced from 1889 onwards: one class of [0\\-6\\-0](/wiki/0-6-0 \"0-6-0\") for freight, one class of [2\\-4\\-0](/wiki/2-4-0 \"2-4-0\") for mixed traffic, one 0\\-6\\-0T [tank locomotive](/wiki/Tank_locomotive \"Tank locomotive\") for [shunting](/wiki/Shunt_%28rail%29 \"Shunt (rail)\") and one class of only ten [2\\-2\\-2](/wiki/2-2-2 \"2-2-2\") locomotives for express passenger trains. Trevithick ensured that these four classes shared as many common components as possible, which simplified maintenance and reduced costs still further.",
"### 1888–1914",
"[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|4\\-4\\-0 locomotive number 694: one of a class of 15 built by the [North British Locomotive Company](/wiki/North_British_Locomotive_Company \"North British Locomotive Company\") in Scotland for Egyptian State Railways in 1905\\-06](/wiki/File:North_British_locomotive_for_Egyptian_State_Railways_%28Howden%2C_Boys%27_Book_of_Locomotives%2C_1907%29.jpg \"North British locomotive for Egyptian State Railways (Howden, Boys' Book of Locomotives, 1907).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|[Wagons\\-Lits](/wiki/Compagnie_Internationale_des_Wagons-Lits \"Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits\") coaches at the inauguration of a new service between Luxor and Aswan in 1926](/wiki/File:ModernEgypt%2C_Opening_of_Luxor-Aswan_rail_line%2C_Album-2-BAL-00000606-0002.jpg \"ModernEgypt, Opening of Luxor-Aswan rail line, Album-2-BAL-00000606-0002.jpg\")\nBy 1888, the ERA was in better order and could resume expanding its network. In 1890 a second line between Cairo and Tura opened. On 15 May 1892 the [Imbaba Bridge](/wiki/Imbaba_Bridge \"Imbaba Bridge\") was built across the Nile, linking Cairo with the line south following the west bank of the river. The civil engineer for the bridge was [Gustave Eiffel](/wiki/Gustave_Eiffel \"Gustave Eiffel\"). (It was reformed and renewed in 1924 which is still the only railway bridge across the Nile in Cairo.){{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2011}} Cairo's main [Misr Station](/wiki/Ramses_Station \"Ramses Station\") was rebuilt in 1892\\. The line south was extended further upriver from Assiut reaching [Girga](/wiki/Girga \"Girga\") in 1892, [Nag Hammadi](/wiki/Nag_Hammadi \"Nag Hammadi\") in 1896, [Qena](/wiki/Qena \"Qena\") in 1897 and [Luxor](/wiki/Luxor \"Luxor\") and [Aswan](/wiki/Aswan \"Aswan\") in 1898\\. With the railroad's completion, construction began the same year on the [first Aswan Dam](/wiki/Aswan_Low_Dam \"Aswan Low Dam\") and the [Assiut Barrage](/wiki/Assiut_Barrage \"Assiut Barrage\"), main elements of a plan initiated in 1890 by the government[Sidney Peel](/wiki/Sidney_Peel \"Sidney Peel\"), [The Binding of the Nile and the New Soudan](http://www.electronicsudan.com/cgi-bin/sdb/2bb.cgi?seq=print&board=200&msg=1242047480&rn=3){{dead link\\|date\\=September 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}, Oxford, 1904 to modernize and more fully develop Egypt's existing irrigated agriculture, export potential, and ability to repay debts to European creditors.Ewald Bloche, [Constructing Modern Egypt:Modernization and Development Discourses in the Context of British and Egyptian Water Engineering](http://www.univie.ac.at/colonial-development/docs/Programme%20Workshop%20Developing%20Africa.pdf), p.6\\-7 (Abstract)\n[thumb\\|Map from \"Egypt \\& how to see it\"](/wiki/File:The_Railway_System_of_Egypt.jpg \"The Railway System of Egypt.jpg\")",
"In the north in 1891, a link line was opened between Damanhur and Desouk. The line to Shibin El Kom was extended south to [Menouf](/wiki/Menouf \"Menouf\") in the same year and reached [Ashmoun](/wiki/Ashmoun \"Ashmoun\") in 1896\\. By then a line across the Nile Delta from a junction north of Talkha on the line to Damietta had reached [Biyala](/wiki/Biyala \"Biyala\"). By 1898 this reached Kafr el\\-Sheikh, completing a more direct route between Damietta and Alexandria. An important extension along the west bank of the Suez Canal linking Nifisha with [Ismaïlia](/wiki/Isma%C3%AFlia \"Ismaïlia\"), [Al Qantarah](/wiki/Al_Qantarah_El_Sharqiyya \"Al Qantarah El Sharqiyya\") West and [Port Said](/wiki/Port_Said \"Port Said\") was completed in 1904\\. Thereafter network expansion was slower but two short link lines north of Cairo were completed in 1911 followed by a link between Zagazig and Zifta in 1914\\.",
"### Sinai",
"The first [El Ferdan Railway Bridge](/wiki/El_Ferdan_Railway_Bridge \"El Ferdan Railway Bridge\") over the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\") was completed in April 1918 for the [Palestine Military Railway](/wiki/Palestine_Railways%23Palestine_Military_Railway \"Palestine Railways#Palestine Military Railway\"). It was considered a hindrance to shipping so after the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") it was removed. During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") a steel swing bridge was built in 1942 but this was damaged by a steamship and removed in 1947\\. A double swing bridge was completed in 1954 but the [1956 Israeli invasion of Sinai](/wiki/Suez_Crisis \"Suez Crisis\") severed rail traffic across the canal for a third time. A replacement bridge was completed in 1963{{cite web \\|url\\=http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID\\=s0002510 \\|title\\=El Ferdan Swing Bridge \\|date\\=1998–2011 \\|work\\=Structurae \\|publisher\\=Nicolas Janberg Internet Content Services \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-28 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} but destroyed in the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\") in 1967\\. A new double swing bridge was completed in 2001 and is the largest swing bridge in the world. However, the construction of the [New Suez Canal](/wiki/New_Suez_Canal \"New Suez Canal\") has since disconnected the Sinai from the rest of Egypt’s rail network again. Instead of the bridge, two rail tunnels are planned under the canal, one near Ismailia and one in Port Said.",
"Historically, the [Palestine Railways](/wiki/Palestine_Railways \"Palestine Railways\") main line linked [Al Qantarah](/wiki/Al_Qantarah_El_Sharqiyya \"Al Qantarah El Sharqiyya\") East with [Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine \"Mandatory Palestine\") and [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"). It was built in three phases during the [First](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") and [Second](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") [World Wars](/wiki/World_War \"World War\"). Commenced in 1916, it was extended to [Rafah](/wiki/Rafah \"Rafah\") on the border with [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29%23Ottoman_rule_%281841%E2%80%931917%29 \"Palestine (region)#Ottoman rule (1841–1917)\") as part of the [Egyptian Expeditionary Force](/wiki/Egyptian_Expeditionary_Force \"Egyptian Expeditionary Force\")'s [Sinai and Palestine Campaign](/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_Campaign \"Sinai and Palestine Campaign\") against the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"). The route was extended through to [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa \"Haifa\") in [Mandate Palestine](/wiki/Mandate_Palestine \"Mandate Palestine\") after World War I, to [Tripoli, Lebanon](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Lebanon \"Tripoli, Lebanon\") in 1942 and became a vital part of the wartime supply route for Egypt.",
"As a result of the [1947–1949 Palestine war](/wiki/1947%E2%80%931949_Palestine_war \"1947–1949 Palestine war\"), the Palestine Railways main line was severed at the [1949 Armistice Line](/wiki/Green_Line_%28Israel%29 \"Green Line (Israel)\"). The 1956 Israeli invasion severed Sinai's rail link with the rest of Egypt was reconnected its rail link with Israel. Israel captured a [4211 class](/wiki/Egyptian_Republic_Railways_4211_class \"Egyptian Republic Railways 4211 class\") 0\\-6\\-0 [diesel shunting locomotive](/wiki/Switcher%23Diesel \"Switcher#Diesel\") and five [545 class](/wiki/Egyptian_State_Railways_545_class \"Egyptian State Railways 545 class\") [2\\-6\\-0](/wiki/2-6-0 \"2-6-0\") steam locomotives.Cotterell, 1984, page 137 Israel also captured rolling stock including a six\\-wheel coach dating from 1893 and a 30\\-ton [steam crane](/wiki/Steam_crane \"Steam crane\") built in 1950, both of which Israel Railways then appropriated into its breakdown fleet.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx \\|title\\=Gallery \\|work\\=Fun \\|publisher\\=Israel Railways \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-25 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619041704/http://rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-19 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} Before being forced to withdraw from Sinai in March 1957, Israel systematically destroyed infrastructure including the railway.{{cite book \\|last\\=Chomsky \\|first\\=Noam \\|author\\-link\\=Noam Chomsky \\|title\\=The Fateful Triangle \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/fatefultriangleu00chom \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[South End Press]] \\|year\\=1983 \\|isbn\\= 0\\-89608\\-187\\-7 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/fatefultriangleu00chom/page/194 194]}} By 1963 the railway in Sinai was reconnected to the rest of Egypt but remained disconnected from Israel.",
"In the [1967 Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\"), Israel captured more Egyptian railway equipment including one [EMD G8](/wiki/EMD_G8 \"EMD G8\"), four [EMD G12](/wiki/EMD_G12 \"EMD G12\") and three [EMD G16](/wiki/EMD_G16 \"EMD G16\") diesel locomotivesCotterell, 1984, page 136 all of which were appropriated into Israel Railways stock. After 1967 Israel again destroyed the railway across occupied Sinai and this time used the materials in the construction of the [Bar Lev Line](/wiki/Bar_Lev_Line \"Bar Lev Line\") of fortifications along the Suez Canal.",
"After long service on Israel Railways, the 30\\-ton crane, 1893 Belgian 6\\-wheel coach and one of the EMD G16 diesels are all preserved in the [Israel Railway Museum](/wiki/Israel_Railway_Museum \"Israel Railway Museum\") in Haifa.",
"### Museum",
"Egypt's railway museum was built in 1932 next to Misr Station (now [Ramses Station](/wiki/Ramses_Station \"Ramses Station\")) in Cairo.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.egyptrail.gov.eg/docs/museum/museum.html \\|title\\=Welcome to the ENR Museum Page \\|year\\=2010 \\|work\\=Egyptian National Railways \\|publisher\\=Egyptian National Railways \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707210352/http://www.egyptrail.gov.eg/docs/museum/museum.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-07 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} The museum opened in January 1933 to mark the city's hosting of the International Railway Congress. Its stock of over 700 items includes models, historic drawings and photographs. Among its most prominent exhibits are three preserved steam locomotives:\n* [2\\-2\\-4](/wiki/2-2-4 \"2-2-4\") no. 30, built by Robert Stephenson and Company in 1862Proud \\& Smith, 1946, page 7\n* [0\\-6\\-0](/wiki/0-6-0 \"0-6-0\") no. 986 (originally 189, then 142\\), built by Robert Stephenson and Company in 1861\n* [4\\-4\\-2](/wiki/4-4-2_%28locomotive%29 \"4-4-2 (locomotive)\") no. 194 (originally 678\\) built by the North British Locomotive Company in 1905",
""
] |
### Sinai
The first [El Ferdan Railway Bridge](/wiki/El_Ferdan_Railway_Bridge "El Ferdan Railway Bridge") over the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal") was completed in April 1918 for the [Palestine Military Railway](/wiki/Palestine_Railways%23Palestine_Military_Railway "Palestine Railways#Palestine Military Railway"). It was considered a hindrance to shipping so after the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") it was removed. During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") a steel swing bridge was built in 1942 but this was damaged by a steamship and removed in 1947\. A double swing bridge was completed in 1954 but the [1956 Israeli invasion of Sinai](/wiki/Suez_Crisis "Suez Crisis") severed rail traffic across the canal for a third time. A replacement bridge was completed in 1963{{cite web \|url\=http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID\=s0002510 \|title\=El Ferdan Swing Bridge \|date\=1998–2011 \|work\=Structurae \|publisher\=Nicolas Janberg Internet Content Services \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-28 \|df\=dmy\-all}} but destroyed in the [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") in 1967\. A new double swing bridge was completed in 2001 and is the largest swing bridge in the world. However, the construction of the [New Suez Canal](/wiki/New_Suez_Canal "New Suez Canal") has since disconnected the Sinai from the rest of Egypt’s rail network again. Instead of the bridge, two rail tunnels are planned under the canal, one near Ismailia and one in Port Said.
Historically, the [Palestine Railways](/wiki/Palestine_Railways "Palestine Railways") main line linked [Al Qantarah](/wiki/Al_Qantarah_El_Sharqiyya "Al Qantarah El Sharqiyya") East with [Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") and [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"). It was built in three phases during the [First](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and [Second](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") [World Wars](/wiki/World_War "World War"). Commenced in 1916, it was extended to [Rafah](/wiki/Rafah "Rafah") on the border with [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29%23Ottoman_rule_%281841%E2%80%931917%29 "Palestine (region)#Ottoman rule (1841–1917)") as part of the [Egyptian Expeditionary Force](/wiki/Egyptian_Expeditionary_Force "Egyptian Expeditionary Force")'s [Sinai and Palestine Campaign](/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_Campaign "Sinai and Palestine Campaign") against the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). The route was extended through to [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa "Haifa") in [Mandate Palestine](/wiki/Mandate_Palestine "Mandate Palestine") after World War I, to [Tripoli, Lebanon](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Lebanon "Tripoli, Lebanon") in 1942 and became a vital part of the wartime supply route for Egypt.
As a result of the [1947–1949 Palestine war](/wiki/1947%E2%80%931949_Palestine_war "1947–1949 Palestine war"), the Palestine Railways main line was severed at the [1949 Armistice Line](/wiki/Green_Line_%28Israel%29 "Green Line (Israel)"). The 1956 Israeli invasion severed Sinai's rail link with the rest of Egypt was reconnected its rail link with Israel. Israel captured a [4211 class](/wiki/Egyptian_Republic_Railways_4211_class "Egyptian Republic Railways 4211 class") 0\-6\-0 [diesel shunting locomotive](/wiki/Switcher%23Diesel "Switcher#Diesel") and five [545 class](/wiki/Egyptian_State_Railways_545_class "Egyptian State Railways 545 class") [2\-6\-0](/wiki/2-6-0 "2-6-0") steam locomotives.Cotterell, 1984, page 137 Israel also captured rolling stock including a six\-wheel coach dating from 1893 and a 30\-ton [steam crane](/wiki/Steam_crane "Steam crane") built in 1950, both of which Israel Railways then appropriated into its breakdown fleet.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx \|title\=Gallery \|work\=Fun \|publisher\=Israel Railways \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-25 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619041704/http://rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx \|archive\-date\=2012\-06\-19 \|df\=dmy\-all }} Before being forced to withdraw from Sinai in March 1957, Israel systematically destroyed infrastructure including the railway.{{cite book \|last\=Chomsky \|first\=Noam \|author\-link\=Noam Chomsky \|title\=The Fateful Triangle \|url\=https://archive.org/details/fatefultriangleu00chom \|url\-access\=registration \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[South End Press]] \|year\=1983 \|isbn\= 0\-89608\-187\-7 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/fatefultriangleu00chom/page/194 194]}} By 1963 the railway in Sinai was reconnected to the rest of Egypt but remained disconnected from Israel.
In the [1967 Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War"), Israel captured more Egyptian railway equipment including one [EMD G8](/wiki/EMD_G8 "EMD G8"), four [EMD G12](/wiki/EMD_G12 "EMD G12") and three [EMD G16](/wiki/EMD_G16 "EMD G16") diesel locomotivesCotterell, 1984, page 136 all of which were appropriated into Israel Railways stock. After 1967 Israel again destroyed the railway across occupied Sinai and this time used the materials in the construction of the [Bar Lev Line](/wiki/Bar_Lev_Line "Bar Lev Line") of fortifications along the Suez Canal.
After long service on Israel Railways, the 30\-ton crane, 1893 Belgian 6\-wheel coach and one of the EMD G16 diesels are all preserved in the [Israel Railway Museum](/wiki/Israel_Railway_Museum "Israel Railway Museum") in Haifa.
|
[
"### Sinai",
"The first [El Ferdan Railway Bridge](/wiki/El_Ferdan_Railway_Bridge \"El Ferdan Railway Bridge\") over the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\") was completed in April 1918 for the [Palestine Military Railway](/wiki/Palestine_Railways%23Palestine_Military_Railway \"Palestine Railways#Palestine Military Railway\"). It was considered a hindrance to shipping so after the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") it was removed. During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") a steel swing bridge was built in 1942 but this was damaged by a steamship and removed in 1947\\. A double swing bridge was completed in 1954 but the [1956 Israeli invasion of Sinai](/wiki/Suez_Crisis \"Suez Crisis\") severed rail traffic across the canal for a third time. A replacement bridge was completed in 1963{{cite web \\|url\\=http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID\\=s0002510 \\|title\\=El Ferdan Swing Bridge \\|date\\=1998–2011 \\|work\\=Structurae \\|publisher\\=Nicolas Janberg Internet Content Services \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-28 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} but destroyed in the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\") in 1967\\. A new double swing bridge was completed in 2001 and is the largest swing bridge in the world. However, the construction of the [New Suez Canal](/wiki/New_Suez_Canal \"New Suez Canal\") has since disconnected the Sinai from the rest of Egypt’s rail network again. Instead of the bridge, two rail tunnels are planned under the canal, one near Ismailia and one in Port Said.",
"Historically, the [Palestine Railways](/wiki/Palestine_Railways \"Palestine Railways\") main line linked [Al Qantarah](/wiki/Al_Qantarah_El_Sharqiyya \"Al Qantarah El Sharqiyya\") East with [Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine \"Mandatory Palestine\") and [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"). It was built in three phases during the [First](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") and [Second](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") [World Wars](/wiki/World_War \"World War\"). Commenced in 1916, it was extended to [Rafah](/wiki/Rafah \"Rafah\") on the border with [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29%23Ottoman_rule_%281841%E2%80%931917%29 \"Palestine (region)#Ottoman rule (1841–1917)\") as part of the [Egyptian Expeditionary Force](/wiki/Egyptian_Expeditionary_Force \"Egyptian Expeditionary Force\")'s [Sinai and Palestine Campaign](/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_Campaign \"Sinai and Palestine Campaign\") against the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"). The route was extended through to [Haifa](/wiki/Haifa \"Haifa\") in [Mandate Palestine](/wiki/Mandate_Palestine \"Mandate Palestine\") after World War I, to [Tripoli, Lebanon](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Lebanon \"Tripoli, Lebanon\") in 1942 and became a vital part of the wartime supply route for Egypt.",
"As a result of the [1947–1949 Palestine war](/wiki/1947%E2%80%931949_Palestine_war \"1947–1949 Palestine war\"), the Palestine Railways main line was severed at the [1949 Armistice Line](/wiki/Green_Line_%28Israel%29 \"Green Line (Israel)\"). The 1956 Israeli invasion severed Sinai's rail link with the rest of Egypt was reconnected its rail link with Israel. Israel captured a [4211 class](/wiki/Egyptian_Republic_Railways_4211_class \"Egyptian Republic Railways 4211 class\") 0\\-6\\-0 [diesel shunting locomotive](/wiki/Switcher%23Diesel \"Switcher#Diesel\") and five [545 class](/wiki/Egyptian_State_Railways_545_class \"Egyptian State Railways 545 class\") [2\\-6\\-0](/wiki/2-6-0 \"2-6-0\") steam locomotives.Cotterell, 1984, page 137 Israel also captured rolling stock including a six\\-wheel coach dating from 1893 and a 30\\-ton [steam crane](/wiki/Steam_crane \"Steam crane\") built in 1950, both of which Israel Railways then appropriated into its breakdown fleet.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx \\|title\\=Gallery \\|work\\=Fun \\|publisher\\=Israel Railways \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-25 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619041704/http://rail.co.il/EN/Fun/Museum/Pages/gallery.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-19 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} Before being forced to withdraw from Sinai in March 1957, Israel systematically destroyed infrastructure including the railway.{{cite book \\|last\\=Chomsky \\|first\\=Noam \\|author\\-link\\=Noam Chomsky \\|title\\=The Fateful Triangle \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/fatefultriangleu00chom \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[South End Press]] \\|year\\=1983 \\|isbn\\= 0\\-89608\\-187\\-7 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/fatefultriangleu00chom/page/194 194]}} By 1963 the railway in Sinai was reconnected to the rest of Egypt but remained disconnected from Israel.",
"In the [1967 Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\"), Israel captured more Egyptian railway equipment including one [EMD G8](/wiki/EMD_G8 \"EMD G8\"), four [EMD G12](/wiki/EMD_G12 \"EMD G12\") and three [EMD G16](/wiki/EMD_G16 \"EMD G16\") diesel locomotivesCotterell, 1984, page 136 all of which were appropriated into Israel Railways stock. After 1967 Israel again destroyed the railway across occupied Sinai and this time used the materials in the construction of the [Bar Lev Line](/wiki/Bar_Lev_Line \"Bar Lev Line\") of fortifications along the Suez Canal.",
"After long service on Israel Railways, the 30\\-ton crane, 1893 Belgian 6\\-wheel coach and one of the EMD G16 diesels are all preserved in the [Israel Railway Museum](/wiki/Israel_Railway_Museum \"Israel Railway Museum\") in Haifa.",
""
] |
Performance history
-------------------
In 1940 a concert version of the opera was performed at [Barnard Hall](/wiki/Students%27_Hall "Students' Hall") with principal soloists from the [Metropolitan Opera](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera "Metropolitan Opera") and the faculty of the [Juilliard School](/wiki/Juilliard_School "Juilliard School"). The performances used the symphony orchestra of [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University") and an opera chorus made up of music students from [Barnard College](/wiki/Barnard_College "Barnard College") and Columbia.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1940/12/15/archives/opera\-sung\-at\-barnard\-devil\-and\-daniel\-webster\-is\-given\-in\-concert.html\|title\=Opera Sung at Barnard; ''Devil and Daniel Webster'', Is Given in Concert Form\|date\=15 December 1940\|page\=58\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]}} Other early stagings were given by the [Chautauqua Opera](/wiki/Chautauqua_Opera "Chautauqua Opera") (1940 and 1947\), [Los Angeles City College](/wiki/Los_Angeles_City_College "Los Angeles City College") (1942\), the [Worcester Music Festival](/wiki/Worcester_Music_Festival "Worcester Music Festival") (1942\), [American Opera Society](/wiki/American_Opera_Society "American Opera Society") (1944\), [Syracuse University](/wiki/Syracuse_University "Syracuse University") (1947\), Mobile Opera (1948\), Pittsburgh Savoyards (1948\), [Hiram College](/wiki/Hiram_College "Hiram College") (1948\), St. Louis Grand Opera (1949\), [Curtis Institute of Music](/wiki/Curtis_Institute_of_Music "Curtis Institute of Music") (1950\), [Eastman School of Music](/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music "Eastman School of Music") (1950\), [Brigham Young University](/wiki/Brigham_Young_University "Brigham Young University") (1950\), [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University") (1951\), [St. Olaf College](/wiki/St._Olaf_College "St. Olaf College") (1951\), [Cornell University](/wiki/Cornell_University "Cornell University") (1951\), and [Ithaca College](/wiki/Ithaca_College "Ithaca College") (1951\). In 1942 it was performed in [WOR](/wiki/WOR_%28AM%29 "WOR (AM)")'s American Opera Festival which was sponsored by the [United States Department of the Treasury](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury "United States Department of the Treasury").{{cite journal\|title\=Concerts\-Opera: Series of Yank\-Written Operas To Be Broadcast By WOR, New York\|journal\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|volume\=146\|issue\=5\|date\=8 April 1942\|page\=39}} The [High School of Music \& Art](/wiki/High_School_of_Music_%26_Art "High School of Music & Art") mounted the opera at [Hunter College](/wiki/Hunter_College "Hunter College") in 1946; a performance which was broadcast on [WNYC](/wiki/WNYC "WNYC") radio.{{cite news\|title\=Radio Today\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=19 January 1946\|page\=18}} In 1951 excerpts from the opera were performed in a [Young People's Concerts](/wiki/Young_People%27s_Concerts "Young People's Concerts") by the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic "New York Philharmonic") under conductor [Igor Buketoff](/wiki/Igor_Buketoff "Igor Buketoff").
In 1952 the work was given its European premiere in Paris by the Compagnie Lyrique.{{cite journal\|title\=International: Young U.S. Opera Troupe Catching Eye of Paris\|journal\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|volume\=187\|issue\= 2\|date\=18 June 1952\|page\= 14}} That same year the work was staged by Punch Opera in New York in a double bill with [Jacques Offenbach](/wiki/Jacques_Offenbach "Jacques Offenbach")'s *Une nuit blanche*,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1952/07/24/archives/punch\-opera\-gives\-moore\-offenbach\-devil\-and\-daniel\-webster\-is.html\|title\=Punch Opera Gives Moore, Offenbach; ''Devil and Daniel Webster'' Is Presented on Double Bill With ''The smugglers''\|author\=J. B.\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=24 July 1952}} and by the Milwaukee Chamber Opera. In 1953 the opera was mounted at [Old Sturbridge Village](/wiki/Old_Sturbridge_Village "Old Sturbridge Village") for their summer festival with a cast that included Metropolitan Opera baritone Clifford Harvout as Webster and soprano [Adelaide Bishop](/wiki/Adelaide_Bishop "Adelaide Bishop") as Mary.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1953/07/20/archives/pie\-and\-opera\-open\-new\-england\-fete\-old\-sturbridge\-provides\-fillip.html\|title\=Pie and Opera Open New England Fete; Old Sturbridge Provides Fillip to ''Devil and Daniel Webster'' and Audience Digs In\|author\=\[\[Harold C. Schonberg]]\|work\=The New York Times \|page\=14\|date\=20 July 1953}} In 1953 the opera was filmed for television and broadcast nationally on [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS").{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uIPDlKlchQ0C\&dq\=American\+opera\+%22The\+Devil\+and\+Daniel\+Webster%22\&pg\=PA246\|title\=American Opera\|pages\=246, 274, 277\|publisher\=\[\[University of Illinois Press]]\|author\=Elise Kuhl Kirk\|year\=2001\|isbn\=9780252026232}} In 1955 the opera was recorded live on [BBC Third Programme](/wiki/BBC_Third_Programme "BBC Third Programme") with baritone Jess Walters singing the role of Webster for the work's UK premiere.{{cite journal\|title\=American Folk Opera\|journal\=\[\[The Stage]]\|issue\=3,868\|date\=2 June 1955\|page\= 7}}
In 1958 an LP recording of *The Devil and Daniel Webster* was released on [Westminster Records](/wiki/Westminster_Records "Westminster Records").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1958/04/20/archives/records\-opera\-first\-disk\-of\-a\-work\-by\-douglas\-moore.html\|title\=Records: Opera; First Disk of a Work By Douglas Moore\|author\= John Briggs\|date\=20 April 1958\|page\=X17\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]}} In 1959 it was mounted at the [New York City Opera](/wiki/New_York_City_Opera "New York City Opera") with a cast that included [Joshua Hecht](/wiki/Joshua_Hecht "Joshua Hecht") as Jabez Stone, [Walter Cassel](/wiki/Walter_Cassel "Walter Cassel") as Webster, [Norman Kelley](/wiki/Norman_Kelley "Norman Kelley") as Mr. Scratch, [Emile Renan](/wiki/Emile_Renan "Emile Renan") as Justice Hawthorne, and [Arthur Newman](/wiki/Arthur_Newman_%28baritone%29 "Arthur Newman (baritone)") as the Court Clerk.{{cite journal\|title\=Legitimate: American Opera Cycle – ''The Devil and Daniel Webster''\|author\=Land\|journal\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]\|volume\=214\|issue\=6\|date\=8 April 1959\|page\=72}} That same year the work was staged as the opening production of the [Boston Arts Festival](/wiki/Boston_Arts_Festival "Boston Arts Festival") in a double bill with [Lee Hoiby](/wiki/Lee_Hoiby "Lee Hoiby")'s *[The Scarf](/wiki/The_Scarf_%28opera%29 "The Scarf (opera)")*.{{cite magazine\|title\=Music News: Opera Bill for Hub Festival\|magazine\=\[\[Billboard (magazine)\|Billboard]]\|volume\=71\|issue\=21\|date\=25 May 1959\|page\= 22}} Other stagings during the 1950s were given at the [University of Georgia](/wiki/University_of_Georgia "University of Georgia") (1953\), [Hiram College](/wiki/Hiram_College "Hiram College") (1955\), [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University "Yale University") (1955\), [Brooklyn College](/wiki/Brooklyn_College "Brooklyn College") (1958\), and [Portland State College](/wiki/Portland_State_College "Portland State College") (1958\).
The [Seattle Opera](/wiki/Seattle_Opera "Seattle Opera") staged the work in the 1960s with Don Collins as Webster, John Waggoner as Janet, and Jerry Landeen as Scratch. Other performances of the opera in the 1960s included staging by Maryland Baptist College (1961\), New Hampshire Festival Opera (1962\), [Willamette University](/wiki/Willamette_University "Willamette University") (1963\), Kansas City Opera (1963\), [Glassboro State College](/wiki/Glassboro_State_College "Glassboro State College") (1964\), Beaumont Civic Opera (1964\), Colorado Springs Opera (1964\), [Drake University](/wiki/Drake_University "Drake University") (1964\), Laguna Beach Festival Opera (1965\), [University of Denver](/wiki/University_of_Denver "University of Denver") (1967\), [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida "University of Florida") (1968\), [Oberlin College](/wiki/Oberlin_College "Oberlin College") (1968\), and [Fresno Pacific College](/wiki/Fresno_Pacific_College "Fresno Pacific College") (1968\).
The opera was performed in Riverside, California by the Riverside Opera Association in 1976\. In 1989 it was performed by the [Lake George Opera](/wiki/Opera_Saratoga "Opera Saratoga").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/14/arts/music\-summer\-music\-festivals\-throughout\-the\-land.html\|title\=Music; Summer Music Festivals Throughout the Land\|author\=\[\[James R. Oestreich]]\|date\=14 May 1989\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]}} In 1991 the [Bronx Opera](/wiki/Bronx_Opera "Bronx Opera") staged the work in a double bill with [Gilbert and Sullivan](/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan "Gilbert and Sullivan")'s *[Trial by Jury](/wiki/Trial_by_Jury "Trial by Jury")*.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/13/arts/review\-opera\-5\-ways\-with\-music\-and\-drama\-that\-share\-the\-bond\-of\-brevity.html\|title\=Review/Opera; 5 Ways With Music and Drama That Share the Bond of Brevity\|author\=\[\[Bernard Holland]]\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=13 May 1991}} In 1995 the opera was mounted by the [Lyric Opera of Kansas City](/wiki/Lyric_Opera_of_Kansas_City "Lyric Opera of Kansas City") with Brian Steele as Webster, Joyce Guyer as Mary Stone, John Stephens as Jabez Stone, and Darren Keith Woods as Mr. Scratch. In 1998 the work was staged by Opera Theatre of Northern Virginia in Arlington with bass\-baritone David Neal as Webster, tenor Doug Bowles as Scratch, and David Brundage as Jabez Stone.{{cite news\|title\=Mmm. A Tasty Revival: 'Bon Appetit' Mixes With Dramatic 'Devil'\|author\=Joseph McLellan\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|date\=23 March 1998\|page\= E7}} In 2000 the opera was performed at the [Teatro Massimo](/wiki/Teatro_Massimo "Teatro Massimo") in Palermo, Italy with Maurizio Lo Piccolo as Webster and Ugo Guagliardo as Jabez Stone.
The aria “I’ve Got a Ram, Goliath” has been performed in concerts and recitals by several singers, including [bass](/wiki/Bass_%28voice_type%29 "Bass (voice type)") [Richard Hale](/wiki/Richard_Hale "Richard Hale"), [bass\-baritone](/wiki/Bass-baritone "Bass-baritone") [James Pease](/wiki/James_Pease "James Pease"), and [baritones](/wiki/Baritone "Baritone") [Mordecai Bauman](/wiki/Mordecai_Bauman "Mordecai Bauman"), [Alfred Drake](/wiki/Alfred_Drake "Alfred Drake"), Clifford Harvuot, and [Sherrill Milnes](/wiki/Sherrill_Milnes "Sherrill Milnes").{{cite news\|url\= https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/26/arts/classical\-music\-in\-review\-893137\.html\|title\= Classical Music in Review \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=26 April 1994}} The aria “Mary’s Prayer” has also been used as a recital piece by sopranos and mezzo\-sopranos.
|
[
"Performance history\n-------------------",
"In 1940 a concert version of the opera was performed at [Barnard Hall](/wiki/Students%27_Hall \"Students' Hall\") with principal soloists from the [Metropolitan Opera](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera \"Metropolitan Opera\") and the faculty of the [Juilliard School](/wiki/Juilliard_School \"Juilliard School\"). The performances used the symphony orchestra of [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\") and an opera chorus made up of music students from [Barnard College](/wiki/Barnard_College \"Barnard College\") and Columbia.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1940/12/15/archives/opera\\-sung\\-at\\-barnard\\-devil\\-and\\-daniel\\-webster\\-is\\-given\\-in\\-concert.html\\|title\\=Opera Sung at Barnard; ''Devil and Daniel Webster'', Is Given in Concert Form\\|date\\=15 December 1940\\|page\\=58\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]}} Other early stagings were given by the [Chautauqua Opera](/wiki/Chautauqua_Opera \"Chautauqua Opera\") (1940 and 1947\\), [Los Angeles City College](/wiki/Los_Angeles_City_College \"Los Angeles City College\") (1942\\), the [Worcester Music Festival](/wiki/Worcester_Music_Festival \"Worcester Music Festival\") (1942\\), [American Opera Society](/wiki/American_Opera_Society \"American Opera Society\") (1944\\), [Syracuse University](/wiki/Syracuse_University \"Syracuse University\") (1947\\), Mobile Opera (1948\\), Pittsburgh Savoyards (1948\\), [Hiram College](/wiki/Hiram_College \"Hiram College\") (1948\\), St. Louis Grand Opera (1949\\), [Curtis Institute of Music](/wiki/Curtis_Institute_of_Music \"Curtis Institute of Music\") (1950\\), [Eastman School of Music](/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music \"Eastman School of Music\") (1950\\), [Brigham Young University](/wiki/Brigham_Young_University \"Brigham Young University\") (1950\\), [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\") (1951\\), [St. Olaf College](/wiki/St._Olaf_College \"St. Olaf College\") (1951\\), [Cornell University](/wiki/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\") (1951\\), and [Ithaca College](/wiki/Ithaca_College \"Ithaca College\") (1951\\). In 1942 it was performed in [WOR](/wiki/WOR_%28AM%29 \"WOR (AM)\")'s American Opera Festival which was sponsored by the [United States Department of the Treasury](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury \"United States Department of the Treasury\").{{cite journal\\|title\\=Concerts\\-Opera: Series of Yank\\-Written Operas To Be Broadcast By WOR, New York\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|volume\\=146\\|issue\\=5\\|date\\=8 April 1942\\|page\\=39}} The [High School of Music \\& Art](/wiki/High_School_of_Music_%26_Art \"High School of Music & Art\") mounted the opera at [Hunter College](/wiki/Hunter_College \"Hunter College\") in 1946; a performance which was broadcast on [WNYC](/wiki/WNYC \"WNYC\") radio.{{cite news\\|title\\=Radio Today\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=19 January 1946\\|page\\=18}} In 1951 excerpts from the opera were performed in a [Young People's Concerts](/wiki/Young_People%27s_Concerts \"Young People's Concerts\") by the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic \"New York Philharmonic\") under conductor [Igor Buketoff](/wiki/Igor_Buketoff \"Igor Buketoff\").",
"In 1952 the work was given its European premiere in Paris by the Compagnie Lyrique.{{cite journal\\|title\\=International: Young U.S. Opera Troupe Catching Eye of Paris\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|volume\\=187\\|issue\\= 2\\|date\\=18 June 1952\\|page\\= 14}} That same year the work was staged by Punch Opera in New York in a double bill with [Jacques Offenbach](/wiki/Jacques_Offenbach \"Jacques Offenbach\")'s *Une nuit blanche*,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1952/07/24/archives/punch\\-opera\\-gives\\-moore\\-offenbach\\-devil\\-and\\-daniel\\-webster\\-is.html\\|title\\=Punch Opera Gives Moore, Offenbach; ''Devil and Daniel Webster'' Is Presented on Double Bill With ''The smugglers''\\|author\\=J. B.\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=24 July 1952}} and by the Milwaukee Chamber Opera. In 1953 the opera was mounted at [Old Sturbridge Village](/wiki/Old_Sturbridge_Village \"Old Sturbridge Village\") for their summer festival with a cast that included Metropolitan Opera baritone Clifford Harvout as Webster and soprano [Adelaide Bishop](/wiki/Adelaide_Bishop \"Adelaide Bishop\") as Mary.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1953/07/20/archives/pie\\-and\\-opera\\-open\\-new\\-england\\-fete\\-old\\-sturbridge\\-provides\\-fillip.html\\|title\\=Pie and Opera Open New England Fete; Old Sturbridge Provides Fillip to ''Devil and Daniel Webster'' and Audience Digs In\\|author\\=\\[\\[Harold C. Schonberg]]\\|work\\=The New York Times \\|page\\=14\\|date\\=20 July 1953}} In 1953 the opera was filmed for television and broadcast nationally on [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uIPDlKlchQ0C\\&dq\\=American\\+opera\\+%22The\\+Devil\\+and\\+Daniel\\+Webster%22\\&pg\\=PA246\\|title\\=American Opera\\|pages\\=246, 274, 277\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Illinois Press]]\\|author\\=Elise Kuhl Kirk\\|year\\=2001\\|isbn\\=9780252026232}} In 1955 the opera was recorded live on [BBC Third Programme](/wiki/BBC_Third_Programme \"BBC Third Programme\") with baritone Jess Walters singing the role of Webster for the work's UK premiere.{{cite journal\\|title\\=American Folk Opera\\|journal\\=\\[\\[The Stage]]\\|issue\\=3,868\\|date\\=2 June 1955\\|page\\= 7}}",
"In 1958 an LP recording of *The Devil and Daniel Webster* was released on [Westminster Records](/wiki/Westminster_Records \"Westminster Records\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1958/04/20/archives/records\\-opera\\-first\\-disk\\-of\\-a\\-work\\-by\\-douglas\\-moore.html\\|title\\=Records: Opera; First Disk of a Work By Douglas Moore\\|author\\= John Briggs\\|date\\=20 April 1958\\|page\\=X17\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]}} In 1959 it was mounted at the [New York City Opera](/wiki/New_York_City_Opera \"New York City Opera\") with a cast that included [Joshua Hecht](/wiki/Joshua_Hecht \"Joshua Hecht\") as Jabez Stone, [Walter Cassel](/wiki/Walter_Cassel \"Walter Cassel\") as Webster, [Norman Kelley](/wiki/Norman_Kelley \"Norman Kelley\") as Mr. Scratch, [Emile Renan](/wiki/Emile_Renan \"Emile Renan\") as Justice Hawthorne, and [Arthur Newman](/wiki/Arthur_Newman_%28baritone%29 \"Arthur Newman (baritone)\") as the Court Clerk.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Legitimate: American Opera Cycle – ''The Devil and Daniel Webster''\\|author\\=Land\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]\\|volume\\=214\\|issue\\=6\\|date\\=8 April 1959\\|page\\=72}} That same year the work was staged as the opening production of the [Boston Arts Festival](/wiki/Boston_Arts_Festival \"Boston Arts Festival\") in a double bill with [Lee Hoiby](/wiki/Lee_Hoiby \"Lee Hoiby\")'s *[The Scarf](/wiki/The_Scarf_%28opera%29 \"The Scarf (opera)\")*.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Music News: Opera Bill for Hub Festival\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Billboard (magazine)\\|Billboard]]\\|volume\\=71\\|issue\\=21\\|date\\=25 May 1959\\|page\\= 22}} Other stagings during the 1950s were given at the [University of Georgia](/wiki/University_of_Georgia \"University of Georgia\") (1953\\), [Hiram College](/wiki/Hiram_College \"Hiram College\") (1955\\), [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\") (1955\\), [Brooklyn College](/wiki/Brooklyn_College \"Brooklyn College\") (1958\\), and [Portland State College](/wiki/Portland_State_College \"Portland State College\") (1958\\).",
"The [Seattle Opera](/wiki/Seattle_Opera \"Seattle Opera\") staged the work in the 1960s with Don Collins as Webster, John Waggoner as Janet, and Jerry Landeen as Scratch. Other performances of the opera in the 1960s included staging by Maryland Baptist College (1961\\), New Hampshire Festival Opera (1962\\), [Willamette University](/wiki/Willamette_University \"Willamette University\") (1963\\), Kansas City Opera (1963\\), [Glassboro State College](/wiki/Glassboro_State_College \"Glassboro State College\") (1964\\), Beaumont Civic Opera (1964\\), Colorado Springs Opera (1964\\), [Drake University](/wiki/Drake_University \"Drake University\") (1964\\), Laguna Beach Festival Opera (1965\\), [University of Denver](/wiki/University_of_Denver \"University of Denver\") (1967\\), [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida \"University of Florida\") (1968\\), [Oberlin College](/wiki/Oberlin_College \"Oberlin College\") (1968\\), and [Fresno Pacific College](/wiki/Fresno_Pacific_College \"Fresno Pacific College\") (1968\\).",
"The opera was performed in Riverside, California by the Riverside Opera Association in 1976\\. In 1989 it was performed by the [Lake George Opera](/wiki/Opera_Saratoga \"Opera Saratoga\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/14/arts/music\\-summer\\-music\\-festivals\\-throughout\\-the\\-land.html\\|title\\=Music; Summer Music Festivals Throughout the Land\\|author\\=\\[\\[James R. Oestreich]]\\|date\\=14 May 1989\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]}} In 1991 the [Bronx Opera](/wiki/Bronx_Opera \"Bronx Opera\") staged the work in a double bill with [Gilbert and Sullivan](/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan \"Gilbert and Sullivan\")'s *[Trial by Jury](/wiki/Trial_by_Jury \"Trial by Jury\")*.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/13/arts/review\\-opera\\-5\\-ways\\-with\\-music\\-and\\-drama\\-that\\-share\\-the\\-bond\\-of\\-brevity.html\\|title\\=Review/Opera; 5 Ways With Music and Drama That Share the Bond of Brevity\\|author\\=\\[\\[Bernard Holland]]\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=13 May 1991}} In 1995 the opera was mounted by the [Lyric Opera of Kansas City](/wiki/Lyric_Opera_of_Kansas_City \"Lyric Opera of Kansas City\") with Brian Steele as Webster, Joyce Guyer as Mary Stone, John Stephens as Jabez Stone, and Darren Keith Woods as Mr. Scratch. In 1998 the work was staged by Opera Theatre of Northern Virginia in Arlington with bass\\-baritone David Neal as Webster, tenor Doug Bowles as Scratch, and David Brundage as Jabez Stone.{{cite news\\|title\\=Mmm. A Tasty Revival: 'Bon Appetit' Mixes With Dramatic 'Devil'\\|author\\=Joseph McLellan\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|date\\=23 March 1998\\|page\\= E7}} In 2000 the opera was performed at the [Teatro Massimo](/wiki/Teatro_Massimo \"Teatro Massimo\") in Palermo, Italy with Maurizio Lo Piccolo as Webster and Ugo Guagliardo as Jabez Stone.",
"The aria “I’ve Got a Ram, Goliath” has been performed in concerts and recitals by several singers, including [bass](/wiki/Bass_%28voice_type%29 \"Bass (voice type)\") [Richard Hale](/wiki/Richard_Hale \"Richard Hale\"), [bass\\-baritone](/wiki/Bass-baritone \"Bass-baritone\") [James Pease](/wiki/James_Pease \"James Pease\"), and [baritones](/wiki/Baritone \"Baritone\") [Mordecai Bauman](/wiki/Mordecai_Bauman \"Mordecai Bauman\"), [Alfred Drake](/wiki/Alfred_Drake \"Alfred Drake\"), Clifford Harvuot, and [Sherrill Milnes](/wiki/Sherrill_Milnes \"Sherrill Milnes\").{{cite news\\|url\\= https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/26/arts/classical\\-music\\-in\\-review\\-893137\\.html\\|title\\= Classical Music in Review \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=26 April 1994}} The aria “Mary’s Prayer” has also been used as a recital piece by sopranos and mezzo\\-sopranos.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population\|align\=left
\|1880\= 571
\|1890\= 462
\|1900\= 543
\|1910\= 580
\|1920\= 490
\|1930\= 498
\|1940\= 461
\|1950\= 463
\|1960\= 418
\|1970\= 408
\|1980\= 395
\|1990\= 429
\|2000\= 615
\|2010\= 549
\|estyear\=2019
\|estimate\=528
\|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/popest/data/tables.2019\.html\|date\=May 24, 2020\|title\=Population and Housing Unit Estimates\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=May 27, 2020}}
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=November 18, 2012}} of 2010, there were 549 people, 214 households, and 135 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|703\.8\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 233 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|298\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.9% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.1% of the population.
There were 214 households, of which 37\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 9\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 8\.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\.9% were non\-families. 28\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.57 and the average family size was 3\.19\.
The median age in the village was 36\.4 years. 29% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26\.9% were from 25 to 44; 24\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 10\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48\.8% male and 51\.2% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 615 people, 223 households, and 158 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 796\.2 people per square mile (308\.4/km2). There were 234 housing units at an average density of 302\.9 per square mile (117\.3/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 99\.02% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.16% [Black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.49% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.33% from two or more races. 0\.00% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic "Hispanic") or [Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") of any race.
There were 223 households, out of which 42\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29\.1% were non\-families. 23\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.76 and the average family size was 3\.32\.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 31\.5% under the age of 18, 9\.3% from 18 to 24, 34\.5% from 25 to 44, 15\.3% from 45 to 64, and 9\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100\.5 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $35,833, and the median income for a family was $48,750\. Males had a median income of $29,250 versus $20,938 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $16,331\. About 6\.8% of families and 8\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 11\.0% of those under age 18 and 13\.6% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\\|align\\=left\n\\|1880\\= 571\n\\|1890\\= 462\n\\|1900\\= 543\n\\|1910\\= 580\n\\|1920\\= 490\n\\|1930\\= 498\n\\|1940\\= 461\n\\|1950\\= 463\n\\|1960\\= 418\n\\|1970\\= 408\n\\|1980\\= 395\n\\|1990\\= 429\n\\|2000\\= 615\n\\|2010\\= 549\n\\|estyear\\=2019\n\\|estimate\\=528\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/popest/data/tables.2019\\.html\\|date\\=May 24, 2020\\|title\\=Population and Housing Unit Estimates\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=May 27, 2020}}\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=November 18, 2012}} of 2010, there were 549 people, 214 households, and 135 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|703\\.8\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 233 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|298\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.9% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.1% of the population.",
"There were 214 households, of which 37\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 9\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 8\\.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\\.9% were non\\-families. 28\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.57 and the average family size was 3\\.19\\.",
"The median age in the village was 36\\.4 years. 29% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26\\.9% were from 25 to 44; 24\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 10\\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48\\.8% male and 51\\.2% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 615 people, 223 households, and 158 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 796\\.2 people per square mile (308\\.4/km2). There were 234 housing units at an average density of 302\\.9 per square mile (117\\.3/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 99\\.02% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.16% [Black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.49% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.33% from two or more races. 0\\.00% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic \"Hispanic\") or [Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") of any race.",
"There were 223 households, out of which 42\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29\\.1% were non\\-families. 23\\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.76 and the average family size was 3\\.32\\.",
"In the village, the population was spread out, with 31\\.5% under the age of 18, 9\\.3% from 18 to 24, 34\\.5% from 25 to 44, 15\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 9\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100\\.5 males.",
"The median income for a household in the village was $35,833, and the median income for a family was $48,750\\. Males had a median income of $29,250 versus $20,938 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $16,331\\. About 6\\.8% of families and 8\\.8% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 11\\.0% of those under age 18 and 13\\.6% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{main\|History of Nagorno\-Karabakh}}
### Antiquity and Early Middle Ages
[thumb\|left\|200px\|The [Amaras Monastery](/wiki/Amaras_Monastery "Amaras Monastery"), founded in the 4th century by St [Gregory the Illuminator](/wiki/Gregory_the_Illuminator "Gregory the Illuminator"). In the 5th century, [Mesrop Mashtots](/wiki/Mesrop_Mashtots "Mesrop Mashtots"), inventor of the [Armenian alphabet](/wiki/Armenian_alphabet "Armenian alphabet"), established at Amaras the first school to use his script.{{cite journal \|last\=Viviano \|first\=Frank \|title\=The Rebirth of Armenia \|journal\=National Geographic Magazine \|date\=March 2004 }}John Noble, Michael Kohn, Danielle Systermans. *Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan*. Lonely Planet; 3 edition (1 May 2008\), p. 307](/wiki/File:Amaras-vank.jpg "Amaras-vank.jpg")
[thumb\|200px\|[The monastery at Gandzasar](/wiki/Gandzasar_monastery "Gandzasar monastery") was commissioned by the [House of Khachen](/wiki/House_of_Hasan-Jalalyan "House of Hasan-Jalalyan") and completed in 1238](/wiki/File:Gandzasar_Monastery1.jpg "Gandzasar Monastery1.jpg")
Nagorno\-Karabakh falls within the lands occupied by peoples known to modern archaeologists as the [Kura\-Araxes culture](/wiki/Kura-Araxes_culture "Kura-Araxes culture") who lived between the two rivers [Kura](/wiki/Kura_%28Caspian_Sea%29 "Kura (Caspian Sea)") and [Araxes](/wiki/Araxes_River "Araxes River").{{cite journal \|last\=Edens \|first\=Christoper \|date\=Aug–Nov 1995 \|title\=Transcaucasia at the End of the Early Bronze Age \|journal\=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research \|publisher\=The American Schools of Oriental Research \|volume\=299/300 \|issue\=The Archaeology of Empire in Ancient Anatolia \|pages\=53, pp. 53–64 \[56] \|doi\=10\.2307/1357345 \|jstor\=1357345 \|s2cid\=163585471\| issn \= 0003\-097X}}
The ancient population of the region consisted of various [autochthonous](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples "Indigenous peoples") local and migrant tribes who were mostly non\-Indo\-Europeans.{{cite book \|first\=Robert H. \|last\=Hewsen \|chapter\=Ethno\-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians \|editor\-last\=Samuelian \|editor\-first\=Thomas J. \|title\=Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity \|location\=Chicago \|publisher\=Scholars Press \|year\=1982 \|pages\=27–40 \|isbn\=0\-89130\-565\-3}} According to the prevailing western theory, these natives intermarried with Armenians who came to the region after its inclusion into Armenia in the 2nd (or possibly earlier, the 4th) century BC.Hewsen, Robert H. *Armenia: a Historical Atlas*. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 32–33, map 19 (shows the territory of modern Nagorno\-Karabakh as part of the [Orontids](/wiki/Orontids "Orontids")' Kingdom of Armenia) Other scholars suggest that the Armenians settled in the region as early as the 7th century BC.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f4/v2f4a071a.html \|title\=Armenia and Iran \|author\=R. Schmitt, M. L. Chaumont \|publisher\=\[\[Encyclopædia Iranica]] \|access\-date\=20 February 2012 \|archive\-date\=21 January 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121173617/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f4/v2f4a071a.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Around 180 BC, Artsakh became one of the 15 provinces of the [Armenian Kingdom](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom "Armenian Kingdom") and remained so until the 4th century.Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh", in T. Samuelian \& M. Stone, eds. *Medieval Armenian Culture*. Chico, CA, 1983\. While formally having the status of a province (*nahang*), Artsakh possibly formed a [principality](/wiki/Principality "Principality") on its own — like Armenia's province of Syunik. Other theories suggest that Artsakh was a [royal land](/wiki/Royal_land "Royal land"), belonging directly to the king of Armenia.Hewsen. Armenia, pp. 100–103\. King [Tigran the Great](/wiki/Tigran_the_Great "Tigran the Great") of Armenia (who ruled from 95 to 55 BC) founded in Artsakh one of four cities named "Tigranakert" after himself.{{Cite web\|url\=http://vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/sebeos/0326\.html\|title\=ИСТОРИЯ ИМПЕРАТОРА ИРАКЛА. Сочинене епископа Себеоса, писателя VII века. Пер. с армянского К.Патканяна.\|website\=vehi.net\|access\-date\=25 December 2008\|archive\-date\=30 March 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330014746/http://vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/sebeos/0326\.html\|url\-status\=live}} The ruins of the ancient [Tigranakert](/wiki/Tigranakert_of_Artsakh "Tigranakert of Artsakh"), located {{convert\|30\|mi\|\-1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} north\-east of [Stepanakert](/wiki/Stepanakert "Stepanakert"), are being studied by a group of international scholars.
In 387 AD, after the partition of Armenia between the Roman Empire and [Sassanid Persia](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire "Sassanid Empire"), two Armenian provinces — Artsakh and [Utik](/wiki/Utik "Utik") — became part of the Sassanid [satrapy of Caucasian Albania](/wiki/Albania_%28satrapy%29 "Albania (satrapy)"), which in turn came under strong Armenian religious and cultural influence.{{cite web \|title\=Azerbaijan \|author\=Evgeny Dmitrievich Silaev \|date\=13 June 2023 \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Azerbaijan \|publisher\=\[\[Encyclopædia Britannica]] \|access\-date\=15 January 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 November 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118105319/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article\-129462/Azerbaijan \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|author\=Walker, Christopher J. \|title\=Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity \|publisher\=Minority Rights Group Publications \|page\=10 \|date\=1991 \|url\= https://archive.org/details/armeniaandkarabagh }} At the time the population of Artsakh and Utik consisted of Armenians and several Armenized tribes.
Armenian culture and civilization flourished in the early medieval Nagorno\-Karabakh. In the 5th century, the first\-ever Armenian school was opened on the territory of modern Nagorno\-Karabakh at [Amaras Monastery](/wiki/Amaras_Monastery "Amaras Monastery") through the efforts of St. [Mesrop Mashtots](/wiki/Mesrop_Mashtots "Mesrop Mashtots"), the inventor of the [Armenian alphabet](/wiki/Armenian_alphabet "Armenian alphabet").Viviano, Frank. "The Rebirth of Armenia", *National Geographic Magazine*, March 2004, p. 18, St. Mesrop was very active in preaching the Gospel in Artsakh and Utik. Overall, Mesrop Mashtots made three trips to Artsakh and Utik, ultimately reaching pagan territories at the foothills of the [Greater Caucasus](/wiki/Greater_Caucasus "Greater Caucasus").Movses Kalankatuatsi. *History of the Land of Aluank*, Book I, chapters 27, 28 and 29; Book II, chapter 3\. The 7th\-century Armenian linguist and grammarian Stephanos Syunetsi stated in his work that Armenians of Artsakh had their own dialect, and encouraged his readers to learn it.Н.Адонц. «Дионисий Фракийский и армянские толкователи», Пг., 1915, 181—219
### High Middle Ages
{{main\|Principality of Khachen}}
Around the mid 7th century, the region was conquered by the invading Muslim Arabs through the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia "Muslim conquest of Persia"). Subsequently, it was ruled by local governors endorsed by the [Caliphate](/wiki/Caliphate "Caliphate"). According to some sources, in 821 the Armenian[The Cambridge History of Iran](https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061953/https://books.google.com/books?id\=hvx9jq\_2L3EC \|date\=23 September 2023 }}. — [Cambridge University Press](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"), 1975\. — vol. 4\. — p. 506 "*He was handed to Afshin's troops by Sahl b. Sunbadh, an Armenian prince in 222/836\-7, and executed in Samarra (223/837\) while his brother and assistant 'Abd\-Allah was delivered to the prince of Tabaristan, Ibn Sharvin, who had him put to death in Baghdad.*" prince [Sahl Smbatian](/wiki/Sahl_Smbatian "Sahl Smbatian") revolted in Artsakh and established the [House of Khachen](/wiki/House_of_Khachen "House of Khachen"), which ruled Artsakh as a [principality](/wiki/Principality_of_Khachen "Principality of Khachen") until the early 19th century.[Robert H. Hewsen](/wiki/Robert_H._Hewsen "Robert H. Hewsen"), *Armenia: A Historical Atlas*. The University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 119, 155, 163, 264–65\. According to other sources, Sahl Smbatian "was of the Zamirhakan family of kings," and in the year 837–838 he acquired sovereignty over Armenia, Georgia, and Albania.{{Cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/Binder1\_201404/Binder1\_djvu.txt\|title\=The History of the Caucasian Albanians By Movses Dasxuranci\|last\=Movses Dasxuranci translated by C. J. F. Dowsett\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=1961\|location\=London\|pages\=217}}{{Cite book\|title\=Тер\-Григорян Т.И. Неизданные страницы "Истории Албанской страны"Моисея Каланкайтукского. Архив Ин\-та истории АН Азерб. ССР, № 1386, л.18}} The name "Khachen" originated from Armenian word "khach," which means "cross".Christopher Walker. The Armenian presence in Mountainous Karabakh, in John F. R. Wright et al.: *Transcaucasian Boundaries* (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics). 1995, p. 93 By 1000 the House of Khachen proclaimed the [Kingdom of Artsakh](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh "Kingdom of Artsakh") with [John Senecherib](/wiki/John_Senecherib "John Senecherib") as its first ruler.Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh", in T. Samuelian \& M. Stone, eds. *Medieval Armenian Culture*. Chico, CA, 1983 Initially [Dizak](/wiki/Dizak "Dizak") in southern Artsakh also formed a kingdom ruled by the ancient [House of Aranshahik](/wiki/Aranshahik "Aranshahik"), descended from the earliest Kings of Caucasian Albania. In 1261, after the daughter of the last king of Dizak married the king of Artsakh, Armenian[Arḡūn Āqā — Encyclopædia Iranica.](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/argun-aqa-a-mongol-administrator-in-iran-d-1275) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517001944/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/argun\-aqa\-a\-mongol\-administrator\-in\-iran\-d\-1275 \|date\=17 May 2012 }} [P. Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28historian%29 "Peter Jackson (historian)") "*It can only have caused resentment among the Muslims, and the Christian author Kirakos, in stark contrast with Jovaynī, has nothing favorable to say concerning Arḡūn’s exactions: his harsh treatment of certain Armenian princes, such as Jalāl of Ḵačen, whom he had executed in 659/1261, made him especially hateful.*" prince [Hasan Jalal Dola](/wiki/House_of_Hasan-Jalalyan "House of Hasan-Jalalyan"), the two states merged into one Armenian{{cite web \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Armenia/Administration\-and\-social\-conditions \|title\=Armenia {{!}} Geography, Population, Map, Religion, \& History \|author\= \|date\=13 June 2023 \|publisher\=\[\[Encyclopædia Britannica]] \|quote\=A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori, the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan, and the principates of Khachen (Artzakh) and Sasun." \|access\-date\=23 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=28 April 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428164747/https://www.britannica.com/place/Armenia \|url\-status\=live }} [Principality of Khachen](/wiki/Principality_of_Khachen "Principality of Khachen"). Subsequently, Artsakh continued to exist as a de facto independent principality.
### Late Middle Ages
{{main\|Karabakh Khanate\|Melikdoms of Karabakh}}
[thumb\|250px\|The [Shusha fortress](/wiki/Shusha_fortress "Shusha fortress"), built by the [Karabakh Khanate](/wiki/Karabakh_Khanate "Karabakh Khanate") ruler [Panah Ali Khan](/wiki/Panah_Ali_Khan "Panah Ali Khan") in the 18th century](/wiki/File:%C5%9Eu%C5%9Fa_qalas%C4%B1_%282%29.jpg "Şuşa qalası (2).jpg")
[thumb\|250px\|left\|The semi\-independent [*Five Principalities*](/wiki/Melikdoms_of_Karabakh "Melikdoms of Karabakh") (Armenian: Խամսայի Մելիքություններ) of Karabakh (Gyulistan, Jraberd, Khachen, Varanda, and Dizak), widely considered to be the last relic of Armenian statehood (15th–19th century).Robert H. Hewsen. Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828\. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37{{cite book \|author\=George A. Bournoutian \|title\=A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh\-e Qarabagh \|publisher\=Mazda Publishers \|date\=1994 \|isbn\=1\-56859\-011\-3}}](/wiki/File:Five_principalities_of_karabakh.png "Five principalities of karabakh.png")
In the 15th century, the territory of Karabakh was part of the states ruled subsequently by the [Kara Koyunlu](/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu "Kara Koyunlu") and [Ak Koyunlu](/wiki/Ak_Koyunlu "Ak Koyunlu") [Turkic](/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples") tribal confederations. According to [Abu Bakr Tihrani](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_Tihrani "Abu Bakr Tihrani"), during the period of [Jahan Shah](/wiki/Jahan_Shah "Jahan Shah") (1438–1468\), the ruler of Kara Koyunlu, Piri bey Karamanli held the governorship of Karabakh.{{Cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/KitabEDiyarbakriya\-AbuBakrTehraniFarsi\|title\=(original) کتاب دیاربکریه: از تواریخ قراقوینلو و چغاتای. ویسنده: ابوبکر طهرانی. به تصحیح و اهتمام: نجاتی لوغال، فاروق سومه. تهران : کتابخانه طهوری،۱۳۵۶.\|last\=Abū Bakr Ṭihrānī. Kitāb\-i Diyārbakriyya\|pages\=138}} However, according to [Robert H. Hewsen](/wiki/Robert_H._Hewsen "Robert H. Hewsen"), the [Turkoman](/wiki/Turkmen_people "Turkmen people") lord [Jahan Shah](/wiki/Jahan_Shah "Jahan Shah") (1437–67\) assigned the governorship of upper Karabakh to local Armenian princes, allowing a native Armenian leadership to emerge consisting of five noble families led by princes who held the titles of *[meliks](/wiki/Melik "Melik")*. These dynasties represented the branches of the earlier House of Khachen and were the descendants of the medieval kings of Artsakh. Their lands were often referred to as the Country of [Khamsa](/wiki/Principality_of_Khachen "Principality of Khachen") (*five* in Arabic). In a Charter (2 June 1799\) of the Emperor [Paul I](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia") titled "About their admission to Russian suzerainty, land allocation, rights and privileges", it was noted that the Christian heritage of the Karabakh region and all their people were admitted to the Russian suzerainty.{{Cite book\|title\=Полное Собрание Законов Российской Империи c 1649 года. Том XXV. 1798–1799\. СПб.: Печатано в Типографии II Отделения Собственной Его Императорского Величества Канцелярии, 1830, № 18\.990, c.674–675\. (Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire since 1649\. Volume XXV. 1798–1799\. SPb .: Printed at the Printing House of the II Branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Office, 1830, No. 18\.990, p.674\-675\)}} However, according to [Robert Hewsen](/wiki/Robert_H._Hewsen "Robert H. Hewsen"), the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") recognized the [sovereign](/wiki/Sovereignty "Sovereignty") status of the five princes in their domains by the charter of Emperor Paul I dated 2 June 1799\.Robert H. Hewsen. *Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828*. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37\.
The Armenian meliks were granted supreme command over neighbouring Armenian principalities and Muslim khans in the Caucasus by the Iranian king [Nader Shah](/wiki/Nader_Shah "Nader Shah"), in return for the meliks' victories over the invading [Ottoman Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Turks "Ottoman Turks") in the 1720s.Walker, Christopher J. *Armenia: Survival of a Nation*. London: Routledge, 1990 p. 40 {{ISBN\|0\-415\-04684\-X}} These five principalitiesRaffi, The History of Karabagh's Meliks, Vienna, 1906, in ArmenianIn English, Raffi, *The Five Melikdoms of Karabagh* translated by Ara Stepan Melkonian, Garod Books Ltd. 2010, London. {{ISBN\|9781903656570}} in Karabakh were ruled by Armenian families who had received the title Melik (prince) and were the following:
* **Principality of *Gulistan*** – under the leadership of the Melik\-Beglarian family
* **Principality of *Jraberd*** – under the leadership of the Melik\-Israelian family
* **Principality of *[Khachen](/wiki/Khachen "Khachen")*** – under the leadership of the [Hasan\-Jalalian](/wiki/Hasan_Jalalyan "Hasan Jalalyan") family
* **Principality of *Varanda*** – under the leadership of the Melik\-Shahnazarian family
* **Principality of *[Dizak](/wiki/Dizak "Dizak")*** – under the leadership of the Melik\-Avanian family
From 1501 to 1736, during the existence of the [Safavid Empire](/wiki/Safavid_Empire "Safavid Empire"), the province of Karabakh was governed by the [Ziyadoghlu Qajar](/wiki/Ziyadoghlu_Qajar "Ziyadoghlu Qajar") dynasty, until [Nader Shah](/wiki/Nader_Shah "Nader Shah") took over Karabakh from their rule.{{Cite book\|title\=Павлова И.К. Хроника времен Сефевидов. Соч. Мухаммад\-Масума Исфахани "Хуласат ас\-сийар". М.:Наука, 1993, c.59–61\.}} The Armenian meliks maintained full control over the region until the mid\-18th century.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2018}} In the early 18th century, Iran's Nader Shah took Karabakh out of control of the Ganja khans in punishment for their support of the [Safavids](/wiki/Safavid "Safavid"), and placed it under his own control{{in lang\|ru}} [Abbas\-gulu Aga Bakikhanov. Golestan\-i Iram](http://vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220125707/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5\.htm \|date\=20 February 2007 }}; according to an 18th\-century local Turkic\-Muslim writer Mirza Adigezal bey, Nadir shah placed Karabakh under his own control, while a 19th\-century local Turkic Muslim writer Abbas\-gulu Aga Bakikhanov states that the shah placed Karabakh under the control of the governor of Tabriz.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus14/Karabag\_name/text1\.phtml?id\=945\|title\=МИРЗА АДИГЕЗАЛЬ\-БЕК\-\>КАРАБАГ\-НАМЕ\-\>ГЛАВЫ 1–6\|website\=www.vostlit.info\|access\-date\=26 December 2006\|archive\-date\=21 August 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821124203/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus14/Karabag\_name/text1\.phtml?id\=945\|url\-status\=live}} In the mid\-18th century, as internal conflicts between the meliks led to their weakening, the Karabakh Khanate was formed. The [Karabakh khanate](/wiki/Karabakh_khanate "Karabakh khanate"), one of the largest [khanates](/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus "Khanates of the Caucasus") under [Iranian](/wiki/Iran "Iran") suzerainty,{{cite book\|last1\=Bournoutian\|first1\=George A.\|title\=The 1820 Russian Survey of the Khanate of Shirvan: A Primary Source on the Demography and Economy of an Iranian Province prior to its Annexation by Russia\|date\=2016\|publisher\=Gibb Memorial Trust\|page\=xvii\|quote\=''Serious historians and geographers agree that after the fall of the Safavids, and especially from the mid\-eighteenth century, the territory of the South Caucasus was composed of the khanates of Ganja, Kuba, Shirvan, Baku, Talesh, Sheki, Karabagh, Nakhchivan and Yerevan, all of which were under Iranian suzerainty.'' \|isbn\=978\-1909724808}} was headed by [Panah\-Ali khan Javanshir](/wiki/Panah-Ali_khan_Javanshir "Panah-Ali khan Javanshir"). For the reinforcement of the power of Karabakh khanate, Khan of Karabakh, Panah\-Ali khan Javanshir, built up “[the fortress of Panahabad](/wiki/Shusha_fortress "Shusha fortress") (today Shusha)” in 1751\. During that time, Otuziki, [Javanshir](/wiki/Javanshir_clan "Javanshir clan"), Kebirli, and other Turkic tribes constituted the majority of the overall population.
### Modern era
[thumb\|[Palace](/wiki/Palace_of_Karabakh_Khans "Palace of Karabakh Khans") of the former ruler (khan) of [Shusha](/wiki/Shusha "Shusha"). Taken from a postcard from the late 19th–early 20th century.](/wiki/File:%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86_%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0.jpg "Шушинский Ханский Дворец Дочери Хана.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|300px\|Aftermath of the [Shusha massacre](/wiki/Shusha_massacre "Shusha massacre"): Armenian half of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920, with the defiled [Armenian Cathedral of the Holy Savior](/wiki/Ghazanchetsots_Cathedral "Ghazanchetsots Cathedral") in the background.](/wiki/File:Armenian_boroughs_of_city_of_Shusha_destroyed_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces_in_1920_with_defiled_cathedral_of_Holy_Savior_on_background.jpg "Armenian boroughs of city of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920 with defiled cathedral of Holy Savior on background.jpg")
[Karabakh](/wiki/Karabakh "Karabakh") (including modern\-day Nagorno\-Karabakh), became a [protectorate](/wiki/Protectorate "Protectorate") of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") by the [Kurekchay Treaty](/wiki/The_Treaty_of_Kurakchay "The Treaty of Kurakchay"), signed between [Ibrahim Khalil Khan](/wiki/Ibrahim_Khalil_Khan "Ibrahim Khalil Khan") of Karabakh and general [Pavel Tsitsianov](/wiki/Pavel_Tsitsianov "Pavel Tsitsianov") on behalf of Tsar [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia "Alexander I of Russia") in 1805, according to which the Russian monarch recognized Ibrahim Khalil Khan and his descendants as the sole hereditary rulers of the region.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.km.ru/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030613014623/http://hronos.km.ru/dokum/azer1805\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=KM.RU – новости, экономика, автомобили, наука и техника, кино, музыка, спорт, игры, анекдоты, курсы валют \| KM.RU\|archive\-date\=13 June 2003\|website\=www.km.ru}}Muriel Atkin. *The Strange Death of Ibrahim Khalil Khan of Qarabagh*. Iranian Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Winter – Spring, 1979\), pp. 79–107George A. Bournoutian. *A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh\-e Qarabagh*. Mazda Publishers, 1994\. {{ISBN\|1\-56859\-011\-3}}, 978\-1\-568\-59011\-0 However, its new status was only confirmed following the outcome of the [Russo\-Persian War (1804\-1813\)](/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_%281804-1813%29 "Russo-Persian War (1804-1813)"), when through the loss in the war, Persia formally ceded Karabakh to the Russian Empire per the [Treaty of Gulistan](/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan "Treaty of Gulistan") (1813\),Tim Potier. [M1 *Conflict in Nagorno\-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal*](https://books.google.com/books?id=JL9N4F1SgyYC&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh&pg=PA1) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121408/https://books.google.com/books?id\=JL9N4F1SgyYC\&dq\=treaty\+of\+Gulistan\+Karabakh\&pg\=PA1 \|date\=9 September 2023 }}. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001, p. 2\. {{ISBN\|90\-411\-1477\-7}}.Leonidas Themistocles Chrysanthopoulos. [*Caucasus Chronicles: Nation\-building and Diplomacy in Armenia, 1993–1994*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cELfINDAH0oC&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh&pg=PA8) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121409/https://books.google.com/books?id\=cELfINDAH0oC\&dq\=treaty\+of\+Gulistan\+Karabakh\&pg\=PA8 \|date\=9 September 2023 }}. [Gomidas Institute](/wiki/Gomidas_Institute "Gomidas Institute"), 2002, p. 8\. {{ISBN\|1\-884630\-05\-7}}.[*The British and Foreign Review*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LyhdAAAAMAAJ&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh+The+British+and+Foreign+Review&pg=RA1-PA422) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121408/https://books.google.com/books?id\=LyhdAAAAMAAJ\&dq\=treaty\+of\+Gulistan\+Karabakh\+The\+British\+and\+Foreign\+Review\&pg\=RA1\-PA422 \|date\=9 September 2023 }}. J. Ridgeway and sons, 1838, p. 422\.Taru Bahl, M.H. Syed. [*Encyclopaedia of the Muslim World*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MJTdr3JI46wC&q=Karabagh&pg=PA34){{Dead link\|date\=February 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}. Anmol Publications PVT, 2003 p. 34\. {{ISBN\|81\-261\-1419\-3}}. before the rest of [Transcaucasia](/wiki/Transcaucasia "Transcaucasia") was incorporated into the Empire in 1828 by the [Treaty of Turkmenchay](/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay "Treaty of Turkmenchay"), which came as an outcome of the [Russo\-Persian War (1826\-1828\)](/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_%281826-1828%29 "Russo-Persian War (1826-1828)").
In 1822, 9 years after it passed from Iranian to Russian control, the Karabakh Khanate was dissolved and the area became part of the [Elizavetpol Governorate](/wiki/Elizavetpol_Governorate "Elizavetpol Governorate") within the Russian Empire. In 1823 the five districts corresponding roughly to modern\-day Nagorno\-Karabakh were 90\.8% Armenian\-populated.*Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd* ({{lang\-ru\|Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2\-m\|script\=Latn}}), Tbilisi, 1866\.Bournoutian, George A. *A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh\-E Qarabagh*. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18
### Soviet era
{{main\|Nagorno\-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast}}
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Nagorno\-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast in the Soviet era.](/wiki/File:Nagorno_Karabakh03.png "Nagorno Karabakh03.png")
[thumb\|Ethnic make\-up of Nagorno\-Karabakh in the late Soviet era.](/wiki/File:Nagorno_Karabakh_Ethnic_Map_1989.png "Nagorno Karabakh Ethnic Map 1989.png")
After the [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution"), Karabakh became part of the [Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Democratic_Federative_Republic "Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic"), but this soon dissolved into separate [Armenian](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia "First Republic of Armenia"), [Azerbaijani](/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic "Azerbaijan Democratic Republic"), and [Georgian](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia "Democratic Republic of Georgia") states. Over the next two years (1918–1920\), there were a series of [short wars](/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_%281918%E2%80%931920%29 "Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)") between Armenia and Azerbaijan over several regions, including Nagorno\-Karabakh. Between 1918 and 1920, Nagorno\-Karabakh's [de jure](/wiki/De_jure "De jure") affiliation with Armenia or Azerbaijan was disputed and not adjudicated by the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations").{{Cite web \|last\=Krüger \|first\=Heiko \|date\=June 2014 \|title\=Nagorno\-Karabakh \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/book/3811/chapter/145283746 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-02 \|website\=academic.oup.com \|pages\=214–232 \|doi\=10\.1093/acprof:oso/9780198702375\.003\.0011 \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-870237\-5 \|archive\-date\=23 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061927/https://academic.oup.com/book/3811/chapter\-abstract/145283746?redirectedFrom\=fulltext \|url\-status\=live }}{{Citation \|last\=Gardner \|first\=Anne\-Marie \|title\=Nagorno\-Karabakh: Balancing Standards? \|date\=2011 \|url\=http://link.springer.com/10\.1057/9780230117600\_4 \|work\=Democratic Governance and Non\-State Actors \|pages\=71–103 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-02 \|place\=New York \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan US \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1057/9780230117600\_4 \|isbn\=978\-1\-349\-29153\-3 \|archive\-date\=23 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061933/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10\.1057/9780230117600\_4 \|url\-status\=live }}
In July 1918, the First Armenian Assembly of Nagorno\-Karabakh declared the region self\-governing and created a National Council and government.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf \|title\= ''The Nagorno\-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution'' \|access\-date\= 16 February 2006 \|archive\-date\= 30 March 2019 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20190330205744/https://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf \|url\-status\= live }}, New England Center for International Law \& Policy Later, Ottoman troops entered Karabakh, meeting armed resistance by Armenians.
After the defeat of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") in World War I, British troops occupied Karabakh. The British command provisionally affirmed [Khosrov bey Sultanov](/wiki/Khosrov_bey_Sultanov "Khosrov bey Sultanov") (appointed by the Azerbaijani government) as the governor\-general of Karabakh and [Zangezur](/wiki/Zangezur_Uyezd "Zangezur Uyezd"), pending a final decision by the [Paris Peace Conference](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919 "Paris Peace Conference, 1919").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk\_file/article/3\.html \|title\=Circular by colonel D. I. Shuttleworth of the British Command \|access\-date\=5 September 2006 \|archive\-date\=7 May 2006 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060507144914/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk\_file/article/3\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} The decision was opposed by Karabakh Armenians. In February 1920, the Karabakh National Council preliminarily agreed to Azerbaijani jurisdiction, while Armenians elsewhere in Karabakh continued guerrilla fighting, never accepting the agreement. The agreement itself was soon annulled by the Ninth Karabagh Assembly, which declared union with Armenia in April.*Conflict in Nagorno\-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal* by Tim Potier. {{ISBN\|90\-411\-1477\-7}}
In April 1920, while the Azerbaijani army was locked in Karabakh fighting local Armenian forces, Azerbaijan was [taken over](/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan "Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan") by [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolshevik "Bolshevik"). On 10 August 1920, Armenia signed a preliminary agreement with the Bolsheviks, agreeing to a temporary Bolshevik occupation of these areas until final settlement would be reached.Walker. *The Survival of a Nation*. pp. 285–90 In 1921, [Armenia](/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia "Red Army invasion of Armenia") and [Georgia](/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia "Red Army invasion of Georgia") were also taken over by the Bolsheviks. After the [Sovietization](/wiki/Sovietization "Sovietization") of Armenia and Azerbaijan, the [Kavbiuro](/wiki/Kavbiuro "Kavbiuro") (Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the [Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)](/wiki/Russian_Communist_Party_%28Bolshevik%29 "Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)")) decided that Karabakh would remain within [Azerbaijan SSR](/wiki/Azerbaijan_SSR "Azerbaijan SSR") with broad regional autonomy, with the administrative centre in the city of [Shusha](/wiki/Shusha "Shusha") (the administrative center was later moved to [Stepanakert](/wiki/Stepanakert "Stepanakert")).{{cite web \|url\=https://armenian.usc.edu/qa\-with\-arsene\-saparov\-no\-evidence\-that\-stalin\-gave\-karabakh\-to\-azerbaijan/ \|title\=Q\&A with Arsène Saparov: No Evidence that Stalin "gave" Karabakh to Azerbaijan \|author\= \|date\=10 December 2018 \|website\=armenian.usc.edu \|quote\=Of all the documents I have seen, there is no direct evidence of Stalin doing or saying something in those 12 days in the summer of 1921 that \[resulted in this decision on Karabakh]. A lot of people just assume that since Stalin was an evil person, it would be typical of someone evil to take a decision like that. \|access\-date\=31 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=15 December 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215061933/https://armenian.usc.edu/qa\-with\-arsene\-saparov\-no\-evidence\-that\-stalin\-gave\-karabakh\-to\-azerbaijan/ \|url\-status\=live }} The oblast's borders were drawn to include Armenian villages and to exclude as much as possible Azerbaijani villages.{{cite book \|last\=Potier \|first\=Tim \|author\-link\= \|date\=2001 \|title\=Conflict in Nagorno\-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, A Legal Appraisal\|location\=The Hague, Netherlands \|publisher\=Kluwer Law International \|page\=5 \|isbn\=9041114777}} The resulting district ensured an Armenian majority.
With the Soviet Union firmly in control of the region, the [conflict](/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict "Nagorno-Karabakh conflict") over the region died down for several decades until the beginning of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the question of Nagorno\-Karabakh re\-emerged. Accusing the Azerbaijani SSR government of conducting forced Azerification of the region, the majority Armenian population, with ideological and material support from the [Armenian SSR](/wiki/Armenian_SSR "Armenian SSR"), started a movement to have the autonomous oblast transferred to the Armenian SSR.Audrey L. Altstadt. *The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule*. Hoover Press, 1992\. {{ISBN\|0817991824}}, 9780817991821 In August 1987, Karabakh Armenians sent a petition for union with Armenia with tens of thousands of signatures to Moscow.Black Garden, Thomas de Waal, page 292
### War and secession
{{main\|First Nagorno\-Karabakh War}}
[thumb\|right\|A restored Armenian [T\-72](/wiki/T-72 "T-72"), knocked out of commission while attacking Azeri positions in [Askeran District](/wiki/Askeran_District_%28NKAO%29 "Askeran District (NKAO)"), serves as a war memorial on the outskirts of Stepanakert.](/wiki/File:Askeran_T-72.jpg "Askeran T-72.jpg")
On 13 February 1988, Karabakh Armenians began demonstrating in [Stepanakert](/wiki/Stepanakert "Stepanakert"), in favour of unification with the Armenian republic. Six days later they were joined by mass marches in [Yerevan](/wiki/Yerevan "Yerevan"). On 20 February, the Soviet of People's Deputies in Karabakh voted 110 to 17 to request the transfer of the region to Armenia. This unprecedented action by a regional Soviet brought out tens of thousands of demonstrations both in Stepanakert and Yerevan, but Moscow rejected the Armenians' demands. On 20 February 1988, 2 Azeri girls were raped in Stepanakert.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2023}} This caused widespread outrage in the Azeri town of [Aghdam](/wiki/Aghdam "Aghdam"). The first direct confrontation of the conflict occurred as a large group of Azeris marched from [Agdam](/wiki/Agdam_%28rayon%29 "Agdam (rayon)") to the Armenian populated town of Askeran.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2023}} The confrontation between the Azeris and the police near Askeran degenerated into the [Askeran clash](/wiki/Askeran_clash "Askeran clash"), which left two Azeris dead, one of them allegedly killed by an Azeri police officer. Fifty Armenian villagers and an unknown number of Azeris and police officers were injured.Black Garden Thomas de Waal, p.15Elizabeth Fuller, *Nagorno\-Karabakh: The Death and Casualty Toll to Date*, RL 531/88, 14 December 1988, pp. 1–2{{cite book\| last \=de Waal \| first \= Thomas \| author\-link \= Thomas de Waal\| title \= Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War\| publisher \= \[\[New York University Press]]\| year \= 2003 \| location \= New York\| isbn \= 0\-8147\-1945\-7}} Large numbers of refugees left Armenia and Azerbaijan as violence began against the minority populations of the respective republics.{{cite book \|last \= Lieberman \|first \= Benjamin \|title \= Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe \|publisher \= Ivan R. Dee \|year \= 2006 \|location \= Chicago \|pages \= 284–92 \|isbn \= 1\-5666\-3646\-9}} On 7 July 1988, the European Parliament passed a resolution that condemned the violence employed against Armenian demonstrators in Azerbaijan, and supported the demand of the Armenians for reunification with the Soviet Republic of Armenia.[RESOLUTION on the situation in Soviet Armenia](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:JOC_1988_235_R_0080_01) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608140305/https://eur\-lex.europa.eu/legal\-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri\=OJ:JOC\_1988\_235\_R\_0080\_01 \|date\=8 June 2022 }} page 21
On 29 November 1989, direct rule in Nagorno\-Karabakh was ended and the region was returned to Azerbaijani administration.{{cite book \| title \= The Encyclopedia of World History\| publisher \=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt \| year \= 2001 \| page \= 906 }} The Soviet policy backfired, however, when a joint session of the Armenian [Supreme Soviet](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet "Supreme Soviet") and the National Council, the legislative body of Nagorno\-Karabakh, proclaimed the unification of Nagorno\-Karabakh with Armenia.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2007}} On 26 November 1991 Azerbaijan [abolished the status of Nagorno\-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast](/wiki/Law_on_Abolishment_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_Autonomous_Oblast "Law on Abolishment of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast"), rearranging the [administrative division](/wiki/Azerbaijani_administrative_divisions_of_Nagorno-Karabakh "Azerbaijani administrative divisions of Nagorno-Karabakh") and bringing the territory under direct control of Azerbaijan.{{cite book \|title\=Where nation\-states come from: institutional change in the age of nationalism \|last1\=Roeder \|first1\=Philip G. \|year\=2007 \|publisher\=Princeton University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-691\-13467\-3 \|page\=51 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XAItI5C\_JPUC\&q\=Nagorno\-Karabakh\+Autonomous\+Oblast\+was\+created\&pg\=PA51 \|access\-date\=10 October 2011 \|archive\-date\=23 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923062214/https://books.google.com/books?id\=XAItI5C\_JPUC\&q\=Nagorno\-Karabakh\+Autonomous\+Oblast\+was\+created\&pg\=PA51 \|url\-status\=live }}
On 10 December 1991, in a referendum boycotted by local Azerbaijanis, Armenians in Nagorno\-Karabakh approved the creation of an independent state. A Soviet proposal for enhanced autonomy for Nagorno\-Karabakh within Azerbaijan satisfied neither side and [a full\-scale war](/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War "First Nagorno-Karabakh War") subsequently erupted between Azerbaijan and Nagorno\-Karabakh, with the latter receiving support from Armenia.[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"). *[Playing the "Communal Card". Communal Violence and Human Rights](http://hrw.org/reports/1995/communal/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011042435/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/communal/ \|date\=11 October 2012 }}*: "By early 1992 full\-scale fighting broke out between Nagorno\-Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijani authorities." / "...Karabakh Armenian forces—often with the support of forces from the Republic of Armenia—conducted large\-scale operations..." / "Because 1993 witnessed unrelenting Karabakh Armenian offensives against the Azerbaijani provinces surrounding Nagorno\-Karabakh..." / "Since late 1993, the conflict has also clearly become internationalized: in addition to Azerbaijani and Karabakh Armenian forces, troops from the Republic of Armenia participate on the Karabakh side in fighting inside Azerbaijan and in Nagorno\-Karabakh."[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"). *[The former Soviet Union. Human Rights Developments](https://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Hsw-07.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218230025/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Hsw\-07\.htm \|date\=18 February 2015 }}*: "In 1992 the conflict grew far more lethal as both sides—the Azerbaijani National Army and free\-lance militias fighting along with it, and ethnic Armenians and mercenaries fighting in the Popular Liberation Army of Artsakh—began."[United States Institute of Peace](/wiki/United_States_Institute_of_Peace "United States Institute of Peace"). [*Nagorno\-Karabakh Searching for a Solution*. Foreword](http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks25/forewrd25.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202233445/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks25/forewrd25\.html \|date\=2 December 2008 }}: "Nagorno\-Karabakh’s armed forces have not only fortified their region but have also occupied a large swath of surrounding Azeri territory in the hopes of linking the enclave to Armenia."[United States Institute of Peace](/wiki/United_States_Institute_of_Peace "United States Institute of Peace"). *[Sovereignty after Empire. Self\-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union. Hopes and Disappointments: Case Studies](http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks19/chap3_19.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201052200/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks19/chap3\_19\.html \|date\=1 December 2008 }}* "Meanwhile, the conflict over Nagorno\-Karabakh was gradually transforming into a full\-scale war between Azeri and Karabakh irregulars, the latter receiving support from Armenia." / "Azerbaijan's objective advantage in terms of human and economic potential has so far been offset by the superior fighting skills and discipline of Nagorno\-Karabakh's forces. After a series of offensives, retreats, and counteroffensives, Nagorno\-Karabakh now controls a sizable portion of Azerbaijan proper ... including the Lachin corridor." According to Armenia's former president, [Levon Ter\-Petrossian](/wiki/Levon_Ter-Petrossian "Levon Ter-Petrossian"), the Karabakh leadership approach was maximalist and "they thought they could get more."{{cite news\|title\=By Giving Karabakh Lands to Azerbaijan, Conflict Would Have Ended in '97, Says Ter\-Petrosian\|url\=http://asbarez.com/95222/by\-giving\-karabakh\-lands\-to\-azerbaijan\-conflict\-would\-have\-ended\-in\-%E2%80%9997\-says\-ter\-petrosian/comment\-page\-1/\|newspaper\=Asbarez\|date\=19 April 2011\|agency\=Asbarez\|access\-date\=21 May 2011\|archive\-date\=1 October 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001083625/http://asbarez.com/95222/by\-giving\-karabakh\-lands\-to\-azerbaijan\-conflict\-would\-have\-ended\-in\-%E2%80%9997\-says\-ter\-petrosian/comment\-page\-1/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news\|title\=Ter\-Petrosyan on the BBC: Karabakh conflict could have been resolved by giving certain territories to Azerbaijan\|url\=http://www.armenianow.com/news/29088/terpetrosyan\_bbc\_interview\|newspaper\=ArmeniaNow\|date\=19 April 2011\|agency\=ArmeniaNow\|access\-date\=21 May 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519030034/http://www.armenianow.com/news/29088/terpetrosyan\_bbc\_interview\|archive\-date\=19 May 2011\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news\|title\=Первый президент Армении о распаде СССР и Карабахе\|url\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/multimedia/2011/04/110415\_v\_terpetrosyan\_int.shtml\|newspaper\=BBC\|date\=18 April 2011\|agency\=BBC\|access\-date\=21 May 2011\|archive\-date\=3 September 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903075448/http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/multimedia/2011/04/110415\_v\_terpetrosyan\_int.shtml\|url\-status\=live}}
The struggle over Nagorno\-Karabakh escalated after both Armenia and Azerbaijan attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991\. In the post\-Soviet [power vacuum](/wiki/Power_vacuum "Power vacuum"), military action between Azerbaijan and Armenia was heavily influenced by the [Russian military](/wiki/Military_of_Russia "Military of Russia"). Furthermore, both the Armenian and Azerbaijani military employed a large number of mercenaries from [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine") and Russia.[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"). *Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno\-Karabakh*. December 1994, p. xiii, {{ISBN\|1\-56432\-142\-8}}, citing: Natsional'nyi Sostav Naseleniya SSSR, po dannym Vsesoyuznyi Perepisi Naseleniya 1989 g., Moskva, "Finansy i Statistika" Between fifteen and twenty\-five hundred [Afghan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") [mujahideen](/wiki/Mujahideen "Mujahideen"), along with fighters from [Chechnya](/wiki/Chechnya "Chechnya"), participated in the fighting on Azerbaijan's side. Russia provided Armenia with heavy artillery and tanks. Many survivors from the Azerbaijani side found shelter in 12 emergency camps set up in other parts of Azerbaijan to cope with the growing number of internally displaced people due to the first Nagorno\-Karabakh war.[Azerbaijan closes last of emergency camps](http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/47aaf6734.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124113352/http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/47aaf6734\.html \|date\=24 November 2020 }}, *[UNHCR](/wiki/UNHCR "UNHCR")*
By the end of 1993, the conflict had caused about 30,000 casualties{{Cite web \|date\=2020\-10\-12 \|title\=Armenia, Azerbaijan clash as ceasefire fails to stick \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1584677 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-08 \|website\=\[\[Dawn.com]], \[\[Agence France\-Presse]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=8 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608112150/https://www.dawn.com/news/1584677 \|url\-status\=live }} and created hundreds of thousands of refugees on both sides.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2008}} By May 1994, the Armenians were in control of 14% of the territory of Azerbaijan.{{cite book \|first\=Thomas \|last\=de Waal \|date\=2003 \|title\=Black Garden \|page\=3 \|publisher\=New York University Press \|url\=https://raufray.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/0814719449\.pdf \|access\-date\=6 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=26 February 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226124838/https://raufray.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/0814719449\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} At that stage, for the first time during the conflict, the Azerbaijani government recognized Nagorno\-Karabakh as a third party in the war and started direct negotiations with the Karabakh authorities. As a result, a [ceasefire](/wiki/Bishkek_Protocol "Bishkek Protocol") was reached on 12 May 1994 through Russian mediation.
### Post\-1994 ceasefire
{{Further\|Madrid Principles\|Prague Process (Armenian–Azerbaijani negotiations)\|Nagorno\-Karabakh Declaration\|Astrakhan Declaration\|Land mine situation in Nagorno\-Karabakh\|2016 Nagorno\-Karabakh conflict\|Second Nagorno\-Karabakh War}}
[thumb\|left\|200px\|The final borders of the conflict after the [Bishkek Protocol](/wiki/Bishkek_Protocol "Bishkek Protocol"). Armenian forces of Nagorno\-Karabakh controlled almost 9% of Azerbaijan's territory outside the former Nagorno\-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, while Azerbaijani forces control [Shahumian](/wiki/Shahumian "Shahumian") and the eastern parts of [Martakert](/wiki/Martakert "Martakert") and [Martuni](/wiki/Martuni_Province "Martuni Province").](/wiki/File:Location_Nagorno-Karabakh_en.png "Location Nagorno-Karabakh en.png")
[thumb\|[Ilham Aliyev](/wiki/Ilham_Aliyev "Ilham Aliyev"), [Dmitry Medvedev](/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev "Dmitry Medvedev") and [Serzh Sargsyan](/wiki/Serzh_Sargsyan "Serzh Sargsyan") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") on 2 November 2008](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_2_November_2008-3.jpg "Dmitry Medvedev 2 November 2008-3.jpg")
Despite the ceasefire, fatalities due to armed conflicts between Armenian and Azerbaijani soldiers continued.[No End in Sight to Fighting in Nagorno\-Karabakh](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5357869) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216073814/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=5357869 \|date\=16 December 2018 }} by Ivan Watson/National Public Radio. *Weekend Edition* Sunday, 23 April 2006\. On 25 January 2005, the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe") (PACE) adopted [PACE Resolution 1416](/wiki/PACE_Resolution_1416 "PACE Resolution 1416"), which condemned ethnic cleansing against Azerbaijanis.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/caucas1/msg/2005/02/m38005\.htm \|title\=Проект заявления по Нагорному Карабаху ожидает одобрения парламентских сил Армении \|access\-date\=10 December 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914021543/http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/caucas1/msg/2005/02/m38005\.htm \|archive\-date\=14 September 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }}[Резолюция ПАСЕ по Карабаху: что дальше?](http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/in_depth/newsid_4236000/4236153.stm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325022435/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/in\_depth/newsid\_4236000/4236153\.stm \|date\=25 March 2012 }}. BBC Russian. On 15–17 May 2007 the 34th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the [Organization of Islamic Conference](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Conference "Organization of Islamic Conference") adopted resolution No. 7/34\-P, considering the occupation of Azerbaijani territory as the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan and recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a [crime against humanity](/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity "Crimes against humanity"), and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural and religious monuments in the occupied territories.[Resolutions on Political Affairs](http://www.oic-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM-POL-07-RES-FINAL-ENG.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012122448/http://www.oic\-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM\-POL\-07\-RES\-FINAL\-ENG.pdf \|date\=12 October 2007 }}. The Thirty\-Fourth Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers. The 11th session of the summit of the [Organization of the Islamic Conference](/wiki/Organization_of_the_Islamic_Conference "Organization of the Islamic Conference") held on 13–14 March 2008 in [Dakar](/wiki/Dakar "Dakar") adopted resolution No. 10/11\-P (IS). In the resolution, OIC member states condemned the occupation of Azerbaijani lands by Armenian forces and Armenian aggression against Azerbaijan, ethnic cleansing against the Azeri population, and charged Armenia with the "destruction of cultural monuments in the occupied Azerbaijani territories".[Resolutions on Political Affairs](http://www.oic-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM-POL-07-RES-FINAL-ENG.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012122448/http://www.oic\-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM\-POL\-07\-RES\-FINAL\-ENG.pdf \|date\=12 October 2007 }}. Islamic Summit Conference. 13–14 May 2008 On 14 March of the same year the [UN General Assembly](/wiki/UN_General_Assembly "UN General Assembly") adopted [Resolution No. 62/243](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_62/243 "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 62/243") which "demands the immediate, complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan".{{Cite web\|url\=https://undocs.org/A/RES/62/243\|title\=A/RES/62/243 – E – A/RES/62/243 \-Desktop\|website\=undocs.org\|access\-date\=3 January 2021\|archive\-date\=1 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101140443/http://undocs.org/A/RES/62/243\|url\-status\=live}} On 18–20 May 2010, the 37th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Organization of Islamic Conference in [Dushanbe](/wiki/Dushanbe "Dushanbe") adopted another resolution condemning the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan, recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a crime against humanity and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural, and religious monuments in occupied territories.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.oic\-oci.org/37cfm/en/documents/res/37\-CFM\-POL\-RES\-ENGLISH\-FINAL.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202414/http://www.oic\-oci.org/37cfm/en/documents/res/37\-CFM\-POL\-RES\-ENGLISH\-FINAL.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Resolutions on Political Issues Adopted by the Council of Foreign Ministers (Session of Shared Vision of a More Secure and Prosperous Islamic World) Dushanbe, Republic of Tajikistan 4–6 Jamadul Thani 1431H (18–20 May 2010\)\|archive\-date\=3 March 2016}} On 20 May of the same year, the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") in [Strasbourg](/wiki/Strasbourg "Strasbourg") adopted the resolution on "The need for an EU Strategy for the South Caucasus" on the basis of the report by [Evgeni Kirilov](/wiki/Evgeni_Kirilov "Evgeni Kirilov"), the Bulgarian member of the Parliament."[FM: Azerbaijan welcomes resolution 'Need for EU Strategy for South Caucasus' adopted by European Parliament](http://en.trend.az/news/politics/foreign/1692167.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719181653/http://en.trend.az/news/politics/foreign/1692167\.html \|date\=19 July 2011 }}." *Trend.az*. 21 May 2010\."[EU's Ashton Says Nagorno\-Karabakh Elections Illegal](http://www.rferl.org/content/EU_Foreign_Policy_Chief_Says_NagornoKarabakh_Elections_Illegal/2049465.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507194752/http://www.rferl.org/content/EU\_Foreign\_Policy\_Chief\_Says\_NagornoKarabakh\_Elections\_Illegal/2049465\.html \|date\=7 May 2016 }}." *RFE/RL*. 21 May 2010\. The resolution states in particular that "the occupied Azerbaijani regions around Nagorno\-Karabakh must be cleared as soon as possible".[Bulgarian MEPs Urge EU to Be Proactive in South Caucasus](http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=116403) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210232405/http://www.novinite.com/view\_news.php?id\=116403 \|date\=10 December 2017 }}. On 26 January 2016, the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe") (PACE) adopted [Resolution 2085](/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly_Resolution_2085_%282016%29 "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 2085 (2016)"), which deplored the fact that the occupation by Armenia of Nagorno\-Karabakh and other adjacent areas of Azerbaijan creates humanitarian and environmental problems for the citizens of Azerbaijan, condemned ethnic cleansing against Azerbaijanis and Assembly requested immediate withdrawal of Armenian armed forces from the region concerned.{{Cite news\|url\=http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref\-XML2HTML\-EN.asp?fileid\=22429⟨\=en\|title\=Inhabitants of frontier regions of Azerbaijan are deliberately deprived of water\|work\=Parliamentary Assembly of Council of Europe\|access\-date\=14 March 2017\|archive\-date\=18 September 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918205203/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref\-XML2HTML\-EN.asp?fileid\=22429⟨\=en\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url\=http://armenianweekly.com/2016/01/26/pace\-adopts\-rejects1/\|title\=PACE Adopts Anti\-Armenian Measure, Rejects Another\|work\=Armenian Weekly\|access\-date\=14 March 2017\|archive\-date\=31 August 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831183232/https://armenianweekly.com/2016/01/26/pace\-adopts\-rejects1/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://sarsang.org/en/sarsang/842\-resolution\-inhabitants\-of\-frontier\-regions\-of\-azerbaijan\-are\-deliberately\-deprived\-of\-water.html\|title\=Resolution: Inhabitants of frontier regions of Azerbaijan are deliberately deprived of water\|website\=sarsang.org\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315002423/http://sarsang.org/en/sarsang/842\-resolution\-inhabitants\-of\-frontier\-regions\-of\-azerbaijan\-are\-deliberately\-deprived\-of\-water.html\|archive\-date\=15 March 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}
Several{{quantify\|date\=May 2016}} world [leaders](/wiki/Leader "Leader") have met with the presidents of Armenia and Azerbaijan over the years, but efforts to maintain the ceasefire have failed."[Azerbaijan military threat to Armenia](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/azerbaijan/6631572/Azerbaijan-military-threat-to-Armenia.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625062958/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/azerbaijan/6631572/Azerbaijan\-military\-threat\-to\-Armenia.html \|date\=25 June 2018 }}." *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph "The Daily Telegraph")*. 22 November 2009\. Retrieved 23 November 2009\.
On 2 April 2016 Azerbaijani and Armenian forces again clashed in the region.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2021}} The [Armenian Defense Ministry](/wiki/Armenian_Defense_Ministry "Armenian Defense Ministry") alleged that Azerbaijan launched an offensive to seize territory in the region. At least 30 soldiers were killed during the fighting and a [Mil Mi\-24](/wiki/Mil_Mi-24 "Mil Mi-24") helicopter and tank were also destroyed, with 12 of the fallen soldiers belonging to the Azerbaijani forces and the other 18 belonging to the Armenian forces, as well as an additional 35 Armenian soldiers reportedly wounded.{{cite news\|last1\= Hodge\|first1\= Nathan\|title\= A Dozen Dead in Heavy Fighting Reported in Nagorno\-Karabakh\|url\= https://www.wsj.com/articles/heavy\-fighting\-reported\-in\-nagorno\-karabakh\-1459597114\|access\-date\= 2 April 2016\|work\= \[\[Wall Street Journal]]\|date\= 2 April 2016\|archive\-date\= 2 April 2016\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402123801/http://www.wsj.com/articles/heavy\-fighting\-reported\-in\-nagorno\-karabakh\-1459597114\|url\-status\= live}}{{Cite web
\|url\= http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/heavy\-fighting\-erupts\-armenian\-azeri\-border\-160402084508361\.html
\|title\= Dozens killed in Nagorno\-Karabakh clashes
\|website\= www.aljazeera.com
\|access\-date\= 3 April 2016
\|archive\-date\= 2 April 2016
\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402213013/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/heavy\-fighting\-erupts\-armenian\-azeri\-border\-160402084508361\.html
\|url\-status\= live
}}
### 2020 war and ceasefire agreement
{{main\|Second Nagorno\-Karabakh War\|2020 Nagorno\-Karabakh ceasefire agreement}}
On 27 September 2020, a [new war](/wiki/Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War "Second Nagorno-Karabakh War") erupted in Nagorno\-Karabakh and the surrounding territories. The United Nations strongly condemned the conflict and called on both sides to deescalate tensions and resume meaningful negotiations without delay.{{Cite web\|date\=30 September 2020\|title\=UN Security Council calls for immediate end to fighting in Nagorno\-Karabakh\|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/20200930\-un\-security\-council\-calls\-for\-immediate\-end\-to\-fighting\-in\-nagorno\-karabakh\|access\-date\=30 September 2020\|website\=France 24\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=9 October 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009133111/https://www.france24\.com/en/20200930\-un\-security\-council\-calls\-for\-immediate\-end\-to\-fighting\-in\-nagorno\-karabakh\|url\-status\=live}}
The war ended on 10 November 2020, when [a trilateral ceasefire agreement](/wiki/2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_ceasefire_agreement "2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement") was signed among Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia.{{Cite web\|title\=Russia Steps In To End War Between 2 Former Soviet Republics\|url\=https://www.npr.org/2020/11/10/933343100/russia\-steps\-in\-to\-end\-war\-between\-2\-former\-soviet\-republics\|access\-date\=10 November 2020\|website\=NPR.org\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=10 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110111758/https://www.npr.org/2020/11/10/933343100/russia\-steps\-in\-to\-end\-war\-between\-2\-former\-soviet\-republics\|url\-status\=live}} According to the ceasefire agreement, Azerbaijan regained all of the [occupied territories surrounding Nagorno\-Karabakh](/wiki/Armenian-occupied_territories_surrounding_Nagorno-Karabakh "Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh") and capturing one\-third of Nagorno\-Karabakh proper, including [Shusha](/wiki/Shusha_District_%28NKAO%29 "Shusha District (NKAO)") and [Hadrut](/wiki/Hadrut_District_%28NKAO%29 "Hadrut District (NKAO)").{{Cite news \|date\=9 November 2020 \|title\=Ethnic Armenian forces confirm loss of Karabakh's second city, say enemy nearing capital \|work\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/armenia\-azerbaijan\-shushi\-int\-idUSKBN27P1WY \|access\-date\=9 November 2020 \|archive\-date\=29 November 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20201129194316/https://www.reuters.com/article/armenia\-azerbaijan\-shushi\-int\-idUSKBN27P1WY \|url\-status\=live }}
### Blockade (2022–2023\)
{{Main\|Blockade of Nagorno\-Karabakh}}
In December 2022, Azerbaijanis claiming to be environmental activists blocked the [Lachin corridor](/wiki/Lachin_corridor "Lachin corridor"), the sole road connecting Nagorno\-Karabakh to Armenia and the outside world.{{Cite news \|title\=Азербайджанские "активисты" блокируют дорогу из Карабаха в Армению. Одновременно в Карабахе пропал газ \|language\=ru \|trans\-title\=Azerbaijani "activists" are blocking the road from Karabakh to Armenia. At the same time, gas disappeared in Karabakh \|work\=BBC News Русская Служба \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/russian/news\-63975080 \|access\-date\=13 September 2023 \|archive\-date\=12 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412122434/https://www.bbc.com/russian/news\-63975080 \|url\-status\=live }} On 23 April 2023, Azerbaijani forces installed a checkpoint on the Lachin corridor.{{Cite web \|last\=Loe \|first\=Catherine \|date\=2023\-04\-27 \|title\=Azerbaijan sets up checkpoints on the Lachin corridor \|url\=https://www.eiu.com/n/azerbaijan\-sets\-up\-checkpoints\-on\-the\-lachin\-corridor/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-03 \|website\=Economist Intelligence Unit \|language\=en\-GB \|quote\=The move \[installation of a checkpoint] has increased the blockade of Nagorny Karabakh...A checkpoint on the border would give Azerbaijan the ability to stop any cars travelling between Armenia and Nagorny Karabakh. \|archive\-date\=2 August 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802113859/https://www.eiu.com/n/azerbaijan\-sets\-up\-checkpoints\-on\-the\-lachin\-corridor/ \|url\-status\=live }} The blockade led to a humanitarian crisis for the population in Artsakh and imports of essential goods were blocked, as well as humanitarian convoys of the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers, trapping the 120,000 residents of the region.{{Cite web \|last\=Hauer \|first\=Neil \|date\=2023\-07\-31 \|title\=Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low \|url\=https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh\-blockade\-reaches\-critical\-point\-as\-food\-supplies\-run\-low\-286173/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-01 \|website\=www.intellinews.com \|language\=en \|quote\=Occasional ICRC and Russian traffic continued to pass until June 15, at which point Azerbaijan halted all humanitarian deliveries. No food, medicine or fuel has entered Nagorno\-Karabakh since. \|archive\-date\=14 August 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814123838/https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh\-blockade\-reaches\-critical\-point\-as\-food\-supplies\-run\-low\-286173/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Gavin \|first\=Gabriel \|date\=Dec 19, 2022 \|title\=Supplies begin to run low as Nagorno\-Karabakh blockade continues \|url\=https://eurasianet.org/supplies\-begin\-to\-run\-low\-as\-nagorno\-karabakh\-blockade\-continues \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-22 \|website\=eurasianet.org \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=1 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201151350/https://eurasianet.org/supplies\-begin\-to\-run\-low\-as\-nagorno\-karabakh\-blockade\-continues \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Kitachayev \|first\=Bashir \|date\=16 December 2022 \|title\=Azerbaijani roadblock cuts tens of thousands off from food, fuel and medicine \|url\=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/nagorno\-karabakh\-azerbaijan\-armenia\-roadblock/ \|access\-date\=21 December 2022 \|website\=\[\[openDemocracy]] \|archive\-date\=26 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226154334/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/nagorno\-karabakh\-azerbaijan\-armenia\-roadblock/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-05\-22 \|title\=New Troubles in Nagorno\-Karabakh: Understanding the Lachin Corridor Crisis \|url\=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe\-central\-asia/caucasus/nagorno\-karabakh\-conflict/new\-troubles\-nagorno\-karabakh\-understanding\-lachin\-corridor\-crisis \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-23 \|website\=www.crisisgroup.org \|language\=en \|quote\=While travellers were already few due to the blockade, the ICRC reports that its ability to get people across has been curtailed \[since the installation of the checkpoint], leaving only the Russian peacekeepers to facilitate trips to Armenia for medical care. \|archive\-date\=16 August 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816185256/https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe\-central\-asia/caucasus/nagorno\-karabakh\-conflict/new\-troubles\-nagorno\-karabakh\-understanding\-lachin\-corridor\-crisis \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-05\-31 \|title\=June Alerts and May Trends 2023 \|url\=https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/june\-alerts\-and\-may\-trends\-2023 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-19 \|website\=www.crisisgroup.org \|language\=en \|quote\=Checkpoint on Lachin corridor faced fierce opposition amid humanitarian crisis....Azerbaijani military consolidated \[the] blockade, however, leading to even fewer crossings and reduced transportation of goods. \|archive\-date\=22 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622120300/https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/june\-alerts\-and\-may\-trends\-2023 \|url\-status\=live }} Limited traffic had been conducted by Russian peacekeepers and the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross "International Committee of the Red Cross") to transport patients in need of medical care and provide humanitarian supplies.{{cite news \|last\=Shahverdyan \|first\=Lilit \|date\=12 January 2023 \|title\=Blackouts and food rationing as Karabakh blockade enters second month \|language\=en \|work\=Eurasianet \|url\=https://eurasianet.org/blackouts\-and\-food\-rationing\-as\-karabakh\-blockade\-enters\-second\-month \|access\-date\=17 January 2023 \|quote\=But the supplies are meager compared to the pre\-blockade delivery of 12,000 tons of goods monthly, and barely meet the needs of the local population, which Armenian sources estimate at around 120,000\. \|archive\-date\=23 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423091733/https://eurasianet.org/blackouts\-and\-food\-rationing\-as\-karabakh\-blockade\-enters\-second\-month \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|date\=17 January 2023 \|title\=Nagorno\-Karabakh reports gas cut for second time since start of blockade \|work\=OC Media \|url\=https://oc\-media.org/nagorno\-karabakh\-reports\-gas\-cut\-for\-second\-time\-since\-start\-of\-blockade/ \|access\-date\=18 January 2023 \|archive\-date\=16 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316072358/https://oc\-media.org/nagorno\-karabakh\-reports\-gas\-cut\-for\-second\-time\-since\-start\-of\-blockade/ \|url\-status\=live }} However, starting on 15 June 2023, Azerbaijan intensified the blockade, blocking all passage of food, fuel, and medicine from the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers through the Lachin corridor.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-20 \|title\=Nagorno\-Karabakh again faces shortages as Azerbaijan closes Lachin Corridor \|url\=https://oc\-media.org/nagorno\-karabakh\-again\-faces\-shortages\-as\-azerbaijan\-closes\-lachin\-corridor/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-14 \|website\=OC Media \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=19 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719153306/https://oc\-media.org/nagorno\-karabakh\-again\-faces\-shortages\-as\-azerbaijan\-closes\-lachin\-corridor/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|title\=Food shortages and fear as peacekeepers refused entry to Nagorno\-Karabakh \|url\=https://oc\-media.org/features/food\-shortages\-and\-fear\-as\-peacekeepers\-refused\-entry\-to\-nagorno\-karabakh/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-14 \|website\=OC Media \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=22 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722145151/https://oc\-media.org/features/food\-shortages\-and\-fear\-as\-peacekeepers\-refused\-entry\-to\-nagorno\-karabakh/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-07\-31 \|title\=Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low \|url\=https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh\-blockade\-reaches\-critical\-point\-as\-food\-supplies\-run\-low\-286173/ \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-01 \|website\=www.intellinews.com \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=14 August 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814123838/https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh\-blockade\-reaches\-critical\-point\-as\-food\-supplies\-run\-low\-286173/ \|url\-status\=live }} On 19 September, Azerbaijan [launched a military operation](/wiki/2023_Nagorno-Karabakh_clashes "2023 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes").
### Azerbaijani offensive (2023\)
{{main\|2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno\-Karabakh}}
On 19 September 2023, Azerbaijan [launched a military offensive](/wiki/2023_Nagorno-Karabakh_clashes "2023 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes") on Nagorno\-Karabakh. One day after the offensive started, on 20 September, an agreement on establishing a complete cessation of hostilities in Nagorno\-Karabakh was reached at the mediation of the [Russian peacekeeping command](/wiki/Peacekeeping_operations_in_Nagorno-Karabakh "Peacekeeping operations in Nagorno-Karabakh") in Nagorno\-Karabakh.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-09\-20 \|title\=Russian\-mediated ceasefire announced in Nagorno\-Karabakh \|url\=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/1120051\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-24 \|website\=Armenpress}}{{cite news \|author1\=Tim Lister \|author2\=Anna Chernova \|author3\=Christian Edwards \|author4\=Radina Gigova \|date\=21 September 2023 \|title\=Azerbaijan says it has retaken breakaway Armenian enclave after separatists surrender \|work\=CNN.com \|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno\-karabakh\-russia\-ceasefire\-intl/index.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=21 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921214424/https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno\-karabakh\-russia\-ceasefire\-intl/index.html \|archive\-date\=21 September 2023}} Azerbaijan held a meeting with representatives of the Artsakh Armenian community on 21 September in [Yevlakh](/wiki/Yevlakh "Yevlakh") to start the process of re\-integrating the region into Azerbaijan.{{cite news \|date\=20 September 2023 \|title\=Ethnic Armenians accept Russia ceasefire plan after Azerbaijan offensive in Nagorno\-Karabakh \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[CNN]] \|url\=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno\-karabakh\-russia\-ceasefire\-intl/index.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=20 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920132915/https://edition.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno\-karabakh\-russia\-ceasefire\-intl/index.html \|archive\-date\=20 September 2023}}{{cite news \|date\=20 September 2023 \|title\=BREAKING: Stepanakert to disband army in ceasefire deal \|work\=CIVILNET \|url\=https://www.civilnet.am/en/news/751112/breaking\-stepanakert\-to\-disband\-army\-in\-ceasefire\-deal/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=20 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920132923/https://www.civilnet.am/en/news/751112/breaking\-stepanakert\-to\-disband\-army\-in\-ceasefire\-deal/ \|archive\-date\=20 September 2023}} Ceasefire violations by Azerbaijan were nonetheless reported by both Artsakh and local residents in [Stepanakert](/wiki/Stepanakert "Stepanakert") on 21 September.{{Cite web \|title\=МВД Нагорного Карабаха обвинило Азербайджан в нарушении договора о прекращении огня \|url\=https://meduza.io/news/2023/09/21/mvd\-nagornogo\-karabaha\-obvinilo\-azerbaydzhan\-v\-narushenii\-dogovora\-o\-prekraschenii\-ognya \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921113954/https://meduza.io/news/2023/09/21/mvd\-nagornogo\-karabaha\-obvinilo\-azerbaydzhan\-v\-narushenii\-dogovora\-o\-prekraschenii\-ognya \|archive\-date\=21 September 2023 \|access\-date\=21 September 2023 \|website\=\[\[Meduza]]}}{{Cite web \|date\=21 September 2023 \|title\=Aserbaidschan soll Waffenruhe gebrochen haben \|url\=https://rp\-online.de/politik/ausland/berg\-karabach\-aserbaidschan\-soll\-waffenruhe\-gebrochen\-haben\_aid\-98086627 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921114231/https://rp\-online.de/politik/ausland/berg\-karabach\-aliyev\-entschuldigt\-sich\-fuer\-tod\-russischer\-soldaten\_aid\-98086627 \|archive\-date\=21 September 2023 \|access\-date\=21 September 2023 \|website\=\[\[Rheinische Post]]}} In the aftermath of the offensive, an [exodus of Armenians](/wiki/Exodus_of_Armenians_from_Nagorno-Karabakh "Exodus of Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh") from the region started. On 28 September 2023, the Republic of Artsakh agreed to dissolve itself by 1 January 2024\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{main\\|History of Nagorno\\-Karabakh}}",
"### Antiquity and Early Middle Ages",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|The [Amaras Monastery](/wiki/Amaras_Monastery \"Amaras Monastery\"), founded in the 4th century by St [Gregory the Illuminator](/wiki/Gregory_the_Illuminator \"Gregory the Illuminator\"). In the 5th century, [Mesrop Mashtots](/wiki/Mesrop_Mashtots \"Mesrop Mashtots\"), inventor of the [Armenian alphabet](/wiki/Armenian_alphabet \"Armenian alphabet\"), established at Amaras the first school to use his script.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Viviano \\|first\\=Frank \\|title\\=The Rebirth of Armenia \\|journal\\=National Geographic Magazine \\|date\\=March 2004 }}John Noble, Michael Kohn, Danielle Systermans. *Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan*. Lonely Planet; 3 edition (1 May 2008\\), p. 307](/wiki/File:Amaras-vank.jpg \"Amaras-vank.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|200px\\|[The monastery at Gandzasar](/wiki/Gandzasar_monastery \"Gandzasar monastery\") was commissioned by the [House of Khachen](/wiki/House_of_Hasan-Jalalyan \"House of Hasan-Jalalyan\") and completed in 1238](/wiki/File:Gandzasar_Monastery1.jpg \"Gandzasar Monastery1.jpg\")",
"Nagorno\\-Karabakh falls within the lands occupied by peoples known to modern archaeologists as the [Kura\\-Araxes culture](/wiki/Kura-Araxes_culture \"Kura-Araxes culture\") who lived between the two rivers [Kura](/wiki/Kura_%28Caspian_Sea%29 \"Kura (Caspian Sea)\") and [Araxes](/wiki/Araxes_River \"Araxes River\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Edens \\|first\\=Christoper \\|date\\=Aug–Nov 1995 \\|title\\=Transcaucasia at the End of the Early Bronze Age \\|journal\\=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research \\|publisher\\=The American Schools of Oriental Research \\|volume\\=299/300 \\|issue\\=The Archaeology of Empire in Ancient Anatolia \\|pages\\=53, pp. 53–64 \\[56] \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1357345 \\|jstor\\=1357345 \\|s2cid\\=163585471\\| issn \\= 0003\\-097X}}",
"The ancient population of the region consisted of various [autochthonous](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples \"Indigenous peoples\") local and migrant tribes who were mostly non\\-Indo\\-Europeans.{{cite book \\|first\\=Robert H. \\|last\\=Hewsen \\|chapter\\=Ethno\\-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians \\|editor\\-last\\=Samuelian \\|editor\\-first\\=Thomas J. \\|title\\=Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity \\|location\\=Chicago \\|publisher\\=Scholars Press \\|year\\=1982 \\|pages\\=27–40 \\|isbn\\=0\\-89130\\-565\\-3}} According to the prevailing western theory, these natives intermarried with Armenians who came to the region after its inclusion into Armenia in the 2nd (or possibly earlier, the 4th) century BC.Hewsen, Robert H. *Armenia: a Historical Atlas*. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 32–33, map 19 (shows the territory of modern Nagorno\\-Karabakh as part of the [Orontids](/wiki/Orontids \"Orontids\")' Kingdom of Armenia) Other scholars suggest that the Armenians settled in the region as early as the 7th century BC.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f4/v2f4a071a.html \\|title\\=Armenia and Iran \\|author\\=R. Schmitt, M. L. Chaumont \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Encyclopædia Iranica]] \\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 January 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121173617/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f4/v2f4a071a.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Around 180 BC, Artsakh became one of the 15 provinces of the [Armenian Kingdom](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom \"Armenian Kingdom\") and remained so until the 4th century.Hewsen, Robert H. \"The Kingdom of Artsakh\", in T. Samuelian \\& M. Stone, eds. *Medieval Armenian Culture*. Chico, CA, 1983\\. While formally having the status of a province (*nahang*), Artsakh possibly formed a [principality](/wiki/Principality \"Principality\") on its own — like Armenia's province of Syunik. Other theories suggest that Artsakh was a [royal land](/wiki/Royal_land \"Royal land\"), belonging directly to the king of Armenia.Hewsen. Armenia, pp. 100–103\\. King [Tigran the Great](/wiki/Tigran_the_Great \"Tigran the Great\") of Armenia (who ruled from 95 to 55 BC) founded in Artsakh one of four cities named \"Tigranakert\" after himself.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/sebeos/0326\\.html\\|title\\=ИСТОРИЯ ИМПЕРАТОРА ИРАКЛА. Сочинене епископа Себеоса, писателя VII века. Пер. с армянского К.Патканяна.\\|website\\=vehi.net\\|access\\-date\\=25 December 2008\\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330014746/http://vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/sebeos/0326\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The ruins of the ancient [Tigranakert](/wiki/Tigranakert_of_Artsakh \"Tigranakert of Artsakh\"), located {{convert\\|30\\|mi\\|\\-1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} north\\-east of [Stepanakert](/wiki/Stepanakert \"Stepanakert\"), are being studied by a group of international scholars.",
"In 387 AD, after the partition of Armenia between the Roman Empire and [Sassanid Persia](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire \"Sassanid Empire\"), two Armenian provinces — Artsakh and [Utik](/wiki/Utik \"Utik\") — became part of the Sassanid [satrapy of Caucasian Albania](/wiki/Albania_%28satrapy%29 \"Albania (satrapy)\"), which in turn came under strong Armenian religious and cultural influence.{{cite web \\|title\\=Azerbaijan \\|author\\=Evgeny Dmitrievich Silaev \\|date\\=13 June 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Azerbaijan \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Encyclopædia Britannica]] \\|access\\-date\\=15 January 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118105319/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article\\-129462/Azerbaijan \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|author\\=Walker, Christopher J. \\|title\\=Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity \\|publisher\\=Minority Rights Group Publications \\|page\\=10 \\|date\\=1991 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/armeniaandkarabagh }} At the time the population of Artsakh and Utik consisted of Armenians and several Armenized tribes.",
"Armenian culture and civilization flourished in the early medieval Nagorno\\-Karabakh. In the 5th century, the first\\-ever Armenian school was opened on the territory of modern Nagorno\\-Karabakh at [Amaras Monastery](/wiki/Amaras_Monastery \"Amaras Monastery\") through the efforts of St. [Mesrop Mashtots](/wiki/Mesrop_Mashtots \"Mesrop Mashtots\"), the inventor of the [Armenian alphabet](/wiki/Armenian_alphabet \"Armenian alphabet\").Viviano, Frank. \"The Rebirth of Armenia\", *National Geographic Magazine*, March 2004, p. 18, St. Mesrop was very active in preaching the Gospel in Artsakh and Utik. Overall, Mesrop Mashtots made three trips to Artsakh and Utik, ultimately reaching pagan territories at the foothills of the [Greater Caucasus](/wiki/Greater_Caucasus \"Greater Caucasus\").Movses Kalankatuatsi. *History of the Land of Aluank*, Book I, chapters 27, 28 and 29; Book II, chapter 3\\. The 7th\\-century Armenian linguist and grammarian Stephanos Syunetsi stated in his work that Armenians of Artsakh had their own dialect, and encouraged his readers to learn it.Н.Адонц. «Дионисий Фракийский и армянские толкователи», Пг., 1915, 181—219",
"### High Middle Ages",
"{{main\\|Principality of Khachen}}\nAround the mid 7th century, the region was conquered by the invading Muslim Arabs through the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia \"Muslim conquest of Persia\"). Subsequently, it was ruled by local governors endorsed by the [Caliphate](/wiki/Caliphate \"Caliphate\"). According to some sources, in 821 the Armenian[The Cambridge History of Iran](https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061953/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hvx9jq\\_2L3EC \\|date\\=23 September 2023 }}. — [Cambridge University Press](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press \"Cambridge University Press\"), 1975\\. — vol. 4\\. — p. 506 \"*He was handed to Afshin's troops by Sahl b. Sunbadh, an Armenian prince in 222/836\\-7, and executed in Samarra (223/837\\) while his brother and assistant 'Abd\\-Allah was delivered to the prince of Tabaristan, Ibn Sharvin, who had him put to death in Baghdad.*\" prince [Sahl Smbatian](/wiki/Sahl_Smbatian \"Sahl Smbatian\") revolted in Artsakh and established the [House of Khachen](/wiki/House_of_Khachen \"House of Khachen\"), which ruled Artsakh as a [principality](/wiki/Principality_of_Khachen \"Principality of Khachen\") until the early 19th century.[Robert H. Hewsen](/wiki/Robert_H._Hewsen \"Robert H. Hewsen\"), *Armenia: A Historical Atlas*. The University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 119, 155, 163, 264–65\\. According to other sources, Sahl Smbatian \"was of the Zamirhakan family of kings,\" and in the year 837–838 he acquired sovereignty over Armenia, Georgia, and Albania.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/Binder1\\_201404/Binder1\\_djvu.txt\\|title\\=The History of the Caucasian Albanians By Movses Dasxuranci\\|last\\=Movses Dasxuranci translated by C. J. F. Dowsett\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=1961\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=217}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Тер\\-Григорян Т.И. Неизданные страницы \"Истории Албанской страны\"Моисея Каланкайтукского. Архив Ин\\-та истории АН Азерб. ССР, № 1386, л.18}} The name \"Khachen\" originated from Armenian word \"khach,\" which means \"cross\".Christopher Walker. The Armenian presence in Mountainous Karabakh, in John F. R. Wright et al.: *Transcaucasian Boundaries* (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics). 1995, p. 93 By 1000 the House of Khachen proclaimed the [Kingdom of Artsakh](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh \"Kingdom of Artsakh\") with [John Senecherib](/wiki/John_Senecherib \"John Senecherib\") as its first ruler.Hewsen, Robert H. \"The Kingdom of Artsakh\", in T. Samuelian \\& M. Stone, eds. *Medieval Armenian Culture*. Chico, CA, 1983 Initially [Dizak](/wiki/Dizak \"Dizak\") in southern Artsakh also formed a kingdom ruled by the ancient [House of Aranshahik](/wiki/Aranshahik \"Aranshahik\"), descended from the earliest Kings of Caucasian Albania. In 1261, after the daughter of the last king of Dizak married the king of Artsakh, Armenian[Arḡūn Āqā — Encyclopædia Iranica.](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/argun-aqa-a-mongol-administrator-in-iran-d-1275) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517001944/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/argun\\-aqa\\-a\\-mongol\\-administrator\\-in\\-iran\\-d\\-1275 \\|date\\=17 May 2012 }} [P. Jackson](/wiki/Peter_Jackson_%28historian%29 \"Peter Jackson (historian)\") \"*It can only have caused resentment among the Muslims, and the Christian author Kirakos, in stark contrast with Jovaynī, has nothing favorable to say concerning Arḡūn’s exactions: his harsh treatment of certain Armenian princes, such as Jalāl of Ḵačen, whom he had executed in 659/1261, made him especially hateful.*\" prince [Hasan Jalal Dola](/wiki/House_of_Hasan-Jalalyan \"House of Hasan-Jalalyan\"), the two states merged into one Armenian{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Armenia/Administration\\-and\\-social\\-conditions \\|title\\=Armenia {{!}} Geography, Population, Map, Religion, \\& History \\|author\\= \\|date\\=13 June 2023 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Encyclopædia Britannica]] \\|quote\\=A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori, the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan, and the principates of Khachen (Artzakh) and Sasun.\" \\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 April 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428164747/https://www.britannica.com/place/Armenia \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Principality of Khachen](/wiki/Principality_of_Khachen \"Principality of Khachen\"). Subsequently, Artsakh continued to exist as a de facto independent principality.",
"### Late Middle Ages",
"{{main\\|Karabakh Khanate\\|Melikdoms of Karabakh}}\n[thumb\\|250px\\|The [Shusha fortress](/wiki/Shusha_fortress \"Shusha fortress\"), built by the [Karabakh Khanate](/wiki/Karabakh_Khanate \"Karabakh Khanate\") ruler [Panah Ali Khan](/wiki/Panah_Ali_Khan \"Panah Ali Khan\") in the 18th century](/wiki/File:%C5%9Eu%C5%9Fa_qalas%C4%B1_%282%29.jpg \"Şuşa qalası (2).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|250px\\|left\\|The semi\\-independent [*Five Principalities*](/wiki/Melikdoms_of_Karabakh \"Melikdoms of Karabakh\") (Armenian: Խամսայի Մելիքություններ) of Karabakh (Gyulistan, Jraberd, Khachen, Varanda, and Dizak), widely considered to be the last relic of Armenian statehood (15th–19th century).Robert H. Hewsen. Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828\\. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37{{cite book \\|author\\=George A. Bournoutian \\|title\\=A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh\\-e Qarabagh \\|publisher\\=Mazda Publishers \\|date\\=1994 \\|isbn\\=1\\-56859\\-011\\-3}}](/wiki/File:Five_principalities_of_karabakh.png \"Five principalities of karabakh.png\")",
"In the 15th century, the territory of Karabakh was part of the states ruled subsequently by the [Kara Koyunlu](/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu \"Kara Koyunlu\") and [Ak Koyunlu](/wiki/Ak_Koyunlu \"Ak Koyunlu\") [Turkic](/wiki/Turkic_peoples \"Turkic peoples\") tribal confederations. According to [Abu Bakr Tihrani](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_Tihrani \"Abu Bakr Tihrani\"), during the period of [Jahan Shah](/wiki/Jahan_Shah \"Jahan Shah\") (1438–1468\\), the ruler of Kara Koyunlu, Piri bey Karamanli held the governorship of Karabakh.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/KitabEDiyarbakriya\\-AbuBakrTehraniFarsi\\|title\\=(original) کتاب دیاربکریه: از تواریخ قراقوینلو و چغاتای. ویسنده: ابوبکر طهرانی. به تصحیح و اهتمام: نجاتی لوغال، فاروق سومه. تهران : کتابخانه طهوری،۱۳۵۶.\\|last\\=Abū Bakr Ṭihrānī. Kitāb\\-i Diyārbakriyya\\|pages\\=138}} However, according to [Robert H. Hewsen](/wiki/Robert_H._Hewsen \"Robert H. Hewsen\"), the [Turkoman](/wiki/Turkmen_people \"Turkmen people\") lord [Jahan Shah](/wiki/Jahan_Shah \"Jahan Shah\") (1437–67\\) assigned the governorship of upper Karabakh to local Armenian princes, allowing a native Armenian leadership to emerge consisting of five noble families led by princes who held the titles of *[meliks](/wiki/Melik \"Melik\")*. These dynasties represented the branches of the earlier House of Khachen and were the descendants of the medieval kings of Artsakh. Their lands were often referred to as the Country of [Khamsa](/wiki/Principality_of_Khachen \"Principality of Khachen\") (*five* in Arabic). In a Charter (2 June 1799\\) of the Emperor [Paul I](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\") titled \"About their admission to Russian suzerainty, land allocation, rights and privileges\", it was noted that the Christian heritage of the Karabakh region and all their people were admitted to the Russian suzerainty.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Полное Собрание Законов Российской Империи c 1649 года. Том XXV. 1798–1799\\. СПб.: Печатано в Типографии II Отделения Собственной Его Императорского Величества Канцелярии, 1830, № 18\\.990, c.674–675\\. (Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire since 1649\\. Volume XXV. 1798–1799\\. SPb .: Printed at the Printing House of the II Branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Office, 1830, No. 18\\.990, p.674\\-675\\)}} However, according to [Robert Hewsen](/wiki/Robert_H._Hewsen \"Robert H. Hewsen\"), the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") recognized the [sovereign](/wiki/Sovereignty \"Sovereignty\") status of the five princes in their domains by the charter of Emperor Paul I dated 2 June 1799\\.Robert H. Hewsen. *Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828*. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37\\.",
"The Armenian meliks were granted supreme command over neighbouring Armenian principalities and Muslim khans in the Caucasus by the Iranian king [Nader Shah](/wiki/Nader_Shah \"Nader Shah\"), in return for the meliks' victories over the invading [Ottoman Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Turks \"Ottoman Turks\") in the 1720s.Walker, Christopher J. *Armenia: Survival of a Nation*. London: Routledge, 1990 p. 40 {{ISBN\\|0\\-415\\-04684\\-X}} These five principalitiesRaffi, The History of Karabagh's Meliks, Vienna, 1906, in ArmenianIn English, Raffi, *The Five Melikdoms of Karabagh* translated by Ara Stepan Melkonian, Garod Books Ltd. 2010, London. {{ISBN\\|9781903656570}} in Karabakh were ruled by Armenian families who had received the title Melik (prince) and were the following:\n* **Principality of *Gulistan*** – under the leadership of the Melik\\-Beglarian family\n* **Principality of *Jraberd*** – under the leadership of the Melik\\-Israelian family\n* **Principality of *[Khachen](/wiki/Khachen \"Khachen\")*** – under the leadership of the [Hasan\\-Jalalian](/wiki/Hasan_Jalalyan \"Hasan Jalalyan\") family\n* **Principality of *Varanda*** – under the leadership of the Melik\\-Shahnazarian family\n* **Principality of *[Dizak](/wiki/Dizak \"Dizak\")*** – under the leadership of the Melik\\-Avanian family",
"From 1501 to 1736, during the existence of the [Safavid Empire](/wiki/Safavid_Empire \"Safavid Empire\"), the province of Karabakh was governed by the [Ziyadoghlu Qajar](/wiki/Ziyadoghlu_Qajar \"Ziyadoghlu Qajar\") dynasty, until [Nader Shah](/wiki/Nader_Shah \"Nader Shah\") took over Karabakh from their rule.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Павлова И.К. Хроника времен Сефевидов. Соч. Мухаммад\\-Масума Исфахани \"Хуласат ас\\-сийар\". М.:Наука, 1993, c.59–61\\.}} The Armenian meliks maintained full control over the region until the mid\\-18th century.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2018}} In the early 18th century, Iran's Nader Shah took Karabakh out of control of the Ganja khans in punishment for their support of the [Safavids](/wiki/Safavid \"Safavid\"), and placed it under his own control{{in lang\\|ru}} [Abbas\\-gulu Aga Bakikhanov. Golestan\\-i Iram](http://vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220125707/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5\\.htm \\|date\\=20 February 2007 }}; according to an 18th\\-century local Turkic\\-Muslim writer Mirza Adigezal bey, Nadir shah placed Karabakh under his own control, while a 19th\\-century local Turkic Muslim writer Abbas\\-gulu Aga Bakikhanov states that the shah placed Karabakh under the control of the governor of Tabriz.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus14/Karabag\\_name/text1\\.phtml?id\\=945\\|title\\=МИРЗА АДИГЕЗАЛЬ\\-БЕК\\-\\>КАРАБАГ\\-НАМЕ\\-\\>ГЛАВЫ 1–6\\|website\\=www.vostlit.info\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2006\\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821124203/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus14/Karabag\\_name/text1\\.phtml?id\\=945\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the mid\\-18th century, as internal conflicts between the meliks led to their weakening, the Karabakh Khanate was formed. The [Karabakh khanate](/wiki/Karabakh_khanate \"Karabakh khanate\"), one of the largest [khanates](/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus \"Khanates of the Caucasus\") under [Iranian](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") suzerainty,{{cite book\\|last1\\=Bournoutian\\|first1\\=George A.\\|title\\=The 1820 Russian Survey of the Khanate of Shirvan: A Primary Source on the Demography and Economy of an Iranian Province prior to its Annexation by Russia\\|date\\=2016\\|publisher\\=Gibb Memorial Trust\\|page\\=xvii\\|quote\\=''Serious historians and geographers agree that after the fall of the Safavids, and especially from the mid\\-eighteenth century, the territory of the South Caucasus was composed of the khanates of Ganja, Kuba, Shirvan, Baku, Talesh, Sheki, Karabagh, Nakhchivan and Yerevan, all of which were under Iranian suzerainty.'' \\|isbn\\=978\\-1909724808}} was headed by [Panah\\-Ali khan Javanshir](/wiki/Panah-Ali_khan_Javanshir \"Panah-Ali khan Javanshir\"). For the reinforcement of the power of Karabakh khanate, Khan of Karabakh, Panah\\-Ali khan Javanshir, built up “[the fortress of Panahabad](/wiki/Shusha_fortress \"Shusha fortress\") (today Shusha)” in 1751\\. During that time, Otuziki, [Javanshir](/wiki/Javanshir_clan \"Javanshir clan\"), Kebirli, and other Turkic tribes constituted the majority of the overall population.",
"### Modern era",
"[thumb\\|[Palace](/wiki/Palace_of_Karabakh_Khans \"Palace of Karabakh Khans\") of the former ruler (khan) of [Shusha](/wiki/Shusha \"Shusha\"). Taken from a postcard from the late 19th–early 20th century.](/wiki/File:%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86_%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0.jpg \"Шушинский Ханский Дворец Дочери Хана.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|Aftermath of the [Shusha massacre](/wiki/Shusha_massacre \"Shusha massacre\"): Armenian half of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920, with the defiled [Armenian Cathedral of the Holy Savior](/wiki/Ghazanchetsots_Cathedral \"Ghazanchetsots Cathedral\") in the background.](/wiki/File:Armenian_boroughs_of_city_of_Shusha_destroyed_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces_in_1920_with_defiled_cathedral_of_Holy_Savior_on_background.jpg \"Armenian boroughs of city of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920 with defiled cathedral of Holy Savior on background.jpg\")\n[Karabakh](/wiki/Karabakh \"Karabakh\") (including modern\\-day Nagorno\\-Karabakh), became a [protectorate](/wiki/Protectorate \"Protectorate\") of the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") by the [Kurekchay Treaty](/wiki/The_Treaty_of_Kurakchay \"The Treaty of Kurakchay\"), signed between [Ibrahim Khalil Khan](/wiki/Ibrahim_Khalil_Khan \"Ibrahim Khalil Khan\") of Karabakh and general [Pavel Tsitsianov](/wiki/Pavel_Tsitsianov \"Pavel Tsitsianov\") on behalf of Tsar [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia \"Alexander I of Russia\") in 1805, according to which the Russian monarch recognized Ibrahim Khalil Khan and his descendants as the sole hereditary rulers of the region.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.km.ru/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030613014623/http://hronos.km.ru/dokum/azer1805\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=KM.RU – новости, экономика, автомобили, наука и техника, кино, музыка, спорт, игры, анекдоты, курсы валют \\| KM.RU\\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2003\\|website\\=www.km.ru}}Muriel Atkin. *The Strange Death of Ibrahim Khalil Khan of Qarabagh*. Iranian Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Winter – Spring, 1979\\), pp. 79–107George A. Bournoutian. *A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh\\-e Qarabagh*. Mazda Publishers, 1994\\. {{ISBN\\|1\\-56859\\-011\\-3}}, 978\\-1\\-568\\-59011\\-0 However, its new status was only confirmed following the outcome of the [Russo\\-Persian War (1804\\-1813\\)](/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_%281804-1813%29 \"Russo-Persian War (1804-1813)\"), when through the loss in the war, Persia formally ceded Karabakh to the Russian Empire per the [Treaty of Gulistan](/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan \"Treaty of Gulistan\") (1813\\),Tim Potier. [M1 *Conflict in Nagorno\\-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal*](https://books.google.com/books?id=JL9N4F1SgyYC&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh&pg=PA1) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121408/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JL9N4F1SgyYC\\&dq\\=treaty\\+of\\+Gulistan\\+Karabakh\\&pg\\=PA1 \\|date\\=9 September 2023 }}. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001, p. 2\\. {{ISBN\\|90\\-411\\-1477\\-7}}.Leonidas Themistocles Chrysanthopoulos. [*Caucasus Chronicles: Nation\\-building and Diplomacy in Armenia, 1993–1994*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cELfINDAH0oC&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh&pg=PA8) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121409/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=cELfINDAH0oC\\&dq\\=treaty\\+of\\+Gulistan\\+Karabakh\\&pg\\=PA8 \\|date\\=9 September 2023 }}. [Gomidas Institute](/wiki/Gomidas_Institute \"Gomidas Institute\"), 2002, p. 8\\. {{ISBN\\|1\\-884630\\-05\\-7}}.[*The British and Foreign Review*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LyhdAAAAMAAJ&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh+The+British+and+Foreign+Review&pg=RA1-PA422) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121408/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LyhdAAAAMAAJ\\&dq\\=treaty\\+of\\+Gulistan\\+Karabakh\\+The\\+British\\+and\\+Foreign\\+Review\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA422 \\|date\\=9 September 2023 }}. J. Ridgeway and sons, 1838, p. 422\\.Taru Bahl, M.H. Syed. [*Encyclopaedia of the Muslim World*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MJTdr3JI46wC&q=Karabagh&pg=PA34){{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}. Anmol Publications PVT, 2003 p. 34\\. {{ISBN\\|81\\-261\\-1419\\-3}}. before the rest of [Transcaucasia](/wiki/Transcaucasia \"Transcaucasia\") was incorporated into the Empire in 1828 by the [Treaty of Turkmenchay](/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay \"Treaty of Turkmenchay\"), which came as an outcome of the [Russo\\-Persian War (1826\\-1828\\)](/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_%281826-1828%29 \"Russo-Persian War (1826-1828)\").",
"In 1822, 9 years after it passed from Iranian to Russian control, the Karabakh Khanate was dissolved and the area became part of the [Elizavetpol Governorate](/wiki/Elizavetpol_Governorate \"Elizavetpol Governorate\") within the Russian Empire. In 1823 the five districts corresponding roughly to modern\\-day Nagorno\\-Karabakh were 90\\.8% Armenian\\-populated.*Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd* ({{lang\\-ru\\|Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2\\-m\\|script\\=Latn}}), Tbilisi, 1866\\.Bournoutian, George A. *A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh\\-E Qarabagh*. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18",
"### Soviet era",
"{{main\\|Nagorno\\-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Nagorno\\-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast in the Soviet era.](/wiki/File:Nagorno_Karabakh03.png \"Nagorno Karabakh03.png\")\n[thumb\\|Ethnic make\\-up of Nagorno\\-Karabakh in the late Soviet era.](/wiki/File:Nagorno_Karabakh_Ethnic_Map_1989.png \"Nagorno Karabakh Ethnic Map 1989.png\")\nAfter the [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\"), Karabakh became part of the [Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic](/wiki/Transcaucasian_Democratic_Federative_Republic \"Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic\"), but this soon dissolved into separate [Armenian](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia \"First Republic of Armenia\"), [Azerbaijani](/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic \"Azerbaijan Democratic Republic\"), and [Georgian](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia \"Democratic Republic of Georgia\") states. Over the next two years (1918–1920\\), there were a series of [short wars](/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_%281918%E2%80%931920%29 \"Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)\") between Armenia and Azerbaijan over several regions, including Nagorno\\-Karabakh. Between 1918 and 1920, Nagorno\\-Karabakh's [de jure](/wiki/De_jure \"De jure\") affiliation with Armenia or Azerbaijan was disputed and not adjudicated by the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Krüger \\|first\\=Heiko \\|date\\=June 2014 \\|title\\=Nagorno\\-Karabakh \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/book/3811/chapter/145283746 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-02 \\|website\\=academic.oup.com \\|pages\\=214–232 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/acprof:oso/9780198702375\\.003\\.0011 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-870237\\-5 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061927/https://academic.oup.com/book/3811/chapter\\-abstract/145283746?redirectedFrom\\=fulltext \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Citation \\|last\\=Gardner \\|first\\=Anne\\-Marie \\|title\\=Nagorno\\-Karabakh: Balancing Standards? \\|date\\=2011 \\|url\\=http://link.springer.com/10\\.1057/9780230117600\\_4 \\|work\\=Democratic Governance and Non\\-State Actors \\|pages\\=71–103 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-02 \\|place\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan US \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1057/9780230117600\\_4 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-349\\-29153\\-3 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061933/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10\\.1057/9780230117600\\_4 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In July 1918, the First Armenian Assembly of Nagorno\\-Karabakh declared the region self\\-governing and created a National Council and government.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf \\|title\\= ''The Nagorno\\-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution'' \\|access\\-date\\= 16 February 2006 \\|archive\\-date\\= 30 March 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20190330205744/https://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf \\|url\\-status\\= live }}, New England Center for International Law \\& Policy Later, Ottoman troops entered Karabakh, meeting armed resistance by Armenians.",
"After the defeat of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") in World War I, British troops occupied Karabakh. The British command provisionally affirmed [Khosrov bey Sultanov](/wiki/Khosrov_bey_Sultanov \"Khosrov bey Sultanov\") (appointed by the Azerbaijani government) as the governor\\-general of Karabakh and [Zangezur](/wiki/Zangezur_Uyezd \"Zangezur Uyezd\"), pending a final decision by the [Paris Peace Conference](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919 \"Paris Peace Conference, 1919\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk\\_file/article/3\\.html \\|title\\=Circular by colonel D. I. Shuttleworth of the British Command \\|access\\-date\\=5 September 2006 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 May 2006 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060507144914/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk\\_file/article/3\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The decision was opposed by Karabakh Armenians. In February 1920, the Karabakh National Council preliminarily agreed to Azerbaijani jurisdiction, while Armenians elsewhere in Karabakh continued guerrilla fighting, never accepting the agreement. The agreement itself was soon annulled by the Ninth Karabagh Assembly, which declared union with Armenia in April.*Conflict in Nagorno\\-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal* by Tim Potier. {{ISBN\\|90\\-411\\-1477\\-7}}",
"In April 1920, while the Azerbaijani army was locked in Karabakh fighting local Armenian forces, Azerbaijan was [taken over](/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan \"Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan\") by [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolshevik \"Bolshevik\"). On 10 August 1920, Armenia signed a preliminary agreement with the Bolsheviks, agreeing to a temporary Bolshevik occupation of these areas until final settlement would be reached.Walker. *The Survival of a Nation*. pp. 285–90 In 1921, [Armenia](/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia \"Red Army invasion of Armenia\") and [Georgia](/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia \"Red Army invasion of Georgia\") were also taken over by the Bolsheviks. After the [Sovietization](/wiki/Sovietization \"Sovietization\") of Armenia and Azerbaijan, the [Kavbiuro](/wiki/Kavbiuro \"Kavbiuro\") (Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the [Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)](/wiki/Russian_Communist_Party_%28Bolshevik%29 \"Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)\")) decided that Karabakh would remain within [Azerbaijan SSR](/wiki/Azerbaijan_SSR \"Azerbaijan SSR\") with broad regional autonomy, with the administrative centre in the city of [Shusha](/wiki/Shusha \"Shusha\") (the administrative center was later moved to [Stepanakert](/wiki/Stepanakert \"Stepanakert\")).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://armenian.usc.edu/qa\\-with\\-arsene\\-saparov\\-no\\-evidence\\-that\\-stalin\\-gave\\-karabakh\\-to\\-azerbaijan/ \\|title\\=Q\\&A with Arsène Saparov: No Evidence that Stalin \"gave\" Karabakh to Azerbaijan \\|author\\= \\|date\\=10 December 2018 \\|website\\=armenian.usc.edu \\|quote\\=Of all the documents I have seen, there is no direct evidence of Stalin doing or saying something in those 12 days in the summer of 1921 that \\[resulted in this decision on Karabakh]. A lot of people just assume that since Stalin was an evil person, it would be typical of someone evil to take a decision like that. \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 December 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215061933/https://armenian.usc.edu/qa\\-with\\-arsene\\-saparov\\-no\\-evidence\\-that\\-stalin\\-gave\\-karabakh\\-to\\-azerbaijan/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The oblast's borders were drawn to include Armenian villages and to exclude as much as possible Azerbaijani villages.{{cite book \\|last\\=Potier \\|first\\=Tim \\|author\\-link\\= \\|date\\=2001 \\|title\\=Conflict in Nagorno\\-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, A Legal Appraisal\\|location\\=The Hague, Netherlands \\|publisher\\=Kluwer Law International \\|page\\=5 \\|isbn\\=9041114777}} The resulting district ensured an Armenian majority.",
"With the Soviet Union firmly in control of the region, the [conflict](/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict \"Nagorno-Karabakh conflict\") over the region died down for several decades until the beginning of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the question of Nagorno\\-Karabakh re\\-emerged. Accusing the Azerbaijani SSR government of conducting forced Azerification of the region, the majority Armenian population, with ideological and material support from the [Armenian SSR](/wiki/Armenian_SSR \"Armenian SSR\"), started a movement to have the autonomous oblast transferred to the Armenian SSR.Audrey L. Altstadt. *The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule*. Hoover Press, 1992\\. {{ISBN\\|0817991824}}, 9780817991821 In August 1987, Karabakh Armenians sent a petition for union with Armenia with tens of thousands of signatures to Moscow.Black Garden, Thomas de Waal, page 292",
"### War and secession",
"{{main\\|First Nagorno\\-Karabakh War}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|A restored Armenian [T\\-72](/wiki/T-72 \"T-72\"), knocked out of commission while attacking Azeri positions in [Askeran District](/wiki/Askeran_District_%28NKAO%29 \"Askeran District (NKAO)\"), serves as a war memorial on the outskirts of Stepanakert.](/wiki/File:Askeran_T-72.jpg \"Askeran T-72.jpg\")\nOn 13 February 1988, Karabakh Armenians began demonstrating in [Stepanakert](/wiki/Stepanakert \"Stepanakert\"), in favour of unification with the Armenian republic. Six days later they were joined by mass marches in [Yerevan](/wiki/Yerevan \"Yerevan\"). On 20 February, the Soviet of People's Deputies in Karabakh voted 110 to 17 to request the transfer of the region to Armenia. This unprecedented action by a regional Soviet brought out tens of thousands of demonstrations both in Stepanakert and Yerevan, but Moscow rejected the Armenians' demands. On 20 February 1988, 2 Azeri girls were raped in Stepanakert.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2023}} This caused widespread outrage in the Azeri town of [Aghdam](/wiki/Aghdam \"Aghdam\"). The first direct confrontation of the conflict occurred as a large group of Azeris marched from [Agdam](/wiki/Agdam_%28rayon%29 \"Agdam (rayon)\") to the Armenian populated town of Askeran.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2023}} The confrontation between the Azeris and the police near Askeran degenerated into the [Askeran clash](/wiki/Askeran_clash \"Askeran clash\"), which left two Azeris dead, one of them allegedly killed by an Azeri police officer. Fifty Armenian villagers and an unknown number of Azeris and police officers were injured.Black Garden Thomas de Waal, p.15Elizabeth Fuller, *Nagorno\\-Karabakh: The Death and Casualty Toll to Date*, RL 531/88, 14 December 1988, pp. 1–2{{cite book\\| last \\=de Waal \\| first \\= Thomas \\| author\\-link \\= Thomas de Waal\\| title \\= Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[New York University Press]]\\| year \\= 2003 \\| location \\= New York\\| isbn \\= 0\\-8147\\-1945\\-7}} Large numbers of refugees left Armenia and Azerbaijan as violence began against the minority populations of the respective republics.{{cite book \\|last \\= Lieberman \\|first \\= Benjamin \\|title \\= Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe \\|publisher \\= Ivan R. Dee \\|year \\= 2006 \\|location \\= Chicago \\|pages \\= 284–92 \\|isbn \\= 1\\-5666\\-3646\\-9}} On 7 July 1988, the European Parliament passed a resolution that condemned the violence employed against Armenian demonstrators in Azerbaijan, and supported the demand of the Armenians for reunification with the Soviet Republic of Armenia.[RESOLUTION on the situation in Soviet Armenia](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:JOC_1988_235_R_0080_01) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608140305/https://eur\\-lex.europa.eu/legal\\-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri\\=OJ:JOC\\_1988\\_235\\_R\\_0080\\_01 \\|date\\=8 June 2022 }} page 21",
"On 29 November 1989, direct rule in Nagorno\\-Karabakh was ended and the region was returned to Azerbaijani administration.{{cite book \\| title \\= The Encyclopedia of World History\\| publisher \\=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt \\| year \\= 2001 \\| page \\= 906 }} The Soviet policy backfired, however, when a joint session of the Armenian [Supreme Soviet](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet \"Supreme Soviet\") and the National Council, the legislative body of Nagorno\\-Karabakh, proclaimed the unification of Nagorno\\-Karabakh with Armenia.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2007}} On 26 November 1991 Azerbaijan [abolished the status of Nagorno\\-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast](/wiki/Law_on_Abolishment_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_Autonomous_Oblast \"Law on Abolishment of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast\"), rearranging the [administrative division](/wiki/Azerbaijani_administrative_divisions_of_Nagorno-Karabakh \"Azerbaijani administrative divisions of Nagorno-Karabakh\") and bringing the territory under direct control of Azerbaijan.{{cite book \\|title\\=Where nation\\-states come from: institutional change in the age of nationalism \\|last1\\=Roeder \\|first1\\=Philip G. \\|year\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-691\\-13467\\-3 \\|page\\=51 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XAItI5C\\_JPUC\\&q\\=Nagorno\\-Karabakh\\+Autonomous\\+Oblast\\+was\\+created\\&pg\\=PA51 \\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923062214/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XAItI5C\\_JPUC\\&q\\=Nagorno\\-Karabakh\\+Autonomous\\+Oblast\\+was\\+created\\&pg\\=PA51 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On 10 December 1991, in a referendum boycotted by local Azerbaijanis, Armenians in Nagorno\\-Karabakh approved the creation of an independent state. A Soviet proposal for enhanced autonomy for Nagorno\\-Karabakh within Azerbaijan satisfied neither side and [a full\\-scale war](/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War \"First Nagorno-Karabakh War\") subsequently erupted between Azerbaijan and Nagorno\\-Karabakh, with the latter receiving support from Armenia.[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\"). *[Playing the \"Communal Card\". Communal Violence and Human Rights](http://hrw.org/reports/1995/communal/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011042435/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/communal/ \\|date\\=11 October 2012 }}*: \"By early 1992 full\\-scale fighting broke out between Nagorno\\-Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijani authorities.\" / \"...Karabakh Armenian forces—often with the support of forces from the Republic of Armenia—conducted large\\-scale operations...\" / \"Because 1993 witnessed unrelenting Karabakh Armenian offensives against the Azerbaijani provinces surrounding Nagorno\\-Karabakh...\" / \"Since late 1993, the conflict has also clearly become internationalized: in addition to Azerbaijani and Karabakh Armenian forces, troops from the Republic of Armenia participate on the Karabakh side in fighting inside Azerbaijan and in Nagorno\\-Karabakh.\"[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\"). *[The former Soviet Union. Human Rights Developments](https://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Hsw-07.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218230025/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Hsw\\-07\\.htm \\|date\\=18 February 2015 }}*: \"In 1992 the conflict grew far more lethal as both sides—the Azerbaijani National Army and free\\-lance militias fighting along with it, and ethnic Armenians and mercenaries fighting in the Popular Liberation Army of Artsakh—began.\"[United States Institute of Peace](/wiki/United_States_Institute_of_Peace \"United States Institute of Peace\"). [*Nagorno\\-Karabakh Searching for a Solution*. Foreword](http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks25/forewrd25.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202233445/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks25/forewrd25\\.html \\|date\\=2 December 2008 }}: \"Nagorno\\-Karabakh’s armed forces have not only fortified their region but have also occupied a large swath of surrounding Azeri territory in the hopes of linking the enclave to Armenia.\"[United States Institute of Peace](/wiki/United_States_Institute_of_Peace \"United States Institute of Peace\"). *[Sovereignty after Empire. Self\\-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union. Hopes and Disappointments: Case Studies](http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks19/chap3_19.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201052200/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks19/chap3\\_19\\.html \\|date\\=1 December 2008 }}* \"Meanwhile, the conflict over Nagorno\\-Karabakh was gradually transforming into a full\\-scale war between Azeri and Karabakh irregulars, the latter receiving support from Armenia.\" / \"Azerbaijan's objective advantage in terms of human and economic potential has so far been offset by the superior fighting skills and discipline of Nagorno\\-Karabakh's forces. After a series of offensives, retreats, and counteroffensives, Nagorno\\-Karabakh now controls a sizable portion of Azerbaijan proper ... including the Lachin corridor.\" According to Armenia's former president, [Levon Ter\\-Petrossian](/wiki/Levon_Ter-Petrossian \"Levon Ter-Petrossian\"), the Karabakh leadership approach was maximalist and \"they thought they could get more.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=By Giving Karabakh Lands to Azerbaijan, Conflict Would Have Ended in '97, Says Ter\\-Petrosian\\|url\\=http://asbarez.com/95222/by\\-giving\\-karabakh\\-lands\\-to\\-azerbaijan\\-conflict\\-would\\-have\\-ended\\-in\\-%E2%80%9997\\-says\\-ter\\-petrosian/comment\\-page\\-1/\\|newspaper\\=Asbarez\\|date\\=19 April 2011\\|agency\\=Asbarez\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=1 October 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001083625/http://asbarez.com/95222/by\\-giving\\-karabakh\\-lands\\-to\\-azerbaijan\\-conflict\\-would\\-have\\-ended\\-in\\-%E2%80%9997\\-says\\-ter\\-petrosian/comment\\-page\\-1/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Ter\\-Petrosyan on the BBC: Karabakh conflict could have been resolved by giving certain territories to Azerbaijan\\|url\\=http://www.armenianow.com/news/29088/terpetrosyan\\_bbc\\_interview\\|newspaper\\=ArmeniaNow\\|date\\=19 April 2011\\|agency\\=ArmeniaNow\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519030034/http://www.armenianow.com/news/29088/terpetrosyan\\_bbc\\_interview\\|archive\\-date\\=19 May 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Первый президент Армении о распаде СССР и Карабахе\\|url\\=http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/multimedia/2011/04/110415\\_v\\_terpetrosyan\\_int.shtml\\|newspaper\\=BBC\\|date\\=18 April 2011\\|agency\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=3 September 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903075448/http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/multimedia/2011/04/110415\\_v\\_terpetrosyan\\_int.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The struggle over Nagorno\\-Karabakh escalated after both Armenia and Azerbaijan attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991\\. In the post\\-Soviet [power vacuum](/wiki/Power_vacuum \"Power vacuum\"), military action between Azerbaijan and Armenia was heavily influenced by the [Russian military](/wiki/Military_of_Russia \"Military of Russia\"). Furthermore, both the Armenian and Azerbaijani military employed a large number of mercenaries from [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\") and Russia.[Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\"). *Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno\\-Karabakh*. December 1994, p. xiii, {{ISBN\\|1\\-56432\\-142\\-8}}, citing: Natsional'nyi Sostav Naseleniya SSSR, po dannym Vsesoyuznyi Perepisi Naseleniya 1989 g., Moskva, \"Finansy i Statistika\" Between fifteen and twenty\\-five hundred [Afghan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") [mujahideen](/wiki/Mujahideen \"Mujahideen\"), along with fighters from [Chechnya](/wiki/Chechnya \"Chechnya\"), participated in the fighting on Azerbaijan's side. Russia provided Armenia with heavy artillery and tanks. Many survivors from the Azerbaijani side found shelter in 12 emergency camps set up in other parts of Azerbaijan to cope with the growing number of internally displaced people due to the first Nagorno\\-Karabakh war.[Azerbaijan closes last of emergency camps](http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/47aaf6734.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124113352/http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/47aaf6734\\.html \\|date\\=24 November 2020 }}, *[UNHCR](/wiki/UNHCR \"UNHCR\")*",
"By the end of 1993, the conflict had caused about 30,000 casualties{{Cite web \\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-12 \\|title\\=Armenia, Azerbaijan clash as ceasefire fails to stick \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1584677 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-08 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Dawn.com]], \\[\\[Agence France\\-Presse]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=8 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608112150/https://www.dawn.com/news/1584677 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and created hundreds of thousands of refugees on both sides.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2008}} By May 1994, the Armenians were in control of 14% of the territory of Azerbaijan.{{cite book \\|first\\=Thomas \\|last\\=de Waal \\|date\\=2003 \\|title\\=Black Garden \\|page\\=3 \\|publisher\\=New York University Press \\|url\\=https://raufray.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/0814719449\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226124838/https://raufray.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/0814719449\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} At that stage, for the first time during the conflict, the Azerbaijani government recognized Nagorno\\-Karabakh as a third party in the war and started direct negotiations with the Karabakh authorities. As a result, a [ceasefire](/wiki/Bishkek_Protocol \"Bishkek Protocol\") was reached on 12 May 1994 through Russian mediation.",
"### Post\\-1994 ceasefire",
"{{Further\\|Madrid Principles\\|Prague Process (Armenian–Azerbaijani negotiations)\\|Nagorno\\-Karabakh Declaration\\|Astrakhan Declaration\\|Land mine situation in Nagorno\\-Karabakh\\|2016 Nagorno\\-Karabakh conflict\\|Second Nagorno\\-Karabakh War}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|The final borders of the conflict after the [Bishkek Protocol](/wiki/Bishkek_Protocol \"Bishkek Protocol\"). Armenian forces of Nagorno\\-Karabakh controlled almost 9% of Azerbaijan's territory outside the former Nagorno\\-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, while Azerbaijani forces control [Shahumian](/wiki/Shahumian \"Shahumian\") and the eastern parts of [Martakert](/wiki/Martakert \"Martakert\") and [Martuni](/wiki/Martuni_Province \"Martuni Province\").](/wiki/File:Location_Nagorno-Karabakh_en.png \"Location Nagorno-Karabakh en.png\")\n[thumb\\|[Ilham Aliyev](/wiki/Ilham_Aliyev \"Ilham Aliyev\"), [Dmitry Medvedev](/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev \"Dmitry Medvedev\") and [Serzh Sargsyan](/wiki/Serzh_Sargsyan \"Serzh Sargsyan\") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") on 2 November 2008](/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_2_November_2008-3.jpg \"Dmitry Medvedev 2 November 2008-3.jpg\")",
"Despite the ceasefire, fatalities due to armed conflicts between Armenian and Azerbaijani soldiers continued.[No End in Sight to Fighting in Nagorno\\-Karabakh](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5357869) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216073814/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=5357869 \\|date\\=16 December 2018 }} by Ivan Watson/National Public Radio. *Weekend Edition* Sunday, 23 April 2006\\. On 25 January 2005, the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe \"Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe\") (PACE) adopted [PACE Resolution 1416](/wiki/PACE_Resolution_1416 \"PACE Resolution 1416\"), which condemned ethnic cleansing against Azerbaijanis.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/caucas1/msg/2005/02/m38005\\.htm \\|title\\=Проект заявления по Нагорному Карабаху ожидает одобрения парламентских сил Армении \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914021543/http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/caucas1/msg/2005/02/m38005\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=14 September 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}[Резолюция ПАСЕ по Карабаху: что дальше?](http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/in_depth/newsid_4236000/4236153.stm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325022435/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/in\\_depth/newsid\\_4236000/4236153\\.stm \\|date\\=25 March 2012 }}. BBC Russian. On 15–17 May 2007 the 34th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the [Organization of Islamic Conference](/wiki/Organization_of_Islamic_Conference \"Organization of Islamic Conference\") adopted resolution No. 7/34\\-P, considering the occupation of Azerbaijani territory as the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan and recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a [crime against humanity](/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity \"Crimes against humanity\"), and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural and religious monuments in the occupied territories.[Resolutions on Political Affairs](http://www.oic-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM-POL-07-RES-FINAL-ENG.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012122448/http://www.oic\\-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM\\-POL\\-07\\-RES\\-FINAL\\-ENG.pdf \\|date\\=12 October 2007 }}. The Thirty\\-Fourth Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers. The 11th session of the summit of the [Organization of the Islamic Conference](/wiki/Organization_of_the_Islamic_Conference \"Organization of the Islamic Conference\") held on 13–14 March 2008 in [Dakar](/wiki/Dakar \"Dakar\") adopted resolution No. 10/11\\-P (IS). In the resolution, OIC member states condemned the occupation of Azerbaijani lands by Armenian forces and Armenian aggression against Azerbaijan, ethnic cleansing against the Azeri population, and charged Armenia with the \"destruction of cultural monuments in the occupied Azerbaijani territories\".[Resolutions on Political Affairs](http://www.oic-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM-POL-07-RES-FINAL-ENG.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012122448/http://www.oic\\-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM\\-POL\\-07\\-RES\\-FINAL\\-ENG.pdf \\|date\\=12 October 2007 }}. Islamic Summit Conference. 13–14 May 2008 On 14 March of the same year the [UN General Assembly](/wiki/UN_General_Assembly \"UN General Assembly\") adopted [Resolution No. 62/243](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_62/243 \"United Nations General Assembly Resolution 62/243\") which \"demands the immediate, complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://undocs.org/A/RES/62/243\\|title\\=A/RES/62/243 – E – A/RES/62/243 \\-Desktop\\|website\\=undocs.org\\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=1 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101140443/http://undocs.org/A/RES/62/243\\|url\\-status\\=live}} On 18–20 May 2010, the 37th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Organization of Islamic Conference in [Dushanbe](/wiki/Dushanbe \"Dushanbe\") adopted another resolution condemning the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan, recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a crime against humanity and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural, and religious monuments in occupied territories.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oic\\-oci.org/37cfm/en/documents/res/37\\-CFM\\-POL\\-RES\\-ENGLISH\\-FINAL.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202414/http://www.oic\\-oci.org/37cfm/en/documents/res/37\\-CFM\\-POL\\-RES\\-ENGLISH\\-FINAL.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Resolutions on Political Issues Adopted by the Council of Foreign Ministers (Session of Shared Vision of a More Secure and Prosperous Islamic World) Dushanbe, Republic of Tajikistan 4–6 Jamadul Thani 1431H (18–20 May 2010\\)\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016}} On 20 May of the same year, the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\") in [Strasbourg](/wiki/Strasbourg \"Strasbourg\") adopted the resolution on \"The need for an EU Strategy for the South Caucasus\" on the basis of the report by [Evgeni Kirilov](/wiki/Evgeni_Kirilov \"Evgeni Kirilov\"), the Bulgarian member of the Parliament.\"[FM: Azerbaijan welcomes resolution 'Need for EU Strategy for South Caucasus' adopted by European Parliament](http://en.trend.az/news/politics/foreign/1692167.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719181653/http://en.trend.az/news/politics/foreign/1692167\\.html \\|date\\=19 July 2011 }}.\" *Trend.az*. 21 May 2010\\.\"[EU's Ashton Says Nagorno\\-Karabakh Elections Illegal](http://www.rferl.org/content/EU_Foreign_Policy_Chief_Says_NagornoKarabakh_Elections_Illegal/2049465.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507194752/http://www.rferl.org/content/EU\\_Foreign\\_Policy\\_Chief\\_Says\\_NagornoKarabakh\\_Elections\\_Illegal/2049465\\.html \\|date\\=7 May 2016 }}.\" *RFE/RL*. 21 May 2010\\. The resolution states in particular that \"the occupied Azerbaijani regions around Nagorno\\-Karabakh must be cleared as soon as possible\".[Bulgarian MEPs Urge EU to Be Proactive in South Caucasus](http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=116403) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210232405/http://www.novinite.com/view\\_news.php?id\\=116403 \\|date\\=10 December 2017 }}. On 26 January 2016, the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe \"Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe\") (PACE) adopted [Resolution 2085](/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly_Resolution_2085_%282016%29 \"Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 2085 (2016)\"), which deplored the fact that the occupation by Armenia of Nagorno\\-Karabakh and other adjacent areas of Azerbaijan creates humanitarian and environmental problems for the citizens of Azerbaijan, condemned ethnic cleansing against Azerbaijanis and Assembly requested immediate withdrawal of Armenian armed forces from the region concerned.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref\\-XML2HTML\\-EN.asp?fileid\\=22429⟨\\=en\\|title\\=Inhabitants of frontier regions of Azerbaijan are deliberately deprived of water\\|work\\=Parliamentary Assembly of Council of Europe\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=18 September 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918205203/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref\\-XML2HTML\\-EN.asp?fileid\\=22429⟨\\=en\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://armenianweekly.com/2016/01/26/pace\\-adopts\\-rejects1/\\|title\\=PACE Adopts Anti\\-Armenian Measure, Rejects Another\\|work\\=Armenian Weekly\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=31 August 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831183232/https://armenianweekly.com/2016/01/26/pace\\-adopts\\-rejects1/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://sarsang.org/en/sarsang/842\\-resolution\\-inhabitants\\-of\\-frontier\\-regions\\-of\\-azerbaijan\\-are\\-deliberately\\-deprived\\-of\\-water.html\\|title\\=Resolution: Inhabitants of frontier regions of Azerbaijan are deliberately deprived of water\\|website\\=sarsang.org\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315002423/http://sarsang.org/en/sarsang/842\\-resolution\\-inhabitants\\-of\\-frontier\\-regions\\-of\\-azerbaijan\\-are\\-deliberately\\-deprived\\-of\\-water.html\\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Several{{quantify\\|date\\=May 2016}} world [leaders](/wiki/Leader \"Leader\") have met with the presidents of Armenia and Azerbaijan over the years, but efforts to maintain the ceasefire have failed.\"[Azerbaijan military threat to Armenia](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/azerbaijan/6631572/Azerbaijan-military-threat-to-Armenia.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625062958/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/azerbaijan/6631572/Azerbaijan\\-military\\-threat\\-to\\-Armenia.html \\|date\\=25 June 2018 }}.\" *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph \"The Daily Telegraph\")*. 22 November 2009\\. Retrieved 23 November 2009\\.",
"On 2 April 2016 Azerbaijani and Armenian forces again clashed in the region.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2021}} The [Armenian Defense Ministry](/wiki/Armenian_Defense_Ministry \"Armenian Defense Ministry\") alleged that Azerbaijan launched an offensive to seize territory in the region. At least 30 soldiers were killed during the fighting and a [Mil Mi\\-24](/wiki/Mil_Mi-24 \"Mil Mi-24\") helicopter and tank were also destroyed, with 12 of the fallen soldiers belonging to the Azerbaijani forces and the other 18 belonging to the Armenian forces, as well as an additional 35 Armenian soldiers reportedly wounded.{{cite news\\|last1\\= Hodge\\|first1\\= Nathan\\|title\\= A Dozen Dead in Heavy Fighting Reported in Nagorno\\-Karabakh\\|url\\= https://www.wsj.com/articles/heavy\\-fighting\\-reported\\-in\\-nagorno\\-karabakh\\-1459597114\\|access\\-date\\= 2 April 2016\\|work\\= \\[\\[Wall Street Journal]]\\|date\\= 2 April 2016\\|archive\\-date\\= 2 April 2016\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402123801/http://www.wsj.com/articles/heavy\\-fighting\\-reported\\-in\\-nagorno\\-karabakh\\-1459597114\\|url\\-status\\= live}}{{Cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/heavy\\-fighting\\-erupts\\-armenian\\-azeri\\-border\\-160402084508361\\.html\n\\|title\\= Dozens killed in Nagorno\\-Karabakh clashes\n\\|website\\= www.aljazeera.com\n\\|access\\-date\\= 3 April 2016\n\\|archive\\-date\\= 2 April 2016\n\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402213013/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/heavy\\-fighting\\-erupts\\-armenian\\-azeri\\-border\\-160402084508361\\.html\n\\|url\\-status\\= live\n}}",
"### 2020 war and ceasefire agreement",
"{{main\\|Second Nagorno\\-Karabakh War\\|2020 Nagorno\\-Karabakh ceasefire agreement}}",
"On 27 September 2020, a [new war](/wiki/Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War \"Second Nagorno-Karabakh War\") erupted in Nagorno\\-Karabakh and the surrounding territories. The United Nations strongly condemned the conflict and called on both sides to deescalate tensions and resume meaningful negotiations without delay.{{Cite web\\|date\\=30 September 2020\\|title\\=UN Security Council calls for immediate end to fighting in Nagorno\\-Karabakh\\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/20200930\\-un\\-security\\-council\\-calls\\-for\\-immediate\\-end\\-to\\-fighting\\-in\\-nagorno\\-karabakh\\|access\\-date\\=30 September 2020\\|website\\=France 24\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009133111/https://www.france24\\.com/en/20200930\\-un\\-security\\-council\\-calls\\-for\\-immediate\\-end\\-to\\-fighting\\-in\\-nagorno\\-karabakh\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The war ended on 10 November 2020, when [a trilateral ceasefire agreement](/wiki/2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_ceasefire_agreement \"2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement\") was signed among Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Russia Steps In To End War Between 2 Former Soviet Republics\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2020/11/10/933343100/russia\\-steps\\-in\\-to\\-end\\-war\\-between\\-2\\-former\\-soviet\\-republics\\|access\\-date\\=10 November 2020\\|website\\=NPR.org\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110111758/https://www.npr.org/2020/11/10/933343100/russia\\-steps\\-in\\-to\\-end\\-war\\-between\\-2\\-former\\-soviet\\-republics\\|url\\-status\\=live}} According to the ceasefire agreement, Azerbaijan regained all of the [occupied territories surrounding Nagorno\\-Karabakh](/wiki/Armenian-occupied_territories_surrounding_Nagorno-Karabakh \"Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh\") and capturing one\\-third of Nagorno\\-Karabakh proper, including [Shusha](/wiki/Shusha_District_%28NKAO%29 \"Shusha District (NKAO)\") and [Hadrut](/wiki/Hadrut_District_%28NKAO%29 \"Hadrut District (NKAO)\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=9 November 2020 \\|title\\=Ethnic Armenian forces confirm loss of Karabakh's second city, say enemy nearing capital \\|work\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/armenia\\-azerbaijan\\-shushi\\-int\\-idUSKBN27P1WY \\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20201129194316/https://www.reuters.com/article/armenia\\-azerbaijan\\-shushi\\-int\\-idUSKBN27P1WY \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Blockade (2022–2023\\)",
"{{Main\\|Blockade of Nagorno\\-Karabakh}}",
"In December 2022, Azerbaijanis claiming to be environmental activists blocked the [Lachin corridor](/wiki/Lachin_corridor \"Lachin corridor\"), the sole road connecting Nagorno\\-Karabakh to Armenia and the outside world.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Азербайджанские \"активисты\" блокируют дорогу из Карабаха в Армению. Одновременно в Карабахе пропал газ \\|language\\=ru \\|trans\\-title\\=Azerbaijani \"activists\" are blocking the road from Karabakh to Armenia. At the same time, gas disappeared in Karabakh \\|work\\=BBC News Русская Служба \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/russian/news\\-63975080 \\|access\\-date\\=13 September 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412122434/https://www.bbc.com/russian/news\\-63975080 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On 23 April 2023, Azerbaijani forces installed a checkpoint on the Lachin corridor.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Loe \\|first\\=Catherine \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-27 \\|title\\=Azerbaijan sets up checkpoints on the Lachin corridor \\|url\\=https://www.eiu.com/n/azerbaijan\\-sets\\-up\\-checkpoints\\-on\\-the\\-lachin\\-corridor/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-03 \\|website\\=Economist Intelligence Unit \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|quote\\=The move \\[installation of a checkpoint] has increased the blockade of Nagorny Karabakh...A checkpoint on the border would give Azerbaijan the ability to stop any cars travelling between Armenia and Nagorny Karabakh. \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802113859/https://www.eiu.com/n/azerbaijan\\-sets\\-up\\-checkpoints\\-on\\-the\\-lachin\\-corridor/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The blockade led to a humanitarian crisis for the population in Artsakh and imports of essential goods were blocked, as well as humanitarian convoys of the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers, trapping the 120,000 residents of the region.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hauer \\|first\\=Neil \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-31 \\|title\\=Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low \\|url\\=https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh\\-blockade\\-reaches\\-critical\\-point\\-as\\-food\\-supplies\\-run\\-low\\-286173/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-01 \\|website\\=www.intellinews.com \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=Occasional ICRC and Russian traffic continued to pass until June 15, at which point Azerbaijan halted all humanitarian deliveries. No food, medicine or fuel has entered Nagorno\\-Karabakh since. \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814123838/https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh\\-blockade\\-reaches\\-critical\\-point\\-as\\-food\\-supplies\\-run\\-low\\-286173/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gavin \\|first\\=Gabriel \\|date\\=Dec 19, 2022 \\|title\\=Supplies begin to run low as Nagorno\\-Karabakh blockade continues \\|url\\=https://eurasianet.org/supplies\\-begin\\-to\\-run\\-low\\-as\\-nagorno\\-karabakh\\-blockade\\-continues \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-22 \\|website\\=eurasianet.org \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=1 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201151350/https://eurasianet.org/supplies\\-begin\\-to\\-run\\-low\\-as\\-nagorno\\-karabakh\\-blockade\\-continues \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kitachayev \\|first\\=Bashir \\|date\\=16 December 2022 \\|title\\=Azerbaijani roadblock cuts tens of thousands off from food, fuel and medicine \\|url\\=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-azerbaijan\\-armenia\\-roadblock/ \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[openDemocracy]] \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226154334/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-azerbaijan\\-armenia\\-roadblock/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-22 \\|title\\=New Troubles in Nagorno\\-Karabakh: Understanding the Lachin Corridor Crisis \\|url\\=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe\\-central\\-asia/caucasus/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-conflict/new\\-troubles\\-nagorno\\-karabakh\\-understanding\\-lachin\\-corridor\\-crisis \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-23 \\|website\\=www.crisisgroup.org \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=While travellers were already few due to the blockade, the ICRC reports that its ability to get people across has been curtailed \\[since the installation of the checkpoint], leaving only the Russian peacekeepers to facilitate trips to Armenia for medical care. \\|archive\\-date\\=16 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816185256/https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe\\-central\\-asia/caucasus/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-conflict/new\\-troubles\\-nagorno\\-karabakh\\-understanding\\-lachin\\-corridor\\-crisis \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-31 \\|title\\=June Alerts and May Trends 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/june\\-alerts\\-and\\-may\\-trends\\-2023 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-19 \\|website\\=www.crisisgroup.org \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=Checkpoint on Lachin corridor faced fierce opposition amid humanitarian crisis....Azerbaijani military consolidated \\[the] blockade, however, leading to even fewer crossings and reduced transportation of goods. \\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622120300/https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/june\\-alerts\\-and\\-may\\-trends\\-2023 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Limited traffic had been conducted by Russian peacekeepers and the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross \"International Committee of the Red Cross\") to transport patients in need of medical care and provide humanitarian supplies.{{cite news \\|last\\=Shahverdyan \\|first\\=Lilit \\|date\\=12 January 2023 \\|title\\=Blackouts and food rationing as Karabakh blockade enters second month \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Eurasianet \\|url\\=https://eurasianet.org/blackouts\\-and\\-food\\-rationing\\-as\\-karabakh\\-blockade\\-enters\\-second\\-month \\|access\\-date\\=17 January 2023 \\|quote\\=But the supplies are meager compared to the pre\\-blockade delivery of 12,000 tons of goods monthly, and barely meet the needs of the local population, which Armenian sources estimate at around 120,000\\. \\|archive\\-date\\=23 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423091733/https://eurasianet.org/blackouts\\-and\\-food\\-rationing\\-as\\-karabakh\\-blockade\\-enters\\-second\\-month \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|date\\=17 January 2023 \\|title\\=Nagorno\\-Karabakh reports gas cut for second time since start of blockade \\|work\\=OC Media \\|url\\=https://oc\\-media.org/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-reports\\-gas\\-cut\\-for\\-second\\-time\\-since\\-start\\-of\\-blockade/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316072358/https://oc\\-media.org/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-reports\\-gas\\-cut\\-for\\-second\\-time\\-since\\-start\\-of\\-blockade/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} However, starting on 15 June 2023, Azerbaijan intensified the blockade, blocking all passage of food, fuel, and medicine from the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers through the Lachin corridor.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-20 \\|title\\=Nagorno\\-Karabakh again faces shortages as Azerbaijan closes Lachin Corridor \\|url\\=https://oc\\-media.org/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-again\\-faces\\-shortages\\-as\\-azerbaijan\\-closes\\-lachin\\-corridor/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-14 \\|website\\=OC Media \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719153306/https://oc\\-media.org/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-again\\-faces\\-shortages\\-as\\-azerbaijan\\-closes\\-lachin\\-corridor/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Food shortages and fear as peacekeepers refused entry to Nagorno\\-Karabakh \\|url\\=https://oc\\-media.org/features/food\\-shortages\\-and\\-fear\\-as\\-peacekeepers\\-refused\\-entry\\-to\\-nagorno\\-karabakh/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-14 \\|website\\=OC Media \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=22 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722145151/https://oc\\-media.org/features/food\\-shortages\\-and\\-fear\\-as\\-peacekeepers\\-refused\\-entry\\-to\\-nagorno\\-karabakh/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-31 \\|title\\=Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low \\|url\\=https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh\\-blockade\\-reaches\\-critical\\-point\\-as\\-food\\-supplies\\-run\\-low\\-286173/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-01 \\|website\\=www.intellinews.com \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814123838/https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh\\-blockade\\-reaches\\-critical\\-point\\-as\\-food\\-supplies\\-run\\-low\\-286173/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On 19 September, Azerbaijan [launched a military operation](/wiki/2023_Nagorno-Karabakh_clashes \"2023 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes\").",
"### Azerbaijani offensive (2023\\)",
"{{main\\|2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno\\-Karabakh}}\nOn 19 September 2023, Azerbaijan [launched a military offensive](/wiki/2023_Nagorno-Karabakh_clashes \"2023 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes\") on Nagorno\\-Karabakh. One day after the offensive started, on 20 September, an agreement on establishing a complete cessation of hostilities in Nagorno\\-Karabakh was reached at the mediation of the [Russian peacekeeping command](/wiki/Peacekeeping_operations_in_Nagorno-Karabakh \"Peacekeeping operations in Nagorno-Karabakh\") in Nagorno\\-Karabakh.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-20 \\|title\\=Russian\\-mediated ceasefire announced in Nagorno\\-Karabakh \\|url\\=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/1120051\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-24 \\|website\\=Armenpress}}{{cite news \\|author1\\=Tim Lister \\|author2\\=Anna Chernova \\|author3\\=Christian Edwards \\|author4\\=Radina Gigova \\|date\\=21 September 2023 \\|title\\=Azerbaijan says it has retaken breakaway Armenian enclave after separatists surrender \\|work\\=CNN.com \\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-russia\\-ceasefire\\-intl/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921214424/https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-russia\\-ceasefire\\-intl/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2023}} Azerbaijan held a meeting with representatives of the Artsakh Armenian community on 21 September in [Yevlakh](/wiki/Yevlakh \"Yevlakh\") to start the process of re\\-integrating the region into Azerbaijan.{{cite news \\|date\\=20 September 2023 \\|title\\=Ethnic Armenians accept Russia ceasefire plan after Azerbaijan offensive in Nagorno\\-Karabakh \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\|url\\=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-russia\\-ceasefire\\-intl/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=20 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920132915/https://edition.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno\\-karabakh\\-russia\\-ceasefire\\-intl/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=20 September 2023}}{{cite news \\|date\\=20 September 2023 \\|title\\=BREAKING: Stepanakert to disband army in ceasefire deal \\|work\\=CIVILNET \\|url\\=https://www.civilnet.am/en/news/751112/breaking\\-stepanakert\\-to\\-disband\\-army\\-in\\-ceasefire\\-deal/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=20 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920132923/https://www.civilnet.am/en/news/751112/breaking\\-stepanakert\\-to\\-disband\\-army\\-in\\-ceasefire\\-deal/ \\|archive\\-date\\=20 September 2023}} Ceasefire violations by Azerbaijan were nonetheless reported by both Artsakh and local residents in [Stepanakert](/wiki/Stepanakert \"Stepanakert\") on 21 September.{{Cite web \\|title\\=МВД Нагорного Карабаха обвинило Азербайджан в нарушении договора о прекращении огня \\|url\\=https://meduza.io/news/2023/09/21/mvd\\-nagornogo\\-karabaha\\-obvinilo\\-azerbaydzhan\\-v\\-narushenii\\-dogovora\\-o\\-prekraschenii\\-ognya \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921113954/https://meduza.io/news/2023/09/21/mvd\\-nagornogo\\-karabaha\\-obvinilo\\-azerbaydzhan\\-v\\-narushenii\\-dogovora\\-o\\-prekraschenii\\-ognya \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Meduza]]}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=21 September 2023 \\|title\\=Aserbaidschan soll Waffenruhe gebrochen haben \\|url\\=https://rp\\-online.de/politik/ausland/berg\\-karabach\\-aserbaidschan\\-soll\\-waffenruhe\\-gebrochen\\-haben\\_aid\\-98086627 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921114231/https://rp\\-online.de/politik/ausland/berg\\-karabach\\-aliyev\\-entschuldigt\\-sich\\-fuer\\-tod\\-russischer\\-soldaten\\_aid\\-98086627 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Rheinische Post]]}} In the aftermath of the offensive, an [exodus of Armenians](/wiki/Exodus_of_Armenians_from_Nagorno-Karabakh \"Exodus of Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh\") from the region started. On 28 September 2023, the Republic of Artsakh agreed to dissolve itself by 1 January 2024\\.",
""
] |
Synopsis
--------
### Setting
*God of War* is set in an alternate version of [ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece") populated by the [Olympian gods](/wiki/Twelve_Olympians "Twelve Olympians"), [Titans](/wiki/Titan_%28mythology%29 "Titan (mythology)"), and other Greek mythological beings. With the exception of [flashbacks](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 "Flashback (narrative)"), the events of the game are set between those of the games *[Chains of Olympus](/wiki/God_of_War:Chains_of_Olympus "Chains of Olympus")* (2008\) and *[Ghost of Sparta](/wiki/God_of_War:Ghost_of_Sparta "Ghost of Sparta")* (2010\). There are six locations explored, including fictional versions of the real\-world [Aegean Sea](/wiki/Aegean_Sea "Aegean Sea") and [Athens](/wiki/Classical_Athens "Classical Athens"), and fictional locations such as the Desert of Lost Souls, the Temple of [Pandora](/wiki/Pandora "Pandora"), the [Underworld](/wiki/Greek_underworld "Greek underworld"), and a brief scene on [Mount Olympus](/wiki/Mount_Olympus "Mount Olympus").{{Harvnb\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\|(2005\)\|pp\=16–17\|ref\=manual}}
The Aegean Sea setting includes a mass of shipwrecked vessels. Athens is a war\-torn city under assault by [Ares](/wiki/Ares "Ares"), the God of War;{{Harvnb\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\|(2005\)\|pp\=18–19\|ref\=manual}} beyond the city is the Desert of Lost Souls, a vast and windy desert of ancient [ruins](/wiki/Ruins "Ruins"). The majority of the game occurs in Pandora's Temple, which is chained to the back of the Titan [Cronos](/wiki/Cronus "Cronus"), who crawls through the desert.{{Harvnb\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\|(2005\)\|p\=20\|ref\=manual}} The massive temple, constructed by the architect Pathos Verdes III, is filled with traps and monsters, and has three sections dedicated to the Titan [Atlas](/wiki/Atlas_%28mythology%29 "Atlas (mythology)") and gods [Poseidon](/wiki/Poseidon "Poseidon") and [Hades](/wiki/Hades "Hades"), respectively.{{Harvnb\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\|(2005\)\|p\=21\|ref\=manual}} The Underworld is a fiery realm with spiked pillars full of souls and flaming versions of previously encountered enemies. Athens is the scene of the final battle before a denouement on Mount Olympus in the God of War's throne room.
### Characters
{{main\|Characters of God of War}}
The protagonist of the game is [Kratos](/wiki/Kratos_%28God_of_War%29 "Kratos (God of War)") (voiced by [Terrence C. Carson](/wiki/Terrence_C._Carson "Terrence C. Carson")), a [Spartan](/wiki/Sparta "Sparta") warrior who serves the Olympian gods. Other characters include a host of Greek gods, such as [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena") ([Carole Ruggier](/wiki/Carole_Ruggier "Carole Ruggier")), the Goddess of Wisdom and Kratos' ally and mentor; Ares ([Steven Blum](/wiki/Steven_Blum "Steven Blum")), the God of War and main antagonist; Poseidon ([Fred Tatasciore](/wiki/Fred_Tatasciore "Fred Tatasciore")), the God of the Sea; [Aphrodite](/wiki/Aphrodite "Aphrodite") (Carole Ruggier), the Goddess of Love and Sexuality; [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus "Zeus") ([Paul Eiding](/wiki/Paul_Eiding "Paul Eiding")), the King of the Gods; [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis "Artemis") ([Claudia Black](/wiki/Claudia_Black "Claudia Black")), the Goddess of the Hunt; and Hades ([Nolan North](/wiki/Nolan_North "Nolan North")), the God of the Underworld. Several of the gods aid Kratos with magic or weapons. Minor characters include the [Oracle](/wiki/Oracle "Oracle") of Athens ([Susan Blakeslee](/wiki/Susan_Blakeslee "Susan Blakeslee")), the gravedigger (Paul Eiding), the body burner ([Christopher Corey Smith](/wiki/Christopher_Corey_Smith "Christopher Corey Smith")), and the boat captain ([Keith Ferguson](/wiki/Keith_Ferguson_%28voice_actor%29 "Keith Ferguson (voice actor)")). Other characters appear in flashbacks, including Kratos' wife Lysandra ([Gwendoline Yeo](/wiki/Gwendoline_Yeo "Gwendoline Yeo")), his daughter Calliope, the [Barbarian](/wiki/Barbarian "Barbarian") king, and a village Oracle (Susan Blakeslee). The game is narrated by [Linda Hunt](/wiki/Linda_Hunt "Linda Hunt").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id\=44837\&tab\=credits\|title\=God of War – Credits\|publisher\=\[\[Allgame]]. \[\[Rovi Corporation]]\|access\-date\=July 9, 2012\|archive\-date\=November 14, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114204521/http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id\=44837\&tab\=credits\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Harvnb\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\|(2005\)\|pp\=32–35\|ref\=manual}}
### Plot
[thumb\|right\|Artwork of [Ares](/wiki/Ares "Ares"), the main antagonist](/wiki/File:Ares_God_of_War_game.jpg "Ares God of War game.jpg")
[Kratos](/wiki/Kratos_%28God_of_War%29 "Kratos (God of War)") is a warrior who serves the Greek gods of Olympus. Flashbacks reveal that he was once a successful but bloodthirsty captain in the Spartan army and led his men to several victories before being defeated by a barbarian king. Facing death, Kratos called on the God of War, Ares, whom he promised to serve if the god would spare his men and provide the power to destroy their enemies. Ares agreed and bonded the Blades of Chaos, a pair of chained blades forged in the depths of [Tartarus](/wiki/Tartarus "Tartarus"), to his new servant. Kratos, equipped with the blades, then decapitated the barbarian king.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.gamespot.com/features/god\-of\-war\-walkthrough\-6121675/ \|title\=God of War Walkthrough \|last\=Radcliffe \|first\=Doug \|publisher\=\[\[CBS Interactive]] \|work\=\[\[GameSpot]] \|access\-date\=January 30, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122014337/http://www.gamespot.com/features/god\-of\-war\-walkthrough\-6121675/ \|archive\-date\=January 22, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}
Kratos waged war at the behest of Ares, eventually leading an attack on a village occupied by worshippers of Athena. Unknown to Kratos, Ares had secretly transported Kratos' wife and daughter to the village; during his frenzied attack on its temple, Kratos accidentally killed them in a blind fury. Although Ares believed this act would free Kratos to become the perfect warrior, the horrified and saddened Spartan instead renounced his pledge of servitude to the god and swore vengeance against him. The oracle of the destroyed village cursed Kratos by bonding the ashes of his dead family to his skin, turning it ash\-white and earning him the nickname, "Ghost of Sparta". Plagued by nightmares of his horrible deed, Kratos vowed to serve the other gods in hope of ridding himself of the visions.
When the game starts, Kratos has been serving the gods for ten years. He kills the Hydra on behalf of Poseidon, but he has grown tired of his service and suffering. He summons Athena, who states that if Kratos performs one final act—the murder of Ares—he will be forgiven for killing his family. Ares is waging war on the city of Athens out of hatred of his sister Athena, who assigns Kratos to destroy Ares because Zeus has forbidden divine intervention. Athena guides Kratos to the war\-torn Athens. After a strange encounter with a gravedigger who encourages him to continue his task, Kratos battles his way to Athens' oracle, finds her, and learns that the only way to defeat Ares is with [Pandora's Box](/wiki/Pandora%27s_Box "Pandora's Box"), a mythical artifact that grants the power to kill a god.
Kratos enters the Desert of Lost Souls, and Athena tells him Pandora's Box is hidden in a temple chained to the back of the Titan Cronos—a punishment by Zeus for Cronos' role in the [Great War](/wiki/Titanomachy "Titanomachy"). Kratos summons Cronos, climbs for three days before reaching the Temple entrance, overcomes an array of deadly traps and an army of monsters, and eventually finds the Box. But Ares, aware of his former servant's success, kills Kratos as he is leaving the Temple by hurling a large pillar into him. While harpies take the Box to Ares, Kratos falls into the Underworld. He battles his way through the fiery realm of the dead, and with help from the mysterious gravedigger, who tells him Athena is not the only god watching over him, he escapes and returns to Athens.
Kratos recovers Pandora's Box from Ares, opens it, and uses its power to become godlike and engages Ares in a fierce battle. Despite Ares' best efforts to destroy Kratos physically and mentally, including stripping him of all weapons and magic and then forcing him to relive his family's death, Kratos overcomes and kills Ares with the Blade of the Gods, a giant sword that was being used as an ornamental bridge to Athens. The city is saved, and Athena tells Kratos that although his sins are forgiven, the gods cannot erase his nightmares. Forsaken by the gods, he tries to commit suicide by casting himself into the Aegean Sea, but Athena intervenes and transports him to Mount Olympus. As a reward for his services to the gods, Athena provides Kratos with a new set of blades and the seat as the new God of War.
|
[
"Synopsis\n--------",
"### Setting",
"*God of War* is set in an alternate version of [ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") populated by the [Olympian gods](/wiki/Twelve_Olympians \"Twelve Olympians\"), [Titans](/wiki/Titan_%28mythology%29 \"Titan (mythology)\"), and other Greek mythological beings. With the exception of [flashbacks](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 \"Flashback (narrative)\"), the events of the game are set between those of the games *[Chains of Olympus](/wiki/God_of_War:Chains_of_Olympus \"Chains of Olympus\")* (2008\\) and *[Ghost of Sparta](/wiki/God_of_War:Ghost_of_Sparta \"Ghost of Sparta\")* (2010\\). There are six locations explored, including fictional versions of the real\\-world [Aegean Sea](/wiki/Aegean_Sea \"Aegean Sea\") and [Athens](/wiki/Classical_Athens \"Classical Athens\"), and fictional locations such as the Desert of Lost Souls, the Temple of [Pandora](/wiki/Pandora \"Pandora\"), the [Underworld](/wiki/Greek_underworld \"Greek underworld\"), and a brief scene on [Mount Olympus](/wiki/Mount_Olympus \"Mount Olympus\").{{Harvnb\\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\\|(2005\\)\\|pp\\=16–17\\|ref\\=manual}}",
"The Aegean Sea setting includes a mass of shipwrecked vessels. Athens is a war\\-torn city under assault by [Ares](/wiki/Ares \"Ares\"), the God of War;{{Harvnb\\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\\|(2005\\)\\|pp\\=18–19\\|ref\\=manual}} beyond the city is the Desert of Lost Souls, a vast and windy desert of ancient [ruins](/wiki/Ruins \"Ruins\"). The majority of the game occurs in Pandora's Temple, which is chained to the back of the Titan [Cronos](/wiki/Cronus \"Cronus\"), who crawls through the desert.{{Harvnb\\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\\|(2005\\)\\|p\\=20\\|ref\\=manual}} The massive temple, constructed by the architect Pathos Verdes III, is filled with traps and monsters, and has three sections dedicated to the Titan [Atlas](/wiki/Atlas_%28mythology%29 \"Atlas (mythology)\") and gods [Poseidon](/wiki/Poseidon \"Poseidon\") and [Hades](/wiki/Hades \"Hades\"), respectively.{{Harvnb\\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\\|(2005\\)\\|p\\=21\\|ref\\=manual}} The Underworld is a fiery realm with spiked pillars full of souls and flaming versions of previously encountered enemies. Athens is the scene of the final battle before a denouement on Mount Olympus in the God of War's throne room.",
"### Characters",
"{{main\\|Characters of God of War}}\nThe protagonist of the game is [Kratos](/wiki/Kratos_%28God_of_War%29 \"Kratos (God of War)\") (voiced by [Terrence C. Carson](/wiki/Terrence_C._Carson \"Terrence C. Carson\")), a [Spartan](/wiki/Sparta \"Sparta\") warrior who serves the Olympian gods. Other characters include a host of Greek gods, such as [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\") ([Carole Ruggier](/wiki/Carole_Ruggier \"Carole Ruggier\")), the Goddess of Wisdom and Kratos' ally and mentor; Ares ([Steven Blum](/wiki/Steven_Blum \"Steven Blum\")), the God of War and main antagonist; Poseidon ([Fred Tatasciore](/wiki/Fred_Tatasciore \"Fred Tatasciore\")), the God of the Sea; [Aphrodite](/wiki/Aphrodite \"Aphrodite\") (Carole Ruggier), the Goddess of Love and Sexuality; [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus \"Zeus\") ([Paul Eiding](/wiki/Paul_Eiding \"Paul Eiding\")), the King of the Gods; [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis \"Artemis\") ([Claudia Black](/wiki/Claudia_Black \"Claudia Black\")), the Goddess of the Hunt; and Hades ([Nolan North](/wiki/Nolan_North \"Nolan North\")), the God of the Underworld. Several of the gods aid Kratos with magic or weapons. Minor characters include the [Oracle](/wiki/Oracle \"Oracle\") of Athens ([Susan Blakeslee](/wiki/Susan_Blakeslee \"Susan Blakeslee\")), the gravedigger (Paul Eiding), the body burner ([Christopher Corey Smith](/wiki/Christopher_Corey_Smith \"Christopher Corey Smith\")), and the boat captain ([Keith Ferguson](/wiki/Keith_Ferguson_%28voice_actor%29 \"Keith Ferguson (voice actor)\")). Other characters appear in flashbacks, including Kratos' wife Lysandra ([Gwendoline Yeo](/wiki/Gwendoline_Yeo \"Gwendoline Yeo\")), his daughter Calliope, the [Barbarian](/wiki/Barbarian \"Barbarian\") king, and a village Oracle (Susan Blakeslee). The game is narrated by [Linda Hunt](/wiki/Linda_Hunt \"Linda Hunt\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id\\=44837\\&tab\\=credits\\|title\\=God of War – Credits\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Allgame]]. \\[\\[Rovi Corporation]]\\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=November 14, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114204521/http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id\\=44837\\&tab\\=credits\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Harvnb\\|Santa Monica Studio, ed.\\|(2005\\)\\|pp\\=32–35\\|ref\\=manual}}",
"### Plot",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Artwork of [Ares](/wiki/Ares \"Ares\"), the main antagonist](/wiki/File:Ares_God_of_War_game.jpg \"Ares God of War game.jpg\")\n[Kratos](/wiki/Kratos_%28God_of_War%29 \"Kratos (God of War)\") is a warrior who serves the Greek gods of Olympus. Flashbacks reveal that he was once a successful but bloodthirsty captain in the Spartan army and led his men to several victories before being defeated by a barbarian king. Facing death, Kratos called on the God of War, Ares, whom he promised to serve if the god would spare his men and provide the power to destroy their enemies. Ares agreed and bonded the Blades of Chaos, a pair of chained blades forged in the depths of [Tartarus](/wiki/Tartarus \"Tartarus\"), to his new servant. Kratos, equipped with the blades, then decapitated the barbarian king.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gamespot.com/features/god\\-of\\-war\\-walkthrough\\-6121675/ \\|title\\=God of War Walkthrough \\|last\\=Radcliffe \\|first\\=Doug \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CBS Interactive]] \\|work\\=\\[\\[GameSpot]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 30, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122014337/http://www.gamespot.com/features/god\\-of\\-war\\-walkthrough\\-6121675/ \\|archive\\-date\\=January 22, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Kratos waged war at the behest of Ares, eventually leading an attack on a village occupied by worshippers of Athena. Unknown to Kratos, Ares had secretly transported Kratos' wife and daughter to the village; during his frenzied attack on its temple, Kratos accidentally killed them in a blind fury. Although Ares believed this act would free Kratos to become the perfect warrior, the horrified and saddened Spartan instead renounced his pledge of servitude to the god and swore vengeance against him. The oracle of the destroyed village cursed Kratos by bonding the ashes of his dead family to his skin, turning it ash\\-white and earning him the nickname, \"Ghost of Sparta\". Plagued by nightmares of his horrible deed, Kratos vowed to serve the other gods in hope of ridding himself of the visions.",
"When the game starts, Kratos has been serving the gods for ten years. He kills the Hydra on behalf of Poseidon, but he has grown tired of his service and suffering. He summons Athena, who states that if Kratos performs one final act—the murder of Ares—he will be forgiven for killing his family. Ares is waging war on the city of Athens out of hatred of his sister Athena, who assigns Kratos to destroy Ares because Zeus has forbidden divine intervention. Athena guides Kratos to the war\\-torn Athens. After a strange encounter with a gravedigger who encourages him to continue his task, Kratos battles his way to Athens' oracle, finds her, and learns that the only way to defeat Ares is with [Pandora's Box](/wiki/Pandora%27s_Box \"Pandora's Box\"), a mythical artifact that grants the power to kill a god.",
"Kratos enters the Desert of Lost Souls, and Athena tells him Pandora's Box is hidden in a temple chained to the back of the Titan Cronos—a punishment by Zeus for Cronos' role in the [Great War](/wiki/Titanomachy \"Titanomachy\"). Kratos summons Cronos, climbs for three days before reaching the Temple entrance, overcomes an array of deadly traps and an army of monsters, and eventually finds the Box. But Ares, aware of his former servant's success, kills Kratos as he is leaving the Temple by hurling a large pillar into him. While harpies take the Box to Ares, Kratos falls into the Underworld. He battles his way through the fiery realm of the dead, and with help from the mysterious gravedigger, who tells him Athena is not the only god watching over him, he escapes and returns to Athens.",
"Kratos recovers Pandora's Box from Ares, opens it, and uses its power to become godlike and engages Ares in a fierce battle. Despite Ares' best efforts to destroy Kratos physically and mentally, including stripping him of all weapons and magic and then forcing him to relive his family's death, Kratos overcomes and kills Ares with the Blade of the Gods, a giant sword that was being used as an ornamental bridge to Athens. The city is saved, and Athena tells Kratos that although his sins are forgiven, the gods cannot erase his nightmares. Forsaken by the gods, he tries to commit suicide by casting himself into the Aegean Sea, but Athena intervenes and transports him to Mount Olympus. As a reward for his services to the gods, Athena provides Kratos with a new set of blades and the seat as the new God of War.",
""
] |
Definition
----------
The definitions as per Section II (s.2 Of Sale of Goods Act 1930\) of the Act are as follows:
### Contract
A Contract of Sale is:
* an offer to buy for a price, or
* An offer to sell good for a price, and
* the acceptance of such offer.
A Contract may provide for:
* the immediate delivery of the goods, or
* immediate payment of the price, or
* the immediate delivery of the goods and payment both, or
* for the delivery or payment by installments, or
* that the delivery or payment or both shall be postponed.
* per the Section 5 sub\-clause (2\) \- Subject to the provisions of any law for the time being in force, a contract of sale may be made\-
* in writing or
* by word of mouth, or
* partly in writing and partly by word of mouth or
* may be implied from the conduct of the parties.
Goods are every kind of moveable property other than actionable claims and money, and include:
* Stock and shares,
* Growing crops,
* Grass, and
* Things attached to or forming part of land which is agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale.
Future goods are goods that are to be:
* manufactured, or
* produced, or
* acquired, by the seller after making of the contract of sale
According to the act, the goods which form the subject of a contract of sale may be either existing goods, owned or possessed by the seller, or future goods and there may be a contract for the sale of goods the acquisition of which by the seller depends upon a contingency which may or may not happen. Where by a contract of sale the seller purports to effect a present sale of future goods, the contract operates as an agreement to sell the goods.
### Events and Participants
#### Sale of Goods
A contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a price. There may be a contract of sale between one part\-owner and another.
#### Mercantile Agent
A Mercantile Agent has the customary course of business as agent authority:
* either to sell goods, or
* to consign goods for the purposes of sale, or
* to buy goods, or
* to raise money on the security of goods. section\-9(2\)
#### Buyer
A person who buys or agrees to buy goods.
*Price*refers to money considered for sale of goods. The price in a contract of sale may be fixed by the contract, or may be left to be fixed in manner thereby agreed, or may be determined by the course of dealing between the parties. Where the price is not determined in accordance with the foregoing provisions, the buyer shall pay the seller a reasonable price. Where there is an agreement to sell goods on the terms that\- the price is to be fixed by the valuation of a third party, and such third party cannot or does not make such valuation, the agreement is thereby avoided, provided the goods or any part thereof have been delivered to the buyer, and appropriated by the buyer, the buyer shall pay a reasonable price.
In the event of a dispute, the party not in fault may maintain a suit for damages against the party in fault.
#### Delivery
means voluntary transfer of possession from one person to another.
#### State of Delivery
Goods are said to be in a "delivered state" when they are in such state that the buyer would under the contract be bound to take delivery of them.
#### Documentation of goods
* Bill of lading dock\-warrant,
* Warehouse keeper's certificate,
* Wharfingers' certificate,
* Railway receipt,
* RC book of car,
* Multimodal transport document,
* Warrant or order for the delivery of goods, and
* Any other document used in the ordinary course of business as proof of the possession or control of goods or authorizing or purporting to authorize, either by endorsement or by delivery, the possessor of the document to transfer or receive goods thereby represented.
### Damage
Goods are said to be damaged/perished if:
* The goods, at the time when the contract was made, have perished or become so damaged as no longer to answer to their description in the contract, and
* Neither seller nor buyer have the knowledge about such destroyed/damaged.
As per Section 8 of Sale of Goods Act, where there is an agreement to sell specific goods, and subsequently the goods without any fault on the part of the seller or buyer perish or become so damaged as no longer to answer to their description in the agreement before the risk passes to the buyer, the agreement is thereby avoided.
### Violation
A "Fault" is defined as a wrongful act by default.
A person is said to be "insolvent" when:
* who has ceased to pay his debts in the ordinary course of business, or
* cannot pay his debts as they become due, whether he has committed an act of insolvency or not.
### Other Definitions
* "price" means the money consideration for a sale of goods.
* "property" means the general property in goods, and not merely a special property.
* "quality of goods" includes their state or condition.
* "seller" means a person who sells or agrees to sell goods.
* "specific goods" means goods identified and agreed upon at the time a contract of sale is made.
* expressions used but not defined in this Act and defined in the Indian Contract Act, 1872, have the meaning assigned to them in that act.
|
[
"Definition\n----------",
"The definitions as per Section II (s.2 Of Sale of Goods Act 1930\\) of the Act are as follows:",
"### Contract",
"A Contract of Sale is:\n* an offer to buy for a price, or\n* An offer to sell good for a price, and\n* the acceptance of such offer.",
"A Contract may provide for:\n* the immediate delivery of the goods, or\n* immediate payment of the price, or\n* the immediate delivery of the goods and payment both, or\n* for the delivery or payment by installments, or\n* that the delivery or payment or both shall be postponed.\n* per the Section 5 sub\\-clause (2\\) \\- Subject to the provisions of any law for the time being in force, a contract of sale may be made\\-\n* in writing or\n* by word of mouth, or\n* partly in writing and partly by word of mouth or\n* may be implied from the conduct of the parties.",
"Goods are every kind of moveable property other than actionable claims and money, and include:\n* Stock and shares,\n* Growing crops,\n* Grass, and\n* Things attached to or forming part of land which is agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale.",
"Future goods are goods that are to be:\n* manufactured, or\n* produced, or\n* acquired, by the seller after making of the contract of sale",
"According to the act, the goods which form the subject of a contract of sale may be either existing goods, owned or possessed by the seller, or future goods and there may be a contract for the sale of goods the acquisition of which by the seller depends upon a contingency which may or may not happen. Where by a contract of sale the seller purports to effect a present sale of future goods, the contract operates as an agreement to sell the goods.",
"### Events and Participants",
"#### Sale of Goods",
"A contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a price. There may be a contract of sale between one part\\-owner and another.",
"#### Mercantile Agent",
"A Mercantile Agent has the customary course of business as agent authority: \n* either to sell goods, or\n* to consign goods for the purposes of sale, or\n* to buy goods, or\n* to raise money on the security of goods. section\\-9(2\\)",
"#### Buyer",
"A person who buys or agrees to buy goods.\n*Price*refers to money considered for sale of goods. The price in a contract of sale may be fixed by the contract, or may be left to be fixed in manner thereby agreed, or may be determined by the course of dealing between the parties. Where the price is not determined in accordance with the foregoing provisions, the buyer shall pay the seller a reasonable price. Where there is an agreement to sell goods on the terms that\\- the price is to be fixed by the valuation of a third party, and such third party cannot or does not make such valuation, the agreement is thereby avoided, provided the goods or any part thereof have been delivered to the buyer, and appropriated by the buyer, the buyer shall pay a reasonable price.",
"In the event of a dispute, the party not in fault may maintain a suit for damages against the party in fault.",
"#### Delivery",
"means voluntary transfer of possession from one person to another.",
"#### State of Delivery",
"Goods are said to be in a \"delivered state\" when they are in such state that the buyer would under the contract be bound to take delivery of them.",
"#### Documentation of goods",
"* Bill of lading dock\\-warrant,\n* Warehouse keeper's certificate,\n* Wharfingers' certificate,\n* Railway receipt,\n* RC book of car,\n* Multimodal transport document,\n* Warrant or order for the delivery of goods, and\n* Any other document used in the ordinary course of business as proof of the possession or control of goods or authorizing or purporting to authorize, either by endorsement or by delivery, the possessor of the document to transfer or receive goods thereby represented.",
"### Damage",
"Goods are said to be damaged/perished if:\n* The goods, at the time when the contract was made, have perished or become so damaged as no longer to answer to their description in the contract, and\n* Neither seller nor buyer have the knowledge about such destroyed/damaged.",
"As per Section 8 of Sale of Goods Act, where there is an agreement to sell specific goods, and subsequently the goods without any fault on the part of the seller or buyer perish or become so damaged as no longer to answer to their description in the agreement before the risk passes to the buyer, the agreement is thereby avoided.",
"### Violation",
"A \"Fault\" is defined as a wrongful act by default.",
"A person is said to be \"insolvent\" when:\n* who has ceased to pay his debts in the ordinary course of business, or\n* cannot pay his debts as they become due, whether he has committed an act of insolvency or not.",
"### Other Definitions",
"* \"price\" means the money consideration for a sale of goods.\n* \"property\" means the general property in goods, and not merely a special property.\n* \"quality of goods\" includes their state or condition.\n* \"seller\" means a person who sells or agrees to sell goods.\n* \"specific goods\" means goods identified and agreed upon at the time a contract of sale is made.\n* expressions used but not defined in this Act and defined in the Indian Contract Act, 1872, have the meaning assigned to them in that act."
] |
Biography
---------
King was born in [Cascade, Iowa](/wiki/Cascade%2C_Iowa "Cascade, Iowa") on June 2, 1880\. King received his education from one\-room schoolhouse teachers in [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska "Nebraska"). He attended the [University of Nebraska](/wiki/University_of_Nebraska "University of Nebraska"), graduating 1905\. He received his [Doctor of Philosophy](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy "Doctor of Philosophy") degree from [University of Wisconsin–Madison](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison "University of Wisconsin–Madison") in 1913\.
He went to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") to become a statistician with the [United States Public Health Service](/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service "United States Public Health Service") from 1917–1920\. In 1917 he was elected as a [Fellow](/wiki/Fellow "Fellow") of the [American Statistical Association](/wiki/American_Statistical_Association "American Statistical Association").[List of ASA Fellows](http://www.amstat.org/awards/fellowslist.cfm), retrieved 2016\-07\-16\. In 1920, he moved on to become the economist for the [National Bureau of Economic Research](/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research "National Bureau of Economic Research"). In 1927, King moved on from public service to become an economics professor at [New York University](/wiki/New_York_University "New York University").
During the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), King opposed the [New Deal](/wiki/New_Deal "New Deal"). Instead, he advocated a sliding scale of wages based on production, no government intervention in business, currency expansion, the reduction of taxes in upper brackets, and the abolition of all levies on incomes of corporations and from invested capital.[Guide to the Willford I. King Papers 1912\-1962](http://nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu/findaid/ark:/80444/xv64995)
In 1933, he founded the [Committee on Economic Accord](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic_Accord "Committee on Economic Accord"). In 1945, King retired from NYU to become chairman of the Committee for Constitutional Government, Inc., he later would serve as an advisor.
King and his wife Jane Elizabeth Patterson, had three children, Harold J., Hugh Patterson., and Floralie Jane.
KIng's grandson, and his namesake, is Willford S. King of Boise, Idaho. Willford is the son of Harold J. King.
King died at his home in [Douglaston, New York](/wiki/Douglaston%2C_New_York "Douglaston, New York") on October 17, 1962\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"King was born in [Cascade, Iowa](/wiki/Cascade%2C_Iowa \"Cascade, Iowa\") on June 2, 1880\\. King received his education from one\\-room schoolhouse teachers in [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska \"Nebraska\"). He attended the [University of Nebraska](/wiki/University_of_Nebraska \"University of Nebraska\"), graduating 1905\\. He received his [Doctor of Philosophy](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy \"Doctor of Philosophy\") degree from [University of Wisconsin–Madison](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison \"University of Wisconsin–Madison\") in 1913\\.",
"He went to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") to become a statistician with the [United States Public Health Service](/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service \"United States Public Health Service\") from 1917–1920\\. In 1917 he was elected as a [Fellow](/wiki/Fellow \"Fellow\") of the [American Statistical Association](/wiki/American_Statistical_Association \"American Statistical Association\").[List of ASA Fellows](http://www.amstat.org/awards/fellowslist.cfm), retrieved 2016\\-07\\-16\\. In 1920, he moved on to become the economist for the [National Bureau of Economic Research](/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research \"National Bureau of Economic Research\"). In 1927, King moved on from public service to become an economics professor at [New York University](/wiki/New_York_University \"New York University\").",
"During the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), King opposed the [New Deal](/wiki/New_Deal \"New Deal\"). Instead, he advocated a sliding scale of wages based on production, no government intervention in business, currency expansion, the reduction of taxes in upper brackets, and the abolition of all levies on incomes of corporations and from invested capital.[Guide to the Willford I. King Papers 1912\\-1962](http://nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu/findaid/ark:/80444/xv64995)",
"In 1933, he founded the [Committee on Economic Accord](/wiki/Committee_on_Economic_Accord \"Committee on Economic Accord\"). In 1945, King retired from NYU to become chairman of the Committee for Constitutional Government, Inc., he later would serve as an advisor.",
"King and his wife Jane Elizabeth Patterson, had three children, Harold J., Hugh Patterson., and Floralie Jane.",
"KIng's grandson, and his namesake, is Willford S. King of Boise, Idaho. Willford is the son of Harold J. King.",
"King died at his home in [Douglaston, New York](/wiki/Douglaston%2C_New_York \"Douglaston, New York\") on October 17, 1962\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Beginnings
The station was created in the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") on the site of a former golf course. It was home to various [RAF Coastal Command](/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command "RAF Coastal Command") squadrons patrolling the [North Atlantic](/wiki/North_Atlantic "North Atlantic") for [U\-boats](/wiki/U-boats "U-boats"). In late 1940, a detachment of [Avro Anson](/wiki/Avro_Anson "Avro Anson") aircraft arrived from [No. 612 (County of Aberdeen) Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._612_%28County_of_Aberdeen%29_Squadron_RAF "No. 612 (County of Aberdeen) Squadron RAF"), [Royal Auxiliary Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Auxiliary_Air_Force "Royal Auxiliary Air Force"). The Ansons operated from the site of RAF Stornoway while it was still under construction. By November 1940, the aircraft from 612 Squadron had been posted to [RAF Wick](/wiki/RAF_Wick "RAF Wick") and were gradually replaced by Ansons from [No. 48 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._48_Squadron_RAF "No. 48 Squadron RAF"), based at [RAF Hooton Park](/wiki/RAF_Hooton_Park "RAF Hooton Park").
In March 1940, [827 Naval Air Squadron](/wiki/827_Naval_Air_Squadron "827 Naval Air Squadron") operated [Fairey Albacore](/wiki/Fairey_Albacore "Fairey Albacore") aircraft from Stornoway in conjunction with the Ansons of 48 Squadron on maritime patrols across the Atlantic. This continued until the station was completed at which point they moved away. RAF Stornoway was officially constituted on 1 April 1941 as part of [No. 15 (Reconnaissance) Group RAF](/wiki/No._15_Group_RAF "No. 15 Group RAF"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rafweb.org/Grp02\.htm \|title\=A History of RAF Organisation : Groups 10–19 \|first\=M. B. \|last\=Barrass \|work\=rafweb.org \|year\=2011 \|accessdate\=7 October 2013 \|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005054658/http://www.rafweb.org/Grp02\.htm \|archivedate\=5 October 2013 }} and then [No. 18 (Reconnaissance) Group](/wiki/No._18_Group_RAF "No. 18 Group RAF"), both of RAF Coastal Command but was finally closed down at the end of the Second World War when it reverted to Stornoway Airport. No. 66 Air\-Sea Rescue (ASR) Marine Craft Unit was also based out of Stornoway Harbour during 1943 and 1944\.Roskill, Stephen Wentworth. The War at Sea, 1939–1945, Volume 1, pp. 332–333\. H. M. Stationery Office, 1954\.
### Post War
In 1952 biological agents were brought in to the airport for the controversial [Operation Cauldron](/wiki/Operation_Cauldron "Operation Cauldron").{{cite book\| title\=Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945\| url\=https://archive.org/details/deadlyculturesbi1945whee\| url\-access\=limited\| first\=Mark\| last\=Wheelis \|author2\=Lajos Rózsa \|author3\=Malcolm Dando\| publisher\=Harvard University Press\| year\=2006\| pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/deadlyculturesbi1945whee/page/n70 56]–7\|isbn\=0\-674\-01699\-8}} They were testing the dangerous agents on caged monkeys and guinea pigs who were situated on a navy [pontoon](/wiki/Float_%28nautical%29 "Float (nautical)") nearby at the Braighe.{{cite news\| url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/main.jhtml?view\=DETAILS\&grid\=P8\&xml\=/health/2005/09/20/nplag19\.xml\| archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120630134044/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/main.jhtml?view\=DETAILS\&grid\=P8\&xml\=/health/2005/09/20/nplag19\.xml\| url\-status\=dead\| archive\-date\=30 June 2012\| title\=Trawler steamed into germ warfare site and no one said a word\| work\=Daily Telegraph\| date\=20 September 2005 \| location\=London \| first\=Ben \| last\=Fenton \| accessdate\=20 May 2010}} The tests were carried out by scientists from the Chemical and Biological Defence Establishment (CBDE) from [Porton Down](/wiki/Porton_Down "Porton Down").{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2013}} When a trawler inadvertently passed through one of the clouds of plague bacteria, the ship and crew were temporarily put under covert surveillance during their return from Iceland to Blackpool and onshore. CBDE was later amalgamated and now forms part of the [Defence Science and Technology Laboratory](/wiki/Defence_Science_and_Technology_Laboratory "Defence Science and Technology Laboratory"). Porton Down has encountered controversy for human experimentation using chemical warfare right up until 1990\.{{cite book \|isbn\=978\-1842320716\|title\=Gassed \|last1\=Evans \|first1\=Rob \|year\=2000 }}
### The Cold War
During the height of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") years [Stornoway Airport](/wiki/Stornoway_Airport "Stornoway Airport") was home to 112 S.U., an RAF Signals Unit{{Cite web\|url\=http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/SearchUI/details/C11041126?descriptiontype\=Full\&ref\=AIR\+29/4526\|title \= 112 Signals Unit Stornoway / RAF Stornoway. With appendices}} that was established in 1960 as an [Electronic countermeasures](/wiki/Electronic_countermeasures "Electronic countermeasures") (ECM) measurement and evaluation unit by [RAF Bomber Command](/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command "RAF Bomber Command") Headquarters (HQBC), High Wycombe. The unit measured the signal strength, frequency bandwidths and aerial performance of the operational [Handley Page Victor](/wiki/Handley_Page_Victor "Handley Page Victor") and [Avro Vulcan](/wiki/Avro_Vulcan "Avro Vulcan") [V bombers](/wiki/V_bomber "V bomber") as they flew a course towards, over or away from the unit varying from straight\-lines to polar patterns.Document AIR 29/4736 *1974–1980*, The National Archives, Kew. Results were passed back to Operations Research Branch, (HQBC), **BCDU** at RAF Finningley and each aircraft's base for the Electronics Engineers and Technicians to review for performance improvement of each piece of equipment that was measured. The combined success of 112 S.U., BCDU at RAF Finningly and each of the aircraft's bases along with the Operations Research Branch at (HQBC) and technical support from [RRE](/wiki/RRE "RRE") Malvern (later to become [RSRE](/wiki/RSRE "RSRE") Malvern) was demonstrated by the V\-force during the [Operation Skyshield](/wiki/Operation_Skyshield "Operation Skyshield") exercises Document AIR 14/4317 *Monitoring of RED SHRIMP performance before Exercise SKYSHIELD II*, The National Archives, Kew. and readiness through the [Cuban Missile Crisis](/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis "Cuban Missile Crisis") in the early sixties White, p 47\. and subsequent exercisesHennessy, p.201 up to the time that the unit was closed in 1983\.
In the early 1980s, part of the Airport was upgraded in a £40 million upgrade and extension of the main runway and taxiways along with new hangars, to accept [Panavia Tornado](/wiki/Panavia_Tornado "Panavia Tornado") aircraft.{{cite magazine \|editor1\-last\=Horseman \|editor1\-first\=Martin \|title\=New Air Base at Stornoway \|magazine\=Armed Forces \|date\=March 1982 \|page\=47 \|publisher\=Ian Allan \|location\=Shepperton \|issn\=0142\-4696}} By 1 April 1982 this work was completed, the buildings commissioned and RAF Stornoway was established once again in order to become a Forward Operations Base. After sixteen years in this role and also the end of the Cold War, the station was finally closed{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/spl/aberdeen/raf\-to\-withdraw\-from\-stornoway\-next\-month\-1\.354520\|title\=RAF to withdraw from Stornoway next month}} on 31 March 1998 and reverted to [Stornoway Airport](/wiki/Stornoway_Airport "Stornoway Airport").
After this some of the buildings were sold off, one becoming a Christian school, and others including the [Nissen hut](/wiki/Nissen_hut "Nissen hut") accommodation blocks were demolished. The runway remains in use as part of [Stornoway Airport](/wiki/Stornoway_Airport "Stornoway Airport"), and other parts of the site are used as a ground for holding stunt shows and vehicle exhibitions.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Beginnings",
"The station was created in the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") on the site of a former golf course. It was home to various [RAF Coastal Command](/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command \"RAF Coastal Command\") squadrons patrolling the [North Atlantic](/wiki/North_Atlantic \"North Atlantic\") for [U\\-boats](/wiki/U-boats \"U-boats\"). In late 1940, a detachment of [Avro Anson](/wiki/Avro_Anson \"Avro Anson\") aircraft arrived from [No. 612 (County of Aberdeen) Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._612_%28County_of_Aberdeen%29_Squadron_RAF \"No. 612 (County of Aberdeen) Squadron RAF\"), [Royal Auxiliary Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Auxiliary_Air_Force \"Royal Auxiliary Air Force\"). The Ansons operated from the site of RAF Stornoway while it was still under construction. By November 1940, the aircraft from 612 Squadron had been posted to [RAF Wick](/wiki/RAF_Wick \"RAF Wick\") and were gradually replaced by Ansons from [No. 48 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._48_Squadron_RAF \"No. 48 Squadron RAF\"), based at [RAF Hooton Park](/wiki/RAF_Hooton_Park \"RAF Hooton Park\").",
"In March 1940, [827 Naval Air Squadron](/wiki/827_Naval_Air_Squadron \"827 Naval Air Squadron\") operated [Fairey Albacore](/wiki/Fairey_Albacore \"Fairey Albacore\") aircraft from Stornoway in conjunction with the Ansons of 48 Squadron on maritime patrols across the Atlantic. This continued until the station was completed at which point they moved away. RAF Stornoway was officially constituted on 1 April 1941 as part of [No. 15 (Reconnaissance) Group RAF](/wiki/No._15_Group_RAF \"No. 15 Group RAF\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rafweb.org/Grp02\\.htm \\|title\\=A History of RAF Organisation : Groups 10–19 \\|first\\=M. B. \\|last\\=Barrass \\|work\\=rafweb.org \\|year\\=2011 \\|accessdate\\=7 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005054658/http://www.rafweb.org/Grp02\\.htm \\|archivedate\\=5 October 2013 }} and then [No. 18 (Reconnaissance) Group](/wiki/No._18_Group_RAF \"No. 18 Group RAF\"), both of RAF Coastal Command but was finally closed down at the end of the Second World War when it reverted to Stornoway Airport. No. 66 Air\\-Sea Rescue (ASR) Marine Craft Unit was also based out of Stornoway Harbour during 1943 and 1944\\.Roskill, Stephen Wentworth. The War at Sea, 1939–1945, Volume 1, pp. 332–333\\. H. M. Stationery Office, 1954\\.",
"### Post War",
"In 1952 biological agents were brought in to the airport for the controversial [Operation Cauldron](/wiki/Operation_Cauldron \"Operation Cauldron\").{{cite book\\| title\\=Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons since 1945\\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/deadlyculturesbi1945whee\\| url\\-access\\=limited\\| first\\=Mark\\| last\\=Wheelis \\|author2\\=Lajos Rózsa \\|author3\\=Malcolm Dando\\| publisher\\=Harvard University Press\\| year\\=2006\\| pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/deadlyculturesbi1945whee/page/n70 56]–7\\|isbn\\=0\\-674\\-01699\\-8}} They were testing the dangerous agents on caged monkeys and guinea pigs who were situated on a navy [pontoon](/wiki/Float_%28nautical%29 \"Float (nautical)\") nearby at the Braighe.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/main.jhtml?view\\=DETAILS\\&grid\\=P8\\&xml\\=/health/2005/09/20/nplag19\\.xml\\| archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120630134044/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/main.jhtml?view\\=DETAILS\\&grid\\=P8\\&xml\\=/health/2005/09/20/nplag19\\.xml\\| url\\-status\\=dead\\| archive\\-date\\=30 June 2012\\| title\\=Trawler steamed into germ warfare site and no one said a word\\| work\\=Daily Telegraph\\| date\\=20 September 2005 \\| location\\=London \\| first\\=Ben \\| last\\=Fenton \\| accessdate\\=20 May 2010}} The tests were carried out by scientists from the Chemical and Biological Defence Establishment (CBDE) from [Porton Down](/wiki/Porton_Down \"Porton Down\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2013}} When a trawler inadvertently passed through one of the clouds of plague bacteria, the ship and crew were temporarily put under covert surveillance during their return from Iceland to Blackpool and onshore. CBDE was later amalgamated and now forms part of the [Defence Science and Technology Laboratory](/wiki/Defence_Science_and_Technology_Laboratory \"Defence Science and Technology Laboratory\"). Porton Down has encountered controversy for human experimentation using chemical warfare right up until 1990\\.{{cite book \\|isbn\\=978\\-1842320716\\|title\\=Gassed \\|last1\\=Evans \\|first1\\=Rob \\|year\\=2000 }}",
"### The Cold War",
"During the height of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") years [Stornoway Airport](/wiki/Stornoway_Airport \"Stornoway Airport\") was home to 112 S.U., an RAF Signals Unit{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/SearchUI/details/C11041126?descriptiontype\\=Full\\&ref\\=AIR\\+29/4526\\|title \\= 112 Signals Unit Stornoway / RAF Stornoway. With appendices}} that was established in 1960 as an [Electronic countermeasures](/wiki/Electronic_countermeasures \"Electronic countermeasures\") (ECM) measurement and evaluation unit by [RAF Bomber Command](/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command \"RAF Bomber Command\") Headquarters (HQBC), High Wycombe. The unit measured the signal strength, frequency bandwidths and aerial performance of the operational [Handley Page Victor](/wiki/Handley_Page_Victor \"Handley Page Victor\") and [Avro Vulcan](/wiki/Avro_Vulcan \"Avro Vulcan\") [V bombers](/wiki/V_bomber \"V bomber\") as they flew a course towards, over or away from the unit varying from straight\\-lines to polar patterns.Document AIR 29/4736 *1974–1980*, The National Archives, Kew. Results were passed back to Operations Research Branch, (HQBC), **BCDU** at RAF Finningley and each aircraft's base for the Electronics Engineers and Technicians to review for performance improvement of each piece of equipment that was measured. The combined success of 112 S.U., BCDU at RAF Finningly and each of the aircraft's bases along with the Operations Research Branch at (HQBC) and technical support from [RRE](/wiki/RRE \"RRE\") Malvern (later to become [RSRE](/wiki/RSRE \"RSRE\") Malvern) was demonstrated by the V\\-force during the [Operation Skyshield](/wiki/Operation_Skyshield \"Operation Skyshield\") exercises Document AIR 14/4317 *Monitoring of RED SHRIMP performance before Exercise SKYSHIELD II*, The National Archives, Kew. and readiness through the [Cuban Missile Crisis](/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis \"Cuban Missile Crisis\") in the early sixties White, p 47\\. and subsequent exercisesHennessy, p.201 up to the time that the unit was closed in 1983\\.",
"In the early 1980s, part of the Airport was upgraded in a £40 million upgrade and extension of the main runway and taxiways along with new hangars, to accept [Panavia Tornado](/wiki/Panavia_Tornado \"Panavia Tornado\") aircraft.{{cite magazine \\|editor1\\-last\\=Horseman \\|editor1\\-first\\=Martin \\|title\\=New Air Base at Stornoway \\|magazine\\=Armed Forces \\|date\\=March 1982 \\|page\\=47 \\|publisher\\=Ian Allan \\|location\\=Shepperton \\|issn\\=0142\\-4696}} By 1 April 1982 this work was completed, the buildings commissioned and RAF Stornoway was established once again in order to become a Forward Operations Base. After sixteen years in this role and also the end of the Cold War, the station was finally closed{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/spl/aberdeen/raf\\-to\\-withdraw\\-from\\-stornoway\\-next\\-month\\-1\\.354520\\|title\\=RAF to withdraw from Stornoway next month}} on 31 March 1998 and reverted to [Stornoway Airport](/wiki/Stornoway_Airport \"Stornoway Airport\").",
"After this some of the buildings were sold off, one becoming a Christian school, and others including the [Nissen hut](/wiki/Nissen_hut \"Nissen hut\") accommodation blocks were demolished. The runway remains in use as part of [Stornoway Airport](/wiki/Stornoway_Airport \"Stornoway Airport\"), and other parts of the site are used as a ground for holding stunt shows and vehicle exhibitions.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Very little is known or can be assured about the early life of Naina Singh. He was born as Narayan Singh around 1736{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2023}}, into a [Sidhu](/wiki/Sidhu "Sidhu") [Jat](/wiki/Jat "Jat") family{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2023}}, in Khudi Kurd located in [Barnala](/wiki/Barnala "Barnala") district. According to [Harbans Singh](/wiki/Harbans_Singh "Harbans Singh"), he must have been alive in or before 1734, the year [Baba Darbara Singh](/wiki/Baba_Darbara_Singh "Baba Darbara Singh") passed away, because Naina Singh had received the *[Pahul](/wiki/Amrit_Sanskar "Amrit Sanskar")* rites under the supervision of Darbara Singh.
[thumb\|Fresco of Kharag Singh (left) and Naina Singh (right) from Gurdwara Baba Atal](/wiki/File:Fresco_of_Kharag_Singh_%28left%29_and_Naina_Singh_%28right%29_from_Gurdwara_Baba_Atal.jpg "Fresco of Kharag Singh (left) and Naina Singh (right) from Gurdwara Baba Atal.jpg")
He was also caretaker of [Darbar Sahib](/wiki/Darbar_Sahib_Hall "Darbar Sahib Hall").{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2023}} He learned [Gurbani](/wiki/Gurbani "Gurbani") and martial skills from [Baba Deep Singh](/wiki/Baba_Deep_Singh "Baba Deep Singh").{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2023}} He became associated with the [Shaheedan Misl](/wiki/Shaheedan_Misl "Shaheedan Misl"). He joined Budha Dal at the age of 20, along with his nephew Nihang Kharag Singh.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2023}} Within the Shaheedan Misl, he rose to the ranks of a junior leader headquartered at Damdama Sahib in Talwandi Sabo, located in modern\-day Bathinda district.
Naina Singh is believed to have been talented performer of *[kirtan](/wiki/Kirtan "Kirtan")* [music](/wiki/Sikh_music "Sikh music").
He became acquainted with a Sikh of the [Nishanwalia Misl](/wiki/Nishanwalia_Misl "Nishanwalia Misl") named Ishar Singh, developing a friendship.
### Adoption of Phula Singh
[thumb\|Fresco of Akali Naina Singh from Gurdwara Akalgarh Sahib, Dina, Punjab{{Cite book \|last\=Arshi \|first\=Pardeep Singh \|title\=Sikh Architecture in Punjab \|publisher\=Intellectual Publishing House \|year\=1986 \|isbn\=9780836419450 \|pages\=132}}](/wiki/File:Fresco_of_Akali_Naina_Singh_from_Gurdwara_Akalgarh_Sahib%2C_Dina%2C_Punjab.jpg "Fresco of Akali Naina Singh from Gurdwara Akalgarh Sahib, Dina, Punjab.jpg")
During battle in\-which the Nishanwalia and Shaheedan misls jointly partook in, Ishar Singh became mortally wounded. Ishar Singh was the father of two sons, with the elder child named Phula Singh. On his dying breath in the battlefield, Ishar Singh granted custodianship over his two sons to Naina Singh and requested the latter to take care of them. Naina Singh would take the two infants to Damdama Sahib and raise them.
He was guardian of [Akali Phula Singh](/wiki/Akali_Phula_Singh "Akali Phula Singh") (1761\-1823\) and trained him with scriptures, warfare and martial arts.[baba naina singh on centralsikhmuseum.com](http://centralsikhmuseum.com/tag/akali-baba-naina-singh/#sthash.vXHwPofM.dpuf){{Failed verification\|date\=July 2023}}{{Cite journal \|orig\-date\=October 2006 \|title\=Interpid Warror Akali Baba Phoola Singh \|journal\=The Sikh Review \|volume\=54 \|issue\=7–12 \|publisher\=Sikh Cultural Centre, Calcutta, India \|pages\=35 \|quote\=But before his death Ishar Singh managed to leave his young son to the affectionate care of Baba Narain Singh, popularly known as Akali Naina Singh.}}{{Cite book \|last\=Samra \|first\=Mandeep Kaur \|title\=Modern Sikh Historiography: Analysis of Times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh by Baba Prem Singh Hoti \|publisher\=K.K. Publications \|year\=2004 \|isbn\=9788178440255 \|pages\=92 \|quote\=According to Hoti, Akali Phula Singh was born in 1761 to Bhai Isher Singh in 'Shihan' in Bangar. He lost his parents at an early age and was brought\-up by Baba Naina Singh of Shahid Misl.}} Bhai Naina Singh, the uncle and the predecessor of [Akali Phula Singh](/wiki/Akali_Phula_Singh "Akali Phula Singh") used [Akali](/wiki/Nihang "Nihang") as a prefix of his name.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2023}}
### Influence on clothing
The unique aspects of the Nihang sect's clothing is attributed to Naina Singh traditionally.{{Cite book \|last1\=Singh \|first1\=Pashaura \|title\=The Sikh World \|last2\=Mandair \|first2\=Arvind\-Pal Singh \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|year\=2023 \|isbn\=9780429848384 \|series\=Routledge Worlds \|quote\=The blue outfit and oversize turban motif are furthered by Akalis' reference to the story of Naina Singh Akali. As the standard bearer of his misl band, Naina Singh Akali found it wise to wear a turban almost as large as the battle flag so that his compatriots could see it during battle, even if the standard fell. This would also allow him to fight with both hands and embolden the spirit of the fighters around him, just as the battle standard would.}} He is credited for introducing the tall pyramidal turban, which is common among the [Nihangs.](/wiki/Nihang "Nihang")
{{cite encyclopedia
\|last\=Nabha
\|first\=Kahn Singh
\|encyclopedia\=Gur Shabad Ratnakar Mahankosh
\|title\=Nihang
\|trans\-title\=
\|url\=
\|access\-date\=
\|language\=Punjabi
\|edition\=
\|date\=
\|year\=
\|publisher\=Sudarshan Press
\|quote\=''ਬਹੁਤ ਨਿਹੰਗ ਸਿੰਘ ਇਹ ਭੀ ਆਖਦੇ ਹਨ ਕਿ ਸ਼੍ਰੀ ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਿੰਘ ਸ੍ਵਾਮੀ ਨੇ ਸਿੰਘਾਂ ਦੇ ਸੀਸ ਦਮਾਲੇ ਦਾ ਫਂਰਹਰਾ ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨ ਦਾ ਚਿੰਨ੍ਹ ਥਾਪਿਆ, ਪਰ ਗੁਰੁਪੁਰ\- ਨਿਵਾਸੀ ਵ੍ਰਿੱਧ ਵਿਵੇਕਾ ਸਿੰਘ ਦੀ ਅਮ੍ਰਿਤਸਰੀ ਦੇ ਕਥਨ ਅਨੁਸਾਰ ਬਾਬਾ ਨੈਣਾ ਸਿੰਘ (ਨਾਰਾਇਣ ਸਿੰਘ) ਨੇ ਸਭ ਤੋਂ ਪਹਿਲਾਂ ਫ਼ੌਜ ਦੇ ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨਚੀ ਦੇ ਸਿਰ ਉੱਪਰ ਦਮਾਲਾ ਸਜਾਕੇ ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨ ਦਾ ਫਰਹਰਾ ਝੁਲਾਇਆ, ਤਾਕਿ ਉਹ ਸਭ ਤੋਂ ਅੱਗੇ ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨ ਦੀ ਥਾਂ ਭੀ ਹੋਵੇ ਅਤੇ ਹੱਥ ਵੇਹਲੇ ਹੋਣ ਕਰਕੇ ਸ਼ਸਤ੍ਰ ਭੀ ਚਲਾ ਸਕੇ''
}}*NAINA SINGH, AKALI*: [The Sikh Encyclopedia](http://www.thesikhencyclopedia.com/martial-heritage/naina-singh-akali){{Failed verification\|date\=July 2023}} As per Nihang lore, Naina Singh wanted to wear a [large and tall turban](/wiki/Dastar_bunga "Dastar bunga") to help make him more recognizable to his fellow warriors of his Misl, since he held the flag\-bearer role in the Misl.
### Later life and successor
In his later life, he moved to Bharpurgarh village located near Amloh in present\-day Patiala district. He was succeeded by his disciple, Phula Singh, as the next chief of the Shaheedan Misl. His successor Phula Singh became even more popular as an [Akali](/wiki/Nihang "Nihang").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Very little is known or can be assured about the early life of Naina Singh. He was born as Narayan Singh around 1736{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2023}}, into a [Sidhu](/wiki/Sidhu \"Sidhu\") [Jat](/wiki/Jat \"Jat\") family{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2023}}, in Khudi Kurd located in [Barnala](/wiki/Barnala \"Barnala\") district. According to [Harbans Singh](/wiki/Harbans_Singh \"Harbans Singh\"), he must have been alive in or before 1734, the year [Baba Darbara Singh](/wiki/Baba_Darbara_Singh \"Baba Darbara Singh\") passed away, because Naina Singh had received the *[Pahul](/wiki/Amrit_Sanskar \"Amrit Sanskar\")* rites under the supervision of Darbara Singh.\n[thumb\\|Fresco of Kharag Singh (left) and Naina Singh (right) from Gurdwara Baba Atal](/wiki/File:Fresco_of_Kharag_Singh_%28left%29_and_Naina_Singh_%28right%29_from_Gurdwara_Baba_Atal.jpg \"Fresco of Kharag Singh (left) and Naina Singh (right) from Gurdwara Baba Atal.jpg\")\nHe was also caretaker of [Darbar Sahib](/wiki/Darbar_Sahib_Hall \"Darbar Sahib Hall\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2023}} He learned [Gurbani](/wiki/Gurbani \"Gurbani\") and martial skills from [Baba Deep Singh](/wiki/Baba_Deep_Singh \"Baba Deep Singh\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2023}} He became associated with the [Shaheedan Misl](/wiki/Shaheedan_Misl \"Shaheedan Misl\"). He joined Budha Dal at the age of 20, along with his nephew Nihang Kharag Singh.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2023}} Within the Shaheedan Misl, he rose to the ranks of a junior leader headquartered at Damdama Sahib in Talwandi Sabo, located in modern\\-day Bathinda district.",
"Naina Singh is believed to have been talented performer of *[kirtan](/wiki/Kirtan \"Kirtan\")* [music](/wiki/Sikh_music \"Sikh music\").",
"He became acquainted with a Sikh of the [Nishanwalia Misl](/wiki/Nishanwalia_Misl \"Nishanwalia Misl\") named Ishar Singh, developing a friendship.",
"### Adoption of Phula Singh",
"[thumb\\|Fresco of Akali Naina Singh from Gurdwara Akalgarh Sahib, Dina, Punjab{{Cite book \\|last\\=Arshi \\|first\\=Pardeep Singh \\|title\\=Sikh Architecture in Punjab \\|publisher\\=Intellectual Publishing House \\|year\\=1986 \\|isbn\\=9780836419450 \\|pages\\=132}}](/wiki/File:Fresco_of_Akali_Naina_Singh_from_Gurdwara_Akalgarh_Sahib%2C_Dina%2C_Punjab.jpg \"Fresco of Akali Naina Singh from Gurdwara Akalgarh Sahib, Dina, Punjab.jpg\")\nDuring battle in\\-which the Nishanwalia and Shaheedan misls jointly partook in, Ishar Singh became mortally wounded. Ishar Singh was the father of two sons, with the elder child named Phula Singh. On his dying breath in the battlefield, Ishar Singh granted custodianship over his two sons to Naina Singh and requested the latter to take care of them. Naina Singh would take the two infants to Damdama Sahib and raise them.",
"He was guardian of [Akali Phula Singh](/wiki/Akali_Phula_Singh \"Akali Phula Singh\") (1761\\-1823\\) and trained him with scriptures, warfare and martial arts.[baba naina singh on centralsikhmuseum.com](http://centralsikhmuseum.com/tag/akali-baba-naina-singh/#sthash.vXHwPofM.dpuf){{Failed verification\\|date\\=July 2023}}{{Cite journal \\|orig\\-date\\=October 2006 \\|title\\=Interpid Warror Akali Baba Phoola Singh \\|journal\\=The Sikh Review \\|volume\\=54 \\|issue\\=7–12 \\|publisher\\=Sikh Cultural Centre, Calcutta, India \\|pages\\=35 \\|quote\\=But before his death Ishar Singh managed to leave his young son to the affectionate care of Baba Narain Singh, popularly known as Akali Naina Singh.}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Samra \\|first\\=Mandeep Kaur \\|title\\=Modern Sikh Historiography: Analysis of Times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh by Baba Prem Singh Hoti \\|publisher\\=K.K. Publications \\|year\\=2004 \\|isbn\\=9788178440255 \\|pages\\=92 \\|quote\\=According to Hoti, Akali Phula Singh was born in 1761 to Bhai Isher Singh in 'Shihan' in Bangar. He lost his parents at an early age and was brought\\-up by Baba Naina Singh of Shahid Misl.}} Bhai Naina Singh, the uncle and the predecessor of [Akali Phula Singh](/wiki/Akali_Phula_Singh \"Akali Phula Singh\") used [Akali](/wiki/Nihang \"Nihang\") as a prefix of his name.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2023}}",
"### Influence on clothing",
"The unique aspects of the Nihang sect's clothing is attributed to Naina Singh traditionally.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Singh \\|first1\\=Pashaura \\|title\\=The Sikh World \\|last2\\=Mandair \\|first2\\=Arvind\\-Pal Singh \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|year\\=2023 \\|isbn\\=9780429848384 \\|series\\=Routledge Worlds \\|quote\\=The blue outfit and oversize turban motif are furthered by Akalis' reference to the story of Naina Singh Akali. As the standard bearer of his misl band, Naina Singh Akali found it wise to wear a turban almost as large as the battle flag so that his compatriots could see it during battle, even if the standard fell. This would also allow him to fight with both hands and embolden the spirit of the fighters around him, just as the battle standard would.}} He is credited for introducing the tall pyramidal turban, which is common among the [Nihangs.](/wiki/Nihang \"Nihang\")\n{{cite encyclopedia\n\\|last\\=Nabha\n\\|first\\=Kahn Singh\n\\|encyclopedia\\=Gur Shabad Ratnakar Mahankosh\n\\|title\\=Nihang\n\\|trans\\-title\\=\n\\|url\\=\n\\|access\\-date\\=\n\\|language\\=Punjabi\n\\|edition\\=\n\\|date\\=\n\\|year\\=\n\\|publisher\\=Sudarshan Press\n\\|quote\\=''ਬਹੁਤ ਨਿਹੰਗ ਸਿੰਘ ਇਹ ਭੀ ਆਖਦੇ ਹਨ ਕਿ ਸ਼੍ਰੀ ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਿੰਘ ਸ੍ਵਾਮੀ ਨੇ ਸਿੰਘਾਂ ਦੇ ਸੀਸ ਦਮਾਲੇ ਦਾ ਫਂਰਹਰਾ ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨ ਦਾ ਚਿੰਨ੍ਹ ਥਾਪਿਆ, ਪਰ ਗੁਰੁਪੁਰ\\- ਨਿਵਾਸੀ ਵ੍ਰਿੱਧ ਵਿਵੇਕਾ ਸਿੰਘ ਦੀ ਅਮ੍ਰਿਤਸਰੀ ਦੇ ਕਥਨ ਅਨੁਸਾਰ ਬਾਬਾ ਨੈਣਾ ਸਿੰਘ (ਨਾਰਾਇਣ ਸਿੰਘ) ਨੇ ਸਭ ਤੋਂ ਪਹਿਲਾਂ ਫ਼ੌਜ ਦੇ ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨਚੀ ਦੇ ਸਿਰ ਉੱਪਰ ਦਮਾਲਾ ਸਜਾਕੇ ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨ ਦਾ ਫਰਹਰਾ ਝੁਲਾਇਆ, ਤਾਕਿ ਉਹ ਸਭ ਤੋਂ ਅੱਗੇ ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨ ਦੀ ਥਾਂ ਭੀ ਹੋਵੇ ਅਤੇ ਹੱਥ ਵੇਹਲੇ ਹੋਣ ਕਰਕੇ ਸ਼ਸਤ੍ਰ ਭੀ ਚਲਾ ਸਕੇ''\n}}*NAINA SINGH, AKALI*: [The Sikh Encyclopedia](http://www.thesikhencyclopedia.com/martial-heritage/naina-singh-akali){{Failed verification\\|date\\=July 2023}} As per Nihang lore, Naina Singh wanted to wear a [large and tall turban](/wiki/Dastar_bunga \"Dastar bunga\") to help make him more recognizable to his fellow warriors of his Misl, since he held the flag\\-bearer role in the Misl.",
"### Later life and successor",
"In his later life, he moved to Bharpurgarh village located near Amloh in present\\-day Patiala district. He was succeeded by his disciple, Phula Singh, as the next chief of the Shaheedan Misl. His successor Phula Singh became even more popular as an [Akali](/wiki/Nihang \"Nihang\").",
""
] |
Career
------
Bristol\-based Archibald Robe and Co. purchased the French prize in 1803 and named her *Cornwall1s*. She entered *Lloyd's Register* in 1804 with J. Baker, master, and Robe \& Co., owners. Her trade was Bristol\-Surinam.[*Lloyd's Register* (1804\), Supplemental pages, Seq. №C99\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015005667095?urlappend=%3Bseq=590) James Baker received a [letter of marque](/wiki/Letter_of_marque "Letter of marque") for the [snow](/wiki/Snow_%28ship%29 "Snow (ship)") *Cornwallis* on 22 December 1803\.["Register of Letters of Marque against France 1793\-1815"; p.57](http://www.1812privateers.org/Great%20Britain/marque1793-1815.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150709083440/http://www.1812privateers.org/Great%20Britain/marque1793\-1815\.htm \|date\=July 9, 2015}}
Baker was her master for 1804\-5, and then Alleyne replaced him. One source states that in 1806 Robe \& Co. sold *Cornwallis* to Smith \& Co., after she had made three voyages to the West Indies for Robe \& Co. However, the first indicator of a change of owner and master occurs in the 1809 volume of the *Register of Shipping*.[*Register of Shipping* (1809\), Seq. №C688\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015024495320?urlappend=%3Bseq=127) The new master was J. Thomas, and the new owner Smith \& Co. Her trade became London\-Cadiz.[*Register of Shipping* (1810\), Seq. №C725\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015024214333?urlappend=%3Bseq=131) On 21 November 1809 James Thomas received a letter of marque.
The 1811 *Register of Shipping* shows *Cornwallis*{{'}}s master changing to W. Daldy and her owner to I. Williams. Her trade changed to London\-Gibraltar.[*Register of shipping* (1811\), Seq.№C806\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015024214325?urlappend=%3Bseq=139) In 1814, her burthen changes from 186 to 177 tons. Thereafter her burthen is 177 or 179 tons, depending on the year. She is no longer armed after mid\-1816\.
| Year | Master | Owner | Trade |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1812 | W. Dalby | J.Williams | London\-Havana |
| 1813 | W. Dalby | J.Williams | London\-[Mogador](/wiki/Essaouira "Essaouira")London\-Demerara |
| 1814 | W. DalbyBrown | J.Williams | London\-DemeraraLondon\-Antwerp |
| 1815 | H. Brown | J.Williams | London\-Antwerp |
| 1816 | Huntley | J.Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1818 | Huntley | Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1819 | Huntley | Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1820 | Short | J. Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1821 | Bourke | Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1822 | BourkeHenderson | Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1823 | Henderson | Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1824 | Henderson | Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1825 | Henderson | Williams | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
| 1826 | Henderson | Williams | London\-Singapore |
|
On 26 October 1825, *Cornwallis* sailed for Singapore.[*Lloyd/s Register*.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015065537832?urlappend=%3Bseq=632) *Cornwallis* left Singapore on 7 May 1826 and was off Hastings by 2 October.Buckingham (1826\), p.418\.
In 1826 Henderson purchased *Cornwallis*. She then underwent a thorough repair. A list of ships trading to India and eastward of the Cape of Good Hope showed *Cornwallis*, Edmond Henderson, master, and G.E. Henderson, owner, scheduled to sail from London Docks on 3 December 1828 for the Cape.*The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and ...* (December 1828\), Volume 26, p.768\.
| Year | Master | Owner | Trade | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1827 | Henderson | Henderson | London |
| 1828 | Henderson | Henderson | London |
| 1829 | Henderson | Henderson | London\-Cape of Good Hope |
|
The last listing for *Cornwallis* in the *Register of Shipping* is in 1833\. It shows Henderson, master, and Henderson, owner. For her trade it simply lists "London".[*Register of shipping* (1833\), Seq.№1133\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015065537873?urlappend=%3Bseq=144) The entry in the 1834 volume of *Lloyd's Register* simply lists Henderson as master and trade as London. This is the last listing for *Cornwallis*.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Bristol\\-based Archibald Robe and Co. purchased the French prize in 1803 and named her *Cornwall1s*. She entered *Lloyd's Register* in 1804 with J. Baker, master, and Robe \\& Co., owners. Her trade was Bristol\\-Surinam.[*Lloyd's Register* (1804\\), Supplemental pages, Seq. №C99\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015005667095?urlappend=%3Bseq=590) James Baker received a [letter of marque](/wiki/Letter_of_marque \"Letter of marque\") for the [snow](/wiki/Snow_%28ship%29 \"Snow (ship)\") *Cornwallis* on 22 December 1803\\.[\"Register of Letters of Marque against France 1793\\-1815\"; p.57](http://www.1812privateers.org/Great%20Britain/marque1793-1815.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150709083440/http://www.1812privateers.org/Great%20Britain/marque1793\\-1815\\.htm \\|date\\=July 9, 2015}}",
"Baker was her master for 1804\\-5, and then Alleyne replaced him. One source states that in 1806 Robe \\& Co. sold *Cornwallis* to Smith \\& Co., after she had made three voyages to the West Indies for Robe \\& Co. However, the first indicator of a change of owner and master occurs in the 1809 volume of the *Register of Shipping*.[*Register of Shipping* (1809\\), Seq. №C688\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015024495320?urlappend=%3Bseq=127) The new master was J. Thomas, and the new owner Smith \\& Co. Her trade became London\\-Cadiz.[*Register of Shipping* (1810\\), Seq. №C725\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015024214333?urlappend=%3Bseq=131) On 21 November 1809 James Thomas received a letter of marque.",
"The 1811 *Register of Shipping* shows *Cornwallis*{{'}}s master changing to W. Daldy and her owner to I. Williams. Her trade changed to London\\-Gibraltar.[*Register of shipping* (1811\\), Seq.№C806\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015024214325?urlappend=%3Bseq=139) In 1814, her burthen changes from 186 to 177 tons. Thereafter her burthen is 177 or 179 tons, depending on the year. She is no longer armed after mid\\-1816\\.",
"",
"| Year | Master | Owner | Trade |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1812 | W. Dalby | J.Williams | London\\-Havana |\n| 1813 | W. Dalby | J.Williams | London\\-[Mogador](/wiki/Essaouira \"Essaouira\")London\\-Demerara |\n| 1814 | W. DalbyBrown | J.Williams | London\\-DemeraraLondon\\-Antwerp |\n| 1815 | H. Brown | J.Williams | London\\-Antwerp |\n| 1816 | Huntley | J.Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1818 | Huntley | Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1819 | Huntley | Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1820 | Short | J. Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1821 | Bourke | Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1822 | BourkeHenderson | Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1823 | Henderson | Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1824 | Henderson | Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1825 | Henderson | Williams | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n| 1826 | Henderson | Williams | London\\-Singapore |\n|",
"On 26 October 1825, *Cornwallis* sailed for Singapore.[*Lloyd/s Register*.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015065537832?urlappend=%3Bseq=632) *Cornwallis* left Singapore on 7 May 1826 and was off Hastings by 2 October.Buckingham (1826\\), p.418\\.",
"In 1826 Henderson purchased *Cornwallis*. She then underwent a thorough repair. A list of ships trading to India and eastward of the Cape of Good Hope showed *Cornwallis*, Edmond Henderson, master, and G.E. Henderson, owner, scheduled to sail from London Docks on 3 December 1828 for the Cape.*The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and ...* (December 1828\\), Volume 26, p.768\\.",
"",
"| Year | Master | Owner | Trade | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1827 | Henderson | Henderson | London |\n| 1828 | Henderson | Henderson | London |\n| 1829 | Henderson | Henderson | London\\-Cape of Good Hope |\n|",
"The last listing for *Cornwallis* in the *Register of Shipping* is in 1833\\. It shows Henderson, master, and Henderson, owner. For her trade it simply lists \"London\".[*Register of shipping* (1833\\), Seq.№1133\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015065537873?urlappend=%3Bseq=144) The entry in the 1834 volume of *Lloyd's Register* simply lists Henderson as master and trade as London. This is the last listing for *Cornwallis*.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Engineering career
From 1982 to 1989, Pekhtin worked at the [Kolyma Hydroelectric Station](/wiki/Kolyma_Hydroelectric_Station "Kolyma Hydroelectric Station"), rising to the Deputy Director position. From 1992 to 1997, he was General Director of Kolymaenergo, a subsidiary of [RusHydro](/wiki/RusHydro "RusHydro").{{cite book\|title\=The International Who's Who 2004\|chapter\=PEKHTIN, Vladimir Alekseyevich\|year\=2003\|publisher\=Psychology Press\|isbn\=9781857432176\|page\=1302\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=sR4Ch1dMe8IC\&dq\=Vladimir%20Pekhtin%20Kolymaenergo\&pg\=PA1302\|language\=en}} He served on the board of electric holding company [RAO UES](/wiki/RAO_UES "RAO UES") from 1997 to 1998\.
### Political career
Pekhtin ran for the State Duma in 1993, but lost the election. In 1994, he became a deputy in the first convocation of the Magadan Regional Duma.
Pekhtin was elected to the 3rd convocation of the State Duma in 1999\. He headed the United Russia party in the State Duma from April 2001 to December 2003\. On 29 March 2003, Pekhtin was elected a member of the supreme council of the United Russia party. Pekhtin was reelected to the fourth convocation of the State Duma in December 2003\. He became Deputy Chairman of the State Duma and the first Deputy Head of the United Russia party. In 2007, he was elected to the fifth convocation of the State Duma.
Pekhtin supervised the Kremlin's [CIS election observation mission](/wiki/CIS_election_observation_mission "CIS election observation mission") for the [2008 parliamentary election](/wiki/2008_Belarusian_parliamentary_election "2008 Belarusian parliamentary election") in [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"). While state\-controlled media labelled opposition leaders as traitors, several of whom were imprisoned by the [Belarusian KGB](/wiki/State_Security_Committee_of_the_Republic_of_Belarus "State Security Committee of the Republic of Belarus"), Pekhtin said that all of recent elections in former Soviet republics were democratic and fair. He contradicted the conclusions of the [OSCE](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe"), saying "They just made it up, invented it, to try to show that there was some kind of rot."{{cite news\|last1\=Levy\|first1\=Clifford J.\|title\=Electoral Rot Nearby? The Russians Don't See It\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/17/world/europe/17belarus.html\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=16 December 2008\|access\-date\=26 February 2017\|archive\-date\=18 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218235641/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/17/world/europe/17belarus.html\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|right\|Pekhtin (left) in 2011](/wiki/File:Deputies_%282011-12-21%29.jpg "Deputies (2011-12-21).jpg")
In 2012, Pekhtin became Chairman of the State Duma's ethics committee.*Андрей Перцев*. [Чужие здесь проходят](http://kommersant.ru/doc/3046898) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725142926/http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3046898 \|date\=2016\-07\-25 }} Газета "Коммерсантъ" №132 от 25\.07\.2016, стр. 3
Pekhtin supported the 2013 [Dima Yakovlev Law](/wiki/Dima_Yakovlev_Law "Dima Yakovlev Law"), which barred US citizens from adopting Russian orphans.{{cite news\|last1\=Kara\-Murza\|first1\=Vladimir\|title\=A Putin Flak and His Miami Villa\|url\=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/vladimir\-kara\-murza/putin\-flak\-and\-his\-miami\-villa\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218054234/http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/vladimir\-kara\-murza/putin\-flak\-and\-his\-miami\-villa\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=February 18, 2013\|work\=World Affairs Journal\|date\=15 February 2013}}{{cite news\|last1\=Weiss\|first1\=Michael\|title\=Tropical Hypocrisy: One Russian Lawmaker's Florida Real Estate Problem\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/tropical\-hypocrisy\-one\-russian\-lawmakers\-florida\-real\-estate\-problem/273542/\|work\=The Atlantic\|date\=27 February 2013\|access\-date\=18 February 2017\|archive\-date\=18 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218234900/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/tropical\-hypocrisy\-one\-russian\-lawmakers\-florida\-real\-estate\-problem/273542/\|url\-status\=live}}
#### Corruption scandal
On 30 August 2012, Duma deputy [Dmitry Gudkov](/wiki/Dmitry_Gudkov "Dmitry Gudkov") published a [LiveJournal](/wiki/LiveJournal "LiveJournal") post entitled "Gold pretzels: United Russia".{{Cite web \|url\=http://dgudkov.livejournal.com/212859\.html \|title\="Золотые крендели "Единой России"\-2\. Veľký muž" \|date\=30 August 2012 \|access\-date\=2017\-02\-18 \|archive\-date\=2018\-01\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122112215/http://dgudkov.livejournal.com/212859\.html \|url\-status\=live }} The post mentioned Pekhtin as one of the individuals with discrepancies between their declared income and the value of their property.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.mk.ru/politics/article/2012/08/30/742686\-krendel\-stal\-kultovyim\-izdeliem.html \|title\=Крендель стал культовым изделием // Московский Комсомолец № 26029 от 31 августа 2012 г \|access\-date\=2012\-10\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902141336/http://www.mk.ru/politics/article/2012/08/30/742686\-krendel\-stal\-kultovyim\-izdeliem.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-09\-02 \|url\-status\=dead }} On 31 August, *[Kommersant](/wiki/Kommersant "Kommersant")* published an article about real estate transactions that, according to the opposition, were part of a well\-disguised commercial project to sell the land to the state for the construction of highway at a profit of roughly 75 million rubles.{{Cite web \|url\=http://kommersant.ru/doc/2011888 \|title\=Квадратно\-гнездовые метры. У Владимира Пехтина обнаружились необычные земельные интересы в Петербурге // Газета «Коммерсантъ», № 162 (4947\), 31\.08\.2012 \|date\=31 August 2012 \|access\-date\=2017\-02\-18 \|archive\-date\=2012\-08\-31 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831002204/http://kommersant.ru/doc/2011888 \|url\-status\=live }} A comparison of Pekhtin's 2010 and 2011 declarations showed that in 2011 he purchased an at least three plots of land in St. Petersburg worth over 25 million rubles.
In 2011, Pekhtin had declared an income of 2\.15 million rubles. His declaration indicated that he and his wife owned nine plots of land, two apartments, two houses, two non\-residential buildings, and five cars (a [Porsche Cayenne](/wiki/Porsche_Cayenne "Porsche Cayenne"), a [Toyota Land Cruiser](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser "Toyota Land Cruiser"), and three [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz")) as well as personal watercraft and snowmobiles.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.duma.gov.ru/structure/deputies/131150/\|title\=Пехтин Владимир Алексеевич\|publisher\=Государственная дума Российской Федерации\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=2012\-12\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604143044/http://www.duma.gov.ru/structure/deputies/131150/\|archive\-date\=2012\-06\-04\|url\-status\=live}}
On 12 February 2013, Alexei Navalny, based on publicly available real estate data, reported on Pekhtin's link to real estate in [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami") worth $2\.5 million. According to the documents, Pekhtin owned an apartment in a Flamingo South Beach condominium and land in Florida. The apartment was purchased for $540,000 in 2007 and the land for $120,000\. Published contracts indicated that half of the real estate was owned by his son, Alexei Pekhtin. The son also owned an apartment in a residential complex at 1500 Ocean Drive. Prior to December 2012, half of the $1\.27 million apartment was owned by the elder Pekhtin.
Pekhtin resigned from the State Duma on 20 February 2013, following revelations from [Alexei Navalny](/wiki/Alexei_Navalny "Alexei Navalny"){{cite news\|last1\=Amos\|first1\=Howard\|title\=United Russia MP resigns over Florida property allegations\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/20/russia\-mp\-resigns\-florida\-property\|work\=The Guardian\|date\=20 February 2013\|access\-date\=18 February 2017\|archive\-date\=19 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219002452/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/20/russia\-mp\-resigns\-florida\-property\|url\-status\=live}} that he owned over $1\.3 million of undeclared real estate in [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida").{{cite news\|last1\=Barry\|first1\=Ellen\|title\=Russian Lawmaker Quits After Property Disclosure\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/21/world/europe/vladimir\-pekhtin\-resigns\-from\-russian\-parliament.html\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=20 February 2013\|access\-date\=26 February 2017\|archive\-date\=19 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219030246/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/21/world/europe/vladimir\-pekhtin\-resigns\-from\-russian\-parliament.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\|last1\=Цыбульский\|first1\=Владимир\|title\=Мандатом вперед\|url\=https://lenta.ru/articles/2013/02/20/pekhtin/\|work\=Лента\|date\=20 February 2013\|language\=ru\|access\-date\=18 February 2017\|archive\-date\=20 August 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820200944/https://lenta.ru/articles/2013/02/20/pekhtin/\|url\-status\=live}} Both Anatoly Lomakin and Vasily Tolstopyatov resigned shortly after Pekhtin.{{cite news\|last1\=Whitmore\|first1\=Brian\|title\=Putin Presses The Reset Button\|url\=http://www.rferl.org/a/putin\-presses\-the\-reset\-button/24914697\.html\|work\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty\|date\=27 February 2013\|access\-date\=18 February 2017\|archive\-date\=19 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219032310/http://www.rferl.org/a/putin\-presses\-the\-reset\-button/24914697\.html\|url\-status\=live}}
### Later career
Pekhtin became a member of the Management Board of RusHydro in April 2013\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rg.ru/2013/04/11/rusgidro\-anons.html\|title\=Владимир Пехтин стал членом совета директоров компании "РусГидро"\|publisher\=Российская газета\|date\=11 April 2013\|language\=ru\|accessdate\=2013\-04\-14\|archive\-date\=2013\-07\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709215418/http://www.rg.ru/2013/04/11/rusgidro\-anons.html\|url\-status\=live}} He became Director General of the RusHydro hydrotechnology institute [Lenhydroproject](/wiki/Lenhydroproject "Lenhydroproject") in March 2014\.Согласно ЕГРЮЛ
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Engineering career",
"From 1982 to 1989, Pekhtin worked at the [Kolyma Hydroelectric Station](/wiki/Kolyma_Hydroelectric_Station \"Kolyma Hydroelectric Station\"), rising to the Deputy Director position. From 1992 to 1997, he was General Director of Kolymaenergo, a subsidiary of [RusHydro](/wiki/RusHydro \"RusHydro\").{{cite book\\|title\\=The International Who's Who 2004\\|chapter\\=PEKHTIN, Vladimir Alekseyevich\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Psychology Press\\|isbn\\=9781857432176\\|page\\=1302\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=sR4Ch1dMe8IC\\&dq\\=Vladimir%20Pekhtin%20Kolymaenergo\\&pg\\=PA1302\\|language\\=en}} He served on the board of electric holding company [RAO UES](/wiki/RAO_UES \"RAO UES\") from 1997 to 1998\\.",
"### Political career",
"Pekhtin ran for the State Duma in 1993, but lost the election. In 1994, he became a deputy in the first convocation of the Magadan Regional Duma.",
"Pekhtin was elected to the 3rd convocation of the State Duma in 1999\\. He headed the United Russia party in the State Duma from April 2001 to December 2003\\. On 29 March 2003, Pekhtin was elected a member of the supreme council of the United Russia party. Pekhtin was reelected to the fourth convocation of the State Duma in December 2003\\. He became Deputy Chairman of the State Duma and the first Deputy Head of the United Russia party. In 2007, he was elected to the fifth convocation of the State Duma.",
"Pekhtin supervised the Kremlin's [CIS election observation mission](/wiki/CIS_election_observation_mission \"CIS election observation mission\") for the [2008 parliamentary election](/wiki/2008_Belarusian_parliamentary_election \"2008 Belarusian parliamentary election\") in [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"). While state\\-controlled media labelled opposition leaders as traitors, several of whom were imprisoned by the [Belarusian KGB](/wiki/State_Security_Committee_of_the_Republic_of_Belarus \"State Security Committee of the Republic of Belarus\"), Pekhtin said that all of recent elections in former Soviet republics were democratic and fair. He contradicted the conclusions of the [OSCE](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\"), saying \"They just made it up, invented it, to try to show that there was some kind of rot.\"{{cite news\\|last1\\=Levy\\|first1\\=Clifford J.\\|title\\=Electoral Rot Nearby? The Russians Don't See It\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/17/world/europe/17belarus.html\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=16 December 2008\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=18 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218235641/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/17/world/europe/17belarus.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Pekhtin (left) in 2011](/wiki/File:Deputies_%282011-12-21%29.jpg \"Deputies (2011-12-21).jpg\")",
"In 2012, Pekhtin became Chairman of the State Duma's ethics committee.*Андрей Перцев*. [Чужие здесь проходят](http://kommersant.ru/doc/3046898) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725142926/http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3046898 \\|date\\=2016\\-07\\-25 }} Газета \"Коммерсантъ\" №132 от 25\\.07\\.2016, стр. 3",
"Pekhtin supported the 2013 [Dima Yakovlev Law](/wiki/Dima_Yakovlev_Law \"Dima Yakovlev Law\"), which barred US citizens from adopting Russian orphans.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Kara\\-Murza\\|first1\\=Vladimir\\|title\\=A Putin Flak and His Miami Villa\\|url\\=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/vladimir\\-kara\\-murza/putin\\-flak\\-and\\-his\\-miami\\-villa\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218054234/http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/vladimir\\-kara\\-murza/putin\\-flak\\-and\\-his\\-miami\\-villa\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=February 18, 2013\\|work\\=World Affairs Journal\\|date\\=15 February 2013}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Weiss\\|first1\\=Michael\\|title\\=Tropical Hypocrisy: One Russian Lawmaker's Florida Real Estate Problem\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/tropical\\-hypocrisy\\-one\\-russian\\-lawmakers\\-florida\\-real\\-estate\\-problem/273542/\\|work\\=The Atlantic\\|date\\=27 February 2013\\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=18 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218234900/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/tropical\\-hypocrisy\\-one\\-russian\\-lawmakers\\-florida\\-real\\-estate\\-problem/273542/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### Corruption scandal",
"On 30 August 2012, Duma deputy [Dmitry Gudkov](/wiki/Dmitry_Gudkov \"Dmitry Gudkov\") published a [LiveJournal](/wiki/LiveJournal \"LiveJournal\") post entitled \"Gold pretzels: United Russia\".{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://dgudkov.livejournal.com/212859\\.html \\|title\\=\"Золотые крендели \"Единой России\"\\-2\\. Veľký muž\" \\|date\\=30 August 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-18 \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122112215/http://dgudkov.livejournal.com/212859\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The post mentioned Pekhtin as one of the individuals with discrepancies between their declared income and the value of their property.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mk.ru/politics/article/2012/08/30/742686\\-krendel\\-stal\\-kultovyim\\-izdeliem.html \\|title\\=Крендель стал культовым изделием // Московский Комсомолец № 26029 от 31 августа 2012 г \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902141336/http://www.mk.ru/politics/article/2012/08/30/742686\\-krendel\\-stal\\-kultovyim\\-izdeliem.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-02 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} On 31 August, *[Kommersant](/wiki/Kommersant \"Kommersant\")* published an article about real estate transactions that, according to the opposition, were part of a well\\-disguised commercial project to sell the land to the state for the construction of highway at a profit of roughly 75 million rubles.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://kommersant.ru/doc/2011888 \\|title\\=Квадратно\\-гнездовые метры. У Владимира Пехтина обнаружились необычные земельные интересы в Петербурге // Газета «Коммерсантъ», № 162 (4947\\), 31\\.08\\.2012 \\|date\\=31 August 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-18 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-31 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831002204/http://kommersant.ru/doc/2011888 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A comparison of Pekhtin's 2010 and 2011 declarations showed that in 2011 he purchased an at least three plots of land in St. Petersburg worth over 25 million rubles.",
"In 2011, Pekhtin had declared an income of 2\\.15 million rubles. His declaration indicated that he and his wife owned nine plots of land, two apartments, two houses, two non\\-residential buildings, and five cars (a [Porsche Cayenne](/wiki/Porsche_Cayenne \"Porsche Cayenne\"), a [Toyota Land Cruiser](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser \"Toyota Land Cruiser\"), and three [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\")) as well as personal watercraft and snowmobiles.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.duma.gov.ru/structure/deputies/131150/\\|title\\=Пехтин Владимир Алексеевич\\|publisher\\=Государственная дума Российской Федерации\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604143044/http://www.duma.gov.ru/structure/deputies/131150/\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-04\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"On 12 February 2013, Alexei Navalny, based on publicly available real estate data, reported on Pekhtin's link to real estate in [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\") worth $2\\.5 million. According to the documents, Pekhtin owned an apartment in a Flamingo South Beach condominium and land in Florida. The apartment was purchased for $540,000 in 2007 and the land for $120,000\\. Published contracts indicated that half of the real estate was owned by his son, Alexei Pekhtin. The son also owned an apartment in a residential complex at 1500 Ocean Drive. Prior to December 2012, half of the $1\\.27 million apartment was owned by the elder Pekhtin.",
"Pekhtin resigned from the State Duma on 20 February 2013, following revelations from [Alexei Navalny](/wiki/Alexei_Navalny \"Alexei Navalny\"){{cite news\\|last1\\=Amos\\|first1\\=Howard\\|title\\=United Russia MP resigns over Florida property allegations\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/20/russia\\-mp\\-resigns\\-florida\\-property\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=20 February 2013\\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219002452/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/20/russia\\-mp\\-resigns\\-florida\\-property\\|url\\-status\\=live}} that he owned over $1\\.3 million of undeclared real estate in [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Barry\\|first1\\=Ellen\\|title\\=Russian Lawmaker Quits After Property Disclosure\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/21/world/europe/vladimir\\-pekhtin\\-resigns\\-from\\-russian\\-parliament.html\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=20 February 2013\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219030246/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/21/world/europe/vladimir\\-pekhtin\\-resigns\\-from\\-russian\\-parliament.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Цыбульский\\|first1\\=Владимир\\|title\\=Мандатом вперед\\|url\\=https://lenta.ru/articles/2013/02/20/pekhtin/\\|work\\=Лента\\|date\\=20 February 2013\\|language\\=ru\\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820200944/https://lenta.ru/articles/2013/02/20/pekhtin/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Both Anatoly Lomakin and Vasily Tolstopyatov resigned shortly after Pekhtin.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Whitmore\\|first1\\=Brian\\|title\\=Putin Presses The Reset Button\\|url\\=http://www.rferl.org/a/putin\\-presses\\-the\\-reset\\-button/24914697\\.html\\|work\\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty\\|date\\=27 February 2013\\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219032310/http://www.rferl.org/a/putin\\-presses\\-the\\-reset\\-button/24914697\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Later career",
"Pekhtin became a member of the Management Board of RusHydro in April 2013\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rg.ru/2013/04/11/rusgidro\\-anons.html\\|title\\=Владимир Пехтин стал членом совета директоров компании \"РусГидро\"\\|publisher\\=Российская газета\\|date\\=11 April 2013\\|language\\=ru\\|accessdate\\=2013\\-04\\-14\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709215418/http://www.rg.ru/2013/04/11/rusgidro\\-anons.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He became Director General of the RusHydro hydrotechnology institute [Lenhydroproject](/wiki/Lenhydroproject \"Lenhydroproject\") in March 2014\\.Согласно ЕГРЮЛ",
""
] |
Racing
------
During his last semester in college, he spotted a disassembled [Crosley](/wiki/Crosley "Crosley") Hot Shot, and talked its owner into a straight trade for his [Zündapp](/wiki/Z%C3%BCndapp "Zündapp") motorcycle. Gamble discarded the body and in the local VW dealership (was a part\-time salesman) fabricated a feather\-weight aluminum body, stock 750cc motor and called his HM special a Gambini MK1 and on his soon to earn international license, himself – Fredrico Gambini!
[thumb\|The Gambini MK1, the 750 cc special built by Fred Gamble to get his start in motor racing – 1958 Florida](/wiki/File:GAMBINI_MK1_-_1958_Florida.jpg "GAMBINI MK1 - 1958 Florida.jpg")
In his first national race (May 1958, Gainesville, Georgia) he had a long race duel with a Le Mans DB and finished second in H Modified. Gamble was hired by Jarrard Motors of Pensacola, a foreign car importer for Renault, Triumph, AC Cars and Borgward servicing 200 dealers in eleven south east states. He was the assistant advertising manager and Triumph race team driver with Bill Kimberly. Jarrard raced a team of 3 TR3s and Gamble was assigned to Sedan class battles with the new TR10 (1,000 cc Standard 10\) to dice with VWs, Renault Dauphines, and Morris Minors.
When Jarrard decided not to run the Factory Triumph team at Sebring in 1959, and stop his SCCA racing, Gamble resigned and returned to South Florida, to race an MGA for a University of Miami student.
From the mid\-1950s, Gamble had been a motoring journalist and contributor to Chris Economaki's *[National Speed Sport News](/wiki/National_Speed_Sport_News "National Speed Sport News")*, The SCCA magazine *Sports Car*, Denise McCluggage's *Competition Press* and *Road \& Track*.
At a mid\-summer SCCA race in Miami, while racing the MGA, Gamble met Lloyd "Lucky" Casner, ex airline pilot, car dealer and successful racing driver in a string of cars – MGs, Alfas, AC Bristols, Maseratis and Ferraris. Lucky announced at the victory presentation that he wanted to go race in Europe (didn't we all?). He invited the amateur racers to contribute to a fund to finance his idea. He got a good laugh from the crowd.
Gamble knew Casner was a hustler/promoter, introduced himself with the suggestion he go along as a helper, publicist \& pay his own way as a motoring journalist. Casner suggested a partnership to make his idea happen.
Gamble put on his thinking cap, college degree in advertising/PR/Journalism/Marketing, and inspired by Ecurie Ecosse, the Scottish National Racing Team that spawned Jim Clark and later Jackie Stewart, created the concept of America's "Olympic Team" of motor racing to challenge the Europeans for World Championships.
Casner's amateur racing team of friends called themselves [Camoradi Racing Team (Casner Motor Racing Division)](/wiki/Camoradi "Camoradi") as a tax write\-off probably. So the proposed professional team was incorporated as Camoradi USA, America's first industry sponsored racing team with the best drivers from all race series in the best cars that could be acquired.
"Lucky" was an understatement. Goodyear was just getting into sportscar racing (Jan 59\) and signed up with substantial financial support and all tires needed. Chevrolet's president, Ed Cole and Zora Duntov, signed up with covert financial support (Engineering Dept.), two Corvettes with all competition options, funneled thru Don Allen Chevrolet, Miami. "Covert" because of an industry management ban on racing support. These first two backers opened the corporate doors to Shell/BP, Exide, Champion, DA Lubricants, Koni, Dow and Guest Airways (Mexico to Paris via Miami).
Casner took off to Europe in September (59\) and approached bankrupt Maserati who had their new Birdcage T61, a world beater but no finances to race a factory team. Camoradi was their answer for 1960\. Casner also formed an alliance with Porsche's Huschke Von Hanstein and bought two cars from the late Jean Behra's estate – a lightweight Carrera and the special Behra\-Porsche F2, which served as a test bed and prototype for Porsche's 1960 F2 cars and 1962 F1 1,500cc Formula.
Due to his long association with Maserati, Stirling Moss muscled his way into Camoradi, thus polluting the all\-American idea. Camoradi's driver roster: Jim Rathman, Roger Ward, Carroll Shelby, Masten Gregory, Dan Gurney, Juan Fangio(Parade lap at Cordova, Argentina 1960\), Chuck Daigh, Jo Bonnier, Jack Mcafee, Jim Jeffords, Bill Weustoff, Fred Windridge, Joe Sheppard, Dick Dungan, Pinkie Windridge, Denise McCluggage, Umberto Maglioli, Nino Vaccarella, Nino Todaro, Gino Munaron, Giorgio Scarlatti, Lucky Casner, Lee Lilley, Fred Gamble, Dave Lane, and Johnny Cuevas.
[thumb\|Fred Gamble in Corvette \#3 \- 1960 Sebring 12 Hours](/wiki/File:1960-03-26_Sebring_Corvettes_Fred_Gamble.png "1960-03-26 Sebring Corvettes Fred Gamble.png")
Camoradi "works" Maseratis, led every World Sports Car Championship race of 1960, and won only 1,000 km Nurburgring with Gurney/Moss. Led Nassau 1959 (Shelby DNF Mechanical), Porsche RSK 2 Liter winner (Bonnier), GT winner Porsche Carrera (Cuevas); 1960 1,000 km Buenos Aires (Gurney/Gregory DNF Mechanical and accident); Argentine GP (Gregory Behra\-Porsche); Havana GP for Sports Cars – 8 car entre, winning overall Moss Maserati, 2 Liter Gregory Porsche RSK, GT Corvette Jeffords, under 2 liter GT Cuevas Porsche Carrera; Sebring 12 hour, largest team entry ever of 8 cars, 3 Maseratis (Gurney/Moss led 8 hours DNF Mechanical), 2 Porsche Carrera (under 2 liter GT winner and 2nd OA GT Sheppard/Dungan), 2 Corvettes Jeffords/Weustoff/Gamble (Gamble drove 12 hours solo – only one of two known to have done this – earned press notice as "iron man Gamble"). OSCA 750 (McCluggage/Windridge DNF).
At the Nurburgring, Gamble qualified the "Yank Tank" Corvette 3rd among the big GTs, several 250 GT Ferraris but did not get to drive in the race as co\-driver Lee Lilley started the race and DNF with wheel bearing failure. Gurney/Moss won overall in the team's T61 Maserati, Gregory/Munaron 4th.
Off to Le Mans 24 hours, Gregory/Daigh led with the famed Streamliner Birdcage Maserati, set a 3\-liter lap record and top speed record of 170Mph, DNF engine failure, other two long tail Maseratis DNF with electrical faults. Gamble/Lilley drove their Corvette conservatively to finish 10th OA.
All Camoradi Maseratis were prepared and maintained by the factory and in Europe race managed by Maserati. Camoradi's role was primarily financial. Gamble was the only full\-time principal in Europe, living in Modena, Casner frequently back in Miami.
Sad ending to Gamble's Le Mans story was to find out years later they had been excluded due to insufficient miles covered under the index of performance rules. Even though at the race awards event, they were announced as 10th OA and awarded their participants medals. In 9th OA, just ahead of Gamble/Lilley was the 1959 OA winner Aston\-Martin DBR1 and in 8th the Cunningham Corvette of Fitch/Grossman.
Gamble was approved to drive the Behra\-Porsche in the 1960 German GP where the car was used by the factory in practice. Porsche manager Von Hanstein changed his mind at the last minute and denied Gamble the car as it had a "works" engine installed.
For the GP of Europe at Monza, September 4, 1960, Ferrari pushed the organizers to use the rough high banks to scare off the British rear engine cars. Chapman of Lotus led the boycott, rightly so as his fragile cars would likely have broken up. This boycott opened the entry for Formula Two cars so Gamble entered the Camoradi Behra\-Porsche for himself as driver and for starting money! Designer Collotti and builder Neri were in Gamble's pit and were sure the car could run the 500 km race non\-stop for fuel. So Gamble paced himself 500 rpm below redline, running 8th OA and 1st Privateer F2, when he was stranded out of fuel, ran to the pits for a can of gas and dashed across the line for 10th. Winner was Phil Hill in his works F1 Ferrari.
Gamble and team mechanic New Zealander [Bob Wallace](/wiki/Bob_Wallace_%28test_driver%29 "Bob Wallace (test driver)") (who stayed in Modena and became Lamborghini's Chief Test Engineer) took the Corvette and a Maserati to the Swedish GP for sports cars. Jo Bonnier drove the Birdcage to 2nd OA behind Moss in the first Lotus 19\. Casner won the GT category. Bonnier then took both cars to a super highway and set a Swedish "Land Speed" record in the Maser and GT record in the Corvette.
Gamble had a starting money paid entry in the Goodwood Tourist Trophy race. Moss was the favorite in Rob Walker's 250GT Ferrari. Gamble was confident his long wearing Goodyear tires would be an advantage on this notorious tire grinder circuit (as it was for Dunlop and Avon). Sadly, in southern Sweden after a lunch stop with beer, Wallace apparently dozed off, flipped and destroyed the Corvette.
Gamble left Camoradi in October, dismayed by big spending Lucky Casner, abusing the team's sponsors trust.
At December's 1960 Nassau, Gamble was there as a journalist, looking for a ride as well and was approached by racing patron Frank Harrison of Chattanooga, Tennessee. Harrison had bought the ex\-Camoradi Le Mans Streamliner and had just won the U.S.A. pro sports car Championship with Carroll Shelby and Jim Jeffords. Harrison proposal for Gamble to drive his Streamliner Birdcage and 450S Maseratis in National SCCA events, not abuse his cars and learn the circuits for the 1961 season; for 1962, buy the latest Cooper or Lotus and go for a National Championship. If that was achieved, he would go into a Formula One challenge for 1963\. A dream opportunity.
Gamble was at Sebring 1961 as a reserve driver for Denise McCluggage and her inexperienced co\-driver Alan Eager who might not have been approved for the race. Denise had her 250GT Ferrari, Alan was accepted and they won the GT category.
Gamble started the 1961 season at the first National race at Marlboro, Maryland, finishing second to Bob Holbert (lap record holder). He drove through the first half of the season, leading in points after several races but the team was coming unraveled in discord due to a difficult shop manager. This could not be resolved so Gamble left the Harrison operation and racing. He moved to New York and landed a Job as Assistant Advertising Manager, Standard\-Triumph North America for the introduction of the TR4\. Gamble and his Triumph boss Mike Cook pioneered the Triumph competition program, which was soon adopted by other manufacturers (another story). Also Gamble and Cook "GodFathered" [Bob Tullius](/wiki/Bob_Tullius "Bob Tullius") which evolved into his extremely successful Group 44\.
At the end of the 1961 year, the SCCA announced its season champions and Gamble was 3rd in points to Roger Penske and Walt Hansgen.
[thumb\|1961 U.S. National Championship \- Gamble in a Type 61 Maserati](/wiki/File:Fred_Gamble_-_1961_U.S._National_Championship.png "Fred Gamble - 1961 U.S. National Championship.png")
Summer of 1962, Carroll Shelby presented his first Cobra to Ford, won their support and went the New York to show off his new car to the International Motor Press Association. Gamble was a member. He and Shelby sat together at the luncheon and Carroll said he had to set up a company to produce his Cobras. He hired Gamble as his first Sales Manager. Off to Venice, California. Two months later at the Riverside Sports Car GP and the first race for the Cobra, Shelby and Gamble got together with Goodyear's General Manager of Racing, Tony Webner. Over drinks and dinner Webner expounded his plans to expand Goodyear in racing and he needed another assistant. Shelby was the western states Goodyear racing tire distributor and commented that he needed Goodyear as well Ford's support to go to Europe and "kick Enzo Ferrari's ass" for the World GT Championship. The result was Goodyear bought Gamble. He, Webner and Shelby schemed through the 1963 season to convince Goodyear management to approve an International Racing Tire Division. Gamble was appointed its founding Director.
[thumb\|Nürburgring 1967 with Juan Fangio, Gamble and Walter Koenig](/wiki/File:N%C3%BCrburgring_1967_-_Fangio%2C_Gamble_and_Koenig.jpg "Nürburgring 1967 - Fangio, Gamble and Koenig.jpg")
February 1964, Gamble and his Chief Engineer Walt DeVinney established their headquarters at the Goodyear plant in Wolverhampton, England. In just 5 years, Gamble and his team had racked up seven World Championships and 3 Le Mans victories (Ferrari 1965, Ford 1966–1967\), Goodyear's first Formula One win (Ginther/Honda\-Mexico 65\) and Gurney's historic All\-American 1967 Belgian GP win.
Gamble turned over Goodyear Racing in 1968 to Leo Mehl and transferred to General Management. Gamble's collection photos, video and memorabilia are at the Watkins Glen research center, Watkins Glen, New York in 3 sections: Goodyear the early years, Camoradi USA and Gamble personal.
|
[
"Racing\n------",
"During his last semester in college, he spotted a disassembled [Crosley](/wiki/Crosley \"Crosley\") Hot Shot, and talked its owner into a straight trade for his [Zündapp](/wiki/Z%C3%BCndapp \"Zündapp\") motorcycle. Gamble discarded the body and in the local VW dealership (was a part\\-time salesman) fabricated a feather\\-weight aluminum body, stock 750cc motor and called his HM special a Gambini MK1 and on his soon to earn international license, himself – Fredrico Gambini!",
"[thumb\\|The Gambini MK1, the 750 cc special built by Fred Gamble to get his start in motor racing – 1958 Florida](/wiki/File:GAMBINI_MK1_-_1958_Florida.jpg \"GAMBINI MK1 - 1958 Florida.jpg\")",
"In his first national race (May 1958, Gainesville, Georgia) he had a long race duel with a Le Mans DB and finished second in H Modified. Gamble was hired by Jarrard Motors of Pensacola, a foreign car importer for Renault, Triumph, AC Cars and Borgward servicing 200 dealers in eleven south east states. He was the assistant advertising manager and Triumph race team driver with Bill Kimberly. Jarrard raced a team of 3 TR3s and Gamble was assigned to Sedan class battles with the new TR10 (1,000 cc Standard 10\\) to dice with VWs, Renault Dauphines, and Morris Minors.",
"When Jarrard decided not to run the Factory Triumph team at Sebring in 1959, and stop his SCCA racing, Gamble resigned and returned to South Florida, to race an MGA for a University of Miami student.",
"From the mid\\-1950s, Gamble had been a motoring journalist and contributor to Chris Economaki's *[National Speed Sport News](/wiki/National_Speed_Sport_News \"National Speed Sport News\")*, The SCCA magazine *Sports Car*, Denise McCluggage's *Competition Press* and *Road \\& Track*.",
"At a mid\\-summer SCCA race in Miami, while racing the MGA, Gamble met Lloyd \"Lucky\" Casner, ex airline pilot, car dealer and successful racing driver in a string of cars – MGs, Alfas, AC Bristols, Maseratis and Ferraris. Lucky announced at the victory presentation that he wanted to go race in Europe (didn't we all?). He invited the amateur racers to contribute to a fund to finance his idea. He got a good laugh from the crowd.",
"Gamble knew Casner was a hustler/promoter, introduced himself with the suggestion he go along as a helper, publicist \\& pay his own way as a motoring journalist. Casner suggested a partnership to make his idea happen.",
"Gamble put on his thinking cap, college degree in advertising/PR/Journalism/Marketing, and inspired by Ecurie Ecosse, the Scottish National Racing Team that spawned Jim Clark and later Jackie Stewart, created the concept of America's \"Olympic Team\" of motor racing to challenge the Europeans for World Championships.",
"Casner's amateur racing team of friends called themselves [Camoradi Racing Team (Casner Motor Racing Division)](/wiki/Camoradi \"Camoradi\") as a tax write\\-off probably. So the proposed professional team was incorporated as Camoradi USA, America's first industry sponsored racing team with the best drivers from all race series in the best cars that could be acquired.",
"\"Lucky\" was an understatement. Goodyear was just getting into sportscar racing (Jan 59\\) and signed up with substantial financial support and all tires needed. Chevrolet's president, Ed Cole and Zora Duntov, signed up with covert financial support (Engineering Dept.), two Corvettes with all competition options, funneled thru Don Allen Chevrolet, Miami. \"Covert\" because of an industry management ban on racing support. These first two backers opened the corporate doors to Shell/BP, Exide, Champion, DA Lubricants, Koni, Dow and Guest Airways (Mexico to Paris via Miami).",
"Casner took off to Europe in September (59\\) and approached bankrupt Maserati who had their new Birdcage T61, a world beater but no finances to race a factory team. Camoradi was their answer for 1960\\. Casner also formed an alliance with Porsche's Huschke Von Hanstein and bought two cars from the late Jean Behra's estate – a lightweight Carrera and the special Behra\\-Porsche F2, which served as a test bed and prototype for Porsche's 1960 F2 cars and 1962 F1 1,500cc Formula.",
"Due to his long association with Maserati, Stirling Moss muscled his way into Camoradi, thus polluting the all\\-American idea. Camoradi's driver roster: Jim Rathman, Roger Ward, Carroll Shelby, Masten Gregory, Dan Gurney, Juan Fangio(Parade lap at Cordova, Argentina 1960\\), Chuck Daigh, Jo Bonnier, Jack Mcafee, Jim Jeffords, Bill Weustoff, Fred Windridge, Joe Sheppard, Dick Dungan, Pinkie Windridge, Denise McCluggage, Umberto Maglioli, Nino Vaccarella, Nino Todaro, Gino Munaron, Giorgio Scarlatti, Lucky Casner, Lee Lilley, Fred Gamble, Dave Lane, and Johnny Cuevas.",
"[thumb\\|Fred Gamble in Corvette \\#3 \\- 1960 Sebring 12 Hours](/wiki/File:1960-03-26_Sebring_Corvettes_Fred_Gamble.png \"1960-03-26 Sebring Corvettes Fred Gamble.png\")",
"Camoradi \"works\" Maseratis, led every World Sports Car Championship race of 1960, and won only 1,000 km Nurburgring with Gurney/Moss. Led Nassau 1959 (Shelby DNF Mechanical), Porsche RSK 2 Liter winner (Bonnier), GT winner Porsche Carrera (Cuevas); 1960 1,000 km Buenos Aires (Gurney/Gregory DNF Mechanical and accident); Argentine GP (Gregory Behra\\-Porsche); Havana GP for Sports Cars – 8 car entre, winning overall Moss Maserati, 2 Liter Gregory Porsche RSK, GT Corvette Jeffords, under 2 liter GT Cuevas Porsche Carrera; Sebring 12 hour, largest team entry ever of 8 cars, 3 Maseratis (Gurney/Moss led 8 hours DNF Mechanical), 2 Porsche Carrera (under 2 liter GT winner and 2nd OA GT Sheppard/Dungan), 2 Corvettes Jeffords/Weustoff/Gamble (Gamble drove 12 hours solo – only one of two known to have done this – earned press notice as \"iron man Gamble\"). OSCA 750 (McCluggage/Windridge DNF).",
"At the Nurburgring, Gamble qualified the \"Yank Tank\" Corvette 3rd among the big GTs, several 250 GT Ferraris but did not get to drive in the race as co\\-driver Lee Lilley started the race and DNF with wheel bearing failure. Gurney/Moss won overall in the team's T61 Maserati, Gregory/Munaron 4th.",
"Off to Le Mans 24 hours, Gregory/Daigh led with the famed Streamliner Birdcage Maserati, set a 3\\-liter lap record and top speed record of 170Mph, DNF engine failure, other two long tail Maseratis DNF with electrical faults. Gamble/Lilley drove their Corvette conservatively to finish 10th OA.",
"All Camoradi Maseratis were prepared and maintained by the factory and in Europe race managed by Maserati. Camoradi's role was primarily financial. Gamble was the only full\\-time principal in Europe, living in Modena, Casner frequently back in Miami.",
"Sad ending to Gamble's Le Mans story was to find out years later they had been excluded due to insufficient miles covered under the index of performance rules. Even though at the race awards event, they were announced as 10th OA and awarded their participants medals. In 9th OA, just ahead of Gamble/Lilley was the 1959 OA winner Aston\\-Martin DBR1 and in 8th the Cunningham Corvette of Fitch/Grossman.",
"Gamble was approved to drive the Behra\\-Porsche in the 1960 German GP where the car was used by the factory in practice. Porsche manager Von Hanstein changed his mind at the last minute and denied Gamble the car as it had a \"works\" engine installed.",
"For the GP of Europe at Monza, September 4, 1960, Ferrari pushed the organizers to use the rough high banks to scare off the British rear engine cars. Chapman of Lotus led the boycott, rightly so as his fragile cars would likely have broken up. This boycott opened the entry for Formula Two cars so Gamble entered the Camoradi Behra\\-Porsche for himself as driver and for starting money! Designer Collotti and builder Neri were in Gamble's pit and were sure the car could run the 500 km race non\\-stop for fuel. So Gamble paced himself 500 rpm below redline, running 8th OA and 1st Privateer F2, when he was stranded out of fuel, ran to the pits for a can of gas and dashed across the line for 10th. Winner was Phil Hill in his works F1 Ferrari.",
"Gamble and team mechanic New Zealander [Bob Wallace](/wiki/Bob_Wallace_%28test_driver%29 \"Bob Wallace (test driver)\") (who stayed in Modena and became Lamborghini's Chief Test Engineer) took the Corvette and a Maserati to the Swedish GP for sports cars. Jo Bonnier drove the Birdcage to 2nd OA behind Moss in the first Lotus 19\\. Casner won the GT category. Bonnier then took both cars to a super highway and set a Swedish \"Land Speed\" record in the Maser and GT record in the Corvette.",
"Gamble had a starting money paid entry in the Goodwood Tourist Trophy race. Moss was the favorite in Rob Walker's 250GT Ferrari. Gamble was confident his long wearing Goodyear tires would be an advantage on this notorious tire grinder circuit (as it was for Dunlop and Avon). Sadly, in southern Sweden after a lunch stop with beer, Wallace apparently dozed off, flipped and destroyed the Corvette.",
"Gamble left Camoradi in October, dismayed by big spending Lucky Casner, abusing the team's sponsors trust.",
"At December's 1960 Nassau, Gamble was there as a journalist, looking for a ride as well and was approached by racing patron Frank Harrison of Chattanooga, Tennessee. Harrison had bought the ex\\-Camoradi Le Mans Streamliner and had just won the U.S.A. pro sports car Championship with Carroll Shelby and Jim Jeffords. Harrison proposal for Gamble to drive his Streamliner Birdcage and 450S Maseratis in National SCCA events, not abuse his cars and learn the circuits for the 1961 season; for 1962, buy the latest Cooper or Lotus and go for a National Championship. If that was achieved, he would go into a Formula One challenge for 1963\\. A dream opportunity.",
"Gamble was at Sebring 1961 as a reserve driver for Denise McCluggage and her inexperienced co\\-driver Alan Eager who might not have been approved for the race. Denise had her 250GT Ferrari, Alan was accepted and they won the GT category.",
"Gamble started the 1961 season at the first National race at Marlboro, Maryland, finishing second to Bob Holbert (lap record holder). He drove through the first half of the season, leading in points after several races but the team was coming unraveled in discord due to a difficult shop manager. This could not be resolved so Gamble left the Harrison operation and racing. He moved to New York and landed a Job as Assistant Advertising Manager, Standard\\-Triumph North America for the introduction of the TR4\\. Gamble and his Triumph boss Mike Cook pioneered the Triumph competition program, which was soon adopted by other manufacturers (another story). Also Gamble and Cook \"GodFathered\" [Bob Tullius](/wiki/Bob_Tullius \"Bob Tullius\") which evolved into his extremely successful Group 44\\.",
"At the end of the 1961 year, the SCCA announced its season champions and Gamble was 3rd in points to Roger Penske and Walt Hansgen.",
"[thumb\\|1961 U.S. National Championship \\- Gamble in a Type 61 Maserati](/wiki/File:Fred_Gamble_-_1961_U.S._National_Championship.png \"Fred Gamble - 1961 U.S. National Championship.png\")",
"Summer of 1962, Carroll Shelby presented his first Cobra to Ford, won their support and went the New York to show off his new car to the International Motor Press Association. Gamble was a member. He and Shelby sat together at the luncheon and Carroll said he had to set up a company to produce his Cobras. He hired Gamble as his first Sales Manager. Off to Venice, California. Two months later at the Riverside Sports Car GP and the first race for the Cobra, Shelby and Gamble got together with Goodyear's General Manager of Racing, Tony Webner. Over drinks and dinner Webner expounded his plans to expand Goodyear in racing and he needed another assistant. Shelby was the western states Goodyear racing tire distributor and commented that he needed Goodyear as well Ford's support to go to Europe and \"kick Enzo Ferrari's ass\" for the World GT Championship. The result was Goodyear bought Gamble. He, Webner and Shelby schemed through the 1963 season to convince Goodyear management to approve an International Racing Tire Division. Gamble was appointed its founding Director.",
"[thumb\\|Nürburgring 1967 with Juan Fangio, Gamble and Walter Koenig](/wiki/File:N%C3%BCrburgring_1967_-_Fangio%2C_Gamble_and_Koenig.jpg \"Nürburgring 1967 - Fangio, Gamble and Koenig.jpg\")",
"February 1964, Gamble and his Chief Engineer Walt DeVinney established their headquarters at the Goodyear plant in Wolverhampton, England. In just 5 years, Gamble and his team had racked up seven World Championships and 3 Le Mans victories (Ferrari 1965, Ford 1966–1967\\), Goodyear's first Formula One win (Ginther/Honda\\-Mexico 65\\) and Gurney's historic All\\-American 1967 Belgian GP win.",
"Gamble turned over Goodyear Racing in 1968 to Leo Mehl and transferred to General Management. Gamble's collection photos, video and memorabilia are at the Watkins Glen research center, Watkins Glen, New York in 3 sections: Goodyear the early years, Camoradi USA and Gamble personal.",
""
] |
Club career
-----------
### Early career
Born in [São Francisco do Conde](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Francisco_do_Conde "São Francisco do Conde"), [Bahia](/wiki/Bahia "Bahia"), Cléber started his career with [Brasília](/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia "Brasília")\-based club [Legião](/wiki/Legi%C3%A3o_FC "Legião FC") before joining [Paulista](/wiki/Paulista_Futebol_Clube "Paulista Futebol Clube") in 2009\. He made his senior debut for the latter on 5 September 2009, starting in a 2–1 away win against [Ponte Preta](/wiki/Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Atl%C3%A9tica_Ponte_Preta "Associação Atlética Ponte Preta") for the year's [Copa Paulista](/wiki/Copa_Paulista "Copa Paulista").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.futebolinterior.com.br/futebol/Copa\-Paulista/Unica/2009/noticias/2009\-09/Ponte\-Preta\-1\-x\-2\-Paulista\-\-\-Macaca\-cai\-no\-fim\-para\-o\-Galo\|title\=Ponte Preta 1 x 2 Paulista – Macaca cai no fim para o Galo\|trans\-title\=Ponte Preta 1–2 Paulista – ''Macaca'' fall in the end for ''Galo''\|publisher\=Futebol Interior\|language\=pt\|date\=5 September 2009\|accessdate\=25 November 2016}} His first senior goal came on 14 November, in a 1–1 draw at [Botafogo\-SP](/wiki/Botafogo_Futebol_Clube_%28SP%29 "Botafogo Futebol Clube (SP)").
Rarely used, Cléber subsequently served loans at [Itumbiara](/wiki/Itumbiara_Esporte_Clube "Itumbiara Esporte Clube") and [Catanduvense](/wiki/Gr%C3%AAmio_Catanduvense_de_Futebol "Grêmio Catanduvense de Futebol") before being transferred in 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jj.com.br/noticias\-16038\-a\-%E2%80%98aventura\-gelada%E2%80%99\-de\-cleber\-na\-alemanha\|title\=A 'aventura gelada' de Cléber na Alemanha\|trans\-title\=The 'cold adventure' of Cléber in Germany\|publisher\=Jornal de Jundiaí\|language\=pt\|date\=7 June 2015\|accessdate\=25 November 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125110832/http://www.jj.com.br/noticias\-16038\-a\-%E2%80%98aventura\-gelada%E2%80%99\-de\-cleber\-na\-alemanha\|archive\-date\=25 November 2016\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Ponte Preta
On 25 April 2012, Cléber joined [Série A](/wiki/Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A "Campeonato Brasileiro Série A") club Ponte Preta.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.futebolinterior.com.br/futebol/Ponte\-Preta\-SP/noticias/2012\-04/Sonhando\-com\-Marcio\-Rozario\-Ponte\-contrata\-Cleber\-e\-Andre\-Luis\|title\=Sonhando com Márcio Rozário, Ponte contrata Cléber e André Luís\|trans\-title\=Dreaming with Márcio Rozário, Ponte sign Cléber and André Luís\|publisher\=Futebol Interior\|language\=pt\|date\=25 April 2012\|accessdate\=25 November 2016}} He made his top tier debut on 2 September, coming on as a late [substitute](/wiki/Substitute_%28association_football%29 "Substitute (association football)") for [Marcinho](/wiki/M%C3%A1rcio_Miranda_Freitas_Rocha_da_Silva "Márcio Miranda Freitas Rocha da Silva") in a 3–1 home win against [Atlético Goianiense](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Clube_Goianiense "Atlético Clube Goianiense"), also scoring the last goal.{{cite web\|url\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/jogo/brasileirao2012/02\-09\-2012/ponte\-preta\-atletico\-go.html\|title\=Ponte Preta constrói virada pelo alto e vence o Atlético\-GO em 'tira\-teima'\|trans\-title\=Ponte Preta build comeback through the set\-ups and defeat Atlético\-GO in 'showdown'\|publisher\=\[\[Globo Esporte]]\|language\=pt\|date\=2 September 2012\|accessdate\=25 November 2016}}
Cléber was an undisputed starter for Ponte during the [2013 Campeonato Paulista](/wiki/2013_Campeonato_Paulista "2013 Campeonato Paulista"), appearing in 21 matches and scoring three goals as his side was knocked out in the semifinals; he was also chosen in the tournament's *Team of the year*.
### Corinthians
On 22 July 2013, Cléber Reis signed a four\-year contract with fellow first division side [Corinthians](/wiki/Sport_Club_Corinthians_Paulista "Sport Club Corinthians Paulista"), with the club retaining 20% of the player's federative rights and a third part ownership retaining the remaining 80%.{{cite web\|url\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/futebol/times/corinthians/noticia/2013/07/apos\-novela\-corinthians\-confirma\-contratacao\-do\-zagueiro\-cleber.html\|title\=Após 'novela', Corinthians confirma contratação do zagueiro Cléber\|trans\-title\=After 'novel', Corinthians confirm signing of stopper Cléber\|publisher\=Globo Esporte\|language\=pt\|date\=22 July 2013\|accessdate\=25 November 2016}} He made his debut for the club on 2 October, starting and scoring the second in a 2–0 home win against [Bahia](/wiki/Esporte_Clube_Bahia "Esporte Clube Bahia").{{cite web\|url\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/futebol/times/corinthians/noticia/2013/10/cleber\-comemora\-estreia\-com\-gol\-pelo\-timao\-nao\-poderia\-ser\-melhor.html\|title\=Cléber comemora estreia com gol pelo Timão: 'Não poderia ser melhor'\|trans\-title\=Cléber celebrates debut with goal for ''Timão'': 'It could not be better'\|publisher\=Globo Esporte\|language\=pt\|date\=2 October 2013\|accessdate\=25 November 2016}}
A backup to [Paulo André](/wiki/Paulo_Andr%C3%A9_Cren_Benini "Paulo André Cren Benini") and [Gil](/wiki/Gil_%28footballer%2C_born_June_1987%29 "Gil (footballer, born June 1987)"), Cléber became a starter after the former's departure to [Shanghai Shenhua](/wiki/Shanghai_Shenhua_F.C. "Shanghai Shenhua F.C.") in January 2014\.
### Hamburger SV
Cléber Reis joined [Bundesliga](/wiki/Bundesliga "Bundesliga") side [Hamburger SV](/wiki/Hamburger_SV "Hamburger SV") in late August 2014, signing a four\-year contract until 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hsv.de/teams/meldungen/bundesliga/2014/august/transfer\-von\-cleber\-reis\-ist\-perfekt/\|title\=Transfer von Cleber Reis ist perfekt\|trans\-title\=Transfer of Cleber Reis is perfect\|date\=27 August 2014\|accessdate\=11 March 2015\|language\=German\|publisher\=Hamburger SV\|archive\-date\=2 February 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202010514/http://www.hsv.de/teams/meldungen/bundesliga/2014/august/transfer\-von\-cleber\-reis\-ist\-perfekt/\|url\-status\=dead}} Hamburg had to pay a transfer fee of believed to be around €3 million.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abendblatt.de/sport/fussball/hsv/article131653473/Papiere\-endlich\-eingetroffen\-Cleber\-unterschreibt\-beim\-HSV.html\|title\=Papiere endlich eingetroffen: Cléber unterschreibt beim HSV\|trans\-title\=Papers finally arrived: Cléber signs for HSV\|date\=27 August 2014\|accessdate\=11 March 2015\|language\=German\|publisher\=Hamburger Abendblatt}}
Cléber Reis scored his first goal for HSV in a 2–1 win over [Mainz 05](/wiki/1._FSV_Mainz_05 "1. FSV Mainz 05") on 7 December 2014\.
### Santos
On 13 December 2016, Cléber Reis joined [Santos](/wiki/Santos_FC "Santos FC") back in his home country, after an [€](/wiki/Euro "Euro") 2 million offer was accepted by HSV.{{cite web\|url\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/sp/santos\-e\-regiao/futebol/times/santos/noticia/2016/12/santos\-acerta\-contratacao\-do\-zagueiro\-cleber\-do\-hamburgo.html\|title\=Santos acerta a contratação do zagueiro Cleber, do Hamburgo\|trans\-title\=Santos complete the signing of stopper Cleber, from Hamburg\|publisher\=Globo Esporte\|language\=pt\|date\=13 December 2016\|accessdate\=29 December 2016}} He arrived in Brazil two days later, and signed a four\-year contract with the club shortly after.{{cite web\|url\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/sp/santos\-e\-regiao/futebol/times/santos/noticia/2016/12/cleber\-chega\-ao\-brasil\-para\-assinar\-com\-o\-santos\-e\-diz\-feliz\-e\-pouco.html\|title\=Cleber chega ao Brasil para assinar com o Santos e diz: "Feliz é pouco"\|trans\-title\=Cleber arrives in Brazil to sign with Santos and says: "I am more than happy"\|publisher\=Globo Esporte\|language\=pt\|date\=15 December 2016\|accessdate\=29 December 2016}}
Cléber Reis made his debut for the club on 18 February 2017, starting and being [sent off](/wiki/Ejection_%28sports%29 "Ejection (sports)") in a 1–0 [Campeonato Paulista](/wiki/Campeonato_Paulista "Campeonato Paulista") home loss against [Ferroviária](/wiki/Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Ferrovi%C3%A1ria_de_Esportes "Associação Ferroviária de Esportes").{{cite web\|url\=http://esportes.estadao.com.br/noticias/futebol,cleber\-e\-expulso\-santos\-vacila\-e\-ferroviaria\-ganha\-na\-estreia\-de\-pc\-oliveira,70001671173\|title\=Cléber é expulso, Santos vacila e Ferroviária ganha na estreia de PC Oliveira\|trans\-title\=Cléber is sent off, Santos slip away and Ferroviária win in PC Oliveira's debut\|publisher\=\[\[O Estado de S. Paulo]]\|language\=pt\|date\=18 February 2017\|accessdate\=2 March 2017}} He made his [Copa Libertadores](/wiki/Copa_Libertadores "Copa Libertadores") debut on 9 March, starting in a 1–1 away draw against [Sporting Cristal](/wiki/Sporting_Cristal "Sporting Cristal").{{cite web\|url\=https://esporte.uol.com.br/futebol/campeonatos/libertadores/ultimas\-noticias/2017/03/09/sporting\-cristal\-x\-santos.htm\|title\=Santos empata na estreia da Libertadores e mantém pressão em Dorival\|trans\-title\=Santos draw in Libertadores' debut and keep pressure in Dorival\|publisher\=\[\[Universo Online\|UOL Esporte]]\|language\=pt\|date\=9 March 2017\|accessdate\=10 March 2017}}
On 18 August 2017, after appearing rarely, Cléber Reis was loaned to fellow top tier club [Coritiba](/wiki/Coritiba_Foot_Ball_Club "Coritiba Foot Ball Club") until the end of [the season](/wiki/2017_Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A "2017 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A").{{cite web\|url\=http://coritiba.com.br/artigo/31259/coritiba\_conta\_com\_zagueiro\_cleber\_reis\|title\=Coritiba conta com zagueiro Cleber Reis\|trans\-title\=Coritiba sign stopper Cleber Reis\|publisher\=Coritiba FBC\|language\=pt\|date\=18 August 2017\|accessdate\=30 August 2017}} A regular starter, he scored two goals for the side but eventually suffered relegation.
On 3 April 2018, Cléber Reis was loaned to [Paraná](/wiki/Paran%C3%A1_Clube "Paraná Clube") still in the main category, until December.{{cite web\|url\=https://globoesporte.globo.com/pr/futebol/noticia/parana\-contrata\-zagueiro\-cleber\-reis\-do\-santos\-para\-o\-brasileirao\-2018\.ghtml\|title\=Paraná contrata zagueiro Cleber Reis, do Santos, para o Brasileirão 2018\|trans\-title\=Paraná sign stopper Cléber Reis, from Santos, for the ''Brasileirão'' 2018\|publisher\=Globo Esporte\|language\=pt\|date\=3 April 2018\|access\-date\=4 April 2018}} He again [suffered team relegation](/wiki/2018_Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A "2018 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A"), but was separated from the squad in the latter part of the tournament.
On 24 June 2019, after spending the first six months without playing, Cléber Reis was loaned to [Oeste](/wiki/Oeste_Futebol_Clube "Oeste Futebol Clube") in the [Série B](/wiki/Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_B "Campeonato Brasileiro Série B"), until December.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.oestefc.com.br/noticia/2985/tem\-xerife\-na\-area\|title\=Tem xerife na área\|trans\-title\=There is a sheriff in the area\|publisher\=Oeste FC\|language\=pt\-BR\|date\=24 June 2019\|accessdate\=26 June 2019}} The following 2 January, he returned to his previous club Ponte Preta on loan for the 2020 campaign,{{cite web\|url\=https://globoesporte.globo.com/sp/campinas\-e\-regiao/futebol/times/ponte\-preta/noticia/ponte\-preta\-consegue\-liberacao\-do\-zagueiro\-cleber\-reis\-do\-santos\-e\-aguarda\-apresentacao\-nesta\-sexta.ghtml\|title\=Ponte Preta consegue liberação do zagueiro Cléber Reis, do Santos, e aguarda apresentação nesta sexta\|trans\-title\=Ponte Preta get the release of Cléber Reis, from Santos, and await the presentation this Friday\|publisher\=Globo Esporte\|language\=pt\-BR\|date\=2 January 2020\|accessdate\=5 January 2020}} but returned to his parent club on 10 December after featuring rarely.{{cite web\|url\=https://globoesporte.globo.com/sp/campinas\-e\-regiao/futebol/times/ponte\-preta/noticia/sem\-atuar\-desde\-marco\-cleber\-reis\-deixa\-a\-ponte\-preta\-zagueiro\-ainda\-tem\-contrato\-com\-o\-santos.ghtml\|title\=Sem atuar desde março, Cléber Reis deixa a Ponte Preta; zagueiro ainda tem contrato com o Santos\|trans\-title\=Without playing since March, Cléber Reis leaves Ponte Preta; stopper still has contract with Santos\|publisher\=GloboEsporte.com\|language\=pt\-BR\|date\=10 December 2020\|accessdate\=29 December 2020}}
After spending the 2021 season separated from the first team squad, Cléber Reis suffered a [knee](/wiki/Knee "Knee") injury in training. On 8 February 2022, he left the club after reaching an agreement to terminate his contract.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.diariodopeixe.com.br/noticias/santos\-faz\-acordo\-e\-encerra\-vinculo\-com\-o\-zagueiro\-cleber\-reis/\|title\=Santos faz acordo e encerra vínculo com o zagueiro Cléber Reis\|trans\-title\=Santos reach agreement and end link with stopper Cléber Reis\|publisher\=Diário do Peixe\|language\=pt\-BR\|date\=8 February 2022\|accessdate\=8 February 2022}}
|
[
"Club career\n-----------",
"### Early career",
"Born in [São Francisco do Conde](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Francisco_do_Conde \"São Francisco do Conde\"), [Bahia](/wiki/Bahia \"Bahia\"), Cléber started his career with [Brasília](/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia \"Brasília\")\\-based club [Legião](/wiki/Legi%C3%A3o_FC \"Legião FC\") before joining [Paulista](/wiki/Paulista_Futebol_Clube \"Paulista Futebol Clube\") in 2009\\. He made his senior debut for the latter on 5 September 2009, starting in a 2–1 away win against [Ponte Preta](/wiki/Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Atl%C3%A9tica_Ponte_Preta \"Associação Atlética Ponte Preta\") for the year's [Copa Paulista](/wiki/Copa_Paulista \"Copa Paulista\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.futebolinterior.com.br/futebol/Copa\\-Paulista/Unica/2009/noticias/2009\\-09/Ponte\\-Preta\\-1\\-x\\-2\\-Paulista\\-\\-\\-Macaca\\-cai\\-no\\-fim\\-para\\-o\\-Galo\\|title\\=Ponte Preta 1 x 2 Paulista – Macaca cai no fim para o Galo\\|trans\\-title\\=Ponte Preta 1–2 Paulista – ''Macaca'' fall in the end for ''Galo''\\|publisher\\=Futebol Interior\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=5 September 2009\\|accessdate\\=25 November 2016}} His first senior goal came on 14 November, in a 1–1 draw at [Botafogo\\-SP](/wiki/Botafogo_Futebol_Clube_%28SP%29 \"Botafogo Futebol Clube (SP)\").",
"Rarely used, Cléber subsequently served loans at [Itumbiara](/wiki/Itumbiara_Esporte_Clube \"Itumbiara Esporte Clube\") and [Catanduvense](/wiki/Gr%C3%AAmio_Catanduvense_de_Futebol \"Grêmio Catanduvense de Futebol\") before being transferred in 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jj.com.br/noticias\\-16038\\-a\\-%E2%80%98aventura\\-gelada%E2%80%99\\-de\\-cleber\\-na\\-alemanha\\|title\\=A 'aventura gelada' de Cléber na Alemanha\\|trans\\-title\\=The 'cold adventure' of Cléber in Germany\\|publisher\\=Jornal de Jundiaí\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=7 June 2015\\|accessdate\\=25 November 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125110832/http://www.jj.com.br/noticias\\-16038\\-a\\-%E2%80%98aventura\\-gelada%E2%80%99\\-de\\-cleber\\-na\\-alemanha\\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Ponte Preta",
"On 25 April 2012, Cléber joined [Série A](/wiki/Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A \"Campeonato Brasileiro Série A\") club Ponte Preta.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.futebolinterior.com.br/futebol/Ponte\\-Preta\\-SP/noticias/2012\\-04/Sonhando\\-com\\-Marcio\\-Rozario\\-Ponte\\-contrata\\-Cleber\\-e\\-Andre\\-Luis\\|title\\=Sonhando com Márcio Rozário, Ponte contrata Cléber e André Luís\\|trans\\-title\\=Dreaming with Márcio Rozário, Ponte sign Cléber and André Luís\\|publisher\\=Futebol Interior\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=25 April 2012\\|accessdate\\=25 November 2016}} He made his top tier debut on 2 September, coming on as a late [substitute](/wiki/Substitute_%28association_football%29 \"Substitute (association football)\") for [Marcinho](/wiki/M%C3%A1rcio_Miranda_Freitas_Rocha_da_Silva \"Márcio Miranda Freitas Rocha da Silva\") in a 3–1 home win against [Atlético Goianiense](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Clube_Goianiense \"Atlético Clube Goianiense\"), also scoring the last goal.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/jogo/brasileirao2012/02\\-09\\-2012/ponte\\-preta\\-atletico\\-go.html\\|title\\=Ponte Preta constrói virada pelo alto e vence o Atlético\\-GO em 'tira\\-teima'\\|trans\\-title\\=Ponte Preta build comeback through the set\\-ups and defeat Atlético\\-GO in 'showdown'\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Globo Esporte]]\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=2 September 2012\\|accessdate\\=25 November 2016}}",
"Cléber was an undisputed starter for Ponte during the [2013 Campeonato Paulista](/wiki/2013_Campeonato_Paulista \"2013 Campeonato Paulista\"), appearing in 21 matches and scoring three goals as his side was knocked out in the semifinals; he was also chosen in the tournament's *Team of the year*.",
"### Corinthians",
"On 22 July 2013, Cléber Reis signed a four\\-year contract with fellow first division side [Corinthians](/wiki/Sport_Club_Corinthians_Paulista \"Sport Club Corinthians Paulista\"), with the club retaining 20% of the player's federative rights and a third part ownership retaining the remaining 80%.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/futebol/times/corinthians/noticia/2013/07/apos\\-novela\\-corinthians\\-confirma\\-contratacao\\-do\\-zagueiro\\-cleber.html\\|title\\=Após 'novela', Corinthians confirma contratação do zagueiro Cléber\\|trans\\-title\\=After 'novel', Corinthians confirm signing of stopper Cléber\\|publisher\\=Globo Esporte\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=22 July 2013\\|accessdate\\=25 November 2016}} He made his debut for the club on 2 October, starting and scoring the second in a 2–0 home win against [Bahia](/wiki/Esporte_Clube_Bahia \"Esporte Clube Bahia\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/futebol/times/corinthians/noticia/2013/10/cleber\\-comemora\\-estreia\\-com\\-gol\\-pelo\\-timao\\-nao\\-poderia\\-ser\\-melhor.html\\|title\\=Cléber comemora estreia com gol pelo Timão: 'Não poderia ser melhor'\\|trans\\-title\\=Cléber celebrates debut with goal for ''Timão'': 'It could not be better'\\|publisher\\=Globo Esporte\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=2 October 2013\\|accessdate\\=25 November 2016}}",
"A backup to [Paulo André](/wiki/Paulo_Andr%C3%A9_Cren_Benini \"Paulo André Cren Benini\") and [Gil](/wiki/Gil_%28footballer%2C_born_June_1987%29 \"Gil (footballer, born June 1987)\"), Cléber became a starter after the former's departure to [Shanghai Shenhua](/wiki/Shanghai_Shenhua_F.C. \"Shanghai Shenhua F.C.\") in January 2014\\.",
"### Hamburger SV",
"Cléber Reis joined [Bundesliga](/wiki/Bundesliga \"Bundesliga\") side [Hamburger SV](/wiki/Hamburger_SV \"Hamburger SV\") in late August 2014, signing a four\\-year contract until 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hsv.de/teams/meldungen/bundesliga/2014/august/transfer\\-von\\-cleber\\-reis\\-ist\\-perfekt/\\|title\\=Transfer von Cleber Reis ist perfekt\\|trans\\-title\\=Transfer of Cleber Reis is perfect\\|date\\=27 August 2014\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2015\\|language\\=German\\|publisher\\=Hamburger SV\\|archive\\-date\\=2 February 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202010514/http://www.hsv.de/teams/meldungen/bundesliga/2014/august/transfer\\-von\\-cleber\\-reis\\-ist\\-perfekt/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Hamburg had to pay a transfer fee of believed to be around €3 million.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abendblatt.de/sport/fussball/hsv/article131653473/Papiere\\-endlich\\-eingetroffen\\-Cleber\\-unterschreibt\\-beim\\-HSV.html\\|title\\=Papiere endlich eingetroffen: Cléber unterschreibt beim HSV\\|trans\\-title\\=Papers finally arrived: Cléber signs for HSV\\|date\\=27 August 2014\\|accessdate\\=11 March 2015\\|language\\=German\\|publisher\\=Hamburger Abendblatt}}",
"Cléber Reis scored his first goal for HSV in a 2–1 win over [Mainz 05](/wiki/1._FSV_Mainz_05 \"1. FSV Mainz 05\") on 7 December 2014\\.",
"### Santos",
"On 13 December 2016, Cléber Reis joined [Santos](/wiki/Santos_FC \"Santos FC\") back in his home country, after an [€](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\") 2 million offer was accepted by HSV.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/sp/santos\\-e\\-regiao/futebol/times/santos/noticia/2016/12/santos\\-acerta\\-contratacao\\-do\\-zagueiro\\-cleber\\-do\\-hamburgo.html\\|title\\=Santos acerta a contratação do zagueiro Cleber, do Hamburgo\\|trans\\-title\\=Santos complete the signing of stopper Cleber, from Hamburg\\|publisher\\=Globo Esporte\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=13 December 2016\\|accessdate\\=29 December 2016}} He arrived in Brazil two days later, and signed a four\\-year contract with the club shortly after.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://globoesporte.globo.com/sp/santos\\-e\\-regiao/futebol/times/santos/noticia/2016/12/cleber\\-chega\\-ao\\-brasil\\-para\\-assinar\\-com\\-o\\-santos\\-e\\-diz\\-feliz\\-e\\-pouco.html\\|title\\=Cleber chega ao Brasil para assinar com o Santos e diz: \"Feliz é pouco\"\\|trans\\-title\\=Cleber arrives in Brazil to sign with Santos and says: \"I am more than happy\"\\|publisher\\=Globo Esporte\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=15 December 2016\\|accessdate\\=29 December 2016}}",
"Cléber Reis made his debut for the club on 18 February 2017, starting and being [sent off](/wiki/Ejection_%28sports%29 \"Ejection (sports)\") in a 1–0 [Campeonato Paulista](/wiki/Campeonato_Paulista \"Campeonato Paulista\") home loss against [Ferroviária](/wiki/Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Ferrovi%C3%A1ria_de_Esportes \"Associação Ferroviária de Esportes\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://esportes.estadao.com.br/noticias/futebol,cleber\\-e\\-expulso\\-santos\\-vacila\\-e\\-ferroviaria\\-ganha\\-na\\-estreia\\-de\\-pc\\-oliveira,70001671173\\|title\\=Cléber é expulso, Santos vacila e Ferroviária ganha na estreia de PC Oliveira\\|trans\\-title\\=Cléber is sent off, Santos slip away and Ferroviária win in PC Oliveira's debut\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[O Estado de S. Paulo]]\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=18 February 2017\\|accessdate\\=2 March 2017}} He made his [Copa Libertadores](/wiki/Copa_Libertadores \"Copa Libertadores\") debut on 9 March, starting in a 1–1 away draw against [Sporting Cristal](/wiki/Sporting_Cristal \"Sporting Cristal\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://esporte.uol.com.br/futebol/campeonatos/libertadores/ultimas\\-noticias/2017/03/09/sporting\\-cristal\\-x\\-santos.htm\\|title\\=Santos empata na estreia da Libertadores e mantém pressão em Dorival\\|trans\\-title\\=Santos draw in Libertadores' debut and keep pressure in Dorival\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Universo Online\\|UOL Esporte]]\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=9 March 2017\\|accessdate\\=10 March 2017}}",
"On 18 August 2017, after appearing rarely, Cléber Reis was loaned to fellow top tier club [Coritiba](/wiki/Coritiba_Foot_Ball_Club \"Coritiba Foot Ball Club\") until the end of [the season](/wiki/2017_Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A \"2017 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://coritiba.com.br/artigo/31259/coritiba\\_conta\\_com\\_zagueiro\\_cleber\\_reis\\|title\\=Coritiba conta com zagueiro Cleber Reis\\|trans\\-title\\=Coritiba sign stopper Cleber Reis\\|publisher\\=Coritiba FBC\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=18 August 2017\\|accessdate\\=30 August 2017}} A regular starter, he scored two goals for the side but eventually suffered relegation.",
"On 3 April 2018, Cléber Reis was loaned to [Paraná](/wiki/Paran%C3%A1_Clube \"Paraná Clube\") still in the main category, until December.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://globoesporte.globo.com/pr/futebol/noticia/parana\\-contrata\\-zagueiro\\-cleber\\-reis\\-do\\-santos\\-para\\-o\\-brasileirao\\-2018\\.ghtml\\|title\\=Paraná contrata zagueiro Cleber Reis, do Santos, para o Brasileirão 2018\\|trans\\-title\\=Paraná sign stopper Cléber Reis, from Santos, for the ''Brasileirão'' 2018\\|publisher\\=Globo Esporte\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=3 April 2018\\|access\\-date\\=4 April 2018}} He again [suffered team relegation](/wiki/2018_Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A \"2018 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A\"), but was separated from the squad in the latter part of the tournament.",
"On 24 June 2019, after spending the first six months without playing, Cléber Reis was loaned to [Oeste](/wiki/Oeste_Futebol_Clube \"Oeste Futebol Clube\") in the [Série B](/wiki/Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_B \"Campeonato Brasileiro Série B\"), until December.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oestefc.com.br/noticia/2985/tem\\-xerife\\-na\\-area\\|title\\=Tem xerife na área\\|trans\\-title\\=There is a sheriff in the area\\|publisher\\=Oeste FC\\|language\\=pt\\-BR\\|date\\=24 June 2019\\|accessdate\\=26 June 2019}} The following 2 January, he returned to his previous club Ponte Preta on loan for the 2020 campaign,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://globoesporte.globo.com/sp/campinas\\-e\\-regiao/futebol/times/ponte\\-preta/noticia/ponte\\-preta\\-consegue\\-liberacao\\-do\\-zagueiro\\-cleber\\-reis\\-do\\-santos\\-e\\-aguarda\\-apresentacao\\-nesta\\-sexta.ghtml\\|title\\=Ponte Preta consegue liberação do zagueiro Cléber Reis, do Santos, e aguarda apresentação nesta sexta\\|trans\\-title\\=Ponte Preta get the release of Cléber Reis, from Santos, and await the presentation this Friday\\|publisher\\=Globo Esporte\\|language\\=pt\\-BR\\|date\\=2 January 2020\\|accessdate\\=5 January 2020}} but returned to his parent club on 10 December after featuring rarely.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://globoesporte.globo.com/sp/campinas\\-e\\-regiao/futebol/times/ponte\\-preta/noticia/sem\\-atuar\\-desde\\-marco\\-cleber\\-reis\\-deixa\\-a\\-ponte\\-preta\\-zagueiro\\-ainda\\-tem\\-contrato\\-com\\-o\\-santos.ghtml\\|title\\=Sem atuar desde março, Cléber Reis deixa a Ponte Preta; zagueiro ainda tem contrato com o Santos\\|trans\\-title\\=Without playing since March, Cléber Reis leaves Ponte Preta; stopper still has contract with Santos\\|publisher\\=GloboEsporte.com\\|language\\=pt\\-BR\\|date\\=10 December 2020\\|accessdate\\=29 December 2020}}",
"After spending the 2021 season separated from the first team squad, Cléber Reis suffered a [knee](/wiki/Knee \"Knee\") injury in training. On 8 February 2022, he left the club after reaching an agreement to terminate his contract.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.diariodopeixe.com.br/noticias/santos\\-faz\\-acordo\\-e\\-encerra\\-vinculo\\-com\\-o\\-zagueiro\\-cleber\\-reis/\\|title\\=Santos faz acordo e encerra vínculo com o zagueiro Cléber Reis\\|trans\\-title\\=Santos reach agreement and end link with stopper Cléber Reis\\|publisher\\=Diário do Peixe\\|language\\=pt\\-BR\\|date\\=8 February 2022\\|accessdate\\=8 February 2022}}",
""
] |
Conservation tasks
------------------
Piaget used a number of tasks to test children's scientific thinking and reasoning, many of which specifically tested conservation. [Conservation](/wiki/Conservation_%28psychology%29 "Conservation (psychology)") refers to the ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size. Other conservation tasks include conservation of number, substance, weight, volume, and length.
Perhaps the most famous task indicative of centration is the conservation of liquids task. In one version,{{cite book\|last1\=Piaget\|first1\=Jean\|last2\=Szeminska\|first2\=Alina\|translator\=Cattegno, C.\|translator2\=Hodgson, F. M.\|title\=The child's conception of number\|date\=1941\|publisher\=W. W. Norton\|location\=New York, NY}} the child is shown two glasses, A1 and A2, that are filled to the same height. The child is asked if the two glasses contain the same amount of liquid, in which the child almost always agrees that they do. Next, the experimenter pours the liquid from A2 to glass P, which is lower and wider. The child is then asked if the amount of liquid is still the same. At the preoperational stage, children will respond that the amount is not the same, with either the taller glass or the wider glass containing more liquid. Once the child has reached the concrete operational stage, however, the child will conclude the amount of liquid is still the same.
Here, centration is demonstrated in the fact that the child pays attention to one aspect of the liquid, either the height or the width, and is unable to conserve because of it. With achievement of the concrete operational stage, the child is able to reason about the two dimensions simultaneously and recognize that a change in one dimension cancels out a change in the other.
In the conservation of numbers task, Piaget gave children a row of egg cups and a bunch of eggs, placing them in rows of equal length, but not equal number.{{cite book\|last1\=Inhelder\|first1\=Barbel\|editor1\-last\=Tanner\|editor2\-last\=Inhelder\|editor2\-first\=Barbel\|title\=Discussions on child development.\|date\=1971\|chapter\=The criteria of the stages of mental development\|publisher\=International Universities Press \|location\=New York, NY }} Piaget then asked the children to take just enough eggs to fill the cups, and when the children attempted to do so, they were surprised to find that they had too many or too few eggs. Again, centration is present here, where the child pays attention to the length of the rows and not the numbers within each row.
Children demonstrated conservation of weight and length through a similar task. In this one, children were shown two balls of Playdoh that were equal in size. When asked whether they were the same or not, all children answered that yes, they were. Afterwards, Piaget rolled one of the balls into a longer string and asked the same question: “Which one is bigger?”. Children who experienced centration focused on the length of the newly shaped Playdoh, or the width of the old Playdoh, and often said that one or the other was bigger. Those children who were able to focus on both dimensions, both length and width, were able to say that both clumps of Playdoh were still the same size.
|
[
"Conservation tasks\n------------------",
"Piaget used a number of tasks to test children's scientific thinking and reasoning, many of which specifically tested conservation. [Conservation](/wiki/Conservation_%28psychology%29 \"Conservation (psychology)\") refers to the ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size. Other conservation tasks include conservation of number, substance, weight, volume, and length.",
"Perhaps the most famous task indicative of centration is the conservation of liquids task. In one version,{{cite book\\|last1\\=Piaget\\|first1\\=Jean\\|last2\\=Szeminska\\|first2\\=Alina\\|translator\\=Cattegno, C.\\|translator2\\=Hodgson, F. M.\\|title\\=The child's conception of number\\|date\\=1941\\|publisher\\=W. W. Norton\\|location\\=New York, NY}} the child is shown two glasses, A1 and A2, that are filled to the same height. The child is asked if the two glasses contain the same amount of liquid, in which the child almost always agrees that they do. Next, the experimenter pours the liquid from A2 to glass P, which is lower and wider. The child is then asked if the amount of liquid is still the same. At the preoperational stage, children will respond that the amount is not the same, with either the taller glass or the wider glass containing more liquid. Once the child has reached the concrete operational stage, however, the child will conclude the amount of liquid is still the same.",
"Here, centration is demonstrated in the fact that the child pays attention to one aspect of the liquid, either the height or the width, and is unable to conserve because of it. With achievement of the concrete operational stage, the child is able to reason about the two dimensions simultaneously and recognize that a change in one dimension cancels out a change in the other.",
"In the conservation of numbers task, Piaget gave children a row of egg cups and a bunch of eggs, placing them in rows of equal length, but not equal number.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Inhelder\\|first1\\=Barbel\\|editor1\\-last\\=Tanner\\|editor2\\-last\\=Inhelder\\|editor2\\-first\\=Barbel\\|title\\=Discussions on child development.\\|date\\=1971\\|chapter\\=The criteria of the stages of mental development\\|publisher\\=International Universities Press \\|location\\=New York, NY }} Piaget then asked the children to take just enough eggs to fill the cups, and when the children attempted to do so, they were surprised to find that they had too many or too few eggs. Again, centration is present here, where the child pays attention to the length of the rows and not the numbers within each row.",
"Children demonstrated conservation of weight and length through a similar task. In this one, children were shown two balls of Playdoh that were equal in size. When asked whether they were the same or not, all children answered that yes, they were. Afterwards, Piaget rolled one of the balls into a longer string and asked the same question: “Which one is bigger?”. Children who experienced centration focused on the length of the newly shaped Playdoh, or the width of the old Playdoh, and often said that one or the other was bigger. Those children who were able to focus on both dimensions, both length and width, were able to say that both clumps of Playdoh were still the same size.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Start of music career, 1960s
Gunnar Graps was born to [Latvian](/wiki/Latvian_people "Latvian people") conductor, cellist and musical pedagogue Igors Gunārs Graps\-Grāfs and his Estonian wife Salme (née Pluum).{{cite news\|title\=Rokikuningas Grapsi isa elab tänini Läti laante vahel\|url\=http://uudised.err.ee/v/vr/varia/38f36d6e\-9d25\-480e\-bd71\-42b359b2dd3b\|accessdate\=25 December 2015\|publisher\=\[\[Eesti Rahvusringhääling\|ERR]]\|language\=Estonian}} Graps was inspired to turn to music by his father at the age of six when he started to learn [cello](/wiki/Cello "Cello"). In 1964, being only 13, he joined his first band [Satelliidid](/wiki/Satelliidid "Satelliidid") as a guitarist. In spring of 1967 Graps joined [Mikronid](/wiki/Mikronid "Mikronid"), where he played drums for the next six years. In 1970–1972 he was in the army and during that period he performed with [Ivo Linna](/wiki/Ivo_Linna "Ivo Linna"). He spent another year behind the drums in Mikronid after his return from military service. In spring 1968 [Jüri Lina](/wiki/J%C3%BCri_Lina "Jüri Lina") recorded about ten Mikronid's songs which also included Graps' creation for his show "Pobifo Revüü".
### Golden\-Age of his music, 1970s
After leaving the group Mikronid Graps created Ornament in 1973, which was one of the pioneers of [hard rock](/wiki/Hard_rock "Hard rock") in Estonia and the [USSR](/wiki/USSR "USSR") (Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1944–1991\). Ornament's music was influenced by [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin") and [psychedelic rock](/wiki/Psychedelic_rock "Psychedelic rock"). In 1976 Graps put together a new outfit called [Magnetic Band](/wiki/Magnetic_Band "Magnetic Band") which was [Jazz\-rock](/wiki/Jazz-rock "Jazz-rock") oriented, with [reggae](/wiki/Reggae "Reggae") and [funk](/wiki/Funk "Funk")\-[soul](/wiki/Soul_music "Soul music") influences.
In 1977 Graps graduated from Tallinn Music School, from the [percussion instruments](/wiki/Percussion_instrument "Percussion instrument") department. Soon after that he reformed his group and they started leaning towards [hard rock](/wiki/Hard_rock "Hard rock"). Soon Magnetic Band became one of the most popular heavy\-music bands in the Soviet Union. They won first prize at the [first official rock\-festival](/wiki/Tbilisi_Rock_Festival_%281980%29 "Tbilisi Rock Festival (1980)") of the Soviet Union which took place in [Tbilisi](/wiki/Tbilisi "Tbilisi") thanks to their hit "Lady Blues" and became the stars of Yerevan\-81 international pop\-rock\-festival. "Garbed in fire\-engine red pants and white shirt decorated with a splashy 7\-Up emblem, Graps sang: "Since we have nowhere else to make love/we do it out in the open/And sometimes the rain washes away the makeup/from her face—and mine", wrote *Time* magazine in 1981\."Tired? Nyet!", by G. Russell // *Time* magazine, Monday, October 12, 1981
### At the top, 1980s
{{See also\|Gunnar Graps Group}}
His popularity peaked in the 1980s. Magnetic Band constantly toured the Soviet Union. In 1982, *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post "Washington Post")* dedicated a whole page to Gunnar Graps and the Magnetic Band."Moscow's 'Mick Jagger' Delights Fans, Perplexes Officials", by Michael Dobbs // *Washington Post*, August 15, 1982 Page A15, First Section It was no surprise that in 1983 Magnetic Band got banned by the Soviet authorities, which led to creation of [GGG](/wiki/Gunnar_Graps_Group "Gunnar Graps Group") (Gunnar Graps Group). The change also marked a shift towards straightforward hard rock and heavy metal, genres which Magnetic Band were already flirting with (*Note: all the musical groups in Soviet Union had to be evaluated before they were allowed to perform or exist at all*).
After [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev "Mikhail Gorbachev") became the new leader of the Soviet regime, GGG experienced less obstruction from the Soviet authorities. In 1988, they released their only LP entitled *Põlemine* (Burning). The vinyl was issued by [Melodiya](/wiki/Melodiya "Melodiya"), the only record company in the entire USSR. Distribution of the record was very high. At the time, GGG consisted of Gunnar Graps (drums, percussion, vocals, keyboards), Juri Stihhanov (lead guitar), Andres Aak (now known as Angela Aak, rhythm guitar), Jüri Roosa (bass guitar) and Tiit Altosaar (drums on some songs, as Graps tended to perform most drumming (along with singing) himself). They performed in Estonia and many locations over the former Soviet Union and were popular until their fade in the end of decade. Their most popular songs were "Põlemine" (Burning), "Valgus" (Light), the ballad "Mosaiik" (Mosaic), "Raudmees" (Iron Man) – a song which gave Graps his nickname.
During the [Singing Revolution](/wiki/Singing_Revolution "Singing Revolution"), in 1987, a choir composed of well\-known Estonian singers, Gunnar Graps among them, recorded [Alo Mattiisen](/wiki/Alo_Mattiisen "Alo Mattiisen")'s song "[Ei ole üksi ükski maa](/wiki/Ei_ole_%C3%BCksi_%C3%BCkski_maa "Ei ole üksi ükski maa")", a patriotic song about Estonia.
In 1989 Gunnar Graps moved to the United States in the hopes of reaching new heights with his musical career but, alas, failed to reach those previous lofty heights and was compelled to work as a repairman – to "make ends meet".
### Start of decline, 1990s
After the end of the Soviet occupation, when Estonia had been restored into a fully independent country in 1991, Graps returned to his homeland. In the summer of 1993, he was caught, while working as a DJ at the nightclub on the ferryboat "Estonia", trying to cross the border to Sweden with [anabolic steroids](/wiki/Anabolic_steroid "Anabolic steroid") and was imprisoned for two months in Sweden. Graps reportedly did not complain about his imprisonment and praised the jail as being better than restaurants in Estonia.{{in lang\|et}} [Eesti Ekspress / Pensionireformi sümbool](https://archive.today/20120730185510/http://www.ekspress.ee/viewdoc/EAEF8B7C67727B72C2256BCF003E515D) After his release, Graps came back to Estonia. Financial problems arose once more and he was compelled to work at local radio stations and night\-clubs as a DJ, playing music he hated. In 1995, Graps released "Tühjad pihud" (Empty Hands) and reformed [GGG](/wiki/Gunnar_Graps_Group "Gunnar Graps Group") the next year, performing about once a month. Graps was becoming more and more depressed.
### Last years
Starting in the 21st century, Graps was still having financial troubles and performed in a series of [Hansapank](/wiki/Hansapank "Hansapank") pension fund commercials. The commercials included a word play of "Tühjad pihud" (Empty Hands) record. In 2002, a 3 CD collection of Gunnar Graps' music, from all his tenures with past bands, was released as part of "[Eesti kullafond](/wiki/Eesti_kullafond_%28Gunnar_Graps%29 "Eesti kullafond (Gunnar Graps)")" (Estionian Gold Fund) series. In 2003, Gunnar Graps performed at one of his last big concerts before death. An incarnation of [Magnetic Band](/wiki/Magnetic_Band "Magnetic Band") played in front of approx. 600 people at [Green Christmas Festival](/wiki/Green_Christmas_Festival "Green Christmas Festival") in [Rakvere](/wiki/Rakvere "Rakvere"), [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia "Estonia").
Despite his health problems, Graps did not want to give up on music and in 2003 he released "Rajalt maas" (Off the Track), which had a strong [blues](/wiki/Blues "Blues") influence. In one of his last interviews Graps promised to go on tour in Russia, because he was disappointed in the local music scene. Three months before his death he was still looking forward to continue his career and in an interview for *Sakala*, an Estonian newspaper, he promised to release a new album by the end of 2004 and another record in 2005\.[Sakala](http://vana.www.sakala.ajaleht.ee/index.html?op=lugu&rubriik=52&id=10713&number=552) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720122807/http://vana.www.sakala.ajaleht.ee/index.html?op\=lugu\&rubriik\=52\&id\=10713\&number\=552 \|date\=2011\-07\-20 }} On 17 May 2004, at the age of 52, Gunnar Graps died of a [heart attack](/wiki/Heart_attack "Heart attack") at his home on Mooni street in Tallinn.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Start of music career, 1960s",
"Gunnar Graps was born to [Latvian](/wiki/Latvian_people \"Latvian people\") conductor, cellist and musical pedagogue Igors Gunārs Graps\\-Grāfs and his Estonian wife Salme (née Pluum).{{cite news\\|title\\=Rokikuningas Grapsi isa elab tänini Läti laante vahel\\|url\\=http://uudised.err.ee/v/vr/varia/38f36d6e\\-9d25\\-480e\\-bd71\\-42b359b2dd3b\\|accessdate\\=25 December 2015\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Eesti Rahvusringhääling\\|ERR]]\\|language\\=Estonian}} Graps was inspired to turn to music by his father at the age of six when he started to learn [cello](/wiki/Cello \"Cello\"). In 1964, being only 13, he joined his first band [Satelliidid](/wiki/Satelliidid \"Satelliidid\") as a guitarist. In spring of 1967 Graps joined [Mikronid](/wiki/Mikronid \"Mikronid\"), where he played drums for the next six years. In 1970–1972 he was in the army and during that period he performed with [Ivo Linna](/wiki/Ivo_Linna \"Ivo Linna\"). He spent another year behind the drums in Mikronid after his return from military service. In spring 1968 [Jüri Lina](/wiki/J%C3%BCri_Lina \"Jüri Lina\") recorded about ten Mikronid's songs which also included Graps' creation for his show \"Pobifo Revüü\".",
"### Golden\\-Age of his music, 1970s",
"After leaving the group Mikronid Graps created Ornament in 1973, which was one of the pioneers of [hard rock](/wiki/Hard_rock \"Hard rock\") in Estonia and the [USSR](/wiki/USSR \"USSR\") (Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1944–1991\\). Ornament's music was influenced by [Led Zeppelin](/wiki/Led_Zeppelin \"Led Zeppelin\") and [psychedelic rock](/wiki/Psychedelic_rock \"Psychedelic rock\"). In 1976 Graps put together a new outfit called [Magnetic Band](/wiki/Magnetic_Band \"Magnetic Band\") which was [Jazz\\-rock](/wiki/Jazz-rock \"Jazz-rock\") oriented, with [reggae](/wiki/Reggae \"Reggae\") and [funk](/wiki/Funk \"Funk\")\\-[soul](/wiki/Soul_music \"Soul music\") influences.",
"In 1977 Graps graduated from Tallinn Music School, from the [percussion instruments](/wiki/Percussion_instrument \"Percussion instrument\") department. Soon after that he reformed his group and they started leaning towards [hard rock](/wiki/Hard_rock \"Hard rock\"). Soon Magnetic Band became one of the most popular heavy\\-music bands in the Soviet Union. They won first prize at the [first official rock\\-festival](/wiki/Tbilisi_Rock_Festival_%281980%29 \"Tbilisi Rock Festival (1980)\") of the Soviet Union which took place in [Tbilisi](/wiki/Tbilisi \"Tbilisi\") thanks to their hit \"Lady Blues\" and became the stars of Yerevan\\-81 international pop\\-rock\\-festival. \"Garbed in fire\\-engine red pants and white shirt decorated with a splashy 7\\-Up emblem, Graps sang: \"Since we have nowhere else to make love/we do it out in the open/And sometimes the rain washes away the makeup/from her face—and mine\", wrote *Time* magazine in 1981\\.\"Tired? Nyet!\", by G. Russell // *Time* magazine, Monday, October 12, 1981",
"### At the top, 1980s",
"{{See also\\|Gunnar Graps Group}}\nHis popularity peaked in the 1980s. Magnetic Band constantly toured the Soviet Union. In 1982, *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post \"Washington Post\")* dedicated a whole page to Gunnar Graps and the Magnetic Band.\"Moscow's 'Mick Jagger' Delights Fans, Perplexes Officials\", by Michael Dobbs // *Washington Post*, August 15, 1982 Page A15, First Section It was no surprise that in 1983 Magnetic Band got banned by the Soviet authorities, which led to creation of [GGG](/wiki/Gunnar_Graps_Group \"Gunnar Graps Group\") (Gunnar Graps Group). The change also marked a shift towards straightforward hard rock and heavy metal, genres which Magnetic Band were already flirting with (*Note: all the musical groups in Soviet Union had to be evaluated before they were allowed to perform or exist at all*).",
"After [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev \"Mikhail Gorbachev\") became the new leader of the Soviet regime, GGG experienced less obstruction from the Soviet authorities. In 1988, they released their only LP entitled *Põlemine* (Burning). The vinyl was issued by [Melodiya](/wiki/Melodiya \"Melodiya\"), the only record company in the entire USSR. Distribution of the record was very high. At the time, GGG consisted of Gunnar Graps (drums, percussion, vocals, keyboards), Juri Stihhanov (lead guitar), Andres Aak (now known as Angela Aak, rhythm guitar), Jüri Roosa (bass guitar) and Tiit Altosaar (drums on some songs, as Graps tended to perform most drumming (along with singing) himself). They performed in Estonia and many locations over the former Soviet Union and were popular until their fade in the end of decade. Their most popular songs were \"Põlemine\" (Burning), \"Valgus\" (Light), the ballad \"Mosaiik\" (Mosaic), \"Raudmees\" (Iron Man) – a song which gave Graps his nickname.",
"During the [Singing Revolution](/wiki/Singing_Revolution \"Singing Revolution\"), in 1987, a choir composed of well\\-known Estonian singers, Gunnar Graps among them, recorded [Alo Mattiisen](/wiki/Alo_Mattiisen \"Alo Mattiisen\")'s song \"[Ei ole üksi ükski maa](/wiki/Ei_ole_%C3%BCksi_%C3%BCkski_maa \"Ei ole üksi ükski maa\")\", a patriotic song about Estonia.",
"In 1989 Gunnar Graps moved to the United States in the hopes of reaching new heights with his musical career but, alas, failed to reach those previous lofty heights and was compelled to work as a repairman – to \"make ends meet\".",
"### Start of decline, 1990s",
"After the end of the Soviet occupation, when Estonia had been restored into a fully independent country in 1991, Graps returned to his homeland. In the summer of 1993, he was caught, while working as a DJ at the nightclub on the ferryboat \"Estonia\", trying to cross the border to Sweden with [anabolic steroids](/wiki/Anabolic_steroid \"Anabolic steroid\") and was imprisoned for two months in Sweden. Graps reportedly did not complain about his imprisonment and praised the jail as being better than restaurants in Estonia.{{in lang\\|et}} [Eesti Ekspress / Pensionireformi sümbool](https://archive.today/20120730185510/http://www.ekspress.ee/viewdoc/EAEF8B7C67727B72C2256BCF003E515D) After his release, Graps came back to Estonia. Financial problems arose once more and he was compelled to work at local radio stations and night\\-clubs as a DJ, playing music he hated. In 1995, Graps released \"Tühjad pihud\" (Empty Hands) and reformed [GGG](/wiki/Gunnar_Graps_Group \"Gunnar Graps Group\") the next year, performing about once a month. Graps was becoming more and more depressed.",
"### Last years",
"Starting in the 21st century, Graps was still having financial troubles and performed in a series of [Hansapank](/wiki/Hansapank \"Hansapank\") pension fund commercials. The commercials included a word play of \"Tühjad pihud\" (Empty Hands) record. In 2002, a 3 CD collection of Gunnar Graps' music, from all his tenures with past bands, was released as part of \"[Eesti kullafond](/wiki/Eesti_kullafond_%28Gunnar_Graps%29 \"Eesti kullafond (Gunnar Graps)\")\" (Estionian Gold Fund) series. In 2003, Gunnar Graps performed at one of his last big concerts before death. An incarnation of [Magnetic Band](/wiki/Magnetic_Band \"Magnetic Band\") played in front of approx. 600 people at [Green Christmas Festival](/wiki/Green_Christmas_Festival \"Green Christmas Festival\") in [Rakvere](/wiki/Rakvere \"Rakvere\"), [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia \"Estonia\").",
"Despite his health problems, Graps did not want to give up on music and in 2003 he released \"Rajalt maas\" (Off the Track), which had a strong [blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\") influence. In one of his last interviews Graps promised to go on tour in Russia, because he was disappointed in the local music scene. Three months before his death he was still looking forward to continue his career and in an interview for *Sakala*, an Estonian newspaper, he promised to release a new album by the end of 2004 and another record in 2005\\.[Sakala](http://vana.www.sakala.ajaleht.ee/index.html?op=lugu&rubriik=52&id=10713&number=552) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720122807/http://vana.www.sakala.ajaleht.ee/index.html?op\\=lugu\\&rubriik\\=52\\&id\\=10713\\&number\\=552 \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-20 }} On 17 May 2004, at the age of 52, Gunnar Graps died of a [heart attack](/wiki/Heart_attack \"Heart attack\") at his home on Mooni street in Tallinn.",
""
] |
Communication modes provided
----------------------------
The software carries a general emphasis on weak\-signal operation and advanced [DSP](/wiki/Digital_signal_processing "Digital signal processing") techniques; however, the communication modes rely upon different [ionospheric](/wiki/Ionosphere "Ionosphere") [propagation](/wiki/Radio_propagation "Radio propagation") modes and may be used on many different [bands](/wiki/Radio_spectrum "Radio spectrum").{{cite journal
\|title\= Work the World with WSJT\-X. Part 2: Codes, modes and cooperative software development
\|author1 \= Joe Taylor, K1JT
\|author2 \= Steve Franke, K9AN
\|author3 \= Bill Sommerville, G4WJS
\|journal \= \[\[RadCom]]
\|publisher \= Radio Society of Great Britain
\|issn \= 1367\-1499
\|date\= August 2017 \|volume\=93 \|issue\=8
\|pages\=58–59
}}
WSJT's communication modes can be divided into fast and slow modes. While fast modes send character\-by\-character without error correction, the slow modes aim to optimize for minimal QRO (high\-power) use. As of WSJT10, supported fast modes are JTMS, FSK441, ISCAT, and JT6M, and the slow modes are JT65 and JT4\. WSJT\-X 1\.8 additionally implements the "slow" JT9, FT8, and QRA64\. Some modes have derived submodes with larger tone spacing. Two other modes, [WSPR](/wiki/WSPR_%28amateur_radio_software%29 "WSPR (amateur radio software)") and Echo are included for measuring propagation and testing [moon bounce](/wiki/Earth%E2%80%93Moon%E2%80%93Earth_communication "Earth–Moon–Earth communication") echo.
### FSK441
**FSK441**, introduced in 2001 as the first communications mode included with WSJT, is designed to support [meteor scatter](/wiki/Meteor_scatter "Meteor scatter") communication using radio\-reflecting [meteor](/wiki/Meteor "Meteor") trails.{{cite web\|url\=https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/wsjtx\-doc/wsjtx\-main\-2\.6\.1\.pdf\|title\=WSJT\-X 2\.6\.1 User Guide\|author\=Joe Taylor, K1JT\|date\=2023\-01\-10}} The bursts of signal created by such trails are commonly referred to as "pings", due to their characteristic sound. Such pings may be as short as a tenth of a second and carry enough information to complete at least one stage of a [contact](/wiki/Contact_%28amateur_radio%29 "Contact (amateur radio)"). FSK441 employs [multi\-frequency shift keying](/wiki/Multiple_frequency-shift_keying "Multiple frequency-shift keying") using four tones, at a data rate of 441 [baud](/wiki/Baud "Baud"). Because of the choice of [character codes](/wiki/Character_code "Character code") in the protocol, it is [self\-synchronizing](/wiki/Self-synchronizing_code "Self-synchronizing code") and does not require an explicit synchronization tone. FSK441 is generally used on the [2\-meter](/wiki/2-meter_band "2-meter band") and [70\-centimeter](/wiki/70-centimeter_band "70-centimeter band") amateur bands. [Contacts](/wiki/Contact_%28amateur_radio%29 "Contact (amateur radio)") may be made at almost any time (that is, a [meteor shower](/wiki/Meteor_shower "Meteor shower") is not required to be in progress) at distances of up to 1400 miles (2250 km).{{cite journal\|author\=Joe Taylor, K1JT\|title\=''WSJT'': New Software for VHF Meteor\-Scatter Communication\|journal\=\[\[QST]]\|date\=December 2001\|pages\=36–41\|url\=https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/WSJT\_QST\_Dec2001\.pdf}}
Transmitted messages include at least one space, the FSK441 decoding algorithm uses that space character as a [syncword](/wiki/Syncword "Syncword") for zero\-overhead synchronization.
This mode is no longer included in WSJT\-X as of version 2\.1\.2\.
### JT6M
**JT6M**, introduced in late 2002,{{cite web\|title\=About JT6M\|url\=http://jt6m.org/about.php\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216033610/http://jt6m.org/about.php \|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-16 }} is intended for meteor scatter and other ionospheric scattering of signals, and is especially optimized for the [6\-meter band](/wiki/6-meter_band "6-meter band"). The mode also employs multiple frequency\-shift keying, but at 44 tones. One of the tones is a synchronization tone, leaving 43 tones to carry data (one tone per character in the character set, which includes [alphanumerics](/wiki/Alphanumeric "Alphanumeric") and some [punctuation](/wiki/Punctuation "Punctuation")). The [symbol rate](/wiki/Symbol_rate "Symbol rate") is 21\.53 baud; the actual data rate as encoded for transmit is 14\.4 characters per second. The mode is known for sounding "a bit like [piccolo](/wiki/Piccolo "Piccolo") music".
This mode is no longer included in WSJT\-X as of version 2\.1\.2\.
### JT65
**JT65**, developed and released in late 2003, is intended for extremely weak but slowly varying signals, such as those found on [troposcatter](/wiki/Troposcatter "Troposcatter") or Earth\-Moon\-Earth ([EME](/wiki/Earth%E2%80%93Moon%E2%80%93Earth_communication "Earth–Moon–Earth communication"), or "moonbounce") paths. It can decode signals many [decibels](/wiki/Decibels "Decibels") below the [noise floor](/wiki/Noise_floor "Noise floor") in a 2500 Hz band (note that SNR in a 2500 Hz band is approximately 28 dB lower than SNR in a 4 Hz band, which is closer to the channel bandwidth of an individual JT65 tone), and can often allow amateurs to successfully exchange contact information without signals being audible to the human ear. Like the other modes, multiple\-frequency shift keying is employed; unlike the other modes, messages are transmitted as [atomic](/wiki/wikt:Atomic "Atomic") units after being [compressed](/wiki/Data_compression "Data compression") and then encoded with a process known as [forward error correction](/wiki/Forward_error_correction "Forward error correction") (or "FEC"). The FEC adds redundancy to the data, such that all of a message may be successfully recovered even if some [bits](/wiki/Bit "Bit") are not received by the receiver. (The particular code used for JT65 is [Reed\-Solomon](/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_error_correction "Reed–Solomon error correction").) Because of this FEC process, messages are either decoded correctly or not decoded at all, with very high probability. After messages are encoded, they are transmitted using [MFSK](/wiki/Multiple_frequency-shift_keying "Multiple frequency-shift keying") with 65 tones.{{cite journal\|author\=Joe Taylor, K1JT\|title\=The JT65 Communications Protocol\|journal\=QEX: A Forum for Communications Experimenters\|date\=September–October 2005\|pages\=3–12\|url\=https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/JT65\.pdf}}
Operators have also begun using the JT65 mode for contacts on the [HF](/wiki/High_frequency "High frequency") bands, often using [QRP](/wiki/QRP_operation "QRP operation") (very low transmit power);{{cite journal\|author\=Steve Ford, WB8IMY\|title\=JT65A on the HF Bands\|journal\=\[\[QST]]\|date\=July 2007\|page\=85}} while the mode was not originally intended for such use, its popularity has resulted in several new features being added to WSJT in order to facilitate HF operation.
### JT9
**JT9**, intended for MF and HF use, was introduced in WSJT\-X, which was at the time an experimental version of WSJT.{{cite journal
\|title\= Work the World with WSJT\-X. Part 1: Operating capabilities
\|author1 \= Joe Taylor, K1JT
\|author2 \= Steve Franke, K9AN
\|author3 \= Bill Sommerville, G4WJS
\|journal \= \[\[RadCom]]
\|publisher \= Radio Society of Great Britain
\|issn \= 1367\-1499
\|date\= July 2017 \|volume\=93 \|issue\=7
\|pages\=40–45
}} It uses the same logical encoding as JT65, but modulates to a 9\-FSK signal. With 1\-minute transmission intervals, JT9 occupies less than 16 Hz bandwidth. (JT9 also had versions designed for longer transmission intervals of 2 minutes, 5 minutes, 10 minutes or 30 minutes. Those extended versions took increasingly less bandwidth and permitted reception of even weaker signals.)
### FT8
[thumb\|A [waterfall plot](/wiki/Waterfall_plot "Waterfall plot") for FT8 signals (bandwidth 50 Hz) in the [40\-meter band](/wiki/40-meter_band "40-meter band") and for JT65 on the right (bandwidth 180 Hz)](/wiki/File:FT8%2BJT65.png "FT8+JT65.png")
Joe Taylor, K1JT, announced on June 29, 2017, the availability of a new mode in the WSJT\-X software, [FT8](/wiki/FT8 "FT8").{{cite web
\| title\=FT8 Mode is Latest Bright Shiny Object in Amateur Radio Digital World
\| url\=http://www.arrl.org/news/ft8\-mode\-is\-latest\-bright\-shiny\-object\-in\-amateur\-radio\-digital\-world
\| publisher\=\[\[American Radio Relay League]] (ARRL)
\| date\=2017\-08\-01
}} FT8 stands for "Franke\-Taylor design, 8\-FSK modulation" and was created by Joe Taylor, K1JT and Steve Franke, K9AN. It is described as being designed for "multi\-hop Es where signals may be weak and fading, openings may be short, and you want fast completion of reliable, confirmable [QSO](/wiki/Contact_%28amateur_radio%29 "Contact (amateur radio)")'s".
According to Taylor, the important characteristics of FT8 are —
* T/R sequence length: 15 s
* Message length: 75 bits \+ 12\-bit [CRC](/wiki/Cyclic_redundancy_check "Cyclic redundancy check")
* FEC code: (174,87\) [LDPC](/wiki/Low-density_parity-check_code "Low-density parity-check code")
* Modulation: 8\-FSK, keying rate \= 6\.25 [baud](/wiki/Baud "Baud"); tone spacing \= 6\.25 [Hz](/wiki/Hertz "Hertz")
* Waveform: Continuous phase, constant envelope
* Occupied bandwidth: 50 Hz
* Synchronization: three 7x7 [Costas arrays](/wiki/Costas_array "Costas array") (start, middle, end of transmission)
* Transmission duration: 79\*1920/12000 \= 12\.64 s
* Decoding threshold: \-24 dB (with [*a priori*](/wiki/A_priori_probability "A priori probability") decoding)
* Operational behavior: similar to HF usage of JT9, JT65
* Multi\-decoder: finds and decodes all FT8 signals in passband
* Auto\-sequencing after manual start of QSO
Compared to the so\-called "slow modes" (JT9, JT65, QRA64\), FT8 is a few decibels less sensitive, but allows completion of QSOs four times faster. Bandwidth is greater than JT9, but about one\-quarter of JT65A and less than one\-half of QRA64\. Compared with the "fast modes" (JT9E\-H), FT8 is significantly more sensitive, has much narrower bandwidth, uses the vertical waterfall, and offers multi\-decoding over the full displayed passband. The mode also supports two\-pass decoding and use of "*a priori* (already known) information as it accumulates during a QSO".
### FT4
In 2019, Taylor, et al., introduced FT4, an experimental protocol which is similar to FT8 but has a shorter T/R sequence length for faster contest exchanges. FT4 accomplishes this increase in speed by using [Gaussian frequency\-shift keying](/wiki/Gaussian_frequency-shift_keying "Gaussian frequency-shift keying") and using 90 Hz of bandwidth.[The FT4 Protocol for Digital Contesting](https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/FT4_Protocol.pdf) April 2019Franke, S., Somerville, B., \& Taylor, J. (2020\). [The FT4 and FT8 Communication Protocols.](https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/FT4_FT8_QEX.pdf) *QEX: A Forum for Communications Experimenters*, 7–18\.
|
[
"Communication modes provided\n----------------------------",
"The software carries a general emphasis on weak\\-signal operation and advanced [DSP](/wiki/Digital_signal_processing \"Digital signal processing\") techniques; however, the communication modes rely upon different [ionospheric](/wiki/Ionosphere \"Ionosphere\") [propagation](/wiki/Radio_propagation \"Radio propagation\") modes and may be used on many different [bands](/wiki/Radio_spectrum \"Radio spectrum\").{{cite journal\n\\|title\\= Work the World with WSJT\\-X. Part 2: Codes, modes and cooperative software development\n\\|author1 \\= Joe Taylor, K1JT\n\\|author2 \\= Steve Franke, K9AN\n\\|author3 \\= Bill Sommerville, G4WJS\n\\|journal \\= \\[\\[RadCom]]\n\\|publisher \\= Radio Society of Great Britain\n\\|issn \\= 1367\\-1499\n\\|date\\= August 2017 \\|volume\\=93 \\|issue\\=8\n\\|pages\\=58–59\n}}",
"WSJT's communication modes can be divided into fast and slow modes. While fast modes send character\\-by\\-character without error correction, the slow modes aim to optimize for minimal QRO (high\\-power) use. As of WSJT10, supported fast modes are JTMS, FSK441, ISCAT, and JT6M, and the slow modes are JT65 and JT4\\. WSJT\\-X 1\\.8 additionally implements the \"slow\" JT9, FT8, and QRA64\\. Some modes have derived submodes with larger tone spacing. Two other modes, [WSPR](/wiki/WSPR_%28amateur_radio_software%29 \"WSPR (amateur radio software)\") and Echo are included for measuring propagation and testing [moon bounce](/wiki/Earth%E2%80%93Moon%E2%80%93Earth_communication \"Earth–Moon–Earth communication\") echo.",
"### FSK441",
"**FSK441**, introduced in 2001 as the first communications mode included with WSJT, is designed to support [meteor scatter](/wiki/Meteor_scatter \"Meteor scatter\") communication using radio\\-reflecting [meteor](/wiki/Meteor \"Meteor\") trails.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/wsjtx\\-doc/wsjtx\\-main\\-2\\.6\\.1\\.pdf\\|title\\=WSJT\\-X 2\\.6\\.1 User Guide\\|author\\=Joe Taylor, K1JT\\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-10}} The bursts of signal created by such trails are commonly referred to as \"pings\", due to their characteristic sound. Such pings may be as short as a tenth of a second and carry enough information to complete at least one stage of a [contact](/wiki/Contact_%28amateur_radio%29 \"Contact (amateur radio)\"). FSK441 employs [multi\\-frequency shift keying](/wiki/Multiple_frequency-shift_keying \"Multiple frequency-shift keying\") using four tones, at a data rate of 441 [baud](/wiki/Baud \"Baud\"). Because of the choice of [character codes](/wiki/Character_code \"Character code\") in the protocol, it is [self\\-synchronizing](/wiki/Self-synchronizing_code \"Self-synchronizing code\") and does not require an explicit synchronization tone. FSK441 is generally used on the [2\\-meter](/wiki/2-meter_band \"2-meter band\") and [70\\-centimeter](/wiki/70-centimeter_band \"70-centimeter band\") amateur bands. [Contacts](/wiki/Contact_%28amateur_radio%29 \"Contact (amateur radio)\") may be made at almost any time (that is, a [meteor shower](/wiki/Meteor_shower \"Meteor shower\") is not required to be in progress) at distances of up to 1400 miles (2250 km).{{cite journal\\|author\\=Joe Taylor, K1JT\\|title\\=''WSJT'': New Software for VHF Meteor\\-Scatter Communication\\|journal\\=\\[\\[QST]]\\|date\\=December 2001\\|pages\\=36–41\\|url\\=https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/WSJT\\_QST\\_Dec2001\\.pdf}}",
"Transmitted messages include at least one space, the FSK441 decoding algorithm uses that space character as a [syncword](/wiki/Syncword \"Syncword\") for zero\\-overhead synchronization.",
"This mode is no longer included in WSJT\\-X as of version 2\\.1\\.2\\.",
"### JT6M",
"**JT6M**, introduced in late 2002,{{cite web\\|title\\=About JT6M\\|url\\=http://jt6m.org/about.php\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216033610/http://jt6m.org/about.php \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-16 }} is intended for meteor scatter and other ionospheric scattering of signals, and is especially optimized for the [6\\-meter band](/wiki/6-meter_band \"6-meter band\"). The mode also employs multiple frequency\\-shift keying, but at 44 tones. One of the tones is a synchronization tone, leaving 43 tones to carry data (one tone per character in the character set, which includes [alphanumerics](/wiki/Alphanumeric \"Alphanumeric\") and some [punctuation](/wiki/Punctuation \"Punctuation\")). The [symbol rate](/wiki/Symbol_rate \"Symbol rate\") is 21\\.53 baud; the actual data rate as encoded for transmit is 14\\.4 characters per second. The mode is known for sounding \"a bit like [piccolo](/wiki/Piccolo \"Piccolo\") music\".",
"This mode is no longer included in WSJT\\-X as of version 2\\.1\\.2\\.",
"### JT65",
"**JT65**, developed and released in late 2003, is intended for extremely weak but slowly varying signals, such as those found on [troposcatter](/wiki/Troposcatter \"Troposcatter\") or Earth\\-Moon\\-Earth ([EME](/wiki/Earth%E2%80%93Moon%E2%80%93Earth_communication \"Earth–Moon–Earth communication\"), or \"moonbounce\") paths. It can decode signals many [decibels](/wiki/Decibels \"Decibels\") below the [noise floor](/wiki/Noise_floor \"Noise floor\") in a 2500 Hz band (note that SNR in a 2500 Hz band is approximately 28 dB lower than SNR in a 4 Hz band, which is closer to the channel bandwidth of an individual JT65 tone), and can often allow amateurs to successfully exchange contact information without signals being audible to the human ear. Like the other modes, multiple\\-frequency shift keying is employed; unlike the other modes, messages are transmitted as [atomic](/wiki/wikt:Atomic \"Atomic\") units after being [compressed](/wiki/Data_compression \"Data compression\") and then encoded with a process known as [forward error correction](/wiki/Forward_error_correction \"Forward error correction\") (or \"FEC\"). The FEC adds redundancy to the data, such that all of a message may be successfully recovered even if some [bits](/wiki/Bit \"Bit\") are not received by the receiver. (The particular code used for JT65 is [Reed\\-Solomon](/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_error_correction \"Reed–Solomon error correction\").) Because of this FEC process, messages are either decoded correctly or not decoded at all, with very high probability. After messages are encoded, they are transmitted using [MFSK](/wiki/Multiple_frequency-shift_keying \"Multiple frequency-shift keying\") with 65 tones.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Joe Taylor, K1JT\\|title\\=The JT65 Communications Protocol\\|journal\\=QEX: A Forum for Communications Experimenters\\|date\\=September–October 2005\\|pages\\=3–12\\|url\\=https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/JT65\\.pdf}}",
"Operators have also begun using the JT65 mode for contacts on the [HF](/wiki/High_frequency \"High frequency\") bands, often using [QRP](/wiki/QRP_operation \"QRP operation\") (very low transmit power);{{cite journal\\|author\\=Steve Ford, WB8IMY\\|title\\=JT65A on the HF Bands\\|journal\\=\\[\\[QST]]\\|date\\=July 2007\\|page\\=85}} while the mode was not originally intended for such use, its popularity has resulted in several new features being added to WSJT in order to facilitate HF operation.",
"### JT9",
"**JT9**, intended for MF and HF use, was introduced in WSJT\\-X, which was at the time an experimental version of WSJT.{{cite journal\n\\|title\\= Work the World with WSJT\\-X. Part 1: Operating capabilities\n\\|author1 \\= Joe Taylor, K1JT\n\\|author2 \\= Steve Franke, K9AN\n\\|author3 \\= Bill Sommerville, G4WJS\n\\|journal \\= \\[\\[RadCom]]\n\\|publisher \\= Radio Society of Great Britain\n\\|issn \\= 1367\\-1499\n\\|date\\= July 2017 \\|volume\\=93 \\|issue\\=7\n\\|pages\\=40–45\n}} It uses the same logical encoding as JT65, but modulates to a 9\\-FSK signal. With 1\\-minute transmission intervals, JT9 occupies less than 16 Hz bandwidth. (JT9 also had versions designed for longer transmission intervals of 2 minutes, 5 minutes, 10 minutes or 30 minutes. Those extended versions took increasingly less bandwidth and permitted reception of even weaker signals.)",
"### FT8",
"[thumb\\|A [waterfall plot](/wiki/Waterfall_plot \"Waterfall plot\") for FT8 signals (bandwidth 50 Hz) in the [40\\-meter band](/wiki/40-meter_band \"40-meter band\") and for JT65 on the right (bandwidth 180 Hz)](/wiki/File:FT8%2BJT65.png \"FT8+JT65.png\")\nJoe Taylor, K1JT, announced on June 29, 2017, the availability of a new mode in the WSJT\\-X software, [FT8](/wiki/FT8 \"FT8\").{{cite web\n\\| title\\=FT8 Mode is Latest Bright Shiny Object in Amateur Radio Digital World\n\\| url\\=http://www.arrl.org/news/ft8\\-mode\\-is\\-latest\\-bright\\-shiny\\-object\\-in\\-amateur\\-radio\\-digital\\-world\n\\| publisher\\=\\[\\[American Radio Relay League]] (ARRL)\n\\| date\\=2017\\-08\\-01\n}} FT8 stands for \"Franke\\-Taylor design, 8\\-FSK modulation\" and was created by Joe Taylor, K1JT and Steve Franke, K9AN. It is described as being designed for \"multi\\-hop Es where signals may be weak and fading, openings may be short, and you want fast completion of reliable, confirmable [QSO](/wiki/Contact_%28amateur_radio%29 \"Contact (amateur radio)\")'s\".",
"According to Taylor, the important characteristics of FT8 are —\n* T/R sequence length: 15 s\n* Message length: 75 bits \\+ 12\\-bit [CRC](/wiki/Cyclic_redundancy_check \"Cyclic redundancy check\")\n* FEC code: (174,87\\) [LDPC](/wiki/Low-density_parity-check_code \"Low-density parity-check code\")\n* Modulation: 8\\-FSK, keying rate \\= 6\\.25 [baud](/wiki/Baud \"Baud\"); tone spacing \\= 6\\.25 [Hz](/wiki/Hertz \"Hertz\")\n* Waveform: Continuous phase, constant envelope\n* Occupied bandwidth: 50 Hz\n* Synchronization: three 7x7 [Costas arrays](/wiki/Costas_array \"Costas array\") (start, middle, end of transmission)\n* Transmission duration: 79\\*1920/12000 \\= 12\\.64 s\n* Decoding threshold: \\-24 dB (with [*a priori*](/wiki/A_priori_probability \"A priori probability\") decoding)\n* Operational behavior: similar to HF usage of JT9, JT65\n* Multi\\-decoder: finds and decodes all FT8 signals in passband\n* Auto\\-sequencing after manual start of QSO",
"Compared to the so\\-called \"slow modes\" (JT9, JT65, QRA64\\), FT8 is a few decibels less sensitive, but allows completion of QSOs four times faster. Bandwidth is greater than JT9, but about one\\-quarter of JT65A and less than one\\-half of QRA64\\. Compared with the \"fast modes\" (JT9E\\-H), FT8 is significantly more sensitive, has much narrower bandwidth, uses the vertical waterfall, and offers multi\\-decoding over the full displayed passband. The mode also supports two\\-pass decoding and use of \"*a priori* (already known) information as it accumulates during a QSO\".",
"### FT4",
"In 2019, Taylor, et al., introduced FT4, an experimental protocol which is similar to FT8 but has a shorter T/R sequence length for faster contest exchanges. FT4 accomplishes this increase in speed by using [Gaussian frequency\\-shift keying](/wiki/Gaussian_frequency-shift_keying \"Gaussian frequency-shift keying\") and using 90 Hz of bandwidth.[The FT4 Protocol for Digital Contesting](https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/FT4_Protocol.pdf) April 2019Franke, S., Somerville, B., \\& Taylor, J. (2020\\). [The FT4 and FT8 Communication Protocols.](https://wsjt.sourceforge.io/FT4_FT8_QEX.pdf) *QEX: A Forum for Communications Experimenters*, 7–18\\.",
""
] |
Game summaries
--------------
Rankings are from AP poll through Oklahoma game and the College Football Playoff poll beginning with the Iowa State game through the end of the season.
### Missouri State
{{See also\|2023 Missouri State Bears football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Kansas | –32 |
* + - * + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox
\|titlestyle\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Kansas Jayhawks\|color\=white}}; text\-align:center;
\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=Missouri State Bears at Kansas Jayhawks
\|date\=Friday, September 1, 2023
\|time\=7:00 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]]
\|road\=Bears
\|R1\=7\|R2\=3\|R3\=0\|R4\=7
\|home\='''Jayhawks'''
\|H1\=7\|H2\=10\|H3\=10\|H4\=21
\|stadium\=\[\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \[\[Lawrence, Kansas]]
\|attendance\= 41,091
\|weather\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|89\|F\|C}}
\|referee\=Henry Johns
\|TV\= \[\[ESPN\+]]
\|TVAnnouncers\= Chuckie Kempf, \[\[Ahman Green]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/09/Game\-Book\-24\.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* 11:26 KU \[\[Devin Neal]] 48 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 4–70, 1:49 KU 7–0
\* 2:24 MSU Jmariyae Robinson 2 yard pass from Jacob Clark (Owen Rozanc kick good), 10–46, 5:37 7–7
;Second quarter
\* 12:12 MSU Owen Rozanc 37 yard field goal, 7–53, 3:10 MSU 10–7
\* 11:03 KU Luke Grimm 14 yard pass from Jason Bean (Seth Keller kick good), 3–75, 1:11 KU 14–10
\* 1:05 KU Seth Keller 28 yard field goal, 10–75, 1:02 KU 17–10
;Third quarter
\* 10:29 KU Dylan McDuffie 17 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 9–69, 4:22 KU 24–10
\* 3:18 KU Seth Keller 35 yard field goal, 10–55, 5:07 KU 27–10
;Fourth quarter
\* 14:57 MSU Jmariyae Robinson 5 yard run (Owen Rozanc kick good), 6–75, 3:21 KU 27–17
\* 10:18 KU Daniel Hishaw Jr. 24 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 8–75, 4:39 KU 34–17
\* 7:49 KU Devin Neal 6 yard pass from Jason Bean (Owen Piepergerdes kick good), 5–28, 2:21 KU 41–17
\* 4:57 KU Sevion Morrison 5 yard Run (Seth Keller kick), 4–23, 2:14 KU 48–17
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
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\| Visitor \= Missouri State Bears
\| VisitorDisplay \= MSU
\| Home \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| HomeDisplay \= KU
\| VisFirsts \= 10
\| VisPlaysYds \= 48–217
\| VisRushing \= 27–74
\| VisPassYds \= 143
\| VisPassing \= 14–21–2
\| VisTOP \= 26:13
\| HomeFirsts \= 27
\| HomePlaysYds \= 66–521
\| HomeRushing \= 38–245
\| HomePassYds \= 276
\| HomePassing \= 22–28–0
\| HomeTOP \= 33:47
}}
{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers
\| Float \= right
\| Visitor \= Missouri State Bears
\| VisitorDisplay \= Missouri State
\| Home \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| HomeDisplay \= Kansas
\| VisPasser \= Jacob Clark
\| VisPassStats \= 14/21 143 yards 1 TD 2 INTa
\| VisRusher \= Jacob Clark
\| VisRushStats \= 8 carries 36 yards
\| VisReceiver \= Celdon Manning
\| VisReceivingStats \= 2 receptions 31 yards
\| HomePasser \= \[\[Jason Bean (American football)\|Jason Bean]]
\| HomePassStats \= 22/28 276 yards 2 TDs
\| HomeRusher \= \[\[Devin Neal]]
\| HomeRushStats \= 13 carries 94 yards 1 TD
\| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Lawrence Arnold]]
Quentin Skinner
\| HomeReceivingStats \= 4 receptions 77 yards
}}
{{clear}}
The Jayhawks were without preseason conference player of the year [Jalon Daniels](/wiki/Jalon_Daniels "Jalon Daniels") who was still nursing an injury suffered in the Jayhawks bowl game the previous season. After trailing 10–7 early, the Jayhawks never trailed again. They would outscore the Bears 41–7 for the remainder of the game. It was the Jayhawks 3rd straight opening game win.
### Illinois
{{See also\|2023 Illinois Fighting Illini football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Kansas | –3\.5 |
* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox
\|titlestyle\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Kansas Jayhawks\|color\=white}}; text\-align:center;
\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=Illinois Fighting Illini at Kansas Jayhawks
\|date\=Friday, September 8, 2023
\|time\=6:30 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]]
\|road\=Fighting Illini
\|R1\=0\|R2\=7\|R3\=8\|R4\=8
\|home\='''Jayhawks'''
\|H1\=14\|H2\=14\|H3\=6\|H4\=0
\|stadium\=\[\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \[\[Lawrence, Kansas]]
\|attendance\= 45,809
\|weather\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|84\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Larry Smith
\|TV\= \[\[ESPN2]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Anish Shroff]], \[\[Andre Ware]], Paul Carcaterra
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/09/0908203\_Kansas\-34\-Illinois\-23\.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* 9:20 KU \[\[Jalon Daniels]] 4 yard pass to Torry Locklin (Seth Keller kick good), 10—82, 4:21 KU 7–0
\* 0:07 KU Jalon Daniels 5 yard pass to Jared Casey (Seth Keller kick good), 13–85, 6:35 KU 14–0
;Second quarter
\* 3:12 KU \[\[Devin Neal]] 5 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 11–94, 6:35 KU 21–0
\* 0:41 IU Luke Altmyer 4 yard pass to Tip Reiman (Caleb Griffin kick good), 7–75, 2:31 KU 21–7
\* 0:05 KU Daniel Hishaw Jr. 1 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 4–75, 0:36 KU 28–7
;Third quarter
\* 13:14 KU Seth Keller 41 yard field goal 5–45, 1:37 KU 31–7
\* 3:46 KU Seth Keller 30 yard field goal 7–37, 3:14 KU 34–7
\* 1:35 IU Luke Altmyer 72 yard run (Josh McCray run good), 5–75, 2:11 KU 34–15
;Fourth quarter
\* 8:08 IU KU Luke Altmyer 6 yard run (Reggie Love III pass to Luke Altmyer good) 11–80, 4:47 KU 34–23
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
\| Float \= left
\| Visitor \= Illinois Fighting Illini
\| VisitorDisplay \= UI
\| VisitorAltColors \= y
\| Home \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| HomeDisplay \= KU
\| VisFirsts \= 19
\| VisPlaysYds \= 56–341
\| VisRushing \= 18–139
\| VisPassYds \= 202
\| VisPassing \= 19–28–2
\| VisTOP \= 23:21
\| HomeFirsts \= 27
\| HomePlaysYds \= 65–539
\| HomeRushing \= 44–262
\| HomePassYds \= 277
\| HomePassing \= 21–29–1
\| HomeTOP \= 36:39
}}
{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers
\| Float \= right
\| Visitor \= Illinois Fighting Illini
\| VisitorDisplay \= Illinois
\| VisitorAltColors \= y
\| Home \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| HomeDisplay \= Kansas
\| VisPasser \= \[\[Luke Altmyer]]
\| VisPassStats \= 19/28 202 yards 1 TD 2 INTs
\| VisRusher \= Luke Altmyer
\| VisRushStats \= 13 carries 70 yards 2 TDs
\| VisReceiver \= \[\[Isaiah Williams (wide receiver, born 2001\)\|Isaiah Williams]]
\| VisReceivingStats \= 6 receptions 99 yards
\| HomePasser \= \[\[Jalon Daniels]]
\| HomePassStats \= 21/29 277 yards 2 TDs 1 INT
\| HomeRusher \= \[\[Devin Neal]]
\| HomeRushStats \= 10 carries 120 yards 1 TD
\| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Lawrence Arnold]]
\| HomeReceivingStats \= 5 receptions 89 yards
}}
{{clear}}
The Jayhawks raced out to a 21–0 first half lead before allowing a touchdown, but Kansas responded to their first touchdown allowed with one themselves. The Illini would outscore the Jayhawks in the 2nd half 16\-6 but it wouldn't be enough as the Jayhawks won 34–23\.
### at Nevada
{{See also\|2023 Nevada Wolf Pack football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Kansas | –28 |
* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox
\|titlestyle\= {{CollegeSecondaryStyle\|Kansas Jayhawks\|color\=white}}; text\-align:center;
\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=Kansas Jayhawks at Nevada Wolf Pack
\|date\=Saturday, September 16, 2023
\|time\=9:30 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]] / 7:30 pm \[\[Pacific Time Zone\|PDT]]
\|road\='''Jayhawks'''
\|R1\=7\|R2\=3\|R3\=14\|R4\=7
\|home\=Wolf Pack
\|H1\=0\|H2\=10\|H3\=7\|H4\=7
\|stadium\=\[\[Mackay Stadium]] • \[\[Reno, Nevada]]
\|attendance\= 16,890
\|weather\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|76\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Derek Anderson
\|TV\= \[\[CBS Sports Network\|CBSSN]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Rich Waltz]], \[\[Aaron Taylor (American football, born 1972\)\|Aaron Taylor]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/09/23\-KUatNEVbox.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* KU 9:46 \[\[Devin Neal]] 3 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 9–75, 5:14 KU 7–0
;Second quarter
\* UN 14:49 Brandon Talton 42 yard field goal, 9–24, 4:00 KU 7–3
\* KU 8:55 Seth Keller 44 yard field goal 13–47, 5:54 KU 10–7
\* UN 0:29 Sean Dollars 3 yard run (Brandon Talton kick good) 10–78, 4:55 10–10
;Third quarter
\* KU 5:07 Daniel Hishaw Jr. 1 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 11–84, 4:41 KU 17–10
\* UN 3:33 Brendon Lewis 6 yard run (Brandon Talton kick good) 4–65, 1:34 17–17
\* KU 3:00 Devin Neal 1 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 2–75, 0:33 KU 24–17
;Fourth quarter
\* UN 10:37 Brendon Lewis 2 yard run (Brandon Talton kick good) 14–75, 7:23 24–24
\* KU 6:20 Devin Neal 3 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 9–75, 4:17 KU 31–24
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
\| Float \= left
\| Visitor \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| VisitorDisplay \= KU
\| VisitorAltColors \= y
\| Home \= Nevada Wolf Pack
\| HomeDisplay \= UN
\| VisFirsts \= 24
\| VisPlaysYds \= 67–441
\| VisRushing \= 40–143
\| VisPassYds \= 298
\| VisPassing \= 21–27–0
\| VisTOP \= 31:51
\| HomeFirsts \= 14
\| HomePlaysYds \= 59–263
\| HomeRushing \= 37–150
\| HomePassYds \= 113
\| HomePassing \= 15–22–0
\| HomeTOP \= 28:09
}}
{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers
\| Float \= right
\| Visitor \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| VisitorDisplay \= Kansas
\| VisitorAltColors \= y
\| Home \= Nevada Wolf Pack
\| HomeDisplay \= Nevada
\| VisPasser \= \[\[Jalon Daniels]]
\| VisPassStats \= 21/27 298 yards
\| VisRusher \= \[\[Devin Neal]]
\| VisRushStats \= 17 carries 89 yards 3 TDs
\| VisReceiver \= \[\[Mason Fairchild]]
\| VisReceivingStats \= 5 receptions 74 yards
\| HomePasser \= \[\[Brendon Lewis]]
\| HomePassStats \= 15/22 113 carries
\| HomeRusher \= Brendon Lewis
\| HomeRushStats \= 11 carries 58 yards
\| HomeReceiver \= Dalevon Campbell
\| HomeReceivingStats \= 1 reception 53 yards
}}
{{clear}}
Despite entering the game as a 4 touchdown favorite, the Jayhawks struggled early in the game. It was 10–10 at halftime. In the second half, the teams traded touchdowns, but in the end the Jayhawks would score the game winning touchdown with 6 minutes left to win.
### BYU
{{See also\|2023 BYU Cougars football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Kansas | –9 |
* + - * + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox
\|titlestyle\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Kansas Jayhawks\|color\=white}}; text\-align:center;
\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=BYU Cougars at Kansas Jayhawks
\|date\=Saturday, September 23, 2023
\|time\=2:30 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]]
\|road\=Cougars
\|R1\=7\|R2\=10\|R3\=3\|R4\=7
\|home\='''Jayhawks'''
\|H1\=14\|H2\=0\|H3\=14\|H4\=10
\|stadium\=\[\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \[\[Lawrence, Kansas]]
\|attendance\= 47,233
\|weather\= Cloudy • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|80\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Stephen Baron
\|TV\= \[\[ESPN]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Mark Jones (sportscaster)\|Mark Jones]], \[\[Louis Riddick]], \[\[Quint Kessenich]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/09/09\.23\.23\-Kansas\-BYU\-Gamebook.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* KU 10:38 Cobee Bryant 22 yard fumble return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 7–0
\* BYU 5:48 Kedon Slovis 7 yard pass to Darius Lassite (Will Ferrin kick good) 10–75, 4:50 7–7
\* KU 1:33 \[\[Jalon Daniels]] 15 yard pass to Trevor Kardell (Seth Keller kick good) 8–86, 4:15 KU 14–7
;Second quarter
\* BYU 11:00 Kedon Slovis 10 yard pass to L. J. Martin (Will Ferrin kick good) 13–75, 5:33 14–14
\* BYU 0:13 Will Ferrin 33 yard field goal 12–68, 4:05 BYU 17–14
;Third quarter
\* KU 14:38 Kenny Logan Jr. 30 yard interception return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 21–17
\* BYU 10:55 Will Ferrin 34 yard field goal 8–58, 3:43 KU 21–21
\* KU 4:53 Jalon Daniels 5 yard pass to Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 10–75, 6:05 KU 28–20
;Third quarter
\* KU 13:36 Jalon Daniels pass to Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 7–64, 3:38 KU 35–20
\* BYU 8:02 Keelan Marion 6 yard run (Will Ferrin kick good) 12–75, 5:34 KU 35–27
\* KU 1:33 Seth Keller 23 yard field goal 12–69, 6:26 KU 38–27
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
\| Float \= left
\| Visitor \= BYU Cougars
\| VisitorDisplay \= BYU
\| Home \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| HomeDisplay \= KU
\| HomeAltColors \= y
\| VisFirsts \= 23
\| VisPlaysYds \= 56–351
\| VisRushing \= 22–9
\| VisPassYds \= 357
\| VisPassing \= 30–51–2
\| VisTOP \= 30:05
\| HomeFirsts \= 23
\| HomePlaysYds \= 73–366
\| HomeRushing \= 37–221
\| HomePassYds \= 130
\| HomePassing \= 14–19–0
\| HomeTOP \= 29:55
}}
{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers
\| Float \= right
\| Visitor \= BYU Cougars
\| VisitorDisplay \= BYU
\| Home \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| HomeDisplay \= Kansas
\| HomeAltColors \= y
\| VisPasser \= \[\[Kedon Slovis]]
\| VisPassStats \= 30/51 357 yards 2 TDs 2 INTs
\| VisRusher \= \[\[LJ Martin\|L. J. Martin]]
\| VisRushStats \= 11 carries 28 yards
\| VisReceiver \= Chase Roberts
\| VisReceivingStats \= 5 receptions 89 yards
\| HomePasser \= \[\[Jalon Daniels]]
\| HomePassStats \= 14/19 130 yards 3 TDs
\| HomeRusher \= \[\[Devin Neal]]
\| HomeRushStats \= 17 carries 91 yards
\| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Lawrence Arnold]]
\| HomeReceivingStats \= 4 receptions 31 yards
}}
{{clear}}
Kansas was Big 12 newcomer BYU's first conference game. The teams traded touchdown early before BYU took a 3\-point halftime lead. The Jayhawks would go on a 21–3 run to take the lead. Kansas would win 38–27 to start the season 4–0\.
### at No. 3 Texas
{{See also\|2023 Texas Longhorns football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Texas | –15\.5 |
* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox
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\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=No. 24 Kansas Jayhawks at No. 3 Texas Longhorns
\|date\=Saturday, September 30, 2023
\|time\=2:30 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]]
\|road\=No. 24 Jayhawks
\|R1\=0\|R2\=7\|R3\=7\|R4\=0
\|home\='''No. 3 Longhorns'''
\|H1\=10\|H2\=3\|H3\=13\|H4\=14
\|stadium\=\[\[Darrell K Royal–Texas Memorial Stadium]] • \[\[Austin, Texas]]
\|attendance\=102,986
\|weather\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|91\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Kevin Boitmann
\|TV\= \[\[ESPN College Football on ABC\|ABC]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Sean McDonough]], \[\[Greg McElroy]], \[\[Molly McGrath]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/09/KANatTEX\-book.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* UT 10:06 \[\[Quinn Ewers]] run for 30 yards for a touchdown (\[\[Bert Auburn]] kick good) 7–88, 2:45 UT 7–0
\* UT 1:52 Bert Auburn 26 yard field goal 14–76, 6:26 UT 10–0
;Second quarter
\* KU 14:05 Daniel Hishaw Jr. 18 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 5–75, 2:02 UT 10–7
\* UT 11:15 Bert Auburn 30 yard field goal 5–63, 3:35 UT 13–7
;Third quarter
\* UT 13:28 Jonathon Brooks 54 yard run (Bert Auburn kick good) 4–71, 1:32 UT 20–7
\* KU 11:36 Jason Bean 58 yard pass to Trevor Wilson (Seth Keller kick good) 4–75, 1:52 UT 20–14
\* UT 2:33 Jonathon Brooks 1 yard run (Quinn Ewers pass incomplete) 5–32, 1:52 UT 26–14
;Fourth quarter
\* UT 13:06 Quinn Ewers 9 yard pass (Bert Auburn kick good) 8–72, 3:25 UT 33–14
\* 5:34 Quinn Ewers 1 yard run (Bert Auburn kick good) 12–75, 5:51 UT 40–14
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
\| Float \= left
\| Visitor \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| VisitorDisplay \= KU
\| Home \= Texas Longhorns
\| HomeDisplay \= UT
\| VisFirsts \= 11
\| VisPlaysYds \= 46–260
\| VisRushing \= 25–124
\| VisPassYds \= 136
\| VisPassing \= 9–21–0
\| VisTOP \= 20:19
\| HomeFirsts \= 33
\| HomePlaysYds \= 86–661
\| HomeRushing \= 51–335
\| HomePassYds \= 325
\| HomePassing \= 25–35–1
\| HomeTOP \= 39:41
}}
{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers
\| Float \= right
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\| VisRusher \= \[\[Devin Neal]]
\| VisRushStats \= 8 carries 45 yards
\| VisReceiver \= Trevor Wilson
\| VisReceivingStats \= 1 reception 58 yards 1 TD
\| HomePasser \= \[\[Quinn Ewers]]
\| HomePassStats \= 25/35 325 yards 1 TD 1 INT
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\| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Adonai Mitchell]]
\| HomeReceivingStats \= 10 receptions 141 yards 1 TD
}}
{{clear}}
The Jayhawks and Longhorns played each other as ranked teams for the first time in the history of the series. It was also the final matchup before Texas leaves the Big 12 for the SEC. Quarterback [Jalon Daniels](/wiki/Jalon_Daniels "Jalon Daniels") re\-aggravated a preseason back injury in warmups and did not play. The Jayhawks kept the game close early, until the second half when they were outscored 27–7 giving the Jayhawks their first loss of the season.
### UCF
{{See also\|2023 UCF Knights football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| UCF | –2 |
* + - * + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox
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\|state\=autocollapse
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\|title\=UCF Knights at Kansas Jayhawks
\|date\=Saturday, October 7, 2023
\|time\=3:00 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]]
\|road\=Knights
\|R1\=0\|R2\=0\|R3\=8\|R4\=14
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\|H1\=3\|H2\=21\|H3\=13\|H4\=14
\|stadium\=\[\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \[\[Lawrence, Kansas]]
\|attendance\= 46,107
\|weather\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|64\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Tutashinda Salaam
\|TV\= \[\[Fox Broadcasting Company\|Fox]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Jason Benetti]], \[\[Brock Huard]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/10/10\.07\.23\-FB\-Kansas\-UCF.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* 3:43 KU Seth Keller 25 yard field goal 13–82, 7:03 KU 3–0
;Second quarter
\* 13:43 KU Jason Bean 5 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 9–69, 4:22 KU 10–0
\* 6:31 KU Daniel Hishaw Jr. 3 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 12–72, 6:13 KU 17–0
\* 3:26 KU Trevor Wilson 82 yard punt return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 24–0
;Third quarter
\* 14:48 KU \[\[Devin Neal]] 75 run (Seth Keller kick good) 1–75, 0:12 KU 31–0
\* 13:01 UCF Timmy McClain 13 yard pass to Alec Holler (Timmy McClain pass incomplete) 4–75, 1:47 KU 31–6
\* 7:02 KU Dylan McDuffie 1 yard run 4–17, 3:05 KU 37–6
\* UCF Demari Henderson blocked extra point attempt returned for 2 point conversion KU 37–8
;Fourth quarter
\* 13:55 UCF R. J. Harvey 4 yard run (Colton Boomer kick good) 17–75, 8:07 KU 37–15
\* 11:47 KU Daniel Hishaw Jr. 7 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 4–54, 2:02 KU 44–15
\* 10:09 UCF Timmy McClain 23 yard pass (Colton Boomer kick good) 5–75, 1:39 KU 44–22
\* 0:53 KU Dylan McDuffie 1 yard (Owen Piepergerdes kick good) 7–35, 3:20 KU 51–22
}}
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\| VisReceiver \= \[\[Javon Baker]]
\| VisReceivingStats \= 4 receptions 85 yards
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\| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Luke Grimm]]
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}}
{{clear}}
In the Jayhawks first ever meeting with new Big 12 member UCF, they jumped out to an early 31–0 lead despite [Jalon Daniels](/wiki/Jalon_Daniels "Jalon Daniels") being out for the 2nd straight week. UCF would only manage 3 touchdowns, while the Jayhawks would score 51 points. Their 28 point margin of victory was the largest in a conference game since defeated rival Kansas State by 31 in 2008\.
### at Oklahoma State
{{See also\|2023 Oklahoma State Cowboys football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Kansas | –3 |
* + - * + - * + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox
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\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=No. 23 Kansas Jayhawks at Oklahoma State Cowboys
\|date\=Saturday, October 14, 2023
\|time\=2:30 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]]
\|road\=No. 23 Jayhawks
\|R1\=7\|R2\=18\|R3\=7\|R4\=0
\|home\='''Cowboys'''
\|H1\=17\|H2\=7\|H3\=3\|H4\=12
\|stadium\=\[\[Boone Pickens Stadium]] • \[\[Stillwater, Oklahoma]]
\|attendance\= 53,855
\|weather\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|62\|F\|C}}
\|referee\=Kevin Mar
\|TV\= \[\[Fox Sports 1\|FS1]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Jeff Levering]], \[\[Mark Helfrich (American football)\|Mark Helfrich]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/10/34393\.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* 13:11 OSU Alan Bowman 17 yard pass to Ollie Gordon II (\[\[Alex Hale]] kick good) 5–77, 1:45 OSU 7–0
\* 7:25 OSU Alan Bowman 20 yard pass to Brennan Presley (Alex Hale kick good) 9–83, 3:00 OSU 14–0
\* 5:14 KU Jason Bean 47 yard pass to Trevor Wilson (Seth Keller kick good) 5—75, 2:11 OSU 14–6
;Second quarter
\* 12:42 KU Jason Bean 30 yard pass to \[\[Mason Fairchild]] (Seth Keller kick blocked) 9–75, 4:28 OSU 14–13
\* 10:41 KU Jason Bean 44 yard pass to Mason Fairchild (Grayden Addison run failed) 2–72, 0:44 KU 19–14
\* 2:52 OSU Ollie Gordon II 42 yard run (Alex Hale kick good) 2–53 0:48, OSU 21–19
\* 2:10 OSU Alex Hale 28 yard field goal 8–64, 3;04 OSU 24–19
\* 1:06 KU Jason Bean 49 pass to Quentin Skinner (Jason Bean pass no good) 5–75, 1:46 KU 25–24
;Third quarter
\* 11:13 KU Jason Bean 42 yard pass to Quentin Skinner (Owen Piepergerdes kick good) 8–75, 3:42 KU 32–24
\* 5:28 OSU Alex Hale 26 yard field goal 13–66, 5:28 KU 32–27
;Fourth quarter
\* 11:32 OSU Alex Hale 21 yard field goal 10–74, 4:52 KU 32–30
\* 2:33 OSU Brennan Presley 6 yard run (Alan Bowman pass failed) 9–50, 3:50 OSU 36–32
\* 0:15 OSU Alex Hale 46 yard field goal 4–9, 1:42 OSU 39–32
}}
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\| VisRushStats \= 13 carries 66 yards
\| VisReceiver \= \[\[Mason Fairchild]]
\| VisReceivingStats \= 5 receptions 92 yards 2 TDs
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\| HomeRushStats \= 29 carries 168 yards 1 TD
\| HomeReceiver \= Ollie Gordon II
\| HomeReceivingStats \= 6 carries 116 yards 1 TD
}}
{{clear}}
The Jayhawks fell into an early 14–0 deficit. Despite two special teams miscues resulting in mixed extra points, they fought back to gain a 19–17 lead. After trading touchdowns but KU missing a 2\-point conversion attempt, the Jayhawks took a slim 2 point into halftime. The Cowboys outscored the Jayhawks 15–7 in the second half, partially due to two interceptions from quarterback Jason Bean leading to the Jayhawks loss.
### No. 6 Oklahoma
{{See also\|2023 Oklahoma Sooners football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Oklahoma | –8 |
* + - * + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox
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\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=No. 6 Oklahoma Sooners at Kansas Jayhawks
\|date\=Saturday, October 28, 2023
\|time\=11:00 am \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]]
\|road\=No. 6 Sooners
\|R1\=0\|R2\=21\|R3\=6\|R4\=6
\|home\='''Jayhawks'''
\|H1\=7\|H2\=10\|H3\=9\|H4\=12
\|stadium\=\[\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \[\[Lawrence, Kansas]]
\|attendance\= 47,233
\|weather\= Cloudy • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|38\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Michael VanderVelde
\|TV\= Fox
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Jason Benetti]], \[\[Brock Huard]], \[\[Allison Williams (reporter)\|Allison Williams]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/10/34982\.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* 9:25 KU Mello Dawson 37 yard interception return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 7–0
;Second quarter
\* 14:06 KU Daniel Hishaw 9 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 10–79, 14:06 KU 14–0
\* 10:15 OU \[\[Dillon Gabriel]] 7 yard run (Zach Schmidt kick good) 10–75, 3:54 KU 14–7
\* 6:05 OU Tawee Walker 2 yard run (Zach Schmidt kick good) 9–66, 3:11 14–14
\* 4:23 OU Dillon Gabriel 9 yard run (Zach Schmidt kick good) 4–17, 1:38 OU 21–14
\* 0:50 KU Seth Keller 24 yard field goal 12–79, 3:26 OU 21–17
;Third quarter
\* 4:01 KU Seth Keller 29 yard field goal 5–45, 2:45 OU 21–20
\* 3:03 KU Jason Bean 38 yard run (Jason Bean pass failed) 1–38, 0:08 KU 26–21
\* 0:35 OU Gavin Sawchuk 3 yard run (Dillon Gabriel pass failed) 7–75, 2:28 OU 27–26
;Fourth quarter
\* 12:25 KU Daniel Hishaw 1 yard run (Jason Bean pass failed) 7–65, 3:03 KU 32–27
\* 5:22 OU Dillon Gabriel 1 yard run (Dillon Gabriel pass failed) 4–14, 1:23 OU 33–32
\* 0:55 KU \[\[Devin Neal]] 9 yard run (Devin Neal run failed) 7–80, 1:01 KU 38–33
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
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\| VisRushing \= 55–269
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{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers
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\| VisRusher \= \[\[Tawee Walker]]
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\| VisReceiver \= \[\[Drake Stoops]]
\| VisReceivingStats \= 4 receptions 76 yards
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}}
{{clear}}
In the last matchup with the Sooners before they leave for the SEC, Kansas got out to a 14–0 lead. Oklahoma responded with a 21–0 run to take a 21–17 lead into halftime. KU would go on a 9–0 run to start the second half. The teams traded touchdowns. Kansas got the ball with 1:56 left. They marched down the field to score the game winning touchdown with 55 seconds left to become bowl eligible. The win was also the Jayhawks first win over Oklahoma since 1997, first win over top 10 team at home since 1984, and first win over a top 10 team period since 2008\.
### at Iowa State
{{See also\|2023 Iowa State Cyclones football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Iowa State | –3 |
* + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox
\|titlestyle\= {{CollegeSecondaryStyle\|Kansas Jayhawks\|color\=white}}; text\-align:center;
\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=No. 21 Kansas Jayhawks at Iowa State Cyclones
\|date\=Saturday, November 4, 2023
\|time\=6:00 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CDT]]
\|road\='''No. 21 Jayhawks'''
\|R1\=7\|R2\=7\|R3\=7\|R4\=7
\|home\=Cyclones
\|H1\=0\|H2\=3\|H3\=8\|H4\=10
\|stadium\=\[\[Jack Trice Stadium]] • \[\[Ames, Iowa]]
\|attendance\= 61,500
\|weather\= Clear • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|58\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Tutashinda Salaam
\|TV\= ESPN
\|TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Mike Monaco]], \[\[Robert Griffin III]]
\|reference\=
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
KU ISU
\* 8:40 KU \[\[Devin Neal]] 6 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 9–86, 4:32 KU 7–0
;Second quarter
\* 10:21 KU Mello Dotson 50 yard interception return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 14–0
\* 0:03 ISU Chase Contreraz 35 yard field goal 7–50, 0:38 KU 14–3
;Third quarter
\* 9:24 KU Devin Neal 1 yard run (Owen Piepergerdes kick) 11–75, 5:36 KU 21–3
\* 3:59 ISU Eli Sanders 6 yard run (Eli Sanders run good) 9–75, 5:25 KU 21–11
;Fourth quarter
\* 8:11 ISU Rocco Becht 2 yard run (Chase Contreraz kick good) 12–90, 6:57 KU 21–18
\* 7:51 KU \[\[Jason Bean (politician)\|Jason Bean]] 80 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Owen Piepergerdes kick good) 1–80, 0:20 KU 28–18
\* 4:53 ISU Chase Contreraz 29 yard field goal 7–64, 2:58 KU 28–21
}}
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}}
{{clear}}
The Jayhawks jumped out to a 14 point lead before Iowa State scored their first points, a field goal. Kansas would open the 2nd half with a touchdown to take a 21–3 lead. Iowa State responded with a 15–0 to make the game 21–18\. Kansas followed up an Iowa State touchdown and 2 point conversion with an 80 yard touchdown to take a 28–18 lead. Iowa State would kick a field goal but wouldn't have enough in the end. It was KU's first road win against Iowa State since 2008 and first win as a ranked team since 2009\. The win also gave KU their first 7 win season since 2008\.
### Texas Tech
{{See also\|2023 Texas Tech Red Raiders football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Kansas | –4 |
* + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox
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\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=Texas Tech at No. 16 Kansas Jayhawks
\|date\=Saturday, November 11, 2023
\|time\=11:00 am \[\[Central Time Zone\|CST]]
\|road\='''Red Raiders'''
\|R1\=10\|R2\=0\|R3\=3\|R4\=3
\|home\=No. 16 Jayhawks
\|H1\=0\|H2\=0\|H3\=0\|H4\=13
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\|attendance\= 47,233
\|weather\= Cloudy • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|53\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Derek Anderson
\|TV\=\[\[Fox Sports 1\|FS1]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Eric Collins]], \[\[Devin Gardner]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/11/35604\.pdf Game summary]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* 10:18 TTU Tahj Brooks 5 yard run (Gino Garcia kick good) 7–50, 2:54 TTU 7–0
\* 3:24 TTU Gino Garcia 32 yard field goal 15–42, 5:22 TTU 10–0
;Second quarter
''No scoring''
;Third quarter
\* 2:56 TTU Gino Garcia 31 yard field goal 8–22, 3:42 TTU 13–0
;Fourth quarter
\* 12:12 KU \[\[Devin Neal]] 60 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 4–70, 1:42 TTU 13–7
\* 4:42 KU Seth Keller 24 yard field goal 11–71, 4:57 TTU 13–10
\* 0:25 KU Seth Keller 22 yard field goal 14–77, 1:55 13–13
\* 0:03 TTY Gino Garcia 30 yard field goal 4–63, 0:26 TTU 16–13
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
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}}
{{clear}}
The Jayhawks, already down starter [Jalon Daniels](/wiki/Jalon_Daniels "Jalon Daniels"), lost backup [Jason Bean](/wiki/Jason_Bean_%28politician%29 "Jason Bean (politician)") to injury early in the game. Texas Tech jumped to an early 13–0 lead before Kansas scored their first points on a 60 yard touchdown. After two Seth Keller field goals, the score was tied with 25 seconds left. Texas Tech would march down the field quickly to kick a game winning field goal with 3 seconds.
### No. 21 Kansas State
{{See also\|2023 Kansas State Wildcats football team\|Sunflower Showdown}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Kansas State | –6\.5 |
* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox
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\|bg2\=\#eee
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\|date\=Saturday, November 18, 2023
\|time\=6:00 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CST]]
\|road\='''No. 21 Wildcats'''
\|R1\=7\|R2\=9\|R3\=8\|R4\=7
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\|attendance\= 47,233
\|weather\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|55\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= David Alvarez
\|TV\=\[\[Fox Sports 1\|FS1]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Alex Faust]], \[\[Petros Papadakis]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/11/35878\.pdf Game summary]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* 13:44 KSU Will Howard 11 yard pass Ben Sinnott (Chris Tennant kick good) 5–75, 1:16 KSU 7–0
\* 2:05 KU \[\[Devin Neal]] 36 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 11–82, 6:10 7–7
;Second quarter
\* 10:55 KU Devin Neal 9 yard run (Seth Keller kick blocked) 8–76, 4:28 KU 13–7
\* KSU Keenan Garber blocked extra point returned for a two point conversion KU 13–9
\* 7:24 KSU Will Howard 11 pass to Keagan Johnson (Chris Tennant kick good) 8–75, 3:33 KSU 16–13
\* 0:26 KU Cole Ballard 5 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 13–75, 7:00 KU 20–16
;Third quarter
\* 13:28 KU Devin Neal 2 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 3–65, 1:32 KU 27–16
\* 6:35 KU D. J. Giddens 1 yard run (Will Howard run good) 10–87, 4:01 KU 27–24
;Fourth quarter
\* 10:22 KSU Will Howard 15 yard run (Chris Tennant kick good) 6–55, 3:01 KSU 31–27
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
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}}
{{clear}}
In the first matchup in Sunflower Showdown with both teams ranked in 28 years, the teams traded scores early in the game. In the beginning of the second half, Kansas took an 11 point lead. K\-State would come back to win the game. It was the 15th straight loss for KU in the rivalry. The loss also officially eliminated Kansas' slim hopes to play in the Big 12 championship game.
### at Cincinnati
{{See also\|2023 Cincinnati Bearcats football team}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| Kansas | –7 |
* + - * + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox
\|titlestyle\= {{CollegeSecondaryStyle\|Kansas Jayhawks\|color\=white}}; text\-align:center;
\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=Kansas Jayhawks at Cincinnati Bearcats
\|date\=Saturday, November 25, 2023
\|time\=6:30 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CST]] / 7:30 pm \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EST]]
\|road\='''Jayhawks'''
\|R1\=0\|R2\=21\|R3\=7\|R4\=21
\|home\=Bearcats
\|H1\=3\|H2\=7\|H3\=0\|H4\=6
\|stadium\=\[\[Nippert Stadium]] • \[\[Cincinnati\|Cincinnati, Ohio]]
\|attendance\= 38,193
\|weather\= Clear • '''Temperature''': {{convert\|39\|F\|C}}
\|referee\= Kevin Boitman
\|TV\= ESPN2
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[John Schriffen]], \[\[Rocky Boiman]]
\|reference\= \[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/11/KU\-at\-Cincy.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* 8:12 UC Carter Brown 49 yard field goal 12–44, 6:48 UC 3–0
;Second quarter
\* 8:55 KU \[\[Devin Neal]] 13 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 5–77, 2:38 KU 7–3
\* 5:31 KU \[\[Jason Bean (politician)\|Jason Bean]] 15 yard pass to Jared Casey (Seth Keller kick good) 5–66, 2:22 KU 14–3
\* 0:26 UC Emory Jones 11 yard pass Ryan Montgomery (Carter Brown kick good) 13–75, 5:05 KU 14–10
\* 0:05 KU Jason Bean 26 yard pass to \[\[Mason Fairchild]] (Seth Keller kick good) 2–56, 0:17 KU 21–10
;Third quarter
\* 11:53 KU Devin Neal 30 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 8–75, 3:07 KU 28–10
;Fourth quarter
\* 13:23 UC Ryan Montgomery 7 yard pass to Dee Wiggins (Emory Jones run no good) 12–67, 5:58 KU 28–16
\* 11:39 KU Jason Bean 43 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 3–79, 1:37 KU 35—16
\* 9:52 KU Jason Bean 50 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 2–59, 0:55 KU 42–16
\* 0:47 KU \[\[Dylan McDuffie]] 6 yard run (Owen Piepergerdes kick good) 11–61, 7:01 KU 49–16
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
\| Float \= left
\| Visitor \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| VisitorDisplay \= KU
\| Home \= Cincinnati Bearcats
\| HomeDisplay \= UC
\| VisFirsts \= 23
\| VisPlaysYds \= 51–562
\| VisRushing \= 34–312
\| VisPassYds \= 250
\| VisPassing \= 13–17–0
\| VisTOP \= 27:19
\| HomeFirsts \= 21
\| HomePlaysYds \= 73–342
\| HomeRushing \= 42–231
\| HomePassYds \= 111
\| HomePassing \= 16–31–1
\| HomeTOP \= 32:41
}}
{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers
\| Float \= right
\| Visitor \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| VisitorDisplay \= Kansas
\| Home \= Cincinnati Bearcats
\| HomeDisplay \= Cincinnati
\| VisPasser \= \[\[Jason Bean (American football)\|Jason Bean]]
\| VisPassStats \= 13/17 250 yards 2 TDs
\| VisRusher \= \[\[Devin Neal]]
\| VisRushStats \= 10 carries 106 yards 2 TDs
\| VisReceiver \= \[\[Lawrence Arnold]]
\| VisReceivingStats \= 3 receptions 74 yards
\| HomePasser \= \[\[Emory Jones]]
\| HomePassStats \= 15/27 104 yards 1 TD 1 INT
\| HomeRusher \= \[\[Corey Kiner]]
\| HomeRushStats \= 18 carries 106 yards
\| HomeReceiver \= Dee Wiggins
\| HomeReceivingStats \= 4 receptions 27 yards
}}
{{clear}}
In their first conference game again Big 12 newcomer Cincinnati, Kansas would only trail for briefly. The Jayhawks scored their first touchdown halfway through the second quarter and followed it up with another touchdown. The Jayhawks would pull away in the 4th quarter following two [Jason Bean](/wiki/Jason_Bean_%28American_football%29 "Jason Bean (American football)") touchdown runs to win 49–16\. The win gave the Jayhawks their first 8 more win regular season since 2007\. It also gave the Jayhawks their most conference wins since winning 7 in 2007\. It also gave the Jayhawks as many conference wins as the previous four seasons combined.
### UNLV
{{See also\|2023 UNLV Rebels football team\|2023 Guaranteed Rate Bowl}}
|
{{CollegePrimaryHeader\|border\=2\|team\=Kansas Jayhawks\|Favorite\|Spread}}
| |
| KU | –10\.5 |
* + - * + - * + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox
\|titlestyle\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Kansas Jayhawks\|color\=white}}; text\-align:center;
\|state\=autocollapse
\|bg\=\#fff
\|bg2\=\#eee
\|title\=2023 Guaranteed Rate Bowl Kansas Jayhawks vs UNLV Rebels
\|date\=Tuesday, December 26, 2023
\|time\=8:00 pm \[\[Central Time Zone\|CST]] / 7:00 pm \[\[Mountain Time Zone\|MST]]
\|road\='''Jayhawks'''
\|R1\=7\|R2\=21\|R3\=0\|R4\=21
\|home\=Rebels
\|H1\=7\|H2\=3\|H3\=14\|H4\=12
\|stadium\=\[\[Chase Field]] • \[\[Phoenix, Arizona]]
\|attendance\= 26,478
\|weather\= None (\[\[retractable roof]] closed)
\|referee\= Tim Hedgepeth
\|TV\=\[\[ESPN]]
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Beth Mowins]], \[\[Kirk Morrison]]
\|reference\=\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\-content/uploads/2023/12/KU\-vs\-UNLV.pdf Gamebook]
\|scoring\=
;First quarter
\* UNLV 11:07 Vincent Davis Jr. 3 yard run (Jose Pizano kick good) 8–65, 3:53 UNLV 7–0
\* KU 2:05 \[\[Jason Bean (American football)\|Jason Bean]] 6 yard pass Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 9–98, 4:48 7–7
;Second quarter
\* KU 11:37 Jason Bean 60 yard pass to Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 4–65 yards, 2:38 KU 14–7
\* KU 7:57 Jason Bean 15 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 5–66 yards, 1:19 KU 21–7
\* KU 1:21 \[\[Devin Neal]] 1 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 8–70 yards, 3:42 KU 28–7
\* UNLV 0:00 Jose Pizano 40 yard field goal 5–38, 1:21 KU 28–10
;Third quarter
\* UNLV 12:15 Jayden Maiava 5 yard pass to Shelton Zeon III (Jose Pizano kick good) 5–42, 1:44 KU 28–17
\* UNLV 10:30 Jayden Maiava 37 yard pass to (Jose Pizano kick good) 1–37, 0:07 KU 28–24
;Fourth quarter
\* KU 14:52 Jason Bean 40 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 10–99, 6:53 KU 35–24
\* UNLV 12:06 Jacob De Jesus 11 yard run (Jayden Maiava run failed) 7–88, 2:46 KU 35–30
\* KU 11:10 Jason Bean 56 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 2–61, 0:56 KU 42–30
\* KU 8:16 Jason Bean 43 yard pass to Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 3–46, 1:33 49–30
\* UNLV 6:27 Jayden Maiava 50 yard pass to Senika McKie (Vincent Davis run failed) 5–80, 1:49 KU 49–36
}}
{{AmFootballGameStatistics
\| Float \= left
\| Visitor \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| VisitorDisplay \= KU
\| Home \= UNLV Rebels
\| HomeDisplay \= UNLV
\| VisFirsts \= 22
\| VisPlaysYds \= 591
\| VisRushing \= 142
\| VisPassYds \= 449
\| VisPassing \= 19–28–3
\| VisTOP \= 34:06
\| HomeFirsts \= 22
\| HomePlaysYds \= 386
\| HomeRushing \= 95
\| HomePassYds \= 291
\| HomePassing \= 24–35–2
\| HomeTOP \= 25:54
}}
{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers
\| Float \= right
\| Visitor \= Kansas Jayhawks
\| VisitorDisplay \= Kansas
\| Home \= UNLV Rebels
\| HomeDisplay \= UNLV
\| VisPasser \= \[\[Jason Bean (American football)\|Jason Bean]]
\| VisPassStats \= 19/28 449 yards 6 TDs 3 INTs
\| VisRusher \= \[\[Devin Neal]]
\| VisRushStats \= 20 carries 71 yards 1 TD
\| VisReceiver \= \[\[Luke Grimm]]
\| VisReceivingStats \= 4 receptions 160 yards 3 TDs
\| HomePasser \= \[\[Jayden Maiava]]
\| HomePassStats \= 24/35 291 yards 3 TDs 2 INTs
\| HomeRusher \= Jacob De Jesus
\| HomeRushStats \= 6 carries 40 yards 1 TD
\| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Ricky White]]
\| HomeReceivingStats \= 7 receptions 97 yards 1 TD
}}
{{clear}}
After giving up a touchdown on their first drive on defense and then punting on their first drive on offense, the Jayhawks went on to score 28 unanswered points before UNLV kicked a field goal as time expired in the first half. UNLV started the 2nd half on a 14–0 run to pull within 4 points. The teams traded touchdowns at the beginning of the 4th quarter before the Jayhawks would put the game away with a 14–0 run. The Jayhawks won 49–36 despite 18 penalties for 216 yards, the majority of which were personal fouls and unsportsmanlike conduct. Senior quarterback [Jason Bean](/wiki/Jason_Bean_%28American_football%29 "Jason Bean (American football)") tied a program record for passing touchdowns with 6\. The win gave the Jayhawks their first bowl victory since they won the same bowl game, when it was known as the Insight Bowl, in 2008\.
|
[
"Game summaries\n--------------",
"Rankings are from AP poll through Oklahoma game and the College Football Playoff poll beginning with the Iowa State game through the end of the season.",
"### Missouri State",
"{{See also\\|2023 Missouri State Bears football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Kansas | –32 |",
"* + - * + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=Missouri State Bears at Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Friday, September 1, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=7:00 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=Bears\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=7\\|R2\\=3\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7\\|H2\\=10\\|H3\\=10\\|H4\\=21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Lawrence, Kansas]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 41,091\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|89\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\=Henry Johns\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= \\[\\[ESPN\\+]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\= Chuckie Kempf, \\[\\[Ahman Green]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/09/Game\\-Book\\-24\\.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 11:26 KU \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 48 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 4–70, 1:49 KU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 2:24 MSU Jmariyae Robinson 2 yard pass from Jacob Clark (Owen Rozanc kick good), 10–46, 5:37 7–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 12:12 MSU Owen Rozanc 37 yard field goal, 7–53, 3:10 MSU 10–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 11:03 KU Luke Grimm 14 yard pass from Jason Bean (Seth Keller kick good), 3–75, 1:11 KU 14–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 1:05 KU Seth Keller 28 yard field goal, 10–75, 1:02 KU 17–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:29 KU Dylan McDuffie 17 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 9–69, 4:22 KU 24–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 3:18 KU Seth Keller 35 yard field goal, 10–55, 5:07 KU 27–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 14:57 MSU Jmariyae Robinson 5 yard run (Owen Rozanc kick good), 6–75, 3:21 KU 27–17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:18 KU Daniel Hishaw Jr. 24 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 8–75, 4:39 KU 34–17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 7:49 KU Devin Neal 6 yard pass from Jason Bean (Owen Piepergerdes kick good), 5–28, 2:21 KU 41–17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 4:57 KU Sevion Morrison 5 yard Run (Seth Keller kick), 4–23, 2:14 KU 48–17 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Missouri State Bears\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= MSU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 48–217\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 27–74\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 143\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 14–21–2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 26:13\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 66–521\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 38–245\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 276\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 22–28–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 33:47\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Missouri State Bears\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Missouri State\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= Jacob Clark\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 14/21 143 yards 1 TD 2 INTa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= Jacob Clark\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 8 carries 36 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= Celdon Manning\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 2 receptions 31 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 22/28 276 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 13 carries 94 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Lawrence Arnold]] \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQuentin Skinner\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions 77 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}",
"The Jayhawks were without preseason conference player of the year [Jalon Daniels](/wiki/Jalon_Daniels \"Jalon Daniels\") who was still nursing an injury suffered in the Jayhawks bowl game the previous season. After trailing 10–7 early, the Jayhawks never trailed again. They would outscore the Bears 41–7 for the remainder of the game. It was the Jayhawks 3rd straight opening game win.",
"### Illinois",
"{{See also\\|2023 Illinois Fighting Illini football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Kansas | –3\\.5 |",
"* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=Illinois Fighting Illini at Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Friday, September 8, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=6:30 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=Fighting Illini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=7\\|R3\\=8\\|R4\\=8\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=14\\|H2\\=14\\|H3\\=6\\|H4\\=0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Lawrence, Kansas]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 45,809\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|84\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Larry Smith\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= \\[\\[ESPN2]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Anish Shroff]], \\[\\[Andre Ware]], Paul Carcaterra\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/09/0908203\\_Kansas\\-34\\-Illinois\\-23\\.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 9:20 KU \\[\\[Jalon Daniels]] 4 yard pass to Torry Locklin (Seth Keller kick good), 10—82, 4:21 KU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:07 KU Jalon Daniels 5 yard pass to Jared Casey (Seth Keller kick good), 13–85, 6:35 KU 14–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 3:12 KU \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 5 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 11–94, 6:35 KU 21–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:41 IU Luke Altmyer 4 yard pass to Tip Reiman (Caleb Griffin kick good), 7–75, 2:31 KU 21–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:05 KU Daniel Hishaw Jr. 1 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 4–75, 0:36 KU 28–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 13:14 KU Seth Keller 41 yard field goal 5–45, 1:37 KU 31–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 3:46 KU Seth Keller 30 yard field goal 7–37, 3:14 KU 34–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 1:35 IU Luke Altmyer 72 yard run (Josh McCray run good), 5–75, 2:11 KU 34–15\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 8:08 IU KU Luke Altmyer 6 yard run (Reggie Love III pass to Luke Altmyer good) 11–80, 4:47 KU 34–23\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Illinois Fighting Illini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= UI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorAltColors \\= y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 56–341\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 18–139\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 202\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 19–28–2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 23:21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 65–539\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 44–262\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 277\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 21–29–1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 36:39\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Illinois Fighting Illini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Illinois\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorAltColors \\= y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Luke Altmyer]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 19/28 202 yards 1 TD 2 INTs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= Luke Altmyer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 13 carries 70 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Isaiah Williams (wide receiver, born 2001\\)\\|Isaiah Williams]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 6 receptions 99 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Jalon Daniels]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 21/29 277 yards 2 TDs 1 INT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 10 carries 120 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Lawrence Arnold]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 5 receptions 89 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe Jayhawks raced out to a 21–0 first half lead before allowing a touchdown, but Kansas responded to their first touchdown allowed with one themselves. The Illini would outscore the Jayhawks in the 2nd half 16\\-6 but it wouldn't be enough as the Jayhawks won 34–23\\.",
"### at Nevada",
"{{See also\\|2023 Nevada Wolf Pack football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Kansas | –28 |",
"* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegeSecondaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=Kansas Jayhawks at Nevada Wolf Pack\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, September 16, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=9:30 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]] / 7:30 pm \\[\\[Pacific Time Zone\\|PDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\='''Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=7\\|R2\\=3\\|R3\\=14\\|R4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\=Wolf Pack\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=10\\|H3\\=7\\|H4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Mackay Stadium]] • \\[\\[Reno, Nevada]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 16,890\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|76\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Derek Anderson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= \\[\\[CBS Sports Network\\|CBSSN]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Rich Waltz]], \\[\\[Aaron Taylor (American football, born 1972\\)\\|Aaron Taylor]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/09/23\\-KUatNEVbox.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 9:46 \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 3 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 9–75, 5:14 KU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UN 14:49 Brandon Talton 42 yard field goal, 9–24, 4:00 KU 7–3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 8:55 Seth Keller 44 yard field goal 13–47, 5:54 KU 10–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UN 0:29 Sean Dollars 3 yard run (Brandon Talton kick good) 10–78, 4:55 10–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 5:07 Daniel Hishaw Jr. 1 yard run (Seth Keller kick good), 11–84, 4:41 KU 17–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UN 3:33 Brendon Lewis 6 yard run (Brandon Talton kick good) 4–65, 1:34 17–17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 3:00 Devin Neal 1 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 2–75, 0:33 KU 24–17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UN 10:37 Brendon Lewis 2 yard run (Brandon Talton kick good) 14–75, 7:23 24–24\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 6:20 Devin Neal 3 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 9–75, 4:17 KU 31–24\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorAltColors \\= y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Nevada Wolf Pack \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= UN\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 24\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 67–441\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 40–143\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 298\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 21–27–0 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 31:51\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 59–263\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 37–150\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 113\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 15–22–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 28:09\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorAltColors \\= y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Nevada Wolf Pack\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Nevada\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jalon Daniels]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 21/27 298 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 17 carries 89 yards 3 TDs \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Mason Fairchild]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 5 receptions 74 yards \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Brendon Lewis]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 15/22 113 carries\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= Brendon Lewis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 11 carries 58 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= Dalevon Campbell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 1 reception 53 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}",
"Despite entering the game as a 4 touchdown favorite, the Jayhawks struggled early in the game. It was 10–10 at halftime. In the second half, the teams traded touchdowns, but in the end the Jayhawks would score the game winning touchdown with 6 minutes left to win.",
"### BYU",
"{{See also\\|2023 BYU Cougars football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Kansas | –9 |",
"* + - * + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=BYU Cougars at Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, September 23, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=2:30 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=Cougars\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=7\\|R2\\=10\\|R3\\=3\\|R4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=14\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=14\\|H4\\=10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Lawrence, Kansas]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 47,233\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Cloudy • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|80\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Stephen Baron\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= \\[\\[ESPN]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Mark Jones (sportscaster)\\|Mark Jones]], \\[\\[Louis Riddick]], \\[\\[Quint Kessenich]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/09/09\\.23\\.23\\-Kansas\\-BYU\\-Gamebook.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 10:38 Cobee Bryant 22 yard fumble return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* BYU 5:48 Kedon Slovis 7 yard pass to Darius Lassite (Will Ferrin kick good) 10–75, 4:50 7–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 1:33 \\[\\[Jalon Daniels]] 15 yard pass to Trevor Kardell (Seth Keller kick good) 8–86, 4:15 KU 14–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* BYU 11:00 Kedon Slovis 10 yard pass to L. J. Martin (Will Ferrin kick good) 13–75, 5:33 14–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* BYU 0:13 Will Ferrin 33 yard field goal 12–68, 4:05 BYU 17–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 14:38 Kenny Logan Jr. 30 yard interception return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 21–17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* BYU 10:55 Will Ferrin 34 yard field goal 8–58, 3:43 KU 21–21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 4:53 Jalon Daniels 5 yard pass to Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 10–75, 6:05 KU 28–20\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 13:36 Jalon Daniels pass to Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 7–64, 3:38 KU 35–20\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* BYU 8:02 Keelan Marion 6 yard run (Will Ferrin kick good) 12–75, 5:34 KU 35–27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 1:33 Seth Keller 23 yard field goal 12–69, 6:26 KU 38–27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= BYU Cougars\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= BYU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeAltColors \\= y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 23\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 56–351 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 22–9\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 357\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 30–51–2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 30:05\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 23\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 73–366\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 37–221\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 130\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 14–19–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 29:55\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= BYU Cougars\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= BYU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeAltColors \\= y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Kedon Slovis]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 30/51 357 yards 2 TDs 2 INTs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[LJ Martin\\|L. J. Martin]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 11 carries 28 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= Chase Roberts \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 5 receptions 89 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Jalon Daniels]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 14/19 130 yards 3 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 17 carries 91 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Lawrence Arnold]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions 31 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}",
"Kansas was Big 12 newcomer BYU's first conference game. The teams traded touchdown early before BYU took a 3\\-point halftime lead. The Jayhawks would go on a 21–3 run to take the lead. Kansas would win 38–27 to start the season 4–0\\.",
"### at No. 3 Texas",
"{{See also\\|2023 Texas Longhorns football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Texas | –15\\.5 |",
"* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegeSecondaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 24 Kansas Jayhawks at No. 3 Texas Longhorns\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, September 30, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=2:30 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=No. 24 Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=7\\|R3\\=7\\|R4\\=0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''No. 3 Longhorns'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=10\\|H2\\=3\\|H3\\=13\\|H4\\=14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Darrell K Royal–Texas Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Austin, Texas]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\=102,986\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|91\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Kevin Boitmann\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= \\[\\[ESPN College Football on ABC\\|ABC]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Sean McDonough]], \\[\\[Greg McElroy]], \\[\\[Molly McGrath]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/09/KANatTEX\\-book.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UT 10:06 \\[\\[Quinn Ewers]] run for 30 yards for a touchdown (\\[\\[Bert Auburn]] kick good) 7–88, 2:45 UT 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UT 1:52 Bert Auburn 26 yard field goal 14–76, 6:26 UT 10–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 14:05 Daniel Hishaw Jr. 18 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 5–75, 2:02 UT 10–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UT 11:15 Bert Auburn 30 yard field goal 5–63, 3:35 UT 13–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UT 13:28 Jonathon Brooks 54 yard run (Bert Auburn kick good) 4–71, 1:32 UT 20–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 11:36 Jason Bean 58 yard pass to Trevor Wilson (Seth Keller kick good) 4–75, 1:52 UT 20–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UT 2:33 Jonathon Brooks 1 yard run (Quinn Ewers pass incomplete) 5–32, 1:52 UT 26–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UT 13:06 Quinn Ewers 9 yard pass (Bert Auburn kick good) 8–72, 3:25 UT 33–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 5:34 Quinn Ewers 1 yard run (Bert Auburn kick good) 12–75, 5:51 UT 40–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Texas Longhorns\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= UT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 11\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 46–260\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 25–124\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 136\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 9–21–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 20:19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 33\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 86–661\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 51–335\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 325\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 25–35–1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 39:41\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Texas Longhorns\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Texas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 9/21 136 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 8 carries 45 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= Trevor Wilson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 1 reception 58 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Quinn Ewers]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 25/35 325 yards 1 TD 1 INT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Jonathon Brooks (American football)\\|Jonathan Brooks]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 21 carries 218 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Adonai Mitchell]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 10 receptions 141 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe Jayhawks and Longhorns played each other as ranked teams for the first time in the history of the series. It was also the final matchup before Texas leaves the Big 12 for the SEC. Quarterback [Jalon Daniels](/wiki/Jalon_Daniels \"Jalon Daniels\") re\\-aggravated a preseason back injury in warmups and did not play. The Jayhawks kept the game close early, until the second half when they were outscored 27–7 giving the Jayhawks their first loss of the season.",
"### UCF",
"{{See also\\|2023 UCF Knights football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| UCF | –2 |",
"* + - * + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=UCF Knights at Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, October 7, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=3:00 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=Knights\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=8\\|R4\\=14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=3\\|H2\\=21\\|H3\\=13\\|H4\\=14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Lawrence, Kansas]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 46,107\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|64\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Tutashinda Salaam\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= \\[\\[Fox Broadcasting Company\\|Fox]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Jason Benetti]], \\[\\[Brock Huard]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/10/10\\.07\\.23\\-FB\\-Kansas\\-UCF.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 3:43 KU Seth Keller 25 yard field goal 13–82, 7:03 KU 3–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 13:43 KU Jason Bean 5 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 9–69, 4:22 KU 10–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 6:31 KU Daniel Hishaw Jr. 3 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 12–72, 6:13 KU 17–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 3:26 KU Trevor Wilson 82 yard punt return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 24–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 14:48 KU \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 75 run (Seth Keller kick good) 1–75, 0:12 KU 31–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 13:01 UCF Timmy McClain 13 yard pass to Alec Holler (Timmy McClain pass incomplete) 4–75, 1:47 KU 31–6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 7:02 KU Dylan McDuffie 1 yard run 4–17, 3:05 KU 37–6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UCF Demari Henderson blocked extra point attempt returned for 2 point conversion KU 37–8\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 13:55 UCF R. J. Harvey 4 yard run (Colton Boomer kick good) 17–75, 8:07 KU 37–15\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 11:47 KU Daniel Hishaw Jr. 7 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 4–54, 2:02 KU 44–15\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:09 UCF Timmy McClain 23 yard pass (Colton Boomer kick good) 5–75, 1:39 KU 44–22\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:53 KU Dylan McDuffie 1 yard (Owen Piepergerdes kick good) 7–35, 3:20 KU 51–22\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= UCF Knights\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= UCF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 81–371\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 38–202\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 169\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 15–23–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 25:35\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 25\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 63–490\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 51–399\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 91\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 8–12–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 34:25\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= UCF Knights\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= UCF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Timmy McClain]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 12/15 136 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[RJ Harvey\\|R. J. Harvey]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 16 carries 133 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Javon Baker]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions 85 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 8/12 91 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 12 carries 154 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Luke Grimm]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 2 receptions 41 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIn the Jayhawks first ever meeting with new Big 12 member UCF, they jumped out to an early 31–0 lead despite [Jalon Daniels](/wiki/Jalon_Daniels \"Jalon Daniels\") being out for the 2nd straight week. UCF would only manage 3 touchdowns, while the Jayhawks would score 51 points. Their 28 point margin of victory was the largest in a conference game since defeated rival Kansas State by 31 in 2008\\.",
"### at Oklahoma State",
"{{See also\\|2023 Oklahoma State Cowboys football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Kansas | –3 |",
"* + - * + - * + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegeSecondaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 23 Kansas Jayhawks at Oklahoma State Cowboys\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, October 14, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=2:30 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=No. 23 Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=7\\|R2\\=18\\|R3\\=7\\|R4\\=0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''Cowboys'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=17\\|H2\\=7\\|H3\\=3\\|H4\\=12\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Boone Pickens Stadium]] • \\[\\[Stillwater, Oklahoma]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 53,855\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|62\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\=Kevin Mar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= \\[\\[Fox Sports 1\\|FS1]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Jeff Levering]], \\[\\[Mark Helfrich (American football)\\|Mark Helfrich]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/10/34393\\.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 13:11 OSU Alan Bowman 17 yard pass to Ollie Gordon II (\\[\\[Alex Hale]] kick good) 5–77, 1:45 OSU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 7:25 OSU Alan Bowman 20 yard pass to Brennan Presley (Alex Hale kick good) 9–83, 3:00 OSU 14–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 5:14 KU Jason Bean 47 yard pass to Trevor Wilson (Seth Keller kick good) 5—75, 2:11 OSU 14–6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 12:42 KU Jason Bean 30 yard pass to \\[\\[Mason Fairchild]] (Seth Keller kick blocked) 9–75, 4:28 OSU 14–13\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:41 KU Jason Bean 44 yard pass to Mason Fairchild (Grayden Addison run failed) 2–72, 0:44 KU 19–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 2:52 OSU Ollie Gordon II 42 yard run (Alex Hale kick good) 2–53 0:48, OSU 21–19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 2:10 OSU Alex Hale 28 yard field goal 8–64, 3;04 OSU 24–19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 1:06 KU Jason Bean 49 pass to Quentin Skinner (Jason Bean pass no good) 5–75, 1:46 KU 25–24\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 11:13 KU Jason Bean 42 yard pass to Quentin Skinner (Owen Piepergerdes kick good) 8–75, 3:42 KU 32–24\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 5:28 OSU Alex Hale 26 yard field goal 13–66, 5:28 KU 32–27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 11:32 OSU Alex Hale 21 yard field goal 10–74, 4:52 KU 32–30\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 2:33 OSU Brennan Presley 6 yard run (Alan Bowman pass failed) 9–50, 3:50 OSU 36–32\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:15 OSU Alex Hale 46 yard field goal 4–9, 1:42 OSU 39–32\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Oklahoma State Cowboys\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= OSU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 63–500\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 29–90\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 410\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 23–34–2 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 28:29\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 79–554\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 38–219\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 336\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 28–41–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 31:31\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Oklahoma State Cowboys\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Oklahoma State\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 23/34 410 yards 5 TDs 2 INTs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 13 carries 66 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Mason Fairchild]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 5 receptions 92 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Alan Bowman (American football)\\|Alan Bowman]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 28/41 336 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Ollie Gordon II]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 29 carries 168 yards 1 TD \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= Ollie Gordon II\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 6 carries 116 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe Jayhawks fell into an early 14–0 deficit. Despite two special teams miscues resulting in mixed extra points, they fought back to gain a 19–17 lead. After trading touchdowns but KU missing a 2\\-point conversion attempt, the Jayhawks took a slim 2 point into halftime. The Cowboys outscored the Jayhawks 15–7 in the second half, partially due to two interceptions from quarterback Jason Bean leading to the Jayhawks loss.",
"### No. 6 Oklahoma",
"{{See also\\|2023 Oklahoma Sooners football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Oklahoma | –8 |",
"* + - * + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 6 Oklahoma Sooners at Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, October 28, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=11:00 am \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=No. 6 Sooners\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=21\\|R3\\=6\\|R4\\=6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7\\|H2\\=10\\|H3\\=9\\|H4\\=12\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Lawrence, Kansas]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 47,233\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Cloudy • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|38\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Michael VanderVelde\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= Fox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Jason Benetti]], \\[\\[Brock Huard]], \\[\\[Allison Williams (reporter)\\|Allison Williams]] \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/10/34982\\.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 9:25 KU Mello Dawson 37 yard interception return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 14:06 KU Daniel Hishaw 9 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 10–79, 14:06 KU 14–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:15 OU \\[\\[Dillon Gabriel]] 7 yard run (Zach Schmidt kick good) 10–75, 3:54 KU 14–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 6:05 OU Tawee Walker 2 yard run (Zach Schmidt kick good) 9–66, 3:11 14–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 4:23 OU Dillon Gabriel 9 yard run (Zach Schmidt kick good) 4–17, 1:38 OU 21–14\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:50 KU Seth Keller 24 yard field goal 12–79, 3:26 OU 21–17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 4:01 KU Seth Keller 29 yard field goal 5–45, 2:45 OU 21–20\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 3:03 KU Jason Bean 38 yard run (Jason Bean pass failed) 1–38, 0:08 KU 26–21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:35 OU Gavin Sawchuk 3 yard run (Dillon Gabriel pass failed) 7–75, 2:28 OU 27–26\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 12:25 KU Daniel Hishaw 1 yard run (Jason Bean pass failed) 7–65, 3:03 KU 32–27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 5:22 OU Dillon Gabriel 1 yard run (Dillon Gabriel pass failed) 4–14, 1:23 OU 33–32\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:55 KU \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 9 yard run (Devin Neal run failed) 7–80, 1:01 KU 38–33\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Oklahoma Sooners\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= OU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 74–440\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 55–269\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 171\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 14–19–1 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 28:50\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 25\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 73–443\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 41–225\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 218\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 15–32–2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 31:10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Oklahoma Sooners\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Oklahoma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Dillon Gabriel]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 14/19 171 yards 1 INT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Tawee Walker]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 23 carries 146 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Drake Stoops]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions 76 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 15/32 218 yards 2 INTs \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 25 carries 112 yards 1 TD \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Lawrence Arnold]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 3 receptions 79 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}",
"In the last matchup with the Sooners before they leave for the SEC, Kansas got out to a 14–0 lead. Oklahoma responded with a 21–0 run to take a 21–17 lead into halftime. KU would go on a 9–0 run to start the second half. The teams traded touchdowns. Kansas got the ball with 1:56 left. They marched down the field to score the game winning touchdown with 55 seconds left to become bowl eligible. The win was also the Jayhawks first win over Oklahoma since 1997, first win over top 10 team at home since 1984, and first win over a top 10 team period since 2008\\.",
"### at Iowa State",
"{{See also\\|2023 Iowa State Cyclones football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Iowa State | –3 |",
"* + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegeSecondaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 21 Kansas Jayhawks at Iowa State Cyclones\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, November 4, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=6:00 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\='''No. 21 Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=7\\|R2\\=7\\|R3\\=7\\|R4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\=Cyclones\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=3\\|H3\\=8\\|H4\\=10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Jack Trice Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ames, Iowa]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 61,500\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Clear • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|58\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Tutashinda Salaam\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= ESPN\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Mike Monaco]], \\[\\[Robert Griffin III]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKU ISU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 8:40 KU \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 6 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 9–86, 4:32 KU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:21 KU Mello Dotson 50 yard interception return (Seth Keller kick good) KU 14–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:03 ISU Chase Contreraz 35 yard field goal 7–50, 0:38 KU 14–3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 9:24 KU Devin Neal 1 yard run (Owen Piepergerdes kick) 11–75, 5:36 KU 21–3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 3:59 ISU Eli Sanders 6 yard run (Eli Sanders run good) 9–75, 5:25 KU 21–11\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 8:11 ISU Rocco Becht 2 yard run (Chase Contreraz kick good) 12–90, 6:57 KU 21–18\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 7:51 KU \\[\\[Jason Bean (politician)\\|Jason Bean]] 80 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Owen Piepergerdes kick good) 1–80, 0:20 KU 28–18\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 4:53 ISU Chase Contreraz 29 yard field goal 7–64, 2:58 KU 28–21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Iowa State Cyclones\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= ISU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 16\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 58–361\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 35–74\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 287\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 14–23–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 30:27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 16\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 56–333\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 29–75\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 258\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 21–27–1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 29:33\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Iowa State Cyclones\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Iowa State\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 14/23 287 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 21 carries 57 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Lawrence Arnold]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 3 receptions 112 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Rocco Becht]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 20/26 216 yards 1 INT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= Eli Sanders\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 14 carries 57 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= Dimitri Stanley\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 5 receptions 58 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}",
"The Jayhawks jumped out to a 14 point lead before Iowa State scored their first points, a field goal. Kansas would open the 2nd half with a touchdown to take a 21–3 lead. Iowa State responded with a 15–0 to make the game 21–18\\. Kansas followed up an Iowa State touchdown and 2 point conversion with an 80 yard touchdown to take a 28–18 lead. Iowa State would kick a field goal but wouldn't have enough in the end. It was KU's first road win against Iowa State since 2008 and first win as a ranked team since 2009\\. The win also gave KU their first 7 win season since 2008\\.",
"### Texas Tech",
"{{See also\\|2023 Texas Tech Red Raiders football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Kansas | –4 |",
"",
"* + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=Texas Tech at No. 16 Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, November 11, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=11:00 am \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CST]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\='''Red Raiders'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=10\\|R2\\=0\\|R3\\=3\\|R4\\=3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\=No. 16 Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=0\\|H2\\=0\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=13\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Lawrence, Kansas]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 47,233\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Cloudy • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|53\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Derek Anderson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports 1\\|FS1]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Eric Collins]], \\[\\[Devin Gardner]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/11/35604\\.pdf Game summary]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:18 TTU Tahj Brooks 5 yard run (Gino Garcia kick good) 7–50, 2:54 TTU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 3:24 TTU Gino Garcia 32 yard field goal 15–42, 5:22 TTU 10–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t''No scoring''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 2:56 TTU Gino Garcia 31 yard field goal 8–22, 3:42 TTU 13–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 12:12 KU \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 60 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 4–70, 1:42 TTU 13–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 4:42 KU Seth Keller 24 yard field goal 11–71, 4:57 TTU 13–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:25 KU Seth Keller 22 yard field goal 14–77, 1:55 13–13\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:03 TTY Gino Garcia 30 yard field goal 4–63, 0:26 TTU 16–13\n\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Texas Tech Red Raiders\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= TTU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 69–312\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 44–136\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 176\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 19–25–1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 31:23\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 18\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 70–344\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 45–207\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 137\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 10–25–1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 28:37\n\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Texas Tech Red Raiders\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Texas Tech\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Behren Morton]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 19/25 176 yards 1 INT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Tahj Brooks]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 33 carries 133 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Jerand Bradley]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions 91 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= Cole Ballard\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 9/24 120 yards 1 INT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 19 carries 137 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= Lawrence Arnold\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 2 receptions 44 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThe Jayhawks, already down starter [Jalon Daniels](/wiki/Jalon_Daniels \"Jalon Daniels\"), lost backup [Jason Bean](/wiki/Jason_Bean_%28politician%29 \"Jason Bean (politician)\") to injury early in the game. Texas Tech jumped to an early 13–0 lead before Kansas scored their first points on a 60 yard touchdown. After two Seth Keller field goals, the score was tied with 25 seconds left. Texas Tech would march down the field quickly to kick a game winning field goal with 3 seconds.\n### No. 21 Kansas State",
"{{See also\\|2023 Kansas State Wildcats football team\\|Sunflower Showdown}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Kansas State | –6\\.5 |",
"",
"* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 21 Kansas State Wildcats at No. 25 Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, November 18, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=6:00 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CST]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\='''No. 21 Wildcats'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=7\\|R2\\=9\\|R3\\=8\\|R4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\=No. 25 Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7\\|H2\\=13\\|H3\\=7\\|H4\\=0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Lawrence, Kansas]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 47,233\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Sunny • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|55\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= David Alvarez\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=\\[\\[Fox Sports 1\\|FS1]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Alex Faust]], \\[\\[Petros Papadakis]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/11/35878\\.pdf Game summary]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 13:44 KSU Will Howard 11 yard pass Ben Sinnott (Chris Tennant kick good) 5–75, 1:16 KSU 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 2:05 KU \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 36 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 11–82, 6:10 7–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:55 KU Devin Neal 9 yard run (Seth Keller kick blocked) 8–76, 4:28 KU 13–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KSU Keenan Garber blocked extra point returned for a two point conversion KU 13–9\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 7:24 KSU Will Howard 11 pass to Keagan Johnson (Chris Tennant kick good) 8–75, 3:33 KSU 16–13\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:26 KU Cole Ballard 5 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 13–75, 7:00 KU 20–16\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 13:28 KU Devin Neal 2 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 3–65, 1:32 KU 27–16\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 6:35 KU D. J. Giddens 1 yard run (Will Howard run good) 10–87, 4:01 KU 27–24\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 10:22 KSU Will Howard 15 yard run (Chris Tennant kick good) 6–55, 3:01 KSU 31–27\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas State Wildcats\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= KSU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 20\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 61–331\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 37–166\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 165\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 13–24–1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 26:40\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 57–396\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 41–234\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 162\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 11–16–2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 33:20\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas State Wildcats\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Kansas State\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Will Howard (American football)\\|Will Howard]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 13/24 165 yards 2 TDs 1 INT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[DJ Giddens\\|D. J. Giddens]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 21 carries 102 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= Jayce Brown\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions 96 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= Cole Ballard\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 11/16 162 yards 1 TD 2 INTs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 18 carries 138 yards 3 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Mason Fairchild]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 1 reception 59 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}\nIn the first matchup in Sunflower Showdown with both teams ranked in 28 years, the teams traded scores early in the game. In the beginning of the second half, Kansas took an 11 point lead. K\\-State would come back to win the game. It was the 15th straight loss for KU in the rivalry. The loss also officially eliminated Kansas' slim hopes to play in the Big 12 championship game.",
"### at Cincinnati",
"{{See also\\|2023 Cincinnati Bearcats football team}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| Kansas | –7 |",
"* + - * + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegeSecondaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=Kansas Jayhawks at Cincinnati Bearcats\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Saturday, November 25, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=6:30 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CST]] / 7:30 pm \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EST]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\='''Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0\\|R2\\=21\\|R3\\=7\\|R4\\=21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\=Bearcats\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=3\\|H2\\=7\\|H3\\=0\\|H4\\=6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Nippert Stadium]] • \\[\\[Cincinnati\\|Cincinnati, Ohio]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 38,193\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= Clear • '''Temperature''': {{convert\\|39\\|F\\|C}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Kevin Boitman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\= ESPN2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[John Schriffen]], \\[\\[Rocky Boiman]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\= \\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/11/KU\\-at\\-Cincy.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 8:12 UC Carter Brown 49 yard field goal 12–44, 6:48 UC 3–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 8:55 KU \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 13 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 5–77, 2:38 KU 7–3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 5:31 KU \\[\\[Jason Bean (politician)\\|Jason Bean]] 15 yard pass to Jared Casey (Seth Keller kick good) 5–66, 2:22 KU 14–3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:26 UC Emory Jones 11 yard pass Ryan Montgomery (Carter Brown kick good) 13–75, 5:05 KU 14–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:05 KU Jason Bean 26 yard pass to \\[\\[Mason Fairchild]] (Seth Keller kick good) 2–56, 0:17 KU 21–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 11:53 KU Devin Neal 30 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 8–75, 3:07 KU 28–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 13:23 UC Ryan Montgomery 7 yard pass to Dee Wiggins (Emory Jones run no good) 12–67, 5:58 KU 28–16\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 11:39 KU Jason Bean 43 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 3–79, 1:37 KU 35—16\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 9:52 KU Jason Bean 50 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 2–59, 0:55 KU 42–16\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* 0:47 KU \\[\\[Dylan McDuffie]] 6 yard run (Owen Piepergerdes kick good) 11–61, 7:01 KU 49–16\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Cincinnati Bearcats\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= UC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 23\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 51–562\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 34–312\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 250\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 13–17–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 27:19\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 73–342\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 42–231\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 111\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 16–31–1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 32:41\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= Cincinnati Bearcats\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= Cincinnati\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 13/17 250 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 10 carries 106 yards 2 TDs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Lawrence Arnold]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 3 receptions 74 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Emory Jones]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 15/27 104 yards 1 TD 1 INT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Corey Kiner]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 18 carries 106 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= Dee Wiggins\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions 27 yards\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}",
"In their first conference game again Big 12 newcomer Cincinnati, Kansas would only trail for briefly. The Jayhawks scored their first touchdown halfway through the second quarter and followed it up with another touchdown. The Jayhawks would pull away in the 4th quarter following two [Jason Bean](/wiki/Jason_Bean_%28American_football%29 \"Jason Bean (American football)\") touchdown runs to win 49–16\\. The win gave the Jayhawks their first 8 more win regular season since 2007\\. It also gave the Jayhawks their most conference wins since winning 7 in 2007\\. It also gave the Jayhawks as many conference wins as the previous four seasons combined.",
"### UNLV",
"{{See also\\|2023 UNLV Rebels football team\\|2023 Guaranteed Rate Bowl}}",
"|\n{{CollegePrimaryHeader\\|border\\=2\\|team\\=Kansas Jayhawks\\|Favorite\\|Spread}}",
"| |\n| KU | –10\\.5 |",
"",
"* + - * + - * + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\= {{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Kansas Jayhawks\\|color\\=white}}; text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg\\=\\#fff\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|bg2\\=\\#eee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=2023 Guaranteed Rate Bowl Kansas Jayhawks vs UNLV Rebels\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\=Tuesday, December 26, 2023\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=8:00 pm \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CST]] / 7:00 pm \\[\\[Mountain Time Zone\\|MST]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\='''Jayhawks'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=7\\|R2\\=21\\|R3\\=0\\|R4\\=21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\=Rebels\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7\\|H2\\=3\\|H3\\=14\\|H4\\=12\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Chase Field]] • \\[\\[Phoenix, Arizona]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 26,478\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather\\= None (\\[\\[retractable roof]] closed)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Tim Hedgepeth\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Beth Mowins]], \\[\\[Kirk Morrison]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\=\\[https://kuathletics.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2023/12/KU\\-vs\\-UNLV.pdf Gamebook]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UNLV 11:07 Vincent Davis Jr. 3 yard run (Jose Pizano kick good) 8–65, 3:53 UNLV 7–0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 2:05 \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]] 6 yard pass Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 9–98, 4:48 7–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 11:37 Jason Bean 60 yard pass to Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 4–65 yards, 2:38 KU 14–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 7:57 Jason Bean 15 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 5–66 yards, 1:19 KU 21–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 1:21 \\[\\[Devin Neal]] 1 yard run (Seth Keller kick good) 8–70 yards, 3:42 KU 28–7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UNLV 0:00 Jose Pizano 40 yard field goal 5–38, 1:21 KU 28–10\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UNLV 12:15 Jayden Maiava 5 yard pass to Shelton Zeon III (Jose Pizano kick good) 5–42, 1:44 KU 28–17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UNLV 10:30 Jayden Maiava 37 yard pass to (Jose Pizano kick good) 1–37, 0:07 KU 28–24\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 14:52 Jason Bean 40 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 10–99, 6:53 KU 35–24\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UNLV 12:06 Jacob De Jesus 11 yard run (Jayden Maiava run failed) 7–88, 2:46 KU 35–30\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 11:10 Jason Bean 56 yard pass to Lawrence Arnold (Seth Keller kick good) 2–61, 0:56 KU 42–30\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* KU 8:16 Jason Bean 43 yard pass to Luke Grimm (Seth Keller kick good) 3–46, 1:33 49–30\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* UNLV 6:27 Jayden Maiava 50 yard pass to Senika McKie (Vincent Davis run failed) 5–80, 1:49 KU 49–36\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= left\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= KU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= UNLV Rebels\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= UNLV\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisFirsts \\= 22\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 591\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushing \\= 142\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassYds \\= 449\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassing \\= 19–28–3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisTOP \\= 34:06\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeFirsts \\= 22\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 386\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushing \\= 95\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassYds \\= 291\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassing \\= 24–35–2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeTOP \\= 25:54\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Float \\= right\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Visitor \\= Kansas Jayhawks\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Kansas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| Home \\= UNLV Rebels\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeDisplay \\= UNLV\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jason Bean (American football)\\|Jason Bean]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisPassStats \\= 19/28 449 yards 6 TDs 3 INTs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Devin Neal]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisRushStats \\= 20 carries 71 yards 1 TD \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Luke Grimm]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions 160 yards 3 TDs \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Jayden Maiava]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomePassStats \\= 24/35 291 yards 3 TDs 2 INTs \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRusher \\= Jacob De Jesus \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeRushStats \\= 6 carries 40 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Ricky White]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 7 receptions 97 yards 1 TD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{{clear}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAfter giving up a touchdown on their first drive on defense and then punting on their first drive on offense, the Jayhawks went on to score 28 unanswered points before UNLV kicked a field goal as time expired in the first half. UNLV started the 2nd half on a 14–0 run to pull within 4 points. The teams traded touchdowns at the beginning of the 4th quarter before the Jayhawks would put the game away with a 14–0 run. The Jayhawks won 49–36 despite 18 penalties for 216 yards, the majority of which were personal fouls and unsportsmanlike conduct. Senior quarterback [Jason Bean](/wiki/Jason_Bean_%28American_football%29 \"Jason Bean (American football)\") tied a program record for passing touchdowns with 6\\. The win gave the Jayhawks their first bowl victory since they won the same bowl game, when it was known as the Insight Bowl, in 2008\\."
] |
Work
----
{{See also\|Classical Ottoman architecture}}
His training as an army engineer gave Sinan an empirical approach to architecture rather than a theoretical one. But the same can be said of the great Western Renaissance architects, such as [Brunelleschi](/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi "Filippo Brunelleschi") and [Michelangelo](/wiki/Michelangelo "Michelangelo").
Various sources state that Sinan was the architect of at least 374 structures which included 92 [mosques](/wiki/Mosque "Mosque"); 52 small mosques (*[mescit](/wiki/Masjid "Masjid")*); 55 schools of theology (*[medrese](/wiki/Madrasa "Madrasa")*); 7 schools for [Koran](/wiki/Quran "Quran") reciters (*darülkurra*); 20 mausoleums (*[türbe](/wiki/T%C3%BCrbe "Türbe")*); 17 public kitchens (*[imaret](/wiki/Imaret "Imaret")*); 3 hospitals (*[darüşşifa](/wiki/Dar_al-Shifa "Dar al-Shifa")*); 6 [aqueducts](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28water_supply%29 "Aqueduct (water supply)"); 10 [bridges](/wiki/Bridge "Bridge"); 20 [caravanserais](/wiki/Caravanserai "Caravanserai"); 36 [palaces](/wiki/Palace "Palace") and [mansions](/wiki/Mansion "Mansion"); 8 [vaults](/wiki/Burial_vault_%28tomb%29 "Burial vault (tomb)"); and 48 [baths](/wiki/Turkish_bath "Turkish bath").[A list of the buildings designed by Mimar Sinan](http://cadde.milliyet.com.tr/2013/12/30/HaberDetay/1656832/iSTANBUL_A_iMZASINI_ATTI) Sinan held the position of chief architect of the palace, which meant being the overseer of all construction work of the Ottoman Empire, for nearly 50 years, working with a large team of assistants consisting of architects and master builders.
The development and maturing stages of Sinan's career can be illustrated by three major works. The first two of these are in Istanbul: the [Şehzade Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque "Şehzade Mosque"), which he calls a work of his apprenticeship period and the [Süleymaniye Mosque](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque "Süleymaniye Mosque"), which is the work of his qualification stage. The [Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque%2C_Edirne "Selimiye Mosque, Edirne") in Edirne is the product of his master stage.
File:Shezade\_mosque\_9195\.jpg\|\[\[Şehzade Mosque]] in Istanbul
File:SehzadeMosqueInterior.jpg\|Şehzade Mosque (interior)
File:Cour\_mosquee\_Suleymaniye\_Istanbul.jpg\|\[\[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul
File:20101213 Suleymaniye Mosque Istanbul inside vertical Panorama.jpg\|Süleymaniye Mosque (interior)
File:Selimiye\_Mosque\_3\.JPG\|\[\[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne\|Selimiye Mosque]] in Edirne
Şehzade Mosque is the first of the grand mosques created by Sinan. The Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, which is also known as the Üsküdar Quay Mosque, was completed in the same year and has an original design with its main dome supported by three half domes. When Sinan reached the age of 70, he had completed the Süleymaniye Mosque complex. This building, situated on one of the hills of Istanbul facing the Golden Horn, and built in the name of Süleyman the Magnificent, is one of the symbolic monuments of the period. The diameter of the dome, which exceeds the {{convert\|31\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} of the Selimiye Mosque which Sinan completed when he was 80, is the most outstanding example of the level of achievement reached by Sinan. Mimar Sinan reached his artistic peak with the design, architecture, tile decorations and land stone workmanship displayed at Selimiye.
Another area of architecture where Sinan produced unique designs are his mausoleums. The Mausoleum of Şehzade Mehmed is notable for with its exterior decorations and sliced dome.{{Clarify\|date\=September 2011}} The Rüstem Paşa mausoleum is a very attractive structure in classical style. The mausoleum of Süleyman the Magnificent is an interesting experiment, with an octagonal body and flat dome. The Selim II Mausoleum with has a square plan and is one of the best examples of Turkish mausoleum architecture. Sinan's own mausoleum, which is located in the north\-east part of the Süleymaniye complex on the other hand, is a very plain structure.
[thumb\|[Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex](/wiki/K%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7_Ali_Pasha_Complex "Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex") designed by Sinan in [Karaköy](/wiki/Karak%C3%B6y "Karaköy") district of İstanbul](/wiki/File:K%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7_Ali_Pasha_Complex.jpg "Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex.jpg")
Sinan masterfully combined art with functionalism in the bridges he built. The largest of these is the nearly {{convert\|635\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} long Büyükçekmece Bridge. Other important examples are the Ailivri Bridge, the [Old Bridge](/wiki/Old_Bridge%2C_Svilengrad "Old Bridge, Svilengrad") in [Svilengrad](/wiki/Svilengrad "Svilengrad") on the Maritsa, the Lüleburgaz (Sokullu Mehmet Pasha) Bridge on the Lüleburgaz River, the Sinanlı Bridge over the river Ergene and the [Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge](/wiki/Mehmed_Pa%C5%A1a_Sokolovi%C4%87_Bridge "Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge") over [Drina](/wiki/Drina "Drina") river in [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina").The Drina Bridge gave its name to the famous novel "Na Drini ćuprija" by the Yugoslav author [Ivo Andrić](/wiki/Ivo_Andri%C4%87 "Ivo Andrić").
While Sinan was maintaining and improving the water supply system of Istanbul, he built arched aqueducts at several locations within the city. The Mağlova Arch over the Alibey River, which is {{convert\|257\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} long and {{convert\|35\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} high, has two tiers of arches, and is one of the best examples of its kind.
At the start of Sinan's career, Ottoman architecture was highly pragmatic. Buildings were repetitions of former types and were based on rudimentary plans. They were more an assembly of parts than a conception of a whole. An architect could sketch a plan for a new building and an assistant or foreman knew what to do, because novel ideas were avoided. Moreover, architects used an extravagant margin of safety in their designs, resulting in a wasteful use of material and labour. Sinan would gradually change all this. He was to transform established architectural practices, amplifying and transforming the traditions by adding innovations, trying to approach perfection.
### The early years (till the mid\-1550s): apprenticeship period
[right\|thumb\|300px\|[Osman Shah Mosque](/wiki/Osman_Shah_Mosque "Osman Shah Mosque") in [Trikala](/wiki/Trikala "Trikala"), Greece](/wiki/File:Trikala_Greece_Kursum_Mosque_3.jpg "Trikala Greece Kursum Mosque 3.jpg")
During these years he continued the traditional pattern of Ottoman architecture, but he gradually began exploring other possibilities, because during his military career he had had the opportunity to study the architectural monuments in the conquered cities of Europe and the Middle East.
His first opportunity to design a major building was the [Hüsrev Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Khusruwiyah_Mosque "Khusruwiyah Mosque") and its double [medresse](/wiki/Madrasah "Madrasah") in [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo "Aleppo"), Syria. It was built in the winter of 1536\-1537 for his commander\-in\-chief and the governor of Aleppo between two army campaigns. It was built hastily and this is evident in the coarseness of execution and the crude decoration.
[thumb\|right\|300px\|The [Ṣehzade Mehmed Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque "Şehzade Mosque")](/wiki/File:Shezade_mosque_4866.jpg "Shezade mosque 4866.jpg")
His first major commission as the royal architect was the construction of the [Haseki Sultan Complex](/wiki/Haseki_Sultan_Complex "Haseki Sultan Complex") for [Hurrem Sultan](/wiki/Hurrem_Sultan "Hurrem Sultan"), the wife of the sultan, [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent "Suleiman the Magnificent"). He had to follow the plans drawn by his predecessors. Sinan retained the traditional arrangement of the available space without any innovations. Nevertheless, it was already better built than the Aleppo mosque and it shows a certain elegance. However, it has suffered from many restorations. Sinan is credited to have built a defensive tower in [Vlorë](/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB "Vlorë"), south [Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania"), in 1537, very similar to the [White Tower of Thessaloniki](/wiki/White_Tower_of_Thessaloniki "White Tower of Thessaloniki"),{{cite book \|title\=City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective\|last\=Tracy \|first\=James D. \|author2\=Savitri Mahajan \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]]\|isbn\= 978\-0\-521\-65221\-6 \| page\=306\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=S7dUv\-1Ql2oC\&q\=%22the\+architect\+may\+have\+been\+Sinan%22\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-07 }} as well as [Muradie Mosque](/wiki/Muradie_Mosque "Muradie Mosque"), during Suleiman the Magnificent's stay in the town for the preparation of his expedition towards [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy").{{cite book\|title\=Fjalori Enciklopedik Shqiptar\|author\=Gjergji Frasheri \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=Akademia e Shkencave e Shqipërisë\|isbn\=978\-99956\-10\-32\-6 \| page\=2946}}{{cite book\|title\=Albanian Cultural Heritage\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Republic of Albania, National Tourism Agency\|page\=59\|url\=http://www.akt.gov.al/materiale/kultura%20blerina.pdf\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-07\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008023655/http://www.akt.gov.al/materiale/kultura%20blerina.pdf\|archive\-date\=2010\-10\-08}}
In 1541, he started the construction of the mausoleum (*türbe*) of the Grand Admiral [Hayreddin Barbarossa](/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa "Hayreddin Barbarossa"). It stands on the shore of [Beşiktaş](/wiki/Be%C5%9Fikta%C5%9F "Beşiktaş") on the European part of Istanbul, at the site where his fleet used to assemble. Oddly enough, the admiral is not buried there, but in his türbe next to the Iskele mosque. This mausoleum has been severely neglected since then.
[Mihrimah Sultan](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_%28daughter_of_Suleiman_I%29 "Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I)"), the only daughter of Suleiman and Hurrem and wife of the Grand Vizier [Rüstem Pasha](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha "Rüstem Pasha") gave Sinan the commission to build a mosque with *[medrese](/wiki/Medrese "Medrese")* (college), an *[imaret](/wiki/Imaret "Imaret")* (soup kitchen) and a {{transl\|ar\|sibyan \[\[mekteb]]}} (Qur'an school) in [Üsküdar](/wiki/%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar "Üsküdar"). The *imaret* no longer exists. This [Iskele Mosque](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_Mosque_%28%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar%29 "Mihrimah Sultan Mosque (Üsküdar)") (or Jetty mosque) already shows several hallmarks of Sinan's mature style: a spacious, high\-vaulted basement, slender minarets, single\-domed [baldacchino](/wiki/Baldacchino "Baldacchino"), flanked by three [semi\-domes](/wiki/Semi-dome "Semi-dome") ending in three [exedrae](/wiki/Exedra "Exedra") and a broad double [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico"). The construction was finished in 1548\. The construction of a double portico was not a first in Ottoman architecture, but it set a trend for country mosques and mosques of viziers in particular. Rüstem Pasha and Mihrimah required them later in their three mosques in Constantinople and in the Rüstem Pasha Mosque in [Tekirdağ](/wiki/Tekirda%C4%9F "Tekirdağ"). The inner portico traditionally have [stalactite](/wiki/Stalactite "Stalactite") capitals while the outer portico has capitals with [chevron](/wiki/Chevron_%28insignia%29 "Chevron (insignia)") patterns (*baklava*).
When sultan Suleiman the Magnificent returned from another Balkan campaign, he received news that his son [Şehzade Mehmed](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mehmed "Şehzade Mehmed") had died at the age of twenty\-two. In November 1543, not long after Sinan had started the construction of the Iskele Mosque, the sultan ordered Sinan to build a new major mosque with an adjoining complex in memory of his favourite son. This [Şehzade Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque "Şehzade Mosque") would become larger and more ambitious than his previous ones. Architectural historians consider this mosque as Sinan's first masterpiece. Obsessed by the concept of a large central dome, Sinan turned to the plans of mosques such as the Fatih Pasha Mosque in [Diyarbakır](/wiki/Diyarbak%C4%B1r "Diyarbakır") or the Piri Pasha Mosque in [Hasköy](/wiki/Hask%C3%B6y%2C_Istanbul "Hasköy, Istanbul"). He must have visited both mosques during his Persian campaign. Sinan built a mosque with a central dome, this time with four equal half\-domes. This superstructure is supported by four massive, but still elegant, free\-standing octagonal fluted piers and four piers incorporated in each lateral wall. In the corners, above roof level, four turrets serve as stabilizing anchors. This coherent concept already is markedly different from the additive plans of traditional Ottoman architecture. [Sedefkar Mehmed Agha](/wiki/Sedefkar_Mehmed_Agha "Sedefkar Mehmed Agha") would later copy the concept of fluted piers in his [Sultan Ahmed Mosque](/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque "Sultan Ahmed Mosque") in an attempt to lighten their appearance. Sinan, however, rejected this solution in his next mosques.
### Mid\-1550s to 1570: qualification stage
By 1550, Suleiman the Magnificent was at the height of his powers. Having built a mosque for his son, he felt it was time to construct his own [imperial mosque](/wiki/Imperial_mosque "Imperial mosque"), an enduring monument larger than all the others, to be built on a gently sloping hillside dominating the [Golden Horn](/wiki/Golden_Horn "Golden Horn"). Money was no problem, since he had accumulated a treasure from the loot of his campaigns in Europe and the Middle East. He gave the order to Sinan to build a mosque, the [Süleymaniye](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye "Süleymaniye"), surrounded by a [külliye](/wiki/K%C3%BClliye "Külliye") consisting of four colleges, a soup kitchen, a hospital, an asylum, a [hamam](/wiki/Turkish_bath "Turkish bath"), a [caravanserai](/wiki/Caravanserai "Caravanserai") and a hospice for travellers (*tabhane*). Sinan, now heading a formidable department with a great number of assistants, finished this formidable task in seven years. Before Süleymaniye, no mosques had been built with half cubic roofs. He got the idea of half cubic roof design from the [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia "Hagia Sophia"). Through this monumental{{according to whom\|date\=June 2012}} achievement, Sinan emerged from the anonymity of his predecessors. Sinan must have known the ideas of the Renaissance architect [Leone Battista Alberti](/wiki/Leone_Battista_Alberti "Leone Battista Alberti") (who in turn had studied *De architectura* by the Roman architect and engineer [Vitruvius](/wiki/Vitruvius "Vitruvius")), since he too was concerned in building the ideal church, reflecting harmony through the perfection of geometry in architecture. But, contrary to his Western counterparts, Sinan was more interested in simplification than in enrichment. He tried to achieve the largest volume under a single central dome. The dome is based on the circle, the perfect geometrical figure representing, in an abstract way, a perfect God. Sinan used subtle geometric relationships, using multiples of two when calculating the ratios and the proportions of his buildings. However, in a later stage, he also used divisions of three or ratios of two to three when working out the width and the proportions of domes, such as the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque_%28Kad%C4%B1rga%29 "Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque (Kadırga)") at Kadırga.
While he was fully occupied with the construction of the Süleymaniye, Sinan or his subordinates drew up the plans and gave instructions for many other constructions. Sinan built a mosque for the Grand Vizier [Pargalı İbrahim Pasha](/wiki/Pargal%C4%B1_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha "Pargalı İbrahim Pasha") and a mausoleum (*türbe*) at [Silivrikapı](/wiki/Silivrikap%C4%B1 "Silivrikapı") (Constantinople) in 1551\.
[thumb\|[Juma\-Jami Mosque](/wiki/Juma-Jami_Mosque%2C_Yevpatoria "Juma-Jami Mosque, Yevpatoria") (Han Mosque) in [Yevpatoria](/wiki/Yevpatoria "Yevpatoria"), Crimea](/wiki/File:Eupatoria_04-14_img12_Juma_Jami_Mosque.jpg "Eupatoria 04-14 img12 Juma Jami Mosque.jpg")
The next Grand Vizier, [Rüstem Pasha](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha "Rüstem Pasha") gave Sinan several more commissions. In 1550 he built a large inn (*han*) in the Galata district of Istanbul. About ten years later he built another *han* in [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne "Edirne"), and between 1544 and 1561 the Taṣ Han at [Erzurum](/wiki/Erzurum "Erzurum"). He designed a [caravanserai](/wiki/Caravanserai "Caravanserai") in [Eregli](/wiki/Ere%C4%9Fli%2C_Konya "Ereğli, Konya") and an octagonal [madrasah](/wiki/Madrasah "Madrasah") in Constantinople.
Between 1553 and 1555, Sinan built the [Sinan Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sinan_Pasha_Mosque_%28Istanbul%29 "Sinan Pasha Mosque (Istanbul)") at [Beşiktaş](/wiki/Be%C5%9Fikta%C5%9F "Beşiktaş"), a smaller version of the [Üç Şerefeli Mosque](/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7_%C5%9Eerefeli_Mosque "Üç Şerefeli Mosque") at [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne "Edirne"), for the Grand Admiral [Sinan Pasha](/wiki/Sinan_Pasha_%28Ottoman_admiral%29 "Sinan Pasha (Ottoman admiral)"). This proves again that Sinan had thoroughly studied the work of other architects, especially since he was responsible for the upkeep of these buildings. He copied the old form, pondered over the weaknesses in the construction and tried to solve this with his own solution. In 1554, Sinan used the form of the Sinan Pasha mosque again for the construction of the mosque for the next Grand Vizier [Kara Ahmet Pasha](/wiki/Kara_Ahmet_Pasha_Mosque "Kara Ahmet Pasha Mosque") in Constantinople, his first hexagonal mosque. By using a hexagonal plan, Sinan could reduce the side domes to half\-domes and set them in the corners at an angle of 45 degrees. Clearly, Sinan must have appreciated this form,{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}} since he repeated it later in mosques such as the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha "Sokollu Mehmed Pasha") Mosque at [Kadırga](/wiki/Kad%C4%B1rga "Kadırga") and the [Atik Valide Mosque](/wiki/Atik_Valide_Mosque "Atik Valide Mosque") at [Üsküdar](/wiki/%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar "Üsküdar").
In 1556, Sinan built the [Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı](/wiki/Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_Hamam%C4%B1 "Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı"), replacing the antique [Baths of Zeuxippus](/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus "Baths of Zeuxippus"), which are still standing close to the [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia "Hagia Sophia"). This would become one of the most beautiful hamams he ever constructed.
In 1559, he built the Cafer Ağa madrasah below the forecourt of the Hagia Sophia. In the same year he began the construction of a small mosque for [Iskender Pasha](/wiki/Iskender_Pasha_%28governor_of_Egypt%29 "Iskender Pasha (governor of Egypt)") at [Kanlıca](/wiki/Kanl%C4%B1ca "Kanlıca"), beside the Bosphorus. This was one of the many minor and routine commissions the office of Sinan received over the years.
In 1561, when Rüstem Pasha died, Sinan began the construction of the [Rüstem Pasha Mosque](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha_Mosque "Rüstem Pasha Mosque"), as a memorial supervised by his widow [Mihrimah Sultan](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_%28daughter_of_Suleiman_I%29 "Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I)"). It is situated just below the [Süleymaniye](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye "Süleymaniye"). This time the central form is octagonal, modelled on the monastery church of [Saints Sergius and Bacchus](/wiki/Saints_Sergius_and_Bacchus "Saints Sergius and Bacchus"), with four small semi\-domes set in the corners. In the same year, Sinan built a türbe for Rüstem Pasha in the garden of the [Şehzade Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque "Şehzade Mosque"), decorated with the finest tiles [Iznik](/wiki/Iznik "Iznik") could produce. Mihrimah Sultan, having doubled her wealth after the death of her husband, now wanted a mosque of her own. Sinan built the [Mihrimah Mosque](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_Mosque_%28Edirnekap%C4%B1%29 "Mihrimah Sultan Mosque (Edirnekapı)") at [Edirnekapı](/wiki/Edirnekap%C4%B1%2C_Istanbul "Edirnekapı, Istanbul") (Edirne Gate) for her on the highest of the seven hills of Constantinople. He raised the mosque on a vaulted platform, accentuating its hilltop site. There is some speculation concerning the dates; until recently this was supposed to be between 1540 and 1540, but now it is generally accepted to be between 1562 and 1565\. Sinan, concerned with grandeur, built a mosque in one of his most imaginative designs, using new support systems and lateral spaces to increase the area available for windows. He built a central dome {{convert\|37\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} high and {{convert\|20\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} wide, supported by [pendentives](/wiki/Pendentive "Pendentive"), on a square base with two lateral galleries, each with three cupolas. At each corner of this square stands a gigantic pier, connected with immense arches each with 15 large windows and four circular ones, flooding the interior with light. The style of this revolutionary building was as close to the [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture "Gothic architecture") style as Ottoman structure permits.
In 1566 Sinan completed the [Banya Bashi Mosque](/wiki/Banya_Bashi_Mosque "Banya Bashi Mosque") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia"), [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria"), currently the only functioning mosque in the city. His first mosque in Sofia was built in 1528; popularly known as *Imaret Mosque* or *Black Mosque* due to the dark colour of its building stone, it was damaged by an earthquake and abandoned in the 19th century.
In the 1560s he built the Kirkcesme water supply system for Istanbul. It is seen as a masterpiece of his work. It spans 55 km and includes 35 [aqueduct bridges](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28bridge%29 "Aqueduct (bridge)"), 4 of which are notable for their height (up to 35m) as well as their length (up to 700m).{{Cite book\|last1\=Harmancioglu\|first1\=Nilgun B.\|title\=Water Resources of Turkey\|last2\=Altinbilek\|first2\=Dogan\|date\=2019\-06\-04\|publisher\=Springer\|isbn\=978\-3\-030\-11729\-0\|pages\=46\|language\=en}}
Between 1560 and 1566 Sinan built a mosque in Constantinople for [Zal Mahmud Pasha](/wiki/Zal_Mahmud_Pasha_Mosque "Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque") on a hillside beyond Ayvansaray. Sinan certainly conceived the plans and partly supervised the construction, but left the building of lesser areas to less than competent hands, since Sinan and his most able assistants were about to begin his masterpiece, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. On the outside, the mosque rises high, with its east wall pierced by four tiers of windows. This gives the mosque an aspect of a palace or even a block of apartments. Inside, there are three broad galleries making the interior look compact. The heaviness of this structure makes the dome look unexpectedly lofty. These galleries look like a preliminary try\-out for the galleries of the [Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque%2C_Edirne "Selimiye Mosque, Edirne").
### The period from 1570 to his death: master stage
[right\|thumb\|200px\|[Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_%28Edirne%29 "Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)") in [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne "Edirne"), Turkey; built by Sinan in 1575](/wiki/File:Ist-Ath_-_99_cropped.jpg "Ist-Ath - 99 cropped.jpg")
[left\|thumb\|[Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_%28Edirne%29 "Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)") detail](/wiki/File:Selimiye_Mosque_026.jpg "Selimiye Mosque 026.jpg")
In this late stage of his life, Sinan tried to create unified and sublimely elegant interiors. To achieve this, he eliminated all the unnecessary subsidiary spaces beyond the supporting piers of the central dome. This can be seen in the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque_%28Kad%C4%B1rga%29 "Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque (Kadırga)") in Kadırga, Istanbul (1571–1572\) and in the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. In other buildings of his final period, Sinan experimented with spatial and mural treatments that were new in the classical Ottoman architecture.
According to him from his autobiography *Tezkiretü'l\-Bünyan*, his masterpiece is the [Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_%28Edirne%29 "Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)") in [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne "Edirne"). Breaking free of the handicaps of traditional Ottoman architecture, this mosque marks the climax of Sinan's work and of all classical Ottoman architecture. While it was being built, the architect's saying of "*You can never build a dome larger than the dome of [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia "Hagia Sophia") and specially as Muslims*" was his main motivation. When it was completed, Sinan claimed that it had the largest dome in the world, leaving Hagia Sophia behind. In fact, the dome height from the ground level was lower and the diameter barely larger (0\.5 meters, approximately 2 feet) than the millennium\-older Hagia Sophia. However, measured from its base the dome of Selimiye is higher. Sinan was more than 80 years old when the building was finished. In this mosque he finally realized his aim of creating the optimum, completely unified, domed interior: a triumph of space that dominates the interior. He used this time an octagonal central dome (31\.28 m wide and 42 m high), supported by eight elephantine piers of marble and granite. These supports lack any [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 "Capital (architecture)") but have squinches or consoles at their summit, leading to the optical effect that the arches seem to grow integrally out of the piers. By placing the lateral galleries far away, he increased the three\-dimensional effect. The many windows in the screen walls flood the interior with light. The buttressing semi\-domes are set in the four corners of the square under the dome. The weight and the internal tensions are hidden, producing an airy and elegant effect rarely seen under a central dome. The four minarets (83 m high) at the corners of the prayer hall are the tallest in the Muslim world, accentuating the vertical posture of this mosque that already dominates the city.
[left\|thumb\|200px\|[Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge](/wiki/Mehmed_Pa%C5%A1a_Sokolovi%C4%87_Bridge "Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge") in [Višegrad](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1egrad "Višegrad"), Bosnia and Herzegovina; built by Sinan in 1577 and inscribed at UNESCO](/wiki/File:Visegrad_Drina_Bridge_1.jpg "Visegrad Drina Bridge 1.jpg")
He also designed the [Sulaymaniyya Takiyya](/wiki/Sulaymaniyya_Takiyya "Sulaymaniyya Takiyya") in [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus "Damascus"), Syria, considered to have marked the introduction of the [Ottoman architectural style](/wiki/Ottoman_architecture "Ottoman architecture") to the city.{{cite book\|author\=Gérard Degeorge\|year\=1994\|title\=Damas\|page\=46}} He has also built [Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge](/wiki/Mehmed_Pa%C5%A1a_Sokolovi%C4%87_Bridge "Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge") across the [Drina River](/wiki/Drina_River "Drina River") in [Višegrad](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1egrad "Višegrad"), Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is now a [UNESCO World Heritage Site](/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site "UNESCO World Heritage Site").
### Conclusion
[thumb\|right\|Mimar Sinan's architectural concepts were incorporated into the design of the [Taj Mahal](/wiki/Taj_Mahal "Taj Mahal"),William J. Hennessey, PhD, Director, Univ. of Michigan Museum of Art. IBM 1999 WORLD BOOK.Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman. Architecture: from Prehistory to Post\-Modernism. p. 223\. by the [Mughal](/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") architect [Ustad Ahmad Lahori](/wiki/Ustad_Ahmad_Lahori "Ustad Ahmad Lahori") during the reign of [Shah Jahan](/wiki/Shah_Jahan "Shah Jahan").](/wiki/File:The_Taj_Mahal_main_building.jpg "The Taj Mahal main building.jpg")
At the start of his career as an architect, Sinan had to deal with an established, traditional domed architecture. His training as an army engineer led him to approach architecture from an empirical point of view, rather than from a theoretical one. He started to experiment with the design and engineering of single\-domed and multiple\-domed structures. He tried to obtain a new geometrical purity, a rationality and a spatial integrity in his structures and designs of mosques. Through all this, he demonstrated his creativity and his wish to create a clear, unified space. He started to develop a series of variations on the domes, surrounding them in different ways with semi\-domes, piers, screen walls and different sets of galleries. His domes and arches are curved, but he avoided curvilinear elements in the rest of his design, transforming the circle of the dome into a rectangular, hexagonal or octagonal system. He tried to obtain a rational harmony between the exterior pyramidal composition of semi\-domes, culminating in a single drumless dome, and the interior space where this central dome vertically integrates the space into a unified whole. His genius lies in the organization of this space and in the resolution of the tensions created by the design. He was an innovator in the use of decoration and motifs, merging them into the architectural forms as a whole. He accentuated the centre underneath the central dome by flooding it with light from the many windows. He incorporated his mosques in an efficient way into a complex (*külliye*), serving the needs of the community as an intellectual centre, a community centre and serving the social needs and the health problems of the faithful.
When Sinan died, classical Ottoman architecture had reached its climax. No successor was gifted enough to better the design of the Selimiye Mosque and to develop it further. His students retreated to earlier models, such as the Şehzade mosque.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}} Invention faded away, and a decline set in.
|
[
"Work\n----",
"{{See also\\|Classical Ottoman architecture}}\nHis training as an army engineer gave Sinan an empirical approach to architecture rather than a theoretical one. But the same can be said of the great Western Renaissance architects, such as [Brunelleschi](/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi \"Filippo Brunelleschi\") and [Michelangelo](/wiki/Michelangelo \"Michelangelo\").",
"Various sources state that Sinan was the architect of at least 374 structures which included 92 [mosques](/wiki/Mosque \"Mosque\"); 52 small mosques (*[mescit](/wiki/Masjid \"Masjid\")*); 55 schools of theology (*[medrese](/wiki/Madrasa \"Madrasa\")*); 7 schools for [Koran](/wiki/Quran \"Quran\") reciters (*darülkurra*); 20 mausoleums (*[türbe](/wiki/T%C3%BCrbe \"Türbe\")*); 17 public kitchens (*[imaret](/wiki/Imaret \"Imaret\")*); 3 hospitals (*[darüşşifa](/wiki/Dar_al-Shifa \"Dar al-Shifa\")*); 6 [aqueducts](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28water_supply%29 \"Aqueduct (water supply)\"); 10 [bridges](/wiki/Bridge \"Bridge\"); 20 [caravanserais](/wiki/Caravanserai \"Caravanserai\"); 36 [palaces](/wiki/Palace \"Palace\") and [mansions](/wiki/Mansion \"Mansion\"); 8 [vaults](/wiki/Burial_vault_%28tomb%29 \"Burial vault (tomb)\"); and 48 [baths](/wiki/Turkish_bath \"Turkish bath\").[A list of the buildings designed by Mimar Sinan](http://cadde.milliyet.com.tr/2013/12/30/HaberDetay/1656832/iSTANBUL_A_iMZASINI_ATTI) Sinan held the position of chief architect of the palace, which meant being the overseer of all construction work of the Ottoman Empire, for nearly 50 years, working with a large team of assistants consisting of architects and master builders.",
"The development and maturing stages of Sinan's career can be illustrated by three major works. The first two of these are in Istanbul: the [Şehzade Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque \"Şehzade Mosque\"), which he calls a work of his apprenticeship period and the [Süleymaniye Mosque](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque \"Süleymaniye Mosque\"), which is the work of his qualification stage. The [Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque%2C_Edirne \"Selimiye Mosque, Edirne\") in Edirne is the product of his master stage.",
"File:Shezade\\_mosque\\_9195\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Şehzade Mosque]] in Istanbul\nFile:SehzadeMosqueInterior.jpg\\|Şehzade Mosque (interior)\nFile:Cour\\_mosquee\\_Suleymaniye\\_Istanbul.jpg\\|\\[\\[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul\nFile:20101213 Suleymaniye Mosque Istanbul inside vertical Panorama.jpg\\|Süleymaniye Mosque (interior)\nFile:Selimiye\\_Mosque\\_3\\.JPG\\|\\[\\[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne\\|Selimiye Mosque]] in Edirne",
"",
"Şehzade Mosque is the first of the grand mosques created by Sinan. The Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, which is also known as the Üsküdar Quay Mosque, was completed in the same year and has an original design with its main dome supported by three half domes. When Sinan reached the age of 70, he had completed the Süleymaniye Mosque complex. This building, situated on one of the hills of Istanbul facing the Golden Horn, and built in the name of Süleyman the Magnificent, is one of the symbolic monuments of the period. The diameter of the dome, which exceeds the {{convert\\|31\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} of the Selimiye Mosque which Sinan completed when he was 80, is the most outstanding example of the level of achievement reached by Sinan. Mimar Sinan reached his artistic peak with the design, architecture, tile decorations and land stone workmanship displayed at Selimiye.",
"Another area of architecture where Sinan produced unique designs are his mausoleums. The Mausoleum of Şehzade Mehmed is notable for with its exterior decorations and sliced dome.{{Clarify\\|date\\=September 2011}} The Rüstem Paşa mausoleum is a very attractive structure in classical style. The mausoleum of Süleyman the Magnificent is an interesting experiment, with an octagonal body and flat dome. The Selim II Mausoleum with has a square plan and is one of the best examples of Turkish mausoleum architecture. Sinan's own mausoleum, which is located in the north\\-east part of the Süleymaniye complex on the other hand, is a very plain structure.\n[thumb\\|[Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex](/wiki/K%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7_Ali_Pasha_Complex \"Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex\") designed by Sinan in [Karaköy](/wiki/Karak%C3%B6y \"Karaköy\") district of İstanbul](/wiki/File:K%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7_Ali_Pasha_Complex.jpg \"Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex.jpg\")\nSinan masterfully combined art with functionalism in the bridges he built. The largest of these is the nearly {{convert\\|635\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} long Büyükçekmece Bridge. Other important examples are the Ailivri Bridge, the [Old Bridge](/wiki/Old_Bridge%2C_Svilengrad \"Old Bridge, Svilengrad\") in [Svilengrad](/wiki/Svilengrad \"Svilengrad\") on the Maritsa, the Lüleburgaz (Sokullu Mehmet Pasha) Bridge on the Lüleburgaz River, the Sinanlı Bridge over the river Ergene and the [Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge](/wiki/Mehmed_Pa%C5%A1a_Sokolovi%C4%87_Bridge \"Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge\") over [Drina](/wiki/Drina \"Drina\") river in [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina \"Bosnia and Herzegovina\").The Drina Bridge gave its name to the famous novel \"Na Drini ćuprija\" by the Yugoslav author [Ivo Andrić](/wiki/Ivo_Andri%C4%87 \"Ivo Andrić\").",
"While Sinan was maintaining and improving the water supply system of Istanbul, he built arched aqueducts at several locations within the city. The Mağlova Arch over the Alibey River, which is {{convert\\|257\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} long and {{convert\\|35\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} high, has two tiers of arches, and is one of the best examples of its kind.",
"At the start of Sinan's career, Ottoman architecture was highly pragmatic. Buildings were repetitions of former types and were based on rudimentary plans. They were more an assembly of parts than a conception of a whole. An architect could sketch a plan for a new building and an assistant or foreman knew what to do, because novel ideas were avoided. Moreover, architects used an extravagant margin of safety in their designs, resulting in a wasteful use of material and labour. Sinan would gradually change all this. He was to transform established architectural practices, amplifying and transforming the traditions by adding innovations, trying to approach perfection.",
"### The early years (till the mid\\-1550s): apprenticeship period",
"[right\\|thumb\\|300px\\|[Osman Shah Mosque](/wiki/Osman_Shah_Mosque \"Osman Shah Mosque\") in [Trikala](/wiki/Trikala \"Trikala\"), Greece](/wiki/File:Trikala_Greece_Kursum_Mosque_3.jpg \"Trikala Greece Kursum Mosque 3.jpg\")",
"During these years he continued the traditional pattern of Ottoman architecture, but he gradually began exploring other possibilities, because during his military career he had had the opportunity to study the architectural monuments in the conquered cities of Europe and the Middle East.",
"His first opportunity to design a major building was the [Hüsrev Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Khusruwiyah_Mosque \"Khusruwiyah Mosque\") and its double [medresse](/wiki/Madrasah \"Madrasah\") in [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo \"Aleppo\"), Syria. It was built in the winter of 1536\\-1537 for his commander\\-in\\-chief and the governor of Aleppo between two army campaigns. It was built hastily and this is evident in the coarseness of execution and the crude decoration.\n[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|The [Ṣehzade Mehmed Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque \"Şehzade Mosque\")](/wiki/File:Shezade_mosque_4866.jpg \"Shezade mosque 4866.jpg\")\nHis first major commission as the royal architect was the construction of the [Haseki Sultan Complex](/wiki/Haseki_Sultan_Complex \"Haseki Sultan Complex\") for [Hurrem Sultan](/wiki/Hurrem_Sultan \"Hurrem Sultan\"), the wife of the sultan, [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent \"Suleiman the Magnificent\"). He had to follow the plans drawn by his predecessors. Sinan retained the traditional arrangement of the available space without any innovations. Nevertheless, it was already better built than the Aleppo mosque and it shows a certain elegance. However, it has suffered from many restorations. Sinan is credited to have built a defensive tower in [Vlorë](/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB \"Vlorë\"), south [Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\"), in 1537, very similar to the [White Tower of Thessaloniki](/wiki/White_Tower_of_Thessaloniki \"White Tower of Thessaloniki\"),{{cite book \\|title\\=City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective\\|last\\=Tracy \\|first\\=James D. \\|author2\\=Savitri Mahajan \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]]\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-521\\-65221\\-6 \\| page\\=306\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=S7dUv\\-1Ql2oC\\&q\\=%22the\\+architect\\+may\\+have\\+been\\+Sinan%22\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-07 }} as well as [Muradie Mosque](/wiki/Muradie_Mosque \"Muradie Mosque\"), during Suleiman the Magnificent's stay in the town for the preparation of his expedition towards [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Fjalori Enciklopedik Shqiptar\\|author\\=Gjergji Frasheri \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Akademia e Shkencave e Shqipërisë\\|isbn\\=978\\-99956\\-10\\-32\\-6 \\| page\\=2946}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Albanian Cultural Heritage\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Republic of Albania, National Tourism Agency\\|page\\=59\\|url\\=http://www.akt.gov.al/materiale/kultura%20blerina.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-07\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008023655/http://www.akt.gov.al/materiale/kultura%20blerina.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-08}}",
"In 1541, he started the construction of the mausoleum (*türbe*) of the Grand Admiral [Hayreddin Barbarossa](/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa \"Hayreddin Barbarossa\"). It stands on the shore of [Beşiktaş](/wiki/Be%C5%9Fikta%C5%9F \"Beşiktaş\") on the European part of Istanbul, at the site where his fleet used to assemble. Oddly enough, the admiral is not buried there, but in his türbe next to the Iskele mosque. This mausoleum has been severely neglected since then.",
"[Mihrimah Sultan](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_%28daughter_of_Suleiman_I%29 \"Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I)\"), the only daughter of Suleiman and Hurrem and wife of the Grand Vizier [Rüstem Pasha](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha \"Rüstem Pasha\") gave Sinan the commission to build a mosque with *[medrese](/wiki/Medrese \"Medrese\")* (college), an *[imaret](/wiki/Imaret \"Imaret\")* (soup kitchen) and a {{transl\\|ar\\|sibyan \\[\\[mekteb]]}} (Qur'an school) in [Üsküdar](/wiki/%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar \"Üsküdar\"). The *imaret* no longer exists. This [Iskele Mosque](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_Mosque_%28%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar%29 \"Mihrimah Sultan Mosque (Üsküdar)\") (or Jetty mosque) already shows several hallmarks of Sinan's mature style: a spacious, high\\-vaulted basement, slender minarets, single\\-domed [baldacchino](/wiki/Baldacchino \"Baldacchino\"), flanked by three [semi\\-domes](/wiki/Semi-dome \"Semi-dome\") ending in three [exedrae](/wiki/Exedra \"Exedra\") and a broad double [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\"). The construction was finished in 1548\\. The construction of a double portico was not a first in Ottoman architecture, but it set a trend for country mosques and mosques of viziers in particular. Rüstem Pasha and Mihrimah required them later in their three mosques in Constantinople and in the Rüstem Pasha Mosque in [Tekirdağ](/wiki/Tekirda%C4%9F \"Tekirdağ\"). The inner portico traditionally have [stalactite](/wiki/Stalactite \"Stalactite\") capitals while the outer portico has capitals with [chevron](/wiki/Chevron_%28insignia%29 \"Chevron (insignia)\") patterns (*baklava*).",
"When sultan Suleiman the Magnificent returned from another Balkan campaign, he received news that his son [Şehzade Mehmed](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mehmed \"Şehzade Mehmed\") had died at the age of twenty\\-two. In November 1543, not long after Sinan had started the construction of the Iskele Mosque, the sultan ordered Sinan to build a new major mosque with an adjoining complex in memory of his favourite son. This [Şehzade Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque \"Şehzade Mosque\") would become larger and more ambitious than his previous ones. Architectural historians consider this mosque as Sinan's first masterpiece. Obsessed by the concept of a large central dome, Sinan turned to the plans of mosques such as the Fatih Pasha Mosque in [Diyarbakır](/wiki/Diyarbak%C4%B1r \"Diyarbakır\") or the Piri Pasha Mosque in [Hasköy](/wiki/Hask%C3%B6y%2C_Istanbul \"Hasköy, Istanbul\"). He must have visited both mosques during his Persian campaign. Sinan built a mosque with a central dome, this time with four equal half\\-domes. This superstructure is supported by four massive, but still elegant, free\\-standing octagonal fluted piers and four piers incorporated in each lateral wall. In the corners, above roof level, four turrets serve as stabilizing anchors. This coherent concept already is markedly different from the additive plans of traditional Ottoman architecture. [Sedefkar Mehmed Agha](/wiki/Sedefkar_Mehmed_Agha \"Sedefkar Mehmed Agha\") would later copy the concept of fluted piers in his [Sultan Ahmed Mosque](/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque \"Sultan Ahmed Mosque\") in an attempt to lighten their appearance. Sinan, however, rejected this solution in his next mosques.",
"### Mid\\-1550s to 1570: qualification stage",
"By 1550, Suleiman the Magnificent was at the height of his powers. Having built a mosque for his son, he felt it was time to construct his own [imperial mosque](/wiki/Imperial_mosque \"Imperial mosque\"), an enduring monument larger than all the others, to be built on a gently sloping hillside dominating the [Golden Horn](/wiki/Golden_Horn \"Golden Horn\"). Money was no problem, since he had accumulated a treasure from the loot of his campaigns in Europe and the Middle East. He gave the order to Sinan to build a mosque, the [Süleymaniye](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye \"Süleymaniye\"), surrounded by a [külliye](/wiki/K%C3%BClliye \"Külliye\") consisting of four colleges, a soup kitchen, a hospital, an asylum, a [hamam](/wiki/Turkish_bath \"Turkish bath\"), a [caravanserai](/wiki/Caravanserai \"Caravanserai\") and a hospice for travellers (*tabhane*). Sinan, now heading a formidable department with a great number of assistants, finished this formidable task in seven years. Before Süleymaniye, no mosques had been built with half cubic roofs. He got the idea of half cubic roof design from the [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia \"Hagia Sophia\"). Through this monumental{{according to whom\\|date\\=June 2012}} achievement, Sinan emerged from the anonymity of his predecessors. Sinan must have known the ideas of the Renaissance architect [Leone Battista Alberti](/wiki/Leone_Battista_Alberti \"Leone Battista Alberti\") (who in turn had studied *De architectura* by the Roman architect and engineer [Vitruvius](/wiki/Vitruvius \"Vitruvius\")), since he too was concerned in building the ideal church, reflecting harmony through the perfection of geometry in architecture. But, contrary to his Western counterparts, Sinan was more interested in simplification than in enrichment. He tried to achieve the largest volume under a single central dome. The dome is based on the circle, the perfect geometrical figure representing, in an abstract way, a perfect God. Sinan used subtle geometric relationships, using multiples of two when calculating the ratios and the proportions of his buildings. However, in a later stage, he also used divisions of three or ratios of two to three when working out the width and the proportions of domes, such as the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque_%28Kad%C4%B1rga%29 \"Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque (Kadırga)\") at Kadırga.",
"While he was fully occupied with the construction of the Süleymaniye, Sinan or his subordinates drew up the plans and gave instructions for many other constructions. Sinan built a mosque for the Grand Vizier [Pargalı İbrahim Pasha](/wiki/Pargal%C4%B1_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha \"Pargalı İbrahim Pasha\") and a mausoleum (*türbe*) at [Silivrikapı](/wiki/Silivrikap%C4%B1 \"Silivrikapı\") (Constantinople) in 1551\\.",
"[thumb\\|[Juma\\-Jami Mosque](/wiki/Juma-Jami_Mosque%2C_Yevpatoria \"Juma-Jami Mosque, Yevpatoria\") (Han Mosque) in [Yevpatoria](/wiki/Yevpatoria \"Yevpatoria\"), Crimea](/wiki/File:Eupatoria_04-14_img12_Juma_Jami_Mosque.jpg \"Eupatoria 04-14 img12 Juma Jami Mosque.jpg\")\nThe next Grand Vizier, [Rüstem Pasha](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha \"Rüstem Pasha\") gave Sinan several more commissions. In 1550 he built a large inn (*han*) in the Galata district of Istanbul. About ten years later he built another *han* in [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne \"Edirne\"), and between 1544 and 1561 the Taṣ Han at [Erzurum](/wiki/Erzurum \"Erzurum\"). He designed a [caravanserai](/wiki/Caravanserai \"Caravanserai\") in [Eregli](/wiki/Ere%C4%9Fli%2C_Konya \"Ereğli, Konya\") and an octagonal [madrasah](/wiki/Madrasah \"Madrasah\") in Constantinople.",
"Between 1553 and 1555, Sinan built the [Sinan Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sinan_Pasha_Mosque_%28Istanbul%29 \"Sinan Pasha Mosque (Istanbul)\") at [Beşiktaş](/wiki/Be%C5%9Fikta%C5%9F \"Beşiktaş\"), a smaller version of the [Üç Şerefeli Mosque](/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7_%C5%9Eerefeli_Mosque \"Üç Şerefeli Mosque\") at [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne \"Edirne\"), for the Grand Admiral [Sinan Pasha](/wiki/Sinan_Pasha_%28Ottoman_admiral%29 \"Sinan Pasha (Ottoman admiral)\"). This proves again that Sinan had thoroughly studied the work of other architects, especially since he was responsible for the upkeep of these buildings. He copied the old form, pondered over the weaknesses in the construction and tried to solve this with his own solution. In 1554, Sinan used the form of the Sinan Pasha mosque again for the construction of the mosque for the next Grand Vizier [Kara Ahmet Pasha](/wiki/Kara_Ahmet_Pasha_Mosque \"Kara Ahmet Pasha Mosque\") in Constantinople, his first hexagonal mosque. By using a hexagonal plan, Sinan could reduce the side domes to half\\-domes and set them in the corners at an angle of 45 degrees. Clearly, Sinan must have appreciated this form,{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}} since he repeated it later in mosques such as the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha \"Sokollu Mehmed Pasha\") Mosque at [Kadırga](/wiki/Kad%C4%B1rga \"Kadırga\") and the [Atik Valide Mosque](/wiki/Atik_Valide_Mosque \"Atik Valide Mosque\") at [Üsküdar](/wiki/%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar \"Üsküdar\").",
"In 1556, Sinan built the [Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı](/wiki/Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_Hamam%C4%B1 \"Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı\"), replacing the antique [Baths of Zeuxippus](/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus \"Baths of Zeuxippus\"), which are still standing close to the [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia \"Hagia Sophia\"). This would become one of the most beautiful hamams he ever constructed.",
"In 1559, he built the Cafer Ağa madrasah below the forecourt of the Hagia Sophia. In the same year he began the construction of a small mosque for [Iskender Pasha](/wiki/Iskender_Pasha_%28governor_of_Egypt%29 \"Iskender Pasha (governor of Egypt)\") at [Kanlıca](/wiki/Kanl%C4%B1ca \"Kanlıca\"), beside the Bosphorus. This was one of the many minor and routine commissions the office of Sinan received over the years.",
"In 1561, when Rüstem Pasha died, Sinan began the construction of the [Rüstem Pasha Mosque](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha_Mosque \"Rüstem Pasha Mosque\"), as a memorial supervised by his widow [Mihrimah Sultan](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_%28daughter_of_Suleiman_I%29 \"Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I)\"). It is situated just below the [Süleymaniye](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye \"Süleymaniye\"). This time the central form is octagonal, modelled on the monastery church of [Saints Sergius and Bacchus](/wiki/Saints_Sergius_and_Bacchus \"Saints Sergius and Bacchus\"), with four small semi\\-domes set in the corners. In the same year, Sinan built a türbe for Rüstem Pasha in the garden of the [Şehzade Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque \"Şehzade Mosque\"), decorated with the finest tiles [Iznik](/wiki/Iznik \"Iznik\") could produce. Mihrimah Sultan, having doubled her wealth after the death of her husband, now wanted a mosque of her own. Sinan built the [Mihrimah Mosque](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_Mosque_%28Edirnekap%C4%B1%29 \"Mihrimah Sultan Mosque (Edirnekapı)\") at [Edirnekapı](/wiki/Edirnekap%C4%B1%2C_Istanbul \"Edirnekapı, Istanbul\") (Edirne Gate) for her on the highest of the seven hills of Constantinople. He raised the mosque on a vaulted platform, accentuating its hilltop site. There is some speculation concerning the dates; until recently this was supposed to be between 1540 and 1540, but now it is generally accepted to be between 1562 and 1565\\. Sinan, concerned with grandeur, built a mosque in one of his most imaginative designs, using new support systems and lateral spaces to increase the area available for windows. He built a central dome {{convert\\|37\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} high and {{convert\\|20\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} wide, supported by [pendentives](/wiki/Pendentive \"Pendentive\"), on a square base with two lateral galleries, each with three cupolas. At each corner of this square stands a gigantic pier, connected with immense arches each with 15 large windows and four circular ones, flooding the interior with light. The style of this revolutionary building was as close to the [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") style as Ottoman structure permits.",
"In 1566 Sinan completed the [Banya Bashi Mosque](/wiki/Banya_Bashi_Mosque \"Banya Bashi Mosque\") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\"), [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\"), currently the only functioning mosque in the city. His first mosque in Sofia was built in 1528; popularly known as *Imaret Mosque* or *Black Mosque* due to the dark colour of its building stone, it was damaged by an earthquake and abandoned in the 19th century.",
"In the 1560s he built the Kirkcesme water supply system for Istanbul. It is seen as a masterpiece of his work. It spans 55 km and includes 35 [aqueduct bridges](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28bridge%29 \"Aqueduct (bridge)\"), 4 of which are notable for their height (up to 35m) as well as their length (up to 700m).{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Harmancioglu\\|first1\\=Nilgun B.\\|title\\=Water Resources of Turkey\\|last2\\=Altinbilek\\|first2\\=Dogan\\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-04\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-030\\-11729\\-0\\|pages\\=46\\|language\\=en}}",
"Between 1560 and 1566 Sinan built a mosque in Constantinople for [Zal Mahmud Pasha](/wiki/Zal_Mahmud_Pasha_Mosque \"Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque\") on a hillside beyond Ayvansaray. Sinan certainly conceived the plans and partly supervised the construction, but left the building of lesser areas to less than competent hands, since Sinan and his most able assistants were about to begin his masterpiece, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. On the outside, the mosque rises high, with its east wall pierced by four tiers of windows. This gives the mosque an aspect of a palace or even a block of apartments. Inside, there are three broad galleries making the interior look compact. The heaviness of this structure makes the dome look unexpectedly lofty. These galleries look like a preliminary try\\-out for the galleries of the [Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque%2C_Edirne \"Selimiye Mosque, Edirne\").",
"### The period from 1570 to his death: master stage",
"[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|[Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_%28Edirne%29 \"Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)\") in [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne \"Edirne\"), Turkey; built by Sinan in 1575](/wiki/File:Ist-Ath_-_99_cropped.jpg \"Ist-Ath - 99 cropped.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|[Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_%28Edirne%29 \"Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)\") detail](/wiki/File:Selimiye_Mosque_026.jpg \"Selimiye Mosque 026.jpg\") \nIn this late stage of his life, Sinan tried to create unified and sublimely elegant interiors. To achieve this, he eliminated all the unnecessary subsidiary spaces beyond the supporting piers of the central dome. This can be seen in the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque_%28Kad%C4%B1rga%29 \"Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque (Kadırga)\") in Kadırga, Istanbul (1571–1572\\) and in the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. In other buildings of his final period, Sinan experimented with spatial and mural treatments that were new in the classical Ottoman architecture.",
"According to him from his autobiography *Tezkiretü'l\\-Bünyan*, his masterpiece is the [Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_%28Edirne%29 \"Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)\") in [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne \"Edirne\"). Breaking free of the handicaps of traditional Ottoman architecture, this mosque marks the climax of Sinan's work and of all classical Ottoman architecture. While it was being built, the architect's saying of \"*You can never build a dome larger than the dome of [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia \"Hagia Sophia\") and specially as Muslims*\" was his main motivation. When it was completed, Sinan claimed that it had the largest dome in the world, leaving Hagia Sophia behind. In fact, the dome height from the ground level was lower and the diameter barely larger (0\\.5 meters, approximately 2 feet) than the millennium\\-older Hagia Sophia. However, measured from its base the dome of Selimiye is higher. Sinan was more than 80 years old when the building was finished. In this mosque he finally realized his aim of creating the optimum, completely unified, domed interior: a triumph of space that dominates the interior. He used this time an octagonal central dome (31\\.28 m wide and 42 m high), supported by eight elephantine piers of marble and granite. These supports lack any [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 \"Capital (architecture)\") but have squinches or consoles at their summit, leading to the optical effect that the arches seem to grow integrally out of the piers. By placing the lateral galleries far away, he increased the three\\-dimensional effect. The many windows in the screen walls flood the interior with light. The buttressing semi\\-domes are set in the four corners of the square under the dome. The weight and the internal tensions are hidden, producing an airy and elegant effect rarely seen under a central dome. The four minarets (83 m high) at the corners of the prayer hall are the tallest in the Muslim world, accentuating the vertical posture of this mosque that already dominates the city.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|[Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge](/wiki/Mehmed_Pa%C5%A1a_Sokolovi%C4%87_Bridge \"Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge\") in [Višegrad](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1egrad \"Višegrad\"), Bosnia and Herzegovina; built by Sinan in 1577 and inscribed at UNESCO](/wiki/File:Visegrad_Drina_Bridge_1.jpg \"Visegrad Drina Bridge 1.jpg\")\nHe also designed the [Sulaymaniyya Takiyya](/wiki/Sulaymaniyya_Takiyya \"Sulaymaniyya Takiyya\") in [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus \"Damascus\"), Syria, considered to have marked the introduction of the [Ottoman architectural style](/wiki/Ottoman_architecture \"Ottoman architecture\") to the city.{{cite book\\|author\\=Gérard Degeorge\\|year\\=1994\\|title\\=Damas\\|page\\=46}} He has also built [Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge](/wiki/Mehmed_Pa%C5%A1a_Sokolovi%C4%87_Bridge \"Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge\") across the [Drina River](/wiki/Drina_River \"Drina River\") in [Višegrad](/wiki/Vi%C5%A1egrad \"Višegrad\"), Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is now a [UNESCO World Heritage Site](/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site \"UNESCO World Heritage Site\").",
"### Conclusion",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Mimar Sinan's architectural concepts were incorporated into the design of the [Taj Mahal](/wiki/Taj_Mahal \"Taj Mahal\"),William J. Hennessey, PhD, Director, Univ. of Michigan Museum of Art. IBM 1999 WORLD BOOK.Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman. Architecture: from Prehistory to Post\\-Modernism. p. 223\\. by the [Mughal](/wiki/Mughal_Empire \"Mughal Empire\") architect [Ustad Ahmad Lahori](/wiki/Ustad_Ahmad_Lahori \"Ustad Ahmad Lahori\") during the reign of [Shah Jahan](/wiki/Shah_Jahan \"Shah Jahan\").](/wiki/File:The_Taj_Mahal_main_building.jpg \"The Taj Mahal main building.jpg\")",
"At the start of his career as an architect, Sinan had to deal with an established, traditional domed architecture. His training as an army engineer led him to approach architecture from an empirical point of view, rather than from a theoretical one. He started to experiment with the design and engineering of single\\-domed and multiple\\-domed structures. He tried to obtain a new geometrical purity, a rationality and a spatial integrity in his structures and designs of mosques. Through all this, he demonstrated his creativity and his wish to create a clear, unified space. He started to develop a series of variations on the domes, surrounding them in different ways with semi\\-domes, piers, screen walls and different sets of galleries. His domes and arches are curved, but he avoided curvilinear elements in the rest of his design, transforming the circle of the dome into a rectangular, hexagonal or octagonal system. He tried to obtain a rational harmony between the exterior pyramidal composition of semi\\-domes, culminating in a single drumless dome, and the interior space where this central dome vertically integrates the space into a unified whole. His genius lies in the organization of this space and in the resolution of the tensions created by the design. He was an innovator in the use of decoration and motifs, merging them into the architectural forms as a whole. He accentuated the centre underneath the central dome by flooding it with light from the many windows. He incorporated his mosques in an efficient way into a complex (*külliye*), serving the needs of the community as an intellectual centre, a community centre and serving the social needs and the health problems of the faithful.",
"When Sinan died, classical Ottoman architecture had reached its climax. No successor was gifted enough to better the design of the Selimiye Mosque and to develop it further. His students retreated to earlier models, such as the Şehzade mosque.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}} Invention faded away, and a decline set in.",
""
] |
### Mid\-1550s to 1570: qualification stage
By 1550, Suleiman the Magnificent was at the height of his powers. Having built a mosque for his son, he felt it was time to construct his own [imperial mosque](/wiki/Imperial_mosque "Imperial mosque"), an enduring monument larger than all the others, to be built on a gently sloping hillside dominating the [Golden Horn](/wiki/Golden_Horn "Golden Horn"). Money was no problem, since he had accumulated a treasure from the loot of his campaigns in Europe and the Middle East. He gave the order to Sinan to build a mosque, the [Süleymaniye](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye "Süleymaniye"), surrounded by a [külliye](/wiki/K%C3%BClliye "Külliye") consisting of four colleges, a soup kitchen, a hospital, an asylum, a [hamam](/wiki/Turkish_bath "Turkish bath"), a [caravanserai](/wiki/Caravanserai "Caravanserai") and a hospice for travellers (*tabhane*). Sinan, now heading a formidable department with a great number of assistants, finished this formidable task in seven years. Before Süleymaniye, no mosques had been built with half cubic roofs. He got the idea of half cubic roof design from the [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia "Hagia Sophia"). Through this monumental{{according to whom\|date\=June 2012}} achievement, Sinan emerged from the anonymity of his predecessors. Sinan must have known the ideas of the Renaissance architect [Leone Battista Alberti](/wiki/Leone_Battista_Alberti "Leone Battista Alberti") (who in turn had studied *De architectura* by the Roman architect and engineer [Vitruvius](/wiki/Vitruvius "Vitruvius")), since he too was concerned in building the ideal church, reflecting harmony through the perfection of geometry in architecture. But, contrary to his Western counterparts, Sinan was more interested in simplification than in enrichment. He tried to achieve the largest volume under a single central dome. The dome is based on the circle, the perfect geometrical figure representing, in an abstract way, a perfect God. Sinan used subtle geometric relationships, using multiples of two when calculating the ratios and the proportions of his buildings. However, in a later stage, he also used divisions of three or ratios of two to three when working out the width and the proportions of domes, such as the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque_%28Kad%C4%B1rga%29 "Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque (Kadırga)") at Kadırga.
While he was fully occupied with the construction of the Süleymaniye, Sinan or his subordinates drew up the plans and gave instructions for many other constructions. Sinan built a mosque for the Grand Vizier [Pargalı İbrahim Pasha](/wiki/Pargal%C4%B1_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha "Pargalı İbrahim Pasha") and a mausoleum (*türbe*) at [Silivrikapı](/wiki/Silivrikap%C4%B1 "Silivrikapı") (Constantinople) in 1551\.
[thumb\|[Juma\-Jami Mosque](/wiki/Juma-Jami_Mosque%2C_Yevpatoria "Juma-Jami Mosque, Yevpatoria") (Han Mosque) in [Yevpatoria](/wiki/Yevpatoria "Yevpatoria"), Crimea](/wiki/File:Eupatoria_04-14_img12_Juma_Jami_Mosque.jpg "Eupatoria 04-14 img12 Juma Jami Mosque.jpg")
The next Grand Vizier, [Rüstem Pasha](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha "Rüstem Pasha") gave Sinan several more commissions. In 1550 he built a large inn (*han*) in the Galata district of Istanbul. About ten years later he built another *han* in [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne "Edirne"), and between 1544 and 1561 the Taṣ Han at [Erzurum](/wiki/Erzurum "Erzurum"). He designed a [caravanserai](/wiki/Caravanserai "Caravanserai") in [Eregli](/wiki/Ere%C4%9Fli%2C_Konya "Ereğli, Konya") and an octagonal [madrasah](/wiki/Madrasah "Madrasah") in Constantinople.
Between 1553 and 1555, Sinan built the [Sinan Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sinan_Pasha_Mosque_%28Istanbul%29 "Sinan Pasha Mosque (Istanbul)") at [Beşiktaş](/wiki/Be%C5%9Fikta%C5%9F "Beşiktaş"), a smaller version of the [Üç Şerefeli Mosque](/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7_%C5%9Eerefeli_Mosque "Üç Şerefeli Mosque") at [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne "Edirne"), for the Grand Admiral [Sinan Pasha](/wiki/Sinan_Pasha_%28Ottoman_admiral%29 "Sinan Pasha (Ottoman admiral)"). This proves again that Sinan had thoroughly studied the work of other architects, especially since he was responsible for the upkeep of these buildings. He copied the old form, pondered over the weaknesses in the construction and tried to solve this with his own solution. In 1554, Sinan used the form of the Sinan Pasha mosque again for the construction of the mosque for the next Grand Vizier [Kara Ahmet Pasha](/wiki/Kara_Ahmet_Pasha_Mosque "Kara Ahmet Pasha Mosque") in Constantinople, his first hexagonal mosque. By using a hexagonal plan, Sinan could reduce the side domes to half\-domes and set them in the corners at an angle of 45 degrees. Clearly, Sinan must have appreciated this form,{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}} since he repeated it later in mosques such as the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha "Sokollu Mehmed Pasha") Mosque at [Kadırga](/wiki/Kad%C4%B1rga "Kadırga") and the [Atik Valide Mosque](/wiki/Atik_Valide_Mosque "Atik Valide Mosque") at [Üsküdar](/wiki/%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar "Üsküdar").
In 1556, Sinan built the [Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı](/wiki/Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_Hamam%C4%B1 "Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı"), replacing the antique [Baths of Zeuxippus](/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus "Baths of Zeuxippus"), which are still standing close to the [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia "Hagia Sophia"). This would become one of the most beautiful hamams he ever constructed.
In 1559, he built the Cafer Ağa madrasah below the forecourt of the Hagia Sophia. In the same year he began the construction of a small mosque for [Iskender Pasha](/wiki/Iskender_Pasha_%28governor_of_Egypt%29 "Iskender Pasha (governor of Egypt)") at [Kanlıca](/wiki/Kanl%C4%B1ca "Kanlıca"), beside the Bosphorus. This was one of the many minor and routine commissions the office of Sinan received over the years.
In 1561, when Rüstem Pasha died, Sinan began the construction of the [Rüstem Pasha Mosque](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha_Mosque "Rüstem Pasha Mosque"), as a memorial supervised by his widow [Mihrimah Sultan](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_%28daughter_of_Suleiman_I%29 "Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I)"). It is situated just below the [Süleymaniye](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye "Süleymaniye"). This time the central form is octagonal, modelled on the monastery church of [Saints Sergius and Bacchus](/wiki/Saints_Sergius_and_Bacchus "Saints Sergius and Bacchus"), with four small semi\-domes set in the corners. In the same year, Sinan built a türbe for Rüstem Pasha in the garden of the [Şehzade Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque "Şehzade Mosque"), decorated with the finest tiles [Iznik](/wiki/Iznik "Iznik") could produce. Mihrimah Sultan, having doubled her wealth after the death of her husband, now wanted a mosque of her own. Sinan built the [Mihrimah Mosque](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_Mosque_%28Edirnekap%C4%B1%29 "Mihrimah Sultan Mosque (Edirnekapı)") at [Edirnekapı](/wiki/Edirnekap%C4%B1%2C_Istanbul "Edirnekapı, Istanbul") (Edirne Gate) for her on the highest of the seven hills of Constantinople. He raised the mosque on a vaulted platform, accentuating its hilltop site. There is some speculation concerning the dates; until recently this was supposed to be between 1540 and 1540, but now it is generally accepted to be between 1562 and 1565\. Sinan, concerned with grandeur, built a mosque in one of his most imaginative designs, using new support systems and lateral spaces to increase the area available for windows. He built a central dome {{convert\|37\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} high and {{convert\|20\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} wide, supported by [pendentives](/wiki/Pendentive "Pendentive"), on a square base with two lateral galleries, each with three cupolas. At each corner of this square stands a gigantic pier, connected with immense arches each with 15 large windows and four circular ones, flooding the interior with light. The style of this revolutionary building was as close to the [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture "Gothic architecture") style as Ottoman structure permits.
In 1566 Sinan completed the [Banya Bashi Mosque](/wiki/Banya_Bashi_Mosque "Banya Bashi Mosque") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia"), [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria"), currently the only functioning mosque in the city. His first mosque in Sofia was built in 1528; popularly known as *Imaret Mosque* or *Black Mosque* due to the dark colour of its building stone, it was damaged by an earthquake and abandoned in the 19th century.
In the 1560s he built the Kirkcesme water supply system for Istanbul. It is seen as a masterpiece of his work. It spans 55 km and includes 35 [aqueduct bridges](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28bridge%29 "Aqueduct (bridge)"), 4 of which are notable for their height (up to 35m) as well as their length (up to 700m).{{Cite book\|last1\=Harmancioglu\|first1\=Nilgun B.\|title\=Water Resources of Turkey\|last2\=Altinbilek\|first2\=Dogan\|date\=2019\-06\-04\|publisher\=Springer\|isbn\=978\-3\-030\-11729\-0\|pages\=46\|language\=en}}
Between 1560 and 1566 Sinan built a mosque in Constantinople for [Zal Mahmud Pasha](/wiki/Zal_Mahmud_Pasha_Mosque "Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque") on a hillside beyond Ayvansaray. Sinan certainly conceived the plans and partly supervised the construction, but left the building of lesser areas to less than competent hands, since Sinan and his most able assistants were about to begin his masterpiece, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. On the outside, the mosque rises high, with its east wall pierced by four tiers of windows. This gives the mosque an aspect of a palace or even a block of apartments. Inside, there are three broad galleries making the interior look compact. The heaviness of this structure makes the dome look unexpectedly lofty. These galleries look like a preliminary try\-out for the galleries of the [Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque%2C_Edirne "Selimiye Mosque, Edirne").
|
[
"### Mid\\-1550s to 1570: qualification stage",
"By 1550, Suleiman the Magnificent was at the height of his powers. Having built a mosque for his son, he felt it was time to construct his own [imperial mosque](/wiki/Imperial_mosque \"Imperial mosque\"), an enduring monument larger than all the others, to be built on a gently sloping hillside dominating the [Golden Horn](/wiki/Golden_Horn \"Golden Horn\"). Money was no problem, since he had accumulated a treasure from the loot of his campaigns in Europe and the Middle East. He gave the order to Sinan to build a mosque, the [Süleymaniye](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye \"Süleymaniye\"), surrounded by a [külliye](/wiki/K%C3%BClliye \"Külliye\") consisting of four colleges, a soup kitchen, a hospital, an asylum, a [hamam](/wiki/Turkish_bath \"Turkish bath\"), a [caravanserai](/wiki/Caravanserai \"Caravanserai\") and a hospice for travellers (*tabhane*). Sinan, now heading a formidable department with a great number of assistants, finished this formidable task in seven years. Before Süleymaniye, no mosques had been built with half cubic roofs. He got the idea of half cubic roof design from the [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia \"Hagia Sophia\"). Through this monumental{{according to whom\\|date\\=June 2012}} achievement, Sinan emerged from the anonymity of his predecessors. Sinan must have known the ideas of the Renaissance architect [Leone Battista Alberti](/wiki/Leone_Battista_Alberti \"Leone Battista Alberti\") (who in turn had studied *De architectura* by the Roman architect and engineer [Vitruvius](/wiki/Vitruvius \"Vitruvius\")), since he too was concerned in building the ideal church, reflecting harmony through the perfection of geometry in architecture. But, contrary to his Western counterparts, Sinan was more interested in simplification than in enrichment. He tried to achieve the largest volume under a single central dome. The dome is based on the circle, the perfect geometrical figure representing, in an abstract way, a perfect God. Sinan used subtle geometric relationships, using multiples of two when calculating the ratios and the proportions of his buildings. However, in a later stage, he also used divisions of three or ratios of two to three when working out the width and the proportions of domes, such as the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque_%28Kad%C4%B1rga%29 \"Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque (Kadırga)\") at Kadırga.",
"While he was fully occupied with the construction of the Süleymaniye, Sinan or his subordinates drew up the plans and gave instructions for many other constructions. Sinan built a mosque for the Grand Vizier [Pargalı İbrahim Pasha](/wiki/Pargal%C4%B1_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha \"Pargalı İbrahim Pasha\") and a mausoleum (*türbe*) at [Silivrikapı](/wiki/Silivrikap%C4%B1 \"Silivrikapı\") (Constantinople) in 1551\\.",
"[thumb\\|[Juma\\-Jami Mosque](/wiki/Juma-Jami_Mosque%2C_Yevpatoria \"Juma-Jami Mosque, Yevpatoria\") (Han Mosque) in [Yevpatoria](/wiki/Yevpatoria \"Yevpatoria\"), Crimea](/wiki/File:Eupatoria_04-14_img12_Juma_Jami_Mosque.jpg \"Eupatoria 04-14 img12 Juma Jami Mosque.jpg\")\nThe next Grand Vizier, [Rüstem Pasha](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha \"Rüstem Pasha\") gave Sinan several more commissions. In 1550 he built a large inn (*han*) in the Galata district of Istanbul. About ten years later he built another *han* in [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne \"Edirne\"), and between 1544 and 1561 the Taṣ Han at [Erzurum](/wiki/Erzurum \"Erzurum\"). He designed a [caravanserai](/wiki/Caravanserai \"Caravanserai\") in [Eregli](/wiki/Ere%C4%9Fli%2C_Konya \"Ereğli, Konya\") and an octagonal [madrasah](/wiki/Madrasah \"Madrasah\") in Constantinople.",
"Between 1553 and 1555, Sinan built the [Sinan Pasha Mosque](/wiki/Sinan_Pasha_Mosque_%28Istanbul%29 \"Sinan Pasha Mosque (Istanbul)\") at [Beşiktaş](/wiki/Be%C5%9Fikta%C5%9F \"Beşiktaş\"), a smaller version of the [Üç Şerefeli Mosque](/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7_%C5%9Eerefeli_Mosque \"Üç Şerefeli Mosque\") at [Edirne](/wiki/Edirne \"Edirne\"), for the Grand Admiral [Sinan Pasha](/wiki/Sinan_Pasha_%28Ottoman_admiral%29 \"Sinan Pasha (Ottoman admiral)\"). This proves again that Sinan had thoroughly studied the work of other architects, especially since he was responsible for the upkeep of these buildings. He copied the old form, pondered over the weaknesses in the construction and tried to solve this with his own solution. In 1554, Sinan used the form of the Sinan Pasha mosque again for the construction of the mosque for the next Grand Vizier [Kara Ahmet Pasha](/wiki/Kara_Ahmet_Pasha_Mosque \"Kara Ahmet Pasha Mosque\") in Constantinople, his first hexagonal mosque. By using a hexagonal plan, Sinan could reduce the side domes to half\\-domes and set them in the corners at an angle of 45 degrees. Clearly, Sinan must have appreciated this form,{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}} since he repeated it later in mosques such as the [Sokollu Mehmed Pasha](/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha \"Sokollu Mehmed Pasha\") Mosque at [Kadırga](/wiki/Kad%C4%B1rga \"Kadırga\") and the [Atik Valide Mosque](/wiki/Atik_Valide_Mosque \"Atik Valide Mosque\") at [Üsküdar](/wiki/%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar \"Üsküdar\").",
"In 1556, Sinan built the [Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı](/wiki/Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_Hamam%C4%B1 \"Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı\"), replacing the antique [Baths of Zeuxippus](/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus \"Baths of Zeuxippus\"), which are still standing close to the [Hagia Sophia](/wiki/Hagia_Sophia \"Hagia Sophia\"). This would become one of the most beautiful hamams he ever constructed.",
"In 1559, he built the Cafer Ağa madrasah below the forecourt of the Hagia Sophia. In the same year he began the construction of a small mosque for [Iskender Pasha](/wiki/Iskender_Pasha_%28governor_of_Egypt%29 \"Iskender Pasha (governor of Egypt)\") at [Kanlıca](/wiki/Kanl%C4%B1ca \"Kanlıca\"), beside the Bosphorus. This was one of the many minor and routine commissions the office of Sinan received over the years.",
"In 1561, when Rüstem Pasha died, Sinan began the construction of the [Rüstem Pasha Mosque](/wiki/R%C3%BCstem_Pasha_Mosque \"Rüstem Pasha Mosque\"), as a memorial supervised by his widow [Mihrimah Sultan](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_%28daughter_of_Suleiman_I%29 \"Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I)\"). It is situated just below the [Süleymaniye](/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye \"Süleymaniye\"). This time the central form is octagonal, modelled on the monastery church of [Saints Sergius and Bacchus](/wiki/Saints_Sergius_and_Bacchus \"Saints Sergius and Bacchus\"), with four small semi\\-domes set in the corners. In the same year, Sinan built a türbe for Rüstem Pasha in the garden of the [Şehzade Mosque](/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque \"Şehzade Mosque\"), decorated with the finest tiles [Iznik](/wiki/Iznik \"Iznik\") could produce. Mihrimah Sultan, having doubled her wealth after the death of her husband, now wanted a mosque of her own. Sinan built the [Mihrimah Mosque](/wiki/Mihrimah_Sultan_Mosque_%28Edirnekap%C4%B1%29 \"Mihrimah Sultan Mosque (Edirnekapı)\") at [Edirnekapı](/wiki/Edirnekap%C4%B1%2C_Istanbul \"Edirnekapı, Istanbul\") (Edirne Gate) for her on the highest of the seven hills of Constantinople. He raised the mosque on a vaulted platform, accentuating its hilltop site. There is some speculation concerning the dates; until recently this was supposed to be between 1540 and 1540, but now it is generally accepted to be between 1562 and 1565\\. Sinan, concerned with grandeur, built a mosque in one of his most imaginative designs, using new support systems and lateral spaces to increase the area available for windows. He built a central dome {{convert\\|37\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} high and {{convert\\|20\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} wide, supported by [pendentives](/wiki/Pendentive \"Pendentive\"), on a square base with two lateral galleries, each with three cupolas. At each corner of this square stands a gigantic pier, connected with immense arches each with 15 large windows and four circular ones, flooding the interior with light. The style of this revolutionary building was as close to the [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") style as Ottoman structure permits.",
"In 1566 Sinan completed the [Banya Bashi Mosque](/wiki/Banya_Bashi_Mosque \"Banya Bashi Mosque\") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\"), [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\"), currently the only functioning mosque in the city. His first mosque in Sofia was built in 1528; popularly known as *Imaret Mosque* or *Black Mosque* due to the dark colour of its building stone, it was damaged by an earthquake and abandoned in the 19th century.",
"In the 1560s he built the Kirkcesme water supply system for Istanbul. It is seen as a masterpiece of his work. It spans 55 km and includes 35 [aqueduct bridges](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28bridge%29 \"Aqueduct (bridge)\"), 4 of which are notable for their height (up to 35m) as well as their length (up to 700m).{{Cite book\\|last1\\=Harmancioglu\\|first1\\=Nilgun B.\\|title\\=Water Resources of Turkey\\|last2\\=Altinbilek\\|first2\\=Dogan\\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-04\\|publisher\\=Springer\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-030\\-11729\\-0\\|pages\\=46\\|language\\=en}}",
"Between 1560 and 1566 Sinan built a mosque in Constantinople for [Zal Mahmud Pasha](/wiki/Zal_Mahmud_Pasha_Mosque \"Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque\") on a hillside beyond Ayvansaray. Sinan certainly conceived the plans and partly supervised the construction, but left the building of lesser areas to less than competent hands, since Sinan and his most able assistants were about to begin his masterpiece, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. On the outside, the mosque rises high, with its east wall pierced by four tiers of windows. This gives the mosque an aspect of a palace or even a block of apartments. Inside, there are three broad galleries making the interior look compact. The heaviness of this structure makes the dome look unexpectedly lofty. These galleries look like a preliminary try\\-out for the galleries of the [Selimiye Mosque](/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque%2C_Edirne \"Selimiye Mosque, Edirne\").",
""
] |
Evaluation of Soviet and German tactics
---------------------------------------
### USSR
#### Strength
The Soviets managed to exploit the earlier victory at the Battle of Stalingrad and create some advantages in the critical sector of the front. Their attacks threatened the flanks of [Army Group Center](/wiki/Army_Group_Center "Army Group Center") and forced the Germans to divert the forces to these areas, therefore reducing the pressure on Moscow. During this time, the USSR's Army commanders began to concentrate their main forces at the critical zones to strengthen their position in these areas, or to muster enough power for their assaults. In addition, the Soviets also started using tanks as a main assault force instead of a mere supporting tool for infantry.[Исаев, Алексей Валерьевич. Краткий курс истории ВОВ. Наступление маршала Шапошникова. — М.: Яуза, Эксмо, 2005\.(Alexey Valeryevich Isayev. When the surprising element was lost. History of World War II \- The Unknown Truth. Yauza \& Penguin Books. Moskva. 2006\. Part I: 1942 Summer\-Autumn Offensive. Section 1: the first summer attacks)](http://militera.lib.ru/h/isaev_av6/04.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731223556/http://militera.lib.ru/h/isaev\_av6/04\.html \|date\=31 July 2012 }} {{in lang\|ru}} The Front commanders also got some important experience in commanding and coordinating a combined force. From May 1942, Soviet Fronts started to deploy their own air armies for supporting the land troops, reporting under the direct command of the Front commanders. Thus these commanders began to have some sort of full authority to use the air forces, except the long\-ranged strategic bomber units which were still under direct command of the Soviet [Stavka](/wiki/Stavka_of_the_Supreme_High_Command "Stavka of the Supreme High Command").[Кожевников, Михаил Николаевич. Командование и штаб ВВС Советской Армии в Великой Отечественной войне 1941\-1945 гг. — М.: Наука, 1977\. (Mikhail Nikolayevich Kozhevnikov. The Soviet Air Force Command and Staff in the Great Patriotic War (1941\-1945\). Science Publisher. Moskva. 1977\. Chapter III, Section 2\)](http://militera.lib.ru/h/kozhevnikov_mn/03.html) {{in lang\|ru}}
After the "manpower crisis" of late 1941, in 1942 the Soviets had gathered enough strategic reserves, and they also began to pay more attention to developing them. In 1942 the Soviets managed to build 18 new reserve armies and resupply 9 others. At Rzhev, the army received 3 reserve armies and had 3 others resupplied. Of course, in this period, many Soviet units still had inadequate strength and equipment, but with the more plentiful reserve force, they managed to somewhat maintain stable fighting capability and prevent the severe fluctuation in manpower. This enabled the Red Army to conduct active defenses and prepare for large\-scaled offensives.G. K. Zhukov. Memoirs. Vol 2\. Quân đội nhân dân Publisher. Hanoi. 1987\. pp. 269–270\. {{in lang\|vi}}
#### Weakness
As the second highest ranking member of the Stavka, [Marshal Georgy Zhukov](/wiki/Marshal_Georgy_Zhukov "Marshal Georgy Zhukov") was one of the first Soviet military officers to admit and to make a strict self\-criticism about the Red Army and also his own faults in this period:
{{quote\|Today, after reflecting the events of 1942, I see that I had many shortcomings in evaluating the situation at Vyazma. We overestimated ourselves and underestimated the enemies. The "walnut" there was much stronger than what we predicted.\|G. K. Zhukov\|}}
The Soviet Army suffered terribly from severe deficits in weapons and equipment due to the tremendous losses during [the German onslaught in 1941](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa "Operation Barbarossa"). During the first half of 1942 the reserve sources of equipment were still inadequate. For example, during January and February 1942, the Western Front only received 55% of the needed 82{{Nbsp}}mm mortar rounds, 36% of needed 120{{Nbsp}}mm rounds and 44% of needed artillery munitions. On average, each artillery battery only had 2 rounds per day. The weapons deficit was so severe that the Front commanders had to make occasional appeals for equipment.{{cite web\|url\=http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/bagramyan2/03\.html\|title\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \-\-\[ Мемуары ]\-\- Баграмян И.X. Так шли мы к победе\|website\=militera.lib.ru}}{{Failed verification\|date\=April 2024}} The serious lack of ammunition hampered Soviet efforts in neutralizing German strongpoints, leading to heavy casualties in the assaults.
The lack of munitions did not only occur in the case of cannons and mortars, but also for small arms. During the "ammunitions famine" at Rzhev salient, on average, the Red Army only had 3 bullets for each rifle, 30 bullets for each submachine gun, 300 bullets for each light machine gun and 600 bullets for each heavy one.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2024}} The "famine" of munitions in firearms and artillery pieces forced the Soviet army commanders, in many cases, to use tanks in the role of artillery; such inappropriate usage together with outdated military thinking (which did not pay enough attention to the assault role of tank forces) sharply reduced the effectiveness of the tank units, preventing them from conducting deep penetration into the German defensive line.{{cite web\|url\=http://militera.lib.ru/h/kirichenko\_pi/05\.html\|title\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \-\-\[ Военная история ]\-\- Кириченко П. И. Первым всегда трудно\|website\=militera.lib.ru\|access\-date\=29 January 2013\|archive\-date\=17 October 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017161042/http://militera.lib.ru/h/kirichenko\_pi/05\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} For the tank forces, although the Soviet possessed a large number of tanks, the numbers of low quality, damaged and outdated ones were also large. In the Bryansk, Western and Kalinin Front, the proportion of low quality tanks was 69% and the rates of damaged tanks about 41\-55%. All the above facts meant that the Red Army in the Rzhev area did not have adequate preparation in terms of equipment, weapons and logistics.
The worst mistakes of the Red Army in 1942 at the Rzhev salients lies in the coordination and cooperation between its Fronts and the control of Stavka towards them. During the offensives in January and February 1942, instead of establishing a centralized command and control with tight cooperation between the Fronts, the Soviet Stavka and I. V. Stalin let each Front carry out their own assault without notable cooperation between the Fronts. Such separated and uncooperative assaults failed to achieve their goals and lead to the total failure of the whole offensives. To make matters worse, on 19 January 1942 Stalin suddenly retook the 1st Shock Army from the Western Front with a "very nonsense" reason. That unreasonable act severely weakened the right wing of the Western Front and lead to the failure of the offensive at the area Olenino–Rzhev–Osuga.{{cite web\|url\=http://militera.lib.ru/h/isaev\_av4/09\.html\|title\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \-\-\[ Военная история ]\-\- Исаев А. Краткий курс истории ВОВ. Наступление маршала Шапошникова\|website\=militera.lib.ru}}
Further errors in the Soviet tactics and commands were the ambitious and unrealistic goals of the offensives. Early 1942, the Red Army had just recovered from the disastrous losses during the late half of 1941, therefore it was still very weak. In every offensive, the aims and scale have to be correlative with the army's strength, but at the battles of Rzhev, the Soviet commanders demanded too much from their subordinates.{{cite web\|url\=http://militera.lib.ru/research/sokolov2/08\.html\|title\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \-\-\[ Исследования ]\-\- Соколов Б.В. Неизвестный Жуков: портрет без ретуши в зеркале эпохи\|website\=militera.lib.ru}}
Last but not least, another "palindromic disease" of the Red Army in 1942 is the hesitation in retreating from threatened sectors. As a results, many Soviet units were trapped in a notable number of "pockets" when the Germans counter\-attacked. In these cases, only the troops of 11th Cavalry Corps and 6th Tank Corps managed to escape successfully.{{cite web\|url\=http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/belov\_pa/14\.html\|title\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \-\-\[ Мемуары ]\-\- Белов П. А. За нами Москва\|website\=militera.lib.ru}} The escape of 33rd and 41st Army was conducted on time, but they failed to keep it secret and chose the wrong direction to move, leading to considerable casualties. And in the case of 11th Cavalry and 39th Army, the Stavka made a serious mistake when they planned to keep them in the Kholm\-Zhirkovsky bridgehead for future attacks; however not only they failed to conduct any attacks but also they were surrounded and nearly destroyed during the [Seydlitz operation](/wiki/Operation_Seydlitz "Operation Seydlitz").
### Germany
#### Strength
After the Soviet winter counter\-offensive of 1941–42, the Germans were able to securely hold and defend the salient against a series of large Soviet offensives. The operations led to disproportionately high Soviet losses and tied down large numbers of Soviet troops. The defense of the Salient provided the Germans with a base from which they could launch a new offensive against Moscow at a future time. The defensive positions created by the Germans after the retreat from Moscow were well constructed and placed. The Germans eventually withdrew from the positions only due to losses elsewhere in the war and were able to withdraw from the salient with minimal losses.
#### Weakness
German operations in 1941 directed at Moscow lasted too late into the year. Rather than stabilize the front and create defensive positions, the Germans pushed their forces forward and left them poorly prepared for the Soviet winter counteroffensive. The losses in men and equipment to Army Group Centre were considerable. The Army group lacked the strength to go back on the offensive in 1942\.
After the front stabilized, the German Army tied down enormous amounts of manpower in holding salients from which they did not intend to exploit. This reduced the amount of manpower the Germans could devote to operations elsewhere on the front. The Germans also used some of their best formations, such as 9th Army, in a strictly static defensive role. The Rzhev salient had value and tied down disproportionate numbers of Soviet troops, but it is unclear if the salient was worth the loss of around 20 high quality divisions for offensive or defensive operations elsewhere in 1942\.
The abandonment of the salient was necessary in 1943 to create reserves for the front as a whole. But the reserves and the strength created were mostly used up in the costly offensive directed at Kursk in 1943 (Operation Citadel).
|
[
"Evaluation of Soviet and German tactics\n---------------------------------------",
"### USSR",
"#### Strength",
"The Soviets managed to exploit the earlier victory at the Battle of Stalingrad and create some advantages in the critical sector of the front. Their attacks threatened the flanks of [Army Group Center](/wiki/Army_Group_Center \"Army Group Center\") and forced the Germans to divert the forces to these areas, therefore reducing the pressure on Moscow. During this time, the USSR's Army commanders began to concentrate their main forces at the critical zones to strengthen their position in these areas, or to muster enough power for their assaults. In addition, the Soviets also started using tanks as a main assault force instead of a mere supporting tool for infantry.[Исаев, Алексей Валерьевич. Краткий курс истории ВОВ. Наступление маршала Шапошникова. — М.: Яуза, Эксмо, 2005\\.(Alexey Valeryevich Isayev. When the surprising element was lost. History of World War II \\- The Unknown Truth. Yauza \\& Penguin Books. Moskva. 2006\\. Part I: 1942 Summer\\-Autumn Offensive. Section 1: the first summer attacks)](http://militera.lib.ru/h/isaev_av6/04.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731223556/http://militera.lib.ru/h/isaev\\_av6/04\\.html \\|date\\=31 July 2012 }} {{in lang\\|ru}} The Front commanders also got some important experience in commanding and coordinating a combined force. From May 1942, Soviet Fronts started to deploy their own air armies for supporting the land troops, reporting under the direct command of the Front commanders. Thus these commanders began to have some sort of full authority to use the air forces, except the long\\-ranged strategic bomber units which were still under direct command of the Soviet [Stavka](/wiki/Stavka_of_the_Supreme_High_Command \"Stavka of the Supreme High Command\").[Кожевников, Михаил Николаевич. Командование и штаб ВВС Советской Армии в Великой Отечественной войне 1941\\-1945 гг. — М.: Наука, 1977\\. (Mikhail Nikolayevich Kozhevnikov. The Soviet Air Force Command and Staff in the Great Patriotic War (1941\\-1945\\). Science Publisher. Moskva. 1977\\. Chapter III, Section 2\\)](http://militera.lib.ru/h/kozhevnikov_mn/03.html) {{in lang\\|ru}}",
"After the \"manpower crisis\" of late 1941, in 1942 the Soviets had gathered enough strategic reserves, and they also began to pay more attention to developing them. In 1942 the Soviets managed to build 18 new reserve armies and resupply 9 others. At Rzhev, the army received 3 reserve armies and had 3 others resupplied. Of course, in this period, many Soviet units still had inadequate strength and equipment, but with the more plentiful reserve force, they managed to somewhat maintain stable fighting capability and prevent the severe fluctuation in manpower. This enabled the Red Army to conduct active defenses and prepare for large\\-scaled offensives.G. K. Zhukov. Memoirs. Vol 2\\. Quân đội nhân dân Publisher. Hanoi. 1987\\. pp. 269–270\\. {{in lang\\|vi}}",
"#### Weakness",
"As the second highest ranking member of the Stavka, [Marshal Georgy Zhukov](/wiki/Marshal_Georgy_Zhukov \"Marshal Georgy Zhukov\") was one of the first Soviet military officers to admit and to make a strict self\\-criticism about the Red Army and also his own faults in this period:",
"{{quote\\|Today, after reflecting the events of 1942, I see that I had many shortcomings in evaluating the situation at Vyazma. We overestimated ourselves and underestimated the enemies. The \"walnut\" there was much stronger than what we predicted.\\|G. K. Zhukov\\|}}",
"The Soviet Army suffered terribly from severe deficits in weapons and equipment due to the tremendous losses during [the German onslaught in 1941](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa \"Operation Barbarossa\"). During the first half of 1942 the reserve sources of equipment were still inadequate. For example, during January and February 1942, the Western Front only received 55% of the needed 82{{Nbsp}}mm mortar rounds, 36% of needed 120{{Nbsp}}mm rounds and 44% of needed artillery munitions. On average, each artillery battery only had 2 rounds per day. The weapons deficit was so severe that the Front commanders had to make occasional appeals for equipment.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/bagramyan2/03\\.html\\|title\\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \\-\\-\\[ Мемуары ]\\-\\- Баграмян И.X. Так шли мы к победе\\|website\\=militera.lib.ru}}{{Failed verification\\|date\\=April 2024}} The serious lack of ammunition hampered Soviet efforts in neutralizing German strongpoints, leading to heavy casualties in the assaults.",
"The lack of munitions did not only occur in the case of cannons and mortars, but also for small arms. During the \"ammunitions famine\" at Rzhev salient, on average, the Red Army only had 3 bullets for each rifle, 30 bullets for each submachine gun, 300 bullets for each light machine gun and 600 bullets for each heavy one.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2024}} The \"famine\" of munitions in firearms and artillery pieces forced the Soviet army commanders, in many cases, to use tanks in the role of artillery; such inappropriate usage together with outdated military thinking (which did not pay enough attention to the assault role of tank forces) sharply reduced the effectiveness of the tank units, preventing them from conducting deep penetration into the German defensive line.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://militera.lib.ru/h/kirichenko\\_pi/05\\.html\\|title\\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \\-\\-\\[ Военная история ]\\-\\- Кириченко П. И. Первым всегда трудно\\|website\\=militera.lib.ru\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=17 October 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017161042/http://militera.lib.ru/h/kirichenko\\_pi/05\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} For the tank forces, although the Soviet possessed a large number of tanks, the numbers of low quality, damaged and outdated ones were also large. In the Bryansk, Western and Kalinin Front, the proportion of low quality tanks was 69% and the rates of damaged tanks about 41\\-55%. All the above facts meant that the Red Army in the Rzhev area did not have adequate preparation in terms of equipment, weapons and logistics.",
"The worst mistakes of the Red Army in 1942 at the Rzhev salients lies in the coordination and cooperation between its Fronts and the control of Stavka towards them. During the offensives in January and February 1942, instead of establishing a centralized command and control with tight cooperation between the Fronts, the Soviet Stavka and I. V. Stalin let each Front carry out their own assault without notable cooperation between the Fronts. Such separated and uncooperative assaults failed to achieve their goals and lead to the total failure of the whole offensives. To make matters worse, on 19 January 1942 Stalin suddenly retook the 1st Shock Army from the Western Front with a \"very nonsense\" reason. That unreasonable act severely weakened the right wing of the Western Front and lead to the failure of the offensive at the area Olenino–Rzhev–Osuga.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://militera.lib.ru/h/isaev\\_av4/09\\.html\\|title\\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \\-\\-\\[ Военная история ]\\-\\- Исаев А. Краткий курс истории ВОВ. Наступление маршала Шапошникова\\|website\\=militera.lib.ru}}",
"Further errors in the Soviet tactics and commands were the ambitious and unrealistic goals of the offensives. Early 1942, the Red Army had just recovered from the disastrous losses during the late half of 1941, therefore it was still very weak. In every offensive, the aims and scale have to be correlative with the army's strength, but at the battles of Rzhev, the Soviet commanders demanded too much from their subordinates.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://militera.lib.ru/research/sokolov2/08\\.html\\|title\\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \\-\\-\\[ Исследования ]\\-\\- Соколов Б.В. Неизвестный Жуков: портрет без ретуши в зеркале эпохи\\|website\\=militera.lib.ru}}",
"Last but not least, another \"palindromic disease\" of the Red Army in 1942 is the hesitation in retreating from threatened sectors. As a results, many Soviet units were trapped in a notable number of \"pockets\" when the Germans counter\\-attacked. In these cases, only the troops of 11th Cavalry Corps and 6th Tank Corps managed to escape successfully.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/belov\\_pa/14\\.html\\|title\\=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА \\-\\-\\[ Мемуары ]\\-\\- Белов П. А. За нами Москва\\|website\\=militera.lib.ru}} The escape of 33rd and 41st Army was conducted on time, but they failed to keep it secret and chose the wrong direction to move, leading to considerable casualties. And in the case of 11th Cavalry and 39th Army, the Stavka made a serious mistake when they planned to keep them in the Kholm\\-Zhirkovsky bridgehead for future attacks; however not only they failed to conduct any attacks but also they were surrounded and nearly destroyed during the [Seydlitz operation](/wiki/Operation_Seydlitz \"Operation Seydlitz\").",
"### Germany",
"#### Strength",
"After the Soviet winter counter\\-offensive of 1941–42, the Germans were able to securely hold and defend the salient against a series of large Soviet offensives. The operations led to disproportionately high Soviet losses and tied down large numbers of Soviet troops. The defense of the Salient provided the Germans with a base from which they could launch a new offensive against Moscow at a future time. The defensive positions created by the Germans after the retreat from Moscow were well constructed and placed. The Germans eventually withdrew from the positions only due to losses elsewhere in the war and were able to withdraw from the salient with minimal losses.",
"#### Weakness",
"German operations in 1941 directed at Moscow lasted too late into the year. Rather than stabilize the front and create defensive positions, the Germans pushed their forces forward and left them poorly prepared for the Soviet winter counteroffensive. The losses in men and equipment to Army Group Centre were considerable. The Army group lacked the strength to go back on the offensive in 1942\\.",
"After the front stabilized, the German Army tied down enormous amounts of manpower in holding salients from which they did not intend to exploit. This reduced the amount of manpower the Germans could devote to operations elsewhere on the front. The Germans also used some of their best formations, such as 9th Army, in a strictly static defensive role. The Rzhev salient had value and tied down disproportionate numbers of Soviet troops, but it is unclear if the salient was worth the loss of around 20 high quality divisions for offensive or defensive operations elsewhere in 1942\\.",
"The abandonment of the salient was necessary in 1943 to create reserves for the front as a whole. But the reserves and the strength created were mostly used up in the costly offensive directed at Kursk in 1943 (Operation Citadel).",
""
] |
### Short stories
#### *Star Wars Adventure Journal* (1994–1997\)
Several short stories have been published in the *Star Wars Adventure Journal* Magazine published by [West End Games](/wiki/West_End_Games "West End Games").
{{Div col\|colwidth\=50em}}
* "A Glimmer of Hope" (\#1, February 1994\) by Charlene Newcomb (6 ABY)
* "Breaking Free: The Adventures of Dannen Lifehold" (\#1, February 1994\) by Dave Marron (0 BBY)
* "Chessa's Doom" (\#1, February 1994\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)
* "Escape from Balis\-Baurgh" (\#1, February 1994\) by Paul Balsamo (4 ABY)
* "Big Quince" (\#2, May 1994\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)
* "Out of the Cradle" (\#2, May 1994\) by Patricia A. Jackson (3 BBY)
* "Whispers in the Dark" (\#2, May 1994\) by Charlene Newcomb (6 ABY)
* "Changing the Odds: The Adventures of Dannen Lifehold" (\#3, August 1994\) by Dave Marron (0 BBY)
* "Droid Trouble" (\#3, August 1994\) by Chuck Sperati (0 ABY)
* "Explosive Developments" (\#3, August 1994\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)
* "Mission to Zila" (\#3, August 1994\) by Charlene Newcomb (8 ABY)
* "When the Dominos Falls" (\#3, August 1994\) by Patricia A. Jackson (2 BBY)
* "Shadows of Darkness" (\#4, November 1994\) by Charlene Newcomb (8 ABY)
* "Starter's Tale" (\#4, November 1994\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)
* "A Bitter Winter" (\#5, February 1995\) by Patricia A. Jackson (0 ABY)
* "One of a Kind" (\#5, February 1995\) by Paul Danner
* "Turning Point" (\#5, February 1995\) by Charlene Newcomb (6 BBY)
* "Vengeance Strike" (\#5, February 1995\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)
* "Finder's Fee" (\#6, May 1995\) by Peter Schweighofer (1 ABY)
* "Rendevouzs with Destiny" (\#6, May 1995\) by Charlene Newcomb (9 ABY)
* "Ringers" (\#6, May 1995\) by Laurie Burns (0 BBY)
* "To Fight Another Day (\#6, May 1995\) by Kathy Tyers (0 ABY)
* "Kella Rand, Reporting..." (\#6, May 1995\) by Laurie Burns (7 ABY)
* "Mist Encounter" (\#7, August 1995\) by Timothy Zahn (19 BBY)
* "Passages" (\#7, August 1995\) by Charlene Newcomb (3 BBY)
* "Firepower" (\#8, November 1995\) by Carolyn Golledge (3 ABY)
* "Combat Moon" (\#9, February 1996\) by John Whitman (2 ABY)
* "Easy Credits" (\#9, February 1996\) by Paul Danner (4 ABY)
* "Desperate Measures" (\#10, May 1996\) by Carolyn Golledge (3 ABY)
* "Only Droids Serve the Maker" (\#10, May 1996\) by Kathy Tyers (0 ABY)
* "The Capture of 'Imperial Hazard'" (\#10, May 1996\) by Nora Mayers (2 ABY)
* "Command Decision" (\#11, November 1996\) by Timothy Zahn (2 ABY)
* "Spare Parts" (\#11, November 1996\) by Pablo Hidalgo (0 BBY)
* "The Most Dangerous Foe" (\#11, November 1996\) by Angela Philips (0 ABY)
* "Betrayal by Knight" (\#12, February 1997\) by Charlene Newcomb and Patricia A. Jackson (9 ABY)
* "Idol Intentions" (\#12, February 1997\) by Patricia A. Jackson (2 ABY)
* "Small Favors" (\#12, February 1997\) by Paul Danner (0 ABY)
* "The Occupation of Rhamalai" (\#13, May 1997\) by M. H. Watkins (0 ABY)
* "Crimson Bounty" (\#14, August 1997\) by Charlene Newcomb (2 ABY)
* "Murder in Slushtime" (\#14, August 1997\) by Barbara Hambly (13 ABY)
* "The Breath of Gelgelar" (\#14, August 1997\) by Jean Rabe (1 ABY)
* "Firestorm" (\#15, November 1997\) by Duane Maxwell (11 ABY)
* "Laughter after Dark" (\#15, November 1997\) by Patricia A. Jackson (2 ABY)
* "The Draw" (\#15, November 1997\) by Angela Philips (2 ABY)
* "The Great Herdship Heist" (\#15, November 1997\) by Daniel Wallace (0 ABY)
* "Two for One" (\#15, November 1997\) by Paul Danner (17 ABY)
{{div col end}}
#### *Star Wars Gamer* (2000–2002\)
A few short stories have been published in the short lived *Star Wars Gamer* Magazine, published bi\-monthly by [Wizards of the Coast](/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast "Wizards of the Coast").
{{Div col\|colwidth\=50em}}
* "The Starfighter Trap" (\#1, November 2000\) by Steve Miller (33 BBY)
* "Fair Prey" (\#1, November 2000\) by Daniel Wallace (0 ABY)
* "A Credit for Your Thoughts" (\#2, February 2001\) by Tish Eggleston Pahl and Chris Cassidy (4 ABY)
* "The Monster" (\#2, February 2001\) by Daniel Wallace (36 BBY)
* "Bane of the Sith" (\#3, April 2001\) by Kevin J. Anderson (1000 BBY)
* "Deep Spolers" (\#4, June 2001\) by Ryder Windham (32 BBY)
* "The Crystal" (\#5, July 2001\) by Elaine Cunningham (24 ABY)
* "Darkness Shared" (\#5, July 2001\) by Bill Slavicsek (1000 BBY)
* "Rebel Bass" (\#6, August 2001\) by Kathy Tyers (2 BBY)
* "Red Sky, Blue Flame" (\#7, October 2001\) by Elaine Cunningham (19 ABY)
* "Battle on Bonadan" (\#8, January 2002\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)
* "The Apprentice" (\#8, January 2002\) by Elaine Cunningham (27 ABY)
* "Dark Tidings" (\#9, March 2002\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)
* "The War on Wayland" (\#10, May 2002\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)
* "Handoff" (\#10, May 2002\) by Timothy Zahn (4 ABY)
#### *Star Wars Insider* (2002–2014\)
Various short stories have been published in *[Star Wars Insider](/wiki/Star_Wars_Insider "Star Wars Insider")*. Some of these were later reprinted in the Paperback Editions of various Novels, or *The Fiction Collection* Compilations.
{{Div col\|colwidth\=50em}}
* "Relic of Ruin" (\#62, October 2002\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)
* "A Perilous Plan" (\#63, November 2002\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)
* "Emissary of the Void" (\#64, December 2002\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)
* "The Clone Wars: The Pengalan Tradeoff (\#65, January 2003\) by Aaron Allston (21 BBY)
* "Elusion Illusion" (\#66, March 2003\) by Michael A. Stackpole (22 BBY)
* "The Trouble with Squibs" (\#67, April 2003\) by Troy Denning (8 ABY)
* "Hero of Cartao: Hero's Call" (\#68, June 2003\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)
* "Hero of Cartao: Hero's Rise" (\#69, July 2003\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)
* "Hero of Cartao: Hero's End" (\#70, September 2003\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)
* "League of Spies" (\#73, January 2004\) by Aaron Allston (22 BBY)
* "Pearls in the Sand" (\#74, February 2004\) by Voronica Whitney\-Robinson (1 ABY)
* "Or Die Trying" (\#75, April 2004\) by Sean Williams and Shane Dix (28 ABY)
* "Changing Seasons: Guardian of the People" (\#76, May 2004\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)
* "Changing Seasons: People of the Guardian" (\#77, August 2004\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)
* "Death in the Catacombs" (\#79, November 2004\) by Mike W. Barr (22 BBY)
* "Omega Squad: Targets" (\#81, March 2005\) by Karen Traviss (22 BBY)
* "MedStar: Intermezzo" (\#83, August 2005\) by Michael Reaves and Steve Perry (20 BBY)
* "A Two\-Edged Sword" (\#85, November 2005\) by Karen Traviss (18 BBY)
* "Odds" (\#87, April 2006\) by Karen Traviss (21 BBY)
* "Ghosts of the Sith" (\#88, June 2006\) by Jude Watson (19 BBY)
* "The Old Republic: The Third Lession" (\#124, March 2011\) by Paul S. Kemp (3667 BBY)
* "First Blood" (\#125, April 2011\) by Christie Golden (41 ABY)
* "Buyer's Market" (\#126, June 2011\) by Timothy Zahn (5 ABY)
* "And Leebo Makes Three" (\#128, September 2011\) by Michael Reaves and Maya Kaathryn Bohnhoff (0 BBY)
* "A Fair Trade" (\#129, October 2011\) by Paul S. Kemp (41 ABY)
* "Vader Adrift" (Special Edition 2012, November 2011\) by Ryder Windham (3 ABY)
* "The Tenebrous Way" (\#130, December 2011\) by Matthew Stover (67 BBY)
* "The Guns of Kelrodo\-Ai" (\#132, March 2012\) by Jason Fry (17 BBY)
* "Hunting the Gorach" (\#133, May 2012\) by Jeff Grubb (19 ABY)
* "Getaway" (\#134, June 2012\) by Christie Golden (44 ABY)
* "Roll of the Dice" (\#135, July 2012\) by Karen Miller (44 ABY)
* "Reputation" (\#136, September 2012\) by Ari Marmell (24 BBY)
* "The Last Battle of Colonel Jace Malcom" (\#137, October 2012\) by Alexander Freed (3640 BBY)
* "Heist" (\#138, December 2012\) by Timothy Zahn (0 ABY)
* "Speaking Silently" (\#139, January 2013\) by Jason Fry (21 BBY)
* "Eruption" (\#141, April 2013\) by [John Ostrander](/wiki/John_Ostrander "John Ostrander") (25,793 BBY)
* "Good Hunting" (\#142, June 2013\) by Christie Golden (45 ABY)
* "Incognito" (\#143, July 2013\) by John Jackson Miller (19 BBY)
* "Hondo Ohnaka's Not\-So\-Big Score" (\#144, September 2013\) by Jason Fry (22 BBY)
* "Constant Spirit" (\#145, October 2013\) by Jennifer Heddle (Between 2BBY and 0 BBY)
* "The Syrox Redemption" (\#146, December 2013\) by Joe Schreiber (36 BBY)
* "Hammer" (\#147, January 2014\) by Edward M. Erdelac (19 BBY)
{{div col end}}
#### *Tales from* series (1995–1999\)
These books contain short *Star Wars* stories from several notable science\-fiction authors with stories that span different eras.
##### *[Tales from the Mos Eisley Cantina](/wiki/Tales_from_the_Mos_Eisley_Cantina "Tales from the Mos Eisley Cantina")* (1995\)
Edited by [Kevin J. Anderson](/wiki/Kevin_J._Anderson "Kevin J. Anderson").
{{Div col\|colwidth\=50em}}
* "We Don't Do Weddings: The Band's Tale" by [Kathy Tyers](/wiki/Kathy_Tyers "Kathy Tyers")
* "A Hunter's Fate: Greedo's Tale" by [Tom Veitch](/wiki/Tom_Veitch "Tom Veitch") and Martha Veitch
* "Hammertong: The Tale of the 'Tonnika Sisters'" by [Timothy Zahn](/wiki/Timothy_Zahn "Timothy Zahn")
* "Play It Again, Figrin D'an: The Tale of Muftak and Kabe" by A. C. Crispin
* "The Sand Tender: The Hammerhead's Tale" by Dave Wolverton
* "Be Still My Heart: The Bartender's Tale" by David Bischoff
* "Nightlily: The Lovers' Tale" by Barbara Hambly
* "Empire Blues: The Devaronian's Tale" by Daniel Keys Moran
* "Swap Meet: The Jawa's Tale" by Kevin J. Anderson
* "Trade Wins: The Ranat's Tale" by Rebecca Moesta
* "When the Desert Wind Turns: The Stormtrooper's Tale" by Doug Beason
* "Soup's On: The Pipe Smoker's Tale" by Jennifer Roberson
* "At the Crossroads: The Spacer's Tale" by Jerry Oltion
* "Doctor Death: The Tale of Dr. Evazan and Ponda Baba" by Kenneth C. Flint
* "Drawing the Maps of Peace: The Moisture Farmer's Tale" by M. Shayne Bell
* "One Last Night in the Mos Eisley Cantina: The Tale of the Wolfman and the Lamproid" by Judith and Garfield Reeves\-Stevens
{{div col end}}
##### *[Tales from Jabba's Palace](/wiki/Tales_from_Jabba%27s_Palace "Tales from Jabba's Palace")* (1995\)
Edited by [Kevin J. Anderson](/wiki/Kevin_J._Anderson "Kevin J. Anderson").
##### *[Tales of the Bounty Hunters](/wiki/Tales_of_the_Bounty_Hunters "Tales of the Bounty Hunters")* (1996\)
Edited by [Kevin J. Anderson](/wiki/Kevin_J._Anderson "Kevin J. Anderson").
##### *[Tales from the Empire](/wiki/Tales_from_the_Empire "Tales from the Empire")* (1997\)
Edited by Peter Schweighofer.
##### *[Tales from the New Republic](/wiki/Tales_from_the_New_Republic "Tales from the New Republic")* (1999\)
Edited by Peter Schweighofer and Craig Carey.
#### *The Old Republic* (2014–2022\)
Between 2014 and 2022, several Short Stories were published on the Official Website of the *[Star Wars: The Old Republic](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Old_Republic "The Old Republic")* MMORPG as tie\-ins. They are notable for being among of the last pieces of new Legends Media to be published after the Canon Reboot in 2014\.
{{Div col\|colwidth\=50em}}
* "Lana Beniko's Journal: Darth Arkous" by Sean McKeever
* "Surface Details" by Charles Boyd
* "Wanted: Dead and Dismantled"
* "Remnants" by Charles Boyd
* "Bedtime on Concordia" by Charles Boyd
* "The Price of Power" by Courtney Woods
* "One Night in the Dealer's Den" by Courtney Woods
* "The Final Trial" by Courtney Woods
* "Regrets" by Courtney Woods
* "The Sixth Line" by Courtney Woods
* "Vacation" by Courtney Woods
* "Brothers" by Courtney Woods
* "A Mother's Hope" by Drew Karpyshyn
* "Trading Scars: A Short Story on Umbara" by Samantha Wallschlaeger
* "Copero" by Charles Boyd
* "Quite A Story To Tell" by Caitlin Sullivan Kelly
* "Seeing Red" by Jay Watamanuik
* "All That's Left" by Caitlin Sullivan Kelly
* "Bottled Fury" by Jay Watamanuik
* "Snare" by Jay Watamanuik
{{div col end}}
#### Other
* "A Grand Admiral returns" (1992\-07\-01\) by Bill Slavicsek
+ Published in the *Heir to the Empire* Sourcebook.
* "X\-Wing: The Farlander Papers" (1993\-06\-01\) by Rusel DeMaria
+ Published in the *X\-Wing: The Official Strategy Guide* Sourcebook.
* "TIE Figter: The Stele Chronicles" (1994\-07\-18\) by Rusel DeMaria
+ Published in the *TIE Fighter: The Official Strategy Guide* Sourcebook.
* "Crisis of Faith" (2011\-09\-06\) by Timothy Zahn
+ Published in the special 20th anniversary edition of *Heir to the Empire*.
|
[
"### Short stories",
"#### *Star Wars Adventure Journal* (1994–1997\\)",
"Several short stories have been published in the *Star Wars Adventure Journal* Magazine published by [West End Games](/wiki/West_End_Games \"West End Games\").",
"{{Div col\\|colwidth\\=50em}}\n* \"A Glimmer of Hope\" (\\#1, February 1994\\) by Charlene Newcomb (6 ABY)\n* \"Breaking Free: The Adventures of Dannen Lifehold\" (\\#1, February 1994\\) by Dave Marron (0 BBY)\n* \"Chessa's Doom\" (\\#1, February 1994\\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)\n* \"Escape from Balis\\-Baurgh\" (\\#1, February 1994\\) by Paul Balsamo (4 ABY)\n* \"Big Quince\" (\\#2, May 1994\\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)\n* \"Out of the Cradle\" (\\#2, May 1994\\) by Patricia A. Jackson (3 BBY)\n* \"Whispers in the Dark\" (\\#2, May 1994\\) by Charlene Newcomb (6 ABY)\n* \"Changing the Odds: The Adventures of Dannen Lifehold\" (\\#3, August 1994\\) by Dave Marron (0 BBY)\n* \"Droid Trouble\" (\\#3, August 1994\\) by Chuck Sperati (0 ABY)\n* \"Explosive Developments\" (\\#3, August 1994\\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)\n* \"Mission to Zila\" (\\#3, August 1994\\) by Charlene Newcomb (8 ABY)\n* \"When the Dominos Falls\" (\\#3, August 1994\\) by Patricia A. Jackson (2 BBY)\n* \"Shadows of Darkness\" (\\#4, November 1994\\) by Charlene Newcomb (8 ABY)\n* \"Starter's Tale\" (\\#4, November 1994\\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)\n* \"A Bitter Winter\" (\\#5, February 1995\\) by Patricia A. Jackson (0 ABY)\n* \"One of a Kind\" (\\#5, February 1995\\) by Paul Danner\n* \"Turning Point\" (\\#5, February 1995\\) by Charlene Newcomb (6 BBY)\n* \"Vengeance Strike\" (\\#5, February 1995\\) by Peter Schweighofer (7 ABY)\n* \"Finder's Fee\" (\\#6, May 1995\\) by Peter Schweighofer (1 ABY)\n* \"Rendevouzs with Destiny\" (\\#6, May 1995\\) by Charlene Newcomb (9 ABY)\n* \"Ringers\" (\\#6, May 1995\\) by Laurie Burns (0 BBY)\n* \"To Fight Another Day (\\#6, May 1995\\) by Kathy Tyers (0 ABY)\n* \"Kella Rand, Reporting...\" (\\#6, May 1995\\) by Laurie Burns (7 ABY)\n* \"Mist Encounter\" (\\#7, August 1995\\) by Timothy Zahn (19 BBY)\n* \"Passages\" (\\#7, August 1995\\) by Charlene Newcomb (3 BBY)\n* \"Firepower\" (\\#8, November 1995\\) by Carolyn Golledge (3 ABY)\n* \"Combat Moon\" (\\#9, February 1996\\) by John Whitman (2 ABY)\n* \"Easy Credits\" (\\#9, February 1996\\) by Paul Danner (4 ABY)\n* \"Desperate Measures\" (\\#10, May 1996\\) by Carolyn Golledge (3 ABY)\n* \"Only Droids Serve the Maker\" (\\#10, May 1996\\) by Kathy Tyers (0 ABY)\n* \"The Capture of 'Imperial Hazard'\" (\\#10, May 1996\\) by Nora Mayers (2 ABY)\n* \"Command Decision\" (\\#11, November 1996\\) by Timothy Zahn (2 ABY)\n* \"Spare Parts\" (\\#11, November 1996\\) by Pablo Hidalgo (0 BBY)\n* \"The Most Dangerous Foe\" (\\#11, November 1996\\) by Angela Philips (0 ABY)\n* \"Betrayal by Knight\" (\\#12, February 1997\\) by Charlene Newcomb and Patricia A. Jackson (9 ABY)\n* \"Idol Intentions\" (\\#12, February 1997\\) by Patricia A. Jackson (2 ABY)\n* \"Small Favors\" (\\#12, February 1997\\) by Paul Danner (0 ABY)\n* \"The Occupation of Rhamalai\" (\\#13, May 1997\\) by M. H. Watkins (0 ABY)\n* \"Crimson Bounty\" (\\#14, August 1997\\) by Charlene Newcomb (2 ABY)\n* \"Murder in Slushtime\" (\\#14, August 1997\\) by Barbara Hambly (13 ABY)\n* \"The Breath of Gelgelar\" (\\#14, August 1997\\) by Jean Rabe (1 ABY)\n* \"Firestorm\" (\\#15, November 1997\\) by Duane Maxwell (11 ABY)\n* \"Laughter after Dark\" (\\#15, November 1997\\) by Patricia A. Jackson (2 ABY)\n* \"The Draw\" (\\#15, November 1997\\) by Angela Philips (2 ABY)\n* \"The Great Herdship Heist\" (\\#15, November 1997\\) by Daniel Wallace (0 ABY)\n* \"Two for One\" (\\#15, November 1997\\) by Paul Danner (17 ABY)\n{{div col end}}",
"#### *Star Wars Gamer* (2000–2002\\)",
"A few short stories have been published in the short lived *Star Wars Gamer* Magazine, published bi\\-monthly by [Wizards of the Coast](/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast \"Wizards of the Coast\").",
"{{Div col\\|colwidth\\=50em}}\n* \"The Starfighter Trap\" (\\#1, November 2000\\) by Steve Miller (33 BBY)\n* \"Fair Prey\" (\\#1, November 2000\\) by Daniel Wallace (0 ABY)\n* \"A Credit for Your Thoughts\" (\\#2, February 2001\\) by Tish Eggleston Pahl and Chris Cassidy (4 ABY)\n* \"The Monster\" (\\#2, February 2001\\) by Daniel Wallace (36 BBY)\n* \"Bane of the Sith\" (\\#3, April 2001\\) by Kevin J. Anderson (1000 BBY)\n* \"Deep Spolers\" (\\#4, June 2001\\) by Ryder Windham (32 BBY)\n* \"The Crystal\" (\\#5, July 2001\\) by Elaine Cunningham (24 ABY)\n* \"Darkness Shared\" (\\#5, July 2001\\) by Bill Slavicsek (1000 BBY)\n* \"Rebel Bass\" (\\#6, August 2001\\) by Kathy Tyers (2 BBY)\n* \"Red Sky, Blue Flame\" (\\#7, October 2001\\) by Elaine Cunningham (19 ABY)\n* \"Battle on Bonadan\" (\\#8, January 2002\\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)\n* \"The Apprentice\" (\\#8, January 2002\\) by Elaine Cunningham (27 ABY)\n* \"Dark Tidings\" (\\#9, March 2002\\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)\n* \"The War on Wayland\" (\\#10, May 2002\\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)\n* \"Handoff\" (\\#10, May 2002\\) by Timothy Zahn (4 ABY)",
"#### *Star Wars Insider* (2002–2014\\)",
"Various short stories have been published in *[Star Wars Insider](/wiki/Star_Wars_Insider \"Star Wars Insider\")*. Some of these were later reprinted in the Paperback Editions of various Novels, or *The Fiction Collection* Compilations.",
"{{Div col\\|colwidth\\=50em}}\n* \"Relic of Ruin\" (\\#62, October 2002\\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)\n* \"A Perilous Plan\" (\\#63, November 2002\\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)\n* \"Emissary of the Void\" (\\#64, December 2002\\) by Greg Keyes (26 ABY)\n* \"The Clone Wars: The Pengalan Tradeoff (\\#65, January 2003\\) by Aaron Allston (21 BBY)\n* \"Elusion Illusion\" (\\#66, March 2003\\) by Michael A. Stackpole (22 BBY)\n* \"The Trouble with Squibs\" (\\#67, April 2003\\) by Troy Denning (8 ABY)\n* \"Hero of Cartao: Hero's Call\" (\\#68, June 2003\\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)\n* \"Hero of Cartao: Hero's Rise\" (\\#69, July 2003\\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)\n* \"Hero of Cartao: Hero's End\" (\\#70, September 2003\\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)\n* \"League of Spies\" (\\#73, January 2004\\) by Aaron Allston (22 BBY)\n* \"Pearls in the Sand\" (\\#74, February 2004\\) by Voronica Whitney\\-Robinson (1 ABY)\n* \"Or Die Trying\" (\\#75, April 2004\\) by Sean Williams and Shane Dix (28 ABY)\n* \"Changing Seasons: Guardian of the People\" (\\#76, May 2004\\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)\n* \"Changing Seasons: People of the Guardian\" (\\#77, August 2004\\) by Timothy Zahn (22 BBY)\n* \"Death in the Catacombs\" (\\#79, November 2004\\) by Mike W. Barr (22 BBY)\n* \"Omega Squad: Targets\" (\\#81, March 2005\\) by Karen Traviss (22 BBY)\n* \"MedStar: Intermezzo\" (\\#83, August 2005\\) by Michael Reaves and Steve Perry (20 BBY)\n* \"A Two\\-Edged Sword\" (\\#85, November 2005\\) by Karen Traviss (18 BBY)\n* \"Odds\" (\\#87, April 2006\\) by Karen Traviss (21 BBY)\n* \"Ghosts of the Sith\" (\\#88, June 2006\\) by Jude Watson (19 BBY)\n* \"The Old Republic: The Third Lession\" (\\#124, March 2011\\) by Paul S. Kemp (3667 BBY)\n* \"First Blood\" (\\#125, April 2011\\) by Christie Golden (41 ABY)\n* \"Buyer's Market\" (\\#126, June 2011\\) by Timothy Zahn (5 ABY)\n* \"And Leebo Makes Three\" (\\#128, September 2011\\) by Michael Reaves and Maya Kaathryn Bohnhoff (0 BBY)\n* \"A Fair Trade\" (\\#129, October 2011\\) by Paul S. Kemp (41 ABY)\n* \"Vader Adrift\" (Special Edition 2012, November 2011\\) by Ryder Windham (3 ABY)\n* \"The Tenebrous Way\" (\\#130, December 2011\\) by Matthew Stover (67 BBY)\n* \"The Guns of Kelrodo\\-Ai\" (\\#132, March 2012\\) by Jason Fry (17 BBY)\n* \"Hunting the Gorach\" (\\#133, May 2012\\) by Jeff Grubb (19 ABY)\n* \"Getaway\" (\\#134, June 2012\\) by Christie Golden (44 ABY)\n* \"Roll of the Dice\" (\\#135, July 2012\\) by Karen Miller (44 ABY)\n* \"Reputation\" (\\#136, September 2012\\) by Ari Marmell (24 BBY)\n* \"The Last Battle of Colonel Jace Malcom\" (\\#137, October 2012\\) by Alexander Freed (3640 BBY)\n* \"Heist\" (\\#138, December 2012\\) by Timothy Zahn (0 ABY)\n* \"Speaking Silently\" (\\#139, January 2013\\) by Jason Fry (21 BBY)\n* \"Eruption\" (\\#141, April 2013\\) by [John Ostrander](/wiki/John_Ostrander \"John Ostrander\") (25,793 BBY)\n* \"Good Hunting\" (\\#142, June 2013\\) by Christie Golden (45 ABY)\n* \"Incognito\" (\\#143, July 2013\\) by John Jackson Miller (19 BBY)\n* \"Hondo Ohnaka's Not\\-So\\-Big Score\" (\\#144, September 2013\\) by Jason Fry (22 BBY)\n* \"Constant Spirit\" (\\#145, October 2013\\) by Jennifer Heddle (Between 2BBY and 0 BBY)\n* \"The Syrox Redemption\" (\\#146, December 2013\\) by Joe Schreiber (36 BBY)\n* \"Hammer\" (\\#147, January 2014\\) by Edward M. Erdelac (19 BBY)\n{{div col end}}",
"#### *Tales from* series (1995–1999\\)",
"These books contain short *Star Wars* stories from several notable science\\-fiction authors with stories that span different eras.",
"##### *[Tales from the Mos Eisley Cantina](/wiki/Tales_from_the_Mos_Eisley_Cantina \"Tales from the Mos Eisley Cantina\")* (1995\\)",
"Edited by [Kevin J. Anderson](/wiki/Kevin_J._Anderson \"Kevin J. Anderson\").",
"{{Div col\\|colwidth\\=50em}}\n* \"We Don't Do Weddings: The Band's Tale\" by [Kathy Tyers](/wiki/Kathy_Tyers \"Kathy Tyers\")\n* \"A Hunter's Fate: Greedo's Tale\" by [Tom Veitch](/wiki/Tom_Veitch \"Tom Veitch\") and Martha Veitch\n* \"Hammertong: The Tale of the 'Tonnika Sisters'\" by [Timothy Zahn](/wiki/Timothy_Zahn \"Timothy Zahn\")\n* \"Play It Again, Figrin D'an: The Tale of Muftak and Kabe\" by A. C. Crispin\n* \"The Sand Tender: The Hammerhead's Tale\" by Dave Wolverton\n* \"Be Still My Heart: The Bartender's Tale\" by David Bischoff\n* \"Nightlily: The Lovers' Tale\" by Barbara Hambly\n* \"Empire Blues: The Devaronian's Tale\" by Daniel Keys Moran\n* \"Swap Meet: The Jawa's Tale\" by Kevin J. Anderson\n* \"Trade Wins: The Ranat's Tale\" by Rebecca Moesta\n* \"When the Desert Wind Turns: The Stormtrooper's Tale\" by Doug Beason\n* \"Soup's On: The Pipe Smoker's Tale\" by Jennifer Roberson\n* \"At the Crossroads: The Spacer's Tale\" by Jerry Oltion\n* \"Doctor Death: The Tale of Dr. Evazan and Ponda Baba\" by Kenneth C. Flint\n* \"Drawing the Maps of Peace: The Moisture Farmer's Tale\" by M. Shayne Bell\n* \"One Last Night in the Mos Eisley Cantina: The Tale of the Wolfman and the Lamproid\" by Judith and Garfield Reeves\\-Stevens\n{{div col end}}",
"##### *[Tales from Jabba's Palace](/wiki/Tales_from_Jabba%27s_Palace \"Tales from Jabba's Palace\")* (1995\\)",
"Edited by [Kevin J. Anderson](/wiki/Kevin_J._Anderson \"Kevin J. Anderson\").",
"##### *[Tales of the Bounty Hunters](/wiki/Tales_of_the_Bounty_Hunters \"Tales of the Bounty Hunters\")* (1996\\)",
"Edited by [Kevin J. Anderson](/wiki/Kevin_J._Anderson \"Kevin J. Anderson\").",
"##### *[Tales from the Empire](/wiki/Tales_from_the_Empire \"Tales from the Empire\")* (1997\\)",
"Edited by Peter Schweighofer.",
"##### *[Tales from the New Republic](/wiki/Tales_from_the_New_Republic \"Tales from the New Republic\")* (1999\\)",
"Edited by Peter Schweighofer and Craig Carey.",
"#### *The Old Republic* (2014–2022\\)",
"Between 2014 and 2022, several Short Stories were published on the Official Website of the *[Star Wars: The Old Republic](/wiki/Star_Wars:The_Old_Republic \"The Old Republic\")* MMORPG as tie\\-ins. They are notable for being among of the last pieces of new Legends Media to be published after the Canon Reboot in 2014\\.",
"{{Div col\\|colwidth\\=50em}}\n* \"Lana Beniko's Journal: Darth Arkous\" by Sean McKeever\n* \"Surface Details\" by Charles Boyd\n* \"Wanted: Dead and Dismantled\"\n* \"Remnants\" by Charles Boyd\n* \"Bedtime on Concordia\" by Charles Boyd\n* \"The Price of Power\" by Courtney Woods\n* \"One Night in the Dealer's Den\" by Courtney Woods\n* \"The Final Trial\" by Courtney Woods\n* \"Regrets\" by Courtney Woods\n* \"The Sixth Line\" by Courtney Woods\n* \"Vacation\" by Courtney Woods\n* \"Brothers\" by Courtney Woods\n* \"A Mother's Hope\" by Drew Karpyshyn\n* \"Trading Scars: A Short Story on Umbara\" by Samantha Wallschlaeger\n* \"Copero\" by Charles Boyd\n* \"Quite A Story To Tell\" by Caitlin Sullivan Kelly\n* \"Seeing Red\" by Jay Watamanuik\n* \"All That's Left\" by Caitlin Sullivan Kelly\n* \"Bottled Fury\" by Jay Watamanuik\n* \"Snare\" by Jay Watamanuik\n{{div col end}}",
"#### Other",
"* \"A Grand Admiral returns\" (1992\\-07\\-01\\) by Bill Slavicsek\n\t+ Published in the *Heir to the Empire* Sourcebook.\n* \"X\\-Wing: The Farlander Papers\" (1993\\-06\\-01\\) by Rusel DeMaria\n\t+ Published in the *X\\-Wing: The Official Strategy Guide* Sourcebook.\n* \"TIE Figter: The Stele Chronicles\" (1994\\-07\\-18\\) by Rusel DeMaria\n\t+ Published in the *TIE Fighter: The Official Strategy Guide* Sourcebook.\n* \"Crisis of Faith\" (2011\\-09\\-06\\) by Timothy Zahn\n\t+ Published in the special 20th anniversary edition of *Heir to the Empire*.",
"",
"",
""
] |
Life
----
### Origin and youth
Theodor Mayer was born on 24 August 1883, in [Neukirchen an der Enknach](/wiki/Neukirchen_an_der_Enknach "Neukirchen an der Enknach"), [Austria\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary "Austria-Hungary"). Throughout his life, he consistently emphasized his origins as an "*[Innviertler](/wiki/Innviertel "Innviertel")*." His parents were Johann Nepomuk Mayer, a physician, and Maria, Wittib (née) Mayer. After completing his elementary education in Neukirchen, he attended a grammar school in [Linz](/wiki/Linz "Linz") from 1893 to 1895\. In 1895, the family relocated to Innsbruck, Mayer's mother's hometown, at her request. While attending the local grammar school, he formed a close friendship with [Heinrich Ficker](/wiki/Heinrich_von_Ficker "Heinrich von Ficker"), the second eldest son of the historian [Julius Ficker](/wiki/Julius_von_Ficker "Julius von Ficker"), with whom he shared the same class. This also brought Mayer, who had developed an interest in mathematics during his grammar school years, into contact with [Alfons Dopsch](/wiki/Alfons_Dopsch "Alfons Dopsch"), a regular guest at the Fickers' house in the summer of 1899\. These encounters had a profound and enduring impact, ultimately influencing Mayer's decision to pursue a degree in history.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 26\. He completed his *[Matura](/wiki/Matura "Matura")* in Innsbruck in 1901\.
Mayer had been intimately acquainted with the natural world since his youth. Like his friend Heinrich Ficker, who subsequently became a meteorologist and climatologist, he became a member of the Academic Alpine Club during his high school years and undertook numerous mountain tours. In his own words, he was "always in the lead." The profound experience of nature later also shaped Mayer's approach to science, particularly to regional history.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 81\.
### Years of study in Florence and Vienna
From 1901, he pursued studies in history at the Istituto di Studi Superiori in [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence"), which later became the university. However, he indicated that his primary interest lay in the language and culture of Italy. One year later, he relocated to the [University of Vienna](/wiki/University_of_Vienna "University of Vienna"). From 1903 to 1905, he completed the 25th course at the traditional Institute for [Austrian Historical Research](/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_%C3%96sterreichische_Geschichtsforschung "Institut für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung"). Notable fellow students included August Ritter von Loehr, Vinzenz Samanek, Otto Stolz, and Josef Kallbrunner.Alphons Lhotsky: *Geschichte des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung 1854–1954\.* Vienna 1954, p. 342–346\. His most significant academic mentors were [Emil von Ottenthal](/wiki/Emil_von_Ottenthal "Emil von Ottenthal"), [Oswald Redlich](/wiki/Oswald_Redlich "Oswald Redlich"), and above all, the economic and social historian Alfons Dopsch.On Mayer's relationship with his teacher Dopsch, see Theodor Mayer: *Alfons Dopsch.* In: *[Historische Zeitschrift](/wiki/Historische_Zeitschrift "Historische Zeitschrift")* 179 (1955\), p. 213–216\. He dedicated his dissertation at the Institute for Austrian Historical Research to the medieval constitution of castles in Austria. He received his doctorate from Dopsch at the end of November 1905 with a thesis on the trade relations between the Upper German towns and Austria in the 15th century. The treatise was published as volume 6 of the series Research on the internal history of Austria, which Dopsch founded in 1903\.Theodor Mayer: *Der auswärtige Handel des Herzogtums Österreich im Mittelalter.* Innsbruck 1909\.
### Archive period
Upon completion of his studies, Mayer initially served as a trainee at the Innsbruck State Archives from 1906 to 1907\. During his tenure as an archivist, he married Johanna Stradal, who was approximately ten years his junior. His wife hailed from a wealthy upper middle\-class family and was the daughter of a lawyer from [Teplitz\-Schönau](/wiki/Teplice "Teplice") in Bohemia. The analysis of private documents indicates that the marriage, which took place in 1911, was characterized by mutual respect and harmony.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 160\. Mayer, who was baptized a Catholic, converted to Protestantism through his marriage.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 89, Note 67\. The couple had three children: Theodor in 1913, Hanna in 1914, and Emma in 1920\.
In September 1912, Mayer was appointed Director of the Archive for Lower Austria at the age of 29\. In March 1914, he successfully completed his [habilitation](/wiki/Habilitation "Habilitation") at the University of Vienna with a thesis on administrative reform in Hungary after the Turkish period. Mayer enlisted as a volunteer in the same year and was assigned to a heavy artillery regiment. Until 1918, he served in [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol "South Tyrol"), [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 "Galicia (Eastern Europe)"), on the [Isonzo](/wiki/So%C4%8Da "Soča") and on the [Piave](/wiki/Piave_%28river%29 "Piave (river)") front, attaining the rank of first lieutenant. Upon his return from the war, he continued his work in the archive service. In 1921, he became a non\-tenured associate professor at the University of Vienna. He published several articles on economic topics in the Wiener Mittag, a journal that advocated the unification of Germany and Austria.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 41\.
### Weimar Republic
#### Teaching in Prague (1922–1930\)
Following Emil Werunsky's resignation, the chair of Medieval History and Historical auxiliary Sciences at the [German University of Prague](/wiki/Charles_University "Charles University") remained vacant from 1920\. After the appointment committee's preferred candidate, Otto Stolz, declined to relocate from Tyrol, Mayer was proposed in conjunction with [Hermann Aubin](/wiki/Hermann_Aubin "Hermann Aubin") at the top of the appointment list. Up to that point, Mayer had only engaged with topics pertaining to Austrian history and had not yet achieved notable achievements in the field of historical auxiliary sciences. However, Prague had been part of the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy") just a few years earlier, and the German\-speaking professors in Prague still felt a connection to Austria after 1918\. With his focus on the field of Medieval Administrative and Economic History, Mayer met the expectations of the appointment committee, which desired to see greater emphasis on the History of the Late Middle Ages and Economic History.Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, P. 43–59, here: p. 48 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)). He found an advocate for his appointment in his university friend [Hans Hirsch](/wiki/Hans_Hirsch "Hans Hirsch"), the sole representative of the subject of medieval history and historical auxiliary sciences.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 43 f. In December 1922, Theodor Mayer was appointed associate professor at the German University of Prague.
He began teaching in the winter semester of 1923/24\. He mainly offered lectures and tutorials on Economic history, including a regular three\-hour lecture on Economic history from the summer semester of 1926\. At the age of 44, he received his first full professorship in Prague in 1927\. His interests shifted at the end of the 1920s, which was reflected in his lectures and publications. From 1928 onwards, settlement history issues took precedence over Economic history. Mayer had [cadastral maps](/wiki/Cadastre "Cadastre") photographed and aerial photographs made. The Association for the History of the Germans in Bohemia, in which Mayer was involved, was intended to research the History of Bohemian settlements. As an academic teacher, he supervised 21 dissertations during his seven years of teaching in Prague, including nine on economic and settlement History topics.Pavel Kolář: *Geschichtswissenschaft in Zentraleuropa. Die Universitäten Prag, Wien und Berlin um 1900\.* Half\-volume 1\. Leipzig 2008, p. 218\.
#### Professorship in Giessen (1930–1934\)
In 1930, Mayer succeeded Hermann Aubin as Professor of Medieval History in Giessen.Friedrich Lenger: *Hermann Aubin und Theodor Mayer. Landesgeschichte – Volksgeschichte – politische Geschichte.* In: *Panorama. 400 Jahre Universität Gießen. Akteure, Schauplätze, Erinnerungskultur.* Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 114–119\. From that point forward, his research focused on imperial, constitutional, and, most notably, regional history.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 502\. He pursued similar lines of inquiry to his predecessor Aubin, investigating German [colonization of the East](/wiki/Ostsiedlung "Ostsiedlung")Friedrich Lenger: *Hermann Aubin und Theodor Mayer. Landesgeschichte – Volksgeschichte – politische Geschichte.* In: *Panorama. 400 Jahre Universität Gießen. Akteure, Schauplätze, Erinnerungskultur.* Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 114–119, here: p. 117\. and continuing to explore topics from his time in Prague. For instance, in the winter semester of 1933/34, he delivered a lecture on the history of German colonization in the East.
In Giessen, he also met Heinrich Büttner, whom he convinced to embrace the Middle Ages. A lifelong friendship developed between Mayer and Büttner.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: [Ulrich Pfeil](/wiki/Ulrich_Pfeil "Ulrich Pfeil") (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, p. 274–292, here: p. 274 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). Mayer also maintained his relationships with German circles abroad in Giessen. Shortly after moving to Giessen, he was already chairman of the local branch of the [Association for Germans Abroad](/wiki/Verein_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche_Kulturbeziehungen_im_Ausland "Verein für Deutsche Kulturbeziehungen im Ausland"). He also headed the Giessen local group of the Campaign of the Germans and Austrians in the Reich. The members espoused a Greater German ideology and the concept of annexation. When he, in conjunction with Walter Platzhoff and [Karl Brandi](/wiki/Karl_Brandi "Karl Brandi"), was tasked with reorganizing the General German Historians' Committee, he sought to give greater consideration to the aspirations of "Germans abroad" and their needs.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 78\.
Although Giessen was a relatively small University, Mayer felt very much at home there. He undertook extensive excursions to explore the [Lahntal](/wiki/Lahntal "Lahntal") and the area around Giessen. Nevertheless, he wrote in 1931 that he would leave if a better offer came along.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 80\.
### Role during National Socialism (1933–1945\)
#### Relationship to the NS regime
Mayer's wife was a supporter of the National Socialist movement even before her husband. She is said to have voted National Socialist as early as the summer of 1932\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\. His son Theodor Mayer\-Edenhäuser was also an admirer of Adolf Hitler and joined the *[NSDAP](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party")* in the spring of 1932 and the [*SA*](/wiki/Sturmabteilung "Sturmabteilung") in the fall of the same year.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\.
In the final phase of the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic "Weimar Republic"), Mayer supported a right\-wing authoritarian turn. However, the *[DNVP](/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party "German National People's Party")* under its chairman [Alfred Hugenberg](/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg "Alfred Hugenberg") was too "Prussian" for him, and in spring 1931 he criticized the *NSDAP's* inability to pursue positive politics.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 90\. "They don't seem to get beyond mass demagoguery", he criticized. In the run\-up to the Hessian state elections on 15 November 1931, he attended two *NSDAP* events in Giessen.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 91\. In July 1932, he continued to express skepticism about the National Socialists' ability to govern.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\. According to his biographer Reto Heinzel, Mayer developed sympathies for the political ideas of National Socialism in the fall of 1932 at the latest.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\. He was less enthusiastic about the political movement than about the strict, authoritarian government under [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler")'s leadership.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 97\.
According to Reto Heinzel, Mayer did not change his political stance abruptly in the first months of the National Socialist government, but continuously, and not for career reasons, but out of inner conviction.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101\. According to Anne Christine Nagel, he was enthusiastic about the National Socialists after the [March 1933 elections](/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election "March 1933 German federal election"); he wrote that it was now "really a pleasure to be German".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\. Among historians, Mayer was considered a convinced National Socialist, at least since he took over the Freiburg Chair of Medieval History in 1934\.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 495; Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Dies., Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, pp. 1–72, here: p. 31\.
In April 1933, at the age of fifty and in a secure position as a professor, he wrote a letter to Wilhelm Bauer in which he made disparaging remarks about the mass entry into the *NSDAP* of hundreds of thousands of people after the parliamentary elections in March 1933 (the so\-called "March Fallen").Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101, note 126\. He himself applied for admission to the party on 22 May 1937, after the ban had been lifted, and was admitted retroactively to May 1 ([membership number 4,352,531](/wiki/List_of_Nazis "List of Nazis")).Federal Archives, R 9361\-IX Index/27380678; Jörg Peter Jatho, Gerd Simon: *Gießener Historiker im Dritten Reich.* Gießen 2008, p. 54\. His political reliability was undisputed even without membership in the NSDAP. In August 1933, he joined the [National Socialist Teachers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_Teachers_League "National Socialist Teachers League"). He was also a member of the [National Socialist People's Welfare](/wiki/National_Socialist_People%27s_Welfare "National Socialist People's Welfare"), the [Imperial Air Defense League](/wiki/Reichsluftschutzbund "Reichsluftschutzbund"), and the [National Socialist German Lecturers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Lecturers_League "National Socialist German Lecturers League"). In this milieu, Mayer emphasized his common geographical origins with Adolf Hitler.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 24\. In the eyes of the Nazi rulers, Mayer was ideologically "irreproachable" and politically "fundamentally correct.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 112, 124\. He was involved in the commemorative publication for Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday, where he published a research report on "Economic and Social History" since 1933\.Theodor Mayer: *Wirtschafts\- und Siedlungsgeschichte.* In: *Deutsche Wissenschaft. Arbeit und Aufgabe.* Leipzig 1939, p. 26–28\. In a "political assessment" in 1941, the regional leadership in Kassel concluded that he had "proved himself to be a convinced National Socialist.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 349\.
At the end of March 1933, in a letter to his friend Wilhelm Bauer, he called for differentiation in the treatment of the Jewish population, arguing for a distinction between "Eastern Jews and long\-established Jews whose families have lived here for 500 years or more".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 161\. Five years later, this was no longer the case. In a letter to Wilhelm Bauer dated 14 March 1938, Mayer, who was oriented towards Greater Germany, commented on the long\-awaited "[Annexation of Austria](/wiki/Anschluss "Anschluss")" with a mixture of joy and malice towards the fate of the Jewish teachers at Vienna University. Only an impassive comment on the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht")* of 1938 has survived.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 162\.
#### Freiburg professorship (1934–1938\)
In [Freiburg im Breisgau](/wiki/Freiburg_im_Breisgau "Freiburg im Breisgau"), Mayer succeeded Hermann Heimpel on 1 October 1934, in the chair of medieval history held by Georg von Below. Taking over this chair at a much larger university was a noticeable step up for him. The environment was now much more political than in Giessen. As a so\-called "borderland University," Freiburg was in close proximity to Switzerland and the [hereditary enemy France](/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity "French–German enmity"). Mayer's inaugural lecture in Freiburg on 23 May 1935 dealt with the state of the Zähringers. It was published in the same year.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\. bis 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 61–64\. For this lecture, the passionate cyclist cycled along the old [Zähringer](/wiki/House_of_Z%C3%A4hringen "House of Zähringen") roads and village foundations in his study area. For him, exploring the landscape was an essential part of the scientific discovery process.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 81 f. In 1936/37 he was vice [dean](/wiki/Dean_%28education%29 "Dean (education)") of the Faculty of Philosophy in Freiburg. One of his students there was Martin Wellmer.
At the end of May 1935, the Karlsruhe cultural bureaucracy appointed Mayer chairman of the Baden Historical Commission, which had been dissolved in 1933 and re\-established in 1935 according to the *[Führerprinzip](/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip "Führerprinzip")*, not only because of his reputation as a scholar but also because of his political reliability. On the occasion of the re\-establishment in Karlsruhe, he gave a speech on 4 December 1935, thanking "our *[Führer](/wiki/F%C3%BChrer "Führer")* Adolf Hitler" and professing his belief in the "National Socialist German conception and view of history" laid down by the *Führer*.Matthias Werner: *Zwischen politischer Begrenzung und methodischer Offenheit. Wege und Stationen deutscher Landesgeschichtsforschung im 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: [Peter Moraw](/wiki/Peter_Moraw "Peter Moraw"), [Rudolf Schieffer](/wiki/Rudolf_Schieffer "Rudolf Schieffer") (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 251–364, here: p. 315 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/viewFile/17837/11646)). With this speech, he made a clear commitment to National Socialism in the presence of the Gauleiter and *[Reichsstatthalter](/wiki/Reichsstatthalter "Reichsstatthalter")*.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 506\.
In 1935, Mayer took over the management of the [Western studies](/wiki/Western_studies_%28Germany%29 "Western studies (Germany)") from Franz Steinbach.See in detail: Michael Fahlbusch: *Wissenschaft im Dienst der nationalsozialistischen Politik? Die „Volksdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaften“ 1931–1945\.* Baden\-Baden 1999, p. 357 ff. In spring 1935, the National Socialist mayor of Freiburg, Franz Kerber, put him in charge of the Alemannic Institute. The institute was maintained by the city of Freiburg. Mayer, however, wanted to link it closely with the university. He also wanted to collaborate with Swiss and Alsatian scholars. Therefore, against the will of the mayor, the institute was renamed the Upper Rhine Institute for Historical Regional Studies.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 507\. This led to a rift with Kerber. Tensions also arose with Friedrich Metz, who also rejected the renaming of the institute. Mayer also had personal differences at the Department of History with [Gerhard Ritter](/wiki/Gerhard_Ritter "Gerhard Ritter"), who had a [Lesser Germany](/wiki/Lesser_Germany "Lesser Germany") orientation.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 154, Note 234\. Mayer only avoided dismissal by accepting an appointment to Marburg in 1938\.
#### Teaching and rectorate in Marburg (1938–1942\)
In 1937, Edmund Ernst Stengel became president of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, which had been called the Reich Institute for Older German History since its institutional reorganization in 1935\. As successor to Stengel's Marburg Chair of Medieval History, Mayer was the preferred candidate of the retiring scholar. In October 1938, he succeeded Stengel at the small\-town and [Protestant Philipps University of Marburg](/wiki/University_of_Marburg "University of Marburg"). The Institute for Historical Regional Studies in Hesse and Nassau was associated with the chair. However, Mayer was by no means enthusiastic about his new academic position. He had no intention of "becoming absorbed in Hessian history".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 161\. In addition to medieval studies, Mayer also dealt with historical topics of current political relevance. In the summer semester of 1939, he gave a lecture on the history of the Germans in the Alpine and Sudeten countries. The occasion was the break\-up of [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia") and the " annexation of Austria". The fifty\-six\-year\-old enlisted months before 1 September 1939\. It was with regret that he accepted his age\-related refusal.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 162 f.
After less than a year, Mayer was nominated by a majority of professors as a candidate for the politically exposed position of [rector](/wiki/Rector_%28academia%29 "Rector (academia)"). On 2 November 1939, he was appointed by the [Reich Science Minister](/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Science%2C_Education_and_Culture "Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture") [Bernhard Rust](/wiki/Bernhard_Rust "Bernhard Rust").Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364\. He held the rectorate from late autumn 1939 until December 1942, making himself available for a position at the height of the National Socialist rise to power, which not only had to organize the academic world, but also fulfil political functions.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 345\. From 1938 to 1942, he was also head of the Historical Commission for Hesse and Waldeck.
Mayer repeatedly served as a scholarly advisor to the [SS](/wiki/Schutzstaffel "Schutzstaffel")'s "[Ancestral Heritage](/wiki/Ahnenerbe "Ahnenerbe")" and party circles. From 1940 on, he was head of the medieval department of the " Use of the Humanities in War". This was a major project of humanities scholars organized by Kiel's Rector Paul Ritterbusch on behalf of the Reich Ministry of Science, Education, and Cultural Affairs, with the goal of creating a European view of history shaped by German historians. According to Mayer's opinion in 1941, an intellectual leadership of Europe was unthinkable without the fulfillment of this task.Anne Christine Nagel: *Gerd Tellenbach. Wissenschaft und Politik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 79–99, here: p. 89 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010808)). There were good contacts with the " ancestral heritage " of the SS. Mayer proposed to the curator of this institution, [Walther Wüst](/wiki/Walther_W%C3%BCst "Walther Wüst"), the creation of a "Germanic prosopography" as a research project. The plan was to record some 15,000 individuals from the time of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne") to the year 1200\. According to Mayer, the "general Germanic prosopography" was to determine "the extent to which the awareness of the blood\-based membership of the European nobility, and thus a common Germanic feeling, lives on, and what role the Germanic peoples played in the development of the European world of nations, states, and culture, not only through their numbers but also through the position of leading personalities.Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Anne Christine Nagel, Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, p. 1–72, here: p. 34\. The work was continued during the war.
#### President of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (1942–1945\)
In April 1942, Mayer was appointed provisional director of the Reich Institute for Older German History, as the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH) had been known since 1935\. On October 1, he became the first Austrian to be appointed president of the institute, a fact he repeatedly emphasized with pride.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\. In return for giving up his chair in Marburg and his rectorship, he was to receive not only the presidency but also a professorship at the University of Berlin from the Ministry, but the Ministry's efforts met with fierce resistance from the Berlin faculty. Acting Dean [Hermann Grapow](/wiki/Hermann_Grapow "Hermann Grapow") made it clear in a letter to the Reich Minister of Education on 28 September 1942, that "the faculty does not want Dr. Theodor Mayer. Grapow went on to say that he saw Mayer as a threat to harmony in the field of medieval and modern history. Mayer had a "reputation as a restless, domineering, even boorish man.Quoted from Joseph Lemberg: *Der Historiker ohne Eigenschaften. Eine Problemgeschichte des Mediävisten Friedrich Baethgen.* Frankfurt 2015, p. 343\. As a result, only an honorary professorship was established for Mayer.
In 1942, Mayer suffered a personal blow: his 29\-year\-old son died on 29 May 1942 as a result of a double wound he had sustained in the [Battle of Kharkov](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kharkov "Second Battle of Kharkov").Franz Beyerle: *Dieter Pleimes, Theodor Mayer\-Edenhauser.* In: *Zeitschrift der Savigny\-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Germanistische Abteilung.* 63 (1943\), pp. 518–527, here: p. 523\. After the loss of his only son, Mayer's tone of voice intensified. In his speech on 11 July 1942 on the occasion of the university foundation ceremony, he spoke of "total war". The war was "a conflict between two world views, it is a battle for the right to life of individual peoples and their culture, for a better world order with the aim of putting a stop to the disintegration and destruction that threatens us from abroad".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 171\.
As president, Mayer headed an institution dedicated primarily to the edition of medieval sources. However, Mayer was not interested in editorial work. Rather, he wanted to reorganize the traditional tasks of the MGH under the umbrella of the Reich Institute for the History of the New Germany. In the last years of the [total war](/wiki/Total_war "Total war"), he was no longer able to develop lasting creative possibilities at the MGH. In 1944, the MGH was evacuated from Berlin to [Schloss Weißenstein](/wiki/Schloss_Wei%C3%9Fenstein "Schloss Weißenstein") near Bamberg due to increasing bombing raids. The suggestion was probably made by [Carl Erdmann](/wiki/Carl_Erdmann "Carl Erdmann"), who was well acquainted with Count Erwein von Schönborn\-Wiesentheid.Enno Bünz: *Die Monumenta Germaniae Historica 1819–2019\. Ein historischer Abriss.* In: *Mittelalter lesbar machen. Festschrift 200 Jahre Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Grundlagen, Forschung, Mittelalter.* Published by the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Wiesbaden 2019, pp. 15–36, here: p. 24\.
### Post\-war period
#### Dismissal as MGH President
Mayer experienced the end of the war with a few MGH employees in Pommersfelden, Franconia, which was occupied by the Americans on 14 April 1945\. In early September 1945, he was arrested by the American military authorities and interned in the [Hammelburg](/wiki/Hammelburg "Hammelburg") camp until June 1946\. He was released to Pommersfelden in June 1946\. During this time, Mayer's main concern was the future of the MGH. In a letter to the *[Regierungspräsident](/wiki/Regierungspr%C3%A4sident_%28Germany%29 "Regierungspräsident (Germany)")* (Germany) for Upper and Middle Franconia, he emphasized that "German science" had achieved a "leading position" in the 20th century. In terms of cultural policy, this asset was "of the utmost importance". With the right effort, "the most effective and at the same time least expensive propaganda" could be carried out.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 226\. In the summer of 1946, Mayer was assured by [Walter Goetz](/wiki/Walter_Goetz "Walter Goetz") that there was no doubt that he would be reinstated as president.
Mayer succeeded in presenting numerous exonerating expert opinions from renowned colleagues. He himself wrote an expert opinion for his loyal student Heinrich Büttner, and Büttner in turn agreed to act as an exonerating witness for Mayer in the proceedings of the Trial Chamber.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 274–292, here: p. 290\. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). On 22 September 1947, the [Höchstadt an der Aisch](/wiki/H%C3%B6chstadt_an_der_Aisch "Höchstadt an der Aisch") Trial Chamber classified Mayer as a "follower" in Level IV and sentenced him to pay 500 Reichsmarks. The court's verdict stated that he had "only nominally participated in National Socialism". Mayer saw the lenient sentence, which was typical of the time, as a "brilliant justification of my strictly objective, scientific attitude during the entire period of National Socialist rule".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 230\.
At the end of September 1946, the Central Directorate, the scientific advisory board of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica that had existed until 1935, was re\-established. At their first meeting, the members of the Central Directorate agreed that in the event of an acquittal, Mayer should be "immediately reinstated" in his position.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 167\. However, the Central Directorate did not wait for the Appeals Chamber's decision. It decided to elect a new president in December 1947\. The Berlin medievalist [Friedrich Baethgen](/wiki/Friedrich_Baethgen "Friedrich Baethgen") became the new president on 1 January 1948\. The following years of Mayer's life were not marked by a confrontation with his own past, but by a struggle to make amends for the injustice he felt had been done to him. Mayer argued that he had never been dismissed as a Reich official and was therefore still in office. Unlike other dismissed historians, he wrote two open letters in 1948 to a wider public at home and abroad. In it, he declared himself the rightful president and denied the legitimacy of the election conducted by the central leadership. Mayer was merciless in his reckoning with the people he felt had deceived or betrayed him. He accused Baethgen of his own Nazi involvementNikola Becker: *Die Neuetablierung der Monumenta Germaniae Historica in Bayern ab 1944 im Spannungsfeld zwischen Theodor Mayer, Otto Meyer, Walter Goetz und Friedrich Baethgen.* In: *Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte* 77 (2014\), p. 43–68, here: p. 65\. and called Walter Goetz a "senile fool.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 233 f. Some of his colleagues who were on his side held back. Mayer's student Heinrich Büttner, for example, did not want to jeopardize his appointment negotiations.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 170\. Anne Christine Nagel believes that after 1945 Mayer "did not really stumble over his commitment to National Socialism," but rather "was sidelined by his colleagues because of considerable deficits in his personal conduct.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 171\.
Mayer's financial situation in the early postwar years was poor. It was not only his political burden but also his advanced age that made it difficult for him to return to university teaching. He and his wife lived on the income from their house in Marburg and the contributions of their daughters Hanna, who was a teacher in Salzburg, and Emma. Mayer's wife received a small fee from the publication of short articles in the Schweinfurt newspaper.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\), pp. 425–446, here: p. 440 f. He now returned to academic work, especially medieval constitutional history. As a result of this work, the [Böhlau publishing house](/wiki/B%C3%B6hlau_Verlag "Böhlau Verlag") in Weimar published "Fürsten and State. Studies in the Constitutional History of the German Middle Ages. In fifteen essays, he commented on [ecclesiastical *Advocatus*](/wiki/Advocatus "Advocatus"), [royal protection](/wiki/Peace_%28law%29 "Peace (law)"), immunity and jurisdiction, and the problems of Empire and Territory. In this work, he also presented a differentiation between Imperial and Royal Monasteries, which had long been unquestioned by Constitutional historians.Thomas Vogtherr: *Die Reichsabteien der Benediktiner und das Königtum im hohen Mittelalter. (900–1125\).* Stuttgart 2000, p. 12 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf05/0024/image)).
Only in private conversations and letters did Mayer express his criticism of [Konrad Adenauer](/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer "Konrad Adenauer")'s domestic and foreign policies, "football nationalism," and the danger of black supremacy over the white race.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\.
#### New fields of activity: Constance Working Group and Collegium Carolinum
Mayer's former academic student Otto Feger had been pursuing the plan to found an institute for the history and cultural history of the Lake Constance region in Constance with municipal support since the beginning of 1946\. For Feger, Mayer was the only right person to head the institute. On 20 April 1948, the city council passed a charter for the "Municipal Institute for Landscape Studies of the Lake Constance Region". Mayer, who had lived with his wife in Schönborn Castle near Pommersfelden until 1951, moved to Constance. He felt at home there.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\), p. 425–446, here: p. 444\. The comments about his life in Constance are largely positive. Mayer received his full pension in accordance with Article 131 of the Basic Law.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 176\.
The Municipal Institute for Landscape Studies of the Lake Constance Region was opened on 30 October 1951, with a ceremonial lecture by Heinrich Büttner. The first events lasting several days followed in the fall of 1952\. Initially, meetings were held in spring and fall at different locations. From 1957 on, the meetings were held almost exclusively on the Reichenau. The Constance Medieval History Study Group was formally founded in 1960\.Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 126–129 ([Full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118)). As chairman, Mayer was able to manage an annual budget of 40,000 to 50,000 DM. This sum covered the travel and lodging expenses of the participants.Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, pp. 73–89, here: p. 78 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/content/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)).
In April 1956, Mayer was elected chairman of the [Collegium Carolinum](/wiki/Collegium_Carolinum_%281956%E2%80%93%29 "Collegium Carolinum (1956–)"). According to Christoph Cornelißen, the projects there differed neither conceptually nor methodologically from those of the years before 1945\.Christoph Cornelißen: *Nur noch „strenge Wissenschaftlichkeit“. Das Collegium Carolinum im Gründungsjahrzehnt (1955–1965\).* In: Peter Haslinger, Christoph Boyer (Ed.): *Geschichtsschreibung zu den böhmischen Ländern im 20\.Jahrhundert.* Munich 2006, pp. 345–365, here: p. 361\. The research work was to examine the "share of the Germans in the cultural, social, and legal development of the Bohemian lands. An "overall analysis of the [expulsion](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia "Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia")" was also planned.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 269\.
#### The last years of life
At the age of 85, Mayer retired from Constance and moved to Salzburg, where his two daughters lived. He relinquished the presidency of the Collegium Carolinum only two years before his death. He died in Salzburg on 26 November 1972\.The most important obituaries: Erich Zöllner: *Theodor Mayer.* In: *Almanach der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* 123 (1973\) 1974, P. 390–394; Horst Fuhrmann: *Theodor Mayer.* In: *[Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters](/wiki/Deutsches_Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Erforschung_des_Mittelalters "Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters")* 29 (1973\), P. 343–344 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858735_0029%7Clog48?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)); [Heinrich Appelt](/wiki/Heinrich_Appelt "Heinrich Appelt"): *Theodor Mayer †.* In: *[Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung](/wiki/Mitteilungen_des_Instituts_f%C3%BCr_%C3%96sterreichische_Geschichtsforschung "Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung")* 81 (1973\), P. 529–530; Karl Lechner: *Univ.\-Prof. Dr. Theodor Mayer †.* In: *Unsere Heimat* 44 (1973\). P. 71–73 ([online](https://bibliothekskatalog.noel.gv.at/!UH!1973.pdf)); Adam Wandruszka: *Theodor Mayer †.* In: *Österreichische Hochschulzeitung* 25 (1973\) 2, P. 3; [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann "Helmut Beumann"): *Theodor Mayer.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 218 (1974\), P. 778–881; Heinz Dopsch: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\).* In: *Südostforschungen* 32 (1973\), P. 322–327; Hans Patze: *Theodor Mayer zum Gedächtnis.* In: *Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte* 109 (1973\), P. 350–353 ([online](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb00000313?page=364)); [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl "Karl Bosl"): *Theodor Mayer 24\.8\.1883 – 26\.11\.1972\.* In: *Jahrbuch der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* 1973, P. 210–214 ([online](https://badw.de/fileadmin/nachrufe/Mayer%20Theodor.pdf)). To the end of his life, Mayer was unable to come to terms with what he perceived as a humiliating dismissal as president of the MGH. In April 1968, shortly before leaving Constance, he wrote to [Walter Schlesinger](/wiki/Walter_Schlesinger "Walter Schlesinger"): "There are moves to merge the Research Group with the MGH. Please prevent this as long as I am alive. When I die, I will be cremated, then I need not and cannot turn over in my grave".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, P. 258\. Reto Heinzel attests to Mayer's pronounced tendency toward self\-righteousness. He practically never expressed self\-criticism, but was convinced to the end of his life that he had survived the "Third Reich" morally unscathed.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 234 f.
At the end of his life, Mayer was an honored scholar. From 1927 to 1945 he was a member of the German Society of Science and Art for the Czechoslovak Republic. In 1942, he became a corresponding member of the [Austrian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Austrian_Academy_of_Sciences "Austrian Academy of Sciences") and the [Bavarian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities "Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities") in Munich. Also in 1942, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Erlangen. Two years later, Mayer became a member of the [Prussian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences "Prussian Academy of Sciences"). In 1950 he became a member of the Historical Commission of the Sudetenland. From 1954 to 1968, Mayer was a full member of the Commission for Historical Regional Studies in Baden\-Württemberg, becoming an honorary member in 1968\. On his 70th birthday in 1954 a commemorative publication was published.*Aus Verfassungs\- und Landesgeschichte. Festschrift zum 70\. Geburtstag von Theodor Mayer, dargebracht von seinen Freunden und Schülern.* Vol. 1: *Zur allgemeinen und Verfassungsgeschichte.* Lindau 1954; Vol. 2: *Geschichtliche Landesforschung, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Hilfswissenschaften.* Lindau 1955\. The community of [Neukirchen an der Enknach](/wiki/Neukirchen_an_der_Enknach "Neukirchen an der Enknach") awarded him the honorary citizenship in 1958\. In 1963 he was made an honorary citizen of [Reichenau](/wiki/Reichenau%2C_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg "Reichenau, Baden-Württemberg").*Theodor Mayer.* In: Jörg Schwarz: *Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte 1951–2001\. Die Mitglieder und ihr Werk. Eine bio\-bibliographische Dokumentation,* Herausgegeben von Jürgen Petersohn. Stuttgart 2001, p. 271–282, here: p. 275 f. ([online](https://konstanzer-arbeitskreis.de/wp-content/uploads/mayer_festschrift.pdf)). On his 80th birthday, Mayer was awarded the Grand Cross of the [Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany "Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany").Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 528\.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"### Origin and youth",
"Theodor Mayer was born on 24 August 1883, in [Neukirchen an der Enknach](/wiki/Neukirchen_an_der_Enknach \"Neukirchen an der Enknach\"), [Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary \"Austria-Hungary\"). Throughout his life, he consistently emphasized his origins as an \"*[Innviertler](/wiki/Innviertel \"Innviertel\")*.\" His parents were Johann Nepomuk Mayer, a physician, and Maria, Wittib (née) Mayer. After completing his elementary education in Neukirchen, he attended a grammar school in [Linz](/wiki/Linz \"Linz\") from 1893 to 1895\\. In 1895, the family relocated to Innsbruck, Mayer's mother's hometown, at her request. While attending the local grammar school, he formed a close friendship with [Heinrich Ficker](/wiki/Heinrich_von_Ficker \"Heinrich von Ficker\"), the second eldest son of the historian [Julius Ficker](/wiki/Julius_von_Ficker \"Julius von Ficker\"), with whom he shared the same class. This also brought Mayer, who had developed an interest in mathematics during his grammar school years, into contact with [Alfons Dopsch](/wiki/Alfons_Dopsch \"Alfons Dopsch\"), a regular guest at the Fickers' house in the summer of 1899\\. These encounters had a profound and enduring impact, ultimately influencing Mayer's decision to pursue a degree in history.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 26\\. He completed his *[Matura](/wiki/Matura \"Matura\")* in Innsbruck in 1901\\.",
"Mayer had been intimately acquainted with the natural world since his youth. Like his friend Heinrich Ficker, who subsequently became a meteorologist and climatologist, he became a member of the Academic Alpine Club during his high school years and undertook numerous mountain tours. In his own words, he was \"always in the lead.\" The profound experience of nature later also shaped Mayer's approach to science, particularly to regional history.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 81\\.",
"### Years of study in Florence and Vienna",
"From 1901, he pursued studies in history at the Istituto di Studi Superiori in [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\"), which later became the university. However, he indicated that his primary interest lay in the language and culture of Italy. One year later, he relocated to the [University of Vienna](/wiki/University_of_Vienna \"University of Vienna\"). From 1903 to 1905, he completed the 25th course at the traditional Institute for [Austrian Historical Research](/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_%C3%96sterreichische_Geschichtsforschung \"Institut für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung\"). Notable fellow students included August Ritter von Loehr, Vinzenz Samanek, Otto Stolz, and Josef Kallbrunner.Alphons Lhotsky: *Geschichte des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung 1854–1954\\.* Vienna 1954, p. 342–346\\. His most significant academic mentors were [Emil von Ottenthal](/wiki/Emil_von_Ottenthal \"Emil von Ottenthal\"), [Oswald Redlich](/wiki/Oswald_Redlich \"Oswald Redlich\"), and above all, the economic and social historian Alfons Dopsch.On Mayer's relationship with his teacher Dopsch, see Theodor Mayer: *Alfons Dopsch.* In: *[Historische Zeitschrift](/wiki/Historische_Zeitschrift \"Historische Zeitschrift\")* 179 (1955\\), p. 213–216\\. He dedicated his dissertation at the Institute for Austrian Historical Research to the medieval constitution of castles in Austria. He received his doctorate from Dopsch at the end of November 1905 with a thesis on the trade relations between the Upper German towns and Austria in the 15th century. The treatise was published as volume 6 of the series Research on the internal history of Austria, which Dopsch founded in 1903\\.Theodor Mayer: *Der auswärtige Handel des Herzogtums Österreich im Mittelalter.* Innsbruck 1909\\.",
"### Archive period",
"Upon completion of his studies, Mayer initially served as a trainee at the Innsbruck State Archives from 1906 to 1907\\. During his tenure as an archivist, he married Johanna Stradal, who was approximately ten years his junior. His wife hailed from a wealthy upper middle\\-class family and was the daughter of a lawyer from [Teplitz\\-Schönau](/wiki/Teplice \"Teplice\") in Bohemia. The analysis of private documents indicates that the marriage, which took place in 1911, was characterized by mutual respect and harmony.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 160\\. Mayer, who was baptized a Catholic, converted to Protestantism through his marriage.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 89, Note 67\\. The couple had three children: Theodor in 1913, Hanna in 1914, and Emma in 1920\\.",
"In September 1912, Mayer was appointed Director of the Archive for Lower Austria at the age of 29\\. In March 1914, he successfully completed his [habilitation](/wiki/Habilitation \"Habilitation\") at the University of Vienna with a thesis on administrative reform in Hungary after the Turkish period. Mayer enlisted as a volunteer in the same year and was assigned to a heavy artillery regiment. Until 1918, he served in [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol \"South Tyrol\"), [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Eastern Europe)\"), on the [Isonzo](/wiki/So%C4%8Da \"Soča\") and on the [Piave](/wiki/Piave_%28river%29 \"Piave (river)\") front, attaining the rank of first lieutenant. Upon his return from the war, he continued his work in the archive service. In 1921, he became a non\\-tenured associate professor at the University of Vienna. He published several articles on economic topics in the Wiener Mittag, a journal that advocated the unification of Germany and Austria.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 41\\.",
"### Weimar Republic",
"#### Teaching in Prague (1922–1930\\)",
"Following Emil Werunsky's resignation, the chair of Medieval History and Historical auxiliary Sciences at the [German University of Prague](/wiki/Charles_University \"Charles University\") remained vacant from 1920\\. After the appointment committee's preferred candidate, Otto Stolz, declined to relocate from Tyrol, Mayer was proposed in conjunction with [Hermann Aubin](/wiki/Hermann_Aubin \"Hermann Aubin\") at the top of the appointment list. Up to that point, Mayer had only engaged with topics pertaining to Austrian history and had not yet achieved notable achievements in the field of historical auxiliary sciences. However, Prague had been part of the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\") just a few years earlier, and the German\\-speaking professors in Prague still felt a connection to Austria after 1918\\. With his focus on the field of Medieval Administrative and Economic History, Mayer met the expectations of the appointment committee, which desired to see greater emphasis on the History of the Late Middle Ages and Economic History.Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, P. 43–59, here: p. 48 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)). He found an advocate for his appointment in his university friend [Hans Hirsch](/wiki/Hans_Hirsch \"Hans Hirsch\"), the sole representative of the subject of medieval history and historical auxiliary sciences.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 43 f. In December 1922, Theodor Mayer was appointed associate professor at the German University of Prague.",
"He began teaching in the winter semester of 1923/24\\. He mainly offered lectures and tutorials on Economic history, including a regular three\\-hour lecture on Economic history from the summer semester of 1926\\. At the age of 44, he received his first full professorship in Prague in 1927\\. His interests shifted at the end of the 1920s, which was reflected in his lectures and publications. From 1928 onwards, settlement history issues took precedence over Economic history. Mayer had [cadastral maps](/wiki/Cadastre \"Cadastre\") photographed and aerial photographs made. The Association for the History of the Germans in Bohemia, in which Mayer was involved, was intended to research the History of Bohemian settlements. As an academic teacher, he supervised 21 dissertations during his seven years of teaching in Prague, including nine on economic and settlement History topics.Pavel Kolář: *Geschichtswissenschaft in Zentraleuropa. Die Universitäten Prag, Wien und Berlin um 1900\\.* Half\\-volume 1\\. Leipzig 2008, p. 218\\.",
"#### Professorship in Giessen (1930–1934\\)",
"In 1930, Mayer succeeded Hermann Aubin as Professor of Medieval History in Giessen.Friedrich Lenger: *Hermann Aubin und Theodor Mayer. Landesgeschichte – Volksgeschichte – politische Geschichte.* In: *Panorama. 400 Jahre Universität Gießen. Akteure, Schauplätze, Erinnerungskultur.* Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 114–119\\. From that point forward, his research focused on imperial, constitutional, and, most notably, regional history.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 502\\. He pursued similar lines of inquiry to his predecessor Aubin, investigating German [colonization of the East](/wiki/Ostsiedlung \"Ostsiedlung\")Friedrich Lenger: *Hermann Aubin und Theodor Mayer. Landesgeschichte – Volksgeschichte – politische Geschichte.* In: *Panorama. 400 Jahre Universität Gießen. Akteure, Schauplätze, Erinnerungskultur.* Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 114–119, here: p. 117\\. and continuing to explore topics from his time in Prague. For instance, in the winter semester of 1933/34, he delivered a lecture on the history of German colonization in the East.",
"In Giessen, he also met Heinrich Büttner, whom he convinced to embrace the Middle Ages. A lifelong friendship developed between Mayer and Büttner.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: [Ulrich Pfeil](/wiki/Ulrich_Pfeil \"Ulrich Pfeil\") (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, p. 274–292, here: p. 274 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). Mayer also maintained his relationships with German circles abroad in Giessen. Shortly after moving to Giessen, he was already chairman of the local branch of the [Association for Germans Abroad](/wiki/Verein_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche_Kulturbeziehungen_im_Ausland \"Verein für Deutsche Kulturbeziehungen im Ausland\"). He also headed the Giessen local group of the Campaign of the Germans and Austrians in the Reich. The members espoused a Greater German ideology and the concept of annexation. When he, in conjunction with Walter Platzhoff and [Karl Brandi](/wiki/Karl_Brandi \"Karl Brandi\"), was tasked with reorganizing the General German Historians' Committee, he sought to give greater consideration to the aspirations of \"Germans abroad\" and their needs.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 78\\.",
"Although Giessen was a relatively small University, Mayer felt very much at home there. He undertook extensive excursions to explore the [Lahntal](/wiki/Lahntal \"Lahntal\") and the area around Giessen. Nevertheless, he wrote in 1931 that he would leave if a better offer came along.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 80\\.",
"### Role during National Socialism (1933–1945\\)",
"#### Relationship to the NS regime",
"Mayer's wife was a supporter of the National Socialist movement even before her husband. She is said to have voted National Socialist as early as the summer of 1932\\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\\. His son Theodor Mayer\\-Edenhäuser was also an admirer of Adolf Hitler and joined the *[NSDAP](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\")* in the spring of 1932 and the [*SA*](/wiki/Sturmabteilung \"Sturmabteilung\") in the fall of the same year.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\.",
"In the final phase of the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic \"Weimar Republic\"), Mayer supported a right\\-wing authoritarian turn. However, the *[DNVP](/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party \"German National People's Party\")* under its chairman [Alfred Hugenberg](/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg \"Alfred Hugenberg\") was too \"Prussian\" for him, and in spring 1931 he criticized the *NSDAP's* inability to pursue positive politics.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 90\\. \"They don't seem to get beyond mass demagoguery\", he criticized. In the run\\-up to the Hessian state elections on 15 November 1931, he attended two *NSDAP* events in Giessen.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 91\\. In July 1932, he continued to express skepticism about the National Socialists' ability to govern.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\\. According to his biographer Reto Heinzel, Mayer developed sympathies for the political ideas of National Socialism in the fall of 1932 at the latest.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\\. He was less enthusiastic about the political movement than about the strict, authoritarian government under [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\")'s leadership.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 97\\.",
"According to Reto Heinzel, Mayer did not change his political stance abruptly in the first months of the National Socialist government, but continuously, and not for career reasons, but out of inner conviction.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101\\. According to Anne Christine Nagel, he was enthusiastic about the National Socialists after the [March 1933 elections](/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election \"March 1933 German federal election\"); he wrote that it was now \"really a pleasure to be German\".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\. Among historians, Mayer was considered a convinced National Socialist, at least since he took over the Freiburg Chair of Medieval History in 1934\\.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 495; Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Dies., Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, pp. 1–72, here: p. 31\\.",
"In April 1933, at the age of fifty and in a secure position as a professor, he wrote a letter to Wilhelm Bauer in which he made disparaging remarks about the mass entry into the *NSDAP* of hundreds of thousands of people after the parliamentary elections in March 1933 (the so\\-called \"March Fallen\").Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101, note 126\\. He himself applied for admission to the party on 22 May 1937, after the ban had been lifted, and was admitted retroactively to May 1 ([membership number 4,352,531](/wiki/List_of_Nazis \"List of Nazis\")).Federal Archives, R 9361\\-IX Index/27380678; Jörg Peter Jatho, Gerd Simon: *Gießener Historiker im Dritten Reich.* Gießen 2008, p. 54\\. His political reliability was undisputed even without membership in the NSDAP. In August 1933, he joined the [National Socialist Teachers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_Teachers_League \"National Socialist Teachers League\"). He was also a member of the [National Socialist People's Welfare](/wiki/National_Socialist_People%27s_Welfare \"National Socialist People's Welfare\"), the [Imperial Air Defense League](/wiki/Reichsluftschutzbund \"Reichsluftschutzbund\"), and the [National Socialist German Lecturers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Lecturers_League \"National Socialist German Lecturers League\"). In this milieu, Mayer emphasized his common geographical origins with Adolf Hitler.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 24\\. In the eyes of the Nazi rulers, Mayer was ideologically \"irreproachable\" and politically \"fundamentally correct.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 112, 124\\. He was involved in the commemorative publication for Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday, where he published a research report on \"Economic and Social History\" since 1933\\.Theodor Mayer: *Wirtschafts\\- und Siedlungsgeschichte.* In: *Deutsche Wissenschaft. Arbeit und Aufgabe.* Leipzig 1939, p. 26–28\\. In a \"political assessment\" in 1941, the regional leadership in Kassel concluded that he had \"proved himself to be a convinced National Socialist.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 349\\.",
"At the end of March 1933, in a letter to his friend Wilhelm Bauer, he called for differentiation in the treatment of the Jewish population, arguing for a distinction between \"Eastern Jews and long\\-established Jews whose families have lived here for 500 years or more\".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 161\\. Five years later, this was no longer the case. In a letter to Wilhelm Bauer dated 14 March 1938, Mayer, who was oriented towards Greater Germany, commented on the long\\-awaited \"[Annexation of Austria](/wiki/Anschluss \"Anschluss\")\" with a mixture of joy and malice towards the fate of the Jewish teachers at Vienna University. Only an impassive comment on the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\")* of 1938 has survived.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 162\\.",
"#### Freiburg professorship (1934–1938\\)",
"In [Freiburg im Breisgau](/wiki/Freiburg_im_Breisgau \"Freiburg im Breisgau\"), Mayer succeeded Hermann Heimpel on 1 October 1934, in the chair of medieval history held by Georg von Below. Taking over this chair at a much larger university was a noticeable step up for him. The environment was now much more political than in Giessen. As a so\\-called \"borderland University,\" Freiburg was in close proximity to Switzerland and the [hereditary enemy France](/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity \"French–German enmity\"). Mayer's inaugural lecture in Freiburg on 23 May 1935 dealt with the state of the Zähringers. It was published in the same year.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\\. bis 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 61–64\\. For this lecture, the passionate cyclist cycled along the old [Zähringer](/wiki/House_of_Z%C3%A4hringen \"House of Zähringen\") roads and village foundations in his study area. For him, exploring the landscape was an essential part of the scientific discovery process.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 81 f. In 1936/37 he was vice [dean](/wiki/Dean_%28education%29 \"Dean (education)\") of the Faculty of Philosophy in Freiburg. One of his students there was Martin Wellmer.",
"At the end of May 1935, the Karlsruhe cultural bureaucracy appointed Mayer chairman of the Baden Historical Commission, which had been dissolved in 1933 and re\\-established in 1935 according to the *[Führerprinzip](/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip \"Führerprinzip\")*, not only because of his reputation as a scholar but also because of his political reliability. On the occasion of the re\\-establishment in Karlsruhe, he gave a speech on 4 December 1935, thanking \"our *[Führer](/wiki/F%C3%BChrer \"Führer\")* Adolf Hitler\" and professing his belief in the \"National Socialist German conception and view of history\" laid down by the *Führer*.Matthias Werner: *Zwischen politischer Begrenzung und methodischer Offenheit. Wege und Stationen deutscher Landesgeschichtsforschung im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: [Peter Moraw](/wiki/Peter_Moraw \"Peter Moraw\"), [Rudolf Schieffer](/wiki/Rudolf_Schieffer \"Rudolf Schieffer\") (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 251–364, here: p. 315 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/viewFile/17837/11646)). With this speech, he made a clear commitment to National Socialism in the presence of the Gauleiter and *[Reichsstatthalter](/wiki/Reichsstatthalter \"Reichsstatthalter\")*.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 506\\.",
"In 1935, Mayer took over the management of the [Western studies](/wiki/Western_studies_%28Germany%29 \"Western studies (Germany)\") from Franz Steinbach.See in detail: Michael Fahlbusch: *Wissenschaft im Dienst der nationalsozialistischen Politik? Die „Volksdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaften“ 1931–1945\\.* Baden\\-Baden 1999, p. 357 ff. In spring 1935, the National Socialist mayor of Freiburg, Franz Kerber, put him in charge of the Alemannic Institute. The institute was maintained by the city of Freiburg. Mayer, however, wanted to link it closely with the university. He also wanted to collaborate with Swiss and Alsatian scholars. Therefore, against the will of the mayor, the institute was renamed the Upper Rhine Institute for Historical Regional Studies.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 507\\. This led to a rift with Kerber. Tensions also arose with Friedrich Metz, who also rejected the renaming of the institute. Mayer also had personal differences at the Department of History with [Gerhard Ritter](/wiki/Gerhard_Ritter \"Gerhard Ritter\"), who had a [Lesser Germany](/wiki/Lesser_Germany \"Lesser Germany\") orientation.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 154, Note 234\\. Mayer only avoided dismissal by accepting an appointment to Marburg in 1938\\.",
"#### Teaching and rectorate in Marburg (1938–1942\\)",
"In 1937, Edmund Ernst Stengel became president of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, which had been called the Reich Institute for Older German History since its institutional reorganization in 1935\\. As successor to Stengel's Marburg Chair of Medieval History, Mayer was the preferred candidate of the retiring scholar. In October 1938, he succeeded Stengel at the small\\-town and [Protestant Philipps University of Marburg](/wiki/University_of_Marburg \"University of Marburg\"). The Institute for Historical Regional Studies in Hesse and Nassau was associated with the chair. However, Mayer was by no means enthusiastic about his new academic position. He had no intention of \"becoming absorbed in Hessian history\".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 161\\. In addition to medieval studies, Mayer also dealt with historical topics of current political relevance. In the summer semester of 1939, he gave a lecture on the history of the Germans in the Alpine and Sudeten countries. The occasion was the break\\-up of [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\") and the \" annexation of Austria\". The fifty\\-six\\-year\\-old enlisted months before 1 September 1939\\. It was with regret that he accepted his age\\-related refusal.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 162 f.",
"After less than a year, Mayer was nominated by a majority of professors as a candidate for the politically exposed position of [rector](/wiki/Rector_%28academia%29 \"Rector (academia)\"). On 2 November 1939, he was appointed by the [Reich Science Minister](/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Science%2C_Education_and_Culture \"Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture\") [Bernhard Rust](/wiki/Bernhard_Rust \"Bernhard Rust\").Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364\\. He held the rectorate from late autumn 1939 until December 1942, making himself available for a position at the height of the National Socialist rise to power, which not only had to organize the academic world, but also fulfil political functions.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 345\\. From 1938 to 1942, he was also head of the Historical Commission for Hesse and Waldeck.",
"Mayer repeatedly served as a scholarly advisor to the [SS](/wiki/Schutzstaffel \"Schutzstaffel\")'s \"[Ancestral Heritage](/wiki/Ahnenerbe \"Ahnenerbe\")\" and party circles. From 1940 on, he was head of the medieval department of the \" Use of the Humanities in War\". This was a major project of humanities scholars organized by Kiel's Rector Paul Ritterbusch on behalf of the Reich Ministry of Science, Education, and Cultural Affairs, with the goal of creating a European view of history shaped by German historians. According to Mayer's opinion in 1941, an intellectual leadership of Europe was unthinkable without the fulfillment of this task.Anne Christine Nagel: *Gerd Tellenbach. Wissenschaft und Politik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 79–99, here: p. 89 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010808)). There were good contacts with the \" ancestral heritage \" of the SS. Mayer proposed to the curator of this institution, [Walther Wüst](/wiki/Walther_W%C3%BCst \"Walther Wüst\"), the creation of a \"Germanic prosopography\" as a research project. The plan was to record some 15,000 individuals from the time of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\") to the year 1200\\. According to Mayer, the \"general Germanic prosopography\" was to determine \"the extent to which the awareness of the blood\\-based membership of the European nobility, and thus a common Germanic feeling, lives on, and what role the Germanic peoples played in the development of the European world of nations, states, and culture, not only through their numbers but also through the position of leading personalities.Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Anne Christine Nagel, Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, p. 1–72, here: p. 34\\. The work was continued during the war.",
"#### President of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (1942–1945\\)",
"In April 1942, Mayer was appointed provisional director of the Reich Institute for Older German History, as the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH) had been known since 1935\\. On October 1, he became the first Austrian to be appointed president of the institute, a fact he repeatedly emphasized with pride.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\\. In return for giving up his chair in Marburg and his rectorship, he was to receive not only the presidency but also a professorship at the University of Berlin from the Ministry, but the Ministry's efforts met with fierce resistance from the Berlin faculty. Acting Dean [Hermann Grapow](/wiki/Hermann_Grapow \"Hermann Grapow\") made it clear in a letter to the Reich Minister of Education on 28 September 1942, that \"the faculty does not want Dr. Theodor Mayer. Grapow went on to say that he saw Mayer as a threat to harmony in the field of medieval and modern history. Mayer had a \"reputation as a restless, domineering, even boorish man.Quoted from Joseph Lemberg: *Der Historiker ohne Eigenschaften. Eine Problemgeschichte des Mediävisten Friedrich Baethgen.* Frankfurt 2015, p. 343\\. As a result, only an honorary professorship was established for Mayer.",
"In 1942, Mayer suffered a personal blow: his 29\\-year\\-old son died on 29 May 1942 as a result of a double wound he had sustained in the [Battle of Kharkov](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kharkov \"Second Battle of Kharkov\").Franz Beyerle: *Dieter Pleimes, Theodor Mayer\\-Edenhauser.* In: *Zeitschrift der Savigny\\-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Germanistische Abteilung.* 63 (1943\\), pp. 518–527, here: p. 523\\. After the loss of his only son, Mayer's tone of voice intensified. In his speech on 11 July 1942 on the occasion of the university foundation ceremony, he spoke of \"total war\". The war was \"a conflict between two world views, it is a battle for the right to life of individual peoples and their culture, for a better world order with the aim of putting a stop to the disintegration and destruction that threatens us from abroad\".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 171\\.",
"As president, Mayer headed an institution dedicated primarily to the edition of medieval sources. However, Mayer was not interested in editorial work. Rather, he wanted to reorganize the traditional tasks of the MGH under the umbrella of the Reich Institute for the History of the New Germany. In the last years of the [total war](/wiki/Total_war \"Total war\"), he was no longer able to develop lasting creative possibilities at the MGH. In 1944, the MGH was evacuated from Berlin to [Schloss Weißenstein](/wiki/Schloss_Wei%C3%9Fenstein \"Schloss Weißenstein\") near Bamberg due to increasing bombing raids. The suggestion was probably made by [Carl Erdmann](/wiki/Carl_Erdmann \"Carl Erdmann\"), who was well acquainted with Count Erwein von Schönborn\\-Wiesentheid.Enno Bünz: *Die Monumenta Germaniae Historica 1819–2019\\. Ein historischer Abriss.* In: *Mittelalter lesbar machen. Festschrift 200 Jahre Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Grundlagen, Forschung, Mittelalter.* Published by the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Wiesbaden 2019, pp. 15–36, here: p. 24\\.",
"### Post\\-war period",
"#### Dismissal as MGH President",
"Mayer experienced the end of the war with a few MGH employees in Pommersfelden, Franconia, which was occupied by the Americans on 14 April 1945\\. In early September 1945, he was arrested by the American military authorities and interned in the [Hammelburg](/wiki/Hammelburg \"Hammelburg\") camp until June 1946\\. He was released to Pommersfelden in June 1946\\. During this time, Mayer's main concern was the future of the MGH. In a letter to the *[Regierungspräsident](/wiki/Regierungspr%C3%A4sident_%28Germany%29 \"Regierungspräsident (Germany)\")* (Germany) for Upper and Middle Franconia, he emphasized that \"German science\" had achieved a \"leading position\" in the 20th century. In terms of cultural policy, this asset was \"of the utmost importance\". With the right effort, \"the most effective and at the same time least expensive propaganda\" could be carried out.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 226\\. In the summer of 1946, Mayer was assured by [Walter Goetz](/wiki/Walter_Goetz \"Walter Goetz\") that there was no doubt that he would be reinstated as president.",
"Mayer succeeded in presenting numerous exonerating expert opinions from renowned colleagues. He himself wrote an expert opinion for his loyal student Heinrich Büttner, and Büttner in turn agreed to act as an exonerating witness for Mayer in the proceedings of the Trial Chamber.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 274–292, here: p. 290\\. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). On 22 September 1947, the [Höchstadt an der Aisch](/wiki/H%C3%B6chstadt_an_der_Aisch \"Höchstadt an der Aisch\") Trial Chamber classified Mayer as a \"follower\" in Level IV and sentenced him to pay 500 Reichsmarks. The court's verdict stated that he had \"only nominally participated in National Socialism\". Mayer saw the lenient sentence, which was typical of the time, as a \"brilliant justification of my strictly objective, scientific attitude during the entire period of National Socialist rule\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 230\\.",
"At the end of September 1946, the Central Directorate, the scientific advisory board of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica that had existed until 1935, was re\\-established. At their first meeting, the members of the Central Directorate agreed that in the event of an acquittal, Mayer should be \"immediately reinstated\" in his position.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 167\\. However, the Central Directorate did not wait for the Appeals Chamber's decision. It decided to elect a new president in December 1947\\. The Berlin medievalist [Friedrich Baethgen](/wiki/Friedrich_Baethgen \"Friedrich Baethgen\") became the new president on 1 January 1948\\. The following years of Mayer's life were not marked by a confrontation with his own past, but by a struggle to make amends for the injustice he felt had been done to him. Mayer argued that he had never been dismissed as a Reich official and was therefore still in office. Unlike other dismissed historians, he wrote two open letters in 1948 to a wider public at home and abroad. In it, he declared himself the rightful president and denied the legitimacy of the election conducted by the central leadership. Mayer was merciless in his reckoning with the people he felt had deceived or betrayed him. He accused Baethgen of his own Nazi involvementNikola Becker: *Die Neuetablierung der Monumenta Germaniae Historica in Bayern ab 1944 im Spannungsfeld zwischen Theodor Mayer, Otto Meyer, Walter Goetz und Friedrich Baethgen.* In: *Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte* 77 (2014\\), p. 43–68, here: p. 65\\. and called Walter Goetz a \"senile fool.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 233 f. Some of his colleagues who were on his side held back. Mayer's student Heinrich Büttner, for example, did not want to jeopardize his appointment negotiations.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 170\\. Anne Christine Nagel believes that after 1945 Mayer \"did not really stumble over his commitment to National Socialism,\" but rather \"was sidelined by his colleagues because of considerable deficits in his personal conduct.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 171\\.",
"Mayer's financial situation in the early postwar years was poor. It was not only his political burden but also his advanced age that made it difficult for him to return to university teaching. He and his wife lived on the income from their house in Marburg and the contributions of their daughters Hanna, who was a teacher in Salzburg, and Emma. Mayer's wife received a small fee from the publication of short articles in the Schweinfurt newspaper.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\\), pp. 425–446, here: p. 440 f. He now returned to academic work, especially medieval constitutional history. As a result of this work, the [Böhlau publishing house](/wiki/B%C3%B6hlau_Verlag \"Böhlau Verlag\") in Weimar published \"Fürsten and State. Studies in the Constitutional History of the German Middle Ages. In fifteen essays, he commented on [ecclesiastical *Advocatus*](/wiki/Advocatus \"Advocatus\"), [royal protection](/wiki/Peace_%28law%29 \"Peace (law)\"), immunity and jurisdiction, and the problems of Empire and Territory. In this work, he also presented a differentiation between Imperial and Royal Monasteries, which had long been unquestioned by Constitutional historians.Thomas Vogtherr: *Die Reichsabteien der Benediktiner und das Königtum im hohen Mittelalter. (900–1125\\).* Stuttgart 2000, p. 12 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf05/0024/image)).",
"Only in private conversations and letters did Mayer express his criticism of [Konrad Adenauer](/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer \"Konrad Adenauer\")'s domestic and foreign policies, \"football nationalism,\" and the danger of black supremacy over the white race.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\.",
"#### New fields of activity: Constance Working Group and Collegium Carolinum",
"Mayer's former academic student Otto Feger had been pursuing the plan to found an institute for the history and cultural history of the Lake Constance region in Constance with municipal support since the beginning of 1946\\. For Feger, Mayer was the only right person to head the institute. On 20 April 1948, the city council passed a charter for the \"Municipal Institute for Landscape Studies of the Lake Constance Region\". Mayer, who had lived with his wife in Schönborn Castle near Pommersfelden until 1951, moved to Constance. He felt at home there.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\\), p. 425–446, here: p. 444\\. The comments about his life in Constance are largely positive. Mayer received his full pension in accordance with Article 131 of the Basic Law.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 176\\.",
"The Municipal Institute for Landscape Studies of the Lake Constance Region was opened on 30 October 1951, with a ceremonial lecture by Heinrich Büttner. The first events lasting several days followed in the fall of 1952\\. Initially, meetings were held in spring and fall at different locations. From 1957 on, the meetings were held almost exclusively on the Reichenau. The Constance Medieval History Study Group was formally founded in 1960\\.Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 126–129 ([Full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118)). As chairman, Mayer was able to manage an annual budget of 40,000 to 50,000 DM. This sum covered the travel and lodging expenses of the participants.Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, pp. 73–89, here: p. 78 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/content/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)).",
"In April 1956, Mayer was elected chairman of the [Collegium Carolinum](/wiki/Collegium_Carolinum_%281956%E2%80%93%29 \"Collegium Carolinum (1956–)\"). According to Christoph Cornelißen, the projects there differed neither conceptually nor methodologically from those of the years before 1945\\.Christoph Cornelißen: *Nur noch „strenge Wissenschaftlichkeit“. Das Collegium Carolinum im Gründungsjahrzehnt (1955–1965\\).* In: Peter Haslinger, Christoph Boyer (Ed.): *Geschichtsschreibung zu den böhmischen Ländern im 20\\.Jahrhundert.* Munich 2006, pp. 345–365, here: p. 361\\. The research work was to examine the \"share of the Germans in the cultural, social, and legal development of the Bohemian lands. An \"overall analysis of the [expulsion](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia \"Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia\")\" was also planned.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 269\\.",
"#### The last years of life",
"At the age of 85, Mayer retired from Constance and moved to Salzburg, where his two daughters lived. He relinquished the presidency of the Collegium Carolinum only two years before his death. He died in Salzburg on 26 November 1972\\.The most important obituaries: Erich Zöllner: *Theodor Mayer.* In: *Almanach der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* 123 (1973\\) 1974, P. 390–394; Horst Fuhrmann: *Theodor Mayer.* In: *[Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters](/wiki/Deutsches_Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Erforschung_des_Mittelalters \"Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters\")* 29 (1973\\), P. 343–344 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858735_0029%7Clog48?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)); [Heinrich Appelt](/wiki/Heinrich_Appelt \"Heinrich Appelt\"): *Theodor Mayer †.* In: *[Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung](/wiki/Mitteilungen_des_Instituts_f%C3%BCr_%C3%96sterreichische_Geschichtsforschung \"Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung\")* 81 (1973\\), P. 529–530; Karl Lechner: *Univ.\\-Prof. Dr. Theodor Mayer †.* In: *Unsere Heimat* 44 (1973\\). P. 71–73 ([online](https://bibliothekskatalog.noel.gv.at/!UH!1973.pdf)); Adam Wandruszka: *Theodor Mayer †.* In: *Österreichische Hochschulzeitung* 25 (1973\\) 2, P. 3; [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann \"Helmut Beumann\"): *Theodor Mayer.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 218 (1974\\), P. 778–881; Heinz Dopsch: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\).* In: *Südostforschungen* 32 (1973\\), P. 322–327; Hans Patze: *Theodor Mayer zum Gedächtnis.* In: *Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte* 109 (1973\\), P. 350–353 ([online](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb00000313?page=364)); [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl \"Karl Bosl\"): *Theodor Mayer 24\\.8\\.1883 – 26\\.11\\.1972\\.* In: *Jahrbuch der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* 1973, P. 210–214 ([online](https://badw.de/fileadmin/nachrufe/Mayer%20Theodor.pdf)). To the end of his life, Mayer was unable to come to terms with what he perceived as a humiliating dismissal as president of the MGH. In April 1968, shortly before leaving Constance, he wrote to [Walter Schlesinger](/wiki/Walter_Schlesinger \"Walter Schlesinger\"): \"There are moves to merge the Research Group with the MGH. Please prevent this as long as I am alive. When I die, I will be cremated, then I need not and cannot turn over in my grave\".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, P. 258\\. Reto Heinzel attests to Mayer's pronounced tendency toward self\\-righteousness. He practically never expressed self\\-criticism, but was convinced to the end of his life that he had survived the \"Third Reich\" morally unscathed.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 234 f.",
"At the end of his life, Mayer was an honored scholar. From 1927 to 1945 he was a member of the German Society of Science and Art for the Czechoslovak Republic. In 1942, he became a corresponding member of the [Austrian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Austrian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Austrian Academy of Sciences\") and the [Bavarian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities \"Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities\") in Munich. Also in 1942, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Erlangen. Two years later, Mayer became a member of the [Prussian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Prussian Academy of Sciences\"). In 1950 he became a member of the Historical Commission of the Sudetenland. From 1954 to 1968, Mayer was a full member of the Commission for Historical Regional Studies in Baden\\-Württemberg, becoming an honorary member in 1968\\. On his 70th birthday in 1954 a commemorative publication was published.*Aus Verfassungs\\- und Landesgeschichte. Festschrift zum 70\\. Geburtstag von Theodor Mayer, dargebracht von seinen Freunden und Schülern.* Vol. 1: *Zur allgemeinen und Verfassungsgeschichte.* Lindau 1954; Vol. 2: *Geschichtliche Landesforschung, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Hilfswissenschaften.* Lindau 1955\\. The community of [Neukirchen an der Enknach](/wiki/Neukirchen_an_der_Enknach \"Neukirchen an der Enknach\") awarded him the honorary citizenship in 1958\\. In 1963 he was made an honorary citizen of [Reichenau](/wiki/Reichenau%2C_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Reichenau, Baden-Württemberg\").*Theodor Mayer.* In: Jörg Schwarz: *Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte 1951–2001\\. Die Mitglieder und ihr Werk. Eine bio\\-bibliographische Dokumentation,* Herausgegeben von Jürgen Petersohn. Stuttgart 2001, p. 271–282, here: p. 275 f. ([online](https://konstanzer-arbeitskreis.de/wp-content/uploads/mayer_festschrift.pdf)). On his 80th birthday, Mayer was awarded the Grand Cross of the [Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany \"Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\").Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 528\\.",
""
] |
### Weimar Republic
#### Teaching in Prague (1922–1930\)
Following Emil Werunsky's resignation, the chair of Medieval History and Historical auxiliary Sciences at the [German University of Prague](/wiki/Charles_University "Charles University") remained vacant from 1920\. After the appointment committee's preferred candidate, Otto Stolz, declined to relocate from Tyrol, Mayer was proposed in conjunction with [Hermann Aubin](/wiki/Hermann_Aubin "Hermann Aubin") at the top of the appointment list. Up to that point, Mayer had only engaged with topics pertaining to Austrian history and had not yet achieved notable achievements in the field of historical auxiliary sciences. However, Prague had been part of the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy") just a few years earlier, and the German\-speaking professors in Prague still felt a connection to Austria after 1918\. With his focus on the field of Medieval Administrative and Economic History, Mayer met the expectations of the appointment committee, which desired to see greater emphasis on the History of the Late Middle Ages and Economic History.Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, P. 43–59, here: p. 48 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)). He found an advocate for his appointment in his university friend [Hans Hirsch](/wiki/Hans_Hirsch "Hans Hirsch"), the sole representative of the subject of medieval history and historical auxiliary sciences.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 43 f. In December 1922, Theodor Mayer was appointed associate professor at the German University of Prague.
He began teaching in the winter semester of 1923/24\. He mainly offered lectures and tutorials on Economic history, including a regular three\-hour lecture on Economic history from the summer semester of 1926\. At the age of 44, he received his first full professorship in Prague in 1927\. His interests shifted at the end of the 1920s, which was reflected in his lectures and publications. From 1928 onwards, settlement history issues took precedence over Economic history. Mayer had [cadastral maps](/wiki/Cadastre "Cadastre") photographed and aerial photographs made. The Association for the History of the Germans in Bohemia, in which Mayer was involved, was intended to research the History of Bohemian settlements. As an academic teacher, he supervised 21 dissertations during his seven years of teaching in Prague, including nine on economic and settlement History topics.Pavel Kolář: *Geschichtswissenschaft in Zentraleuropa. Die Universitäten Prag, Wien und Berlin um 1900\.* Half\-volume 1\. Leipzig 2008, p. 218\.
#### Professorship in Giessen (1930–1934\)
In 1930, Mayer succeeded Hermann Aubin as Professor of Medieval History in Giessen.Friedrich Lenger: *Hermann Aubin und Theodor Mayer. Landesgeschichte – Volksgeschichte – politische Geschichte.* In: *Panorama. 400 Jahre Universität Gießen. Akteure, Schauplätze, Erinnerungskultur.* Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 114–119\. From that point forward, his research focused on imperial, constitutional, and, most notably, regional history.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 502\. He pursued similar lines of inquiry to his predecessor Aubin, investigating German [colonization of the East](/wiki/Ostsiedlung "Ostsiedlung")Friedrich Lenger: *Hermann Aubin und Theodor Mayer. Landesgeschichte – Volksgeschichte – politische Geschichte.* In: *Panorama. 400 Jahre Universität Gießen. Akteure, Schauplätze, Erinnerungskultur.* Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 114–119, here: p. 117\. and continuing to explore topics from his time in Prague. For instance, in the winter semester of 1933/34, he delivered a lecture on the history of German colonization in the East.
In Giessen, he also met Heinrich Büttner, whom he convinced to embrace the Middle Ages. A lifelong friendship developed between Mayer and Büttner.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: [Ulrich Pfeil](/wiki/Ulrich_Pfeil "Ulrich Pfeil") (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, p. 274–292, here: p. 274 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). Mayer also maintained his relationships with German circles abroad in Giessen. Shortly after moving to Giessen, he was already chairman of the local branch of the [Association for Germans Abroad](/wiki/Verein_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche_Kulturbeziehungen_im_Ausland "Verein für Deutsche Kulturbeziehungen im Ausland"). He also headed the Giessen local group of the Campaign of the Germans and Austrians in the Reich. The members espoused a Greater German ideology and the concept of annexation. When he, in conjunction with Walter Platzhoff and [Karl Brandi](/wiki/Karl_Brandi "Karl Brandi"), was tasked with reorganizing the General German Historians' Committee, he sought to give greater consideration to the aspirations of "Germans abroad" and their needs.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 78\.
Although Giessen was a relatively small University, Mayer felt very much at home there. He undertook extensive excursions to explore the [Lahntal](/wiki/Lahntal "Lahntal") and the area around Giessen. Nevertheless, he wrote in 1931 that he would leave if a better offer came along.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 80\.
|
[
"### Weimar Republic",
"#### Teaching in Prague (1922–1930\\)",
"Following Emil Werunsky's resignation, the chair of Medieval History and Historical auxiliary Sciences at the [German University of Prague](/wiki/Charles_University \"Charles University\") remained vacant from 1920\\. After the appointment committee's preferred candidate, Otto Stolz, declined to relocate from Tyrol, Mayer was proposed in conjunction with [Hermann Aubin](/wiki/Hermann_Aubin \"Hermann Aubin\") at the top of the appointment list. Up to that point, Mayer had only engaged with topics pertaining to Austrian history and had not yet achieved notable achievements in the field of historical auxiliary sciences. However, Prague had been part of the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\") just a few years earlier, and the German\\-speaking professors in Prague still felt a connection to Austria after 1918\\. With his focus on the field of Medieval Administrative and Economic History, Mayer met the expectations of the appointment committee, which desired to see greater emphasis on the History of the Late Middle Ages and Economic History.Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, P. 43–59, here: p. 48 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)). He found an advocate for his appointment in his university friend [Hans Hirsch](/wiki/Hans_Hirsch \"Hans Hirsch\"), the sole representative of the subject of medieval history and historical auxiliary sciences.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 43 f. In December 1922, Theodor Mayer was appointed associate professor at the German University of Prague.",
"He began teaching in the winter semester of 1923/24\\. He mainly offered lectures and tutorials on Economic history, including a regular three\\-hour lecture on Economic history from the summer semester of 1926\\. At the age of 44, he received his first full professorship in Prague in 1927\\. His interests shifted at the end of the 1920s, which was reflected in his lectures and publications. From 1928 onwards, settlement history issues took precedence over Economic history. Mayer had [cadastral maps](/wiki/Cadastre \"Cadastre\") photographed and aerial photographs made. The Association for the History of the Germans in Bohemia, in which Mayer was involved, was intended to research the History of Bohemian settlements. As an academic teacher, he supervised 21 dissertations during his seven years of teaching in Prague, including nine on economic and settlement History topics.Pavel Kolář: *Geschichtswissenschaft in Zentraleuropa. Die Universitäten Prag, Wien und Berlin um 1900\\.* Half\\-volume 1\\. Leipzig 2008, p. 218\\.",
"#### Professorship in Giessen (1930–1934\\)",
"In 1930, Mayer succeeded Hermann Aubin as Professor of Medieval History in Giessen.Friedrich Lenger: *Hermann Aubin und Theodor Mayer. Landesgeschichte – Volksgeschichte – politische Geschichte.* In: *Panorama. 400 Jahre Universität Gießen. Akteure, Schauplätze, Erinnerungskultur.* Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 114–119\\. From that point forward, his research focused on imperial, constitutional, and, most notably, regional history.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 502\\. He pursued similar lines of inquiry to his predecessor Aubin, investigating German [colonization of the East](/wiki/Ostsiedlung \"Ostsiedlung\")Friedrich Lenger: *Hermann Aubin und Theodor Mayer. Landesgeschichte – Volksgeschichte – politische Geschichte.* In: *Panorama. 400 Jahre Universität Gießen. Akteure, Schauplätze, Erinnerungskultur.* Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 114–119, here: p. 117\\. and continuing to explore topics from his time in Prague. For instance, in the winter semester of 1933/34, he delivered a lecture on the history of German colonization in the East.",
"In Giessen, he also met Heinrich Büttner, whom he convinced to embrace the Middle Ages. A lifelong friendship developed between Mayer and Büttner.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: [Ulrich Pfeil](/wiki/Ulrich_Pfeil \"Ulrich Pfeil\") (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, p. 274–292, here: p. 274 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). Mayer also maintained his relationships with German circles abroad in Giessen. Shortly after moving to Giessen, he was already chairman of the local branch of the [Association for Germans Abroad](/wiki/Verein_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche_Kulturbeziehungen_im_Ausland \"Verein für Deutsche Kulturbeziehungen im Ausland\"). He also headed the Giessen local group of the Campaign of the Germans and Austrians in the Reich. The members espoused a Greater German ideology and the concept of annexation. When he, in conjunction with Walter Platzhoff and [Karl Brandi](/wiki/Karl_Brandi \"Karl Brandi\"), was tasked with reorganizing the General German Historians' Committee, he sought to give greater consideration to the aspirations of \"Germans abroad\" and their needs.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 78\\.",
"Although Giessen was a relatively small University, Mayer felt very much at home there. He undertook extensive excursions to explore the [Lahntal](/wiki/Lahntal \"Lahntal\") and the area around Giessen. Nevertheless, he wrote in 1931 that he would leave if a better offer came along.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 80\\.",
""
] |
### Role during National Socialism (1933–1945\)
#### Relationship to the NS regime
Mayer's wife was a supporter of the National Socialist movement even before her husband. She is said to have voted National Socialist as early as the summer of 1932\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\. His son Theodor Mayer\-Edenhäuser was also an admirer of Adolf Hitler and joined the *[NSDAP](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party")* in the spring of 1932 and the [*SA*](/wiki/Sturmabteilung "Sturmabteilung") in the fall of the same year.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\.
In the final phase of the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic "Weimar Republic"), Mayer supported a right\-wing authoritarian turn. However, the *[DNVP](/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party "German National People's Party")* under its chairman [Alfred Hugenberg](/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg "Alfred Hugenberg") was too "Prussian" for him, and in spring 1931 he criticized the *NSDAP's* inability to pursue positive politics.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 90\. "They don't seem to get beyond mass demagoguery", he criticized. In the run\-up to the Hessian state elections on 15 November 1931, he attended two *NSDAP* events in Giessen.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 91\. In July 1932, he continued to express skepticism about the National Socialists' ability to govern.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\. According to his biographer Reto Heinzel, Mayer developed sympathies for the political ideas of National Socialism in the fall of 1932 at the latest.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\. He was less enthusiastic about the political movement than about the strict, authoritarian government under [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler")'s leadership.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 97\.
According to Reto Heinzel, Mayer did not change his political stance abruptly in the first months of the National Socialist government, but continuously, and not for career reasons, but out of inner conviction.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101\. According to Anne Christine Nagel, he was enthusiastic about the National Socialists after the [March 1933 elections](/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election "March 1933 German federal election"); he wrote that it was now "really a pleasure to be German".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\. Among historians, Mayer was considered a convinced National Socialist, at least since he took over the Freiburg Chair of Medieval History in 1934\.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 495; Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Dies., Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, pp. 1–72, here: p. 31\.
In April 1933, at the age of fifty and in a secure position as a professor, he wrote a letter to Wilhelm Bauer in which he made disparaging remarks about the mass entry into the *NSDAP* of hundreds of thousands of people after the parliamentary elections in March 1933 (the so\-called "March Fallen").Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101, note 126\. He himself applied for admission to the party on 22 May 1937, after the ban had been lifted, and was admitted retroactively to May 1 ([membership number 4,352,531](/wiki/List_of_Nazis "List of Nazis")).Federal Archives, R 9361\-IX Index/27380678; Jörg Peter Jatho, Gerd Simon: *Gießener Historiker im Dritten Reich.* Gießen 2008, p. 54\. His political reliability was undisputed even without membership in the NSDAP. In August 1933, he joined the [National Socialist Teachers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_Teachers_League "National Socialist Teachers League"). He was also a member of the [National Socialist People's Welfare](/wiki/National_Socialist_People%27s_Welfare "National Socialist People's Welfare"), the [Imperial Air Defense League](/wiki/Reichsluftschutzbund "Reichsluftschutzbund"), and the [National Socialist German Lecturers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Lecturers_League "National Socialist German Lecturers League"). In this milieu, Mayer emphasized his common geographical origins with Adolf Hitler.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 24\. In the eyes of the Nazi rulers, Mayer was ideologically "irreproachable" and politically "fundamentally correct.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 112, 124\. He was involved in the commemorative publication for Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday, where he published a research report on "Economic and Social History" since 1933\.Theodor Mayer: *Wirtschafts\- und Siedlungsgeschichte.* In: *Deutsche Wissenschaft. Arbeit und Aufgabe.* Leipzig 1939, p. 26–28\. In a "political assessment" in 1941, the regional leadership in Kassel concluded that he had "proved himself to be a convinced National Socialist.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 349\.
At the end of March 1933, in a letter to his friend Wilhelm Bauer, he called for differentiation in the treatment of the Jewish population, arguing for a distinction between "Eastern Jews and long\-established Jews whose families have lived here for 500 years or more".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 161\. Five years later, this was no longer the case. In a letter to Wilhelm Bauer dated 14 March 1938, Mayer, who was oriented towards Greater Germany, commented on the long\-awaited "[Annexation of Austria](/wiki/Anschluss "Anschluss")" with a mixture of joy and malice towards the fate of the Jewish teachers at Vienna University. Only an impassive comment on the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht")* of 1938 has survived.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 162\.
#### Freiburg professorship (1934–1938\)
In [Freiburg im Breisgau](/wiki/Freiburg_im_Breisgau "Freiburg im Breisgau"), Mayer succeeded Hermann Heimpel on 1 October 1934, in the chair of medieval history held by Georg von Below. Taking over this chair at a much larger university was a noticeable step up for him. The environment was now much more political than in Giessen. As a so\-called "borderland University," Freiburg was in close proximity to Switzerland and the [hereditary enemy France](/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity "French–German enmity"). Mayer's inaugural lecture in Freiburg on 23 May 1935 dealt with the state of the Zähringers. It was published in the same year.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\. bis 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 61–64\. For this lecture, the passionate cyclist cycled along the old [Zähringer](/wiki/House_of_Z%C3%A4hringen "House of Zähringen") roads and village foundations in his study area. For him, exploring the landscape was an essential part of the scientific discovery process.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 81 f. In 1936/37 he was vice [dean](/wiki/Dean_%28education%29 "Dean (education)") of the Faculty of Philosophy in Freiburg. One of his students there was Martin Wellmer.
At the end of May 1935, the Karlsruhe cultural bureaucracy appointed Mayer chairman of the Baden Historical Commission, which had been dissolved in 1933 and re\-established in 1935 according to the *[Führerprinzip](/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip "Führerprinzip")*, not only because of his reputation as a scholar but also because of his political reliability. On the occasion of the re\-establishment in Karlsruhe, he gave a speech on 4 December 1935, thanking "our *[Führer](/wiki/F%C3%BChrer "Führer")* Adolf Hitler" and professing his belief in the "National Socialist German conception and view of history" laid down by the *Führer*.Matthias Werner: *Zwischen politischer Begrenzung und methodischer Offenheit. Wege und Stationen deutscher Landesgeschichtsforschung im 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: [Peter Moraw](/wiki/Peter_Moraw "Peter Moraw"), [Rudolf Schieffer](/wiki/Rudolf_Schieffer "Rudolf Schieffer") (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 251–364, here: p. 315 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/viewFile/17837/11646)). With this speech, he made a clear commitment to National Socialism in the presence of the Gauleiter and *[Reichsstatthalter](/wiki/Reichsstatthalter "Reichsstatthalter")*.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 506\.
In 1935, Mayer took over the management of the [Western studies](/wiki/Western_studies_%28Germany%29 "Western studies (Germany)") from Franz Steinbach.See in detail: Michael Fahlbusch: *Wissenschaft im Dienst der nationalsozialistischen Politik? Die „Volksdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaften“ 1931–1945\.* Baden\-Baden 1999, p. 357 ff. In spring 1935, the National Socialist mayor of Freiburg, Franz Kerber, put him in charge of the Alemannic Institute. The institute was maintained by the city of Freiburg. Mayer, however, wanted to link it closely with the university. He also wanted to collaborate with Swiss and Alsatian scholars. Therefore, against the will of the mayor, the institute was renamed the Upper Rhine Institute for Historical Regional Studies.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 507\. This led to a rift with Kerber. Tensions also arose with Friedrich Metz, who also rejected the renaming of the institute. Mayer also had personal differences at the Department of History with [Gerhard Ritter](/wiki/Gerhard_Ritter "Gerhard Ritter"), who had a [Lesser Germany](/wiki/Lesser_Germany "Lesser Germany") orientation.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 154, Note 234\. Mayer only avoided dismissal by accepting an appointment to Marburg in 1938\.
#### Teaching and rectorate in Marburg (1938–1942\)
In 1937, Edmund Ernst Stengel became president of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, which had been called the Reich Institute for Older German History since its institutional reorganization in 1935\. As successor to Stengel's Marburg Chair of Medieval History, Mayer was the preferred candidate of the retiring scholar. In October 1938, he succeeded Stengel at the small\-town and [Protestant Philipps University of Marburg](/wiki/University_of_Marburg "University of Marburg"). The Institute for Historical Regional Studies in Hesse and Nassau was associated with the chair. However, Mayer was by no means enthusiastic about his new academic position. He had no intention of "becoming absorbed in Hessian history".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 161\. In addition to medieval studies, Mayer also dealt with historical topics of current political relevance. In the summer semester of 1939, he gave a lecture on the history of the Germans in the Alpine and Sudeten countries. The occasion was the break\-up of [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia") and the " annexation of Austria". The fifty\-six\-year\-old enlisted months before 1 September 1939\. It was with regret that he accepted his age\-related refusal.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 162 f.
After less than a year, Mayer was nominated by a majority of professors as a candidate for the politically exposed position of [rector](/wiki/Rector_%28academia%29 "Rector (academia)"). On 2 November 1939, he was appointed by the [Reich Science Minister](/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Science%2C_Education_and_Culture "Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture") [Bernhard Rust](/wiki/Bernhard_Rust "Bernhard Rust").Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364\. He held the rectorate from late autumn 1939 until December 1942, making himself available for a position at the height of the National Socialist rise to power, which not only had to organize the academic world, but also fulfil political functions.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 345\. From 1938 to 1942, he was also head of the Historical Commission for Hesse and Waldeck.
Mayer repeatedly served as a scholarly advisor to the [SS](/wiki/Schutzstaffel "Schutzstaffel")'s "[Ancestral Heritage](/wiki/Ahnenerbe "Ahnenerbe")" and party circles. From 1940 on, he was head of the medieval department of the " Use of the Humanities in War". This was a major project of humanities scholars organized by Kiel's Rector Paul Ritterbusch on behalf of the Reich Ministry of Science, Education, and Cultural Affairs, with the goal of creating a European view of history shaped by German historians. According to Mayer's opinion in 1941, an intellectual leadership of Europe was unthinkable without the fulfillment of this task.Anne Christine Nagel: *Gerd Tellenbach. Wissenschaft und Politik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 79–99, here: p. 89 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010808)). There were good contacts with the " ancestral heritage " of the SS. Mayer proposed to the curator of this institution, [Walther Wüst](/wiki/Walther_W%C3%BCst "Walther Wüst"), the creation of a "Germanic prosopography" as a research project. The plan was to record some 15,000 individuals from the time of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne") to the year 1200\. According to Mayer, the "general Germanic prosopography" was to determine "the extent to which the awareness of the blood\-based membership of the European nobility, and thus a common Germanic feeling, lives on, and what role the Germanic peoples played in the development of the European world of nations, states, and culture, not only through their numbers but also through the position of leading personalities.Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Anne Christine Nagel, Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, p. 1–72, here: p. 34\. The work was continued during the war.
#### President of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (1942–1945\)
In April 1942, Mayer was appointed provisional director of the Reich Institute for Older German History, as the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH) had been known since 1935\. On October 1, he became the first Austrian to be appointed president of the institute, a fact he repeatedly emphasized with pride.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\. In return for giving up his chair in Marburg and his rectorship, he was to receive not only the presidency but also a professorship at the University of Berlin from the Ministry, but the Ministry's efforts met with fierce resistance from the Berlin faculty. Acting Dean [Hermann Grapow](/wiki/Hermann_Grapow "Hermann Grapow") made it clear in a letter to the Reich Minister of Education on 28 September 1942, that "the faculty does not want Dr. Theodor Mayer. Grapow went on to say that he saw Mayer as a threat to harmony in the field of medieval and modern history. Mayer had a "reputation as a restless, domineering, even boorish man.Quoted from Joseph Lemberg: *Der Historiker ohne Eigenschaften. Eine Problemgeschichte des Mediävisten Friedrich Baethgen.* Frankfurt 2015, p. 343\. As a result, only an honorary professorship was established for Mayer.
In 1942, Mayer suffered a personal blow: his 29\-year\-old son died on 29 May 1942 as a result of a double wound he had sustained in the [Battle of Kharkov](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kharkov "Second Battle of Kharkov").Franz Beyerle: *Dieter Pleimes, Theodor Mayer\-Edenhauser.* In: *Zeitschrift der Savigny\-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Germanistische Abteilung.* 63 (1943\), pp. 518–527, here: p. 523\. After the loss of his only son, Mayer's tone of voice intensified. In his speech on 11 July 1942 on the occasion of the university foundation ceremony, he spoke of "total war". The war was "a conflict between two world views, it is a battle for the right to life of individual peoples and their culture, for a better world order with the aim of putting a stop to the disintegration and destruction that threatens us from abroad".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 171\.
As president, Mayer headed an institution dedicated primarily to the edition of medieval sources. However, Mayer was not interested in editorial work. Rather, he wanted to reorganize the traditional tasks of the MGH under the umbrella of the Reich Institute for the History of the New Germany. In the last years of the [total war](/wiki/Total_war "Total war"), he was no longer able to develop lasting creative possibilities at the MGH. In 1944, the MGH was evacuated from Berlin to [Schloss Weißenstein](/wiki/Schloss_Wei%C3%9Fenstein "Schloss Weißenstein") near Bamberg due to increasing bombing raids. The suggestion was probably made by [Carl Erdmann](/wiki/Carl_Erdmann "Carl Erdmann"), who was well acquainted with Count Erwein von Schönborn\-Wiesentheid.Enno Bünz: *Die Monumenta Germaniae Historica 1819–2019\. Ein historischer Abriss.* In: *Mittelalter lesbar machen. Festschrift 200 Jahre Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Grundlagen, Forschung, Mittelalter.* Published by the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Wiesbaden 2019, pp. 15–36, here: p. 24\.
|
[
"### Role during National Socialism (1933–1945\\)",
"#### Relationship to the NS regime",
"Mayer's wife was a supporter of the National Socialist movement even before her husband. She is said to have voted National Socialist as early as the summer of 1932\\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\\. His son Theodor Mayer\\-Edenhäuser was also an admirer of Adolf Hitler and joined the *[NSDAP](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\")* in the spring of 1932 and the [*SA*](/wiki/Sturmabteilung \"Sturmabteilung\") in the fall of the same year.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\.",
"In the final phase of the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic \"Weimar Republic\"), Mayer supported a right\\-wing authoritarian turn. However, the *[DNVP](/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party \"German National People's Party\")* under its chairman [Alfred Hugenberg](/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg \"Alfred Hugenberg\") was too \"Prussian\" for him, and in spring 1931 he criticized the *NSDAP's* inability to pursue positive politics.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 90\\. \"They don't seem to get beyond mass demagoguery\", he criticized. In the run\\-up to the Hessian state elections on 15 November 1931, he attended two *NSDAP* events in Giessen.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 91\\. In July 1932, he continued to express skepticism about the National Socialists' ability to govern.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\\. According to his biographer Reto Heinzel, Mayer developed sympathies for the political ideas of National Socialism in the fall of 1932 at the latest.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\\. He was less enthusiastic about the political movement than about the strict, authoritarian government under [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\")'s leadership.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 97\\.",
"According to Reto Heinzel, Mayer did not change his political stance abruptly in the first months of the National Socialist government, but continuously, and not for career reasons, but out of inner conviction.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101\\. According to Anne Christine Nagel, he was enthusiastic about the National Socialists after the [March 1933 elections](/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election \"March 1933 German federal election\"); he wrote that it was now \"really a pleasure to be German\".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\. Among historians, Mayer was considered a convinced National Socialist, at least since he took over the Freiburg Chair of Medieval History in 1934\\.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 495; Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Dies., Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, pp. 1–72, here: p. 31\\.",
"In April 1933, at the age of fifty and in a secure position as a professor, he wrote a letter to Wilhelm Bauer in which he made disparaging remarks about the mass entry into the *NSDAP* of hundreds of thousands of people after the parliamentary elections in March 1933 (the so\\-called \"March Fallen\").Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101, note 126\\. He himself applied for admission to the party on 22 May 1937, after the ban had been lifted, and was admitted retroactively to May 1 ([membership number 4,352,531](/wiki/List_of_Nazis \"List of Nazis\")).Federal Archives, R 9361\\-IX Index/27380678; Jörg Peter Jatho, Gerd Simon: *Gießener Historiker im Dritten Reich.* Gießen 2008, p. 54\\. His political reliability was undisputed even without membership in the NSDAP. In August 1933, he joined the [National Socialist Teachers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_Teachers_League \"National Socialist Teachers League\"). He was also a member of the [National Socialist People's Welfare](/wiki/National_Socialist_People%27s_Welfare \"National Socialist People's Welfare\"), the [Imperial Air Defense League](/wiki/Reichsluftschutzbund \"Reichsluftschutzbund\"), and the [National Socialist German Lecturers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Lecturers_League \"National Socialist German Lecturers League\"). In this milieu, Mayer emphasized his common geographical origins with Adolf Hitler.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 24\\. In the eyes of the Nazi rulers, Mayer was ideologically \"irreproachable\" and politically \"fundamentally correct.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 112, 124\\. He was involved in the commemorative publication for Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday, where he published a research report on \"Economic and Social History\" since 1933\\.Theodor Mayer: *Wirtschafts\\- und Siedlungsgeschichte.* In: *Deutsche Wissenschaft. Arbeit und Aufgabe.* Leipzig 1939, p. 26–28\\. In a \"political assessment\" in 1941, the regional leadership in Kassel concluded that he had \"proved himself to be a convinced National Socialist.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 349\\.",
"At the end of March 1933, in a letter to his friend Wilhelm Bauer, he called for differentiation in the treatment of the Jewish population, arguing for a distinction between \"Eastern Jews and long\\-established Jews whose families have lived here for 500 years or more\".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 161\\. Five years later, this was no longer the case. In a letter to Wilhelm Bauer dated 14 March 1938, Mayer, who was oriented towards Greater Germany, commented on the long\\-awaited \"[Annexation of Austria](/wiki/Anschluss \"Anschluss\")\" with a mixture of joy and malice towards the fate of the Jewish teachers at Vienna University. Only an impassive comment on the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\")* of 1938 has survived.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 162\\.",
"#### Freiburg professorship (1934–1938\\)",
"In [Freiburg im Breisgau](/wiki/Freiburg_im_Breisgau \"Freiburg im Breisgau\"), Mayer succeeded Hermann Heimpel on 1 October 1934, in the chair of medieval history held by Georg von Below. Taking over this chair at a much larger university was a noticeable step up for him. The environment was now much more political than in Giessen. As a so\\-called \"borderland University,\" Freiburg was in close proximity to Switzerland and the [hereditary enemy France](/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity \"French–German enmity\"). Mayer's inaugural lecture in Freiburg on 23 May 1935 dealt with the state of the Zähringers. It was published in the same year.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\\. bis 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 61–64\\. For this lecture, the passionate cyclist cycled along the old [Zähringer](/wiki/House_of_Z%C3%A4hringen \"House of Zähringen\") roads and village foundations in his study area. For him, exploring the landscape was an essential part of the scientific discovery process.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 81 f. In 1936/37 he was vice [dean](/wiki/Dean_%28education%29 \"Dean (education)\") of the Faculty of Philosophy in Freiburg. One of his students there was Martin Wellmer.",
"At the end of May 1935, the Karlsruhe cultural bureaucracy appointed Mayer chairman of the Baden Historical Commission, which had been dissolved in 1933 and re\\-established in 1935 according to the *[Führerprinzip](/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip \"Führerprinzip\")*, not only because of his reputation as a scholar but also because of his political reliability. On the occasion of the re\\-establishment in Karlsruhe, he gave a speech on 4 December 1935, thanking \"our *[Führer](/wiki/F%C3%BChrer \"Führer\")* Adolf Hitler\" and professing his belief in the \"National Socialist German conception and view of history\" laid down by the *Führer*.Matthias Werner: *Zwischen politischer Begrenzung und methodischer Offenheit. Wege und Stationen deutscher Landesgeschichtsforschung im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: [Peter Moraw](/wiki/Peter_Moraw \"Peter Moraw\"), [Rudolf Schieffer](/wiki/Rudolf_Schieffer \"Rudolf Schieffer\") (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 251–364, here: p. 315 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/viewFile/17837/11646)). With this speech, he made a clear commitment to National Socialism in the presence of the Gauleiter and *[Reichsstatthalter](/wiki/Reichsstatthalter \"Reichsstatthalter\")*.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 506\\.",
"In 1935, Mayer took over the management of the [Western studies](/wiki/Western_studies_%28Germany%29 \"Western studies (Germany)\") from Franz Steinbach.See in detail: Michael Fahlbusch: *Wissenschaft im Dienst der nationalsozialistischen Politik? Die „Volksdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaften“ 1931–1945\\.* Baden\\-Baden 1999, p. 357 ff. In spring 1935, the National Socialist mayor of Freiburg, Franz Kerber, put him in charge of the Alemannic Institute. The institute was maintained by the city of Freiburg. Mayer, however, wanted to link it closely with the university. He also wanted to collaborate with Swiss and Alsatian scholars. Therefore, against the will of the mayor, the institute was renamed the Upper Rhine Institute for Historical Regional Studies.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 507\\. This led to a rift with Kerber. Tensions also arose with Friedrich Metz, who also rejected the renaming of the institute. Mayer also had personal differences at the Department of History with [Gerhard Ritter](/wiki/Gerhard_Ritter \"Gerhard Ritter\"), who had a [Lesser Germany](/wiki/Lesser_Germany \"Lesser Germany\") orientation.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 154, Note 234\\. Mayer only avoided dismissal by accepting an appointment to Marburg in 1938\\.",
"#### Teaching and rectorate in Marburg (1938–1942\\)",
"In 1937, Edmund Ernst Stengel became president of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, which had been called the Reich Institute for Older German History since its institutional reorganization in 1935\\. As successor to Stengel's Marburg Chair of Medieval History, Mayer was the preferred candidate of the retiring scholar. In October 1938, he succeeded Stengel at the small\\-town and [Protestant Philipps University of Marburg](/wiki/University_of_Marburg \"University of Marburg\"). The Institute for Historical Regional Studies in Hesse and Nassau was associated with the chair. However, Mayer was by no means enthusiastic about his new academic position. He had no intention of \"becoming absorbed in Hessian history\".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 161\\. In addition to medieval studies, Mayer also dealt with historical topics of current political relevance. In the summer semester of 1939, he gave a lecture on the history of the Germans in the Alpine and Sudeten countries. The occasion was the break\\-up of [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\") and the \" annexation of Austria\". The fifty\\-six\\-year\\-old enlisted months before 1 September 1939\\. It was with regret that he accepted his age\\-related refusal.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 162 f.",
"After less than a year, Mayer was nominated by a majority of professors as a candidate for the politically exposed position of [rector](/wiki/Rector_%28academia%29 \"Rector (academia)\"). On 2 November 1939, he was appointed by the [Reich Science Minister](/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Science%2C_Education_and_Culture \"Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture\") [Bernhard Rust](/wiki/Bernhard_Rust \"Bernhard Rust\").Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364\\. He held the rectorate from late autumn 1939 until December 1942, making himself available for a position at the height of the National Socialist rise to power, which not only had to organize the academic world, but also fulfil political functions.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 345\\. From 1938 to 1942, he was also head of the Historical Commission for Hesse and Waldeck.",
"Mayer repeatedly served as a scholarly advisor to the [SS](/wiki/Schutzstaffel \"Schutzstaffel\")'s \"[Ancestral Heritage](/wiki/Ahnenerbe \"Ahnenerbe\")\" and party circles. From 1940 on, he was head of the medieval department of the \" Use of the Humanities in War\". This was a major project of humanities scholars organized by Kiel's Rector Paul Ritterbusch on behalf of the Reich Ministry of Science, Education, and Cultural Affairs, with the goal of creating a European view of history shaped by German historians. According to Mayer's opinion in 1941, an intellectual leadership of Europe was unthinkable without the fulfillment of this task.Anne Christine Nagel: *Gerd Tellenbach. Wissenschaft und Politik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 79–99, here: p. 89 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010808)). There were good contacts with the \" ancestral heritage \" of the SS. Mayer proposed to the curator of this institution, [Walther Wüst](/wiki/Walther_W%C3%BCst \"Walther Wüst\"), the creation of a \"Germanic prosopography\" as a research project. The plan was to record some 15,000 individuals from the time of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\") to the year 1200\\. According to Mayer, the \"general Germanic prosopography\" was to determine \"the extent to which the awareness of the blood\\-based membership of the European nobility, and thus a common Germanic feeling, lives on, and what role the Germanic peoples played in the development of the European world of nations, states, and culture, not only through their numbers but also through the position of leading personalities.Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Anne Christine Nagel, Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, p. 1–72, here: p. 34\\. The work was continued during the war.",
"#### President of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (1942–1945\\)",
"In April 1942, Mayer was appointed provisional director of the Reich Institute for Older German History, as the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH) had been known since 1935\\. On October 1, he became the first Austrian to be appointed president of the institute, a fact he repeatedly emphasized with pride.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\\. In return for giving up his chair in Marburg and his rectorship, he was to receive not only the presidency but also a professorship at the University of Berlin from the Ministry, but the Ministry's efforts met with fierce resistance from the Berlin faculty. Acting Dean [Hermann Grapow](/wiki/Hermann_Grapow \"Hermann Grapow\") made it clear in a letter to the Reich Minister of Education on 28 September 1942, that \"the faculty does not want Dr. Theodor Mayer. Grapow went on to say that he saw Mayer as a threat to harmony in the field of medieval and modern history. Mayer had a \"reputation as a restless, domineering, even boorish man.Quoted from Joseph Lemberg: *Der Historiker ohne Eigenschaften. Eine Problemgeschichte des Mediävisten Friedrich Baethgen.* Frankfurt 2015, p. 343\\. As a result, only an honorary professorship was established for Mayer.",
"In 1942, Mayer suffered a personal blow: his 29\\-year\\-old son died on 29 May 1942 as a result of a double wound he had sustained in the [Battle of Kharkov](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Kharkov \"Second Battle of Kharkov\").Franz Beyerle: *Dieter Pleimes, Theodor Mayer\\-Edenhauser.* In: *Zeitschrift der Savigny\\-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Germanistische Abteilung.* 63 (1943\\), pp. 518–527, here: p. 523\\. After the loss of his only son, Mayer's tone of voice intensified. In his speech on 11 July 1942 on the occasion of the university foundation ceremony, he spoke of \"total war\". The war was \"a conflict between two world views, it is a battle for the right to life of individual peoples and their culture, for a better world order with the aim of putting a stop to the disintegration and destruction that threatens us from abroad\".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 171\\.",
"As president, Mayer headed an institution dedicated primarily to the edition of medieval sources. However, Mayer was not interested in editorial work. Rather, he wanted to reorganize the traditional tasks of the MGH under the umbrella of the Reich Institute for the History of the New Germany. In the last years of the [total war](/wiki/Total_war \"Total war\"), he was no longer able to develop lasting creative possibilities at the MGH. In 1944, the MGH was evacuated from Berlin to [Schloss Weißenstein](/wiki/Schloss_Wei%C3%9Fenstein \"Schloss Weißenstein\") near Bamberg due to increasing bombing raids. The suggestion was probably made by [Carl Erdmann](/wiki/Carl_Erdmann \"Carl Erdmann\"), who was well acquainted with Count Erwein von Schönborn\\-Wiesentheid.Enno Bünz: *Die Monumenta Germaniae Historica 1819–2019\\. Ein historischer Abriss.* In: *Mittelalter lesbar machen. Festschrift 200 Jahre Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Grundlagen, Forschung, Mittelalter.* Published by the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Wiesbaden 2019, pp. 15–36, here: p. 24\\.",
""
] |
#### Relationship to the NS regime
Mayer's wife was a supporter of the National Socialist movement even before her husband. She is said to have voted National Socialist as early as the summer of 1932\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\. His son Theodor Mayer\-Edenhäuser was also an admirer of Adolf Hitler and joined the *[NSDAP](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party")* in the spring of 1932 and the [*SA*](/wiki/Sturmabteilung "Sturmabteilung") in the fall of the same year.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\.
In the final phase of the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic "Weimar Republic"), Mayer supported a right\-wing authoritarian turn. However, the *[DNVP](/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party "German National People's Party")* under its chairman [Alfred Hugenberg](/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg "Alfred Hugenberg") was too "Prussian" for him, and in spring 1931 he criticized the *NSDAP's* inability to pursue positive politics.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 90\. "They don't seem to get beyond mass demagoguery", he criticized. In the run\-up to the Hessian state elections on 15 November 1931, he attended two *NSDAP* events in Giessen.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 91\. In July 1932, he continued to express skepticism about the National Socialists' ability to govern.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\. According to his biographer Reto Heinzel, Mayer developed sympathies for the political ideas of National Socialism in the fall of 1932 at the latest.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\. He was less enthusiastic about the political movement than about the strict, authoritarian government under [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler")'s leadership.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 97\.
According to Reto Heinzel, Mayer did not change his political stance abruptly in the first months of the National Socialist government, but continuously, and not for career reasons, but out of inner conviction.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101\. According to Anne Christine Nagel, he was enthusiastic about the National Socialists after the [March 1933 elections](/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election "March 1933 German federal election"); he wrote that it was now "really a pleasure to be German".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\. Among historians, Mayer was considered a convinced National Socialist, at least since he took over the Freiburg Chair of Medieval History in 1934\.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 495; Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Dies., Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, pp. 1–72, here: p. 31\.
In April 1933, at the age of fifty and in a secure position as a professor, he wrote a letter to Wilhelm Bauer in which he made disparaging remarks about the mass entry into the *NSDAP* of hundreds of thousands of people after the parliamentary elections in March 1933 (the so\-called "March Fallen").Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101, note 126\. He himself applied for admission to the party on 22 May 1937, after the ban had been lifted, and was admitted retroactively to May 1 ([membership number 4,352,531](/wiki/List_of_Nazis "List of Nazis")).Federal Archives, R 9361\-IX Index/27380678; Jörg Peter Jatho, Gerd Simon: *Gießener Historiker im Dritten Reich.* Gießen 2008, p. 54\. His political reliability was undisputed even without membership in the NSDAP. In August 1933, he joined the [National Socialist Teachers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_Teachers_League "National Socialist Teachers League"). He was also a member of the [National Socialist People's Welfare](/wiki/National_Socialist_People%27s_Welfare "National Socialist People's Welfare"), the [Imperial Air Defense League](/wiki/Reichsluftschutzbund "Reichsluftschutzbund"), and the [National Socialist German Lecturers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Lecturers_League "National Socialist German Lecturers League"). In this milieu, Mayer emphasized his common geographical origins with Adolf Hitler.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 24\. In the eyes of the Nazi rulers, Mayer was ideologically "irreproachable" and politically "fundamentally correct.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 112, 124\. He was involved in the commemorative publication for Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday, where he published a research report on "Economic and Social History" since 1933\.Theodor Mayer: *Wirtschafts\- und Siedlungsgeschichte.* In: *Deutsche Wissenschaft. Arbeit und Aufgabe.* Leipzig 1939, p. 26–28\. In a "political assessment" in 1941, the regional leadership in Kassel concluded that he had "proved himself to be a convinced National Socialist.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 349\.
At the end of March 1933, in a letter to his friend Wilhelm Bauer, he called for differentiation in the treatment of the Jewish population, arguing for a distinction between "Eastern Jews and long\-established Jews whose families have lived here for 500 years or more".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 161\. Five years later, this was no longer the case. In a letter to Wilhelm Bauer dated 14 March 1938, Mayer, who was oriented towards Greater Germany, commented on the long\-awaited "[Annexation of Austria](/wiki/Anschluss "Anschluss")" with a mixture of joy and malice towards the fate of the Jewish teachers at Vienna University. Only an impassive comment on the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht")* of 1938 has survived.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 162\.
|
[
"#### Relationship to the NS regime",
"Mayer's wife was a supporter of the National Socialist movement even before her husband. She is said to have voted National Socialist as early as the summer of 1932\\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\\. His son Theodor Mayer\\-Edenhäuser was also an admirer of Adolf Hitler and joined the *[NSDAP](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\")* in the spring of 1932 and the [*SA*](/wiki/Sturmabteilung \"Sturmabteilung\") in the fall of the same year.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\.",
"In the final phase of the [Weimar Republic](/wiki/Weimar_Republic \"Weimar Republic\"), Mayer supported a right\\-wing authoritarian turn. However, the *[DNVP](/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party \"German National People's Party\")* under its chairman [Alfred Hugenberg](/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg \"Alfred Hugenberg\") was too \"Prussian\" for him, and in spring 1931 he criticized the *NSDAP's* inability to pursue positive politics.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 90\\. \"They don't seem to get beyond mass demagoguery\", he criticized. In the run\\-up to the Hessian state elections on 15 November 1931, he attended two *NSDAP* events in Giessen.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 91\\. In July 1932, he continued to express skepticism about the National Socialists' ability to govern.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 163\\. According to his biographer Reto Heinzel, Mayer developed sympathies for the political ideas of National Socialism in the fall of 1932 at the latest.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 93\\. He was less enthusiastic about the political movement than about the strict, authoritarian government under [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\")'s leadership.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 97\\.",
"According to Reto Heinzel, Mayer did not change his political stance abruptly in the first months of the National Socialist government, but continuously, and not for career reasons, but out of inner conviction.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101\\. According to Anne Christine Nagel, he was enthusiastic about the National Socialists after the [March 1933 elections](/wiki/March_1933_German_federal_election \"March 1933 German federal election\"); he wrote that it was now \"really a pleasure to be German\".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\. Among historians, Mayer was considered a convinced National Socialist, at least since he took over the Freiburg Chair of Medieval History in 1934\\.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 495; Anne Christine Nagel: *Einleitung.* In: Dies., Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, pp. 1–72, here: p. 31\\.",
"In April 1933, at the age of fifty and in a secure position as a professor, he wrote a letter to Wilhelm Bauer in which he made disparaging remarks about the mass entry into the *NSDAP* of hundreds of thousands of people after the parliamentary elections in March 1933 (the so\\-called \"March Fallen\").Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 101, note 126\\. He himself applied for admission to the party on 22 May 1937, after the ban had been lifted, and was admitted retroactively to May 1 ([membership number 4,352,531](/wiki/List_of_Nazis \"List of Nazis\")).Federal Archives, R 9361\\-IX Index/27380678; Jörg Peter Jatho, Gerd Simon: *Gießener Historiker im Dritten Reich.* Gießen 2008, p. 54\\. His political reliability was undisputed even without membership in the NSDAP. In August 1933, he joined the [National Socialist Teachers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_Teachers_League \"National Socialist Teachers League\"). He was also a member of the [National Socialist People's Welfare](/wiki/National_Socialist_People%27s_Welfare \"National Socialist People's Welfare\"), the [Imperial Air Defense League](/wiki/Reichsluftschutzbund \"Reichsluftschutzbund\"), and the [National Socialist German Lecturers League](/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Lecturers_League \"National Socialist German Lecturers League\"). In this milieu, Mayer emphasized his common geographical origins with Adolf Hitler.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 24\\. In the eyes of the Nazi rulers, Mayer was ideologically \"irreproachable\" and politically \"fundamentally correct.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 112, 124\\. He was involved in the commemorative publication for Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday, where he published a research report on \"Economic and Social History\" since 1933\\.Theodor Mayer: *Wirtschafts\\- und Siedlungsgeschichte.* In: *Deutsche Wissenschaft. Arbeit und Aufgabe.* Leipzig 1939, p. 26–28\\. In a \"political assessment\" in 1941, the regional leadership in Kassel concluded that he had \"proved himself to be a convinced National Socialist.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 349\\.",
"At the end of March 1933, in a letter to his friend Wilhelm Bauer, he called for differentiation in the treatment of the Jewish population, arguing for a distinction between \"Eastern Jews and long\\-established Jews whose families have lived here for 500 years or more\".Quoted from Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 161\\. Five years later, this was no longer the case. In a letter to Wilhelm Bauer dated 14 March 1938, Mayer, who was oriented towards Greater Germany, commented on the long\\-awaited \"[Annexation of Austria](/wiki/Anschluss \"Anschluss\")\" with a mixture of joy and malice towards the fate of the Jewish teachers at Vienna University. Only an impassive comment on the *[Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\")* of 1938 has survived.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 162\\.",
""
] |
### Post\-war period
#### Dismissal as MGH President
Mayer experienced the end of the war with a few MGH employees in Pommersfelden, Franconia, which was occupied by the Americans on 14 April 1945\. In early September 1945, he was arrested by the American military authorities and interned in the [Hammelburg](/wiki/Hammelburg "Hammelburg") camp until June 1946\. He was released to Pommersfelden in June 1946\. During this time, Mayer's main concern was the future of the MGH. In a letter to the *[Regierungspräsident](/wiki/Regierungspr%C3%A4sident_%28Germany%29 "Regierungspräsident (Germany)")* (Germany) for Upper and Middle Franconia, he emphasized that "German science" had achieved a "leading position" in the 20th century. In terms of cultural policy, this asset was "of the utmost importance". With the right effort, "the most effective and at the same time least expensive propaganda" could be carried out.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 226\. In the summer of 1946, Mayer was assured by [Walter Goetz](/wiki/Walter_Goetz "Walter Goetz") that there was no doubt that he would be reinstated as president.
Mayer succeeded in presenting numerous exonerating expert opinions from renowned colleagues. He himself wrote an expert opinion for his loyal student Heinrich Büttner, and Büttner in turn agreed to act as an exonerating witness for Mayer in the proceedings of the Trial Chamber.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 274–292, here: p. 290\. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). On 22 September 1947, the [Höchstadt an der Aisch](/wiki/H%C3%B6chstadt_an_der_Aisch "Höchstadt an der Aisch") Trial Chamber classified Mayer as a "follower" in Level IV and sentenced him to pay 500 Reichsmarks. The court's verdict stated that he had "only nominally participated in National Socialism". Mayer saw the lenient sentence, which was typical of the time, as a "brilliant justification of my strictly objective, scientific attitude during the entire period of National Socialist rule".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 230\.
At the end of September 1946, the Central Directorate, the scientific advisory board of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica that had existed until 1935, was re\-established. At their first meeting, the members of the Central Directorate agreed that in the event of an acquittal, Mayer should be "immediately reinstated" in his position.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 167\. However, the Central Directorate did not wait for the Appeals Chamber's decision. It decided to elect a new president in December 1947\. The Berlin medievalist [Friedrich Baethgen](/wiki/Friedrich_Baethgen "Friedrich Baethgen") became the new president on 1 January 1948\. The following years of Mayer's life were not marked by a confrontation with his own past, but by a struggle to make amends for the injustice he felt had been done to him. Mayer argued that he had never been dismissed as a Reich official and was therefore still in office. Unlike other dismissed historians, he wrote two open letters in 1948 to a wider public at home and abroad. In it, he declared himself the rightful president and denied the legitimacy of the election conducted by the central leadership. Mayer was merciless in his reckoning with the people he felt had deceived or betrayed him. He accused Baethgen of his own Nazi involvementNikola Becker: *Die Neuetablierung der Monumenta Germaniae Historica in Bayern ab 1944 im Spannungsfeld zwischen Theodor Mayer, Otto Meyer, Walter Goetz und Friedrich Baethgen.* In: *Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte* 77 (2014\), p. 43–68, here: p. 65\. and called Walter Goetz a "senile fool.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 233 f. Some of his colleagues who were on his side held back. Mayer's student Heinrich Büttner, for example, did not want to jeopardize his appointment negotiations.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 170\. Anne Christine Nagel believes that after 1945 Mayer "did not really stumble over his commitment to National Socialism," but rather "was sidelined by his colleagues because of considerable deficits in his personal conduct.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 171\.
Mayer's financial situation in the early postwar years was poor. It was not only his political burden but also his advanced age that made it difficult for him to return to university teaching. He and his wife lived on the income from their house in Marburg and the contributions of their daughters Hanna, who was a teacher in Salzburg, and Emma. Mayer's wife received a small fee from the publication of short articles in the Schweinfurt newspaper.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\), pp. 425–446, here: p. 440 f. He now returned to academic work, especially medieval constitutional history. As a result of this work, the [Böhlau publishing house](/wiki/B%C3%B6hlau_Verlag "Böhlau Verlag") in Weimar published "Fürsten and State. Studies in the Constitutional History of the German Middle Ages. In fifteen essays, he commented on [ecclesiastical *Advocatus*](/wiki/Advocatus "Advocatus"), [royal protection](/wiki/Peace_%28law%29 "Peace (law)"), immunity and jurisdiction, and the problems of Empire and Territory. In this work, he also presented a differentiation between Imperial and Royal Monasteries, which had long been unquestioned by Constitutional historians.Thomas Vogtherr: *Die Reichsabteien der Benediktiner und das Königtum im hohen Mittelalter. (900–1125\).* Stuttgart 2000, p. 12 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf05/0024/image)).
Only in private conversations and letters did Mayer express his criticism of [Konrad Adenauer](/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer "Konrad Adenauer")'s domestic and foreign policies, "football nationalism," and the danger of black supremacy over the white race.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\.
#### New fields of activity: Constance Working Group and Collegium Carolinum
Mayer's former academic student Otto Feger had been pursuing the plan to found an institute for the history and cultural history of the Lake Constance region in Constance with municipal support since the beginning of 1946\. For Feger, Mayer was the only right person to head the institute. On 20 April 1948, the city council passed a charter for the "Municipal Institute for Landscape Studies of the Lake Constance Region". Mayer, who had lived with his wife in Schönborn Castle near Pommersfelden until 1951, moved to Constance. He felt at home there.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\), p. 425–446, here: p. 444\. The comments about his life in Constance are largely positive. Mayer received his full pension in accordance with Article 131 of the Basic Law.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 176\.
The Municipal Institute for Landscape Studies of the Lake Constance Region was opened on 30 October 1951, with a ceremonial lecture by Heinrich Büttner. The first events lasting several days followed in the fall of 1952\. Initially, meetings were held in spring and fall at different locations. From 1957 on, the meetings were held almost exclusively on the Reichenau. The Constance Medieval History Study Group was formally founded in 1960\.Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 126–129 ([Full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118)). As chairman, Mayer was able to manage an annual budget of 40,000 to 50,000 DM. This sum covered the travel and lodging expenses of the participants.Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, pp. 73–89, here: p. 78 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/content/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)).
In April 1956, Mayer was elected chairman of the [Collegium Carolinum](/wiki/Collegium_Carolinum_%281956%E2%80%93%29 "Collegium Carolinum (1956–)"). According to Christoph Cornelißen, the projects there differed neither conceptually nor methodologically from those of the years before 1945\.Christoph Cornelißen: *Nur noch „strenge Wissenschaftlichkeit“. Das Collegium Carolinum im Gründungsjahrzehnt (1955–1965\).* In: Peter Haslinger, Christoph Boyer (Ed.): *Geschichtsschreibung zu den böhmischen Ländern im 20\.Jahrhundert.* Munich 2006, pp. 345–365, here: p. 361\. The research work was to examine the "share of the Germans in the cultural, social, and legal development of the Bohemian lands. An "overall analysis of the [expulsion](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia "Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia")" was also planned.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 269\.
#### The last years of life
At the age of 85, Mayer retired from Constance and moved to Salzburg, where his two daughters lived. He relinquished the presidency of the Collegium Carolinum only two years before his death. He died in Salzburg on 26 November 1972\.The most important obituaries: Erich Zöllner: *Theodor Mayer.* In: *Almanach der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* 123 (1973\) 1974, P. 390–394; Horst Fuhrmann: *Theodor Mayer.* In: *[Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters](/wiki/Deutsches_Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Erforschung_des_Mittelalters "Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters")* 29 (1973\), P. 343–344 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858735_0029%7Clog48?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)); [Heinrich Appelt](/wiki/Heinrich_Appelt "Heinrich Appelt"): *Theodor Mayer †.* In: *[Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung](/wiki/Mitteilungen_des_Instituts_f%C3%BCr_%C3%96sterreichische_Geschichtsforschung "Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung")* 81 (1973\), P. 529–530; Karl Lechner: *Univ.\-Prof. Dr. Theodor Mayer †.* In: *Unsere Heimat* 44 (1973\). P. 71–73 ([online](https://bibliothekskatalog.noel.gv.at/!UH!1973.pdf)); Adam Wandruszka: *Theodor Mayer †.* In: *Österreichische Hochschulzeitung* 25 (1973\) 2, P. 3; [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann "Helmut Beumann"): *Theodor Mayer.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 218 (1974\), P. 778–881; Heinz Dopsch: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\).* In: *Südostforschungen* 32 (1973\), P. 322–327; Hans Patze: *Theodor Mayer zum Gedächtnis.* In: *Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte* 109 (1973\), P. 350–353 ([online](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb00000313?page=364)); [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl "Karl Bosl"): *Theodor Mayer 24\.8\.1883 – 26\.11\.1972\.* In: *Jahrbuch der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* 1973, P. 210–214 ([online](https://badw.de/fileadmin/nachrufe/Mayer%20Theodor.pdf)). To the end of his life, Mayer was unable to come to terms with what he perceived as a humiliating dismissal as president of the MGH. In April 1968, shortly before leaving Constance, he wrote to [Walter Schlesinger](/wiki/Walter_Schlesinger "Walter Schlesinger"): "There are moves to merge the Research Group with the MGH. Please prevent this as long as I am alive. When I die, I will be cremated, then I need not and cannot turn over in my grave".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, P. 258\. Reto Heinzel attests to Mayer's pronounced tendency toward self\-righteousness. He practically never expressed self\-criticism, but was convinced to the end of his life that he had survived the "Third Reich" morally unscathed.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 234 f.
At the end of his life, Mayer was an honored scholar. From 1927 to 1945 he was a member of the German Society of Science and Art for the Czechoslovak Republic. In 1942, he became a corresponding member of the [Austrian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Austrian_Academy_of_Sciences "Austrian Academy of Sciences") and the [Bavarian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities "Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities") in Munich. Also in 1942, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Erlangen. Two years later, Mayer became a member of the [Prussian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences "Prussian Academy of Sciences"). In 1950 he became a member of the Historical Commission of the Sudetenland. From 1954 to 1968, Mayer was a full member of the Commission for Historical Regional Studies in Baden\-Württemberg, becoming an honorary member in 1968\. On his 70th birthday in 1954 a commemorative publication was published.*Aus Verfassungs\- und Landesgeschichte. Festschrift zum 70\. Geburtstag von Theodor Mayer, dargebracht von seinen Freunden und Schülern.* Vol. 1: *Zur allgemeinen und Verfassungsgeschichte.* Lindau 1954; Vol. 2: *Geschichtliche Landesforschung, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Hilfswissenschaften.* Lindau 1955\. The community of [Neukirchen an der Enknach](/wiki/Neukirchen_an_der_Enknach "Neukirchen an der Enknach") awarded him the honorary citizenship in 1958\. In 1963 he was made an honorary citizen of [Reichenau](/wiki/Reichenau%2C_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg "Reichenau, Baden-Württemberg").*Theodor Mayer.* In: Jörg Schwarz: *Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte 1951–2001\. Die Mitglieder und ihr Werk. Eine bio\-bibliographische Dokumentation,* Herausgegeben von Jürgen Petersohn. Stuttgart 2001, p. 271–282, here: p. 275 f. ([online](https://konstanzer-arbeitskreis.de/wp-content/uploads/mayer_festschrift.pdf)). On his 80th birthday, Mayer was awarded the Grand Cross of the [Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany "Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany").Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 528\.
|
[
"### Post\\-war period",
"#### Dismissal as MGH President",
"Mayer experienced the end of the war with a few MGH employees in Pommersfelden, Franconia, which was occupied by the Americans on 14 April 1945\\. In early September 1945, he was arrested by the American military authorities and interned in the [Hammelburg](/wiki/Hammelburg \"Hammelburg\") camp until June 1946\\. He was released to Pommersfelden in June 1946\\. During this time, Mayer's main concern was the future of the MGH. In a letter to the *[Regierungspräsident](/wiki/Regierungspr%C3%A4sident_%28Germany%29 \"Regierungspräsident (Germany)\")* (Germany) for Upper and Middle Franconia, he emphasized that \"German science\" had achieved a \"leading position\" in the 20th century. In terms of cultural policy, this asset was \"of the utmost importance\". With the right effort, \"the most effective and at the same time least expensive propaganda\" could be carried out.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 226\\. In the summer of 1946, Mayer was assured by [Walter Goetz](/wiki/Walter_Goetz \"Walter Goetz\") that there was no doubt that he would be reinstated as president.",
"Mayer succeeded in presenting numerous exonerating expert opinions from renowned colleagues. He himself wrote an expert opinion for his loyal student Heinrich Büttner, and Büttner in turn agreed to act as an exonerating witness for Mayer in the proceedings of the Trial Chamber.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 274–292, here: p. 290\\. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). On 22 September 1947, the [Höchstadt an der Aisch](/wiki/H%C3%B6chstadt_an_der_Aisch \"Höchstadt an der Aisch\") Trial Chamber classified Mayer as a \"follower\" in Level IV and sentenced him to pay 500 Reichsmarks. The court's verdict stated that he had \"only nominally participated in National Socialism\". Mayer saw the lenient sentence, which was typical of the time, as a \"brilliant justification of my strictly objective, scientific attitude during the entire period of National Socialist rule\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 230\\.",
"At the end of September 1946, the Central Directorate, the scientific advisory board of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica that had existed until 1935, was re\\-established. At their first meeting, the members of the Central Directorate agreed that in the event of an acquittal, Mayer should be \"immediately reinstated\" in his position.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 167\\. However, the Central Directorate did not wait for the Appeals Chamber's decision. It decided to elect a new president in December 1947\\. The Berlin medievalist [Friedrich Baethgen](/wiki/Friedrich_Baethgen \"Friedrich Baethgen\") became the new president on 1 January 1948\\. The following years of Mayer's life were not marked by a confrontation with his own past, but by a struggle to make amends for the injustice he felt had been done to him. Mayer argued that he had never been dismissed as a Reich official and was therefore still in office. Unlike other dismissed historians, he wrote two open letters in 1948 to a wider public at home and abroad. In it, he declared himself the rightful president and denied the legitimacy of the election conducted by the central leadership. Mayer was merciless in his reckoning with the people he felt had deceived or betrayed him. He accused Baethgen of his own Nazi involvementNikola Becker: *Die Neuetablierung der Monumenta Germaniae Historica in Bayern ab 1944 im Spannungsfeld zwischen Theodor Mayer, Otto Meyer, Walter Goetz und Friedrich Baethgen.* In: *Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte* 77 (2014\\), p. 43–68, here: p. 65\\. and called Walter Goetz a \"senile fool.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 233 f. Some of his colleagues who were on his side held back. Mayer's student Heinrich Büttner, for example, did not want to jeopardize his appointment negotiations.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 170\\. Anne Christine Nagel believes that after 1945 Mayer \"did not really stumble over his commitment to National Socialism,\" but rather \"was sidelined by his colleagues because of considerable deficits in his personal conduct.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 171\\.",
"Mayer's financial situation in the early postwar years was poor. It was not only his political burden but also his advanced age that made it difficult for him to return to university teaching. He and his wife lived on the income from their house in Marburg and the contributions of their daughters Hanna, who was a teacher in Salzburg, and Emma. Mayer's wife received a small fee from the publication of short articles in the Schweinfurt newspaper.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\\), pp. 425–446, here: p. 440 f. He now returned to academic work, especially medieval constitutional history. As a result of this work, the [Böhlau publishing house](/wiki/B%C3%B6hlau_Verlag \"Böhlau Verlag\") in Weimar published \"Fürsten and State. Studies in the Constitutional History of the German Middle Ages. In fifteen essays, he commented on [ecclesiastical *Advocatus*](/wiki/Advocatus \"Advocatus\"), [royal protection](/wiki/Peace_%28law%29 \"Peace (law)\"), immunity and jurisdiction, and the problems of Empire and Territory. In this work, he also presented a differentiation between Imperial and Royal Monasteries, which had long been unquestioned by Constitutional historians.Thomas Vogtherr: *Die Reichsabteien der Benediktiner und das Königtum im hohen Mittelalter. (900–1125\\).* Stuttgart 2000, p. 12 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf05/0024/image)).",
"Only in private conversations and letters did Mayer express his criticism of [Konrad Adenauer](/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer \"Konrad Adenauer\")'s domestic and foreign policies, \"football nationalism,\" and the danger of black supremacy over the white race.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\.",
"#### New fields of activity: Constance Working Group and Collegium Carolinum",
"Mayer's former academic student Otto Feger had been pursuing the plan to found an institute for the history and cultural history of the Lake Constance region in Constance with municipal support since the beginning of 1946\\. For Feger, Mayer was the only right person to head the institute. On 20 April 1948, the city council passed a charter for the \"Municipal Institute for Landscape Studies of the Lake Constance Region\". Mayer, who had lived with his wife in Schönborn Castle near Pommersfelden until 1951, moved to Constance. He felt at home there.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\\), p. 425–446, here: p. 444\\. The comments about his life in Constance are largely positive. Mayer received his full pension in accordance with Article 131 of the Basic Law.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 176\\.",
"The Municipal Institute for Landscape Studies of the Lake Constance Region was opened on 30 October 1951, with a ceremonial lecture by Heinrich Büttner. The first events lasting several days followed in the fall of 1952\\. Initially, meetings were held in spring and fall at different locations. From 1957 on, the meetings were held almost exclusively on the Reichenau. The Constance Medieval History Study Group was formally founded in 1960\\.Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 126–129 ([Full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118)). As chairman, Mayer was able to manage an annual budget of 40,000 to 50,000 DM. This sum covered the travel and lodging expenses of the participants.Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, pp. 73–89, here: p. 78 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/content/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)).",
"In April 1956, Mayer was elected chairman of the [Collegium Carolinum](/wiki/Collegium_Carolinum_%281956%E2%80%93%29 \"Collegium Carolinum (1956–)\"). According to Christoph Cornelißen, the projects there differed neither conceptually nor methodologically from those of the years before 1945\\.Christoph Cornelißen: *Nur noch „strenge Wissenschaftlichkeit“. Das Collegium Carolinum im Gründungsjahrzehnt (1955–1965\\).* In: Peter Haslinger, Christoph Boyer (Ed.): *Geschichtsschreibung zu den böhmischen Ländern im 20\\.Jahrhundert.* Munich 2006, pp. 345–365, here: p. 361\\. The research work was to examine the \"share of the Germans in the cultural, social, and legal development of the Bohemian lands. An \"overall analysis of the [expulsion](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia \"Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia\")\" was also planned.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 269\\.",
"#### The last years of life",
"At the age of 85, Mayer retired from Constance and moved to Salzburg, where his two daughters lived. He relinquished the presidency of the Collegium Carolinum only two years before his death. He died in Salzburg on 26 November 1972\\.The most important obituaries: Erich Zöllner: *Theodor Mayer.* In: *Almanach der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* 123 (1973\\) 1974, P. 390–394; Horst Fuhrmann: *Theodor Mayer.* In: *[Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters](/wiki/Deutsches_Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Erforschung_des_Mittelalters \"Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters\")* 29 (1973\\), P. 343–344 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858735_0029%7Clog48?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)); [Heinrich Appelt](/wiki/Heinrich_Appelt \"Heinrich Appelt\"): *Theodor Mayer †.* In: *[Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung](/wiki/Mitteilungen_des_Instituts_f%C3%BCr_%C3%96sterreichische_Geschichtsforschung \"Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung\")* 81 (1973\\), P. 529–530; Karl Lechner: *Univ.\\-Prof. Dr. Theodor Mayer †.* In: *Unsere Heimat* 44 (1973\\). P. 71–73 ([online](https://bibliothekskatalog.noel.gv.at/!UH!1973.pdf)); Adam Wandruszka: *Theodor Mayer †.* In: *Österreichische Hochschulzeitung* 25 (1973\\) 2, P. 3; [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann \"Helmut Beumann\"): *Theodor Mayer.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 218 (1974\\), P. 778–881; Heinz Dopsch: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\).* In: *Südostforschungen* 32 (1973\\), P. 322–327; Hans Patze: *Theodor Mayer zum Gedächtnis.* In: *Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte* 109 (1973\\), P. 350–353 ([online](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb00000313?page=364)); [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl \"Karl Bosl\"): *Theodor Mayer 24\\.8\\.1883 – 26\\.11\\.1972\\.* In: *Jahrbuch der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften* 1973, P. 210–214 ([online](https://badw.de/fileadmin/nachrufe/Mayer%20Theodor.pdf)). To the end of his life, Mayer was unable to come to terms with what he perceived as a humiliating dismissal as president of the MGH. In April 1968, shortly before leaving Constance, he wrote to [Walter Schlesinger](/wiki/Walter_Schlesinger \"Walter Schlesinger\"): \"There are moves to merge the Research Group with the MGH. Please prevent this as long as I am alive. When I die, I will be cremated, then I need not and cannot turn over in my grave\".Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, P. 258\\. Reto Heinzel attests to Mayer's pronounced tendency toward self\\-righteousness. He practically never expressed self\\-criticism, but was convinced to the end of his life that he had survived the \"Third Reich\" morally unscathed.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 234 f.",
"At the end of his life, Mayer was an honored scholar. From 1927 to 1945 he was a member of the German Society of Science and Art for the Czechoslovak Republic. In 1942, he became a corresponding member of the [Austrian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Austrian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Austrian Academy of Sciences\") and the [Bavarian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities \"Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities\") in Munich. Also in 1942, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Erlangen. Two years later, Mayer became a member of the [Prussian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Prussian Academy of Sciences\"). In 1950 he became a member of the Historical Commission of the Sudetenland. From 1954 to 1968, Mayer was a full member of the Commission for Historical Regional Studies in Baden\\-Württemberg, becoming an honorary member in 1968\\. On his 70th birthday in 1954 a commemorative publication was published.*Aus Verfassungs\\- und Landesgeschichte. Festschrift zum 70\\. Geburtstag von Theodor Mayer, dargebracht von seinen Freunden und Schülern.* Vol. 1: *Zur allgemeinen und Verfassungsgeschichte.* Lindau 1954; Vol. 2: *Geschichtliche Landesforschung, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Hilfswissenschaften.* Lindau 1955\\. The community of [Neukirchen an der Enknach](/wiki/Neukirchen_an_der_Enknach \"Neukirchen an der Enknach\") awarded him the honorary citizenship in 1958\\. In 1963 he was made an honorary citizen of [Reichenau](/wiki/Reichenau%2C_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Reichenau, Baden-Württemberg\").*Theodor Mayer.* In: Jörg Schwarz: *Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte 1951–2001\\. Die Mitglieder und ihr Werk. Eine bio\\-bibliographische Dokumentation,* Herausgegeben von Jürgen Petersohn. Stuttgart 2001, p. 271–282, here: p. 275 f. ([online](https://konstanzer-arbeitskreis.de/wp-content/uploads/mayer_festschrift.pdf)). On his 80th birthday, Mayer was awarded the Grand Cross of the [Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany \"Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\").Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 528\\.",
""
] |
#### Dismissal as MGH President
Mayer experienced the end of the war with a few MGH employees in Pommersfelden, Franconia, which was occupied by the Americans on 14 April 1945\. In early September 1945, he was arrested by the American military authorities and interned in the [Hammelburg](/wiki/Hammelburg "Hammelburg") camp until June 1946\. He was released to Pommersfelden in June 1946\. During this time, Mayer's main concern was the future of the MGH. In a letter to the *[Regierungspräsident](/wiki/Regierungspr%C3%A4sident_%28Germany%29 "Regierungspräsident (Germany)")* (Germany) for Upper and Middle Franconia, he emphasized that "German science" had achieved a "leading position" in the 20th century. In terms of cultural policy, this asset was "of the utmost importance". With the right effort, "the most effective and at the same time least expensive propaganda" could be carried out.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 226\. In the summer of 1946, Mayer was assured by [Walter Goetz](/wiki/Walter_Goetz "Walter Goetz") that there was no doubt that he would be reinstated as president.
Mayer succeeded in presenting numerous exonerating expert opinions from renowned colleagues. He himself wrote an expert opinion for his loyal student Heinrich Büttner, and Büttner in turn agreed to act as an exonerating witness for Mayer in the proceedings of the Trial Chamber.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 274–292, here: p. 290\. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). On 22 September 1947, the [Höchstadt an der Aisch](/wiki/H%C3%B6chstadt_an_der_Aisch "Höchstadt an der Aisch") Trial Chamber classified Mayer as a "follower" in Level IV and sentenced him to pay 500 Reichsmarks. The court's verdict stated that he had "only nominally participated in National Socialism". Mayer saw the lenient sentence, which was typical of the time, as a "brilliant justification of my strictly objective, scientific attitude during the entire period of National Socialist rule".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 230\.
At the end of September 1946, the Central Directorate, the scientific advisory board of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica that had existed until 1935, was re\-established. At their first meeting, the members of the Central Directorate agreed that in the event of an acquittal, Mayer should be "immediately reinstated" in his position.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 167\. However, the Central Directorate did not wait for the Appeals Chamber's decision. It decided to elect a new president in December 1947\. The Berlin medievalist [Friedrich Baethgen](/wiki/Friedrich_Baethgen "Friedrich Baethgen") became the new president on 1 January 1948\. The following years of Mayer's life were not marked by a confrontation with his own past, but by a struggle to make amends for the injustice he felt had been done to him. Mayer argued that he had never been dismissed as a Reich official and was therefore still in office. Unlike other dismissed historians, he wrote two open letters in 1948 to a wider public at home and abroad. In it, he declared himself the rightful president and denied the legitimacy of the election conducted by the central leadership. Mayer was merciless in his reckoning with the people he felt had deceived or betrayed him. He accused Baethgen of his own Nazi involvementNikola Becker: *Die Neuetablierung der Monumenta Germaniae Historica in Bayern ab 1944 im Spannungsfeld zwischen Theodor Mayer, Otto Meyer, Walter Goetz und Friedrich Baethgen.* In: *Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte* 77 (2014\), p. 43–68, here: p. 65\. and called Walter Goetz a "senile fool.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 233 f. Some of his colleagues who were on his side held back. Mayer's student Heinrich Büttner, for example, did not want to jeopardize his appointment negotiations.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 170\. Anne Christine Nagel believes that after 1945 Mayer "did not really stumble over his commitment to National Socialism," but rather "was sidelined by his colleagues because of considerable deficits in his personal conduct.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 171\.
Mayer's financial situation in the early postwar years was poor. It was not only his political burden but also his advanced age that made it difficult for him to return to university teaching. He and his wife lived on the income from their house in Marburg and the contributions of their daughters Hanna, who was a teacher in Salzburg, and Emma. Mayer's wife received a small fee from the publication of short articles in the Schweinfurt newspaper.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\), pp. 425–446, here: p. 440 f. He now returned to academic work, especially medieval constitutional history. As a result of this work, the [Böhlau publishing house](/wiki/B%C3%B6hlau_Verlag "Böhlau Verlag") in Weimar published "Fürsten and State. Studies in the Constitutional History of the German Middle Ages. In fifteen essays, he commented on [ecclesiastical *Advocatus*](/wiki/Advocatus "Advocatus"), [royal protection](/wiki/Peace_%28law%29 "Peace (law)"), immunity and jurisdiction, and the problems of Empire and Territory. In this work, he also presented a differentiation between Imperial and Royal Monasteries, which had long been unquestioned by Constitutional historians.Thomas Vogtherr: *Die Reichsabteien der Benediktiner und das Königtum im hohen Mittelalter. (900–1125\).* Stuttgart 2000, p. 12 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf05/0024/image)).
Only in private conversations and letters did Mayer express his criticism of [Konrad Adenauer](/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer "Konrad Adenauer")'s domestic and foreign policies, "football nationalism," and the danger of black supremacy over the white race.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\.
|
[
"#### Dismissal as MGH President",
"Mayer experienced the end of the war with a few MGH employees in Pommersfelden, Franconia, which was occupied by the Americans on 14 April 1945\\. In early September 1945, he was arrested by the American military authorities and interned in the [Hammelburg](/wiki/Hammelburg \"Hammelburg\") camp until June 1946\\. He was released to Pommersfelden in June 1946\\. During this time, Mayer's main concern was the future of the MGH. In a letter to the *[Regierungspräsident](/wiki/Regierungspr%C3%A4sident_%28Germany%29 \"Regierungspräsident (Germany)\")* (Germany) for Upper and Middle Franconia, he emphasized that \"German science\" had achieved a \"leading position\" in the 20th century. In terms of cultural policy, this asset was \"of the utmost importance\". With the right effort, \"the most effective and at the same time least expensive propaganda\" could be carried out.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 226\\. In the summer of 1946, Mayer was assured by [Walter Goetz](/wiki/Walter_Goetz \"Walter Goetz\") that there was no doubt that he would be reinstated as president.",
"Mayer succeeded in presenting numerous exonerating expert opinions from renowned colleagues. He himself wrote an expert opinion for his loyal student Heinrich Büttner, and Büttner in turn agreed to act as an exonerating witness for Mayer in the proceedings of the Trial Chamber.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, pp. 274–292, here: p. 290\\. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). On 22 September 1947, the [Höchstadt an der Aisch](/wiki/H%C3%B6chstadt_an_der_Aisch \"Höchstadt an der Aisch\") Trial Chamber classified Mayer as a \"follower\" in Level IV and sentenced him to pay 500 Reichsmarks. The court's verdict stated that he had \"only nominally participated in National Socialism\". Mayer saw the lenient sentence, which was typical of the time, as a \"brilliant justification of my strictly objective, scientific attitude during the entire period of National Socialist rule\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 230\\.",
"At the end of September 1946, the Central Directorate, the scientific advisory board of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica that had existed until 1935, was re\\-established. At their first meeting, the members of the Central Directorate agreed that in the event of an acquittal, Mayer should be \"immediately reinstated\" in his position.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 167\\. However, the Central Directorate did not wait for the Appeals Chamber's decision. It decided to elect a new president in December 1947\\. The Berlin medievalist [Friedrich Baethgen](/wiki/Friedrich_Baethgen \"Friedrich Baethgen\") became the new president on 1 January 1948\\. The following years of Mayer's life were not marked by a confrontation with his own past, but by a struggle to make amends for the injustice he felt had been done to him. Mayer argued that he had never been dismissed as a Reich official and was therefore still in office. Unlike other dismissed historians, he wrote two open letters in 1948 to a wider public at home and abroad. In it, he declared himself the rightful president and denied the legitimacy of the election conducted by the central leadership. Mayer was merciless in his reckoning with the people he felt had deceived or betrayed him. He accused Baethgen of his own Nazi involvementNikola Becker: *Die Neuetablierung der Monumenta Germaniae Historica in Bayern ab 1944 im Spannungsfeld zwischen Theodor Mayer, Otto Meyer, Walter Goetz und Friedrich Baethgen.* In: *Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte* 77 (2014\\), p. 43–68, here: p. 65\\. and called Walter Goetz a \"senile fool.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 233 f. Some of his colleagues who were on his side held back. Mayer's student Heinrich Büttner, for example, did not want to jeopardize his appointment negotiations.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 170\\. Anne Christine Nagel believes that after 1945 Mayer \"did not really stumble over his commitment to National Socialism,\" but rather \"was sidelined by his colleagues because of considerable deficits in his personal conduct.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 171\\.",
"Mayer's financial situation in the early postwar years was poor. It was not only his political burden but also his advanced age that made it difficult for him to return to university teaching. He and his wife lived on the income from their house in Marburg and the contributions of their daughters Hanna, who was a teacher in Salzburg, and Emma. Mayer's wife received a small fee from the publication of short articles in the Schweinfurt newspaper.Manfred Stoy: *Aus dem Briefwechsel von Wilhelm Bauer, Teil II.* In: *Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung* 109 (2001\\), pp. 425–446, here: p. 440 f. He now returned to academic work, especially medieval constitutional history. As a result of this work, the [Böhlau publishing house](/wiki/B%C3%B6hlau_Verlag \"Böhlau Verlag\") in Weimar published \"Fürsten and State. Studies in the Constitutional History of the German Middle Ages. In fifteen essays, he commented on [ecclesiastical *Advocatus*](/wiki/Advocatus \"Advocatus\"), [royal protection](/wiki/Peace_%28law%29 \"Peace (law)\"), immunity and jurisdiction, and the problems of Empire and Territory. In this work, he also presented a differentiation between Imperial and Royal Monasteries, which had long been unquestioned by Constitutional historians.Thomas Vogtherr: *Die Reichsabteien der Benediktiner und das Königtum im hohen Mittelalter. (900–1125\\).* Stuttgart 2000, p. 12 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf05/0024/image)).",
"Only in private conversations and letters did Mayer express his criticism of [Konrad Adenauer](/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer \"Konrad Adenauer\")'s domestic and foreign policies, \"football nationalism,\" and the danger of black supremacy over the white race.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 164\\.",
""
] |
Work
----
Mayer coined the concepts of the early medieval association of individuals, the institutional territorial state, the freedom to clear land, and kingship. His research on the conditions of settlement in Bohemia, which began in the late 1920s, was intended as part of a "folklore science" in the southwestern German "borderland. Mayer was convinced that the Germans had always moved through history as carriers of culture. With his Freiburg inaugural lecture on the Zähringer state and several other works, the focus of his work shifted to constitutional and imperial history, a traditional field of research in medieval studies. Mayer did not publish a large, comprehensive account of this field. The constitutional history of the Middle Ages, which had already been agreed with a publisher, did not materialize.Folker Reichert: *Herr und Knecht: Theodor Mayer und Carl Erdmann.* In: Martina Hartmann, Arno Mentzel\-Reuters, Martin Baumeister (Ed.): *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“? Beiträge des Symposiums am 28\. und 29\. November 2019 in Rom.* Wiesbaden 2021, p. 195–220, here: p. 195\. During the Second World War, he made a name for himself primarily with studies on Medieval imperial and Constitutional history. According to Michael Matheus, there are no racial\-biological arguments in his publications.Michael Matheus: *Disziplinenvielfalt unter einem Dach. Ein Beitrag zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte aus der Perspektive des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom (DHI).* In: Sabine Ehrmann\-Herfort, Michael Matheus (Ed.): *Von der Geheimhaltung zur internationalen und interdisziplinären Forschung. Die Musikgeschichtliche Abteilung des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom 1960–2010\.* Berlin et. al 2010, p. 1–82, here: p. 42\. As president of the MGH, he earned lasting merit through the timely evacuation of the MGH library to Pommersfelden near Bamberg.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 206; Anne Christine Nagel: *„Allein unter Kollegen“ – Theodor Mayer und die MGH im Krieg.* In: Martina Hartmann, Arno Mentzel\-Reuters, Martin Baumeister (Ed.): *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“? Beiträge des Symposiums am 28\. und 29\. November 2019 in Rom.* Wiesbaden 2021, pp. 179–193, here: p. 189\. During his presidency, he was primarily concerned with the dissemination of a pan\-European perspective based on regional history and ethnology. In the post\-war period, he made a name for himself as a scientific organizer, above all as the founder of the Constance Working Group.
### Activity as a science organizer
#### Southwest German Science Organization
The majority of the funding for the Upper Rhine Institute went towards the implementation of regional history projects. The money was to be used to finance long\-term work on an Alemannic atlas and research into the Zähringers in Burgundy. Mayer wanted to achieve the envisaged goal of a "new foundation of Alemannic history" through "comprehensive research in all areas".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 132\. Mayer's activities for the institute were viewed differently by his colleagues. According to Franz Quarthal, Mayer intended to "give the institute the character of a medieval\-oriented University Institute of Regional History".Franz Quarthal: *Das Alemannische Institut von seiner Gründung bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges.* In: *Das Alemannische Institut. 75 Jahre grenzüberschreitende Kommunikation und Forschung (1931–2006\).* Published by the Alemannisches Institut Freiburg im Breisgau. Freiburg and Munich 2007, p. 9–40, here: p. 17 ([online](https://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/bitstream/11682/5312/1/qua27.pdf)). According to Michael Fahlbusch, he played a significant role in the "*[Gleichschaltung](/wiki/Gleichschaltung "Gleichschaltung")*" of the institute.Michael Fahlbusch: *Wissenschaft im Dienst der nationalsozialistischen Politik? Die „Volksdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaften“ 1931–1945\.* Baden\-Baden 1999, p. 370\.
In 1935, Mayer became head of the Southwest German Research Association. He was responsible for the organization and management of scientific conferences. The entire western border region was treated from a folkloristic point of view. The results of the conferences were not published in book form, but were distributed to the individual conference participants as working papers with the note "strictly confidential". The aim was not to make the results of the meetings known to a wider public or to make them available to international researchers for review.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 140\.
As chairman of the Baden Historical Commission, Mayer was able to exert considerable influence on publications. For the Journal for the History of the Upper Rhine, he advocated the publication of "works with folkloristic content.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 147\. As many articles as possible should deal with Switzerland and Alsace. Mayer considered academic life in Alsace "too weak". The German influence on science in the neighboring French region should be maintained.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 147 f. Mayer repeatedly rejected articles for political or anti\-Semitic reasons. When he learned that the author of an essay on the Thanner Steinmetz Order was the former Social Democratic Minister of Labor [Rudolf Wissell](/wiki/Rudolf_Wissell "Rudolf Wissell"), "the amateurish treatment of the material and the immense breadth seemed clear and understandable" to him.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 149\. The article was published after Mayer's departure in 1942\.Rudolf Wissell: *Die älteste Ordnung des großen Hüttenbundes der Steinmetzen von 1459\.* In: *Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins* 94 (1942\), p. 51–133\. Mayer tried to prevent the publication of an essay by Käthe Spiegel on the "peace project of a Fürstenberger". He wrote to the editor, Manfred Krebs, that the essay could not be printed "because Mrs. Spiegel is not Aryan, but 100% Jewish. I know her from Prague.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 150\.
#### Marburg Rectorate
As rector, Mayer wanted above all to emphasize the importance of the University as an integral part of the Nation and State, not only for the end of the war, but also for peacetime.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 352\. In the fall of 1939, the University of Marburg was affected by the closure of some universities due to the war. Mayer's first efforts focused on reopening the University. In a letter dated 29 November 1939, he asked Gauleiter [Karl Weinrich](/wiki/Karl_Weinrich "Karl Weinrich") to work with [Hermann Göring](/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring "Hermann Göring") to reopen the University as soon as possible.Anne Christine Nagel, Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, p. 373–452, here: p. 373\. Mayer maintained a close and friendly working relationship with Weinrich in the period that followed.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 353\. His decision to award honorary senatorships to Gauleiter Karl Weinrich and Provincial Governor Wilhelm Traupel was politically motivated. It was intended "to express, on the one hand, the University's close ties to the intellectual life of our people and its unconditional commitment to the goals and tasks of the *NSDAP*, and, on the other hand, its roots in the cultural life of the state of Hesse.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 164; Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 354\. The decision to award the prize was made in the summer of 1940, at a time when the Regime's military successes were winning it increasing acceptance in Academic circles.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 354\. Weinrich declined the honor, citing a decree from the Party Chancellery, but Mayer was able to enjoy his favor throughout his time as rector.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 354 f.
On 30 January 1940, Mayer gave a speech on Germany and Europe in the auditorium of the University of Marburg on the occasion of the founding of the Reich and the assumption of power.Theodor Mayer: *Deutschland und Europa.* Marburg 1940\. He attempted to place the National Socialists' Lebensraum policy in the East in the tradition of Medieval imperial policy.[Stefan Weinfurter](/wiki/Stefan_Weinfurter "Stefan Weinfurter"): *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 9–38, here: p. 14 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)). During this time, he also worked on a "series of lectures on military science," which was intended to "anchor German war aims, instruction and education as well as intellectual stimulation. The target audience was the "common soldier. Above all, the "resistance of the troops" was to be encouraged.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 166\.
| Historical image documents on Theodor Mayer in Marburg \[{{LAGIS\|ref\=LNK}}de/subjects/xsearch/mode/grid/setmode/grid/page/1/current/1/sn/bd?q\=YToxOntzOjY6InBlcnNvbiI7czoxNDoiTWF5ZXIsIFRoZW9kb3IiO30\= Hessian State Office for Historical Regional Studies] |
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#### Coordination of the " War effort of the humanities"
* From 1940 to 1945, Mayer served as the head of the Medieval Department within the [*DFG*](/wiki/German_Research_Foundation "German Research Foundation")\-funded "War Effort of the Humanities." In an article he wrote for the *[Völkischer Beobachter](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter "Völkischer Beobachter")* in 1942, Mayer asserted that historians had to address a number of complex issues related to the war, including the struggle for a new Political order, its historical foundation, the forces that supported it and those that fought against it in the past and present, and the destruction of that order.Quoted from [Johannes Fried](/wiki/Johannes_Fried "Johannes Fried") (ed.): *Vierzig Jahre Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* Sigmaringen 1991, Supplement 1, pp. 28\-30, here: p. 30 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/20298/14089)). To fulfill this role, he organized a series of conferences at historically significant locations in the German Reich until the end of the war. A total of eight conferences were held: in Berlin in June 1940, in Nuremberg in February 1941, in Weimar in November 1941 and May 1942, in Magdeburg in November 1942, in Erlangen in April 1944, in Pretzsch near Wittenberg in October 1944 and in Braunau am Inn in January 1945\. The conference was only canceled in 1943 due to a nationwide ban on conferences.[Frank\-Rutger Hausmann](/wiki/Frank-Rutger_Hausmann "Frank-Rutger Hausmann"): *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, pp. 154\-198\. [Frank\-Rutger Hausmann](/wiki/Frank-Rutger_Hausmann "Frank-Rutger Hausmann") concludes that this science was contextualized and explicitly served ideological purposes.Frank\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 197\. Some of the results of the conferences were published.Cf. for example: Theodor Mayer (Ed.): *Der Vertrag von Verdun 843\. Neun Aufsätze zur Begründung der europäischen Völker\- und Staatenwelt.* Leipzig 1943; Ders. (Ed.): *Adel und Bauern im deutschen Staat des Mittelalters.* Leipzig 1943\.
The inaugural conference convened by Mayer in June 1940 was designed to facilitate a discourse on the utilization of German historical scholarship in the intellectual discourse with Western powers.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 209\. In light of the prevailing war circumstances, the historians were tasked with examining the relationship between England and the European continent.Quoted after Frank\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 157\. Mayer was particularly enthusiastic about the military achievements of the German Armed Forces in May and June 1940\. Consequently, he contemplated expanding the conference's overarching agenda during the inaugural session.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 209\. In light of the altered war circumstances, the discourse with England was soon supplanted by investigations into the role of the Reich in Europe. The "Kriegseinsatz" conference in Nuremberg in February 1941 addressed the subject of "Reich and Europe." That same year, the conference proceedings edited by Mayer and Walter Platzhoff were published under the title "The Reich and Europe." In the foreword, Mayer and Platzhoff asserted that their objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate, which they defined as "not only a military and political one, but just as much an intellectual one." The assembled historians were aware of their duty to provide historical tools for the central problem of the present war and the forthcoming reorganization of Europe. They were also tasked with viewing and interpreting the development of the past from the standpoint of the present.Quoted from Steffen Kaudelka: *Rezeption im Zeitalter der Konfrontation. Französische Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichte in Deutschland 1920–1940\.* Göttingen 2003, p. 94\. The idea of the Reich's role as the "European organizing power" was widespread among historiansOtto Gerhard Oexle: *„Zusammenarbeit mit Baal“. Über die Mentalitäten deutscher Geisteswissenschaftler 1933 – und nach 1945\.* In: *Historische Anthropologie* 8, 2000, pp. 1–27, here: p. 10\. in these years and became one of the "guiding concepts of historical interpretation."Karen Schönwälder: *Historiker und Politik. Geschichtswissenschaft im Nationalsozialismus.* Frankfurt am Main et. al 1992, p. 208\. Mayer gave lectures at the German Scientific Institute in Bucharest in 1942\. The central argument was that "the historical necessity of integrating Romania into a European order led by Germany" was a key point.Quoted from Stefan Weinfurter: *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 9–38, here: p. 13 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)).
In the fall of 1941, a series of discussions on the topic of "Questions of German kingship, the high nobility and the peasantry and their significance for the formation of the state from various perspectives" took place in Weimar. These discussions resulted in the publication of the volume Nobility and peasants in the German state of the Middle Ages, edited by Mayer. In January 1945, Mayer extended an invitation to a scientific discussion on fundamental questions of an all\-Bavarian view of history to be held in Braunau am Inn. In his invitation, he avoided the term "conference" in order to avoid contravening the Reich Minister for Science, Education and National Education Bernhard Rust's directive of 14 April 1942, which permitted only "local events and conferences" to be held, provided that they were deemed "so important to the war" that they could not be postponed.Hans\-Henning Kortüm: *Otto Brunner über Otto den Großen. Aus den letzten Tagen der reichsdeutschen Mediävistik.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 299 (2014\), p. 297–333, here: p. 307\. The event in Braunau am Inn, the birthplace of Adolf Hitler, was probably the last conference held as part of the "Joint venture".Frank\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 193\. Mayer's efforts were well received by the Nazi regime, and he was awarded the [War Merit Cross](/wiki/War_Merit_Cross "War Merit Cross") for his work as part of the "war effort of the humanities".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 222\.
#### Work as President of the Reich Institute and Director of the German Historical Institute in Rome
Mayer not only took over the management of the Imperial Institute, but also the editorship of the *[German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages](/wiki/Deutsches_Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Erforschung_des_Mittelalters "Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters")*, the most important historical journal for the study of the Middle Ages. As president, he wanted to integrate the MGH more strongly into historical research beyond its source\-related tasks and transform it into a far\-reaching institute for the history of the Middle Ages. In the two and a half years until the end of the war, he was hardly able to realize any of these plans. A provisional edition of the charters of the [Hohenstaufen](/wiki/Hohenstaufen "Hohenstaufen") rulers [Frederick I](/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa "Frederick Barbarossa") and [Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor") and a new edition of volume IX of the Scriptores series were planned as new editorial projects.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 521; Horst Fuhrmann: *„Sind eben alles Menschen gewesen“. Gelehrtenleben im 19\. und 20\. Jahrhundert. Dargestellt am Beispiel der Monumenta Germaniae Historica und ihrer Mitarbeiter.* Munich 1996, pp. 62–64\.
As President of the Reichsinstitut in [Personal Union](/wiki/Personal_union "Personal union"), Mayer was also Director of the [German Historical Institute in Rome](/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_in_Rome "German Historical Institute in Rome"). In this capacity, he was responsible for the academic staff remaining in Rome and had to ensure the future of the valuable library. In 1942, he initiated a research project with the aim of "researching imperial rule in Italy, especially the imperial estate."Theodor Mayer: *Jahresbericht 1942\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 33 (1944\), p. V–VI, here: P. VI. Cf. also Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 521\. In a memorandum dated 1 April 1944 (piano Mayer), Mayer considered the removal of all the holdings of the central Italian archives to be unfeasible. He also expressed his disapproval of the transfer of individual archival records to Germany. Instead, he demanded that important archives be photographed. According to Jürgen Klöckler, Mayer thus prevented a far\-reaching theft of archives, namely the large\-scale transportation of deeds, documents, and files relating to Germany to the Reich. Thanks to this decision, he was able to institutionally anchor young historians in Rome in an expanded art protection department of the military administration, thus sparing them conscription into the German Armed Forces.Jürgen Klöckler: *Verhinderter Archivalienraub in Italien. Theodor Mayer und die Abteilung „Archivschutz“ bei der Militärverwaltung in Verona 1943–1945\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 86 (2006\), pp. 491–537, here: p. 508 f. and 521 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport4_mods_00001387)).
Mayer relocated the extensive Berlin library holdings from Berlin to Bavaria in January 1944, fearing air raids. This measure was carried out without prior approval from the ministry.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, pp. 493–530, here: p. 522\. The two employees, Margarete Kühn and Ursula Brumm, and some of the furniture remained in Berlin. Kühn states that Mayer remained resolutely National Socialist to the end and attempted to influence his employees accordingly.Eckhard Müller\-Mertens: *Kaiser, Reich und Region. Studien und Texte aus der Arbeit an den Constitutiones des 14\. Jahrhunderts und zur Geschichte der Monumenta Germaniae Historica.* In: Mathias Lawo, Michael Lindner, Eckhard Müller\-Mertens, Olaf B. Rader (Ed.): *Kaiser, Reich und Region. Studien und Texte aus der Arbeit an den Constitutiones des 14\. Jahrhunderts und zur Geschichte der Monumenta Germaniae Historica.* Berlin 1997, pp. 1–59, here: p. 48, Note 182 ([online](https://edoc.bbaw.de/files/190/25GAQYGYCpN.pdf)).
#### Mayer's plans for a German Historical Institute in Paris
In a memorandum dated 10 February 1941, Mayer proposed the founding of a German Historical Institute in Paris in response to the military successes of the German Armed Forces in France. He argued that German historical scholarship had the task of assuming a "leading role in the European area corresponding to its political position" and of "shaping or at least decisively helping to shape the European view of history." Mayer understood a "European" view of history to mean a "Germanic history of Europe," a view of the history of Europe "in the Germanic sense." This project was "only possible through the most rigorous academic work on the broadest basis and with the best forces and methods, but also with the clearest objectives."First print of Theodor Mayer's memorandum on the establishment of a historical institute in: Conrad Grau: *Planungen für ein deutsches historisches Institut in Paris während des Zweiten Weltkrieges.* In: *Francia* 19/3 (1992\), pp. 109–128, here: pp. 119–122 ([online](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb00016354?page=122)). Quotes according to Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 182; Steffen Kaudelka: *Rezeption im Zeitalter der Konfrontation. Französische Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichte in Deutschland 1920–1940\.* Göttingen 2003, p. 24\.
He pursued this idea for approximately two years. In March 1942, Mayer proposed Büttner as the academic director of a new German historical institute to be established in Paris.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, p. 274–292, here: p. 270 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). In April 1942, he presented reflections on the present and future of historical scholarship in the Völkischer Beobachter. The "present tasks" of German historical scholarship included addressing the "questions of the present war, with the struggle for a European order, with its historical substructure." Additionally, historical scholarship was tasked with "helping build the future of the people" and presenting the "leading position of the German people" in a "history of the Germanic\-German world since the earliest times." The community of European peoples and states was to plan in the sense of a "pan\-Germanic conception of history." As an institutional basis, research centers outside the German Reich were to be created. Once again, Mayer proposed a historical institute in Paris.Otto Gerhard Oexle: *Von der völkischen Geschichte zur modernen Sozialgeschichte.* In: Heinz Duchhardt, Gerhard May (Ed.): *Geschichtswissenschaft um 1950\.* Mainz, pp. 1–36, here: p. 31\. The course of the war necessitated the repeated revision of his institute plan. Ultimately, even a position for a historian could not be filled.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer – Ein Wissenschaftsorganisator mit großen Möglichkeiten.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, p. 60–77, here: p. 61 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010806)). This was due to the scarcity of financial resources as the war progressed and disputes over responsibilities between the ministries involved. In November 1957, Mayer asserted to [Eugen Ewig](/wiki/Eugen_Ewig "Eugen Ewig"), a prominent figure in the establishment of the *[Centre Allemand de Recherche Historique](/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_Paris "German Historical Institute Paris")*, that he was the intellectual originator of the institution.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 187\. However, Mayer's concepts did not serve as a model during the period of Franco\-German rapprochement and therefore remained unmentioned in the discussions and correspondence.Stefan Martens: *Vorwort.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, pp. 9–13, here: p. 10 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010803)).
#### The Constance working group and the development of a "crisis\-proof view of History"
Mayer made several statements in the 1950s on the question of a new image of History.See also Theodor Mayer: *Der Wandel unseres Bildes vom Mittelalter. Stand und Aufgaben der mittelalterlichen Geschichtsforschung.* In: *Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte* 94 (1958\), p. 1–37 ([online](https://periodika.digitale-sammlungen.de/bdlg/Blatt_bsb00000297,00008.html)). [Stefan Weinfurter](/wiki/Stefan_Weinfurter "Stefan Weinfurter") notes that the call for a "new image of history \[...] runs like a red thread through Theodor Mayer's written and oral statements.Stefan Weinfurter: *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 9–38, here: p. 11 ([online](http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)); see also Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 252; Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 88 ([full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118/showToc)). In a 1952 memorandum on the founding of the Constance Institute, Mayer called for history to be "lifted out of the discord of contemporary political life" and for "the foundations of a crisis\-proof history" to be laid. He had observed "with horror" "how German history was rewritten with every political change.Quoted from: Otto Gerhard Oexle: *‘Staat’ – ‘Kultur’ – ‘Volk’. Deutsche Mittelalterhistoriker auf der Suche nach der historischen Wirklichkeit 1918–1945\.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 63–101, here: p. 100 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17832/11641)). In 1955, Mayer declared that the most important task of the "Municipal Institute for Landscape History of the Lake Constance Region" in Constance, which was founded under his leadership, was "to develop a new picture of the past of the German people and the German Reich that is crisis\-proof and does not have to be rewritten with every change of political mood. This goal was to be achieved through the "promotion of scientific regional research in Germany, especially in the Lake Constance region.Matthias Werner: *Zwischen politischer Begrenzung und methodischer Offenheit. Wege und Stationen deutscher Landesgeschichtsforschung im 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 251–364, here: p. 251 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/viewFile/17837/11646)). As he explained in 1953, historical regional research should form the basis for this, since it is "particularly capable of building bridges because it does not start from state\-oriented concepts. This approach made it possible to "demonstrate forces that we cannot really imagine on the basis of normal written sources.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 253\. In 1961, Mayer wanted "an image of history \[...] that is not endangered, that does not have to be turned upside down again and again with the next political or other change \[...]". However, he did not back up his general considerations with a research program.Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, p. 43–59, here: p. 44 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)). Bernd Weisbrod sees this project as an example of the "rhetorical strategies of self\-denazification in the mindset of Mandarinism".Bernd Weisbrod: *Das Moratorium der Mandarine. Zur Selbstentnazifizierung der Wissenschaften in der Nachkriegszeit.* In: [Hartmut Lehmann](/wiki/Hartmut_Lehmann "Hartmut Lehmann"), Otto Gerhard Oexle (Ed.): *Nationalsozialismus in den Kulturwissenschaften.*Vol. 2: *Fächer, Milieus, Karrieren.* Göttingen 2004, pp. 259–279, here: p. 273\. [Peter Moraw](/wiki/Peter_Moraw "Peter Moraw") sees it as a "form of self\-deception".Peter Moraw: *Kontinuität und später Wandel: Bemerkungen zur deutschen und deutschsprachigen Mediävistik 1945–1970/75\.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 103–138, here: p. 128 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17833/11642)). For Reto Heinzel, Mayer was an unteachable man who remained "in search of a new Middle Ages on the basis of popular culture.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 278\.
The conferences of the 1950s dealt with questions of constitutional history. Historians who enjoyed the personal esteem of the organizer Mayer were invited. Besides Mayer, the founding members included the medievalists [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl "Karl Bosl"), [Walter Schlesinger](/wiki/Walter_Schlesinger "Walter Schlesinger"), [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann "Helmut Beumann"), Heinrich Büttner, [Eugen Ewig](/wiki/Eugen_Ewig "Eugen Ewig"), [Otto Feger](/wiki/Otto_Eger "Otto Eger"), and Franz Steinbach, as well as the Munich Byzantinist [Hans\-Georg Beck](/wiki/Hans_Georg_Beck "Hans Georg Beck").Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 177\. Among the speakers were friends and colleagues such as Hektor Ammann, Heinrich Dannenbauer, Eugen Ewig, [Wilhelm Ebel](/wiki/Wilhelm_Ebel "Wilhelm Ebel"), Ernst Klebel, Walther Mitzka, Walter Schlesinger, [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann "Helmut Beumann"), Heinrich Büttner, Karl Siegfried Bader, [Otto Brunner](/wiki/Otto_Brunner "Otto Brunner"), and [Joachim Werner](/wiki/Joachim_Werner_%28archaeologist%29 "Joachim Werner (archaeologist)").Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, p. 73–89, here: p. 79 f. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/content/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)). According to Nagel, the working group was a "receptacle for politically charged individuals.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 156\. The interdisciplinary approach to the conference topic by historians, archaeologists and philologists was typical of the Constance working group. For Mayer, it was not only the joint work that was of central importance for scientific progress, but also the personal relationships. Mayer repeatedly emphasized that the Constance Circle was not only a working group, but also a "circle of friends".Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, pp. 43–59, here: p. 44 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)); Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 255\. Bosl, Büttner, Ewig, Schlesinger and Steinbach were all professors at renowned universities and at the same time provided a link to young academics. Many of the young lecturers later became professors themselves, so that the working group soon gained a corresponding reputation in medieval studies.Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, p. 73–89, here: p. 78 ([online](https://perspectivia.net/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)); Hans\-Werner Goetz: *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 82\.
There was a continuity of personnel from the " wartime " conferences to the Reichenau conferences. The medievalists Walter Schlesinger and Karl Bosl also played a leading role in the Constance Working Group on Medieval History.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, pp. 493–530, here: p. 517\. Traute Endemann has pointed out that the personal environment and conceptual origins of the early Constance working group date back to the early 1930s.Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 15 ([full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118/showToc)). Frank\-Rutger Hausmann emphasizes that the academic collaboration with the Constance Working Group continued after the war.Frank\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 196\.
### Research work
#### The beginnings of Economic History and the turn towards National Science
Mayer's early work in the 1920s dealt with problems of administrative and economic history. His dissertation focused on economic history. His work focused on trade on the Danube, "on which the main trade of Austria took place". He published other important studies on the Passau toll books (1908\)Theodor Mayer: *Zwei Passauer Mautbücher aus den Jahren 1400/01 und 1401/02\.* In: *Verhandlungen des Historischen Vereins für Niederbayern* 44 (1908\), pp. 1–258\. and on the Vienna [staple right](/wiki/Staple_right "Staple right").Theodor Mayer: *Zur Frage des Wiener Stapelrechts.* In: *Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial\- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte* 10 (1912\), pp. 299–382\. One of the most important works of his Prague period is the German Economic History, published in 1928, which was highly acclaimed both nationally and internationally. Marc Bloch described it as a *"modèle de clarté et de bon sens"* ("model of clarity and insight").Cf. the discussion by Marc Bloch in the *Revue Historique* 164 (1930\), p. 134 f. Its significance lies in the fact that it considers not only classical problems of Economic History, but also questions of Social and Cultural History, such as urbanism and colonization in the Middle Ages, the significance of religion for the emergence of early capitalism, or the emergence of the "[social question](/wiki/Social_question "Social question")". Mayer was the first German\-speaking historian to deal extensively with the concept of [Capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism "Capitalism"). At the same time, he liberated the term from its exclusive use in economics and sociology and made it available for discussion in the field of history.Pavel Kolář: *Geschichtswissenschaft in Zentraleuropa. Die Universitäten Prag, Wien und Berlin um 1900\.* Half\-volume 1 Leipzig 2008, p. 215\.
Mayer was probably confronted with the problems of [Sudeten Germanism](/wiki/Sudeten_Germans "Sudeten Germans") due to his wife's Bohemian origins.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 56\. After the collapse of the Danube Monarchy and the establishment of [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia"), many Germans saw themselves as a minority and felt they were engaged in an existential "*[Volkstum](/wiki/Volkstum "Volkstum")*" for the continued existence of the German settlement in the [Sudetenland](/wiki/Sudetenland "Sudetenland"). Between 1926 and 1929, Mayer took part in six conferences of the Leipzig Foundation for German Folk and Cultural Soil Research. The conference held in [Nysa](/wiki/Nysa%2C_Poland "Nysa, Poland") in October 1926 was dedicated to the topic of Silesia. Mayer gave a lecture on the history of industry in the Sudetenland. This conference was interdisciplinary in nature. Many of the contributions were based on the assumption that the Sudeten\-Silesian territories were united "in terms of ethnicity". The emphasis on Germanic elements in settlement, culture and language played a central role.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 59\. Even after the end of the Leipzig Foundation, Mayer continued to campaign for financial support for Sudeten German cultural institutions.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 67\.
An essay by Mayer published in 1928 is characterized by the Sudeten German " national struggle". In it he tried to emphasize the "great achievements" of German immigrants since the Middle Ages. He neglected Czech development.Theodor Mayer: *Zur Geschichte der nationalen Verhältnisse in Prag.* In: *Aus Sozial\- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Gedächtnisschrift für Georg von Below.* Stuttgart 1928, p. 254–278\. He repeatedly dealt with the history of the Sudetenland, but during his seven years in Prague he did not learn Czech or study Czech literature. The few Czech authors whose works he did notice were cited in translations prepared for him by [Josef Pfitzner](/wiki/Josef_Pfitzner "Josef Pfitzner"), then an assistant at the History Department. His work was based primarily on the findings of German scholars, most of whom cooperated with the Leipzig Foundation.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 69–74\. For Mayer, there was no doubt that German achievements were far superior to those of the Czechs. He described the Germans as a capable and creative people, the Czechs as passive and less innovative. Mayer argued for German superiority not only in the development of law,Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: The German booklets for folklore and cultural soil research 1 (1930/31\), p. 129–151, here: p. 145; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 72\. but also in the field of new technical achievements, citing the "German plow" as an example.Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: *Deutsche Hefte für Volks\- und Kulturbodenforschung* 1 (1930/31\), p. 129–151, here: p. 145 f. Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 72\. He saw the urban system as a "cultural achievement" of the Germans, while admitting that the Slavic settlements had very limited opportunities for development.Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: *Deutsche Hefte für Volks\- und Kulturbodenforschung* 1 (1930/31\), pp. 129–151, here: p. 150; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 73\. The entire cultural and economic development of Bohemia was due to the Germans.
In Freiburg, Mayer emphasized the "German achievements" for Alsace and the entire Upper Rhine region, especially in relation to France. He assumed that a "uniform ethnicity" lived everywhere in the Upper Rhine region. In doing so, he continued the work of Friedrich Metz. Metz had described the entire Upper Rhine Valley as a "Cultural and Economic unit" in 1920\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 116\. In the first issue of the central organ of German folklorists, the German Archive for Regional and Ethnological Research, Mayer stated that Alsace, as a "German inland region," was "one of the most culturally flourishing landscapes in Germany. Its "annexation" to France had brought its "own cultural development to a standstill.Theodor Mayer: *Oberrheinisches Schrifttum.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Landes\- und Volksforschung* 1 (1937\), p. 205–215, here: p. 206\. Quotes according to Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 117\.
#### Modern German constitutional history
Along with Otto Brunner, Adolf Waas and Walter Schlesinger, Theodor Mayer was one of the most important representatives of the so\-called "modern German Constitutional History". This term refers to the approaches that emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, which, according to the participants, were different from the older constitutional history.Classic contributions collected in Hellmut Kämpf: *Herrschaft und Staat im Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 1956\. Overview of this paradigm shift by [Michael Borgolte](/wiki/Michael_Borgolte "Michael Borgolte"): *Sozialgeschichte des Mittelalters. Eine Forschungsbilanz nach der deutschen Einheit.* Munich 1996, p. 37–48; [Hans\-Werner Goetz](/wiki/Hans-Werner_Goetz "Hans-Werner Goetz"): *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 174 f.; Werner Hechberger: *Adel im fränkisch\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 34–69 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)); [Steffen Patzold](/wiki/Steffen_Patzold "Steffen Patzold"): *Der König als Alleinherrscher? Ein Versuch über die Möglichkeit der Monarchie im Frühmittelalter.* In: Stefan Rebenich with the collaboration of Johannes Wienand (Ed.): *Monarchische Herrschaft im Altertum.* Berlin/Boston 2016, p. 605–633\. They criticized the prevailing doctrine, which was too firmly rooted in liberal constitutional ideas and saw medieval statehood as a separation of state and society. The previous concepts were replaced by "empire and people," "leaders and followers," "aristocratic rule," and the Germanic character of the Middle Ages.See also the similar development in the constitutional history of modern times: [Ewald Grothe](/wiki/Ewald_Grothe "Ewald Grothe"): *Zwischen Geschichte und Recht. Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichtsschreibung 1900–1970*, R. Oldenbourg Publishing House, Munich 2005\. However, Mayer never presented an overall picture, but only published essays and individual studies.A collection of his essays, some of which were considerably revised from the pre\-1945 versions, was published in 1959\. Theodor Mayer: *Mittelalterliche Studien. Gesammelte Aufsätze.* Lindau and Constance 1959\.
Mayer first formulated his thesis on the transformation of the early medieval "personal association state" into the early modern "institutional territorial state" in his Giessen Lecture of January 1933 in the auditorium of the Hessian State University,Theodor Mayer: *Geschichtliche Grundlagen der deutschen Verfassung.* Gießen 1933, again in: Theodor Mayer: *Mittelalterliche Studien. Gesammelte Aufsätze.* Lindau 1959, p. 77–97\. and elaborated on it in his Freiburg Inaugural Lecture.Walter Pohl: *Personenverbandstaat.* In: *Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde* 22, Berlin/New York 2003, p. 614–618\. He was concerned not only with the example of the Zähringers, but with the "emergence of the medieval state" in general. Mayer began by focusing on aspects of the territory "in which the Zähringers developed their historical activities. The Zähringers established a territory early on through the clearing activities of the abbeys of [St. George](/wiki/St._George%27s_Abbey_in_the_Black_Forest "St. George's Abbey in the Black Forest"), [St. Peter](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Peter_in_the_Black_Forest "Abbey of Saint Peter in the Black Forest"), and [St. Blaise](/wiki/Saint_Blaise_Abbey%2C_Black_Forest "Saint Blaise Abbey, Black Forest"), which they governed, and through towns such as Freiburg and Villingen, which they founded on important roads. Mayer praised the "new state" of the Zähringers as a significant achievement. However, it had neglected "the basis of the personal association state, the community of persons, the national basis of the state. It had thus become ossified in "routine as a princely end in itself.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\. bis 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 64\. Mayer therefore did not assume a progressive development, but drew a contrast between the "personal association state", the "state based solely or almost solely on the community of persons, which cannot exist without a great leader", and the "institutional territorial state", for which there is always the danger "that it will ossify in bureaucratic administrative routine into an authoritarian state, which is an end in itself".Quoted from Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\. bis 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 63\.
Mayer's thoughts were shaped by the political hopes of the time.Cf. [Wolfgang J. Mommsen](/wiki/Wolfgang_Mommsen "Wolfgang Mommsen"): *„Gestürzte Denkmäler“? Die „Fälle“ Aubin, Conze, Erdmann und Schieder.* In: Jürgen Elvert, Susanne Krauß (Ed.): *Historische Debatten und Kontroversen im 19\. und 20\. Jahrhundert.* Stuttgart 2003, p. 96–109, here: p. 98\. In the final passage, he praised the Third Reich as a synthesis of the old Germanic state of loyalty, the national community, and the institutional territorial state: "State and people have become one." Personal loyalty, allegiance, and the idea of national identity had become "supporting elements of the state and the German national community and have given the state and the people the moral foundation and responsibility without which they cannot exist in the long run.Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 31\. According to Mayer, the Germanic state is characterized by "a community of people held together by personal ties, especially loyalty. Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 35\."The personal association state corresponds to a structure and distribution of state rights and functions in the sense of loyalty and [fief](/wiki/Fief "Fief").Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 5\. Mayer placed loyalty, allegiance, and fealty in a powerful context, identifying them as elements of the Germanic state.Jürgen Dendorfer: *Land und Herrschaft. Die „Neue Verfassungsgeschichte“ und ihre Wirkungen auf die Landesgeschichte im Süden Deutschlands.* In: Christina Mochty\-Weltin, Roman Zehetmayer (Ed.): *Adel und Verfassung im hoch\- und spätmittelalterlichen Reich. Die Vorträge der Tagung im Gedanken an Maximilian Weltin (23\. und 24\. Februar 2017\).* St. Pölten 2018, 30–55, here: p. 42 ([online](https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:175977/datastreams/FILE1/content)). The Nazi newspaper Volksgemeinschaft praised Mayer's explanations in a review: "With reference to our time, it is very instructive that here a modern state essentially expands its sphere of power by reclaiming new land, by reclamation and settlement."Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 114\.
#### Clearance and royal freedom
The term "free peasants" was originally coined by Karl Weller, who propounded the theory of the Hohenstaufen free peasants. According to this theory, the free peasants of the [High Middle Ages](/wiki/High_Middle_Ages "High Middle Ages") in southwestern Germany were not common freemen, but new settlers established by the Hohenstaufen rulers.Karl Weller: *Die freien Bauern in Schwaben.* in: *Zeitschrift der Savigny\-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Germanistische Abteilung* 54 (1934\), p. 178–226; Karl Weller *Die freien Bauern des Spätmittelalters im heutigen Württemberg.* In: *Zeitschrift für Württembergische Landesgeschichte* 1 (1937\), p. 47–67\. Cf. Werner Hechberger *Adel im fränkisch\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 46 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)). Mayer introduced the concept of "freedom to clear land" into his research and placed his observations in a larger context. The conquest of land and the establishment of the [Frankish](/wiki/Franks "Franks") empire appear in a new light. The conquest of [Gaul](/wiki/Gaul "Gaul") by the [Merovingian](/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty "Merovingian dynasty") kings was not carried out by free warrior\-farmers, but by unfree soldiers, who acquired freedom only through military service and settlement on royal land. Freedom was therefore not inherited, but granted by the kingship for military service, clearing and settlement. Together with Heinrich Dannenbauer, Mayer developed the doctrine of royal freemen. In 1955 he stated: "\[...] we came to the conclusion that the so\-called common freemen of the Carolingian period were royal freemen who were obliged to perform military service and to pay taxes, and who were endowed with land by the king and thus often became new settlers".Theodor Mayer: *Grundlagen und Grundfragen.* In: *Grundfragen der alemannischen Geschichte.* Lindau 1955, p. 7–38, here: p. 13 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/15006/8886)). Freedom in the Middle Ages was therefore derived from the king or acquired through land clearing.Michael Borgolte: *Sozialgeschichte des Mittelalters. Eine Forschungsbilanz nach der deutschen Einheit.* Munich 1996, p. 53\. The doctrine of royal liberty was considered of great importance for the state structure of the Frankish period. It "laid the foundations for a new overall picture of the early medieval state.Theodor Mayer: *Die Königsfreien und der Staat des frühen Mittelalters.* In: *Das Problem der Freiheit in der deutschen und schweizerischen Geschichte.* Lindau 1955, p. 7–56 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/15231/9109)).
#### Research controversy with the Swiss historian Karl Meyer
A research dispute arose between Theodor Mayer and the Swiss historian Karl Meyer over the founding of the [Swiss Confederation](/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy "Old Swiss Confederacy").Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), p. 290–358, here: p. 339; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, pp. 187–196\. As a Swiss patriot, Karl Meyer was an advocate of "[spiritual national defense](/wiki/Spiritual_national_defence "Spiritual national defence")". He repeatedly dealt with the formation of the Swiss Confederation.Karl Meyer: *Der Schwurverband als Grundlage der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft. Aufsätze und Reden*, p. 83–93\. First published in the " Journal of Swiss History", New series 17 (1919\), pp. 183–194; see Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), S. 290–358, here: p. 334\. He considered the founding of Switzerland to be "a unique and exceptional case in the history of the Middle Ages and the Western peasantry". In 1941, on the occasion of the 650th anniversary of the founding of the Swiss Confederation, he published a comprehensive account of this topic.Karl Meyer: *Der Ursprung der Eidgenossenschaft.* In: *Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte* 21 (1941\), p. 285–652\.
Theodor Mayer was clearly critical of Meyer's theses.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/dms/img/?PID=PPN345858700_0006%7Clog14)); Theodor Mayer: *Die Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und das deutsche Reich im Mittelalter.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 7 (1944\), p. 239–288 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0007%7Clog17)). He believed that Switzerland had neither the geographical nor the ethnic prerequisites for a unified state. Furthermore, it did not represent a unity either in terms of language or denomination.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187, here: p. 150 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). Theodor Mayer criticized the Swiss historian's view as being "[teleological](/wiki/Teleology "Teleology")", i.e. always focused on the later territory.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187, here: p. 155 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). He countered this view with his approach of a "modern" regional history, which did not choose a Bavarian or Baden history as its subject, but rather "German history in a specific area, the formation of territorial states within a larger area, for example the formation of territorial states in south\-eastern Germany, south\-western or north\-western Germany, on the Upper Main or Upper Rhine".Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187, here: p. 156 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). By assuming "spaces", Theodor Mayer assigned a larger "space" to German history as a whole. For him, Swiss history was German history, and the emergence of the Swiss Confederation was a German problem because "Switzerland was part of the German Empire in the 13th century".Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187, here: p. 168 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). According to Peter Stadler, Karl Meyer saw Mayer's criticism in the German Archive as "the academic prelude to a planned incorporation of Switzerland.Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), p. 290–358, here: p. 339\. In 1943, he published a "clarification" entitled On the Swiss Will to Freedom.Karl Meyer: *Vom eidgenössischen Freiheitswillen. Eine Klarstellung.* In: *Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte* 23 (1943\), p. 371–429 and 481–578\. In this controversy, however, Theodor Mayer received broad support, for example from Hermann Rennefahrt, Albert Brackmann, Hans Fehr, and Hektor Ammann.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, pp. 192–194\. Mayer's student Marcel Beck, on the other hand, was critical. He argued that Theodor Mayer's approach was "just as teleological as that of Swiss research: namely with regard to the history of the German Empire, which was consolidated only very late and which, as a romantic idea, moved people's minds for centuries.Quoted from Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), p. 290–358, here: p. 340\.
|
[
"Work\n----",
"Mayer coined the concepts of the early medieval association of individuals, the institutional territorial state, the freedom to clear land, and kingship. His research on the conditions of settlement in Bohemia, which began in the late 1920s, was intended as part of a \"folklore science\" in the southwestern German \"borderland. Mayer was convinced that the Germans had always moved through history as carriers of culture. With his Freiburg inaugural lecture on the Zähringer state and several other works, the focus of his work shifted to constitutional and imperial history, a traditional field of research in medieval studies. Mayer did not publish a large, comprehensive account of this field. The constitutional history of the Middle Ages, which had already been agreed with a publisher, did not materialize.Folker Reichert: *Herr und Knecht: Theodor Mayer und Carl Erdmann.* In: Martina Hartmann, Arno Mentzel\\-Reuters, Martin Baumeister (Ed.): *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“? Beiträge des Symposiums am 28\\. und 29\\. November 2019 in Rom.* Wiesbaden 2021, p. 195–220, here: p. 195\\. During the Second World War, he made a name for himself primarily with studies on Medieval imperial and Constitutional history. According to Michael Matheus, there are no racial\\-biological arguments in his publications.Michael Matheus: *Disziplinenvielfalt unter einem Dach. Ein Beitrag zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte aus der Perspektive des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom (DHI).* In: Sabine Ehrmann\\-Herfort, Michael Matheus (Ed.): *Von der Geheimhaltung zur internationalen und interdisziplinären Forschung. Die Musikgeschichtliche Abteilung des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom 1960–2010\\.* Berlin et. al 2010, p. 1–82, here: p. 42\\. As president of the MGH, he earned lasting merit through the timely evacuation of the MGH library to Pommersfelden near Bamberg.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 206; Anne Christine Nagel: *„Allein unter Kollegen“ – Theodor Mayer und die MGH im Krieg.* In: Martina Hartmann, Arno Mentzel\\-Reuters, Martin Baumeister (Ed.): *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“? Beiträge des Symposiums am 28\\. und 29\\. November 2019 in Rom.* Wiesbaden 2021, pp. 179–193, here: p. 189\\. During his presidency, he was primarily concerned with the dissemination of a pan\\-European perspective based on regional history and ethnology. In the post\\-war period, he made a name for himself as a scientific organizer, above all as the founder of the Constance Working Group.",
"### Activity as a science organizer",
"#### Southwest German Science Organization",
"The majority of the funding for the Upper Rhine Institute went towards the implementation of regional history projects. The money was to be used to finance long\\-term work on an Alemannic atlas and research into the Zähringers in Burgundy. Mayer wanted to achieve the envisaged goal of a \"new foundation of Alemannic history\" through \"comprehensive research in all areas\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 132\\. Mayer's activities for the institute were viewed differently by his colleagues. According to Franz Quarthal, Mayer intended to \"give the institute the character of a medieval\\-oriented University Institute of Regional History\".Franz Quarthal: *Das Alemannische Institut von seiner Gründung bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges.* In: *Das Alemannische Institut. 75 Jahre grenzüberschreitende Kommunikation und Forschung (1931–2006\\).* Published by the Alemannisches Institut Freiburg im Breisgau. Freiburg and Munich 2007, p. 9–40, here: p. 17 ([online](https://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/bitstream/11682/5312/1/qua27.pdf)). According to Michael Fahlbusch, he played a significant role in the \"*[Gleichschaltung](/wiki/Gleichschaltung \"Gleichschaltung\")*\" of the institute.Michael Fahlbusch: *Wissenschaft im Dienst der nationalsozialistischen Politik? Die „Volksdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaften“ 1931–1945\\.* Baden\\-Baden 1999, p. 370\\.",
"In 1935, Mayer became head of the Southwest German Research Association. He was responsible for the organization and management of scientific conferences. The entire western border region was treated from a folkloristic point of view. The results of the conferences were not published in book form, but were distributed to the individual conference participants as working papers with the note \"strictly confidential\". The aim was not to make the results of the meetings known to a wider public or to make them available to international researchers for review.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 140\\.",
"As chairman of the Baden Historical Commission, Mayer was able to exert considerable influence on publications. For the Journal for the History of the Upper Rhine, he advocated the publication of \"works with folkloristic content.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 147\\. As many articles as possible should deal with Switzerland and Alsace. Mayer considered academic life in Alsace \"too weak\". The German influence on science in the neighboring French region should be maintained.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 147 f. Mayer repeatedly rejected articles for political or anti\\-Semitic reasons. When he learned that the author of an essay on the Thanner Steinmetz Order was the former Social Democratic Minister of Labor [Rudolf Wissell](/wiki/Rudolf_Wissell \"Rudolf Wissell\"), \"the amateurish treatment of the material and the immense breadth seemed clear and understandable\" to him.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 149\\. The article was published after Mayer's departure in 1942\\.Rudolf Wissell: *Die älteste Ordnung des großen Hüttenbundes der Steinmetzen von 1459\\.* In: *Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins* 94 (1942\\), p. 51–133\\. Mayer tried to prevent the publication of an essay by Käthe Spiegel on the \"peace project of a Fürstenberger\". He wrote to the editor, Manfred Krebs, that the essay could not be printed \"because Mrs. Spiegel is not Aryan, but 100% Jewish. I know her from Prague.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 150\\.",
"#### Marburg Rectorate",
"As rector, Mayer wanted above all to emphasize the importance of the University as an integral part of the Nation and State, not only for the end of the war, but also for peacetime.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 352\\. In the fall of 1939, the University of Marburg was affected by the closure of some universities due to the war. Mayer's first efforts focused on reopening the University. In a letter dated 29 November 1939, he asked Gauleiter [Karl Weinrich](/wiki/Karl_Weinrich \"Karl Weinrich\") to work with [Hermann Göring](/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring \"Hermann Göring\") to reopen the University as soon as possible.Anne Christine Nagel, Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, p. 373–452, here: p. 373\\. Mayer maintained a close and friendly working relationship with Weinrich in the period that followed.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 353\\. His decision to award honorary senatorships to Gauleiter Karl Weinrich and Provincial Governor Wilhelm Traupel was politically motivated. It was intended \"to express, on the one hand, the University's close ties to the intellectual life of our people and its unconditional commitment to the goals and tasks of the *NSDAP*, and, on the other hand, its roots in the cultural life of the state of Hesse.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 164; Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 354\\. The decision to award the prize was made in the summer of 1940, at a time when the Regime's military successes were winning it increasing acceptance in Academic circles.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 354\\. Weinrich declined the honor, citing a decree from the Party Chancellery, but Mayer was able to enjoy his favor throughout his time as rector.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 354 f.",
"On 30 January 1940, Mayer gave a speech on Germany and Europe in the auditorium of the University of Marburg on the occasion of the founding of the Reich and the assumption of power.Theodor Mayer: *Deutschland und Europa.* Marburg 1940\\. He attempted to place the National Socialists' Lebensraum policy in the East in the tradition of Medieval imperial policy.[Stefan Weinfurter](/wiki/Stefan_Weinfurter \"Stefan Weinfurter\"): *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 9–38, here: p. 14 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)). During this time, he also worked on a \"series of lectures on military science,\" which was intended to \"anchor German war aims, instruction and education as well as intellectual stimulation. The target audience was the \"common soldier. Above all, the \"resistance of the troops\" was to be encouraged.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 166\\.",
"| Historical image documents on Theodor Mayer in Marburg \\[{{LAGIS\\|ref\\=LNK}}de/subjects/xsearch/mode/grid/setmode/grid/page/1/current/1/sn/bd?q\\=YToxOntzOjY6InBlcnNvbiI7czoxNDoiTWF5ZXIsIFRoZW9kb3IiO30\\= Hessian State Office for Historical Regional Studies] |\n| --- |",
"",
"#### Coordination of the \" War effort of the humanities\"",
"* From 1940 to 1945, Mayer served as the head of the Medieval Department within the [*DFG*](/wiki/German_Research_Foundation \"German Research Foundation\")\\-funded \"War Effort of the Humanities.\" In an article he wrote for the *[Völkischer Beobachter](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter \"Völkischer Beobachter\")* in 1942, Mayer asserted that historians had to address a number of complex issues related to the war, including the struggle for a new Political order, its historical foundation, the forces that supported it and those that fought against it in the past and present, and the destruction of that order.Quoted from [Johannes Fried](/wiki/Johannes_Fried \"Johannes Fried\") (ed.): *Vierzig Jahre Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* Sigmaringen 1991, Supplement 1, pp. 28\\-30, here: p. 30 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/20298/14089)). To fulfill this role, he organized a series of conferences at historically significant locations in the German Reich until the end of the war. A total of eight conferences were held: in Berlin in June 1940, in Nuremberg in February 1941, in Weimar in November 1941 and May 1942, in Magdeburg in November 1942, in Erlangen in April 1944, in Pretzsch near Wittenberg in October 1944 and in Braunau am Inn in January 1945\\. The conference was only canceled in 1943 due to a nationwide ban on conferences.[Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann](/wiki/Frank-Rutger_Hausmann \"Frank-Rutger Hausmann\"): *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, pp. 154\\-198\\. [Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann](/wiki/Frank-Rutger_Hausmann \"Frank-Rutger Hausmann\") concludes that this science was contextualized and explicitly served ideological purposes.Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 197\\. Some of the results of the conferences were published.Cf. for example: Theodor Mayer (Ed.): *Der Vertrag von Verdun 843\\. Neun Aufsätze zur Begründung der europäischen Völker\\- und Staatenwelt.* Leipzig 1943; Ders. (Ed.): *Adel und Bauern im deutschen Staat des Mittelalters.* Leipzig 1943\\.",
"The inaugural conference convened by Mayer in June 1940 was designed to facilitate a discourse on the utilization of German historical scholarship in the intellectual discourse with Western powers.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 209\\. In light of the prevailing war circumstances, the historians were tasked with examining the relationship between England and the European continent.Quoted after Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 157\\. Mayer was particularly enthusiastic about the military achievements of the German Armed Forces in May and June 1940\\. Consequently, he contemplated expanding the conference's overarching agenda during the inaugural session.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 209\\. In light of the altered war circumstances, the discourse with England was soon supplanted by investigations into the role of the Reich in Europe. The \"Kriegseinsatz\" conference in Nuremberg in February 1941 addressed the subject of \"Reich and Europe.\" That same year, the conference proceedings edited by Mayer and Walter Platzhoff were published under the title \"The Reich and Europe.\" In the foreword, Mayer and Platzhoff asserted that their objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate, which they defined as \"not only a military and political one, but just as much an intellectual one.\" The assembled historians were aware of their duty to provide historical tools for the central problem of the present war and the forthcoming reorganization of Europe. They were also tasked with viewing and interpreting the development of the past from the standpoint of the present.Quoted from Steffen Kaudelka: *Rezeption im Zeitalter der Konfrontation. Französische Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichte in Deutschland 1920–1940\\.* Göttingen 2003, p. 94\\. The idea of the Reich's role as the \"European organizing power\" was widespread among historiansOtto Gerhard Oexle: *„Zusammenarbeit mit Baal“. Über die Mentalitäten deutscher Geisteswissenschaftler 1933 – und nach 1945\\.* In: *Historische Anthropologie* 8, 2000, pp. 1–27, here: p. 10\\. in these years and became one of the \"guiding concepts of historical interpretation.\"Karen Schönwälder: *Historiker und Politik. Geschichtswissenschaft im Nationalsozialismus.* Frankfurt am Main et. al 1992, p. 208\\. Mayer gave lectures at the German Scientific Institute in Bucharest in 1942\\. The central argument was that \"the historical necessity of integrating Romania into a European order led by Germany\" was a key point.Quoted from Stefan Weinfurter: *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 9–38, here: p. 13 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)).",
"In the fall of 1941, a series of discussions on the topic of \"Questions of German kingship, the high nobility and the peasantry and their significance for the formation of the state from various perspectives\" took place in Weimar. These discussions resulted in the publication of the volume Nobility and peasants in the German state of the Middle Ages, edited by Mayer. In January 1945, Mayer extended an invitation to a scientific discussion on fundamental questions of an all\\-Bavarian view of history to be held in Braunau am Inn. In his invitation, he avoided the term \"conference\" in order to avoid contravening the Reich Minister for Science, Education and National Education Bernhard Rust's directive of 14 April 1942, which permitted only \"local events and conferences\" to be held, provided that they were deemed \"so important to the war\" that they could not be postponed.Hans\\-Henning Kortüm: *Otto Brunner über Otto den Großen. Aus den letzten Tagen der reichsdeutschen Mediävistik.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 299 (2014\\), p. 297–333, here: p. 307\\. The event in Braunau am Inn, the birthplace of Adolf Hitler, was probably the last conference held as part of the \"Joint venture\".Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 193\\. Mayer's efforts were well received by the Nazi regime, and he was awarded the [War Merit Cross](/wiki/War_Merit_Cross \"War Merit Cross\") for his work as part of the \"war effort of the humanities\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 222\\.",
"#### Work as President of the Reich Institute and Director of the German Historical Institute in Rome",
"Mayer not only took over the management of the Imperial Institute, but also the editorship of the *[German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages](/wiki/Deutsches_Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Erforschung_des_Mittelalters \"Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters\")*, the most important historical journal for the study of the Middle Ages. As president, he wanted to integrate the MGH more strongly into historical research beyond its source\\-related tasks and transform it into a far\\-reaching institute for the history of the Middle Ages. In the two and a half years until the end of the war, he was hardly able to realize any of these plans. A provisional edition of the charters of the [Hohenstaufen](/wiki/Hohenstaufen \"Hohenstaufen\") rulers [Frederick I](/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa \"Frederick Barbarossa\") and [Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor\") and a new edition of volume IX of the Scriptores series were planned as new editorial projects.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 521; Horst Fuhrmann: *„Sind eben alles Menschen gewesen“. Gelehrtenleben im 19\\. und 20\\. Jahrhundert. Dargestellt am Beispiel der Monumenta Germaniae Historica und ihrer Mitarbeiter.* Munich 1996, pp. 62–64\\.",
"As President of the Reichsinstitut in [Personal Union](/wiki/Personal_union \"Personal union\"), Mayer was also Director of the [German Historical Institute in Rome](/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_in_Rome \"German Historical Institute in Rome\"). In this capacity, he was responsible for the academic staff remaining in Rome and had to ensure the future of the valuable library. In 1942, he initiated a research project with the aim of \"researching imperial rule in Italy, especially the imperial estate.\"Theodor Mayer: *Jahresbericht 1942\\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 33 (1944\\), p. V–VI, here: P. VI. Cf. also Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 521\\. In a memorandum dated 1 April 1944 (piano Mayer), Mayer considered the removal of all the holdings of the central Italian archives to be unfeasible. He also expressed his disapproval of the transfer of individual archival records to Germany. Instead, he demanded that important archives be photographed. According to Jürgen Klöckler, Mayer thus prevented a far\\-reaching theft of archives, namely the large\\-scale transportation of deeds, documents, and files relating to Germany to the Reich. Thanks to this decision, he was able to institutionally anchor young historians in Rome in an expanded art protection department of the military administration, thus sparing them conscription into the German Armed Forces.Jürgen Klöckler: *Verhinderter Archivalienraub in Italien. Theodor Mayer und die Abteilung „Archivschutz“ bei der Militärverwaltung in Verona 1943–1945\\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 86 (2006\\), pp. 491–537, here: p. 508 f. and 521 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport4_mods_00001387)).",
"Mayer relocated the extensive Berlin library holdings from Berlin to Bavaria in January 1944, fearing air raids. This measure was carried out without prior approval from the ministry.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, pp. 493–530, here: p. 522\\. The two employees, Margarete Kühn and Ursula Brumm, and some of the furniture remained in Berlin. Kühn states that Mayer remained resolutely National Socialist to the end and attempted to influence his employees accordingly.Eckhard Müller\\-Mertens: *Kaiser, Reich und Region. Studien und Texte aus der Arbeit an den Constitutiones des 14\\. Jahrhunderts und zur Geschichte der Monumenta Germaniae Historica.* In: Mathias Lawo, Michael Lindner, Eckhard Müller\\-Mertens, Olaf B. Rader (Ed.): *Kaiser, Reich und Region. Studien und Texte aus der Arbeit an den Constitutiones des 14\\. Jahrhunderts und zur Geschichte der Monumenta Germaniae Historica.* Berlin 1997, pp. 1–59, here: p. 48, Note 182 ([online](https://edoc.bbaw.de/files/190/25GAQYGYCpN.pdf)).",
"#### Mayer's plans for a German Historical Institute in Paris",
"In a memorandum dated 10 February 1941, Mayer proposed the founding of a German Historical Institute in Paris in response to the military successes of the German Armed Forces in France. He argued that German historical scholarship had the task of assuming a \"leading role in the European area corresponding to its political position\" and of \"shaping or at least decisively helping to shape the European view of history.\" Mayer understood a \"European\" view of history to mean a \"Germanic history of Europe,\" a view of the history of Europe \"in the Germanic sense.\" This project was \"only possible through the most rigorous academic work on the broadest basis and with the best forces and methods, but also with the clearest objectives.\"First print of Theodor Mayer's memorandum on the establishment of a historical institute in: Conrad Grau: *Planungen für ein deutsches historisches Institut in Paris während des Zweiten Weltkrieges.* In: *Francia* 19/3 (1992\\), pp. 109–128, here: pp. 119–122 ([online](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb00016354?page=122)). Quotes according to Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 182; Steffen Kaudelka: *Rezeption im Zeitalter der Konfrontation. Französische Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichte in Deutschland 1920–1940\\.* Göttingen 2003, p. 24\\.",
"He pursued this idea for approximately two years. In March 1942, Mayer proposed Büttner as the academic director of a new German historical institute to be established in Paris.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, p. 274–292, here: p. 270 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). In April 1942, he presented reflections on the present and future of historical scholarship in the Völkischer Beobachter. The \"present tasks\" of German historical scholarship included addressing the \"questions of the present war, with the struggle for a European order, with its historical substructure.\" Additionally, historical scholarship was tasked with \"helping build the future of the people\" and presenting the \"leading position of the German people\" in a \"history of the Germanic\\-German world since the earliest times.\" The community of European peoples and states was to plan in the sense of a \"pan\\-Germanic conception of history.\" As an institutional basis, research centers outside the German Reich were to be created. Once again, Mayer proposed a historical institute in Paris.Otto Gerhard Oexle: *Von der völkischen Geschichte zur modernen Sozialgeschichte.* In: Heinz Duchhardt, Gerhard May (Ed.): *Geschichtswissenschaft um 1950\\.* Mainz, pp. 1–36, here: p. 31\\. The course of the war necessitated the repeated revision of his institute plan. Ultimately, even a position for a historian could not be filled.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer – Ein Wissenschaftsorganisator mit großen Möglichkeiten.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, p. 60–77, here: p. 61 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010806)). This was due to the scarcity of financial resources as the war progressed and disputes over responsibilities between the ministries involved. In November 1957, Mayer asserted to [Eugen Ewig](/wiki/Eugen_Ewig \"Eugen Ewig\"), a prominent figure in the establishment of the *[Centre Allemand de Recherche Historique](/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_Paris \"German Historical Institute Paris\")*, that he was the intellectual originator of the institution.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 187\\. However, Mayer's concepts did not serve as a model during the period of Franco\\-German rapprochement and therefore remained unmentioned in the discussions and correspondence.Stefan Martens: *Vorwort.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, pp. 9–13, here: p. 10 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010803)).",
"#### The Constance working group and the development of a \"crisis\\-proof view of History\"",
"Mayer made several statements in the 1950s on the question of a new image of History.See also Theodor Mayer: *Der Wandel unseres Bildes vom Mittelalter. Stand und Aufgaben der mittelalterlichen Geschichtsforschung.* In: *Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte* 94 (1958\\), p. 1–37 ([online](https://periodika.digitale-sammlungen.de/bdlg/Blatt_bsb00000297,00008.html)). [Stefan Weinfurter](/wiki/Stefan_Weinfurter \"Stefan Weinfurter\") notes that the call for a \"new image of history \\[...] runs like a red thread through Theodor Mayer's written and oral statements.Stefan Weinfurter: *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 9–38, here: p. 11 ([online](http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)); see also Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 252; Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 88 ([full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118/showToc)). In a 1952 memorandum on the founding of the Constance Institute, Mayer called for history to be \"lifted out of the discord of contemporary political life\" and for \"the foundations of a crisis\\-proof history\" to be laid. He had observed \"with horror\" \"how German history was rewritten with every political change.Quoted from: Otto Gerhard Oexle: *‘Staat’ – ‘Kultur’ – ‘Volk’. Deutsche Mittelalterhistoriker auf der Suche nach der historischen Wirklichkeit 1918–1945\\.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 63–101, here: p. 100 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17832/11641)). In 1955, Mayer declared that the most important task of the \"Municipal Institute for Landscape History of the Lake Constance Region\" in Constance, which was founded under his leadership, was \"to develop a new picture of the past of the German people and the German Reich that is crisis\\-proof and does not have to be rewritten with every change of political mood. This goal was to be achieved through the \"promotion of scientific regional research in Germany, especially in the Lake Constance region.Matthias Werner: *Zwischen politischer Begrenzung und methodischer Offenheit. Wege und Stationen deutscher Landesgeschichtsforschung im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 251–364, here: p. 251 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/viewFile/17837/11646)). As he explained in 1953, historical regional research should form the basis for this, since it is \"particularly capable of building bridges because it does not start from state\\-oriented concepts. This approach made it possible to \"demonstrate forces that we cannot really imagine on the basis of normal written sources.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 253\\. In 1961, Mayer wanted \"an image of history \\[...] that is not endangered, that does not have to be turned upside down again and again with the next political or other change \\[...]\". However, he did not back up his general considerations with a research program.Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, p. 43–59, here: p. 44 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)). Bernd Weisbrod sees this project as an example of the \"rhetorical strategies of self\\-denazification in the mindset of Mandarinism\".Bernd Weisbrod: *Das Moratorium der Mandarine. Zur Selbstentnazifizierung der Wissenschaften in der Nachkriegszeit.* In: [Hartmut Lehmann](/wiki/Hartmut_Lehmann \"Hartmut Lehmann\"), Otto Gerhard Oexle (Ed.): *Nationalsozialismus in den Kulturwissenschaften.*Vol. 2: *Fächer, Milieus, Karrieren.* Göttingen 2004, pp. 259–279, here: p. 273\\. [Peter Moraw](/wiki/Peter_Moraw \"Peter Moraw\") sees it as a \"form of self\\-deception\".Peter Moraw: *Kontinuität und später Wandel: Bemerkungen zur deutschen und deutschsprachigen Mediävistik 1945–1970/75\\.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 103–138, here: p. 128 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17833/11642)). For Reto Heinzel, Mayer was an unteachable man who remained \"in search of a new Middle Ages on the basis of popular culture.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 278\\.",
"The conferences of the 1950s dealt with questions of constitutional history. Historians who enjoyed the personal esteem of the organizer Mayer were invited. Besides Mayer, the founding members included the medievalists [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl \"Karl Bosl\"), [Walter Schlesinger](/wiki/Walter_Schlesinger \"Walter Schlesinger\"), [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann \"Helmut Beumann\"), Heinrich Büttner, [Eugen Ewig](/wiki/Eugen_Ewig \"Eugen Ewig\"), [Otto Feger](/wiki/Otto_Eger \"Otto Eger\"), and Franz Steinbach, as well as the Munich Byzantinist [Hans\\-Georg Beck](/wiki/Hans_Georg_Beck \"Hans Georg Beck\").Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 177\\. Among the speakers were friends and colleagues such as Hektor Ammann, Heinrich Dannenbauer, Eugen Ewig, [Wilhelm Ebel](/wiki/Wilhelm_Ebel \"Wilhelm Ebel\"), Ernst Klebel, Walther Mitzka, Walter Schlesinger, [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann \"Helmut Beumann\"), Heinrich Büttner, Karl Siegfried Bader, [Otto Brunner](/wiki/Otto_Brunner \"Otto Brunner\"), and [Joachim Werner](/wiki/Joachim_Werner_%28archaeologist%29 \"Joachim Werner (archaeologist)\").Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, p. 73–89, here: p. 79 f. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/content/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)). According to Nagel, the working group was a \"receptacle for politically charged individuals.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 156\\. The interdisciplinary approach to the conference topic by historians, archaeologists and philologists was typical of the Constance working group. For Mayer, it was not only the joint work that was of central importance for scientific progress, but also the personal relationships. Mayer repeatedly emphasized that the Constance Circle was not only a working group, but also a \"circle of friends\".Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, pp. 43–59, here: p. 44 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)); Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 255\\. Bosl, Büttner, Ewig, Schlesinger and Steinbach were all professors at renowned universities and at the same time provided a link to young academics. Many of the young lecturers later became professors themselves, so that the working group soon gained a corresponding reputation in medieval studies.Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, p. 73–89, here: p. 78 ([online](https://perspectivia.net/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)); Hans\\-Werner Goetz: *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 82\\.",
"There was a continuity of personnel from the \" wartime \" conferences to the Reichenau conferences. The medievalists Walter Schlesinger and Karl Bosl also played a leading role in the Constance Working Group on Medieval History.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, pp. 493–530, here: p. 517\\. Traute Endemann has pointed out that the personal environment and conceptual origins of the early Constance working group date back to the early 1930s.Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 15 ([full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118/showToc)). Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann emphasizes that the academic collaboration with the Constance Working Group continued after the war.Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 196\\.",
"### Research work",
"#### The beginnings of Economic History and the turn towards National Science",
"Mayer's early work in the 1920s dealt with problems of administrative and economic history. His dissertation focused on economic history. His work focused on trade on the Danube, \"on which the main trade of Austria took place\". He published other important studies on the Passau toll books (1908\\)Theodor Mayer: *Zwei Passauer Mautbücher aus den Jahren 1400/01 und 1401/02\\.* In: *Verhandlungen des Historischen Vereins für Niederbayern* 44 (1908\\), pp. 1–258\\. and on the Vienna [staple right](/wiki/Staple_right \"Staple right\").Theodor Mayer: *Zur Frage des Wiener Stapelrechts.* In: *Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial\\- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte* 10 (1912\\), pp. 299–382\\. One of the most important works of his Prague period is the German Economic History, published in 1928, which was highly acclaimed both nationally and internationally. Marc Bloch described it as a *\"modèle de clarté et de bon sens\"* (\"model of clarity and insight\").Cf. the discussion by Marc Bloch in the *Revue Historique* 164 (1930\\), p. 134 f. Its significance lies in the fact that it considers not only classical problems of Economic History, but also questions of Social and Cultural History, such as urbanism and colonization in the Middle Ages, the significance of religion for the emergence of early capitalism, or the emergence of the \"[social question](/wiki/Social_question \"Social question\")\". Mayer was the first German\\-speaking historian to deal extensively with the concept of [Capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism \"Capitalism\"). At the same time, he liberated the term from its exclusive use in economics and sociology and made it available for discussion in the field of history.Pavel Kolář: *Geschichtswissenschaft in Zentraleuropa. Die Universitäten Prag, Wien und Berlin um 1900\\.* Half\\-volume 1 Leipzig 2008, p. 215\\.",
"Mayer was probably confronted with the problems of [Sudeten Germanism](/wiki/Sudeten_Germans \"Sudeten Germans\") due to his wife's Bohemian origins.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 56\\. After the collapse of the Danube Monarchy and the establishment of [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\"), many Germans saw themselves as a minority and felt they were engaged in an existential \"*[Volkstum](/wiki/Volkstum \"Volkstum\")*\" for the continued existence of the German settlement in the [Sudetenland](/wiki/Sudetenland \"Sudetenland\"). Between 1926 and 1929, Mayer took part in six conferences of the Leipzig Foundation for German Folk and Cultural Soil Research. The conference held in [Nysa](/wiki/Nysa%2C_Poland \"Nysa, Poland\") in October 1926 was dedicated to the topic of Silesia. Mayer gave a lecture on the history of industry in the Sudetenland. This conference was interdisciplinary in nature. Many of the contributions were based on the assumption that the Sudeten\\-Silesian territories were united \"in terms of ethnicity\". The emphasis on Germanic elements in settlement, culture and language played a central role.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 59\\. Even after the end of the Leipzig Foundation, Mayer continued to campaign for financial support for Sudeten German cultural institutions.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 67\\.",
"An essay by Mayer published in 1928 is characterized by the Sudeten German \" national struggle\". In it he tried to emphasize the \"great achievements\" of German immigrants since the Middle Ages. He neglected Czech development.Theodor Mayer: *Zur Geschichte der nationalen Verhältnisse in Prag.* In: *Aus Sozial\\- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Gedächtnisschrift für Georg von Below.* Stuttgart 1928, p. 254–278\\. He repeatedly dealt with the history of the Sudetenland, but during his seven years in Prague he did not learn Czech or study Czech literature. The few Czech authors whose works he did notice were cited in translations prepared for him by [Josef Pfitzner](/wiki/Josef_Pfitzner \"Josef Pfitzner\"), then an assistant at the History Department. His work was based primarily on the findings of German scholars, most of whom cooperated with the Leipzig Foundation.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 69–74\\. For Mayer, there was no doubt that German achievements were far superior to those of the Czechs. He described the Germans as a capable and creative people, the Czechs as passive and less innovative. Mayer argued for German superiority not only in the development of law,Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: The German booklets for folklore and cultural soil research 1 (1930/31\\), p. 129–151, here: p. 145; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 72\\. but also in the field of new technical achievements, citing the \"German plow\" as an example.Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: *Deutsche Hefte für Volks\\- und Kulturbodenforschung* 1 (1930/31\\), p. 129–151, here: p. 145 f. Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 72\\. He saw the urban system as a \"cultural achievement\" of the Germans, while admitting that the Slavic settlements had very limited opportunities for development.Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: *Deutsche Hefte für Volks\\- und Kulturbodenforschung* 1 (1930/31\\), pp. 129–151, here: p. 150; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 73\\. The entire cultural and economic development of Bohemia was due to the Germans.",
"In Freiburg, Mayer emphasized the \"German achievements\" for Alsace and the entire Upper Rhine region, especially in relation to France. He assumed that a \"uniform ethnicity\" lived everywhere in the Upper Rhine region. In doing so, he continued the work of Friedrich Metz. Metz had described the entire Upper Rhine Valley as a \"Cultural and Economic unit\" in 1920\\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 116\\. In the first issue of the central organ of German folklorists, the German Archive for Regional and Ethnological Research, Mayer stated that Alsace, as a \"German inland region,\" was \"one of the most culturally flourishing landscapes in Germany. Its \"annexation\" to France had brought its \"own cultural development to a standstill.Theodor Mayer: *Oberrheinisches Schrifttum.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Landes\\- und Volksforschung* 1 (1937\\), p. 205–215, here: p. 206\\. Quotes according to Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 117\\.",
"#### Modern German constitutional history",
"Along with Otto Brunner, Adolf Waas and Walter Schlesinger, Theodor Mayer was one of the most important representatives of the so\\-called \"modern German Constitutional History\". This term refers to the approaches that emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, which, according to the participants, were different from the older constitutional history.Classic contributions collected in Hellmut Kämpf: *Herrschaft und Staat im Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 1956\\. Overview of this paradigm shift by [Michael Borgolte](/wiki/Michael_Borgolte \"Michael Borgolte\"): *Sozialgeschichte des Mittelalters. Eine Forschungsbilanz nach der deutschen Einheit.* Munich 1996, p. 37–48; [Hans\\-Werner Goetz](/wiki/Hans-Werner_Goetz \"Hans-Werner Goetz\"): *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 174 f.; Werner Hechberger: *Adel im fränkisch\\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 34–69 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)); [Steffen Patzold](/wiki/Steffen_Patzold \"Steffen Patzold\"): *Der König als Alleinherrscher? Ein Versuch über die Möglichkeit der Monarchie im Frühmittelalter.* In: Stefan Rebenich with the collaboration of Johannes Wienand (Ed.): *Monarchische Herrschaft im Altertum.* Berlin/Boston 2016, p. 605–633\\. They criticized the prevailing doctrine, which was too firmly rooted in liberal constitutional ideas and saw medieval statehood as a separation of state and society. The previous concepts were replaced by \"empire and people,\" \"leaders and followers,\" \"aristocratic rule,\" and the Germanic character of the Middle Ages.See also the similar development in the constitutional history of modern times: [Ewald Grothe](/wiki/Ewald_Grothe \"Ewald Grothe\"): *Zwischen Geschichte und Recht. Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichtsschreibung 1900–1970*, R. Oldenbourg Publishing House, Munich 2005\\. However, Mayer never presented an overall picture, but only published essays and individual studies.A collection of his essays, some of which were considerably revised from the pre\\-1945 versions, was published in 1959\\. Theodor Mayer: *Mittelalterliche Studien. Gesammelte Aufsätze.* Lindau and Constance 1959\\.",
"Mayer first formulated his thesis on the transformation of the early medieval \"personal association state\" into the early modern \"institutional territorial state\" in his Giessen Lecture of January 1933 in the auditorium of the Hessian State University,Theodor Mayer: *Geschichtliche Grundlagen der deutschen Verfassung.* Gießen 1933, again in: Theodor Mayer: *Mittelalterliche Studien. Gesammelte Aufsätze.* Lindau 1959, p. 77–97\\. and elaborated on it in his Freiburg Inaugural Lecture.Walter Pohl: *Personenverbandstaat.* In: *Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde* 22, Berlin/New York 2003, p. 614–618\\. He was concerned not only with the example of the Zähringers, but with the \"emergence of the medieval state\" in general. Mayer began by focusing on aspects of the territory \"in which the Zähringers developed their historical activities. The Zähringers established a territory early on through the clearing activities of the abbeys of [St. George](/wiki/St._George%27s_Abbey_in_the_Black_Forest \"St. George's Abbey in the Black Forest\"), [St. Peter](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Peter_in_the_Black_Forest \"Abbey of Saint Peter in the Black Forest\"), and [St. Blaise](/wiki/Saint_Blaise_Abbey%2C_Black_Forest \"Saint Blaise Abbey, Black Forest\"), which they governed, and through towns such as Freiburg and Villingen, which they founded on important roads. Mayer praised the \"new state\" of the Zähringers as a significant achievement. However, it had neglected \"the basis of the personal association state, the community of persons, the national basis of the state. It had thus become ossified in \"routine as a princely end in itself.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\\. bis 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 64\\. Mayer therefore did not assume a progressive development, but drew a contrast between the \"personal association state\", the \"state based solely or almost solely on the community of persons, which cannot exist without a great leader\", and the \"institutional territorial state\", for which there is always the danger \"that it will ossify in bureaucratic administrative routine into an authoritarian state, which is an end in itself\".Quoted from Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\\. bis 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 63\\.",
"Mayer's thoughts were shaped by the political hopes of the time.Cf. [Wolfgang J. Mommsen](/wiki/Wolfgang_Mommsen \"Wolfgang Mommsen\"): *„Gestürzte Denkmäler“? Die „Fälle“ Aubin, Conze, Erdmann und Schieder.* In: Jürgen Elvert, Susanne Krauß (Ed.): *Historische Debatten und Kontroversen im 19\\. und 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Stuttgart 2003, p. 96–109, here: p. 98\\. In the final passage, he praised the Third Reich as a synthesis of the old Germanic state of loyalty, the national community, and the institutional territorial state: \"State and people have become one.\" Personal loyalty, allegiance, and the idea of national identity had become \"supporting elements of the state and the German national community and have given the state and the people the moral foundation and responsibility without which they cannot exist in the long run.Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 31\\. According to Mayer, the Germanic state is characterized by \"a community of people held together by personal ties, especially loyalty. Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 35\\.\"The personal association state corresponds to a structure and distribution of state rights and functions in the sense of loyalty and [fief](/wiki/Fief \"Fief\").Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 5\\. Mayer placed loyalty, allegiance, and fealty in a powerful context, identifying them as elements of the Germanic state.Jürgen Dendorfer: *Land und Herrschaft. Die „Neue Verfassungsgeschichte“ und ihre Wirkungen auf die Landesgeschichte im Süden Deutschlands.* In: Christina Mochty\\-Weltin, Roman Zehetmayer (Ed.): *Adel und Verfassung im hoch\\- und spätmittelalterlichen Reich. Die Vorträge der Tagung im Gedanken an Maximilian Weltin (23\\. und 24\\. Februar 2017\\).* St. Pölten 2018, 30–55, here: p. 42 ([online](https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:175977/datastreams/FILE1/content)). The Nazi newspaper Volksgemeinschaft praised Mayer's explanations in a review: \"With reference to our time, it is very instructive that here a modern state essentially expands its sphere of power by reclaiming new land, by reclamation and settlement.\"Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 114\\.",
"#### Clearance and royal freedom",
"The term \"free peasants\" was originally coined by Karl Weller, who propounded the theory of the Hohenstaufen free peasants. According to this theory, the free peasants of the [High Middle Ages](/wiki/High_Middle_Ages \"High Middle Ages\") in southwestern Germany were not common freemen, but new settlers established by the Hohenstaufen rulers.Karl Weller: *Die freien Bauern in Schwaben.* in: *Zeitschrift der Savigny\\-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Germanistische Abteilung* 54 (1934\\), p. 178–226; Karl Weller *Die freien Bauern des Spätmittelalters im heutigen Württemberg.* In: *Zeitschrift für Württembergische Landesgeschichte* 1 (1937\\), p. 47–67\\. Cf. Werner Hechberger *Adel im fränkisch\\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 46 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)). Mayer introduced the concept of \"freedom to clear land\" into his research and placed his observations in a larger context. The conquest of land and the establishment of the [Frankish](/wiki/Franks \"Franks\") empire appear in a new light. The conquest of [Gaul](/wiki/Gaul \"Gaul\") by the [Merovingian](/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty \"Merovingian dynasty\") kings was not carried out by free warrior\\-farmers, but by unfree soldiers, who acquired freedom only through military service and settlement on royal land. Freedom was therefore not inherited, but granted by the kingship for military service, clearing and settlement. Together with Heinrich Dannenbauer, Mayer developed the doctrine of royal freemen. In 1955 he stated: \"\\[...] we came to the conclusion that the so\\-called common freemen of the Carolingian period were royal freemen who were obliged to perform military service and to pay taxes, and who were endowed with land by the king and thus often became new settlers\".Theodor Mayer: *Grundlagen und Grundfragen.* In: *Grundfragen der alemannischen Geschichte.* Lindau 1955, p. 7–38, here: p. 13 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/15006/8886)). Freedom in the Middle Ages was therefore derived from the king or acquired through land clearing.Michael Borgolte: *Sozialgeschichte des Mittelalters. Eine Forschungsbilanz nach der deutschen Einheit.* Munich 1996, p. 53\\. The doctrine of royal liberty was considered of great importance for the state structure of the Frankish period. It \"laid the foundations for a new overall picture of the early medieval state.Theodor Mayer: *Die Königsfreien und der Staat des frühen Mittelalters.* In: *Das Problem der Freiheit in der deutschen und schweizerischen Geschichte.* Lindau 1955, p. 7–56 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/15231/9109)).",
"#### Research controversy with the Swiss historian Karl Meyer",
"A research dispute arose between Theodor Mayer and the Swiss historian Karl Meyer over the founding of the [Swiss Confederation](/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy \"Old Swiss Confederacy\").Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), p. 290–358, here: p. 339; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, pp. 187–196\\. As a Swiss patriot, Karl Meyer was an advocate of \"[spiritual national defense](/wiki/Spiritual_national_defence \"Spiritual national defence\")\". He repeatedly dealt with the formation of the Swiss Confederation.Karl Meyer: *Der Schwurverband als Grundlage der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft. Aufsätze und Reden*, p. 83–93\\. First published in the \" Journal of Swiss History\", New series 17 (1919\\), pp. 183–194; see Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), S. 290–358, here: p. 334\\. He considered the founding of Switzerland to be \"a unique and exceptional case in the history of the Middle Ages and the Western peasantry\". In 1941, on the occasion of the 650th anniversary of the founding of the Swiss Confederation, he published a comprehensive account of this topic.Karl Meyer: *Der Ursprung der Eidgenossenschaft.* In: *Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte* 21 (1941\\), p. 285–652\\.",
"Theodor Mayer was clearly critical of Meyer's theses.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/dms/img/?PID=PPN345858700_0006%7Clog14)); Theodor Mayer: *Die Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und das deutsche Reich im Mittelalter.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 7 (1944\\), p. 239–288 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0007%7Clog17)). He believed that Switzerland had neither the geographical nor the ethnic prerequisites for a unified state. Furthermore, it did not represent a unity either in terms of language or denomination.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187, here: p. 150 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). Theodor Mayer criticized the Swiss historian's view as being \"[teleological](/wiki/Teleology \"Teleology\")\", i.e. always focused on the later territory.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187, here: p. 155 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). He countered this view with his approach of a \"modern\" regional history, which did not choose a Bavarian or Baden history as its subject, but rather \"German history in a specific area, the formation of territorial states within a larger area, for example the formation of territorial states in south\\-eastern Germany, south\\-western or north\\-western Germany, on the Upper Main or Upper Rhine\".Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187, here: p. 156 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). By assuming \"spaces\", Theodor Mayer assigned a larger \"space\" to German history as a whole. For him, Swiss history was German history, and the emergence of the Swiss Confederation was a German problem because \"Switzerland was part of the German Empire in the 13th century\".Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187, here: p. 168 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). According to Peter Stadler, Karl Meyer saw Mayer's criticism in the German Archive as \"the academic prelude to a planned incorporation of Switzerland.Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), p. 290–358, here: p. 339\\. In 1943, he published a \"clarification\" entitled On the Swiss Will to Freedom.Karl Meyer: *Vom eidgenössischen Freiheitswillen. Eine Klarstellung.* In: *Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte* 23 (1943\\), p. 371–429 and 481–578\\. In this controversy, however, Theodor Mayer received broad support, for example from Hermann Rennefahrt, Albert Brackmann, Hans Fehr, and Hektor Ammann.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, pp. 192–194\\. Mayer's student Marcel Beck, on the other hand, was critical. He argued that Theodor Mayer's approach was \"just as teleological as that of Swiss research: namely with regard to the history of the German Empire, which was consolidated only very late and which, as a romantic idea, moved people's minds for centuries.Quoted from Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), p. 290–358, here: p. 340\\.",
""
] |
### Activity as a science organizer
#### Southwest German Science Organization
The majority of the funding for the Upper Rhine Institute went towards the implementation of regional history projects. The money was to be used to finance long\-term work on an Alemannic atlas and research into the Zähringers in Burgundy. Mayer wanted to achieve the envisaged goal of a "new foundation of Alemannic history" through "comprehensive research in all areas".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 132\. Mayer's activities for the institute were viewed differently by his colleagues. According to Franz Quarthal, Mayer intended to "give the institute the character of a medieval\-oriented University Institute of Regional History".Franz Quarthal: *Das Alemannische Institut von seiner Gründung bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges.* In: *Das Alemannische Institut. 75 Jahre grenzüberschreitende Kommunikation und Forschung (1931–2006\).* Published by the Alemannisches Institut Freiburg im Breisgau. Freiburg and Munich 2007, p. 9–40, here: p. 17 ([online](https://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/bitstream/11682/5312/1/qua27.pdf)). According to Michael Fahlbusch, he played a significant role in the "*[Gleichschaltung](/wiki/Gleichschaltung "Gleichschaltung")*" of the institute.Michael Fahlbusch: *Wissenschaft im Dienst der nationalsozialistischen Politik? Die „Volksdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaften“ 1931–1945\.* Baden\-Baden 1999, p. 370\.
In 1935, Mayer became head of the Southwest German Research Association. He was responsible for the organization and management of scientific conferences. The entire western border region was treated from a folkloristic point of view. The results of the conferences were not published in book form, but were distributed to the individual conference participants as working papers with the note "strictly confidential". The aim was not to make the results of the meetings known to a wider public or to make them available to international researchers for review.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 140\.
As chairman of the Baden Historical Commission, Mayer was able to exert considerable influence on publications. For the Journal for the History of the Upper Rhine, he advocated the publication of "works with folkloristic content.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 147\. As many articles as possible should deal with Switzerland and Alsace. Mayer considered academic life in Alsace "too weak". The German influence on science in the neighboring French region should be maintained.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 147 f. Mayer repeatedly rejected articles for political or anti\-Semitic reasons. When he learned that the author of an essay on the Thanner Steinmetz Order was the former Social Democratic Minister of Labor [Rudolf Wissell](/wiki/Rudolf_Wissell "Rudolf Wissell"), "the amateurish treatment of the material and the immense breadth seemed clear and understandable" to him.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 149\. The article was published after Mayer's departure in 1942\.Rudolf Wissell: *Die älteste Ordnung des großen Hüttenbundes der Steinmetzen von 1459\.* In: *Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins* 94 (1942\), p. 51–133\. Mayer tried to prevent the publication of an essay by Käthe Spiegel on the "peace project of a Fürstenberger". He wrote to the editor, Manfred Krebs, that the essay could not be printed "because Mrs. Spiegel is not Aryan, but 100% Jewish. I know her from Prague.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 150\.
#### Marburg Rectorate
As rector, Mayer wanted above all to emphasize the importance of the University as an integral part of the Nation and State, not only for the end of the war, but also for peacetime.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 352\. In the fall of 1939, the University of Marburg was affected by the closure of some universities due to the war. Mayer's first efforts focused on reopening the University. In a letter dated 29 November 1939, he asked Gauleiter [Karl Weinrich](/wiki/Karl_Weinrich "Karl Weinrich") to work with [Hermann Göring](/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring "Hermann Göring") to reopen the University as soon as possible.Anne Christine Nagel, Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, p. 373–452, here: p. 373\. Mayer maintained a close and friendly working relationship with Weinrich in the period that followed.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 353\. His decision to award honorary senatorships to Gauleiter Karl Weinrich and Provincial Governor Wilhelm Traupel was politically motivated. It was intended "to express, on the one hand, the University's close ties to the intellectual life of our people and its unconditional commitment to the goals and tasks of the *NSDAP*, and, on the other hand, its roots in the cultural life of the state of Hesse.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 164; Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 354\. The decision to award the prize was made in the summer of 1940, at a time when the Regime's military successes were winning it increasing acceptance in Academic circles.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 354\. Weinrich declined the honor, citing a decree from the Party Chancellery, but Mayer was able to enjoy his favor throughout his time as rector.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 354 f.
On 30 January 1940, Mayer gave a speech on Germany and Europe in the auditorium of the University of Marburg on the occasion of the founding of the Reich and the assumption of power.Theodor Mayer: *Deutschland und Europa.* Marburg 1940\. He attempted to place the National Socialists' Lebensraum policy in the East in the tradition of Medieval imperial policy.[Stefan Weinfurter](/wiki/Stefan_Weinfurter "Stefan Weinfurter"): *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 9–38, here: p. 14 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)). During this time, he also worked on a "series of lectures on military science," which was intended to "anchor German war aims, instruction and education as well as intellectual stimulation. The target audience was the "common soldier. Above all, the "resistance of the troops" was to be encouraged.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 166\.
| Historical image documents on Theodor Mayer in Marburg \[{{LAGIS\|ref\=LNK}}de/subjects/xsearch/mode/grid/setmode/grid/page/1/current/1/sn/bd?q\=YToxOntzOjY6InBlcnNvbiI7czoxNDoiTWF5ZXIsIFRoZW9kb3IiO30\= Hessian State Office for Historical Regional Studies] |
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#### Coordination of the " War effort of the humanities"
* From 1940 to 1945, Mayer served as the head of the Medieval Department within the [*DFG*](/wiki/German_Research_Foundation "German Research Foundation")\-funded "War Effort of the Humanities." In an article he wrote for the *[Völkischer Beobachter](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter "Völkischer Beobachter")* in 1942, Mayer asserted that historians had to address a number of complex issues related to the war, including the struggle for a new Political order, its historical foundation, the forces that supported it and those that fought against it in the past and present, and the destruction of that order.Quoted from [Johannes Fried](/wiki/Johannes_Fried "Johannes Fried") (ed.): *Vierzig Jahre Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* Sigmaringen 1991, Supplement 1, pp. 28\-30, here: p. 30 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/20298/14089)). To fulfill this role, he organized a series of conferences at historically significant locations in the German Reich until the end of the war. A total of eight conferences were held: in Berlin in June 1940, in Nuremberg in February 1941, in Weimar in November 1941 and May 1942, in Magdeburg in November 1942, in Erlangen in April 1944, in Pretzsch near Wittenberg in October 1944 and in Braunau am Inn in January 1945\. The conference was only canceled in 1943 due to a nationwide ban on conferences.[Frank\-Rutger Hausmann](/wiki/Frank-Rutger_Hausmann "Frank-Rutger Hausmann"): *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, pp. 154\-198\. [Frank\-Rutger Hausmann](/wiki/Frank-Rutger_Hausmann "Frank-Rutger Hausmann") concludes that this science was contextualized and explicitly served ideological purposes.Frank\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 197\. Some of the results of the conferences were published.Cf. for example: Theodor Mayer (Ed.): *Der Vertrag von Verdun 843\. Neun Aufsätze zur Begründung der europäischen Völker\- und Staatenwelt.* Leipzig 1943; Ders. (Ed.): *Adel und Bauern im deutschen Staat des Mittelalters.* Leipzig 1943\.
The inaugural conference convened by Mayer in June 1940 was designed to facilitate a discourse on the utilization of German historical scholarship in the intellectual discourse with Western powers.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 209\. In light of the prevailing war circumstances, the historians were tasked with examining the relationship between England and the European continent.Quoted after Frank\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 157\. Mayer was particularly enthusiastic about the military achievements of the German Armed Forces in May and June 1940\. Consequently, he contemplated expanding the conference's overarching agenda during the inaugural session.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 209\. In light of the altered war circumstances, the discourse with England was soon supplanted by investigations into the role of the Reich in Europe. The "Kriegseinsatz" conference in Nuremberg in February 1941 addressed the subject of "Reich and Europe." That same year, the conference proceedings edited by Mayer and Walter Platzhoff were published under the title "The Reich and Europe." In the foreword, Mayer and Platzhoff asserted that their objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate, which they defined as "not only a military and political one, but just as much an intellectual one." The assembled historians were aware of their duty to provide historical tools for the central problem of the present war and the forthcoming reorganization of Europe. They were also tasked with viewing and interpreting the development of the past from the standpoint of the present.Quoted from Steffen Kaudelka: *Rezeption im Zeitalter der Konfrontation. Französische Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichte in Deutschland 1920–1940\.* Göttingen 2003, p. 94\. The idea of the Reich's role as the "European organizing power" was widespread among historiansOtto Gerhard Oexle: *„Zusammenarbeit mit Baal“. Über die Mentalitäten deutscher Geisteswissenschaftler 1933 – und nach 1945\.* In: *Historische Anthropologie* 8, 2000, pp. 1–27, here: p. 10\. in these years and became one of the "guiding concepts of historical interpretation."Karen Schönwälder: *Historiker und Politik. Geschichtswissenschaft im Nationalsozialismus.* Frankfurt am Main et. al 1992, p. 208\. Mayer gave lectures at the German Scientific Institute in Bucharest in 1942\. The central argument was that "the historical necessity of integrating Romania into a European order led by Germany" was a key point.Quoted from Stefan Weinfurter: *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 9–38, here: p. 13 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)).
In the fall of 1941, a series of discussions on the topic of "Questions of German kingship, the high nobility and the peasantry and their significance for the formation of the state from various perspectives" took place in Weimar. These discussions resulted in the publication of the volume Nobility and peasants in the German state of the Middle Ages, edited by Mayer. In January 1945, Mayer extended an invitation to a scientific discussion on fundamental questions of an all\-Bavarian view of history to be held in Braunau am Inn. In his invitation, he avoided the term "conference" in order to avoid contravening the Reich Minister for Science, Education and National Education Bernhard Rust's directive of 14 April 1942, which permitted only "local events and conferences" to be held, provided that they were deemed "so important to the war" that they could not be postponed.Hans\-Henning Kortüm: *Otto Brunner über Otto den Großen. Aus den letzten Tagen der reichsdeutschen Mediävistik.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 299 (2014\), p. 297–333, here: p. 307\. The event in Braunau am Inn, the birthplace of Adolf Hitler, was probably the last conference held as part of the "Joint venture".Frank\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 193\. Mayer's efforts were well received by the Nazi regime, and he was awarded the [War Merit Cross](/wiki/War_Merit_Cross "War Merit Cross") for his work as part of the "war effort of the humanities".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 222\.
#### Work as President of the Reich Institute and Director of the German Historical Institute in Rome
Mayer not only took over the management of the Imperial Institute, but also the editorship of the *[German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages](/wiki/Deutsches_Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Erforschung_des_Mittelalters "Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters")*, the most important historical journal for the study of the Middle Ages. As president, he wanted to integrate the MGH more strongly into historical research beyond its source\-related tasks and transform it into a far\-reaching institute for the history of the Middle Ages. In the two and a half years until the end of the war, he was hardly able to realize any of these plans. A provisional edition of the charters of the [Hohenstaufen](/wiki/Hohenstaufen "Hohenstaufen") rulers [Frederick I](/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa "Frederick Barbarossa") and [Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor") and a new edition of volume IX of the Scriptores series were planned as new editorial projects.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 521; Horst Fuhrmann: *„Sind eben alles Menschen gewesen“. Gelehrtenleben im 19\. und 20\. Jahrhundert. Dargestellt am Beispiel der Monumenta Germaniae Historica und ihrer Mitarbeiter.* Munich 1996, pp. 62–64\.
As President of the Reichsinstitut in [Personal Union](/wiki/Personal_union "Personal union"), Mayer was also Director of the [German Historical Institute in Rome](/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_in_Rome "German Historical Institute in Rome"). In this capacity, he was responsible for the academic staff remaining in Rome and had to ensure the future of the valuable library. In 1942, he initiated a research project with the aim of "researching imperial rule in Italy, especially the imperial estate."Theodor Mayer: *Jahresbericht 1942\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 33 (1944\), p. V–VI, here: P. VI. Cf. also Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 521\. In a memorandum dated 1 April 1944 (piano Mayer), Mayer considered the removal of all the holdings of the central Italian archives to be unfeasible. He also expressed his disapproval of the transfer of individual archival records to Germany. Instead, he demanded that important archives be photographed. According to Jürgen Klöckler, Mayer thus prevented a far\-reaching theft of archives, namely the large\-scale transportation of deeds, documents, and files relating to Germany to the Reich. Thanks to this decision, he was able to institutionally anchor young historians in Rome in an expanded art protection department of the military administration, thus sparing them conscription into the German Armed Forces.Jürgen Klöckler: *Verhinderter Archivalienraub in Italien. Theodor Mayer und die Abteilung „Archivschutz“ bei der Militärverwaltung in Verona 1943–1945\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 86 (2006\), pp. 491–537, here: p. 508 f. and 521 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport4_mods_00001387)).
Mayer relocated the extensive Berlin library holdings from Berlin to Bavaria in January 1944, fearing air raids. This measure was carried out without prior approval from the ministry.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, pp. 493–530, here: p. 522\. The two employees, Margarete Kühn and Ursula Brumm, and some of the furniture remained in Berlin. Kühn states that Mayer remained resolutely National Socialist to the end and attempted to influence his employees accordingly.Eckhard Müller\-Mertens: *Kaiser, Reich und Region. Studien und Texte aus der Arbeit an den Constitutiones des 14\. Jahrhunderts und zur Geschichte der Monumenta Germaniae Historica.* In: Mathias Lawo, Michael Lindner, Eckhard Müller\-Mertens, Olaf B. Rader (Ed.): *Kaiser, Reich und Region. Studien und Texte aus der Arbeit an den Constitutiones des 14\. Jahrhunderts und zur Geschichte der Monumenta Germaniae Historica.* Berlin 1997, pp. 1–59, here: p. 48, Note 182 ([online](https://edoc.bbaw.de/files/190/25GAQYGYCpN.pdf)).
#### Mayer's plans for a German Historical Institute in Paris
In a memorandum dated 10 February 1941, Mayer proposed the founding of a German Historical Institute in Paris in response to the military successes of the German Armed Forces in France. He argued that German historical scholarship had the task of assuming a "leading role in the European area corresponding to its political position" and of "shaping or at least decisively helping to shape the European view of history." Mayer understood a "European" view of history to mean a "Germanic history of Europe," a view of the history of Europe "in the Germanic sense." This project was "only possible through the most rigorous academic work on the broadest basis and with the best forces and methods, but also with the clearest objectives."First print of Theodor Mayer's memorandum on the establishment of a historical institute in: Conrad Grau: *Planungen für ein deutsches historisches Institut in Paris während des Zweiten Weltkrieges.* In: *Francia* 19/3 (1992\), pp. 109–128, here: pp. 119–122 ([online](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb00016354?page=122)). Quotes according to Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 182; Steffen Kaudelka: *Rezeption im Zeitalter der Konfrontation. Französische Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichte in Deutschland 1920–1940\.* Göttingen 2003, p. 24\.
He pursued this idea for approximately two years. In March 1942, Mayer proposed Büttner as the academic director of a new German historical institute to be established in Paris.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, p. 274–292, here: p. 270 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). In April 1942, he presented reflections on the present and future of historical scholarship in the Völkischer Beobachter. The "present tasks" of German historical scholarship included addressing the "questions of the present war, with the struggle for a European order, with its historical substructure." Additionally, historical scholarship was tasked with "helping build the future of the people" and presenting the "leading position of the German people" in a "history of the Germanic\-German world since the earliest times." The community of European peoples and states was to plan in the sense of a "pan\-Germanic conception of history." As an institutional basis, research centers outside the German Reich were to be created. Once again, Mayer proposed a historical institute in Paris.Otto Gerhard Oexle: *Von der völkischen Geschichte zur modernen Sozialgeschichte.* In: Heinz Duchhardt, Gerhard May (Ed.): *Geschichtswissenschaft um 1950\.* Mainz, pp. 1–36, here: p. 31\. The course of the war necessitated the repeated revision of his institute plan. Ultimately, even a position for a historian could not be filled.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer – Ein Wissenschaftsorganisator mit großen Möglichkeiten.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, p. 60–77, here: p. 61 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010806)). This was due to the scarcity of financial resources as the war progressed and disputes over responsibilities between the ministries involved. In November 1957, Mayer asserted to [Eugen Ewig](/wiki/Eugen_Ewig "Eugen Ewig"), a prominent figure in the establishment of the *[Centre Allemand de Recherche Historique](/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_Paris "German Historical Institute Paris")*, that he was the intellectual originator of the institution.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 187\. However, Mayer's concepts did not serve as a model during the period of Franco\-German rapprochement and therefore remained unmentioned in the discussions and correspondence.Stefan Martens: *Vorwort.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, pp. 9–13, here: p. 10 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010803)).
#### The Constance working group and the development of a "crisis\-proof view of History"
Mayer made several statements in the 1950s on the question of a new image of History.See also Theodor Mayer: *Der Wandel unseres Bildes vom Mittelalter. Stand und Aufgaben der mittelalterlichen Geschichtsforschung.* In: *Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte* 94 (1958\), p. 1–37 ([online](https://periodika.digitale-sammlungen.de/bdlg/Blatt_bsb00000297,00008.html)). [Stefan Weinfurter](/wiki/Stefan_Weinfurter "Stefan Weinfurter") notes that the call for a "new image of history \[...] runs like a red thread through Theodor Mayer's written and oral statements.Stefan Weinfurter: *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 9–38, here: p. 11 ([online](http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)); see also Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 252; Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 88 ([full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118/showToc)). In a 1952 memorandum on the founding of the Constance Institute, Mayer called for history to be "lifted out of the discord of contemporary political life" and for "the foundations of a crisis\-proof history" to be laid. He had observed "with horror" "how German history was rewritten with every political change.Quoted from: Otto Gerhard Oexle: *‘Staat’ – ‘Kultur’ – ‘Volk’. Deutsche Mittelalterhistoriker auf der Suche nach der historischen Wirklichkeit 1918–1945\.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 63–101, here: p. 100 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17832/11641)). In 1955, Mayer declared that the most important task of the "Municipal Institute for Landscape History of the Lake Constance Region" in Constance, which was founded under his leadership, was "to develop a new picture of the past of the German people and the German Reich that is crisis\-proof and does not have to be rewritten with every change of political mood. This goal was to be achieved through the "promotion of scientific regional research in Germany, especially in the Lake Constance region.Matthias Werner: *Zwischen politischer Begrenzung und methodischer Offenheit. Wege und Stationen deutscher Landesgeschichtsforschung im 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 251–364, here: p. 251 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/viewFile/17837/11646)). As he explained in 1953, historical regional research should form the basis for this, since it is "particularly capable of building bridges because it does not start from state\-oriented concepts. This approach made it possible to "demonstrate forces that we cannot really imagine on the basis of normal written sources.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 253\. In 1961, Mayer wanted "an image of history \[...] that is not endangered, that does not have to be turned upside down again and again with the next political or other change \[...]". However, he did not back up his general considerations with a research program.Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, p. 43–59, here: p. 44 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)). Bernd Weisbrod sees this project as an example of the "rhetorical strategies of self\-denazification in the mindset of Mandarinism".Bernd Weisbrod: *Das Moratorium der Mandarine. Zur Selbstentnazifizierung der Wissenschaften in der Nachkriegszeit.* In: [Hartmut Lehmann](/wiki/Hartmut_Lehmann "Hartmut Lehmann"), Otto Gerhard Oexle (Ed.): *Nationalsozialismus in den Kulturwissenschaften.*Vol. 2: *Fächer, Milieus, Karrieren.* Göttingen 2004, pp. 259–279, here: p. 273\. [Peter Moraw](/wiki/Peter_Moraw "Peter Moraw") sees it as a "form of self\-deception".Peter Moraw: *Kontinuität und später Wandel: Bemerkungen zur deutschen und deutschsprachigen Mediävistik 1945–1970/75\.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 103–138, here: p. 128 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17833/11642)). For Reto Heinzel, Mayer was an unteachable man who remained "in search of a new Middle Ages on the basis of popular culture.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 278\.
The conferences of the 1950s dealt with questions of constitutional history. Historians who enjoyed the personal esteem of the organizer Mayer were invited. Besides Mayer, the founding members included the medievalists [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl "Karl Bosl"), [Walter Schlesinger](/wiki/Walter_Schlesinger "Walter Schlesinger"), [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann "Helmut Beumann"), Heinrich Büttner, [Eugen Ewig](/wiki/Eugen_Ewig "Eugen Ewig"), [Otto Feger](/wiki/Otto_Eger "Otto Eger"), and Franz Steinbach, as well as the Munich Byzantinist [Hans\-Georg Beck](/wiki/Hans_Georg_Beck "Hans Georg Beck").Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 177\. Among the speakers were friends and colleagues such as Hektor Ammann, Heinrich Dannenbauer, Eugen Ewig, [Wilhelm Ebel](/wiki/Wilhelm_Ebel "Wilhelm Ebel"), Ernst Klebel, Walther Mitzka, Walter Schlesinger, [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann "Helmut Beumann"), Heinrich Büttner, Karl Siegfried Bader, [Otto Brunner](/wiki/Otto_Brunner "Otto Brunner"), and [Joachim Werner](/wiki/Joachim_Werner_%28archaeologist%29 "Joachim Werner (archaeologist)").Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, p. 73–89, here: p. 79 f. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/content/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)). According to Nagel, the working group was a "receptacle for politically charged individuals.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 156\. The interdisciplinary approach to the conference topic by historians, archaeologists and philologists was typical of the Constance working group. For Mayer, it was not only the joint work that was of central importance for scientific progress, but also the personal relationships. Mayer repeatedly emphasized that the Constance Circle was not only a working group, but also a "circle of friends".Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, pp. 43–59, here: p. 44 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)); Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 255\. Bosl, Büttner, Ewig, Schlesinger and Steinbach were all professors at renowned universities and at the same time provided a link to young academics. Many of the young lecturers later became professors themselves, so that the working group soon gained a corresponding reputation in medieval studies.Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, p. 73–89, here: p. 78 ([online](https://perspectivia.net/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)); Hans\-Werner Goetz: *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 82\.
There was a continuity of personnel from the " wartime " conferences to the Reichenau conferences. The medievalists Walter Schlesinger and Karl Bosl also played a leading role in the Constance Working Group on Medieval History.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, pp. 493–530, here: p. 517\. Traute Endemann has pointed out that the personal environment and conceptual origins of the early Constance working group date back to the early 1930s.Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 15 ([full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118/showToc)). Frank\-Rutger Hausmann emphasizes that the academic collaboration with the Constance Working Group continued after the war.Frank\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 196\.
|
[
"### Activity as a science organizer",
"#### Southwest German Science Organization",
"The majority of the funding for the Upper Rhine Institute went towards the implementation of regional history projects. The money was to be used to finance long\\-term work on an Alemannic atlas and research into the Zähringers in Burgundy. Mayer wanted to achieve the envisaged goal of a \"new foundation of Alemannic history\" through \"comprehensive research in all areas\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 132\\. Mayer's activities for the institute were viewed differently by his colleagues. According to Franz Quarthal, Mayer intended to \"give the institute the character of a medieval\\-oriented University Institute of Regional History\".Franz Quarthal: *Das Alemannische Institut von seiner Gründung bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges.* In: *Das Alemannische Institut. 75 Jahre grenzüberschreitende Kommunikation und Forschung (1931–2006\\).* Published by the Alemannisches Institut Freiburg im Breisgau. Freiburg and Munich 2007, p. 9–40, here: p. 17 ([online](https://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/bitstream/11682/5312/1/qua27.pdf)). According to Michael Fahlbusch, he played a significant role in the \"*[Gleichschaltung](/wiki/Gleichschaltung \"Gleichschaltung\")*\" of the institute.Michael Fahlbusch: *Wissenschaft im Dienst der nationalsozialistischen Politik? Die „Volksdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaften“ 1931–1945\\.* Baden\\-Baden 1999, p. 370\\.",
"In 1935, Mayer became head of the Southwest German Research Association. He was responsible for the organization and management of scientific conferences. The entire western border region was treated from a folkloristic point of view. The results of the conferences were not published in book form, but were distributed to the individual conference participants as working papers with the note \"strictly confidential\". The aim was not to make the results of the meetings known to a wider public or to make them available to international researchers for review.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 140\\.",
"As chairman of the Baden Historical Commission, Mayer was able to exert considerable influence on publications. For the Journal for the History of the Upper Rhine, he advocated the publication of \"works with folkloristic content.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 147\\. As many articles as possible should deal with Switzerland and Alsace. Mayer considered academic life in Alsace \"too weak\". The German influence on science in the neighboring French region should be maintained.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 147 f. Mayer repeatedly rejected articles for political or anti\\-Semitic reasons. When he learned that the author of an essay on the Thanner Steinmetz Order was the former Social Democratic Minister of Labor [Rudolf Wissell](/wiki/Rudolf_Wissell \"Rudolf Wissell\"), \"the amateurish treatment of the material and the immense breadth seemed clear and understandable\" to him.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 149\\. The article was published after Mayer's departure in 1942\\.Rudolf Wissell: *Die älteste Ordnung des großen Hüttenbundes der Steinmetzen von 1459\\.* In: *Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins* 94 (1942\\), p. 51–133\\. Mayer tried to prevent the publication of an essay by Käthe Spiegel on the \"peace project of a Fürstenberger\". He wrote to the editor, Manfred Krebs, that the essay could not be printed \"because Mrs. Spiegel is not Aryan, but 100% Jewish. I know her from Prague.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 150\\.",
"#### Marburg Rectorate",
"As rector, Mayer wanted above all to emphasize the importance of the University as an integral part of the Nation and State, not only for the end of the war, but also for peacetime.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 352\\. In the fall of 1939, the University of Marburg was affected by the closure of some universities due to the war. Mayer's first efforts focused on reopening the University. In a letter dated 29 November 1939, he asked Gauleiter [Karl Weinrich](/wiki/Karl_Weinrich \"Karl Weinrich\") to work with [Hermann Göring](/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring \"Hermann Göring\") to reopen the University as soon as possible.Anne Christine Nagel, Ulrich Sieg (Edited): *Die Philipps\\-Universität Marburg im Nationalsozialismus. Dokumente zu ihrer Geschichte.* Stuttgart 2000, p. 373–452, here: p. 373\\. Mayer maintained a close and friendly working relationship with Weinrich in the period that followed.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 353\\. His decision to award honorary senatorships to Gauleiter Karl Weinrich and Provincial Governor Wilhelm Traupel was politically motivated. It was intended \"to express, on the one hand, the University's close ties to the intellectual life of our people and its unconditional commitment to the goals and tasks of the *NSDAP*, and, on the other hand, its roots in the cultural life of the state of Hesse.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 164; Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 354\\. The decision to award the prize was made in the summer of 1940, at a time when the Regime's military successes were winning it increasing acceptance in Academic circles.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, p. 343–364, here: p. 354\\. Weinrich declined the honor, citing a decree from the Party Chancellery, but Mayer was able to enjoy his favor throughout his time as rector.Anne Christine Nagel: *Zwischen Führertum und Selbstverwaltung. Theodor Mayer als Rektor der Marburger Universität 1939–1942\\.* In: Winfried Speitkamp (Ed.): *Staat, Gesellschaft, Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur modernen hessischen Geschichte.* Marburg 1994, pp. 343–364, here: p. 354 f.",
"On 30 January 1940, Mayer gave a speech on Germany and Europe in the auditorium of the University of Marburg on the occasion of the founding of the Reich and the assumption of power.Theodor Mayer: *Deutschland und Europa.* Marburg 1940\\. He attempted to place the National Socialists' Lebensraum policy in the East in the tradition of Medieval imperial policy.[Stefan Weinfurter](/wiki/Stefan_Weinfurter \"Stefan Weinfurter\"): *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 9–38, here: p. 14 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)). During this time, he also worked on a \"series of lectures on military science,\" which was intended to \"anchor German war aims, instruction and education as well as intellectual stimulation. The target audience was the \"common soldier. Above all, the \"resistance of the troops\" was to be encouraged.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 166\\.",
"| Historical image documents on Theodor Mayer in Marburg \\[{{LAGIS\\|ref\\=LNK}}de/subjects/xsearch/mode/grid/setmode/grid/page/1/current/1/sn/bd?q\\=YToxOntzOjY6InBlcnNvbiI7czoxNDoiTWF5ZXIsIFRoZW9kb3IiO30\\= Hessian State Office for Historical Regional Studies] |\n| --- |",
"",
"#### Coordination of the \" War effort of the humanities\"",
"* From 1940 to 1945, Mayer served as the head of the Medieval Department within the [*DFG*](/wiki/German_Research_Foundation \"German Research Foundation\")\\-funded \"War Effort of the Humanities.\" In an article he wrote for the *[Völkischer Beobachter](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter \"Völkischer Beobachter\")* in 1942, Mayer asserted that historians had to address a number of complex issues related to the war, including the struggle for a new Political order, its historical foundation, the forces that supported it and those that fought against it in the past and present, and the destruction of that order.Quoted from [Johannes Fried](/wiki/Johannes_Fried \"Johannes Fried\") (ed.): *Vierzig Jahre Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* Sigmaringen 1991, Supplement 1, pp. 28\\-30, here: p. 30 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/20298/14089)). To fulfill this role, he organized a series of conferences at historically significant locations in the German Reich until the end of the war. A total of eight conferences were held: in Berlin in June 1940, in Nuremberg in February 1941, in Weimar in November 1941 and May 1942, in Magdeburg in November 1942, in Erlangen in April 1944, in Pretzsch near Wittenberg in October 1944 and in Braunau am Inn in January 1945\\. The conference was only canceled in 1943 due to a nationwide ban on conferences.[Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann](/wiki/Frank-Rutger_Hausmann \"Frank-Rutger Hausmann\"): *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, pp. 154\\-198\\. [Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann](/wiki/Frank-Rutger_Hausmann \"Frank-Rutger Hausmann\") concludes that this science was contextualized and explicitly served ideological purposes.Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 197\\. Some of the results of the conferences were published.Cf. for example: Theodor Mayer (Ed.): *Der Vertrag von Verdun 843\\. Neun Aufsätze zur Begründung der europäischen Völker\\- und Staatenwelt.* Leipzig 1943; Ders. (Ed.): *Adel und Bauern im deutschen Staat des Mittelalters.* Leipzig 1943\\.",
"The inaugural conference convened by Mayer in June 1940 was designed to facilitate a discourse on the utilization of German historical scholarship in the intellectual discourse with Western powers.Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 209\\. In light of the prevailing war circumstances, the historians were tasked with examining the relationship between England and the European continent.Quoted after Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 157\\. Mayer was particularly enthusiastic about the military achievements of the German Armed Forces in May and June 1940\\. Consequently, he contemplated expanding the conference's overarching agenda during the inaugural session.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 209\\. In light of the altered war circumstances, the discourse with England was soon supplanted by investigations into the role of the Reich in Europe. The \"Kriegseinsatz\" conference in Nuremberg in February 1941 addressed the subject of \"Reich and Europe.\" That same year, the conference proceedings edited by Mayer and Walter Platzhoff were published under the title \"The Reich and Europe.\" In the foreword, Mayer and Platzhoff asserted that their objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate, which they defined as \"not only a military and political one, but just as much an intellectual one.\" The assembled historians were aware of their duty to provide historical tools for the central problem of the present war and the forthcoming reorganization of Europe. They were also tasked with viewing and interpreting the development of the past from the standpoint of the present.Quoted from Steffen Kaudelka: *Rezeption im Zeitalter der Konfrontation. Französische Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichte in Deutschland 1920–1940\\.* Göttingen 2003, p. 94\\. The idea of the Reich's role as the \"European organizing power\" was widespread among historiansOtto Gerhard Oexle: *„Zusammenarbeit mit Baal“. Über die Mentalitäten deutscher Geisteswissenschaftler 1933 – und nach 1945\\.* In: *Historische Anthropologie* 8, 2000, pp. 1–27, here: p. 10\\. in these years and became one of the \"guiding concepts of historical interpretation.\"Karen Schönwälder: *Historiker und Politik. Geschichtswissenschaft im Nationalsozialismus.* Frankfurt am Main et. al 1992, p. 208\\. Mayer gave lectures at the German Scientific Institute in Bucharest in 1942\\. The central argument was that \"the historical necessity of integrating Romania into a European order led by Germany\" was a key point.Quoted from Stefan Weinfurter: *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 9–38, here: p. 13 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)).",
"In the fall of 1941, a series of discussions on the topic of \"Questions of German kingship, the high nobility and the peasantry and their significance for the formation of the state from various perspectives\" took place in Weimar. These discussions resulted in the publication of the volume Nobility and peasants in the German state of the Middle Ages, edited by Mayer. In January 1945, Mayer extended an invitation to a scientific discussion on fundamental questions of an all\\-Bavarian view of history to be held in Braunau am Inn. In his invitation, he avoided the term \"conference\" in order to avoid contravening the Reich Minister for Science, Education and National Education Bernhard Rust's directive of 14 April 1942, which permitted only \"local events and conferences\" to be held, provided that they were deemed \"so important to the war\" that they could not be postponed.Hans\\-Henning Kortüm: *Otto Brunner über Otto den Großen. Aus den letzten Tagen der reichsdeutschen Mediävistik.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 299 (2014\\), p. 297–333, here: p. 307\\. The event in Braunau am Inn, the birthplace of Adolf Hitler, was probably the last conference held as part of the \"Joint venture\".Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 193\\. Mayer's efforts were well received by the Nazi regime, and he was awarded the [War Merit Cross](/wiki/War_Merit_Cross \"War Merit Cross\") for his work as part of the \"war effort of the humanities\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 222\\.",
"#### Work as President of the Reich Institute and Director of the German Historical Institute in Rome",
"Mayer not only took over the management of the Imperial Institute, but also the editorship of the *[German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages](/wiki/Deutsches_Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Erforschung_des_Mittelalters \"Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters\")*, the most important historical journal for the study of the Middle Ages. As president, he wanted to integrate the MGH more strongly into historical research beyond its source\\-related tasks and transform it into a far\\-reaching institute for the history of the Middle Ages. In the two and a half years until the end of the war, he was hardly able to realize any of these plans. A provisional edition of the charters of the [Hohenstaufen](/wiki/Hohenstaufen \"Hohenstaufen\") rulers [Frederick I](/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa \"Frederick Barbarossa\") and [Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor\") and a new edition of volume IX of the Scriptores series were planned as new editorial projects.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 521; Horst Fuhrmann: *„Sind eben alles Menschen gewesen“. Gelehrtenleben im 19\\. und 20\\. Jahrhundert. Dargestellt am Beispiel der Monumenta Germaniae Historica und ihrer Mitarbeiter.* Munich 1996, pp. 62–64\\.",
"As President of the Reichsinstitut in [Personal Union](/wiki/Personal_union \"Personal union\"), Mayer was also Director of the [German Historical Institute in Rome](/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_in_Rome \"German Historical Institute in Rome\"). In this capacity, he was responsible for the academic staff remaining in Rome and had to ensure the future of the valuable library. In 1942, he initiated a research project with the aim of \"researching imperial rule in Italy, especially the imperial estate.\"Theodor Mayer: *Jahresbericht 1942\\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 33 (1944\\), p. V–VI, here: P. VI. Cf. also Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, p. 493–530, here: p. 521\\. In a memorandum dated 1 April 1944 (piano Mayer), Mayer considered the removal of all the holdings of the central Italian archives to be unfeasible. He also expressed his disapproval of the transfer of individual archival records to Germany. Instead, he demanded that important archives be photographed. According to Jürgen Klöckler, Mayer thus prevented a far\\-reaching theft of archives, namely the large\\-scale transportation of deeds, documents, and files relating to Germany to the Reich. Thanks to this decision, he was able to institutionally anchor young historians in Rome in an expanded art protection department of the military administration, thus sparing them conscription into the German Armed Forces.Jürgen Klöckler: *Verhinderter Archivalienraub in Italien. Theodor Mayer und die Abteilung „Archivschutz“ bei der Militärverwaltung in Verona 1943–1945\\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 86 (2006\\), pp. 491–537, here: p. 508 f. and 521 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport4_mods_00001387)).",
"Mayer relocated the extensive Berlin library holdings from Berlin to Bavaria in January 1944, fearing air raids. This measure was carried out without prior approval from the ministry.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, pp. 493–530, here: p. 522\\. The two employees, Margarete Kühn and Ursula Brumm, and some of the furniture remained in Berlin. Kühn states that Mayer remained resolutely National Socialist to the end and attempted to influence his employees accordingly.Eckhard Müller\\-Mertens: *Kaiser, Reich und Region. Studien und Texte aus der Arbeit an den Constitutiones des 14\\. Jahrhunderts und zur Geschichte der Monumenta Germaniae Historica.* In: Mathias Lawo, Michael Lindner, Eckhard Müller\\-Mertens, Olaf B. Rader (Ed.): *Kaiser, Reich und Region. Studien und Texte aus der Arbeit an den Constitutiones des 14\\. Jahrhunderts und zur Geschichte der Monumenta Germaniae Historica.* Berlin 1997, pp. 1–59, here: p. 48, Note 182 ([online](https://edoc.bbaw.de/files/190/25GAQYGYCpN.pdf)).",
"#### Mayer's plans for a German Historical Institute in Paris",
"In a memorandum dated 10 February 1941, Mayer proposed the founding of a German Historical Institute in Paris in response to the military successes of the German Armed Forces in France. He argued that German historical scholarship had the task of assuming a \"leading role in the European area corresponding to its political position\" and of \"shaping or at least decisively helping to shape the European view of history.\" Mayer understood a \"European\" view of history to mean a \"Germanic history of Europe,\" a view of the history of Europe \"in the Germanic sense.\" This project was \"only possible through the most rigorous academic work on the broadest basis and with the best forces and methods, but also with the clearest objectives.\"First print of Theodor Mayer's memorandum on the establishment of a historical institute in: Conrad Grau: *Planungen für ein deutsches historisches Institut in Paris während des Zweiten Weltkrieges.* In: *Francia* 19/3 (1992\\), pp. 109–128, here: pp. 119–122 ([online](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb00016354?page=122)). Quotes according to Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 182; Steffen Kaudelka: *Rezeption im Zeitalter der Konfrontation. Französische Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichte in Deutschland 1920–1940\\.* Göttingen 2003, p. 24\\.",
"He pursued this idea for approximately two years. In March 1942, Mayer proposed Büttner as the academic director of a new German historical institute to be established in Paris.Wolfgang Freund: *Heinrich Büttner: Zwischen Nischenstrategie und Hochschulkarriere.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter. Ein personengeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2007, p. 274–292, here: p. 270 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010815)). In April 1942, he presented reflections on the present and future of historical scholarship in the Völkischer Beobachter. The \"present tasks\" of German historical scholarship included addressing the \"questions of the present war, with the struggle for a European order, with its historical substructure.\" Additionally, historical scholarship was tasked with \"helping build the future of the people\" and presenting the \"leading position of the German people\" in a \"history of the Germanic\\-German world since the earliest times.\" The community of European peoples and states was to plan in the sense of a \"pan\\-Germanic conception of history.\" As an institutional basis, research centers outside the German Reich were to be created. Once again, Mayer proposed a historical institute in Paris.Otto Gerhard Oexle: *Von der völkischen Geschichte zur modernen Sozialgeschichte.* In: Heinz Duchhardt, Gerhard May (Ed.): *Geschichtswissenschaft um 1950\\.* Mainz, pp. 1–36, here: p. 31\\. The course of the war necessitated the repeated revision of his institute plan. Ultimately, even a position for a historian could not be filled.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer – Ein Wissenschaftsorganisator mit großen Möglichkeiten.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, p. 60–77, here: p. 61 ([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport_mods_00010806)). This was due to the scarcity of financial resources as the war progressed and disputes over responsibilities between the ministries involved. In November 1957, Mayer asserted to [Eugen Ewig](/wiki/Eugen_Ewig \"Eugen Ewig\"), a prominent figure in the establishment of the *[Centre Allemand de Recherche Historique](/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_Paris \"German Historical Institute Paris\")*, that he was the intellectual originator of the institution.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 187\\. However, Mayer's concepts did not serve as a model during the period of Franco\\-German rapprochement and therefore remained unmentioned in the discussions and correspondence.Stefan Martens: *Vorwort.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, pp. 9–13, here: p. 10 ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/receive/ploneimport_mods_00010803)).",
"#### The Constance working group and the development of a \"crisis\\-proof view of History\"",
"Mayer made several statements in the 1950s on the question of a new image of History.See also Theodor Mayer: *Der Wandel unseres Bildes vom Mittelalter. Stand und Aufgaben der mittelalterlichen Geschichtsforschung.* In: *Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte* 94 (1958\\), p. 1–37 ([online](https://periodika.digitale-sammlungen.de/bdlg/Blatt_bsb00000297,00008.html)). [Stefan Weinfurter](/wiki/Stefan_Weinfurter \"Stefan Weinfurter\") notes that the call for a \"new image of history \\[...] runs like a red thread through Theodor Mayer's written and oral statements.Stefan Weinfurter: *Standorte der Mediävistik. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis im Spiegel seiner Tagungen.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 9–38, here: p. 11 ([online](http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17830/11639)); see also Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 252; Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 88 ([full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118/showToc)). In a 1952 memorandum on the founding of the Constance Institute, Mayer called for history to be \"lifted out of the discord of contemporary political life\" and for \"the foundations of a crisis\\-proof history\" to be laid. He had observed \"with horror\" \"how German history was rewritten with every political change.Quoted from: Otto Gerhard Oexle: *‘Staat’ – ‘Kultur’ – ‘Volk’. Deutsche Mittelalterhistoriker auf der Suche nach der historischen Wirklichkeit 1918–1945\\.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 63–101, here: p. 100 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17832/11641)). In 1955, Mayer declared that the most important task of the \"Municipal Institute for Landscape History of the Lake Constance Region\" in Constance, which was founded under his leadership, was \"to develop a new picture of the past of the German people and the German Reich that is crisis\\-proof and does not have to be rewritten with every change of political mood. This goal was to be achieved through the \"promotion of scientific regional research in Germany, especially in the Lake Constance region.Matthias Werner: *Zwischen politischer Begrenzung und methodischer Offenheit. Wege und Stationen deutscher Landesgeschichtsforschung im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 251–364, here: p. 251 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/viewFile/17837/11646)). As he explained in 1953, historical regional research should form the basis for this, since it is \"particularly capable of building bridges because it does not start from state\\-oriented concepts. This approach made it possible to \"demonstrate forces that we cannot really imagine on the basis of normal written sources.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 253\\. In 1961, Mayer wanted \"an image of history \\[...] that is not endangered, that does not have to be turned upside down again and again with the next political or other change \\[...]\". However, he did not back up his general considerations with a research program.Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, p. 43–59, here: p. 44 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)). Bernd Weisbrod sees this project as an example of the \"rhetorical strategies of self\\-denazification in the mindset of Mandarinism\".Bernd Weisbrod: *Das Moratorium der Mandarine. Zur Selbstentnazifizierung der Wissenschaften in der Nachkriegszeit.* In: [Hartmut Lehmann](/wiki/Hartmut_Lehmann \"Hartmut Lehmann\"), Otto Gerhard Oexle (Ed.): *Nationalsozialismus in den Kulturwissenschaften.*Vol. 2: *Fächer, Milieus, Karrieren.* Göttingen 2004, pp. 259–279, here: p. 273\\. [Peter Moraw](/wiki/Peter_Moraw \"Peter Moraw\") sees it as a \"form of self\\-deception\".Peter Moraw: *Kontinuität und später Wandel: Bemerkungen zur deutschen und deutschsprachigen Mediävistik 1945–1970/75\\.* In: Peter Moraw, Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): *Die deutschsprachige Mediävistik im 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Ostfildern 2005, pp. 103–138, here: p. 128 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/17833/11642)). For Reto Heinzel, Mayer was an unteachable man who remained \"in search of a new Middle Ages on the basis of popular culture.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 278\\.",
"The conferences of the 1950s dealt with questions of constitutional history. Historians who enjoyed the personal esteem of the organizer Mayer were invited. Besides Mayer, the founding members included the medievalists [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl \"Karl Bosl\"), [Walter Schlesinger](/wiki/Walter_Schlesinger \"Walter Schlesinger\"), [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann \"Helmut Beumann\"), Heinrich Büttner, [Eugen Ewig](/wiki/Eugen_Ewig \"Eugen Ewig\"), [Otto Feger](/wiki/Otto_Eger \"Otto Eger\"), and Franz Steinbach, as well as the Munich Byzantinist [Hans\\-Georg Beck](/wiki/Hans_Georg_Beck \"Hans Georg Beck\").Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 177\\. Among the speakers were friends and colleagues such as Hektor Ammann, Heinrich Dannenbauer, Eugen Ewig, [Wilhelm Ebel](/wiki/Wilhelm_Ebel \"Wilhelm Ebel\"), Ernst Klebel, Walther Mitzka, Walter Schlesinger, [Helmut Beumann](/wiki/Helmut_Beumann \"Helmut Beumann\"), Heinrich Büttner, Karl Siegfried Bader, [Otto Brunner](/wiki/Otto_Brunner \"Otto Brunner\"), and [Joachim Werner](/wiki/Joachim_Werner_%28archaeologist%29 \"Joachim Werner (archaeologist)\").Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, p. 73–89, here: p. 79 f. ([online](https://www.perspectivia.net/content/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)). According to Nagel, the working group was a \"receptacle for politically charged individuals.Anne Christine Nagel: *Im Schatten des Dritten Reichs. Mittelalterforschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945–1970\\.* Göttingen 2005, p. 156\\. The interdisciplinary approach to the conference topic by historians, archaeologists and philologists was typical of the Constance working group. For Mayer, it was not only the joint work that was of central importance for scientific progress, but also the personal relationships. Mayer repeatedly emphasized that the Constance Circle was not only a working group, but also a \"circle of friends\".Reto Heinzel: *Von der Volkstumswissenschaft zum Konstanzer Arbeitskreis. Theodor Mayer und die interdisziplinäre deutsche Gemeinschaftsforschung.* In: Stefan Albrecht, Jiří Malíř, Ralph Melville (Ed.): *Die „sudetendeutsche Geschichtsschreibung“ 1918–1960\\. Zur Vorgeschichte und Gründung der Historischen Kommission der Sudetenländer.* Munich 2008, pp. 43–59, here: p. 44 ([online](https://ostdok.de/id/BV022552888/ft/bsb00092919?page=60)); Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 255\\. Bosl, Büttner, Ewig, Schlesinger and Steinbach were all professors at renowned universities and at the same time provided a link to young academics. Many of the young lecturers later became professors themselves, so that the working group soon gained a corresponding reputation in medieval studies.Anne Christine Nagel: *„Gipfeltreffen der Mediävisten“. Der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Die Rückkehr der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft in die „Ökumene der Historiker.“ Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Ansatz.* Munich 2008, p. 73–89, here: p. 78 ([online](https://perspectivia.net/publikationen/phs/pfeil_geschichtswissenschaft/nagel_gipfeltreffen)); Hans\\-Werner Goetz: *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 82\\.",
"There was a continuity of personnel from the \" wartime \" conferences to the Reichenau conferences. The medievalists Walter Schlesinger and Karl Bosl also played a leading role in the Constance Working Group on Medieval History.Helmut Maurer: *Theodor Mayer (1883–1972\\). Sein Wirken vornehmlich während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus.* In: Karel Hruza (Ed.): *Österreichische Historiker 1900–1945\\. Lebensläufe und Karrieren in Österreich, Deutschland und der Tschechoslowakei in wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Portraits.* Vienna et. al 2008, pp. 493–530, here: p. 517\\. Traute Endemann has pointed out that the personal environment and conceptual origins of the early Constance working group date back to the early 1930s.Traute Endemann: *Geschichte des Konstanzer Arbeitskreises. Entwicklung und Strukturen 1951–2001\\.* Stuttgart 2001, p. 15 ([full text online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/issue/view/2118/showToc)). Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann emphasizes that the academic collaboration with the Constance Working Group continued after the war.Frank\\-Rutger Hausmann: *„Deutsche Geisteswissenschaft“ im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die „Aktion Ritterbusch“ (1940–1945\\).* 3rd, expanded edition. Heidelberg 2007, p. 196\\.",
""
] |
### Research work
#### The beginnings of Economic History and the turn towards National Science
Mayer's early work in the 1920s dealt with problems of administrative and economic history. His dissertation focused on economic history. His work focused on trade on the Danube, "on which the main trade of Austria took place". He published other important studies on the Passau toll books (1908\)Theodor Mayer: *Zwei Passauer Mautbücher aus den Jahren 1400/01 und 1401/02\.* In: *Verhandlungen des Historischen Vereins für Niederbayern* 44 (1908\), pp. 1–258\. and on the Vienna [staple right](/wiki/Staple_right "Staple right").Theodor Mayer: *Zur Frage des Wiener Stapelrechts.* In: *Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial\- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte* 10 (1912\), pp. 299–382\. One of the most important works of his Prague period is the German Economic History, published in 1928, which was highly acclaimed both nationally and internationally. Marc Bloch described it as a *"modèle de clarté et de bon sens"* ("model of clarity and insight").Cf. the discussion by Marc Bloch in the *Revue Historique* 164 (1930\), p. 134 f. Its significance lies in the fact that it considers not only classical problems of Economic History, but also questions of Social and Cultural History, such as urbanism and colonization in the Middle Ages, the significance of religion for the emergence of early capitalism, or the emergence of the "[social question](/wiki/Social_question "Social question")". Mayer was the first German\-speaking historian to deal extensively with the concept of [Capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism "Capitalism"). At the same time, he liberated the term from its exclusive use in economics and sociology and made it available for discussion in the field of history.Pavel Kolář: *Geschichtswissenschaft in Zentraleuropa. Die Universitäten Prag, Wien und Berlin um 1900\.* Half\-volume 1 Leipzig 2008, p. 215\.
Mayer was probably confronted with the problems of [Sudeten Germanism](/wiki/Sudeten_Germans "Sudeten Germans") due to his wife's Bohemian origins.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 56\. After the collapse of the Danube Monarchy and the establishment of [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia"), many Germans saw themselves as a minority and felt they were engaged in an existential "*[Volkstum](/wiki/Volkstum "Volkstum")*" for the continued existence of the German settlement in the [Sudetenland](/wiki/Sudetenland "Sudetenland"). Between 1926 and 1929, Mayer took part in six conferences of the Leipzig Foundation for German Folk and Cultural Soil Research. The conference held in [Nysa](/wiki/Nysa%2C_Poland "Nysa, Poland") in October 1926 was dedicated to the topic of Silesia. Mayer gave a lecture on the history of industry in the Sudetenland. This conference was interdisciplinary in nature. Many of the contributions were based on the assumption that the Sudeten\-Silesian territories were united "in terms of ethnicity". The emphasis on Germanic elements in settlement, culture and language played a central role.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 59\. Even after the end of the Leipzig Foundation, Mayer continued to campaign for financial support for Sudeten German cultural institutions.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 67\.
An essay by Mayer published in 1928 is characterized by the Sudeten German " national struggle". In it he tried to emphasize the "great achievements" of German immigrants since the Middle Ages. He neglected Czech development.Theodor Mayer: *Zur Geschichte der nationalen Verhältnisse in Prag.* In: *Aus Sozial\- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Gedächtnisschrift für Georg von Below.* Stuttgart 1928, p. 254–278\. He repeatedly dealt with the history of the Sudetenland, but during his seven years in Prague he did not learn Czech or study Czech literature. The few Czech authors whose works he did notice were cited in translations prepared for him by [Josef Pfitzner](/wiki/Josef_Pfitzner "Josef Pfitzner"), then an assistant at the History Department. His work was based primarily on the findings of German scholars, most of whom cooperated with the Leipzig Foundation.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 69–74\. For Mayer, there was no doubt that German achievements were far superior to those of the Czechs. He described the Germans as a capable and creative people, the Czechs as passive and less innovative. Mayer argued for German superiority not only in the development of law,Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: The German booklets for folklore and cultural soil research 1 (1930/31\), p. 129–151, here: p. 145; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 72\. but also in the field of new technical achievements, citing the "German plow" as an example.Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: *Deutsche Hefte für Volks\- und Kulturbodenforschung* 1 (1930/31\), p. 129–151, here: p. 145 f. Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 72\. He saw the urban system as a "cultural achievement" of the Germans, while admitting that the Slavic settlements had very limited opportunities for development.Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: *Deutsche Hefte für Volks\- und Kulturbodenforschung* 1 (1930/31\), pp. 129–151, here: p. 150; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 73\. The entire cultural and economic development of Bohemia was due to the Germans.
In Freiburg, Mayer emphasized the "German achievements" for Alsace and the entire Upper Rhine region, especially in relation to France. He assumed that a "uniform ethnicity" lived everywhere in the Upper Rhine region. In doing so, he continued the work of Friedrich Metz. Metz had described the entire Upper Rhine Valley as a "Cultural and Economic unit" in 1920\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 116\. In the first issue of the central organ of German folklorists, the German Archive for Regional and Ethnological Research, Mayer stated that Alsace, as a "German inland region," was "one of the most culturally flourishing landscapes in Germany. Its "annexation" to France had brought its "own cultural development to a standstill.Theodor Mayer: *Oberrheinisches Schrifttum.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Landes\- und Volksforschung* 1 (1937\), p. 205–215, here: p. 206\. Quotes according to Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 117\.
#### Modern German constitutional history
Along with Otto Brunner, Adolf Waas and Walter Schlesinger, Theodor Mayer was one of the most important representatives of the so\-called "modern German Constitutional History". This term refers to the approaches that emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, which, according to the participants, were different from the older constitutional history.Classic contributions collected in Hellmut Kämpf: *Herrschaft und Staat im Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 1956\. Overview of this paradigm shift by [Michael Borgolte](/wiki/Michael_Borgolte "Michael Borgolte"): *Sozialgeschichte des Mittelalters. Eine Forschungsbilanz nach der deutschen Einheit.* Munich 1996, p. 37–48; [Hans\-Werner Goetz](/wiki/Hans-Werner_Goetz "Hans-Werner Goetz"): *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 174 f.; Werner Hechberger: *Adel im fränkisch\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 34–69 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)); [Steffen Patzold](/wiki/Steffen_Patzold "Steffen Patzold"): *Der König als Alleinherrscher? Ein Versuch über die Möglichkeit der Monarchie im Frühmittelalter.* In: Stefan Rebenich with the collaboration of Johannes Wienand (Ed.): *Monarchische Herrschaft im Altertum.* Berlin/Boston 2016, p. 605–633\. They criticized the prevailing doctrine, which was too firmly rooted in liberal constitutional ideas and saw medieval statehood as a separation of state and society. The previous concepts were replaced by "empire and people," "leaders and followers," "aristocratic rule," and the Germanic character of the Middle Ages.See also the similar development in the constitutional history of modern times: [Ewald Grothe](/wiki/Ewald_Grothe "Ewald Grothe"): *Zwischen Geschichte und Recht. Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichtsschreibung 1900–1970*, R. Oldenbourg Publishing House, Munich 2005\. However, Mayer never presented an overall picture, but only published essays and individual studies.A collection of his essays, some of which were considerably revised from the pre\-1945 versions, was published in 1959\. Theodor Mayer: *Mittelalterliche Studien. Gesammelte Aufsätze.* Lindau and Constance 1959\.
Mayer first formulated his thesis on the transformation of the early medieval "personal association state" into the early modern "institutional territorial state" in his Giessen Lecture of January 1933 in the auditorium of the Hessian State University,Theodor Mayer: *Geschichtliche Grundlagen der deutschen Verfassung.* Gießen 1933, again in: Theodor Mayer: *Mittelalterliche Studien. Gesammelte Aufsätze.* Lindau 1959, p. 77–97\. and elaborated on it in his Freiburg Inaugural Lecture.Walter Pohl: *Personenverbandstaat.* In: *Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde* 22, Berlin/New York 2003, p. 614–618\. He was concerned not only with the example of the Zähringers, but with the "emergence of the medieval state" in general. Mayer began by focusing on aspects of the territory "in which the Zähringers developed their historical activities. The Zähringers established a territory early on through the clearing activities of the abbeys of [St. George](/wiki/St._George%27s_Abbey_in_the_Black_Forest "St. George's Abbey in the Black Forest"), [St. Peter](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Peter_in_the_Black_Forest "Abbey of Saint Peter in the Black Forest"), and [St. Blaise](/wiki/Saint_Blaise_Abbey%2C_Black_Forest "Saint Blaise Abbey, Black Forest"), which they governed, and through towns such as Freiburg and Villingen, which they founded on important roads. Mayer praised the "new state" of the Zähringers as a significant achievement. However, it had neglected "the basis of the personal association state, the community of persons, the national basis of the state. It had thus become ossified in "routine as a princely end in itself.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\. bis 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 64\. Mayer therefore did not assume a progressive development, but drew a contrast between the "personal association state", the "state based solely or almost solely on the community of persons, which cannot exist without a great leader", and the "institutional territorial state", for which there is always the danger "that it will ossify in bureaucratic administrative routine into an authoritarian state, which is an end in itself".Quoted from Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\. bis 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 63\.
Mayer's thoughts were shaped by the political hopes of the time.Cf. [Wolfgang J. Mommsen](/wiki/Wolfgang_Mommsen "Wolfgang Mommsen"): *„Gestürzte Denkmäler“? Die „Fälle“ Aubin, Conze, Erdmann und Schieder.* In: Jürgen Elvert, Susanne Krauß (Ed.): *Historische Debatten und Kontroversen im 19\. und 20\. Jahrhundert.* Stuttgart 2003, p. 96–109, here: p. 98\. In the final passage, he praised the Third Reich as a synthesis of the old Germanic state of loyalty, the national community, and the institutional territorial state: "State and people have become one." Personal loyalty, allegiance, and the idea of national identity had become "supporting elements of the state and the German national community and have given the state and the people the moral foundation and responsibility without which they cannot exist in the long run.Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 31\. According to Mayer, the Germanic state is characterized by "a community of people held together by personal ties, especially loyalty. Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 35\."The personal association state corresponds to a structure and distribution of state rights and functions in the sense of loyalty and [fief](/wiki/Fief "Fief").Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 5\. Mayer placed loyalty, allegiance, and fealty in a powerful context, identifying them as elements of the Germanic state.Jürgen Dendorfer: *Land und Herrschaft. Die „Neue Verfassungsgeschichte“ und ihre Wirkungen auf die Landesgeschichte im Süden Deutschlands.* In: Christina Mochty\-Weltin, Roman Zehetmayer (Ed.): *Adel und Verfassung im hoch\- und spätmittelalterlichen Reich. Die Vorträge der Tagung im Gedanken an Maximilian Weltin (23\. und 24\. Februar 2017\).* St. Pölten 2018, 30–55, here: p. 42 ([online](https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:175977/datastreams/FILE1/content)). The Nazi newspaper Volksgemeinschaft praised Mayer's explanations in a review: "With reference to our time, it is very instructive that here a modern state essentially expands its sphere of power by reclaiming new land, by reclamation and settlement."Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 114\.
#### Clearance and royal freedom
The term "free peasants" was originally coined by Karl Weller, who propounded the theory of the Hohenstaufen free peasants. According to this theory, the free peasants of the [High Middle Ages](/wiki/High_Middle_Ages "High Middle Ages") in southwestern Germany were not common freemen, but new settlers established by the Hohenstaufen rulers.Karl Weller: *Die freien Bauern in Schwaben.* in: *Zeitschrift der Savigny\-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Germanistische Abteilung* 54 (1934\), p. 178–226; Karl Weller *Die freien Bauern des Spätmittelalters im heutigen Württemberg.* In: *Zeitschrift für Württembergische Landesgeschichte* 1 (1937\), p. 47–67\. Cf. Werner Hechberger *Adel im fränkisch\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 46 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)). Mayer introduced the concept of "freedom to clear land" into his research and placed his observations in a larger context. The conquest of land and the establishment of the [Frankish](/wiki/Franks "Franks") empire appear in a new light. The conquest of [Gaul](/wiki/Gaul "Gaul") by the [Merovingian](/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty "Merovingian dynasty") kings was not carried out by free warrior\-farmers, but by unfree soldiers, who acquired freedom only through military service and settlement on royal land. Freedom was therefore not inherited, but granted by the kingship for military service, clearing and settlement. Together with Heinrich Dannenbauer, Mayer developed the doctrine of royal freemen. In 1955 he stated: "\[...] we came to the conclusion that the so\-called common freemen of the Carolingian period were royal freemen who were obliged to perform military service and to pay taxes, and who were endowed with land by the king and thus often became new settlers".Theodor Mayer: *Grundlagen und Grundfragen.* In: *Grundfragen der alemannischen Geschichte.* Lindau 1955, p. 7–38, here: p. 13 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/15006/8886)). Freedom in the Middle Ages was therefore derived from the king or acquired through land clearing.Michael Borgolte: *Sozialgeschichte des Mittelalters. Eine Forschungsbilanz nach der deutschen Einheit.* Munich 1996, p. 53\. The doctrine of royal liberty was considered of great importance for the state structure of the Frankish period. It "laid the foundations for a new overall picture of the early medieval state.Theodor Mayer: *Die Königsfreien und der Staat des frühen Mittelalters.* In: *Das Problem der Freiheit in der deutschen und schweizerischen Geschichte.* Lindau 1955, p. 7–56 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/15231/9109)).
#### Research controversy with the Swiss historian Karl Meyer
A research dispute arose between Theodor Mayer and the Swiss historian Karl Meyer over the founding of the [Swiss Confederation](/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy "Old Swiss Confederacy").Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), p. 290–358, here: p. 339; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, pp. 187–196\. As a Swiss patriot, Karl Meyer was an advocate of "[spiritual national defense](/wiki/Spiritual_national_defence "Spiritual national defence")". He repeatedly dealt with the formation of the Swiss Confederation.Karl Meyer: *Der Schwurverband als Grundlage der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft. Aufsätze und Reden*, p. 83–93\. First published in the " Journal of Swiss History", New series 17 (1919\), pp. 183–194; see Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), S. 290–358, here: p. 334\. He considered the founding of Switzerland to be "a unique and exceptional case in the history of the Middle Ages and the Western peasantry". In 1941, on the occasion of the 650th anniversary of the founding of the Swiss Confederation, he published a comprehensive account of this topic.Karl Meyer: *Der Ursprung der Eidgenossenschaft.* In: *Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte* 21 (1941\), p. 285–652\.
Theodor Mayer was clearly critical of Meyer's theses.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/dms/img/?PID=PPN345858700_0006%7Clog14)); Theodor Mayer: *Die Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und das deutsche Reich im Mittelalter.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 7 (1944\), p. 239–288 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0007%7Clog17)). He believed that Switzerland had neither the geographical nor the ethnic prerequisites for a unified state. Furthermore, it did not represent a unity either in terms of language or denomination.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187, here: p. 150 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). Theodor Mayer criticized the Swiss historian's view as being "[teleological](/wiki/Teleology "Teleology")", i.e. always focused on the later territory.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187, here: p. 155 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). He countered this view with his approach of a "modern" regional history, which did not choose a Bavarian or Baden history as its subject, but rather "German history in a specific area, the formation of territorial states within a larger area, for example the formation of territorial states in south\-eastern Germany, south\-western or north\-western Germany, on the Upper Main or Upper Rhine".Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187, here: p. 156 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). By assuming "spaces", Theodor Mayer assigned a larger "space" to German history as a whole. For him, Swiss history was German history, and the emergence of the Swiss Confederation was a German problem because "Switzerland was part of the German Empire in the 13th century".Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\), p. 150–187, here: p. 168 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). According to Peter Stadler, Karl Meyer saw Mayer's criticism in the German Archive as "the academic prelude to a planned incorporation of Switzerland.Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), p. 290–358, here: p. 339\. In 1943, he published a "clarification" entitled On the Swiss Will to Freedom.Karl Meyer: *Vom eidgenössischen Freiheitswillen. Eine Klarstellung.* In: *Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte* 23 (1943\), p. 371–429 and 481–578\. In this controversy, however, Theodor Mayer received broad support, for example from Hermann Rennefahrt, Albert Brackmann, Hans Fehr, and Hektor Ammann.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, pp. 192–194\. Mayer's student Marcel Beck, on the other hand, was critical. He argued that Theodor Mayer's approach was "just as teleological as that of Swiss research: namely with regard to the history of the German Empire, which was consolidated only very late and which, as a romantic idea, moved people's minds for centuries.Quoted from Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), p. 290–358, here: p. 340\.
|
[
"### Research work",
"#### The beginnings of Economic History and the turn towards National Science",
"Mayer's early work in the 1920s dealt with problems of administrative and economic history. His dissertation focused on economic history. His work focused on trade on the Danube, \"on which the main trade of Austria took place\". He published other important studies on the Passau toll books (1908\\)Theodor Mayer: *Zwei Passauer Mautbücher aus den Jahren 1400/01 und 1401/02\\.* In: *Verhandlungen des Historischen Vereins für Niederbayern* 44 (1908\\), pp. 1–258\\. and on the Vienna [staple right](/wiki/Staple_right \"Staple right\").Theodor Mayer: *Zur Frage des Wiener Stapelrechts.* In: *Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial\\- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte* 10 (1912\\), pp. 299–382\\. One of the most important works of his Prague period is the German Economic History, published in 1928, which was highly acclaimed both nationally and internationally. Marc Bloch described it as a *\"modèle de clarté et de bon sens\"* (\"model of clarity and insight\").Cf. the discussion by Marc Bloch in the *Revue Historique* 164 (1930\\), p. 134 f. Its significance lies in the fact that it considers not only classical problems of Economic History, but also questions of Social and Cultural History, such as urbanism and colonization in the Middle Ages, the significance of religion for the emergence of early capitalism, or the emergence of the \"[social question](/wiki/Social_question \"Social question\")\". Mayer was the first German\\-speaking historian to deal extensively with the concept of [Capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism \"Capitalism\"). At the same time, he liberated the term from its exclusive use in economics and sociology and made it available for discussion in the field of history.Pavel Kolář: *Geschichtswissenschaft in Zentraleuropa. Die Universitäten Prag, Wien und Berlin um 1900\\.* Half\\-volume 1 Leipzig 2008, p. 215\\.",
"Mayer was probably confronted with the problems of [Sudeten Germanism](/wiki/Sudeten_Germans \"Sudeten Germans\") due to his wife's Bohemian origins.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 56\\. After the collapse of the Danube Monarchy and the establishment of [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\"), many Germans saw themselves as a minority and felt they were engaged in an existential \"*[Volkstum](/wiki/Volkstum \"Volkstum\")*\" for the continued existence of the German settlement in the [Sudetenland](/wiki/Sudetenland \"Sudetenland\"). Between 1926 and 1929, Mayer took part in six conferences of the Leipzig Foundation for German Folk and Cultural Soil Research. The conference held in [Nysa](/wiki/Nysa%2C_Poland \"Nysa, Poland\") in October 1926 was dedicated to the topic of Silesia. Mayer gave a lecture on the history of industry in the Sudetenland. This conference was interdisciplinary in nature. Many of the contributions were based on the assumption that the Sudeten\\-Silesian territories were united \"in terms of ethnicity\". The emphasis on Germanic elements in settlement, culture and language played a central role.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 59\\. Even after the end of the Leipzig Foundation, Mayer continued to campaign for financial support for Sudeten German cultural institutions.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 67\\.",
"An essay by Mayer published in 1928 is characterized by the Sudeten German \" national struggle\". In it he tried to emphasize the \"great achievements\" of German immigrants since the Middle Ages. He neglected Czech development.Theodor Mayer: *Zur Geschichte der nationalen Verhältnisse in Prag.* In: *Aus Sozial\\- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Gedächtnisschrift für Georg von Below.* Stuttgart 1928, p. 254–278\\. He repeatedly dealt with the history of the Sudetenland, but during his seven years in Prague he did not learn Czech or study Czech literature. The few Czech authors whose works he did notice were cited in translations prepared for him by [Josef Pfitzner](/wiki/Josef_Pfitzner \"Josef Pfitzner\"), then an assistant at the History Department. His work was based primarily on the findings of German scholars, most of whom cooperated with the Leipzig Foundation.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 69–74\\. For Mayer, there was no doubt that German achievements were far superior to those of the Czechs. He described the Germans as a capable and creative people, the Czechs as passive and less innovative. Mayer argued for German superiority not only in the development of law,Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: The German booklets for folklore and cultural soil research 1 (1930/31\\), p. 129–151, here: p. 145; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 72\\. but also in the field of new technical achievements, citing the \"German plow\" as an example.Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: *Deutsche Hefte für Volks\\- und Kulturbodenforschung* 1 (1930/31\\), p. 129–151, here: p. 145 f. Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 72\\. He saw the urban system as a \"cultural achievement\" of the Germans, while admitting that the Slavic settlements had very limited opportunities for development.Theodor Mayer: *Aufgaben der Siedlungsgeschichte in den Sudetenländern.* In: *Deutsche Hefte für Volks\\- und Kulturbodenforschung* 1 (1930/31\\), pp. 129–151, here: p. 150; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 73\\. The entire cultural and economic development of Bohemia was due to the Germans.",
"In Freiburg, Mayer emphasized the \"German achievements\" for Alsace and the entire Upper Rhine region, especially in relation to France. He assumed that a \"uniform ethnicity\" lived everywhere in the Upper Rhine region. In doing so, he continued the work of Friedrich Metz. Metz had described the entire Upper Rhine Valley as a \"Cultural and Economic unit\" in 1920\\.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 116\\. In the first issue of the central organ of German folklorists, the German Archive for Regional and Ethnological Research, Mayer stated that Alsace, as a \"German inland region,\" was \"one of the most culturally flourishing landscapes in Germany. Its \"annexation\" to France had brought its \"own cultural development to a standstill.Theodor Mayer: *Oberrheinisches Schrifttum.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Landes\\- und Volksforschung* 1 (1937\\), p. 205–215, here: p. 206\\. Quotes according to Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 117\\.",
"#### Modern German constitutional history",
"Along with Otto Brunner, Adolf Waas and Walter Schlesinger, Theodor Mayer was one of the most important representatives of the so\\-called \"modern German Constitutional History\". This term refers to the approaches that emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, which, according to the participants, were different from the older constitutional history.Classic contributions collected in Hellmut Kämpf: *Herrschaft und Staat im Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 1956\\. Overview of this paradigm shift by [Michael Borgolte](/wiki/Michael_Borgolte \"Michael Borgolte\"): *Sozialgeschichte des Mittelalters. Eine Forschungsbilanz nach der deutschen Einheit.* Munich 1996, p. 37–48; [Hans\\-Werner Goetz](/wiki/Hans-Werner_Goetz \"Hans-Werner Goetz\"): *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 174 f.; Werner Hechberger: *Adel im fränkisch\\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 34–69 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)); [Steffen Patzold](/wiki/Steffen_Patzold \"Steffen Patzold\"): *Der König als Alleinherrscher? Ein Versuch über die Möglichkeit der Monarchie im Frühmittelalter.* In: Stefan Rebenich with the collaboration of Johannes Wienand (Ed.): *Monarchische Herrschaft im Altertum.* Berlin/Boston 2016, p. 605–633\\. They criticized the prevailing doctrine, which was too firmly rooted in liberal constitutional ideas and saw medieval statehood as a separation of state and society. The previous concepts were replaced by \"empire and people,\" \"leaders and followers,\" \"aristocratic rule,\" and the Germanic character of the Middle Ages.See also the similar development in the constitutional history of modern times: [Ewald Grothe](/wiki/Ewald_Grothe \"Ewald Grothe\"): *Zwischen Geschichte und Recht. Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichtsschreibung 1900–1970*, R. Oldenbourg Publishing House, Munich 2005\\. However, Mayer never presented an overall picture, but only published essays and individual studies.A collection of his essays, some of which were considerably revised from the pre\\-1945 versions, was published in 1959\\. Theodor Mayer: *Mittelalterliche Studien. Gesammelte Aufsätze.* Lindau and Constance 1959\\.",
"Mayer first formulated his thesis on the transformation of the early medieval \"personal association state\" into the early modern \"institutional territorial state\" in his Giessen Lecture of January 1933 in the auditorium of the Hessian State University,Theodor Mayer: *Geschichtliche Grundlagen der deutschen Verfassung.* Gießen 1933, again in: Theodor Mayer: *Mittelalterliche Studien. Gesammelte Aufsätze.* Lindau 1959, p. 77–97\\. and elaborated on it in his Freiburg Inaugural Lecture.Walter Pohl: *Personenverbandstaat.* In: *Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde* 22, Berlin/New York 2003, p. 614–618\\. He was concerned not only with the example of the Zähringers, but with the \"emergence of the medieval state\" in general. Mayer began by focusing on aspects of the territory \"in which the Zähringers developed their historical activities. The Zähringers established a territory early on through the clearing activities of the abbeys of [St. George](/wiki/St._George%27s_Abbey_in_the_Black_Forest \"St. George's Abbey in the Black Forest\"), [St. Peter](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Peter_in_the_Black_Forest \"Abbey of Saint Peter in the Black Forest\"), and [St. Blaise](/wiki/Saint_Blaise_Abbey%2C_Black_Forest \"Saint Blaise Abbey, Black Forest\"), which they governed, and through towns such as Freiburg and Villingen, which they founded on important roads. Mayer praised the \"new state\" of the Zähringers as a significant achievement. However, it had neglected \"the basis of the personal association state, the community of persons, the national basis of the state. It had thus become ossified in \"routine as a princely end in itself.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\\. bis 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 64\\. Mayer therefore did not assume a progressive development, but drew a contrast between the \"personal association state\", the \"state based solely or almost solely on the community of persons, which cannot exist without a great leader\", and the \"institutional territorial state\", for which there is always the danger \"that it will ossify in bureaucratic administrative routine into an authoritarian state, which is an end in itself\".Quoted from Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\\. bis 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 63\\.",
"Mayer's thoughts were shaped by the political hopes of the time.Cf. [Wolfgang J. Mommsen](/wiki/Wolfgang_Mommsen \"Wolfgang Mommsen\"): *„Gestürzte Denkmäler“? Die „Fälle“ Aubin, Conze, Erdmann und Schieder.* In: Jürgen Elvert, Susanne Krauß (Ed.): *Historische Debatten und Kontroversen im 19\\. und 20\\. Jahrhundert.* Stuttgart 2003, p. 96–109, here: p. 98\\. In the final passage, he praised the Third Reich as a synthesis of the old Germanic state of loyalty, the national community, and the institutional territorial state: \"State and people have become one.\" Personal loyalty, allegiance, and the idea of national identity had become \"supporting elements of the state and the German national community and have given the state and the people the moral foundation and responsibility without which they cannot exist in the long run.Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 31\\. According to Mayer, the Germanic state is characterized by \"a community of people held together by personal ties, especially loyalty. Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 35\\.\"The personal association state corresponds to a structure and distribution of state rights and functions in the sense of loyalty and [fief](/wiki/Fief \"Fief\").Theodor Mayer: *Der Staat der Herzoge von Zähringen.* Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 5\\. Mayer placed loyalty, allegiance, and fealty in a powerful context, identifying them as elements of the Germanic state.Jürgen Dendorfer: *Land und Herrschaft. Die „Neue Verfassungsgeschichte“ und ihre Wirkungen auf die Landesgeschichte im Süden Deutschlands.* In: Christina Mochty\\-Weltin, Roman Zehetmayer (Ed.): *Adel und Verfassung im hoch\\- und spätmittelalterlichen Reich. Die Vorträge der Tagung im Gedanken an Maximilian Weltin (23\\. und 24\\. Februar 2017\\).* St. Pölten 2018, 30–55, here: p. 42 ([online](https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:175977/datastreams/FILE1/content)). The Nazi newspaper Volksgemeinschaft praised Mayer's explanations in a review: \"With reference to our time, it is very instructive that here a modern state essentially expands its sphere of power by reclaiming new land, by reclamation and settlement.\"Quoted from Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 114\\.",
"#### Clearance and royal freedom",
"The term \"free peasants\" was originally coined by Karl Weller, who propounded the theory of the Hohenstaufen free peasants. According to this theory, the free peasants of the [High Middle Ages](/wiki/High_Middle_Ages \"High Middle Ages\") in southwestern Germany were not common freemen, but new settlers established by the Hohenstaufen rulers.Karl Weller: *Die freien Bauern in Schwaben.* in: *Zeitschrift der Savigny\\-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Germanistische Abteilung* 54 (1934\\), p. 178–226; Karl Weller *Die freien Bauern des Spätmittelalters im heutigen Württemberg.* In: *Zeitschrift für Württembergische Landesgeschichte* 1 (1937\\), p. 47–67\\. Cf. Werner Hechberger *Adel im fränkisch\\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 46 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)). Mayer introduced the concept of \"freedom to clear land\" into his research and placed his observations in a larger context. The conquest of land and the establishment of the [Frankish](/wiki/Franks \"Franks\") empire appear in a new light. The conquest of [Gaul](/wiki/Gaul \"Gaul\") by the [Merovingian](/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty \"Merovingian dynasty\") kings was not carried out by free warrior\\-farmers, but by unfree soldiers, who acquired freedom only through military service and settlement on royal land. Freedom was therefore not inherited, but granted by the kingship for military service, clearing and settlement. Together with Heinrich Dannenbauer, Mayer developed the doctrine of royal freemen. In 1955 he stated: \"\\[...] we came to the conclusion that the so\\-called common freemen of the Carolingian period were royal freemen who were obliged to perform military service and to pay taxes, and who were endowed with land by the king and thus often became new settlers\".Theodor Mayer: *Grundlagen und Grundfragen.* In: *Grundfragen der alemannischen Geschichte.* Lindau 1955, p. 7–38, here: p. 13 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/15006/8886)). Freedom in the Middle Ages was therefore derived from the king or acquired through land clearing.Michael Borgolte: *Sozialgeschichte des Mittelalters. Eine Forschungsbilanz nach der deutschen Einheit.* Munich 1996, p. 53\\. The doctrine of royal liberty was considered of great importance for the state structure of the Frankish period. It \"laid the foundations for a new overall picture of the early medieval state.Theodor Mayer: *Die Königsfreien und der Staat des frühen Mittelalters.* In: *Das Problem der Freiheit in der deutschen und schweizerischen Geschichte.* Lindau 1955, p. 7–56 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/15231/9109)).",
"#### Research controversy with the Swiss historian Karl Meyer",
"A research dispute arose between Theodor Mayer and the Swiss historian Karl Meyer over the founding of the [Swiss Confederation](/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy \"Old Swiss Confederacy\").Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), p. 290–358, here: p. 339; Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, pp. 187–196\\. As a Swiss patriot, Karl Meyer was an advocate of \"[spiritual national defense](/wiki/Spiritual_national_defence \"Spiritual national defence\")\". He repeatedly dealt with the formation of the Swiss Confederation.Karl Meyer: *Der Schwurverband als Grundlage der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft. Aufsätze und Reden*, p. 83–93\\. First published in the \" Journal of Swiss History\", New series 17 (1919\\), pp. 183–194; see Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), S. 290–358, here: p. 334\\. He considered the founding of Switzerland to be \"a unique and exceptional case in the history of the Middle Ages and the Western peasantry\". In 1941, on the occasion of the 650th anniversary of the founding of the Swiss Confederation, he published a comprehensive account of this topic.Karl Meyer: *Der Ursprung der Eidgenossenschaft.* In: *Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte* 21 (1941\\), p. 285–652\\.",
"Theodor Mayer was clearly critical of Meyer's theses.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/dms/img/?PID=PPN345858700_0006%7Clog14)); Theodor Mayer: *Die Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und das deutsche Reich im Mittelalter.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 7 (1944\\), p. 239–288 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0007%7Clog17)). He believed that Switzerland had neither the geographical nor the ethnic prerequisites for a unified state. Furthermore, it did not represent a unity either in terms of language or denomination.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187, here: p. 150 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). Theodor Mayer criticized the Swiss historian's view as being \"[teleological](/wiki/Teleology \"Teleology\")\", i.e. always focused on the later territory.Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187, here: p. 155 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). He countered this view with his approach of a \"modern\" regional history, which did not choose a Bavarian or Baden history as its subject, but rather \"German history in a specific area, the formation of territorial states within a larger area, for example the formation of territorial states in south\\-eastern Germany, south\\-western or north\\-western Germany, on the Upper Main or Upper Rhine\".Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187, here: p. 156 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). By assuming \"spaces\", Theodor Mayer assigned a larger \"space\" to German history as a whole. For him, Swiss history was German history, and the emergence of the Swiss Confederation was a German problem because \"Switzerland was part of the German Empire in the 13th century\".Theodor Mayer: *Die Entstehung der Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft und die deutsche Geschichte.* In: *Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters* 6 (1943\\), p. 150–187, here: p. 168 ([online](https://www.digizeitschriften.de/id/345858700_0006%7Clog14?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22info%22,%22pages%22:%5B1%5D%7D)). According to Peter Stadler, Karl Meyer saw Mayer's criticism in the German Archive as \"the academic prelude to a planned incorporation of Switzerland.Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), p. 290–358, here: p. 339\\. In 1943, he published a \"clarification\" entitled On the Swiss Will to Freedom.Karl Meyer: *Vom eidgenössischen Freiheitswillen. Eine Klarstellung.* In: *Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte* 23 (1943\\), p. 371–429 and 481–578\\. In this controversy, however, Theodor Mayer received broad support, for example from Hermann Rennefahrt, Albert Brackmann, Hans Fehr, and Hektor Ammann.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, pp. 192–194\\. Mayer's student Marcel Beck, on the other hand, was critical. He argued that Theodor Mayer's approach was \"just as teleological as that of Swiss research: namely with regard to the history of the German Empire, which was consolidated only very late and which, as a romantic idea, moved people's minds for centuries.Quoted from Peter Stadler: *Zwischen Klassenkampf, Ständestaat und Genossenschaft. Politische Ideologien im schweizerischen Geschichtsbild der Zwischenkriegszeit.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), p. 290–358, here: p. 340\\.",
""
] |
Reception in posterity
----------------------
### Scientific repercussions
The so\-called newer German constitutional history was further developed by Karl Bosl, Walter Schlesinger, and Helmut Beumann. It remained the leading direction of medieval research until at least the 1970s. In 1986, [František Graus](/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Graus "František Graus") emphasized the temporal nature of the so\-called "new constitutional history".František Graus: *Verfassungsgeschichte des Mittelalters.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 243 (1986\), p. 529–589\. The findings of this approach have been revised in recent decades as the mechanisms of the practice of rule and political interaction, such as the representation of rule, rituals, and conflict resolution, have increasingly come into focus.Hans\-Werner Goetz: *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 177\. [Gerd Althoff](/wiki/Gerd_Althoff "Gerd Althoff") identifies three findings that contributed significantly to a new view of high medieval kingship.[Gerd Althoff](/wiki/Gerd_Althoff "Gerd Althoff"): *Das hochmittelalterliche Königtum. Akzente einer unabgeschlossenen Neubewertung.* In: *Frühmittelalterliche Studien* 45 (2011\), pp. 77–98\. These findings concern social ties, the so\-called "rules of the game" of conflict management and conflict resolution,Gerd Althoff: *Spielregeln der Politik im Mittelalter. Kommunikation in Frieden und Fehde.* Darmstadt 1997\. and the importance of consultation.Gerd Althoff: *Kontrolle der Macht. Formen und Regeln politischer Beratung im Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 2016\. It has been demonstrated that social ties of a kinship and friendly\-cooperative nature among the greats were not subservient to their obligations towards the king. In contrast to previous research, the king was no longer regarded as occupying a unique position within the ruling family. Theodor Mayer's concept of a personal association state based on loyalty and a sense of allegiance to a leader is therefore considered to be obsolete.Theodor Mayer: *Die Ausbildung der Grundlagen des modernen deutschen Staates im hohen Mittelalter.* In: Hellmut Kämpf (Ed.): *Herrschaft und Staat im Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 1956, p. 284–331\. Upon examination of conflicts within the ruling association, it becomes evident that non\-written norms and the institution of mediators served as a counterweight to royal power. Mediators were not constrained by royal instructions in the resolution of conflicts.Gerd Althoff: *Das hochmittelalterliche Königtum. Akzente einer unabgeschlossenen Neubewertung.* In: *Frühmittelalterliche Studien* 45 (2011\), pp. 77–98, here: p. 88\.
The findings on the importance of personal ties underlying the doctrine of the personal association state have been expanded in more recent research, for example in the studies by Verena Epp on "[amicitia](/wiki/Amicitia "Amicitia")" or by Gerd Althoff on "group ties" between "relatives, friends, and faithful".Cf. Gerd Althoff: *Verwandte, Freunde und Getreue. Zum politischen Stellenwert der Gruppenbindungen im früheren Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 1990\. However, an adequate description of statehood in the High Middle Ages in a European context remains a research gap.Jürgen Dendorfer: *Land und Herrschaft. Die „Neue Verfassungsgeschichte“ und ihre Wirkungen auf die Landesgeschichte im Süden Deutschlands.* In: Christina Mochty\-Weltin, Roman Zehetmayer (Ed.): *Adel und Verfassung im hoch\- und spätmittelalterlichen Reich. Die Vorträge der Tagung im Gedanken an Maximilian Weltin (23\. und 24\. Februar 2017\).* St. Pölten 2018, p. 30–55, here: p. 54 ([online](https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:175977/datastreams/FILE1/content)). One of the problems with Mayer's formula of the "personal association state" today seems to be the determination of the concrete starting point of its development. It is also questionable whether one can really speak of a temporal succession of two fundamentally different states.Werner Hechberger *Adel im fränkisch\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 549 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)). Mayer's dictum was criticized by Andreas Rutz in a study published in 2018\. Instead, Rutz speaks of a "duality of personal and territorial rule" familiar to both the Middle Ages and the early modern period. A radical change from one form of rule to the other could not be observed.Andreas Rutz: *Die Beschreibung des Raums. Territoriale Grenzziehungen im Heiligen Römischen Reich.* Köln et. al 2018, p. 458\.
The doctrine of the freedom to clear land and the freedom of the kings became established in constitutional and social history research, dominated for a long time, and also found its way into regional history research. In a study published in 1974, Hans K. Schulze was particularly critical of the freedom to clear land. He pointed out that the assumption of a special form of legal freedom acquired through clearing, settling, military or royal service was not supported by the sources.Hans Kurt Schulze: *Rodungsfreiheit und Königsfreiheit. Zur Genesis und Kritik neuerer verfassungsgeschichtlicher Theorien.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), p. 529–550, here: p. 549\. According to Schulze's findings, both free and unfree people were involved in the clearing. Clearing and settlement activities did not change the personal legal status of those involved. They merely offered the prospect of economic benefits and better property rights.Hans Kurt Schulze: *Rodungsfreiheit und Königsfreiheit. Zur Genesis und Kritik neuerer verfassungsgeschichtlicher Theorien.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\), p. 529–550, here: p. 545\. According to Wilfried Hartmann, the error of the older research lies in the fact that far\-reaching constitutional\-historical conclusions were derived from isolated details in a sparse tradition of sources.Cf. the discussion by Wilfried Hartmann in: *Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters* 34 (1978\), p. 297–287 (online).
In the second half of the 20th century, Mayer's approach to the constitutional history of the Zähringers, taking into account the findings of regional history, provided the subsequent historians Hans\-Walter Klewitz and Heinrich Büttner with a number of ideas. From the 1960s onwards, [Berent Schwineköper](/wiki/Berent_Schwinek%C3%B6per "Berent Schwineköper"), Walter Heinemeyer and [Hagen Keller](/wiki/Hagen_Keller "Hagen Keller") gave new impetus to Zähringer research. In particular, the major Zähringer exhibition in 1986 changed the understanding of the ducal dynasty through new questions.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\. bis 20\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 65\.
### Discussion about Mayer's role in National Socialism
In commemorative publications and obituaries for Theodor Mayer, problematic aspects of his work under National Socialism were ignored or glossed over. In a tribute to Theodor Mayer on the occasion of his 85th birthday, [Josef Fleckenstein](/wiki/Josef_Fleckenstein "Josef Fleckenstein") praised two volumes produced as part of the so\-called "war effort" as "testimony to clean and rigorous scholarship", as "an astonishing achievement in the midst of the turmoil of war". The volumes were proof "that the publisher had succeeded in keeping himself and his scholarship free of all party propaganda.Josef Fleckenstein: *Danksagung an Theodor Mayer zum 85\. Geburtstag. Versuch einer Würdigung. Festvortrag.* In: *Danksagung an Theodor Mayer zum 85\. Geburtstag.* Konstanz/Stuttgart 1968, p. 13–29, here: p. 24 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/20269/14058)). German historians have been very slow to address the role of some prominent historians during the Nazi era. Only a few historians addressed Mayer's Nazi past until the 1980s.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 20\. However, [East German](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") historian Gottfried Koch stated in 1962 that Mayer, like other historians during World War II, wrote articles with the aim of "pseudo\-historically underpinning Hitler's plans for aggression.Gottfried Koch: *Die mittelalterliche Kaiserpolitik im Spiegel der bürgerlichen deutschen Historiographie des 19\. und 20\. Jahrhunderts.* In: *Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft* 10 (1962\), Vol. 8, pp. 1832\-1870, here: pp. 1863\.
The critical examination of Mayer's past began in 1991 on the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the Constance Working Group. [Johannes Fried](/wiki/Johannes_Fried "Johannes Fried"), the first chairman at the time, addressed the brown past of the association and its founder for the first time in his speech. Fried explained that Mayer had avoided the pressing questions, "both about the political failure of historical scholarship in the Third Reich, which he himself had represented in a prominent position, and about the culpability of institutionalized research in general.Johannes Fried: *Konstanz und der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte (1951–1991\).* In: Ders. (Ed.): *Vierzig Jahre Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* Sigmaringen 1991, pp. 11–28 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/20298/14089)). The fact that historical scholarship has been slow to come to terms with the role of leading historians in the Nazi era sparked heated debates at the 1998 [Frankfurt Historians' Conference](/wiki/Deutscher_Historikertag "Deutscher Historikertag").The lectures and discussion contributions of the section on historians under National Socialism in: Winfried Schulze, Otto Gerhard Oexle (Ed.): *Deutsche Historiker im Nationalsozialismus.* Frankfurt 1999\. The section "German Historians under National Socialism" received the most attention in a discussion on 10 September 1998, led by Otto Gerhard Oexle and Winfried Schulze.Winfried Schulze, Otto Gerhard Oexle (Ed.): *Deutsche Historiker im Nationalsozialismus.* Frankfurt 1999\. The discussion of this topic subsequently led to a large number of publications. On the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the German Historical Institute in Paris, a colloquium examined the origins of the Institute from a personal historical perspective. It focused on the biographies of the Institute's founders and their relationship to National Socialism. Theodor Mayer was included in the circle of "founding fathers".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer – Ein Wissenschaftsorganisator mit großen Möglichkeiten.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, p. 60–77 (online). In November 2019, the Monumenta Germaniae Historica and the German Historical Institute in Rome will organize the symposium The Reich Institute for Older German History 1935 to 1945 \- a "war contribution of the humanities"? In the papers published in 2021, Anne Christine Nagel ("Alone among colleagues" \- Theodor Mayer and the MGH during the war) and Folker Reichert ("Master and servant \- Theodor Mayer and [Carl Erdmann](/wiki/Carl_Erdmann "Carl Erdmann")"), among others, examined various aspects of Theodor Mayer.Martina Hartmann, Arno Mentzel\-Reuters, Martin Baumeister (Ed.): *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“? Beiträge des Symposiums am 28\. und 29\. November 2019 in Rom.* Wiesbaden 2021, see the conference report by Simon Unger\-Alvi: *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“?, 28\. November 2019 – 29\. November 2019 Rom.* In: *H\-Soz\-Kult*, January 25, 2020 ([online](https://www.hsozkult.de/conferencereport/id/fdkn-127177)); Simon Unger\-Alvi: *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – Ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“?* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 100 (2020\), pp. 562–566\.
A clear distinction between Mayer's scientific and propagandistic publications remained dominant in more recent research.Jürgen Klöckler: *Verhinderter Archivalienraub in Italien. Theodor Mayer und die Abteilung „Archivschutz“ bei der Militärverwaltung in Verona 1943–1945\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 86 (2006\), p. 491–537, here: p. 492 f.([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport4_mods_00001387)); Jürgen Klöckler: *Vom Alemannischen Institut zum „Oberrheinischen Institut für geschichtliche Landeskunde“. Theodor Mayer als Wissenschaftsorganisator im „Dritten Reich“.* In: Alemannisches Institut Freiburg im Breisgau e. V. (Ed.): *Das Alemannische Institut. 75 Jahre grenzüberschreitende Kommunikation und Forschung. (1931–2006\).* Freiburg (Breisgau) et. al 2007, p. 135–142, here: p. 139 ([online](https://alemannisches-institut.de/html/img/pool/75J.Alem.Kl_ckler.pdf)); [Hans\-Werner Goetz](/wiki/Hans-Werner_Goetz "Hans-Werner Goetz"): *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 82; Klaus Schreiner: *Führertum, Rasse, Reich. Wissenschaft von der Geschichte nach der nationalsozialistischen Machtergreifung.* In: Peter Lundgren (Ed.): *Wissenschaft im Dritten Reich.* Frankfurt am Main 1985, p. 163–252, here: p. 200 f. A monograph on Theodor Mayer was a research gap for a long time. This gap was filled in 2016 by Reto Heinzel's report.Cf. the reviews of this work by Rudolf Schieffer in: *Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters* 72 (2016\), p. 627–628 ([online](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/cgi-bin/digida.pl?ident=da722&dir=img&seite=627)); Jürgen Treffeisen in: *Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins* 164 (2016\), p. 593–595 ([online](https://www.recensio-regio.net/rezensionen/zeitschriften/zgo/164-2016/ReviewMonograph572123641/@@generate-pdf-recension?language=de)); Folker Reichert in: *Historische Zeitschrift* 305 (2017\), p. 886–888; Jean\-Marie Moeglin in: *Francia\-Recensio* 2019/1 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/frrec/article/view/59835/51968)); Simon Groth: *Neue Forschungen zu alten Forschern. Über biographische Ansätze einer Historisierung der Mediävistik.* In: *Rechtsgeschichte – Legal History* 25 (2017\), p. 311–314 ([online](https://www.recensio.net/rezensionen/zeitschriften/rechtsgeschichte/25-2017/ReviewMonograph378699673/@@generate-pdf-recension?language=fr)); Martin Munke in: *Archiv für Kulturgeschichte* 100 (2018\), p. 466–468; Matthias Berg in: *Historiker\-Biographien.* in: *H\-Soz\-Kult*, February 11, 2020 ([online](https://www.hsozkult.de/publicationreview/id/reb-28239?title=historiker-biographien&recno=10&q=&sort=&fq=&total=16822)). Heinzel analyzed holdings in 33 archives and, above all, Mayer's own papers and those of his correspondents. The aim of his work is to examine "the work and actions of Theodor Mayer \[...] in their entirety"Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 20\. in order to "break through the usual separation between the scientist and the politically minded \[...]".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 12\. Heinzel was able to prove with numerous examples that Mayer regularly and deliberately crossed the boundary between science and political propaganda.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 154, 222\.
|
[
"Reception in posterity\n----------------------",
"### Scientific repercussions",
"The so\\-called newer German constitutional history was further developed by Karl Bosl, Walter Schlesinger, and Helmut Beumann. It remained the leading direction of medieval research until at least the 1970s. In 1986, [František Graus](/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Graus \"František Graus\") emphasized the temporal nature of the so\\-called \"new constitutional history\".František Graus: *Verfassungsgeschichte des Mittelalters.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 243 (1986\\), p. 529–589\\. The findings of this approach have been revised in recent decades as the mechanisms of the practice of rule and political interaction, such as the representation of rule, rituals, and conflict resolution, have increasingly come into focus.Hans\\-Werner Goetz: *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 177\\. [Gerd Althoff](/wiki/Gerd_Althoff \"Gerd Althoff\") identifies three findings that contributed significantly to a new view of high medieval kingship.[Gerd Althoff](/wiki/Gerd_Althoff \"Gerd Althoff\"): *Das hochmittelalterliche Königtum. Akzente einer unabgeschlossenen Neubewertung.* In: *Frühmittelalterliche Studien* 45 (2011\\), pp. 77–98\\. These findings concern social ties, the so\\-called \"rules of the game\" of conflict management and conflict resolution,Gerd Althoff: *Spielregeln der Politik im Mittelalter. Kommunikation in Frieden und Fehde.* Darmstadt 1997\\. and the importance of consultation.Gerd Althoff: *Kontrolle der Macht. Formen und Regeln politischer Beratung im Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 2016\\. It has been demonstrated that social ties of a kinship and friendly\\-cooperative nature among the greats were not subservient to their obligations towards the king. In contrast to previous research, the king was no longer regarded as occupying a unique position within the ruling family. Theodor Mayer's concept of a personal association state based on loyalty and a sense of allegiance to a leader is therefore considered to be obsolete.Theodor Mayer: *Die Ausbildung der Grundlagen des modernen deutschen Staates im hohen Mittelalter.* In: Hellmut Kämpf (Ed.): *Herrschaft und Staat im Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 1956, p. 284–331\\. Upon examination of conflicts within the ruling association, it becomes evident that non\\-written norms and the institution of mediators served as a counterweight to royal power. Mediators were not constrained by royal instructions in the resolution of conflicts.Gerd Althoff: *Das hochmittelalterliche Königtum. Akzente einer unabgeschlossenen Neubewertung.* In: *Frühmittelalterliche Studien* 45 (2011\\), pp. 77–98, here: p. 88\\.",
"The findings on the importance of personal ties underlying the doctrine of the personal association state have been expanded in more recent research, for example in the studies by Verena Epp on \"[amicitia](/wiki/Amicitia \"Amicitia\")\" or by Gerd Althoff on \"group ties\" between \"relatives, friends, and faithful\".Cf. Gerd Althoff: *Verwandte, Freunde und Getreue. Zum politischen Stellenwert der Gruppenbindungen im früheren Mittelalter.* Darmstadt 1990\\. However, an adequate description of statehood in the High Middle Ages in a European context remains a research gap.Jürgen Dendorfer: *Land und Herrschaft. Die „Neue Verfassungsgeschichte“ und ihre Wirkungen auf die Landesgeschichte im Süden Deutschlands.* In: Christina Mochty\\-Weltin, Roman Zehetmayer (Ed.): *Adel und Verfassung im hoch\\- und spätmittelalterlichen Reich. Die Vorträge der Tagung im Gedanken an Maximilian Weltin (23\\. und 24\\. Februar 2017\\).* St. Pölten 2018, p. 30–55, here: p. 54 ([online](https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:175977/datastreams/FILE1/content)). One of the problems with Mayer's formula of the \"personal association state\" today seems to be the determination of the concrete starting point of its development. It is also questionable whether one can really speak of a temporal succession of two fundamentally different states.Werner Hechberger *Adel im fränkisch\\-deutschen Mittelalter. Zur Anatomie eines Forschungsproblems.* Ostfildern 2005, p. 549 ([online](https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/mf17?sid=3e4f770316f1f93a7d7ef62bffbdef6f)). Mayer's dictum was criticized by Andreas Rutz in a study published in 2018\\. Instead, Rutz speaks of a \"duality of personal and territorial rule\" familiar to both the Middle Ages and the early modern period. A radical change from one form of rule to the other could not be observed.Andreas Rutz: *Die Beschreibung des Raums. Territoriale Grenzziehungen im Heiligen Römischen Reich.* Köln et. al 2018, p. 458\\.",
"The doctrine of the freedom to clear land and the freedom of the kings became established in constitutional and social history research, dominated for a long time, and also found its way into regional history research. In a study published in 1974, Hans K. Schulze was particularly critical of the freedom to clear land. He pointed out that the assumption of a special form of legal freedom acquired through clearing, settling, military or royal service was not supported by the sources.Hans Kurt Schulze: *Rodungsfreiheit und Königsfreiheit. Zur Genesis und Kritik neuerer verfassungsgeschichtlicher Theorien.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), p. 529–550, here: p. 549\\. According to Schulze's findings, both free and unfree people were involved in the clearing. Clearing and settlement activities did not change the personal legal status of those involved. They merely offered the prospect of economic benefits and better property rights.Hans Kurt Schulze: *Rodungsfreiheit und Königsfreiheit. Zur Genesis und Kritik neuerer verfassungsgeschichtlicher Theorien.* In: *Historische Zeitschrift* 219 (1974\\), p. 529–550, here: p. 545\\. According to Wilfried Hartmann, the error of the older research lies in the fact that far\\-reaching constitutional\\-historical conclusions were derived from isolated details in a sparse tradition of sources.Cf. the discussion by Wilfried Hartmann in: *Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters* 34 (1978\\), p. 297–287 (online).",
"In the second half of the 20th century, Mayer's approach to the constitutional history of the Zähringers, taking into account the findings of regional history, provided the subsequent historians Hans\\-Walter Klewitz and Heinrich Büttner with a number of ideas. From the 1960s onwards, [Berent Schwineköper](/wiki/Berent_Schwinek%C3%B6per \"Berent Schwineköper\"), Walter Heinemeyer and [Hagen Keller](/wiki/Hagen_Keller \"Hagen Keller\") gave new impetus to Zähringer research. In particular, the major Zähringer exhibition in 1986 changed the understanding of the ducal dynasty through new questions.Thomas Zotz: *Von Badischer Hausgeschichte zur Neuen Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte. Ansätze zur Zähringerforschung vom 18\\. bis 20\\. Jahrhundert.* In: Jürgen Dendorfer, Heinz Krieg, R. Johanna Regnath (Ed.): *Die Zähringer. Rang und Herrschaft um 1200\\.* Ostfildern 2018, p. 53–66, here: p. 65\\.",
"### Discussion about Mayer's role in National Socialism",
"In commemorative publications and obituaries for Theodor Mayer, problematic aspects of his work under National Socialism were ignored or glossed over. In a tribute to Theodor Mayer on the occasion of his 85th birthday, [Josef Fleckenstein](/wiki/Josef_Fleckenstein \"Josef Fleckenstein\") praised two volumes produced as part of the so\\-called \"war effort\" as \"testimony to clean and rigorous scholarship\", as \"an astonishing achievement in the midst of the turmoil of war\". The volumes were proof \"that the publisher had succeeded in keeping himself and his scholarship free of all party propaganda.Josef Fleckenstein: *Danksagung an Theodor Mayer zum 85\\. Geburtstag. Versuch einer Würdigung. Festvortrag.* In: *Danksagung an Theodor Mayer zum 85\\. Geburtstag.* Konstanz/Stuttgart 1968, p. 13–29, here: p. 24 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/20269/14058)). German historians have been very slow to address the role of some prominent historians during the Nazi era. Only a few historians addressed Mayer's Nazi past until the 1980s.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 20\\. However, [East German](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") historian Gottfried Koch stated in 1962 that Mayer, like other historians during World War II, wrote articles with the aim of \"pseudo\\-historically underpinning Hitler's plans for aggression.Gottfried Koch: *Die mittelalterliche Kaiserpolitik im Spiegel der bürgerlichen deutschen Historiographie des 19\\. und 20\\. Jahrhunderts.* In: *Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft* 10 (1962\\), Vol. 8, pp. 1832\\-1870, here: pp. 1863\\.",
"The critical examination of Mayer's past began in 1991 on the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the Constance Working Group. [Johannes Fried](/wiki/Johannes_Fried \"Johannes Fried\"), the first chairman at the time, addressed the brown past of the association and its founder for the first time in his speech. Fried explained that Mayer had avoided the pressing questions, \"both about the political failure of historical scholarship in the Third Reich, which he himself had represented in a prominent position, and about the culpability of institutionalized research in general.Johannes Fried: *Konstanz und der Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte (1951–1991\\).* In: Ders. (Ed.): *Vierzig Jahre Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte.* Sigmaringen 1991, pp. 11–28 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/vuf/article/view/20298/14089)). The fact that historical scholarship has been slow to come to terms with the role of leading historians in the Nazi era sparked heated debates at the 1998 [Frankfurt Historians' Conference](/wiki/Deutscher_Historikertag \"Deutscher Historikertag\").The lectures and discussion contributions of the section on historians under National Socialism in: Winfried Schulze, Otto Gerhard Oexle (Ed.): *Deutsche Historiker im Nationalsozialismus.* Frankfurt 1999\\. The section \"German Historians under National Socialism\" received the most attention in a discussion on 10 September 1998, led by Otto Gerhard Oexle and Winfried Schulze.Winfried Schulze, Otto Gerhard Oexle (Ed.): *Deutsche Historiker im Nationalsozialismus.* Frankfurt 1999\\. The discussion of this topic subsequently led to a large number of publications. On the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the German Historical Institute in Paris, a colloquium examined the origins of the Institute from a personal historical perspective. It focused on the biographies of the Institute's founders and their relationship to National Socialism. Theodor Mayer was included in the circle of \"founding fathers\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer – Ein Wissenschaftsorganisator mit großen Möglichkeiten.* In: Ulrich Pfeil (Ed.): *Das Deutsche Historische Institut Paris und seine Gründungsväter.* Munich 2007, p. 60–77 (online). In November 2019, the Monumenta Germaniae Historica and the German Historical Institute in Rome will organize the symposium The Reich Institute for Older German History 1935 to 1945 \\- a \"war contribution of the humanities\"? In the papers published in 2021, Anne Christine Nagel (\"Alone among colleagues\" \\- Theodor Mayer and the MGH during the war) and Folker Reichert (\"Master and servant \\- Theodor Mayer and [Carl Erdmann](/wiki/Carl_Erdmann \"Carl Erdmann\")\"), among others, examined various aspects of Theodor Mayer.Martina Hartmann, Arno Mentzel\\-Reuters, Martin Baumeister (Ed.): *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“? Beiträge des Symposiums am 28\\. und 29\\. November 2019 in Rom.* Wiesbaden 2021, see the conference report by Simon Unger\\-Alvi: *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“?, 28\\. November 2019 – 29\\. November 2019 Rom.* In: *H\\-Soz\\-Kult*, January 25, 2020 ([online](https://www.hsozkult.de/conferencereport/id/fdkn-127177)); Simon Unger\\-Alvi: *Das Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde 1935 bis 1945 – Ein „Kriegsbeitrag der Geisteswissenschaften“?* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 100 (2020\\), pp. 562–566\\.",
"A clear distinction between Mayer's scientific and propagandistic publications remained dominant in more recent research.Jürgen Klöckler: *Verhinderter Archivalienraub in Italien. Theodor Mayer und die Abteilung „Archivschutz“ bei der Militärverwaltung in Verona 1943–1945\\.* In: *Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken* 86 (2006\\), p. 491–537, here: p. 492 f.([online](https://perspectivia.net//receive/ploneimport4_mods_00001387)); Jürgen Klöckler: *Vom Alemannischen Institut zum „Oberrheinischen Institut für geschichtliche Landeskunde“. Theodor Mayer als Wissenschaftsorganisator im „Dritten Reich“.* In: Alemannisches Institut Freiburg im Breisgau e. V. (Ed.): *Das Alemannische Institut. 75 Jahre grenzüberschreitende Kommunikation und Forschung. (1931–2006\\).* Freiburg (Breisgau) et. al 2007, p. 135–142, here: p. 139 ([online](https://alemannisches-institut.de/html/img/pool/75J.Alem.Kl_ckler.pdf)); [Hans\\-Werner Goetz](/wiki/Hans-Werner_Goetz \"Hans-Werner Goetz\"): *Moderne Mediävistik. Stand und Perspektiven der Mittelalterforschung.* Darmstadt 1999, p. 82; Klaus Schreiner: *Führertum, Rasse, Reich. Wissenschaft von der Geschichte nach der nationalsozialistischen Machtergreifung.* In: Peter Lundgren (Ed.): *Wissenschaft im Dritten Reich.* Frankfurt am Main 1985, p. 163–252, here: p. 200 f. A monograph on Theodor Mayer was a research gap for a long time. This gap was filled in 2016 by Reto Heinzel's report.Cf. the reviews of this work by Rudolf Schieffer in: *Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters* 72 (2016\\), p. 627–628 ([online](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/cgi-bin/digida.pl?ident=da722&dir=img&seite=627)); Jürgen Treffeisen in: *Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins* 164 (2016\\), p. 593–595 ([online](https://www.recensio-regio.net/rezensionen/zeitschriften/zgo/164-2016/ReviewMonograph572123641/@@generate-pdf-recension?language=de)); Folker Reichert in: *Historische Zeitschrift* 305 (2017\\), p. 886–888; Jean\\-Marie Moeglin in: *Francia\\-Recensio* 2019/1 ([online](https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/frrec/article/view/59835/51968)); Simon Groth: *Neue Forschungen zu alten Forschern. Über biographische Ansätze einer Historisierung der Mediävistik.* In: *Rechtsgeschichte – Legal History* 25 (2017\\), p. 311–314 ([online](https://www.recensio.net/rezensionen/zeitschriften/rechtsgeschichte/25-2017/ReviewMonograph378699673/@@generate-pdf-recension?language=fr)); Martin Munke in: *Archiv für Kulturgeschichte* 100 (2018\\), p. 466–468; Matthias Berg in: *Historiker\\-Biographien.* in: *H\\-Soz\\-Kult*, February 11, 2020 ([online](https://www.hsozkult.de/publicationreview/id/reb-28239?title=historiker-biographien&recno=10&q=&sort=&fq=&total=16822)). Heinzel analyzed holdings in 33 archives and, above all, Mayer's own papers and those of his correspondents. The aim of his work is to examine \"the work and actions of Theodor Mayer \\[...] in their entirety\"Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 20\\. in order to \"break through the usual separation between the scientist and the politically minded \\[...]\".Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 12\\. Heinzel was able to prove with numerous examples that Mayer regularly and deliberately crossed the boundary between science and political propaganda.Reto Heinzel: *Theodor Mayer. Ein Mittelalterhistoriker im Banne des „Volkstums“ 1920–1960\\.* Paderborn 2016, p. 154, 222\\.",
""
] |
The Toronto Symphony Orchestra
------------------------------
Although Toronto had been a major music centre in Canada until 1917, in 1922 it was still without a professional symphony orchestra. Two young musicians, Louis Gesensway and Abe Fenboque, decided to approach von Kunits to tackle the difficult task of establishing the [Toronto Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Toronto_Symphony_Orchestra "Toronto Symphony Orchestra"). (check 12\) The *Toronto Star* had, about that time, mentioned an attempt by [Flora Eaton](/wiki/Flora_Eaton "Flora Eaton") to get [Sergei Rachmaninoff](/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff "Sergei Rachmaninoff") for the podium, but it all came to naught.
The sixty musicians who turned up for the first rehearsal were all from the orchestral pits of the silent\-movie houses; the only free time they had for concerts was between matinees and evening shows. Von Kunits was assured that "there were sufficient skilled players, some of whom had played in Frank Welsman's Toronto Orchestra \-\- an organization founded in 1907 and which had become a casualty of the war in 1918 \-\- and some of whom, as von Kunits knew, were better musicians than their theatre jobs allowed them to show."
After some reflection, von Kunits accepted. Through the winter, he coached and encouraged some of his more advanced students so that they might be ready. He worked with theatre house musicians. And he spent sleepless nights re\-scoring the music for his players and their instruments, keeping in mind their capacities.
By spring, von Kunits had brought the orchestra together, making it coalesce from its disparate elements was not easy. One musician of that time recalled a rehearsal when von Kunits could not get any kind of warmth and color from the cello section, even though the piece was marked [appassionata](/wiki/Appassionata "Appassionata").
"He tapped his music stand, looked solemnly at the whole string section, and said quietly: 'Would all those men under 60 please vibrate.' The difference at the next attempt was more notable."
On April 23, 1923, at five p.m. the New Symphony Orchestra, with von Kunits at the baton, made its debut in Massey Hall. With an initial complement of some sixty players, it soon became the eighty\-five member Toronto Symphony Orchestra in 1927, offering full\-length concerts. After successful tours in Canada and the United States, audiences got bigger. Von Kunits brought the orchestra recognition and wide appeal. The excellence of his string section became the envy of other orchestras. Stokowski invited two of his pupils, Gesensway and Manny Roth, to join the Philadelphia Orchestra. By drawing into it some of the world's finest instrumentalists, Stokowski succeeded in creating the distinctive "Philadelphia sound" which brought his orchestra international acclaim. Other von Kunits's pupils of note were the U.S. composer [Charles Wakefield Cadman](/wiki/Charles_Wakefield_Cadman "Charles Wakefield Cadman"), long\-forgotten violinist and recording pioneer [Vera Barstow](/wiki/Vera_Barstow "Vera Barstow"), Canadian composers and violinists [Harry Adaskin](/wiki/Harry_Adaskin "Harry Adaskin"), [Murray Adaskin](/wiki/Murray_Adaskin "Murray Adaskin"), Maurice Solway, Eugene Kash, Grace McDonald. Indeed, von Kunits shaped a generation of string players, some of whom continued to play with the Toronto Symphony Orchestra in 1980\.
After nine years of struggle to win a place for a first\-rate orchestra in Canada, von Kunits died on October 8, 1931\.
Von Kunits left behind a tradition of dedicated musicianship and a solid framework of two potentially fine orchestras—the Pittsburgh Symphony and the Toronto Symphony—an achievement often overlooked today. Conductor [Sir Adrian Boult](/wiki/Sir_Adrian_Boult "Sir Adrian Boult") of the London Philharmonic Orchestra once said of von Kunits that he was "rehearsing a soul without a body."
Many distinguished musicians were his pupils, including Vera Barstow, Murray Adaskin, [Arthur Hartmann](/wiki/Arthur_Hartmann "Arthur Hartmann"), [Alberto Guerrero](/wiki/Alberto_Guerrero "Alberto Guerrero"), Grace McDonald, and others.
|
[
"The Toronto Symphony Orchestra\n------------------------------",
"Although Toronto had been a major music centre in Canada until 1917, in 1922 it was still without a professional symphony orchestra. Two young musicians, Louis Gesensway and Abe Fenboque, decided to approach von Kunits to tackle the difficult task of establishing the [Toronto Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Toronto_Symphony_Orchestra \"Toronto Symphony Orchestra\"). (check 12\\) The *Toronto Star* had, about that time, mentioned an attempt by [Flora Eaton](/wiki/Flora_Eaton \"Flora Eaton\") to get [Sergei Rachmaninoff](/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff \"Sergei Rachmaninoff\") for the podium, but it all came to naught.",
"The sixty musicians who turned up for the first rehearsal were all from the orchestral pits of the silent\\-movie houses; the only free time they had for concerts was between matinees and evening shows. Von Kunits was assured that \"there were sufficient skilled players, some of whom had played in Frank Welsman's Toronto Orchestra \\-\\- an organization founded in 1907 and which had become a casualty of the war in 1918 \\-\\- and some of whom, as von Kunits knew, were better musicians than their theatre jobs allowed them to show.\"",
"After some reflection, von Kunits accepted. Through the winter, he coached and encouraged some of his more advanced students so that they might be ready. He worked with theatre house musicians. And he spent sleepless nights re\\-scoring the music for his players and their instruments, keeping in mind their capacities.",
"By spring, von Kunits had brought the orchestra together, making it coalesce from its disparate elements was not easy. One musician of that time recalled a rehearsal when von Kunits could not get any kind of warmth and color from the cello section, even though the piece was marked [appassionata](/wiki/Appassionata \"Appassionata\").",
"\"He tapped his music stand, looked solemnly at the whole string section, and said quietly: 'Would all those men under 60 please vibrate.' The difference at the next attempt was more notable.\"",
"On April 23, 1923, at five p.m. the New Symphony Orchestra, with von Kunits at the baton, made its debut in Massey Hall. With an initial complement of some sixty players, it soon became the eighty\\-five member Toronto Symphony Orchestra in 1927, offering full\\-length concerts. After successful tours in Canada and the United States, audiences got bigger. Von Kunits brought the orchestra recognition and wide appeal. The excellence of his string section became the envy of other orchestras. Stokowski invited two of his pupils, Gesensway and Manny Roth, to join the Philadelphia Orchestra. By drawing into it some of the world's finest instrumentalists, Stokowski succeeded in creating the distinctive \"Philadelphia sound\" which brought his orchestra international acclaim. Other von Kunits's pupils of note were the U.S. composer [Charles Wakefield Cadman](/wiki/Charles_Wakefield_Cadman \"Charles Wakefield Cadman\"), long\\-forgotten violinist and recording pioneer [Vera Barstow](/wiki/Vera_Barstow \"Vera Barstow\"), Canadian composers and violinists [Harry Adaskin](/wiki/Harry_Adaskin \"Harry Adaskin\"), [Murray Adaskin](/wiki/Murray_Adaskin \"Murray Adaskin\"), Maurice Solway, Eugene Kash, Grace McDonald. Indeed, von Kunits shaped a generation of string players, some of whom continued to play with the Toronto Symphony Orchestra in 1980\\.",
"After nine years of struggle to win a place for a first\\-rate orchestra in Canada, von Kunits died on October 8, 1931\\.",
"Von Kunits left behind a tradition of dedicated musicianship and a solid framework of two potentially fine orchestras—the Pittsburgh Symphony and the Toronto Symphony—an achievement often overlooked today. Conductor [Sir Adrian Boult](/wiki/Sir_Adrian_Boult \"Sir Adrian Boult\") of the London Philharmonic Orchestra once said of von Kunits that he was \"rehearsing a soul without a body.\"",
"Many distinguished musicians were his pupils, including Vera Barstow, Murray Adaskin, [Arthur Hartmann](/wiki/Arthur_Hartmann \"Arthur Hartmann\"), [Alberto Guerrero](/wiki/Alberto_Guerrero \"Alberto Guerrero\"), Grace McDonald, and others.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Formation and self\-titled album: 1997–2000
In March 1997, Matt Moseman, Cameron Woolf, Adam Leydig, and Christopher Borders formed Edgewater. The band began as a four\-piece with Moseman handling both vocals and playing rhythm guitar, with Leydig as the lead guitarist, Borders on drums, and Woolf playing bass. In March 1998, Micah Creel and Jeremy Rees joined, replacing Borders on drums. In June 1999, Justin "Shorty" Middleton of 40% would join the band on rhythm guitar, with Moseman focusing solely on vocals. The band would release their [self\-titled](/wiki/Edgewater_%28album%29 "Edgewater (album)") album in July 1999\. The band began headlining local and regional venues in support of their album, which was released locally.
### Lifter And South of Sideways: 2001–2004
The band released [Lifter](/wiki/Lifter_%28album%29 "Lifter (album)") in 2001, and began touring in support of the album. Woolf left the band in October 2002\. In January 2003, Ricky Wolking joined, replacing Woolf on bass.
In June 2003, the band signed to major label Wind\-up Records and began working on their major label debut. In April 2004, [South of Sideways](/wiki/South_of_Sideways "South of Sideways") was released. The first single, "Eyes Wired Shut" got airplay on many radio stations. It was featured on the [Soundtrack for the movie The Punisher](/wiki/The_Punisher:The_Album "The Album"). They would then tour nationally with [Finger Eleven](/wiki/Finger_Eleven "Finger Eleven"), [Three Days Grace](/wiki/Three_Days_Grace "Three Days Grace"), [Seether](/wiki/Seether "Seether"), [Default](/wiki/Default_%28band%29 "Default (band)"), and [Alter Bridge](/wiki/Alter_Bridge "Alter Bridge").
### We Are Not Robots... and disbandment: 2005–2009
In June 2005, the band parted ways with Wind\-up Records and began working on an independent release. The album was named [We're Not Robots...](/wiki/We%27re_Not_Robots... "We're Not Robots..."). It was released in August 2006 through Forevergreen records and distributed by Rockridge music.
The band remained inactive for the last part of 2007 and through mid\-2008 until an announcement on their Myspace revealed that they were working on new material for a 2009 album release. On July 2, 2009, however, the band posted a message entitled "Goodbye and Farewell", announcing their disbandment.
On December 27, 2016, former lead vocalist Matt Moseman died at the age of 43 following a stroke he suffered three days earlier. On March 16, 2017, a memorial live show was held in Texas to celebrate the life of Moseman. It featured former members of the band performing songs with guest vocalists.{{cite web \|last1\=Grubbs \|first1\=Eric \|title\=Edgewater Tribute Show to Honor the Band's Fallen Frontman, Matt Moseman \|url\=https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/edgewater\-tribute\-show\-to\-honor\-the\-bands\-fallen\-frontman\-matt\-moseman\-9261393 \|website\=\[\[Dallas Observer]] \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617223355/https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/edgewater\-tribute\-show\-to\-honor\-the\-bands\-fallen\-frontman\-matt\-moseman\-9261393 \|archive\-date\=June 17, 2021 \|date\=March 14, 2017}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Formation and self\\-titled album: 1997–2000",
"In March 1997, Matt Moseman, Cameron Woolf, Adam Leydig, and Christopher Borders formed Edgewater. The band began as a four\\-piece with Moseman handling both vocals and playing rhythm guitar, with Leydig as the lead guitarist, Borders on drums, and Woolf playing bass. In March 1998, Micah Creel and Jeremy Rees joined, replacing Borders on drums. In June 1999, Justin \"Shorty\" Middleton of 40% would join the band on rhythm guitar, with Moseman focusing solely on vocals. The band would release their [self\\-titled](/wiki/Edgewater_%28album%29 \"Edgewater (album)\") album in July 1999\\. The band began headlining local and regional venues in support of their album, which was released locally.",
"### Lifter And South of Sideways: 2001–2004",
"The band released [Lifter](/wiki/Lifter_%28album%29 \"Lifter (album)\") in 2001, and began touring in support of the album. Woolf left the band in October 2002\\. In January 2003, Ricky Wolking joined, replacing Woolf on bass.",
"In June 2003, the band signed to major label Wind\\-up Records and began working on their major label debut. In April 2004, [South of Sideways](/wiki/South_of_Sideways \"South of Sideways\") was released. The first single, \"Eyes Wired Shut\" got airplay on many radio stations. It was featured on the [Soundtrack for the movie The Punisher](/wiki/The_Punisher:The_Album \"The Album\"). They would then tour nationally with [Finger Eleven](/wiki/Finger_Eleven \"Finger Eleven\"), [Three Days Grace](/wiki/Three_Days_Grace \"Three Days Grace\"), [Seether](/wiki/Seether \"Seether\"), [Default](/wiki/Default_%28band%29 \"Default (band)\"), and [Alter Bridge](/wiki/Alter_Bridge \"Alter Bridge\").",
"### We Are Not Robots... and disbandment: 2005–2009",
"In June 2005, the band parted ways with Wind\\-up Records and began working on an independent release. The album was named [We're Not Robots...](/wiki/We%27re_Not_Robots... \"We're Not Robots...\"). It was released in August 2006 through Forevergreen records and distributed by Rockridge music.",
"The band remained inactive for the last part of 2007 and through mid\\-2008 until an announcement on their Myspace revealed that they were working on new material for a 2009 album release. On July 2, 2009, however, the band posted a message entitled \"Goodbye and Farewell\", announcing their disbandment.",
"On December 27, 2016, former lead vocalist Matt Moseman died at the age of 43 following a stroke he suffered three days earlier. On March 16, 2017, a memorial live show was held in Texas to celebrate the life of Moseman. It featured former members of the band performing songs with guest vocalists.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Grubbs \\|first1\\=Eric \\|title\\=Edgewater Tribute Show to Honor the Band's Fallen Frontman, Matt Moseman \\|url\\=https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/edgewater\\-tribute\\-show\\-to\\-honor\\-the\\-bands\\-fallen\\-frontman\\-matt\\-moseman\\-9261393 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Dallas Observer]] \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617223355/https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/edgewater\\-tribute\\-show\\-to\\-honor\\-the\\-bands\\-fallen\\-frontman\\-matt\\-moseman\\-9261393 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 17, 2021 \\|date\\=March 14, 2017}}",
""
] |
Career
------
He set up his artist studio at 515 Broadway, and soon established his reputation as an artist. After meeting the archaeologist and diplomat, [Ephraim George Squier](/wiki/Ephraim_George_Squier "Ephraim George Squier"), Heine was invited to accompany him, as an artist, on his consular duties to [Central America](/wiki/Central_America "Central America"). Proceeding ahead of Squier, he collected and recorded indigenous plants and animals and compiled notes for future publications. Until Squier arrived, Heine stood in as consul, negotiating a commercial agreement between the Central American countries and the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), which he delivered to [Washington](/wiki/Washington_D.C. "Washington D.C."). The record of this expedition was published in 1853 as the *Wanderbilder aus Zentralamerika*. While in Washington, he met President [Millard Fillmore](/wiki/Millard_Fillmore "Millard Fillmore") and Commodore [Matthew Perry](/wiki/Matthew_C._Perry "Matthew C. Perry"), and was selected from among several scores of applicants for the post of official artist to the Perry expedition to [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan").
### Japan
Nominally attached to Perry's expedition as an Acting [Master's Mate](/wiki/Master%27s_mate "Master's mate"); he served on the flagship {{USS\|Mississippi\|1841\|6}} under [Sydney Smith Lee](/wiki/Sydney_Smith_Lee "Sydney Smith Lee"). Heine visited Okinawa, the Bonin Islands, Yokohama, Shimoda and Hakodate during 1853 and 1854 ([Edo](/wiki/Edo "Edo"), however, remained closed to the members of the American expedition, and Heine was not to visit the city until 1860, when he returned to Japan as a member of the Prussian Expedition). The sketches he produced of the places he visited and the people he encountered there, together with the daguerreotypes taken by his colleague [Eliphalet Brown Jr.](/wiki/Eliphalet_Brown_Jr. "Eliphalet Brown Jr."), formed the basis of an official iconography of the American expedition to Japan which remains an important record of the country as it was before the foreigners arrived in force.
Upon his return to New York in 1855 he published several books: a collection of prints entitled *Graphic Scenes of the Japan Expedition*; 400 sketches which were included in Perry's official report; and his memoirs, *Reise um die Welt nach Japan* (Leipzig, 1856\). The memoirs were very successful, and were immediately translated into both French and Dutch.
File:Commodore\-Perry\-Visit\-Kanagawa\-1854\.jpg\|"Commodore Matthew C. Perry's visit of Kanagawa"
File:Shimoda 1856\.jpg\|"Shimoda as seen from the American Grave Yard" looking towards the harbor (lithograph, 1856\).
File:Naha Okinawa 1856\.jpg\|"Napha from Bamboo Village" looking towards the seashore (lithograph, 1856\).
File:Hakodate 1856\.jpg\|"View of Hakodate from Snow Peak" looking towards the sea (lithograph, 1856\).
### Further expeditions
Going back to [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia") he published a German translation of the report of the [Rodgers Expedition](/wiki/Rodgers_Expedition "Rodgers Expedition") sent by the US government to Japan, [China](/wiki/China "China") and [Okhotsk](/wiki/Okhotsk "Okhotsk") Seas, under the title *Die Expedition in die Seen von China, Japan und Okhotsk* (Leipzig, 1858\-9\) and *Japan und Seine Bewohner* (Leipzig, 1860\). Here he urged the Prussian government to send more expeditions to [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") before the Americans became established there. This was taken up and while in Berlin he received an invitation to join the [Eulenberg Expedition](/wiki/Eulenberg_Expedition "Eulenberg Expedition") as official artist once again, and was simultaneously given a premium to send back reports for a [Köln](/wiki/K%C3%B6ln "Köln") newspaper. During this trip he met up with [Mikhail Bakunin](/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin "Mikhail Bakunin") in [Yokohama](/wiki/Yokohama "Yokohama"), who was in the process of returning to [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), following his escape from [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia").{{cite book\|last\=Leier\|first\=Mark\|year\=2006\|pages\=176\|title\=Bakunin: The Creative Passion\|title\-link\=Bakunin: The Creative Passion\|publisher\=\[\[Seven Stories Press]]\|isbn\=978\-1\-58322\-894\-4}} Eventually, in 1864, he published his major work, a voluminous book on travel in the Orient, *Eine Weltreise um die nördliche Hemisphäre in Verbindung mit der Ostasiatischen Expedition in den Jahren 1860 und 1861* (Leipzig, two volumes).
### American Civil War and later life
Learning of the outbreak of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"); the [Forty\-Eighter](/wiki/Forty-Eighters "Forty-Eighters") returned and volunteered for the [Union Army](/wiki/Union_Army "Union Army"). He joined the [1st Maryland Infantry Regiment](/wiki/1st_Regiment_Maryland_Volunteer_Infantry "1st Regiment Maryland Volunteer Infantry") before being commissioned a Captain of [Topographical Engineers](/wiki/Topographical_Engineers "Topographical Engineers"). Serving in the [Army of the Potomac](/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac "Army of the Potomac"), Heine was captured during the [Peninsula Campaign](/wiki/Peninsula_Campaign "Peninsula Campaign") and briefly was in [Libby Prison](/wiki/Libby_Prison "Libby Prison") before being exchanged. In late 1862 he was arrested and accused of revealing too much information of the Union defenses in his drawings. Also being wounded he was honorably discharged as "unfit for service." In 1863 he rejoined the army as Colonel of the [103rd New York Infantry](/wiki/103rd_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry "103rd New York Volunteer Infantry"), a regiment made up mainly of [German\-Americans](/wiki/German-Americans "German-Americans"). Later he commanded a brigade and then a small division in the [Army of West Virginia](/wiki/Army_of_West_Virginia "Army of West Virginia"). In 1865 he was made a [Brevet](/wiki/Brevet_%28military%29 "Brevet (military)") Brigadier General but was accused of disobedience and left the army. In the next year he became a U.S. clerk to the Paris and Liverpool consulates. After the establishment of the [Hohenzollern Empire](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire") in Germany in 1871, he returned to Dresden where he wrote his last book about Japan, *Japan, Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Landes und seiner Bewohner* (Berlin, 1873–80\).
|
[
"Career\n------",
"He set up his artist studio at 515 Broadway, and soon established his reputation as an artist. After meeting the archaeologist and diplomat, [Ephraim George Squier](/wiki/Ephraim_George_Squier \"Ephraim George Squier\"), Heine was invited to accompany him, as an artist, on his consular duties to [Central America](/wiki/Central_America \"Central America\"). Proceeding ahead of Squier, he collected and recorded indigenous plants and animals and compiled notes for future publications. Until Squier arrived, Heine stood in as consul, negotiating a commercial agreement between the Central American countries and the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), which he delivered to [Washington](/wiki/Washington_D.C. \"Washington D.C.\"). The record of this expedition was published in 1853 as the *Wanderbilder aus Zentralamerika*. While in Washington, he met President [Millard Fillmore](/wiki/Millard_Fillmore \"Millard Fillmore\") and Commodore [Matthew Perry](/wiki/Matthew_C._Perry \"Matthew C. Perry\"), and was selected from among several scores of applicants for the post of official artist to the Perry expedition to [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\").",
"### Japan",
"Nominally attached to Perry's expedition as an Acting [Master's Mate](/wiki/Master%27s_mate \"Master's mate\"); he served on the flagship {{USS\\|Mississippi\\|1841\\|6}} under [Sydney Smith Lee](/wiki/Sydney_Smith_Lee \"Sydney Smith Lee\"). Heine visited Okinawa, the Bonin Islands, Yokohama, Shimoda and Hakodate during 1853 and 1854 ([Edo](/wiki/Edo \"Edo\"), however, remained closed to the members of the American expedition, and Heine was not to visit the city until 1860, when he returned to Japan as a member of the Prussian Expedition). The sketches he produced of the places he visited and the people he encountered there, together with the daguerreotypes taken by his colleague [Eliphalet Brown Jr.](/wiki/Eliphalet_Brown_Jr. \"Eliphalet Brown Jr.\"), formed the basis of an official iconography of the American expedition to Japan which remains an important record of the country as it was before the foreigners arrived in force.",
"Upon his return to New York in 1855 he published several books: a collection of prints entitled *Graphic Scenes of the Japan Expedition*; 400 sketches which were included in Perry's official report; and his memoirs, *Reise um die Welt nach Japan* (Leipzig, 1856\\). The memoirs were very successful, and were immediately translated into both French and Dutch.",
"File:Commodore\\-Perry\\-Visit\\-Kanagawa\\-1854\\.jpg\\|\"Commodore Matthew C. Perry's visit of Kanagawa\"\nFile:Shimoda 1856\\.jpg\\|\"Shimoda as seen from the American Grave Yard\" looking towards the harbor (lithograph, 1856\\).\nFile:Naha Okinawa 1856\\.jpg\\|\"Napha from Bamboo Village\" looking towards the seashore (lithograph, 1856\\).\nFile:Hakodate 1856\\.jpg\\|\"View of Hakodate from Snow Peak\" looking towards the sea (lithograph, 1856\\).",
"",
"### Further expeditions",
"Going back to [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\") he published a German translation of the report of the [Rodgers Expedition](/wiki/Rodgers_Expedition \"Rodgers Expedition\") sent by the US government to Japan, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") and [Okhotsk](/wiki/Okhotsk \"Okhotsk\") Seas, under the title *Die Expedition in die Seen von China, Japan und Okhotsk* (Leipzig, 1858\\-9\\) and *Japan und Seine Bewohner* (Leipzig, 1860\\). Here he urged the Prussian government to send more expeditions to [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") before the Americans became established there. This was taken up and while in Berlin he received an invitation to join the [Eulenberg Expedition](/wiki/Eulenberg_Expedition \"Eulenberg Expedition\") as official artist once again, and was simultaneously given a premium to send back reports for a [Köln](/wiki/K%C3%B6ln \"Köln\") newspaper. During this trip he met up with [Mikhail Bakunin](/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin \"Mikhail Bakunin\") in [Yokohama](/wiki/Yokohama \"Yokohama\"), who was in the process of returning to [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), following his escape from [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Leier\\|first\\=Mark\\|year\\=2006\\|pages\\=176\\|title\\=Bakunin: The Creative Passion\\|title\\-link\\=Bakunin: The Creative Passion\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Seven Stories Press]]\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58322\\-894\\-4}} Eventually, in 1864, he published his major work, a voluminous book on travel in the Orient, *Eine Weltreise um die nördliche Hemisphäre in Verbindung mit der Ostasiatischen Expedition in den Jahren 1860 und 1861* (Leipzig, two volumes).",
"### American Civil War and later life",
"Learning of the outbreak of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"); the [Forty\\-Eighter](/wiki/Forty-Eighters \"Forty-Eighters\") returned and volunteered for the [Union Army](/wiki/Union_Army \"Union Army\"). He joined the [1st Maryland Infantry Regiment](/wiki/1st_Regiment_Maryland_Volunteer_Infantry \"1st Regiment Maryland Volunteer Infantry\") before being commissioned a Captain of [Topographical Engineers](/wiki/Topographical_Engineers \"Topographical Engineers\"). Serving in the [Army of the Potomac](/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac \"Army of the Potomac\"), Heine was captured during the [Peninsula Campaign](/wiki/Peninsula_Campaign \"Peninsula Campaign\") and briefly was in [Libby Prison](/wiki/Libby_Prison \"Libby Prison\") before being exchanged. In late 1862 he was arrested and accused of revealing too much information of the Union defenses in his drawings. Also being wounded he was honorably discharged as \"unfit for service.\" In 1863 he rejoined the army as Colonel of the [103rd New York Infantry](/wiki/103rd_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry \"103rd New York Volunteer Infantry\"), a regiment made up mainly of [German\\-Americans](/wiki/German-Americans \"German-Americans\"). Later he commanded a brigade and then a small division in the [Army of West Virginia](/wiki/Army_of_West_Virginia \"Army of West Virginia\"). In 1865 he was made a [Brevet](/wiki/Brevet_%28military%29 \"Brevet (military)\") Brigadier General but was accused of disobedience and left the army. In the next year he became a U.S. clerk to the Paris and Liverpool consulates. After the establishment of the [Hohenzollern Empire](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\") in Germany in 1871, he returned to Dresden where he wrote his last book about Japan, *Japan, Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Landes und seiner Bewohner* (Berlin, 1873–80\\).",
""
] |
Plot
----
The Expendables are sent to [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya") to prevent mercenary Suarto Rahmat from stealing [nuclear warheads](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon") for a mysterious terrorist named Ocelot. The team is led by Barney Ross and formed by members Lee Christmas, Toll Road, and Gunner Jensen, with new members Easy Day and Galan. However, they are incapacitated when all of their vehicles are destroyed in the ensuing fight. When Rahmat shoots their plane down, the team finds what appears to be Barney's burned corpse in the wreckage, identified solely by his ring.
At Barney's memorial service, CIA operative Marsh reveals that the team will pursue Ocelot and Rahmat, but without Christmas, who jeopardized the mission trying to save Barney. He is replaced by Gina, his former lover, who also brings an operative named Lash into the team. The team travels to [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia"), but is secretly tracked by Christmas, who had slipped Gina a tracking device earlier. Barney's apparent death opened a sealed file which states that there is an eyewitness that could identify Ocelot.
Ocelot plans to provoke [World War III](/wiki/World_War_III "World War III") by letting the nuclear warheads explode in the [Russian Far East](/wiki/Russian_Far_East "Russian Far East"), transporting them on a ship disguised as an American [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier"). As the Expendables and Marsh board the ship, they are ambushed and taken hostage. Marsh is taken away to negotiate a prisoner\-exchange for the eyewitness.
Meanwhile, Christmas travels to Thailand to recruit former Expendable Decha, who has turned towards [pacifism](/wiki/Pacifism "Pacifism") but agrees to bring him to the ship to avenge Barney. As Christmas fights his way through the ship, Decha has a change of heart and helps him rescue the rest of the team. They launch an attack on Rahmat's forces, during which Christmas fights and kills him. However, Toll has been severely stabbed and needs immediate medical care.
During the prisoner exchange, Marsh kills the eyewitness and is revealed to be Ocelot, hoping to financially profit from igniting World War III. While the team leaves on Decha's boat to save Toll, Christmas stays behind to turn the ship around to avoid a global conflict. He confronts Marsh, who is killed by Barney, who surprises everyone by revealing that he faked his death, hoping to lure Ocelot out of hiding. They escape the nuclear explosion and celebrate with the team.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The Expendables are sent to [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\") to prevent mercenary Suarto Rahmat from stealing [nuclear warheads](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") for a mysterious terrorist named Ocelot. The team is led by Barney Ross and formed by members Lee Christmas, Toll Road, and Gunner Jensen, with new members Easy Day and Galan. However, they are incapacitated when all of their vehicles are destroyed in the ensuing fight. When Rahmat shoots their plane down, the team finds what appears to be Barney's burned corpse in the wreckage, identified solely by his ring.",
"At Barney's memorial service, CIA operative Marsh reveals that the team will pursue Ocelot and Rahmat, but without Christmas, who jeopardized the mission trying to save Barney. He is replaced by Gina, his former lover, who also brings an operative named Lash into the team. The team travels to [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\"), but is secretly tracked by Christmas, who had slipped Gina a tracking device earlier. Barney's apparent death opened a sealed file which states that there is an eyewitness that could identify Ocelot.",
"Ocelot plans to provoke [World War III](/wiki/World_War_III \"World War III\") by letting the nuclear warheads explode in the [Russian Far East](/wiki/Russian_Far_East \"Russian Far East\"), transporting them on a ship disguised as an American [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\"). As the Expendables and Marsh board the ship, they are ambushed and taken hostage. Marsh is taken away to negotiate a prisoner\\-exchange for the eyewitness.",
"Meanwhile, Christmas travels to Thailand to recruit former Expendable Decha, who has turned towards [pacifism](/wiki/Pacifism \"Pacifism\") but agrees to bring him to the ship to avenge Barney. As Christmas fights his way through the ship, Decha has a change of heart and helps him rescue the rest of the team. They launch an attack on Rahmat's forces, during which Christmas fights and kills him. However, Toll has been severely stabbed and needs immediate medical care.",
"During the prisoner exchange, Marsh kills the eyewitness and is revealed to be Ocelot, hoping to financially profit from igniting World War III. While the team leaves on Decha's boat to save Toll, Christmas stays behind to turn the ship around to avoid a global conflict. He confronts Marsh, who is killed by Barney, who surprises everyone by revealing that he faked his death, hoping to lure Ocelot out of hiding. They escape the nuclear explosion and celebrate with the team.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Percival's first published work was in the monthly British comic *[Judge Dredd Megazine](/wiki/Judge_Dredd_Megazine "Judge Dredd Megazine")* with a horror 'strange cases' tale written by [Dave Stone](/wiki/Dave_Stone "Dave Stone"). After several similar stories in the *Megazine*, he then went on to paint a nine\-part story set in Judge Dredd's world in the Cursed Earth with the series *Sleeze 'n' Ryder*, where Nick worked with acclaimed writer [Garth Ennis](/wiki/Garth_Ennis "Garth Ennis").
The pair would later work together again for the British weekly comic *[2000 AD](/wiki/2000_AD_%28comics%29 "2000 AD (comics)")* on the [Judge Dredd](/wiki/Judge_Dredd "Judge Dredd") epic "Goodnight Kiss", another tale set in the radioactive wasteland of the Cursed Earth, where Judge Dredd is hunted by the assassin Jonni Kiss and the mutant Brotherhood of Marshalls.
Percival also painted the [Sláine](/wiki/Sl%C3%A1ine_%28comics%29 "Sláine (comics)") story "King of Hearts" for *2000 AD*, where he worked with the co\-creator of *2000 AD*, [Pat Mills](/wiki/Pat_Mills "Pat Mills").
Aside from his *2000 AD* work on various stories and painted covers, including a Dredd one\-off story "Crime Prevention" with acclaimed comic book author [Mark Millar](/wiki/Mark_Millar "Mark Millar"), Percival has also produced work for [Marvel Comics](/wiki/Marvel_Comics "Marvel Comics"), [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV"), [Wizards of the Coast](/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast "Wizards of the Coast"), [Upper Deck Entertainment](/wiki/Upper_Deck_Entertainment "Upper Deck Entertainment"), [Boom! Studios](/wiki/Boom%21_Studios "Boom! Studios"), [IDW Publishing](/wiki/IDW_Publishing "IDW Publishing"), [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts "Electronic Arts"), [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony"), [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros."), [Activision](/wiki/Activision "Activision"), [Atari](/wiki/Atari "Atari"), [Sci Fi Channel](/wiki/Sci_Fi_Channel_%28United_States%29 "Sci Fi Channel (United States)"), [History Channel](/wiki/History_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 "History (U.S. TV channel)"), [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft "Microsoft"), and [Fantasy Flight Games](/wiki/Fantasy_Flight_Games "Fantasy Flight Games").
He also became prolific in the video game and animation industries where he ran an animation studio in the UK. He directed computer generated cut\-scenes for video game such as *[Men in Black II: Alien Escape](/wiki/Men_in_Black_II:Alien_Escape "Alien Escape")*, *[Z: Steel Soldiers](/wiki/Z:Steel_Soldiers "Steel Soldiers")*, *[Carmageddon TDR 2000](/wiki/Carmageddon_TDR_2000 "Carmageddon TDR 2000")*, and the [Games Workshop](/wiki/Games_Workshop "Games Workshop") licensed video game of *[Gorkamorka](/wiki/Gorkamorka "Gorkamorka")*. His company also developed their own computer generated short films and Percival presented one of these successfully at the [Cartoon Movie Festival](/wiki/Cartoon_Movie_Festival "Cartoon Movie Festival") 2002 in Berlin.
Percival is the author and illustrator of *[Legends: The Enchanted](/wiki/Legends:The_Enchanted "The Enchanted")*,{{cite web \|first\=Steve \|last\=Sunu \|url\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=23743 \|title\=Nick Percival creates Legends \|publisher\=\[\[Comic Book Resources]] \|date\=17 November 2009 \|access\-date\=24 November 2009 }} an original [graphic novel](/wiki/Graphic_novel "Graphic novel"), to be adapted into a feature film by [Ron Howard](/wiki/Ron_Howard "Ron Howard")'s [Imagine Entertainment](/wiki/Imagine_Entertainment "Imagine Entertainment").[http://www.heatvisionblog.com/2010/06/imagine\-and\-radical\-tackle\-fairy\-tale\-superteam\-in\-legends\-exclusive.html](http://www.heatvisionblog.com/2010/06/imagine-and-radical-tackle-fairy-tale-superteam-in-legends-exclusive.html), 17 June 2010 *Legends: The Enchanted* won the HorrorNews Net award for Best Original Graphic Novel 2010\.[2010 HorrorNewsNet awards](http://www.horrornewsnetwork.net/modules.php?name=Forums&file=viewtopic&t=14929&f=1), 3 January 2011 and was nominated for an [Eagle Award](/wiki/Eagle_Award_%28comics%29 "Eagle Award (comics)") for Favourite Single Story 2010\.[2010 Eagle Awards](http://www.eagleawards.co.uk/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620041513/http://www.eagleawards.co.uk/ \|date\=2012\-06\-20 }}, 14 March 2011
In 2015, Percival won the 13th Annual *[Rondo Hatton](/wiki/Rondo_Hatton "Rondo Hatton")* Classic Horror Award for Best Cover Art for his painted Nightbreed cover for *[Fangoria](/wiki/Fangoria "Fangoria")* magazine.[2015 Rondo Awards](http://www.rondoaward.com/), 30 April 2015
Percival's poster artwork for the independent horror film *Female Werewolf* won the Fantastic Cinema Excellence in Poster Design Award 2016\.[2016 Excellence in Poster Design Awards](http://www.fantasticcinema.com/latest-updates/2016/4/13/announcing-the-winners-of-the-excellence-in-poster-design-award-presented-by-cranford-co/), 13 April 2016
In 2017, he won the Horror News Network's Comic Award for Best Cover Artwork of 2017 for the comic book *[Hook Jaw](/wiki/Hook_Jaw "Hook Jaw")*.
[Horror News Network's Comic Awards 2017: Best Cover](http://www.horrornewsnetwork.net/horror-news-networks-comic-awards-2017-best-cover/), 29 December 2017
More recently, Percival has been painting the continuing saga of [Judge Dredd](/wiki/Judge_Dredd "Judge Dredd")'s most famous nemesis, [Judge Death](/wiki/Judge_Death "Judge Death") and the [Dark Judges](/wiki/Dark_Judges "Dark Judges"), with the Dark Justice: Dominion and The Torture Garden series.{{cite web \| url\=https://2000ad.com/news/john\-wagner\-to\-revive\-the\-dark\-judges\-with\-new\-story\-dominion/ \| title\=John Wagner to 'revive' the Dark Judges with new story 'Dominion' \| publisher\=2000ad \| date\=7 February 2017 \| access\-date\=20 January 2021}}
Percival has since completed four series in the Dark Judges saga for 2000AD and continues to illustrate Judge Dredd. {{cite web \| url \= https://2000ad.com/news/nick\-percival\-talks\-six\-yearssss\-of\-darknessss\-six\-years\-of\-dark\-judgessss/?fbclid\=IwAR02v585nEGEu\-6hDPAhHNM7vLmxmJDiMLTVBHnI\_1avjxRlXi5Vjz7KOQ8 \| title\= Nick Percival Talks Six Yearssss of Darknessss, Six Years of Dark Judgessss\| publisher\=2000ad \| date\=28 July 2023 \| access\-date\=30 July 2023}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Percival's first published work was in the monthly British comic *[Judge Dredd Megazine](/wiki/Judge_Dredd_Megazine \"Judge Dredd Megazine\")* with a horror 'strange cases' tale written by [Dave Stone](/wiki/Dave_Stone \"Dave Stone\"). After several similar stories in the *Megazine*, he then went on to paint a nine\\-part story set in Judge Dredd's world in the Cursed Earth with the series *Sleeze 'n' Ryder*, where Nick worked with acclaimed writer [Garth Ennis](/wiki/Garth_Ennis \"Garth Ennis\").",
"The pair would later work together again for the British weekly comic *[2000 AD](/wiki/2000_AD_%28comics%29 \"2000 AD (comics)\")* on the [Judge Dredd](/wiki/Judge_Dredd \"Judge Dredd\") epic \"Goodnight Kiss\", another tale set in the radioactive wasteland of the Cursed Earth, where Judge Dredd is hunted by the assassin Jonni Kiss and the mutant Brotherhood of Marshalls.",
"Percival also painted the [Sláine](/wiki/Sl%C3%A1ine_%28comics%29 \"Sláine (comics)\") story \"King of Hearts\" for *2000 AD*, where he worked with the co\\-creator of *2000 AD*, [Pat Mills](/wiki/Pat_Mills \"Pat Mills\").",
"Aside from his *2000 AD* work on various stories and painted covers, including a Dredd one\\-off story \"Crime Prevention\" with acclaimed comic book author [Mark Millar](/wiki/Mark_Millar \"Mark Millar\"), Percival has also produced work for [Marvel Comics](/wiki/Marvel_Comics \"Marvel Comics\"), [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\"), [Wizards of the Coast](/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast \"Wizards of the Coast\"), [Upper Deck Entertainment](/wiki/Upper_Deck_Entertainment \"Upper Deck Entertainment\"), [Boom! Studios](/wiki/Boom%21_Studios \"Boom! Studios\"), [IDW Publishing](/wiki/IDW_Publishing \"IDW Publishing\"), [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts \"Electronic Arts\"), [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\"), [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\"), [Activision](/wiki/Activision \"Activision\"), [Atari](/wiki/Atari \"Atari\"), [Sci Fi Channel](/wiki/Sci_Fi_Channel_%28United_States%29 \"Sci Fi Channel (United States)\"), [History Channel](/wiki/History_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 \"History (U.S. TV channel)\"), [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\"), and [Fantasy Flight Games](/wiki/Fantasy_Flight_Games \"Fantasy Flight Games\").",
"He also became prolific in the video game and animation industries where he ran an animation studio in the UK. He directed computer generated cut\\-scenes for video game such as *[Men in Black II: Alien Escape](/wiki/Men_in_Black_II:Alien_Escape \"Alien Escape\")*, *[Z: Steel Soldiers](/wiki/Z:Steel_Soldiers \"Steel Soldiers\")*, *[Carmageddon TDR 2000](/wiki/Carmageddon_TDR_2000 \"Carmageddon TDR 2000\")*, and the [Games Workshop](/wiki/Games_Workshop \"Games Workshop\") licensed video game of *[Gorkamorka](/wiki/Gorkamorka \"Gorkamorka\")*. His company also developed their own computer generated short films and Percival presented one of these successfully at the [Cartoon Movie Festival](/wiki/Cartoon_Movie_Festival \"Cartoon Movie Festival\") 2002 in Berlin.",
"Percival is the author and illustrator of *[Legends: The Enchanted](/wiki/Legends:The_Enchanted \"The Enchanted\")*,{{cite web \\|first\\=Steve \\|last\\=Sunu \\|url\\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=23743 \\|title\\=Nick Percival creates Legends \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Comic Book Resources]] \\|date\\=17 November 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2009 }} an original [graphic novel](/wiki/Graphic_novel \"Graphic novel\"), to be adapted into a feature film by [Ron Howard](/wiki/Ron_Howard \"Ron Howard\")'s [Imagine Entertainment](/wiki/Imagine_Entertainment \"Imagine Entertainment\").[http://www.heatvisionblog.com/2010/06/imagine\\-and\\-radical\\-tackle\\-fairy\\-tale\\-superteam\\-in\\-legends\\-exclusive.html](http://www.heatvisionblog.com/2010/06/imagine-and-radical-tackle-fairy-tale-superteam-in-legends-exclusive.html), 17 June 2010 *Legends: The Enchanted* won the HorrorNews Net award for Best Original Graphic Novel 2010\\.[2010 HorrorNewsNet awards](http://www.horrornewsnetwork.net/modules.php?name=Forums&file=viewtopic&t=14929&f=1), 3 January 2011 and was nominated for an [Eagle Award](/wiki/Eagle_Award_%28comics%29 \"Eagle Award (comics)\") for Favourite Single Story 2010\\.[2010 Eagle Awards](http://www.eagleawards.co.uk/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620041513/http://www.eagleawards.co.uk/ \\|date\\=2012\\-06\\-20 }}, 14 March 2011",
"In 2015, Percival won the 13th Annual *[Rondo Hatton](/wiki/Rondo_Hatton \"Rondo Hatton\")* Classic Horror Award for Best Cover Art for his painted Nightbreed cover for *[Fangoria](/wiki/Fangoria \"Fangoria\")* magazine.[2015 Rondo Awards](http://www.rondoaward.com/), 30 April 2015",
"Percival's poster artwork for the independent horror film *Female Werewolf* won the Fantastic Cinema Excellence in Poster Design Award 2016\\.[2016 Excellence in Poster Design Awards](http://www.fantasticcinema.com/latest-updates/2016/4/13/announcing-the-winners-of-the-excellence-in-poster-design-award-presented-by-cranford-co/), 13 April 2016",
"In 2017, he won the Horror News Network's Comic Award for Best Cover Artwork of 2017 for the comic book *[Hook Jaw](/wiki/Hook_Jaw \"Hook Jaw\")*.\n[Horror News Network's Comic Awards 2017: Best Cover](http://www.horrornewsnetwork.net/horror-news-networks-comic-awards-2017-best-cover/), 29 December 2017",
"More recently, Percival has been painting the continuing saga of [Judge Dredd](/wiki/Judge_Dredd \"Judge Dredd\")'s most famous nemesis, [Judge Death](/wiki/Judge_Death \"Judge Death\") and the [Dark Judges](/wiki/Dark_Judges \"Dark Judges\"), with the Dark Justice: Dominion and The Torture Garden series.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://2000ad.com/news/john\\-wagner\\-to\\-revive\\-the\\-dark\\-judges\\-with\\-new\\-story\\-dominion/ \\| title\\=John Wagner to 'revive' the Dark Judges with new story 'Dominion' \\| publisher\\=2000ad \\| date\\=7 February 2017 \\| access\\-date\\=20 January 2021}}",
"Percival has since completed four series in the Dark Judges saga for 2000AD and continues to illustrate Judge Dredd. {{cite web \\| url \\= https://2000ad.com/news/nick\\-percival\\-talks\\-six\\-yearssss\\-of\\-darknessss\\-six\\-years\\-of\\-dark\\-judgessss/?fbclid\\=IwAR02v585nEGEu\\-6hDPAhHNM7vLmxmJDiMLTVBHnI\\_1avjxRlXi5Vjz7KOQ8 \\| title\\= Nick Percival Talks Six Yearssss of Darknessss, Six Years of Dark Judgessss\\| publisher\\=2000ad \\| date\\=28 July 2023 \\| access\\-date\\=30 July 2023}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
The Southern Engineering Company is trying to drain the local swamp for the public good. However, the efforts are being hampered by the superstitions of the workers, who believe the area to be haunted by the mummy and his bride, which happened 25 years prior.
Two representatives of the Scripps Museum, Dr. James Halsey and Dr. Ilzor Zandaab, arrive on the scene and present their credentials to the head of the project, Pat Walsh. They have come to search for the missing mummies, buried in the swamp years earlier. Their conversation is interrupted by the news that a workman has been murdered in the swamps. Evidence at the scene convinces Halsey that the murderer has found the mummy of Kharis.
Later that evening, Zandaab sneaks into the swamp and meets Ragheb. Ragheb is a disciple of the Arkam sect, and Zandaab is secretly a High Priest. The follower killed the worker that unearthed Kharis, and has taken the immobile monster to a deserted monastery.
Zandaab explains the legend of Kharis and Ananka to Ragheb as he brews the tana leaves, giving instructions on their use. The old sacristan of the monastery intrudes on their ritual, and is promptly executed by a risen Kharis.
Meanwhile, the mummy of Ananka rises from the swamp after being partially uncovered by a bulldozer during the excavation. She immerses herself in a pond and the mud is washed away, revealing an attractive young woman.
Cajun Joe finds the girl wandering listlessly in the swamps, calling out the name "Kharis". He takes her to Tante Berthe, the owner of the local pub, who aids the girl. Later, Kharis finds her there and murders Berthe, as Ananka flees into the night.
Ananka is soon found lying unconscious beside the road by Halsey and Betty Walsh, the niece of Pat Walsh. While in their care, and although apparently suffering from amnesia, the girl displays an incredible knowledge of [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt"). Her stay at Halsey's camp is again interrupted by the appearance of Kharis, and the kindly physician, Dr. Cooper, is killed. She again takes flight, and Halsey and the others go in search of her.
Fleeing the monster after he attacks and kills Cajun Joe, she comes to Betty's tent seeking refuge. However, Kharis is not far behind. He enters the tent and whisks away his Princess, leaving the horrified Betty unhurt.
Betty asks Ragheb for his help in finding Dr. Halsey. The treacherous disciple has other ideas, and takes her to the monastery instead. Zandaab, having already administered the tana fluid to the young Ananka, is angered to find Ragheb making advances on Betty. He orders her death, but Ragheb kills him instead. Halsey arrives, tracking them from the camp after finding Betty's tent destroyed. A struggle ensues between Ragheb and Halsey, until Kharis intervenes. The creature, sensing Ragheb's betrayal, advances on his former ally.
Locking himself inside a cell\-like room, Ragheb is powerless to do anything but watch as Kharis literally brings down the walls on the two of them. Halsey, Betty and the rest find the mummified remains of Ananka in the adjoining room.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The Southern Engineering Company is trying to drain the local swamp for the public good. However, the efforts are being hampered by the superstitions of the workers, who believe the area to be haunted by the mummy and his bride, which happened 25 years prior.",
"Two representatives of the Scripps Museum, Dr. James Halsey and Dr. Ilzor Zandaab, arrive on the scene and present their credentials to the head of the project, Pat Walsh. They have come to search for the missing mummies, buried in the swamp years earlier. Their conversation is interrupted by the news that a workman has been murdered in the swamps. Evidence at the scene convinces Halsey that the murderer has found the mummy of Kharis.",
"Later that evening, Zandaab sneaks into the swamp and meets Ragheb. Ragheb is a disciple of the Arkam sect, and Zandaab is secretly a High Priest. The follower killed the worker that unearthed Kharis, and has taken the immobile monster to a deserted monastery.",
"Zandaab explains the legend of Kharis and Ananka to Ragheb as he brews the tana leaves, giving instructions on their use. The old sacristan of the monastery intrudes on their ritual, and is promptly executed by a risen Kharis.",
"Meanwhile, the mummy of Ananka rises from the swamp after being partially uncovered by a bulldozer during the excavation. She immerses herself in a pond and the mud is washed away, revealing an attractive young woman.",
"Cajun Joe finds the girl wandering listlessly in the swamps, calling out the name \"Kharis\". He takes her to Tante Berthe, the owner of the local pub, who aids the girl. Later, Kharis finds her there and murders Berthe, as Ananka flees into the night.",
"Ananka is soon found lying unconscious beside the road by Halsey and Betty Walsh, the niece of Pat Walsh. While in their care, and although apparently suffering from amnesia, the girl displays an incredible knowledge of [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\"). Her stay at Halsey's camp is again interrupted by the appearance of Kharis, and the kindly physician, Dr. Cooper, is killed. She again takes flight, and Halsey and the others go in search of her.",
"Fleeing the monster after he attacks and kills Cajun Joe, she comes to Betty's tent seeking refuge. However, Kharis is not far behind. He enters the tent and whisks away his Princess, leaving the horrified Betty unhurt.",
"Betty asks Ragheb for his help in finding Dr. Halsey. The treacherous disciple has other ideas, and takes her to the monastery instead. Zandaab, having already administered the tana fluid to the young Ananka, is angered to find Ragheb making advances on Betty. He orders her death, but Ragheb kills him instead. Halsey arrives, tracking them from the camp after finding Betty's tent destroyed. A struggle ensues between Ragheb and Halsey, until Kharis intervenes. The creature, sensing Ragheb's betrayal, advances on his former ally.",
"Locking himself inside a cell\\-like room, Ragheb is powerless to do anything but watch as Kharis literally brings down the walls on the two of them. Halsey, Betty and the rest find the mummified remains of Ananka in the adjoining room.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Koesoemadinata is widely known among the [Sundanese people](/wiki/Sundanese_people "Sundanese people") as a composer. He wrote Sundanese traditional songs such as "Lemah Cai" (Our Native Land), "Dewi Sartika" and "Sinom Puspasari". He was also a playwright and director of Sundanese music\-dramas called *Rinenggasari*; among those he wrote are *Sarkam\-Sarkim* and *Satan Mindo Wahyu Revelation* (Satan Personification as Divine Revelation).
He formulated the Sundanese solfège system (*da mi na ti la*) and wrote many theoretical publications on Sundanese music, including *Ilmu Seni Raras* (Our Musical Art) (1969\) and *Ringkesan Pangawikan Rinenggaswara* (An outline of music theory) (1950\).
His research and experimentation on tone and scale systems led him in 1950 to his 17–tone Sundanese tuning and scale system, in which one octave consists of 17 equal intervals of 7010/17 cents. (Weintraub (2001\) suggests that Koesoemadinata was aware of 17\-tone theories that had been developed for Persian art music, but another source{{who\|date\=July 2012}} close to Koesoemadinata considers that he would only have known of the western 12\-note chromatic scale, as he had no access to world literature on [ethnomusicology](/wiki/Ethnomusicology "Ethnomusicology").)
Koesoemadinata's knowledge on the Sundanese [pelog](/wiki/Pelog "Pelog") and [salendro](/wiki/Salendro "Salendro") music system was acquired in his youth by learning to play the [gamelan](/wiki/Gamelan "Gamelan") and the [rebab](/wiki/Rebab "Rebab"), as well as by learning how to sing Sundanese tunes from Sundanese musicians and singers. He was introduced to science and western music theory when he was at the school for teachers ([Kweekschool](/wiki/Kweekschool "Kweekschool") and [Hogere Kweekaschool](/wiki/Hogere_Kweekaschool "Hogere Kweekaschool")) in [Sumedang](/wiki/Sumedang "Sumedang"), [West Java](/wiki/West_Java "West Java"), where he started his research on the frequency measurement of sounds from gamelan instruments and Sundanese singing. In 1923, he created the Sundanese solfège system (*da mi na ti la*) and wrote a book on Sundanese music theory entitled *Elmuning Kawih Sunda* (Science of Sundanese Music). After completing Hogere Kweekaschool, he worked as a teacher from 1924 to 1932, while he continued his research into the theory of Sundanese music.
Between 1927 and 1929, Koesoemadinata met [Jaap Kunst](/wiki/Jaap_Kunst "Jaap Kunst"), a Dutch ethnomusicologist who was conducting research on musical instruments in [Java](/wiki/Java "Java") and [Bali](/wiki/Bali "Bali"). They jointly wrote and published articles, and Koesoemadinata is often cited in Kunst's 1934 book *De Toonkunst van Java*. During this period, Koesoemadinata gained a better understanding of the frequencies of gamelan and of vocal sounds, and he started to perform frequency measurements using a [monochord](/wiki/Monochord "Monochord"). He converted the frequency intervals into a logarithmic musical scale, using the concept of [cents](/wiki/Cent_%28music%29 "Cent (music)") from Ellis (1884\) and Hornbostel (1920\) and Reiner's concept of musical rule.
In 1933, the colonial government commissioned Koesoemadinata to form a Sundanese music education system for all\-indigenous schools in [West Java](/wiki/West_Java "West Java"). After the independence of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"), from 1945 until 1947, he taught science, history and English for high school teachers in [Bandung](/wiki/Bandung "Bandung"). The rest of his professional career was spent mainly as an expert for the Department of Culture of West Java in Bandung. He was also an adjunct lecturer at the Gamelan [Conservatory](/wiki/College_or_university_school_of_music "College or university school of music") in [Surakarta](/wiki/Surakarta "Surakarta"), [Central Java](/wiki/Central_Java "Central Java") from 1953 to 1959\. In 1958 (to 1959{{Clarify\|date\=July 2012}}) he was appointed its director.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Koesoemadinata is widely known among the [Sundanese people](/wiki/Sundanese_people \"Sundanese people\") as a composer. He wrote Sundanese traditional songs such as \"Lemah Cai\" (Our Native Land), \"Dewi Sartika\" and \"Sinom Puspasari\". He was also a playwright and director of Sundanese music\\-dramas called *Rinenggasari*; among those he wrote are *Sarkam\\-Sarkim* and *Satan Mindo Wahyu Revelation* (Satan Personification as Divine Revelation).",
"He formulated the Sundanese solfège system (*da mi na ti la*) and wrote many theoretical publications on Sundanese music, including *Ilmu Seni Raras* (Our Musical Art) (1969\\) and *Ringkesan Pangawikan Rinenggaswara* (An outline of music theory) (1950\\).",
"His research and experimentation on tone and scale systems led him in 1950 to his 17–tone Sundanese tuning and scale system, in which one octave consists of 17 equal intervals of 7010/17 cents. (Weintraub (2001\\) suggests that Koesoemadinata was aware of 17\\-tone theories that had been developed for Persian art music, but another source{{who\\|date\\=July 2012}} close to Koesoemadinata considers that he would only have known of the western 12\\-note chromatic scale, as he had no access to world literature on [ethnomusicology](/wiki/Ethnomusicology \"Ethnomusicology\").)",
"Koesoemadinata's knowledge on the Sundanese [pelog](/wiki/Pelog \"Pelog\") and [salendro](/wiki/Salendro \"Salendro\") music system was acquired in his youth by learning to play the [gamelan](/wiki/Gamelan \"Gamelan\") and the [rebab](/wiki/Rebab \"Rebab\"), as well as by learning how to sing Sundanese tunes from Sundanese musicians and singers. He was introduced to science and western music theory when he was at the school for teachers ([Kweekschool](/wiki/Kweekschool \"Kweekschool\") and [Hogere Kweekaschool](/wiki/Hogere_Kweekaschool \"Hogere Kweekaschool\")) in [Sumedang](/wiki/Sumedang \"Sumedang\"), [West Java](/wiki/West_Java \"West Java\"), where he started his research on the frequency measurement of sounds from gamelan instruments and Sundanese singing. In 1923, he created the Sundanese solfège system (*da mi na ti la*) and wrote a book on Sundanese music theory entitled *Elmuning Kawih Sunda* (Science of Sundanese Music). After completing Hogere Kweekaschool, he worked as a teacher from 1924 to 1932, while he continued his research into the theory of Sundanese music.",
"Between 1927 and 1929, Koesoemadinata met [Jaap Kunst](/wiki/Jaap_Kunst \"Jaap Kunst\"), a Dutch ethnomusicologist who was conducting research on musical instruments in [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\") and [Bali](/wiki/Bali \"Bali\"). They jointly wrote and published articles, and Koesoemadinata is often cited in Kunst's 1934 book *De Toonkunst van Java*. During this period, Koesoemadinata gained a better understanding of the frequencies of gamelan and of vocal sounds, and he started to perform frequency measurements using a [monochord](/wiki/Monochord \"Monochord\"). He converted the frequency intervals into a logarithmic musical scale, using the concept of [cents](/wiki/Cent_%28music%29 \"Cent (music)\") from Ellis (1884\\) and Hornbostel (1920\\) and Reiner's concept of musical rule.",
"In 1933, the colonial government commissioned Koesoemadinata to form a Sundanese music education system for all\\-indigenous schools in [West Java](/wiki/West_Java \"West Java\"). After the independence of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"), from 1945 until 1947, he taught science, history and English for high school teachers in [Bandung](/wiki/Bandung \"Bandung\"). The rest of his professional career was spent mainly as an expert for the Department of Culture of West Java in Bandung. He was also an adjunct lecturer at the Gamelan [Conservatory](/wiki/College_or_university_school_of_music \"College or university school of music\") in [Surakarta](/wiki/Surakarta \"Surakarta\"), [Central Java](/wiki/Central_Java \"Central Java\") from 1953 to 1959\\. In 1958 (to 1959{{Clarify\\|date\\=July 2012}}) he was appointed its director.",
""
] |
History
-------
The OCC was founded in 1976 through the merger of the Canadian Guild of Crafts Ontario, established in 1931, and the Ontario Craft Foundation, established in 1966\.
In 2014, the OCC rebranded itself as Craft Ontario, simultaneously renaming the OCC Gallery as the Craft Ontario Gallery and the Guild Shop as the Craft Ontario Shop. However, the organization remains legally known as the Ontario Crafts Council.{{cite press release \|url\=http://www.craftontario.com/pressroom.html \|title\=Putting unpredictability first: The Ontario Crafts Council launches a new identity \|author\=Ontario Crafts Council \|date\=February 13, 2014 \|accessdate\=July 24, 2014}}
### Progenitor Organizations
#### The Canadian Handicrafts Guild (The Canadian Guild of Crafts Ontario)
The [Canadian Handicrafts Guild](/wiki/Canadian_Handicrafts_Guild "Canadian Handicrafts Guild") originated at the turn of the twentieth century in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal") as a result of the dual efforts of Alice Peck (née Skelton) and Mary (May) Phillips.Ellen Easton McLeod, *In Good Hands: The Women of the Canadian Handicrafts Guild* (Montreal: Carleton University Press, 1999\), 1\. In the same spirit as the [Arts and Crafts Movement](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_Movement "Arts and Crafts Movement") spearheaded by the English artist and designer [William Morris](/wiki/William_Morris "William Morris"), these likeminded women shared an appreciation for handmade work that was becoming increasingly rare as industrialization brought machine\-made materials and objects to the market. Motivated by a desire to arouse waning public interest in handcrafted objects, the group organized two exhibitions of craft. The first of these exhibitions was held in 1900 in Métis, Quebec. The second was in Montréal at [Henry Morgan's](/wiki/Morgan%27s "Morgan's") department store. In 1905, the group was chartered as The Canadian Handicrafts Guild; in 1906, it was incorporated nationally.McLeod, 2\.
The Canadian Handicrafts Guild is a significant organization in Canadian history whose impact extended well beyond the promotion of arts and culture. During the [Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), the Guild opened a [weaving](/wiki/Weaving "Weaving") school in Montréal to train instructors to teach weaving to farmers in [Manitoba](/wiki/Manitoba "Manitoba") and [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta "Alberta"). Crop failures in these provinces left land workers with no money to purchase clothing. The instruction program initiated by the Guild enabled workers in Manitoba and Alberta to weave their own fabric for clothing.Paul Bennett, "A History of the Ontario Crafts Council" (Unpublished notes, Ontario Crafts Council archives,1977\): 2\.
In 1931, a group of Toronto individuals interested in crafts joined to form the Handicrafts Association of Canada. Adelaide Marriott, who had been involved with The Canadian Handicrafts Guild, informed this new group of the existence of The Canadian Handicrafts Guild.Adelaide Marriott, "History: The Canadian Guild of Crafts," Craft Dimensions December/January (1972\): 12\. The existence of another national craft organization having been brought to their attention, the Toronto group changed their name to the Ontario Branch of the Canadian Handicrafts Guild.Bennett, 3\. In 1967, the Canadian Handicrafts Guild changed their name to Canadian Guild of Crafts, and it was, ultimately, the Canadian Guild of Crafts Ontario that amalgamated with the Ontario Craft Foundation to form the OCC.Bennett, 5\.
#### Ontario Craft Foundation
The Ontario Craft Foundation was established in June 1966 following a series of recommendations developed at two provincial conferences. It was recommended that an organization be established whose primary aim would be to promote the development of craft in Ontario. Thus, the Ontario Craft Foundation was formed. One of the key achievements in the history of the Ontario Craft Foundation is the establishment of [Sheridan College School of Design](/wiki/Sheridan_College "Sheridan College").Bennett, 10\. The Foundation was also set apart by its mandate to serve craftspeople throughout the entire province of Ontario since its funding was largely drawn from taxpayer dollars.Bennett, 12\.
### The Formation of the OCC
The OCC was formed when, in the 1970s, it was evident that there was confusion surrounding the mandates of the two independent provincial craft organizations and overlap of their programming and services.Bennett, 11\. From 1973 to 1975, a series of meetings were held to discuss a merger between the Canadian Guild of Crafts and the Ontario Craft Foundation. A new [board](/wiki/Board_of_directors "Board of directors") was formed of twelve board members from each founding organization. In October 1975, the first meeting of the Interim Board of Directors of the Ontario Crafts Council was held, though the organization was not [patented](/wiki/Patent "Patent") until August 1976\. The founding president of the board was Toronto [philanthropist](/wiki/Philanthropy "Philanthropy") [Joan Chalmers](/wiki/Joan_Chalmers "Joan Chalmers").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The OCC was founded in 1976 through the merger of the Canadian Guild of Crafts Ontario, established in 1931, and the Ontario Craft Foundation, established in 1966\\.",
"In 2014, the OCC rebranded itself as Craft Ontario, simultaneously renaming the OCC Gallery as the Craft Ontario Gallery and the Guild Shop as the Craft Ontario Shop. However, the organization remains legally known as the Ontario Crafts Council.{{cite press release \\|url\\=http://www.craftontario.com/pressroom.html \\|title\\=Putting unpredictability first: The Ontario Crafts Council launches a new identity \\|author\\=Ontario Crafts Council \\|date\\=February 13, 2014 \\|accessdate\\=July 24, 2014}}",
"### Progenitor Organizations",
"#### The Canadian Handicrafts Guild (The Canadian Guild of Crafts Ontario)",
"The [Canadian Handicrafts Guild](/wiki/Canadian_Handicrafts_Guild \"Canadian Handicrafts Guild\") originated at the turn of the twentieth century in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\") as a result of the dual efforts of Alice Peck (née Skelton) and Mary (May) Phillips.Ellen Easton McLeod, *In Good Hands: The Women of the Canadian Handicrafts Guild* (Montreal: Carleton University Press, 1999\\), 1\\. In the same spirit as the [Arts and Crafts Movement](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_Movement \"Arts and Crafts Movement\") spearheaded by the English artist and designer [William Morris](/wiki/William_Morris \"William Morris\"), these likeminded women shared an appreciation for handmade work that was becoming increasingly rare as industrialization brought machine\\-made materials and objects to the market. Motivated by a desire to arouse waning public interest in handcrafted objects, the group organized two exhibitions of craft. The first of these exhibitions was held in 1900 in Métis, Quebec. The second was in Montréal at [Henry Morgan's](/wiki/Morgan%27s \"Morgan's\") department store. In 1905, the group was chartered as The Canadian Handicrafts Guild; in 1906, it was incorporated nationally.McLeod, 2\\.",
"The Canadian Handicrafts Guild is a significant organization in Canadian history whose impact extended well beyond the promotion of arts and culture. During the [Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), the Guild opened a [weaving](/wiki/Weaving \"Weaving\") school in Montréal to train instructors to teach weaving to farmers in [Manitoba](/wiki/Manitoba \"Manitoba\") and [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\"). Crop failures in these provinces left land workers with no money to purchase clothing. The instruction program initiated by the Guild enabled workers in Manitoba and Alberta to weave their own fabric for clothing.Paul Bennett, \"A History of the Ontario Crafts Council\" (Unpublished notes, Ontario Crafts Council archives,1977\\): 2\\.",
"In 1931, a group of Toronto individuals interested in crafts joined to form the Handicrafts Association of Canada. Adelaide Marriott, who had been involved with The Canadian Handicrafts Guild, informed this new group of the existence of The Canadian Handicrafts Guild.Adelaide Marriott, \"History: The Canadian Guild of Crafts,\" Craft Dimensions December/January (1972\\): 12\\. The existence of another national craft organization having been brought to their attention, the Toronto group changed their name to the Ontario Branch of the Canadian Handicrafts Guild.Bennett, 3\\. In 1967, the Canadian Handicrafts Guild changed their name to Canadian Guild of Crafts, and it was, ultimately, the Canadian Guild of Crafts Ontario that amalgamated with the Ontario Craft Foundation to form the OCC.Bennett, 5\\.",
"#### Ontario Craft Foundation",
"The Ontario Craft Foundation was established in June 1966 following a series of recommendations developed at two provincial conferences. It was recommended that an organization be established whose primary aim would be to promote the development of craft in Ontario. Thus, the Ontario Craft Foundation was formed. One of the key achievements in the history of the Ontario Craft Foundation is the establishment of [Sheridan College School of Design](/wiki/Sheridan_College \"Sheridan College\").Bennett, 10\\. The Foundation was also set apart by its mandate to serve craftspeople throughout the entire province of Ontario since its funding was largely drawn from taxpayer dollars.Bennett, 12\\.",
"### The Formation of the OCC",
"The OCC was formed when, in the 1970s, it was evident that there was confusion surrounding the mandates of the two independent provincial craft organizations and overlap of their programming and services.Bennett, 11\\. From 1973 to 1975, a series of meetings were held to discuss a merger between the Canadian Guild of Crafts and the Ontario Craft Foundation. A new [board](/wiki/Board_of_directors \"Board of directors\") was formed of twelve board members from each founding organization. In October 1975, the first meeting of the Interim Board of Directors of the Ontario Crafts Council was held, though the organization was not [patented](/wiki/Patent \"Patent\") until August 1976\\. The founding president of the board was Toronto [philanthropist](/wiki/Philanthropy \"Philanthropy\") [Joan Chalmers](/wiki/Joan_Chalmers \"Joan Chalmers\").",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1860\= 333
\|1870\= 603
\|1880\= 391
\|1890\= 531
\|1900\= 616
\|1910\= 751
\|1920\= 814
\|1930\= 765
\|1940\= 827
\|1950\= 916
\|1960\= 1026
\|1970\= 1676
\|1980\= 1739
\|1990\= 2131
\|2000\= 2542
\|2010\= 4648
\|2020\= 4878
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census/decade.html\|title\=Decennial Census of Population and Housing by Decade\|publisher\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=}}
1850\-1870{{Cite web\|first\= \|last\= \|authorlink\= \|title\= 1870 Census of Population \- Georgia \|website\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|date\= 1870\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1870/population/1870a\-13\.pdf \|accessdate\=\|archive\-url\=\| archive\-date\=\|page\=}} 1880{{Cite web\|first\= \|last\= \|authorlink\= \|title\= 1880 Census of Population \- Georgia \|website\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|date\= 1880\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1880/vol\-01\-population/1880\_v1\-09\.pdf \|accessdate\=\|archive\-url\=\| archive\-date\=\|page\=}}
1890\-1910{{Cite web\|first\= \|last\= \|authorlink\= \|title\= 1910 Census of Population \- Georgia \|website\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|date\= 1930\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1910/abstract/supplement\-ga.pdf \|accessdate\=\|archive\-url\=\| archive\-date\=\|page\=}} 1920\-1930{{Cite web\|first\= \|last\= \|authorlink\= \|title\= 1930 Census of Population \- Georgia \|website\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|date\= 1930\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/03815512v1ch04\.pdf \|accessdate\=\|archive\-url\=\| archive\-date\=\|page\=251\-256}}
1930\-1940{{Cite web\|first\= \|last\= \|authorlink\= \|title\= 1940 Census of Population \- Georgia \|website\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|date\= 1940\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population\-volume\-1/33973538v1ch04\.pdf \|accessdate\=\|archive\-url\=\| archive\-date\=}} 1940\-1950{{Cite web\|first\= \|last\= \|authorlink\= \|title\= 1950 Census of Population \- Georgia \|website\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|date\= 1980\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1950/population\-volume\-2/37779083v2p11ch2\.pdf \|accessdate\=\|archive\-url\=\| archive\-date\=}}
1960\-1980{{Cite web\|first\= \|last\= \|authorlink\= \|title\= 1980 Census of Population \- Number of Inhabitants \- Georgia \|website\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|date\= 1980\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1980a\_gaABC\-01\.pdf\|accessdate\=\|archive\-url\=\| archive\-date\=}}1980\-2000{{Cite web\|first\= \|last\= \|authorlink\= \|title\= 2000 Census of Population \- General Population Characteristics \- Georgia \|website\=\[\[US Census Bureau]]\|date\= 2000\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/2003/dec/phc\-3\-12\.pdf \|accessdate\=\|archive\-url\=\| archive\-date\=}}
}}
### 2020 census
| \+Adairsville racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US1300436\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=2021\-12\-12\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race | Num. | Perc. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) | 3,644 | 74\.7% |
| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) | 581 | 11\.91% |
| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") | 8 | 0\.16% |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)") | 73 | 1\.5% |
| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)") | 1 | 0\.02% |
| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") | 246 | 5\.04% |
| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") | 325 | 6\.66% |
As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 4,878 people, 1,830 households, and 1,267 families residing in the city.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 2,542 people, 991 households, and 702 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|411\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 1,103 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|178\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 72\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 22\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 1\.5% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.0% of the population.
There were 1,568 households, out of which 35\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 78\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 19\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 13\.1% were non\-families. 15\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.57 and the average family size was 3\.08\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 29\.2% under the age of 18, 8\.7% from 18 to 24, 29\.7% from 25 to 44, 20\.4% from 45 to 64, and 12\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 85\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82\.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $71,214, and the median income for a family was $74,828\. Males had a median income of $31,123 versus $21,899 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $14,828\. About 16\.4% of families and 18\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 24\.4% of those under age 18 and 22\.1% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1860\\= 333\n\\|1870\\= 603\n\\|1880\\= 391\n\\|1890\\= 531\n\\|1900\\= 616\n\\|1910\\= 751\n\\|1920\\= 814\n\\|1930\\= 765\n\\|1940\\= 827\n\\|1950\\= 916\n\\|1960\\= 1026\n\\|1970\\= 1676\n\\|1980\\= 1739\n\\|1990\\= 2131\n\\|2000\\= 2542\n\\|2010\\= 4648\n\\|2020\\= 4878\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census/decade.html\\|title\\=Decennial Census of Population and Housing by Decade\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=}} \n 1850\\-1870{{Cite web\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|authorlink\\= \\|title\\= 1870 Census of Population \\- Georgia \\|website\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|date\\= 1870\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1870/population/1870a\\-13\\.pdf \\|accessdate\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\| archive\\-date\\=\\|page\\=}} 1880{{Cite web\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|authorlink\\= \\|title\\= 1880 Census of Population \\- Georgia \\|website\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|date\\= 1880\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1880/vol\\-01\\-population/1880\\_v1\\-09\\.pdf \\|accessdate\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\| archive\\-date\\=\\|page\\=}} \n 1890\\-1910{{Cite web\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|authorlink\\= \\|title\\= 1910 Census of Population \\- Georgia \\|website\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|date\\= 1930\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1910/abstract/supplement\\-ga.pdf \\|accessdate\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\| archive\\-date\\=\\|page\\=}} 1920\\-1930{{Cite web\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|authorlink\\= \\|title\\= 1930 Census of Population \\- Georgia \\|website\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|date\\= 1930\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/03815512v1ch04\\.pdf \\|accessdate\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\| archive\\-date\\=\\|page\\=251\\-256}} \n 1930\\-1940{{Cite web\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|authorlink\\= \\|title\\= 1940 Census of Population \\- Georgia \\|website\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|date\\= 1940\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population\\-volume\\-1/33973538v1ch04\\.pdf \\|accessdate\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\| archive\\-date\\=}} 1940\\-1950{{Cite web\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|authorlink\\= \\|title\\= 1950 Census of Population \\- Georgia \\|website\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|date\\= 1980\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1950/population\\-volume\\-2/37779083v2p11ch2\\.pdf \\|accessdate\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\| archive\\-date\\=}} \n 1960\\-1980{{Cite web\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|authorlink\\= \\|title\\= 1980 Census of Population \\- Number of Inhabitants \\- Georgia \\|website\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|date\\= 1980\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1980a\\_gaABC\\-01\\.pdf\\|accessdate\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\| archive\\-date\\=}}1980\\-2000{{Cite web\\|first\\= \\|last\\= \\|authorlink\\= \\|title\\= 2000 Census of Population \\- General Population Characteristics \\- Georgia \\|website\\=\\[\\[US Census Bureau]]\\|date\\= 2000\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/2003/dec/phc\\-3\\-12\\.pdf \\|accessdate\\=\\|archive\\-url\\=\\| archive\\-date\\=}}",
"}}",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+Adairsville racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US1300436\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-12\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race | Num. | Perc. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic) | 3,644 | 74\\.7% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic) | 581 | 11\\.91% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") | 8 | 0\\.16% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\") | 73 | 1\\.5% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\") | 1 | 0\\.02% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") | 246 | 5\\.04% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") | 325 | 6\\.66% |",
"As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 4,878 people, 1,830 households, and 1,267 families residing in the city.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 2,542 people, 991 households, and 702 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|411\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 1,103 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|178\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 72\\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 22\\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.5% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.0% of the population.",
"There were 1,568 households, out of which 35\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 78\\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 19\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 13\\.1% were non\\-families. 15\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.57 and the average family size was 3\\.08\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 29\\.2% under the age of 18, 8\\.7% from 18 to 24, 29\\.7% from 25 to 44, 20\\.4% from 45 to 64, and 12\\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 85\\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82\\.4 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $71,214, and the median income for a family was $74,828\\. Males had a median income of $31,123 versus $21,899 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $14,828\\. About 16\\.4% of families and 18\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 24\\.4% of those under age 18 and 22\\.1% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 18th century
[thumb\|A 1791 map of the roads and inland navigation of [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), and part of the adjacent states based upon the river surveys in 1790 and 1791](/wiki/File:A_map_exhibiting_a_general_view_of_the_roads_and_inland_navigation_of_Pennsylvania%2C_and_part_of_the_adjacent_states_%285385393632%29.jpg "A map exhibiting a general view of the roads and inland navigation of Pennsylvania, and part of the adjacent states (5385393632).jpg")
[thumb\|A 1792 map of a proposed route for the summit canal based upon Brindley's survey of 1791](/wiki/File:1795_Schuykill_Navigation_company_Map_for_PA_canals.jpg "1795 Schuykill Navigation company Map for PA canals.jpg")
[thumb\|An 1816 map of [Lebanon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon County, Pennsylvania") showing 1794 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company summit crossing construction with its highlighted in red](/wiki/File:1816_map_of_Lebanon_County_Pennsylvania_showing_1794_Schuylkill_and_Susquehanna_Navigation_company_summit_crossing_construction.png "1816 map of Lebanon County Pennsylvania showing 1794 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company summit crossing construction.png")
[thumb\|An 1889 [USGS](/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey "United States Geological Survey") map of [Lebanon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon County, Pennsylvania"), showing topography of the summit crossing between [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania") and [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Myerstown, Pennsylvania") with the alignment highlighted](/wiki/File:1889_USGS_Lebanon_County_summit_crossing_topo.png "1889 USGS Lebanon County summit crossing topo.png")
The original engineering concept developed by the Society and the navigation company was to build a canal up the [Schuylkill River](/wiki/Schuylkill_River "Schuylkill River") to [Norristown](/wiki/Norristown%2C_Pennsylvania "Norristown, Pennsylvania"), improving the Schuylkill River from there to [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania "Reading, Pennsylvania"). While from Reading, the canal was to extend to the [Susquehanna River](/wiki/Susquehanna_River "Susquehanna River") via [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania"). This would have required a four\-mile summit crossing between [Tulpehocken](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)") and the [Quittapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek") with an artificial waterway connecting two separate river valleys; namely the Susquehanna and the Schuylkill watersheds. Its successful completion would have made the middle reach, the first [summit\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal "Summit-level canal") in the United States. The term refers to a canal that rises then falls, as opposed to a [lateral canal](/wiki/Lateral_canal "Lateral canal"), which has a continuous fall only. In this case, the proposed canal at 80 miles in length would rise {{Convert\|192\|ft\|m}} over {{Convert\|42\|mi\|km}} from the west at the Susquehanna River to the summit and then fall {{Convert\|311\|mi\|km}} over {{Convert\|34\|mi\|km}} to the Schuylkill River to the east. It was to be the golden link between [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") and the vast interior of Pennsylvania and beyond.
This proposed summit crossing offered a severe test of 18th\-century engineering skills, materials and construction techniques. For both designing and operating a water\-conveyance transportation system through an area where sinkholes are common, and surface water is scarce. Ultimately, the 1794 engineering concept was flawed, as the water supply for the summit crossing was inadequate and the technology for minimizing supply losses was still another century away. While the 1794 construction was never completed, the company's successor, the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Union Canal (Pennsylvania)"), was faced with the same challenges of sealing the canal bed to conserve water. The summit crossing was never able to handle the canal traffic. Even with two reservoirs constructed at the summit as feeders to the canal, the Union Canal still required pumped water from a [waterworks](/wiki/Waterworks "Waterworks") at the junction of [Swatara Creek](/wiki/Swatara_Creek "Swatara Creek") and [Clarks Run](/wiki/Clarks_Run_%28Beaver_River_tributary%29 "Clarks Run (Beaver River tributary)") and later from a second waterworks on Furnace Creek on the Quitipahilla. At the first works, there were four pumps necessary to provide summit water, but only two could be powered by river water. The other two had to be powered by [Cornish steam engines](/wiki/Cornish_steam_engine "Cornish steam engine"), a technology available in 1828 when the canal opened but not in 1791\.
Despite all of these problems, in 1791, the enthusiasm for this venture was such that it didn't seem at all impossible that Pennsylvania would have succeeded in securing the commercial prestige which the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal "Erie Canal") captured for [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"). By 1795 however, the navigation company's project was a commercial failure. The result was that with the onset of the Erie Canal still some thirty years into the future, Philadelphia lost the early initiative in water transportation. Despite Philadelphia and Pennsylvania's "heroic efforts" to hold their share of the internal trade which in 1796 was forty percent more than New York; by 1825 with the opening of the Erie Canal, Philadelphia's trade was forty\-five percent less than New York.
New York City's rise to preeminence among American cities was an important development, but was not a foregone conclusion. At the time the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company was chartered, Philadelphia was the leading American city; its residents, as well as others, generally expected it to take on more of a metropolitan role as the nation became independent, and prepared the city for that role. Instead, Philadelphia slid into second place. By 1807, New York was the acknowledged commercial capital of the nation; by 1837, it was the American metropolis. Philadelphia's dismal failure to build the "golden link" thirty years before New York opened the Erie Canal was a major factor in that slide into second place.
The idea of uniting the [Schuylkill](/wiki/Schuylkill_River "Schuylkill River") and [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River "Susquehanna River") rivers by a canal was first proposed and discussed by [William Penn](/wiki/William_Penn "William Penn") in 1690\.Engineering Record, Building Record and Sanitary Engineer, Volume 40, Charles Frederick Wingate, McGraw Publishing Company, 1899 Accessed at [Google books](https://books.google.com/books?id=D1U1AQAAMAAJ&dq=schuylkill+navigation+company+1791&pg=RA1-PA100) on July 30, 2016Bishop, Avard Longley. The State works of Pennsylvania. Vol. 13\. Tuttle, Morehouse \& Taylor Press, 1907\. {{PD\-notice}} Penn's plan, conceived a few years after he had founded Philadelphia, was to make "a second settlement" on the Susquehanna River, similar in size to that of Philadelphia itself. He made this plan, titled "Some Proposals for a Second Settlement in the Province of Pennsylvania" public in [England](/wiki/England "England") in 1690\.Swank, James Moore. *"Progressive Pennsylvania: A Record of the Remarkable Industrial Development of the Keystone State, with Some Account of Its Early and Its Later Transportation Systems, Its Early Settlers, and Its Prominent Men."* JB Lippincott, 1908\. Accessed at on July 31, 2016\. {{PD\-notice}} The route envisioned by Penn was a road up the west bank of the Schuylkill to the mouth of [French Creek](/wiki/French_Creek_%28Schuylkill_River%29 "French Creek (Schuylkill River)") near present\-day [Phoenixville](/wiki/Phoenixville%2C_Pennsylvania "Phoenixville, Pennsylvania"), heading west to the Susquehanna via present day [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania "Lancaster, Pennsylvania") and a Susquehanna [tributary](/wiki/Tributary "Tributary"), [Conestoga Creek](/wiki/Conestoga_River "Conestoga River"). Although Penn first proposed the project of continuous water transportation from the [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_River "Delaware River") to the [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River "Susquehanna River"), he did not call for the building of a canal.
In 1762, Philadelphia merchants petitioned the [Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly "Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly") to commission a project for the passage by water up the [west branch of the Susquehanna River](/wiki/West_Branch_Susquehanna_River "West Branch Susquehanna River") with an intervening portage to a navigable branch of the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River"). In 1769, another petition to the Assembly requested that then Province make the [Juniata River](/wiki/Juniata_River "Juniata River") navigable down to the Susquehanna River. Both petitions were unsuccessful, but neither mentioned canals as an essential element for the proposed improvement.
In 1769, the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society "American Philosophical Society") with [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin "Benjamin Franklin") as its first president was organized with six standing committees, one of which was on "Husbandry and [American Improvements](/wiki/American_Improvements "American Improvements")".Volume 1769\-1774\. (1885\). Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 22(119\), 23\-94\. Retrieved from <https://www.jstor.org/stable/982528> One of the first projects the committee looked at in February 1769 was a canal between the [Chesapeake](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay "Chesapeake Bay") and [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_Bay "Delaware Bay") bays using the [Chester River](/wiki/Chester_River "Chester River") in [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland") and [Duck Creek](/wiki/Duck_Creek_%28Smyrna_River_tributary%29 "Duck Creek (Smyrna River tributary)"), near [Smyrna, Delaware](/wiki/Smyrna%2C_Delaware "Smyrna, Delaware") some {{Convert\|15\|mi\|km}} south of the present location of the [Chesapeake and Delaware Canal](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Delaware_Canal "Chesapeake and Delaware Canal") (C\&D Canal). In March, the committee was tasked with preparing a "scheme of application" for the Philadelphia merchants for defraying the expenses of conducting a route location ("proper levels") for the canal as well as construction costs. In April, the committee discussed a more northerly route using the [Bohemia River](/wiki/Bohemia_River "Bohemia River"), a tributary of the [Elk River](/wiki/Elk_River_%28Maryland%29 "Elk River (Maryland)") with [headwaters](/wiki/Headwaters "Headwaters") extending into Delaware using [Drawyers Creek](/wiki/Appoquinimink_River "Appoquinimink River").
In June, this route was reported being feasible only with locks, as the cost of constructing a clear passage from river to river was too great. That same month, Thomas Gilpin, a member of the merchant committee, submitted an alternative "plan of a canal and elevation" using the original southerly route along the Chester River and Duck Creek. In April 1770, W. T. Fisher produced a map of the several canal routes proposed for connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware bays.
In August 1771, the committee then became aware of the prospect of joining the Susquehanna and Schuylkill Rivers by means of a canal. One of the key features of that survey was its emphasis on the middle ground or [summit level](/wiki/Summit-level_canal "Summit-level canal"), roughly {{Convert\|4\.5\|mi\|km}} miles between the headwaters of the [Quitapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek"), near [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania"), and those of Tulpehocken, near [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Myerstown, Pennsylvania"). The survey was conducted by [Dr. William Smith](/wiki/William_Smith_%28Episcopalian_priest%29 "William Smith (Episcopalian priest)"), [Provost](/wiki/Provost_%28education%29 "Provost (education)") of the [College of Philadelphia](/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania "University of Pennsylvania"), [John Lukens](/wiki/John_Lukens "John Lukens"), [Esquire](/wiki/Esquire "Esquire"), [Surveyor General](/wiki/Surveyor_general "Surveyor general")[http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn\-nr92038163/](http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-nr92038163/) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=September 2022}} of the then Province (now State) of Pennsylvania, and [John Sellers](/wiki/John_Sellers_%28scientist%29 "John Sellers (scientist)"). [Samuel Rhoads](/wiki/Samuel_Rhoads "Samuel Rhoads"), a Philadelphia architect, vice\-president of the Society and colonial mayor of Philadelphia, had also been on the survey with [Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse "David Rittenhouse") and company.Stapleton, D. H. (1984\). William Weston, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, and the Philadelphia plan for internal improvements. (Cutcliffe, Stephen Hosmer. ed. Science and technology in the eighteenth century.) Bethlehem, Pa. Rhoads had been impressed with the "... apparent practicality of a canal on the Tulpehocken\-Swatara route. But, he asked Franklin, whether it was better to dig a canal, or just to dam up the rivers and creeks to provide for navigation?"
The same year, the Society recommended the third route for a canal.{{cite book \| title\=The Pennsylvania Railroad, Volume 1: Building an Empire, 1846\-1917, Volume 1 \| publisher\=University of Pennsylvania Press \| author\=Albert J. Churella \| year\=2012 \| location\=Philadelphia \| pages\=976 \| isbn\=9780812243482}} The [Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly "Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly") then appointed a committee of its own to survey the Susquehanna, Schuylkill, and [Lehigh Rivers](/wiki/Lehigh_River "Lehigh River") and in 1773, David Rittenhouse delivered its report.8 Pa. Arch., viii, 6609–10, 6748, 6853; Brooke Hindle, David Rittenhouse (Princeton, 1964\), pp. 94–6\.Accessed at [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01\-19\-02\-0110](https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-19-02-0110) on August 18, 2016\. Nothing became of this work due to the coming of the Revolution.David Rittenhouse Papers accessed at [http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId\=ead/Mss.SMs.Coll.11\-ead.xml](http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.SMs.Coll.11-ead.xml) on August 18, 2016\. In total, the Society sponsored studies of three routes to the connect Philadelphia with the [Susquehanna Valley](/wiki/Susquehanna_Valley "Susquehanna Valley"): one by canal across the [Delmarva Peninsula](/wiki/Delmarva_Peninsula "Delmarva Peninsula") (1769\-1771\), the second a paved road from the Susquehanna Valley to a river port south of Philadelphia and the third (1773\) a canal using the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Rivers and their tributaries, the [Tulpehocken](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)") and [Swatara](/wiki/Swatara_Creek "Swatara Creek") creeks.
The project became the goal of the Society for the Improvement of Roads and Inland Navigation organized in 1789 with [preeminent](/wiki/Preeminent "Preeminent"), wartime financier [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 "Robert Morris (financier)") as president, [David Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse "David Rittenhouse"), William Smith and John Nicolson. The Society petitioned the General Assembly to again survey the river routes, only this time the State acted upon the recommendations.
In the spring of 1790, the General Assembly passed a resolution on March 31, 1790, that authorized river surveys.Baer, Christopher T. "A General Chronology of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company Predecessors and Successors and its Historical Context." Archived from the original on (2007\), updated May 2015\.Accessed at [http://www.prrths.com/newprr\_files/Hagley/PRR1790\.pdf](http://www.prrths.com/newprr_files/Hagley/PRR1790.pdf) on July 31, 2016\. Governor [Thomas Mifflin](/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin "Thomas Mifflin") commissioned [Timothy Matlack](/wiki/Timothy_Matlack "Timothy Matlack") (1736–1829\), [Samuel Maclay](/wiki/Samuel_Maclay "Samuel Maclay") (1741–1811\) and [John Adlum](/wiki/John_Adlum "John Adlum") (1759–1836\) to survey the Swatara, West Branch of the Susquehanna River, [Allegheny River](/wiki/Allegheny_River "Allegheny River"), French Creek with a portage to Lake Erie, the [Kiskiminetas](/wiki/Kiskiminetas_River "Kiskiminetas River")/[Conemaugh](/wiki/Conemaugh_River "Conemaugh River") to [Stony Creek](/wiki/Stonycreek_River "Stonycreek River"), the future site of [Johnstown](/wiki/Johnstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Johnstown, Pennsylvania"), with a second portage to the [Frankstown branch](/wiki/Frankstown_Branch_Juniata_River "Frankstown Branch Juniata River") of the Juniata and then down the Juniata to the Susquehanna River and onto [Harrisburg](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania "Harrisburg, Pennsylvania").
Mifflin also appointed other survey teams:
* Commissioners Samuel Boyd, Bartram Galbraith and Thomas Hulings, reported on January 30, 1790, a major obstruction to the navigation of the Susquehanna River: "[Conewago Falls](/wiki/Conewago_Falls "Conewago Falls"), about 14 miles above [Wright's Ferry](/wiki/Wright%27s_Ferry "Wright's Ferry"), the great obstruction and barr to the wealth and population of our Western Country, is at present the grand object. We are clear that a canal is the sure and safe way of effecting a good navigation for boats to pass and repass.".
* Commissioners Reading Howell (1743\-1827\), Frederick Antes (1764\-1801\) and William Dean, to survey the upper Delaware with a portage to [the Great Bend on the Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River%23North_Branch_Susquehanna "Susquehanna River#North Branch Susquehanna"), the North Branch, the upper Lehigh with a portage to [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming"), and the upper Schuylkill and [Little Schuylkill](/wiki/Little_Schuylkill_River "Little Schuylkill River") with a portage to the Lehigh or Susquehanna.
* Maclay surveyed the Swatara and [Quitapahilla Creeks](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek") to Old's Iron Works, then by land to Lebanon. Continuing to survey a [gap in the Allegheny barrier range](/wiki/Gaps_of_the_Allegheny%23List_of_Gaps "Gaps of the Allegheny#List of Gaps") in early September 1790, Maclay determined that Poplar Run Gap was the potential site for a future road across the [Allegheny Mountains](/wiki/Allegheny_Mountains "Allegheny Mountains").
In April 1790, Maclay surveyed "...the Swatara Creek and Quitapahilla Creek to Old's Iron Works, then by to Lebanon; (noting that) the Quitapahilla can be made navigable for boats of 5 tons." On Dec. 14, 1790, Maclay and the other commissioners reported on their recommendations for rivers west of the [Allegheny Front](/wiki/Allegheny_Front "Allegheny Front") or barrier range. They recommend three routes; one via the Juniata and two using the West branch. The first uses the Juniata to go over the barrier range at Poplar Run gap to the [Kiskiminetas](/wiki/Kiskiminetas_River "Kiskiminetas River"), a tributary of the [Allegheny River](/wiki/Allegheny_River "Allegheny River"). The two West branch of the Susquehanna river routes, one via the north branch of [Sinnemahoning Creek](/wiki/Sinnemahoning_Creek "Sinnemahoning Creek"), a tributary of the West branch and thence over the barrier range to the Allegheny River, and one via west branch of the Sinnemahoning Creek and thence also over the barrier range to the Allegheny river. They also recommended the Allegheny and French Creek with portage to Lake Erie.Pennsylvania State Archives, House Journal, Appendix, pps 28 \- 43
Maclay and the other commissioners found that most of the waterways could be constructed, but several portages were recommended to reduce costs such as the Lebanon summit crossing of four miles, a road from French Creek to [Presque Isle](/wiki/Fort_Presque_Isle "Fort Presque Isle") on Lake Erie and an {{Convert\|18\|mi\|km}} portage over the Allegheny Mountains at Poplar run. The latter crossing was south of the route eventually selected in 1831 for the [Portage Railroad](/wiki/Allegheny_Portage_Railroad "Allegheny Portage Railroad") which, when built, was {{Convert\|36\|mi\|km}} in length. Both the 1791 and 1831 routes converged on the [Little Conemaugh River](/wiki/Little_Conemaugh_River "Little Conemaugh River") as the route into [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh").
On February 10, 1791, reports were given on the second round of river surveys regarding improvements to the [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River "Delaware River") from the bay to the New York state line. Improvements were also recommended for the Schuylkill river with a portage road or canal from Reading to the Susquehanna River, and improvements for the North and West Branches of the Susquehanna and a second Allegheny portage to reach Lake Erie.
The Society proposed in its 1791 report to use the Schuylkill River from Philadelphia up to "...Tulpehocken Creek, near Reading, continuing on the Tulpehocken as far as practicable."Hartman, J. Lee. "Pennsylvania's Grand Plan of Post\-Revolutionary Internal Improvement." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 65\.4 (1941\): 439\-457\. Critically, the Society had yet to recommend or devise a way over the summit near Lebanon joining the "...Quitapahilla and Swatara creeks, the latter leading to the Susquehanna ..." river. The proposed mileages were:Hazard, Samuel, ed. Register of Pennsylvania. Vol. II., 1828\. Accessed at <https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433081772430> on July 15, 2018 {{PD\-notice}}
* Up the Schuylkill River from Philadelphia to the mouth of the Tulpehocken, near [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania "Reading, Pennsylvania") \- {{Convert\|61\|mi\|km}}.
* Westward, up the Tulpehocken Creek to the east end of the proposed summit canal crossing \- {{Convert\|37\|mi\|km}}. The plan was to clear thirty miles of the creek and cut a canal ({{Convert\|20\|ft\|m}} wide by {{Convert\|7\|ft\|m}} deep) for the last {{Convert\|7\|mi\|km}} up to the summit crossing. An estimated ten locks were needed to ascend this distance.
* Length of the summit canal \- {{Convert\|4\|mi\|km}}. The plan was to dig a canal on average {{Convert\|25\|ft\|m}} deep and {{Convert\|30\|ft\|m}} wide, a distance of approximately {{Convert\|4\.5\|mi\|km}}. This was also assumed to common earth excavation.
* Down Quitipahilla to Swatara \- {{Convert\|15\|mi\|km}}. The 1791 report offered no detail on how this estimate was derived.
* Down Swatara to Susquehanna River \- {{Convert\|23\|mi\|km}}. The 1791 report offered no detail on how this estimate was derived.
The concept of navigation in the context of the post\-[colonial](/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States "Colonial history of the United States") United States and 1790 timeframe was predominately focused on improving river systems. A contemporary project, the [Western Inland Lock Navigation Company](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals "Erie Canal#Proposals") in New York which later became a part of the Erie Canal was also "... primarily a river system." In the Pennsylvania scheme, large rivers such as the Susquehanna and to a lesser extent, the Schuylkill were to be improved by clearing channels through obstructions and building dams where needed. Most importantly, these larger segments of the scheme were to be connected by short sections of [slackwater](/wiki/Slack_water "Slack water") canals and in some instances such as the [Allegheny range crossing](/wiki/Allegheny_Portage_Railroad "Allegheny Portage Railroad"), portages. One author noted that ...
{{Blockquote
\|text\=While the Society mapped the prospective route with commendable diligence and care, its efforts were of course immeasurably handicapped by a lack of knowledge of canals which at that time were unknown in America but upon which the surveys of the board of commissioners indicated the waterway would have to depend for a short distance in the eastern region and perhaps in the vicinity of the Allegheny Mountains. Descriptions of the two canal connections given in the memorial clearly reflect the prevailing inexperience ... (of the Society). One of (the canal crossings), "20 feet wide and 7 feet on an average," would be necessary between Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla creeks in order to provide an unbroken water link from the Schuylkill to the Susquehanna, but there was uncertainty about the immediate possibility of building it. ... (More detailed engineering to had to be done) ... to determine whether "a plan of lock navigation" might not be cheaper than a water\-level channel. "It is supposed that the canal or lock navigation between the heads of Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla, is to be compleated; but if that work should be thought too great to begin with, it will be only the addition of four miles portage, by an excellent and level road." '''In point of fact, no estimate could be included for "the canal."''' (Emphasis added)
\|author\=J. Lee. Hartman, "Pennsylvania's Grand Plan of Post\-Revolutionary Internal Improvement.", p. 454
}}
The Society in its report estimated the total cost of the Schuylkill River improvements and canal connection with the Susquehanna River at £55,540 (£1791\) or $8\.6 million (in 2018 US dollars). The [Schuylkill Navigation Company](/wiki/Schuylkill_Canal "Schuylkill Canal") and the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Union Canal (Pennsylvania)") ultimately completed this Society scheme by 1830 for a total reported cost of $2\.8 million (in 1830 US dollars) or $73 million in (in 2018 US dollars):[Calculated using this website](https://www.officialdata.org/) roughly nine times the original estimate.
James Brindley (1745\-1820\), a well\-known canal engineer and nephew of the famous British canal engineer [James Brindley](/wiki/James_Brindley "James Brindley") (1716\-1772\), was in Delaware in 1791\.Robert J Kapsch \& Yvonne E Long (2011\) James Brindley, American Canal Engineer, The International Journal for the History of Engineering \& Technology, 81:1, 22\-59, DOI:10\.1179/175812110X12869022260114 Brindley had been originally recruited in 1774 by the [Potomac Company](/wiki/Potomac_Company "Potomac Company") for the [Little Falls Bypass Canal](/wiki/Patowmack_Canal%23Little_Falls_Canal "Patowmack Canal#Little Falls Canal") on the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River "Potomac River").Robert J Kapsch \& Yvonne E Long (2011\) James Brindley, American Canal Engineer, The International Journal for the History of Engineering \& Technology, 81:1, 22\-59, Subsequently, Brindley worked on the [Susquehanna Canal](/wiki/Susquehanna_and_Tidewater_Canal%23Earlier_canal "Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal#Earlier canal") (1783\-) in Maryland, [Santee Canal](/wiki/Santee_Canal "Santee Canal") in [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina") (1786\) and the [James River Canal](/wiki/James_River_Canal "James River Canal") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia") (1787\). In 1791, he was introduced to the Society for the purpose of resurveying the 1771 summit route for the canal between the Tulpehocken and Quittapahilla Creeks. The Society engaged Brindley to resurvey the 1771 summit route along with Timothy Matlack (1736\-1829\) and John Adlum (1759\-1836\). Later that year in the summer, they presented a final report and Brindley's map for the summit canal between the creeks. Crucially, they find that there is sufficient water at the summit to feed the canal within a four\-mile radius. The society would later in February 1792 ask the newly incorporated Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company to pay for the expense of this survey.
In that same year of 1791, the Society presented proposals to the State proposing to connect the [Atlantic seaboard](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States "East Coast of the United States") with [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie"). This Pennsylvania plan was before the creation of New York's [Western and Northern Inland Lock Navigation Companies](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals "Erie Canal#Proposals") in 1792\. The New York plan took the first steps to improve navigation on the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River "Mohawk River") by constructing a canal between the Mohawk and [Lake Ontario](/wiki/Lake_Ontario "Lake Ontario")Calhoun, Daniel Hovey. The American civil engineer: Origins and conflict. Technology Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1960\. but that effort with private financing was insufficient. In the Pennsylvania plan, the Society proposed a canal route, 426 miles in length connecting Philadelphia with Pittsburgh by a canal. One part of this project was a canal segment up to the Schuylkill River to Tulpehocken Creek to a [summit\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal "Summit-level canal") near [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania") and thence by way of the [Quitapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek") and Swatara creeks to the Susquehanna River.
This action resulted in the formation of two companies The first was the **Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company** incorporated on September 29, 1791,Mitchell, James Tyndale, et al. The Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania from 1682 to 1801\. Vol. 6\. No. 1759\-1765\. Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1899\. {{PD\-notice}}McCarthy, William D. "Building the Beaver and Lake Erie Canal: The politics of public improvements in Pennsylvania, 1783\-\-1845\." (2003\): 3324\-3324\. to open a communication between the Schuylkill and Susquehanna rivers from Reading on the Schuylkill to Middletown on the Susquehanna. The second was the **Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Company** incorporated in 1792 to open a canal between the Schuylkill River and the Delaware River.An Historical account of the rise, progress and present state of the canal navigation in Pennsylvania. With an appendix, containing, abstracts of the acts of the Legislature since the year 1790, and their grants of money for improving roads and navigable waters throughout the state; to which is annexed, "an explanatory map." / Published by direction of the president and managers of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, and the Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Companies. \[Twenty two lines of verse] Morris, Robert, 1734\-1806\., Smith, William, 1727\-1803\., Howell, Reading, 1743\-1827, cartographer., Trenchard, James, b. 1747, engraver., Delaware and Schuylkill Canal Company., Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation. Philadelphia:: Printed by Zachariah Poulson, Junior, number eighty, Chesnut\-Street., MDCCXCV. \[1795] {{PD\-notice}} [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 "Robert Morris (financier)") was the president of both companies.
The 1791, Pennsylvania act incorporating the company contained an elaborate process for using Sheriff's juries to assess damages for taking of lands and waters becoming "...the model for subsequent Pennsylvania canal statutes. ".Horwitz, Morton J. "The Transformation of American Law, 1780\-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977\)." Up to that point in time, the policy had been to only allow damages to improved lands. This 1791 act required the company to pay all damages resulting from its use of [eminent domain](/wiki/Eminent_domain_in_the_United_States "Eminent domain in the United States") authority to take all lands (improved or unimproved), water, and materials necessary for construction and operating the canal including mills, mill ponds, water and water courses. This caused many canal companies such as the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company great concern over the amount of damages awarded in these procedures. Charles G. Paleske, an officer of the company stated in 1807 that "...the company could not complete the largest branch of its canal because, among other reasons, of "the enormous sums paid for land and water rights."
In early 1792, the company was organized in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") with noted financier and land speculator [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 "Robert Morris (financier)") as president, [Tench Francis](/wiki/Tench_Francis_Jr. "Tench Francis Jr.") as treasurer and noted engrosser of the [declaration of independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence "United States Declaration of Independence") [Timothy Matlack](/wiki/Timothy_Matlack "Timothy Matlack") as secretary. The company's directors were also notable Philadelphians such as Morris' partner and former comptroller general of the State of Pennsylvania and president of the [Pennsylvania Population Company](/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania%23Westward_expansion "History of Pennsylvania#Westward expansion"), John Nicholson (1757\-1800\),Nicholson, John, 1757\-1800, Biographical notes. Accessed on June 29, 2018 at <http://n2t.net/ark:/99166/w6tm7cfh> [Samuel Powel](/wiki/Samuel_Powel "Samuel Powel") (1738\-1793\) and University of Pennsylvania provost [William Smith](/wiki/William_Smith_%28Episcopal_priest%29 "William Smith (Episcopal priest)") (1727\-1803\). Junior founding partner of the notable Philadelphia shipping company James and Drinker and the [Philadelphia tea party](/wiki/Philadelphia_Tea_Party "Philadelphia Tea Party") incident, Henry Drinker (1734\-1809\), a "substantial provider of credit" in those timesMaxey, David W. "The Union Farm: Henry Drinker's Experiment in Deriving Profit from Virtue." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 107\.4 (1983\): 607\-629\. [Accessed](https://journals.psu.edu/pmhb/article/viewFile/43944/43665) on June 29, 2018 also was a director. Other notable directors included Brevet generals [Walter Stewart](/wiki/Walter_Stewart_%28general%29 "Walter Stewart (general)") and [Samuel Miles](/wiki/Samuel_Miles "Samuel Miles"), the latter, a former mayor of the city of Philadelphia. Philadelphia politician and brewer Robert Hare (1752\-1811\) father of chemist [Robert Hare](/wiki/Robert_Hare_%28chemist%29 "Robert Hare (chemist)") (1781\-1858\)[Robert Hare (1752\-1811\), PENN BIOGRAPHIES](https://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/hare_robt.html) was a director as well as the then treasurer of the United States, [Samuel Meredith](/wiki/Samuel_Meredith_%28American_politician%29 "Samuel Meredith (American politician)") (1741\-1817\) and his brother in law, a signatory to both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, [George Clymer](/wiki/George_Clymer "George Clymer") (1739\-1813\). Pennsylvania State Attorney General and future Attorney General for the United States, [William Bradford](/wiki/William_Bradford_%28Attorney_General%29 "William Bradford (Attorney General)") (1755\-1795\), future Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, [George Lattimer](/wiki/George_Latimer_%28Pennsylvania_politician%29 "George Latimer (Pennsylvania politician)") and [light horse cavalry](/wiki/First_Troop_Philadelphia_City_Cavalry "First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry") member and quartermaster John Donaldson (1754\-1831\);Keen, Gregory B. "The Descendants of Jöran Kyn, the Founder of Upland." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2\.3 (1878\): 325\-335\. Nicholson eventually has 270 shares on which $64,300 is paid; Robert Morris, 52 shares and $14,300\. [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington") received one share of stock in the company, issued by Morris in 1792 worth one pound.Washington, W. L. (1920\). William Lanier Washington's collection of relics and memorabilia of George Washington. New York. In recruiting stock subscriptions, the Commissioners were required to advertise in three newspapers for a month with one being in the German language. They were authorized to sell one thousand shares and if the stock was oversubscribed, a lottery was to be used to apportion the sales, no one person was to initially own more than ten shares.
At the time that Robert Morris and the others were organizing the company "(p)oor harvests in Europe brought unprecedented agricultural and commercial prosperity to the Delaware Valley."Doerflinger, Thomas M.. A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia, University of North Carolina Press, 2012\. One of the administration's first official acts as part of [Hamilton's economic plan](/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington%23Hamiltonian_economic_program "Presidency of George Washington#Hamiltonian economic program") was to "...pour thousands of dollars into the pockets of prescient speculators by funding depreciated American bonds at 100 percent of their face value. The resulting ebullience in the investment markets facilitated the flotation of a series of new companies ..." such as Morris' Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company. While post\-revolutionary grain exports from Philadelphia had stagnated through 1788, the Continental [subsistence crisis](/wiki/Subsistence_crisis "Subsistence crisis") created a demand for American grain that Philadelphia rushed to fill.
{{Blockquote
\|text\="Between 1788 and 1789 the value of Quaker City exports leaped 45 percent to the level of $3,510,765, and they continued to climb to the extraordinary level of $17,513,866 in 1796 ($450 million US in 2018\).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.officialdata.org/1791\-dollars\-in\-2018?amount\=17513866\|title \= $17,513,866 in 1791 → 2018 \| Inflation Calculator}} With Americans serving as neutral maritime carriers for the warring nations of Europe, the shipping industry also flourished. The amount of tonnage registered for foreign trade increased by 167 percent between 1789 and 1796\."
\|author\=Thomas M Doerflinger, ''A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia''
}}
Beyond the [Delaware Valley](/wiki/Delaware_Valley "Delaware Valley") lay the vast Susquehanna River Valley, a major export market for Philadelphia despite the gains made by [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore") in shifting trade to its ports.BJORK, GORDON C. Stagnation And Growth In The American Economy, 1784\-1792, University of Washington, Ann Arbor, 1963\. ProQuest "...the essential economic function of Philadelphia's merchant community was to link the city's hinterland with its overseas markets. It was the merchants who shipped flour to Lisbon, lumber to London, flaxseed to Belfast; and it was they who imported vast amounts of cloth and hardware from London and the outports." The Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company would provide the "golden link" between the two.
On December 1, 1791, the company's book was opened for stock subscriptions, and by one o'clock more than the five hundred shares ($200,000\) required as a minimum were
subscribed, and when the books had been open the required fifteen days no less than forty\-six thousand shares were subscribed.Davis, J. Stancliffe. (1917\). Essays in the earlier history of American corporations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Accessed on July 25, 2018 at [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo1\.ark:/13960/t2z32d90t?urlappend\=%3Bseq\=168](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t2z32d90t?urlappend=%3Bseq=168) {{PD\-notice}} This was acclaimed "another instance of the public spirit of the inhabitants of this state," though in reality it testifies chiefly to the speculative spirit then running riot. The subscriptions were reduced by lottery to one thousand shares, and canal scrip was soon selling at an advance. Several months later, the first financial panic in the new United States occurred, the [panic of 1792](/wiki/Panic_of_1792 "Panic of 1792"). This impacted the availability of cash for subscribers to fulfill their obligations from the previous December and the Company agreed to take notes in lieu of cash.
This process of financing the navigation company was managed by Morris in the same time period as large swaths of Northern Pennsylvania were being developed by the managers of the company.Wilkinson, Norman B. "The" Philadelphia Fever" in Northern Pennsylvania." Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid\-Atlantic Studies 20\.1 (1953\): 40\-56\.
{{Blockquote
\|text\="Pennsylvania's backlands ... (were) ... the stakes in a giant speculative bubble: they were cheap, they could be bought on credit, they could be paid for in depreciated certificates, settlement and improvement requirements were generally overlooked, and those in actual charge of the disposal of lands were very cooperative. Convinced of getting a 10, 20, or 30\-fold return, it is little wonder that other assets were converted into land, heavy mortgages taken, and credit stretched to fantastic lengths."
\|author\=Norman B. Wilkinson, "''The 'Philadelphia Fever' in Northern Pennsylvania.''"
}}
The problem was that speculators such as Robert Morris had too much credit. Often using the land to which "...they had only preliminary claim, either selling, encumbering them with mortgages or using them as collateral for loans." The Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company prospectus promised greater trade and settlement, thus raising the value of the lands. In addition to the two navigation companies, Robert Morris, and other managers "...established no less than six companies of this type between 1793 and 1797\." These were the [Pennsylvania Population Company](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29%23Land_speculation "Robert Morris (financier)#Land speculation"), Asylum Land Company, [North American Land Company](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29%23Land_speculation "Robert Morris (financier)#Land speculation"), Territorial Land Company, Pennsylvania Land Company, Pennsylvania Property Company. This speculative bubble burst in 1796 just when the navigation company was trying to mobilize the financing for its operations.
{{Blockquote
\|text\="...speculators had invested in roads, canals, and mills to encourage settlement, but often could not finance these projects to completion. By the late 1790s, most of these speculations failed due to overreaching. Robert Morris, the grandest speculator of them all, went to debtors' prison.
\|author\=Marcus Terran Gallo, "''Imaginary Lines, Real Power: Surveyors and Land Speculation in the Mid\-Atlantic Borderlands, 1681\-1800''".Gallo, Marcus Terran. Imaginary Lines, Real Power: Surveyors and Land Speculation in the Mid\-Atlantic Borderlands, 1681\-1800\. University of California, Davis, 2012\.
}}
{{Blockquote
\|text\="The 'Philadelphia fever' that raged during the era of exploitation of our eastern public lands ruined many of those it infected. It despoiled a great portion of the Commonwealth's landed inheritance. It victimized the actual settler ... (a)nd it retarded the development of one\-third of the State for several generations."
\|author\=Norman B. Wilkinson, "''The 'Philadelphia Fever' in Northern Pennsylvania.''" (1953\)
}}
There were very few trained civil engineers in the new United States when the company was chartered.Kirby, Richard Shelton. "William Weston and his contribution to early American engineering." Transactions of the Newcomen Society 16\.1 (1935\): 111\-127\. The earlier planning for locating the canal commissioned by the Society up through 1791 had been performed by members such as [John Lukens](/wiki/John_Lukens "John Lukens"), surveyor general of Pennsylvania and the eminent American astronomer and surveyor, [David Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse "David Rittenhouse"). Other than Brindley (1745\-1820\), no one had any experience with canal location or lockage.
The original engineering concept developed by the Society as well as the navigation company's charter had been to build a canal up the "...Schuylkill valley to Norristown, and improving the river from there to Reading; while from Reading a canal was to extend to the Susquehanna, via Lebanon." This would have made the Schuylkill and Susquehanna canal the first [summit\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal "Summit-level canal") in the United States. A four\-mile summit crossing between Tulpehocken and the Quitipahilla would be an artificial waterway connecting two separate river valleys; namely the [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River "Susquehanna River") and the [Schuylkill](/wiki/Schuylkill_River "Schuylkill River") watersheds. The term refers to a canal that rises then falls, as opposed to a lateral canal, which has a continuous fall only.{{cite web\|title\=Canals and inland waterways\|url\=http://www.britannica.com/technology/canal\-waterway\|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica\|accessdate\=10 June 2016}} In this case, the proposed canal at 80 miles in length would rise 192 feet over 42 miles from the west at the Susquehanna River to the summit and then fall 311 feet over 34 miles to the Schuylkill River to the east.Tanner, Henry Schenck, 1786\-1858, A description of the canals and railroads of the United States, comprehending notices of all the works of internal improvement throughout the several states. Accessed on August 31, 2018 at <https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcan00tann> Unfortunately, most of the four\-mile summit crossing was underlain by the [Ontelaunee Formation](/wiki/Kittatinny_Formation "Kittatinny Formation"), a "...dark grayish\-brown weathering [dolomite](/wiki/Dolomite_%28rock%29 "Dolomite (rock)") ..." or carbonate bedrock.Ousey Jr, John R., Ruth Egan, and William Maun. "Geologic and Hydrologic Problems Encountered in the Construction and Operation of the Union Canal in Pennsylvania", Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science (1998\): 90\-95\. Accessed using JSTOR subscription. Other equally important parts of the summit crossing were constructed through the Annville Formation, a "...very thick bedded, finely crystalline, light blue\-gray to light pinkish\-gray, high\-calcium [limestone](/wiki/Limestone "Limestone")." Crucially, that meant the summit traversed highly soluble bedrock with poor surface drainage and where sinkholes were common.
{{Blockquote
\|text\=This ... (summit crossing) ... offered a severe test of ... (18th century) ... engineering skills in both designing and operating a water\-conveyance transportation system through an area where sinkholes are common, and surface water is scarce.
\|author\=Ousey, Egan, and Maun
}}
Ultimately, the 1794 engineering concept was flawed. The water supply for the summit crossing was inadequate. While the 1794 construction was never "watered", its successor, the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Union Canal (Pennsylvania)") was faced with the choice of either "[puddling](/wiki/Puddling_%28civil_engineering%29 "Puddling (civil engineering)")" (packing low\-permeability clay on the bottom and sides), or "planking" (lining the sides and bottom of the canal with wood planks) for the summit crossing in order to conserve water supplies. In the end, "planking" was chosen which required "...close to 2,000,000 board\-feet of lumber ..." to seal the crossing. Even with two reservoirs constructed at the summit as feeders to the canal, the Union canal required pumped water from a waterworks at the junction of Swatara Creek and Clarke's run and later from a second waterworks on Furnace Creek on the Quitipahilla. At the first works, there were four pumps with the capacity to lift about "...15,000 gallons per minute through 3\.3 miles of wooden and brick pipes to the summit level, 95 feet above the pumps ..." Of the four pumps only two could be powered by water, the other two had to be powered by [Cornish steam engines](/wiki/Cornish_engine "Cornish engine"), a technology available in 1828 when the canal opened but not in 1791\.Nuvolari, Alessandro; Verspagen, Bart (2009\). "Technical choice, innovation and British steam engineering, 1800\-1850". Economic History Review. 63 (3\): 685–710\. by 1885, the Union canal was sold at a sheriff sale, "unable to cope with ... (competition from) ... the railroads, poor planning, and the carbonate bedrock of Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. Had the Schuylkill and Susquehanna navigation company been successful in completing the canal in 1794\-95, it probably would have succumbed to same poor planning and summit geology as its successor did.
While the navigation company was being organized in 1791, the Society asked Brindley to re\-evaluate the summit level crossing Between [Lebanon, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania") and [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown "Myerstown"). Brindley was to reexamine the topography of the summit and produce a detailed location for the canal. He was also to ensure that the local supply of water was adequate to supply the amount of water necessary to operate the locks on both sides of the summit; critical for the success of the project, as well as to make an estimate of the "...lands and waters necessary ..." for the work. Brindley completed the work that summer, yet, Morris still agreed with George Washington's earlier assessment that although Brindley had "more practical knowledge of cuts and locks for the improvement of inland navigation than any man among us ..." in Morris' mind, Brindley's skills remained unproven. Nonetheless, the Navigation company hired Brindley in April 1792 for the construction season work as canal engineer along with Col. Thomas Bull (1744\-1837\) as superintendent.
In May, the board of directors with Brindley tour the summit crossing between the Quitapahilla and Tulpehocken Creeks as well as the waters to the north, including the Deep Run Branch of the Little Swatara. From west to east, the route was to follow [Swatara Creek](/wiki/Swatara_Creek "Swatara Creek") upstream from Middletown to [Quittapahilla Creek](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek"), which it then followed upstream through [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania") and towards [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Myerstown, Pennsylvania"). It then crossed overland to the headwaters of [Tulpehocken Creek](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)"), following Tulpehocken Creek downstream to Reading on the Schuylkill River. It was to follow the Schuylkill downriver to the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The summit route was fixed by the Board between Kuchner's dam on the Quittapahilla and Loy's springs on the Tulpehocken west of Myerstown.Augunst, Dean (1966\). Two Canals of Lebanon County. Papers and addresses of the Lebanon County Historical Society, Volume 65, issue 1, pages 1\-30
In August of that year, the company approves Brindley's engineering concept for crossing the summit. It was to be a twenty\-five deep cut, thirty\-feet wide at the bottom and watered to a depth of four feet. Based solely upon Brindley's work and before their new British engineer, Weston could review the scheme, in October 1792, the Board authorized Superintendent Bull to purchase a strip of land 100 feet wide for the canal route to the Swatara. In November,1792 the company purchases the mill of Baltzer Orth on the head of the Quittapahilla Creek for £4,250 and two tracts of Abraham Crow for £2,600\. Superintendent Bull and Timothy Matlack begin construction staking for the summit canal using Brindley's route. The work is met with resistance from the local residents who "resent the intrusion of rich Philadelphians into their entirely German community and having their farms cut up ..." The local residents protested the exercise of eminent domain by the company in cutting up farms to build a straight and regular, rather than a traditional meandering and undulating road or canal.
During the time that Brindley acting as canal engineer, the company approached [Patrick Colquhoun](/wiki/Patrick_Colquhoun "Patrick Colquhoun") in London to recruit what the company considered to be a more qualified British engineer for the canal. In January 1792, Colquhoun initially tried to recruit [John Dadford](/wiki/John_Dadford "John Dadford") but he was unavailable. Colquhoun then approached the eminent British civil engineer [William Jessop](/wiki/William_Jessop "William Jessop") to select "...a properly qualified engineer for North America, he recommended Weston." Colquhoun was finally able to secure the services [William Weston](/wiki/William_Weston_%28engineer%29 "William Weston (engineer)") twenty\-nine years old at the time building at that time [canals in Ireland](/wiki/William_Jessop%23Grand_Canal_of_Ireland "William Jessop#Grand Canal of Ireland"). Weston signed a contract drafted by Colquhoun for his services to the company as its "engineer" with the annual salary of [£](/wiki/Pound_sign "Pound sign")800 in 1792 for no more than seven months in any one year worth $120,000 US in 2018\.Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency accessed at <https://www.uwyo.edu/numimage/currency.htm> on July 13, 2018 At the time that Weston traveled over to the new country of the United States, ...
{{Blockquote
\|text\=\[\[Prismatic compass (surveying)\|Surveyors' compasses]] were common in the (United) States, \[\[Levelling\#Older instruments\|engineers' levels]] were almost, if not quite, non\-existent. (David Rittenhouse doubtless could have made one, but it is quite certain that he had not). In fact, Weston may have brought with him the first leveling instrument used on this side of the Atlantic. It was, according to Weston's own description, a Y\-levelThe Wye Level \[https://web.archive.org/web/20160510061018/http://pages.suddenlink.net/topogs/wye\_level.htm] Accessed on July 13, 2018\. with \[\[Achromatic lens\|achromatic glasses]], and had been made for him by Mr. \[\[Edward Troughton\|Troughton]], a mathematical instrument maker on Fleet Street, London.
\|author\=Richard Shelton Kirby
}}
Almost immediately upon his arrival in Pennsylvania, the company attempted to renegotiate Weston's compensation to cover twelve months instead of seven, offering to raise it to £1,500 ($225,000 US in 2018\) and increasing the geographical scope of his services to include the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Delaware.
Although the Board had authorized work for the summit crossing, there still was a question in their minds as of September 1792 over staying with their original concept of river navigation for improving the Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla and Swatara or to go for lock system navigation. The Board had also been faced with two routes across the summit and onto the Swatara using either the Quitapahilla to the south or Clark's run to the north.
The company was pursuing several construction projects during a time in which skilled labor was in short supply and very costly. The presence of several projects could easily drive up labor and material costs. Much as in the twentieth century where [project labor agreements](/wiki/Project_Labor_Agreement "Project Labor Agreement") are used to predetermine wages and working conditions, these eighteenth\-century project managers sought to negotiate cooperative agreements with other projects to constrain the growth in wages and control working conditions. In October 1792, the Board of Directors appointed a committee to "... confer with the Delaware \& Schuylkill Canal and Philadelphia \& Lancaster Turnpike Road on sending a joint agent to New England to recruit labor." The next month the Board directs superintendent Bull to limit wages to 3s6d (70 cents) per day with the company providing tools and provisions. More importantly, the Board also directs Bull to negotiate "... an agreement with the Delaware \& Schuylkill Canal and the Philadelphia \& Lancaster Turnpike Road to observe a uniform ceiling on the wages to be offered."
The practice even went so far as have the Boards of several companies meet as a joint committee. Thus in November 1792, the Schuylkill \& Susquehanna, Delaware \& Schuylkill, and Conewago Canals and Philadelphia \& Lancaster Turnpike Road met as a joint committee and "... named Isaac Roberdeau (1763\-1829\), who had worked under Pierre C. L'Enfant on laying out Washington, D.C. and Paterson, N.J., is named agent of all three companies at $120 per month; he later becomes William Weston's assistant." The joint committee also agreed to "... cooperate with each other and with local employers of day laborers so as not to increase wages by bidding against each other; workers imported from New England are to be excepted." The Joint committee continued to make plans for a coordinated effort over the winter of 1792–1793 to "procure laborers in New England, 400 for each of the main canals, 150 for the Conewago Canal, and 200 for the turnpike, also 10 yokes of oxen, carts, and drivers for the turnpike; maximum wage rates and working conditions were established for moving expenses and the use of company teams." The committee also directed that all member companies were to sell provisions to the men at cost. The labor force was being mobilized in Philadelphia to start the construction season on March 10, 1793\.
In January 1793, the Company reported that "... 80 to 100 men are at work and about a half\-mile of the canal has been dug; are working on the summit level on land purchased by John Nicholson from Jacob Schaffer." Brindley's design concept for the summit crossing was a cut twenty\-five deep, thirty\-feet wide at the bottom and watered to a depth of four feet. Brindley had assumed that the cut would entirely excavate earth instead they "... struck rock at a depth of 9 feet." The next month, roughly 400 men are working on the Tulpehocken Creek side of the summit. Engineer Weston reviews Brindley's plans for the summit crossing including Brindley's scheme for supplying the summit with water. Weston changes the design to twenty feet from thirty feet but increases the depth from four to six feet of water, acting as a reservoir. By March, 1793, the company has exhausted its project funding and has accumulated $56,000 in liabilities ($1\.5 million in 2018 US dollars). In April, the [Conewago Canal](/wiki/Conewago_Canal "Conewago Canal") is incorporated as a separate company with James Brindley as chief engineer. That same month the Company Board directs engineer Weston to "make the Tulpehocken side of the summit the priority ..." as well to develop more sources of water to supply the summit crossing.
During the same period, the company moved to acquire right of way on the Tulpehocken creekside by legally enforcing its eminent domain rights. However the effort was met with "a large force . ... armed with clubs who oppose (seizing the land) ... in the meantime, landowners refuse to allow entry onto their land." The pace of construction slowed and in that summer of 1793, Superintendent Bull resigned. The company arranges for some interim financing in the form of a $4,000 loan from Major [Edward Burd](/wiki/Edward_Burd "Edward Burd"). That summer was also notable for the first [yellow fever epidemic](/wiki/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic "1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic") in 30 years began in the city of Philadelphia in August, 1793\.[Mark A. Smith, "Andrew Brown's 'Earnest Endeavor': The *Federal Gazette* 's Role in Philadelphia's Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793"](https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/20093070?uid=3739744&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=55962658413), *The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,* Vol. 120, No. 4 (Oct., 1996\), pp. 321–342, accessed 28 March 2012{{cite book \| last\=Rush \| first\=Benjamin \|authorlink\=Benjamin Rush\| title\= An Account of the Bilious Yellow Fever of 1793, 1794, p.6 \| year\=1794 \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=crA\_AAAAcAAJ\&q\=%22an\+account\+of\+the\+epidemic\+bilious\+remitting\+fever%22\&pg\=PA90 \|accessdate\=January 31, 2012 }} It was one of the most severe epidemics in the United States. At the height of the panic from the epidemic in late August 1793, the Company closed its offices, and they would remain closed through November of that year. This crippled the company's ability to raise additional funding for construction.
The Myerstown Riots occurred at [Myerstown, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Myerstown, Pennsylvania"), in [Lebanon County](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon County, Pennsylvania"), when "a group of young men from the town crash(ed) a party of canal men at a local tavern and provoke(d) a brawl in response to a recent insult; the canal men (broke into) several houses looking for their assailants; German residents had long opposed the canal for exercising eminent domain, and fights were frequent because of ethnic differences between German residents and canal workers, who were Scots\-Irish or Irish." The riots continued for several days and were further inflamed by a mob of over 100 canal men "... armed with clubs and led by an overseer armed with pistols march on Myerstown and proceeded to intimidate townspeople while seizing and beating the young men they suspected of starting the brawl the previous night."
In 1794, as part of the [federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States "Federal government of the United States")'s response to the [Whiskey Rebellion](/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion%23Militia_expedition "Whiskey Rebellion#Militia expedition"), [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington"), according to historian [Joseph Ellis](/wiki/Joseph_Ellis "Joseph Ellis"), became "the first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field".Ellis, *His Excellency, George Washington*, 225\. Washington left Philadelphia which at that time was the [capital city](/wiki/List_of_capitals_in_the_United_States%23Capitals_of_the_United_States "List of capitals in the United States#Capitals of the United States") for the country on the 30th of September to first dine at Norristown and then stay the night at what is now Trappe, Pennsylvania.Washington, G., Jackson, D., \& Twohig, D. (1976\). The diaries of George Washington. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Accessed at [https://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/644873705?page\=frame\&url\=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkigTAQAAMAAJ%26checksum%3Dba5f03da41c8eb81c13f065ffff48b64\&title\=\&linktype\=digitalObject\&detail\=](https://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/644873705?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkigTAQAAMAAJ%26checksum%3Dba5f03da41c8eb81c13f065ffff48b64&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail=) on June 30, 2018\. The next day he traveled to [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania "Reading, Pennsylvania") on his way to meet up with the rest of the militia he ordered mobilized at [Carlisle](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Pennsylvania "Carlisle, Pennsylvania"). On the second of October, 1794, Washington left Reading heading west to [Womelsdorf](/wiki/Womelsdorf%2C_Pennsylvania "Womelsdorf, Pennsylvania") in order to "view the canal from Myerstown towards Lebanon and the locks between the two places ...". Another officer on the march noted that at that time, ten miles of canal had been excavated and five locks constructed for a total lift of thirty feet in elevation.
By the end of 1793, Weston reported to the board that "... lawsuits and jury awards have slowed the work. ... " While Weston had over four hundred men working on the project that summer, by the end of the year, most of his workforce had left the project. The remaining workforce was assigned to work on the towpath. In the end, Weston had completed 4\.25 miles of the canal prism through the narrows between the two springs. Weston, though had to narrow the summit cut to pass only one boat at a time. Crucially, Weston had also to acknowledge a problem that none of his predecessors had faced when he was forced to "... line both sides of the canal with drywall stones to reduce leakage." Going into 1794, Weston estimated that he needed $231,000 ($4\.9 million in 2018 US dollars) for the years work requiring the company to raise another $120 thousand in capital. The company was unable to raise the capital or borrow the money and on May 3, 1794, it reported that its funds were exhausted. However, the company continued to make attempts to raise funds for the project, and in December 1794, Chief engineer Weston reported on the state of the project.
"William Weston issues his last report on Schuylkill \& Susquehanna Navigation; notes that £8,526 has been spent on 4 miles and 16½ chains of canal between Kreitzer's and the east end of the summit level, five locks and two bridges completed, and sixth lock and two more bridges nearly done."
Funds are still insufficient and the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company in the close of 1794 makes its final payroll and informs Weston that in the future he is solely an employee of the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company. The company's efforts were futile as no additional funds were secured. Finally, in April 1795, the Board authorizes Weston "to sell the company's teams and send the rest to Philadelphia for sale; the company's stock of black powder is to be sent to Norristown for the use of the Delaware \& Schuylkill Canal; Weston appoints seven men to take care of the works, which are effectively abandoned and never brought into use." In the spring of 1796, the Board orders the disposal of all the bricks Weston had manufactured for construction of the canal's [locks](/wiki/Lock_%28water_navigation%29%23Use_of_water "Lock (water navigation)#Use of water") effectively terminating the project.
As the navigation company exhausted its funding by early 1795, in May of that year the Board terminated Weston's employment contract with the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company. Weston though was still was obligated to work with the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company. By the spring of 1796, Weston reported that six miles of canal had been completed, three at each side but that due to lack of funds, the work had been terminated. The Board for the canal company also terminated Weston's employment contract that spring. Weston went on to work with Gen. Phillip Schuyler for [Western Inland Lock Navigation Company](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals "Erie Canal#Proposals") for 4 years. During this period, [Benjamin Wright](/wiki/Benjamin_Wright_%28civil_engineer%29 "Benjamin Wright (civil engineer)") (1770\-1842\) who was later to become [chief engineer](/wiki/Chief_engineer "Chief engineer") of the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal "Erie Canal") and other projects, worked under Weston.
### 19th century
Despite the termination of construction and Weston's employment as canal engineer the company managed to forestall foreclosure on its property and constructed works.Baer, Christopher T. "A General Chronology of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company Predecessors and Successors and its Historical Context." (For the period of 1800\-1809\)\- Archived from the original on (2007\), updated May 2015\.Accessed at [http://www.prrths.com/newprr\_files/Hagley/PRR1800\.pdf](http://www.prrths.com/newprr_files/Hagley/PRR1800.pdf) on August 30, 2018\. In 1802, the company had to fend off such an attempt and was only successful in holding onto its property and water rights through the sale of excess property, often whole farms were sold. Although originally set to expire in 1801, the company's corporate charter was extended in 1806 to 1820\. In 1807, Charles Gottfried Paleske (1758\-1816\) was elected to the Board of Directors of the company and working with [James Milnor](/wiki/James_Milnor "James Milnor"), Robert Brooke, Isaac Roberdeau, and John Scott walked "... the line of the Schuylkill \& Susquehanna Navigation Company from Kruitzer's plantation where the canal ends to the end of the summit near Kucher's mill, about 9 miles; find the work in good condition including the five locks at Ley's, and the bridges decayed or collapsed ..." In 1808, Paleske was elected president and Joseph S. Lewis (1778\-1836\) treasurer. In 1809, the company's directors appointed a committee to draft articles for a merger with the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company which was submitted to the State legislature. In 1810, [William John Duane](/wiki/William_J._Duane "William J. Duane") (1780\-1865\) writing as "Franklin" advocates for reviving the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company as part of a scheme for a canal route to Lake Erie instead of the Ohio Valley.Baer, Christopher T. "A General Chronology of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company Predecessors and Successors and its Historical Context." (For the period of 1810\-1814\)\- Archived from the original on (2007\), updated May 2015\.Accessed at [http://www.prrths.com/newprr\_files/Hagley/PRR1810\.pdf](http://www.prrths.com/newprr_files/Hagley/PRR1810.pdf) on August 30, 2018\. In July,1811, the two corporations (Schuylkill \& Susquehanna Navigation Company and Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company) were merged into the [Union Canal Company](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Union Canal (Pennsylvania)") with Paleske as its first president and "...authorized to extend to Lake Erie and to build turnpikes along right of way; company is also given monopoly of lotteries in Pennsylvania until $400,000 is raised ..."
By 1885, the successor company, the Union Canal, was sold at a [sheriff sale](/wiki/Sheriff_Sale "Sheriff Sale"), being unable to cope with railroad competition, poor planning, and the technical challenges posed by a summit crossing underlain by the [carbonate](/wiki/Carbonate_rock "Carbonate rock") [bedrock](/wiki/Bedrock "Bedrock") of [Lebanon County](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon County, Pennsylvania"). Had the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company been successful in completing the canal in 1794–95, it probably would have succumbed to the same poor planning and summit geology as its successor did. Much like the [Potomac Canal](/wiki/Potomac_Canal "Potomac Canal") (1785\-1828\), between the beginning of the Navigation Company in 1791 and its merger and completion by its successor company in 1828, the Union Canal of Pennsylvania (1811\-1885\), "...civil engineering had come to America and Americans had become civil engineers."Kapsch, Robert J. "George Washington, the Potomac Canal and the Beginning of American Civil Engineering: Engineering Problems and Solutions." *American Civil Engineering History: The Pioneering Years*. 2003\. 129\-194\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 18th century",
"[thumb\\|A 1791 map of the roads and inland navigation of [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), and part of the adjacent states based upon the river surveys in 1790 and 1791](/wiki/File:A_map_exhibiting_a_general_view_of_the_roads_and_inland_navigation_of_Pennsylvania%2C_and_part_of_the_adjacent_states_%285385393632%29.jpg \"A map exhibiting a general view of the roads and inland navigation of Pennsylvania, and part of the adjacent states (5385393632).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A 1792 map of a proposed route for the summit canal based upon Brindley's survey of 1791](/wiki/File:1795_Schuykill_Navigation_company_Map_for_PA_canals.jpg \"1795 Schuykill Navigation company Map for PA canals.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|An 1816 map of [Lebanon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon County, Pennsylvania\") showing 1794 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company summit crossing construction with its highlighted in red](/wiki/File:1816_map_of_Lebanon_County_Pennsylvania_showing_1794_Schuylkill_and_Susquehanna_Navigation_company_summit_crossing_construction.png \"1816 map of Lebanon County Pennsylvania showing 1794 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company summit crossing construction.png\")\n[thumb\\|An 1889 [USGS](/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey \"United States Geological Survey\") map of [Lebanon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon County, Pennsylvania\"), showing topography of the summit crossing between [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\") and [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Myerstown, Pennsylvania\") with the alignment highlighted](/wiki/File:1889_USGS_Lebanon_County_summit_crossing_topo.png \"1889 USGS Lebanon County summit crossing topo.png\")\nThe original engineering concept developed by the Society and the navigation company was to build a canal up the [Schuylkill River](/wiki/Schuylkill_River \"Schuylkill River\") to [Norristown](/wiki/Norristown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Norristown, Pennsylvania\"), improving the Schuylkill River from there to [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania \"Reading, Pennsylvania\"). While from Reading, the canal was to extend to the [Susquehanna River](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\") via [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\"). This would have required a four\\-mile summit crossing between [Tulpehocken](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)\") and the [Quittapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\") with an artificial waterway connecting two separate river valleys; namely the Susquehanna and the Schuylkill watersheds. Its successful completion would have made the middle reach, the first [summit\\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal \"Summit-level canal\") in the United States. The term refers to a canal that rises then falls, as opposed to a [lateral canal](/wiki/Lateral_canal \"Lateral canal\"), which has a continuous fall only. In this case, the proposed canal at 80 miles in length would rise {{Convert\\|192\\|ft\\|m}} over {{Convert\\|42\\|mi\\|km}} from the west at the Susquehanna River to the summit and then fall {{Convert\\|311\\|mi\\|km}} over {{Convert\\|34\\|mi\\|km}} to the Schuylkill River to the east. It was to be the golden link between [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") and the vast interior of Pennsylvania and beyond.",
"This proposed summit crossing offered a severe test of 18th\\-century engineering skills, materials and construction techniques. For both designing and operating a water\\-conveyance transportation system through an area where sinkholes are common, and surface water is scarce. Ultimately, the 1794 engineering concept was flawed, as the water supply for the summit crossing was inadequate and the technology for minimizing supply losses was still another century away. While the 1794 construction was never completed, the company's successor, the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Union Canal (Pennsylvania)\"), was faced with the same challenges of sealing the canal bed to conserve water. The summit crossing was never able to handle the canal traffic. Even with two reservoirs constructed at the summit as feeders to the canal, the Union Canal still required pumped water from a [waterworks](/wiki/Waterworks \"Waterworks\") at the junction of [Swatara Creek](/wiki/Swatara_Creek \"Swatara Creek\") and [Clarks Run](/wiki/Clarks_Run_%28Beaver_River_tributary%29 \"Clarks Run (Beaver River tributary)\") and later from a second waterworks on Furnace Creek on the Quitipahilla. At the first works, there were four pumps necessary to provide summit water, but only two could be powered by river water. The other two had to be powered by [Cornish steam engines](/wiki/Cornish_steam_engine \"Cornish steam engine\"), a technology available in 1828 when the canal opened but not in 1791\\.",
"Despite all of these problems, in 1791, the enthusiasm for this venture was such that it didn't seem at all impossible that Pennsylvania would have succeeded in securing the commercial prestige which the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal \"Erie Canal\") captured for [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"). By 1795 however, the navigation company's project was a commercial failure. The result was that with the onset of the Erie Canal still some thirty years into the future, Philadelphia lost the early initiative in water transportation. Despite Philadelphia and Pennsylvania's \"heroic efforts\" to hold their share of the internal trade which in 1796 was forty percent more than New York; by 1825 with the opening of the Erie Canal, Philadelphia's trade was forty\\-five percent less than New York.",
"New York City's rise to preeminence among American cities was an important development, but was not a foregone conclusion. At the time the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company was chartered, Philadelphia was the leading American city; its residents, as well as others, generally expected it to take on more of a metropolitan role as the nation became independent, and prepared the city for that role. Instead, Philadelphia slid into second place. By 1807, New York was the acknowledged commercial capital of the nation; by 1837, it was the American metropolis. Philadelphia's dismal failure to build the \"golden link\" thirty years before New York opened the Erie Canal was a major factor in that slide into second place.",
"The idea of uniting the [Schuylkill](/wiki/Schuylkill_River \"Schuylkill River\") and [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\") rivers by a canal was first proposed and discussed by [William Penn](/wiki/William_Penn \"William Penn\") in 1690\\.Engineering Record, Building Record and Sanitary Engineer, Volume 40, Charles Frederick Wingate, McGraw Publishing Company, 1899 Accessed at [Google books](https://books.google.com/books?id=D1U1AQAAMAAJ&dq=schuylkill+navigation+company+1791&pg=RA1-PA100) on July 30, 2016Bishop, Avard Longley. The State works of Pennsylvania. Vol. 13\\. Tuttle, Morehouse \\& Taylor Press, 1907\\. {{PD\\-notice}} Penn's plan, conceived a few years after he had founded Philadelphia, was to make \"a second settlement\" on the Susquehanna River, similar in size to that of Philadelphia itself. He made this plan, titled \"Some Proposals for a Second Settlement in the Province of Pennsylvania\" public in [England](/wiki/England \"England\") in 1690\\.Swank, James Moore. *\"Progressive Pennsylvania: A Record of the Remarkable Industrial Development of the Keystone State, with Some Account of Its Early and Its Later Transportation Systems, Its Early Settlers, and Its Prominent Men.\"* JB Lippincott, 1908\\. Accessed at on July 31, 2016\\. {{PD\\-notice}} The route envisioned by Penn was a road up the west bank of the Schuylkill to the mouth of [French Creek](/wiki/French_Creek_%28Schuylkill_River%29 \"French Creek (Schuylkill River)\") near present\\-day [Phoenixville](/wiki/Phoenixville%2C_Pennsylvania \"Phoenixville, Pennsylvania\"), heading west to the Susquehanna via present day [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lancaster, Pennsylvania\") and a Susquehanna [tributary](/wiki/Tributary \"Tributary\"), [Conestoga Creek](/wiki/Conestoga_River \"Conestoga River\"). Although Penn first proposed the project of continuous water transportation from the [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\") to the [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\"), he did not call for the building of a canal.",
"In 1762, Philadelphia merchants petitioned the [Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly \"Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly\") to commission a project for the passage by water up the [west branch of the Susquehanna River](/wiki/West_Branch_Susquehanna_River \"West Branch Susquehanna River\") with an intervening portage to a navigable branch of the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\"). In 1769, another petition to the Assembly requested that then Province make the [Juniata River](/wiki/Juniata_River \"Juniata River\") navigable down to the Susquehanna River. Both petitions were unsuccessful, but neither mentioned canals as an essential element for the proposed improvement.",
"In 1769, the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society \"American Philosophical Society\") with [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") as its first president was organized with six standing committees, one of which was on \"Husbandry and [American Improvements](/wiki/American_Improvements \"American Improvements\")\".Volume 1769\\-1774\\. (1885\\). Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 22(119\\), 23\\-94\\. Retrieved from <https://www.jstor.org/stable/982528> One of the first projects the committee looked at in February 1769 was a canal between the [Chesapeake](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay \"Chesapeake Bay\") and [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_Bay \"Delaware Bay\") bays using the [Chester River](/wiki/Chester_River \"Chester River\") in [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\") and [Duck Creek](/wiki/Duck_Creek_%28Smyrna_River_tributary%29 \"Duck Creek (Smyrna River tributary)\"), near [Smyrna, Delaware](/wiki/Smyrna%2C_Delaware \"Smyrna, Delaware\") some {{Convert\\|15\\|mi\\|km}} south of the present location of the [Chesapeake and Delaware Canal](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Delaware_Canal \"Chesapeake and Delaware Canal\") (C\\&D Canal). In March, the committee was tasked with preparing a \"scheme of application\" for the Philadelphia merchants for defraying the expenses of conducting a route location (\"proper levels\") for the canal as well as construction costs. In April, the committee discussed a more northerly route using the [Bohemia River](/wiki/Bohemia_River \"Bohemia River\"), a tributary of the [Elk River](/wiki/Elk_River_%28Maryland%29 \"Elk River (Maryland)\") with [headwaters](/wiki/Headwaters \"Headwaters\") extending into Delaware using [Drawyers Creek](/wiki/Appoquinimink_River \"Appoquinimink River\").",
"In June, this route was reported being feasible only with locks, as the cost of constructing a clear passage from river to river was too great. That same month, Thomas Gilpin, a member of the merchant committee, submitted an alternative \"plan of a canal and elevation\" using the original southerly route along the Chester River and Duck Creek. In April 1770, W. T. Fisher produced a map of the several canal routes proposed for connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware bays.",
"In August 1771, the committee then became aware of the prospect of joining the Susquehanna and Schuylkill Rivers by means of a canal. One of the key features of that survey was its emphasis on the middle ground or [summit level](/wiki/Summit-level_canal \"Summit-level canal\"), roughly {{Convert\\|4\\.5\\|mi\\|km}} miles between the headwaters of the [Quitapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\"), near [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\"), and those of Tulpehocken, near [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Myerstown, Pennsylvania\"). The survey was conducted by [Dr. William Smith](/wiki/William_Smith_%28Episcopalian_priest%29 \"William Smith (Episcopalian priest)\"), [Provost](/wiki/Provost_%28education%29 \"Provost (education)\") of the [College of Philadelphia](/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania \"University of Pennsylvania\"), [John Lukens](/wiki/John_Lukens \"John Lukens\"), [Esquire](/wiki/Esquire \"Esquire\"), [Surveyor General](/wiki/Surveyor_general \"Surveyor general\")[http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn\\-nr92038163/](http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-nr92038163/) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=September 2022}} of the then Province (now State) of Pennsylvania, and [John Sellers](/wiki/John_Sellers_%28scientist%29 \"John Sellers (scientist)\"). [Samuel Rhoads](/wiki/Samuel_Rhoads \"Samuel Rhoads\"), a Philadelphia architect, vice\\-president of the Society and colonial mayor of Philadelphia, had also been on the survey with [Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse \"David Rittenhouse\") and company.Stapleton, D. H. (1984\\). William Weston, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, and the Philadelphia plan for internal improvements. (Cutcliffe, Stephen Hosmer. ed. Science and technology in the eighteenth century.) Bethlehem, Pa. Rhoads had been impressed with the \"... apparent practicality of a canal on the Tulpehocken\\-Swatara route. But, he asked Franklin, whether it was better to dig a canal, or just to dam up the rivers and creeks to provide for navigation?\"",
"The same year, the Society recommended the third route for a canal.{{cite book \\| title\\=The Pennsylvania Railroad, Volume 1: Building an Empire, 1846\\-1917, Volume 1 \\| publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania Press \\| author\\=Albert J. Churella \\| year\\=2012 \\| location\\=Philadelphia \\| pages\\=976 \\| isbn\\=9780812243482}} The [Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly \"Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly\") then appointed a committee of its own to survey the Susquehanna, Schuylkill, and [Lehigh Rivers](/wiki/Lehigh_River \"Lehigh River\") and in 1773, David Rittenhouse delivered its report.8 Pa. Arch., viii, 6609–10, 6748, 6853; Brooke Hindle, David Rittenhouse (Princeton, 1964\\), pp. 94–6\\.Accessed at [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01\\-19\\-02\\-0110](https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-19-02-0110) on August 18, 2016\\. Nothing became of this work due to the coming of the Revolution.David Rittenhouse Papers accessed at [http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId\\=ead/Mss.SMs.Coll.11\\-ead.xml](http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.SMs.Coll.11-ead.xml) on August 18, 2016\\. In total, the Society sponsored studies of three routes to the connect Philadelphia with the [Susquehanna Valley](/wiki/Susquehanna_Valley \"Susquehanna Valley\"): one by canal across the [Delmarva Peninsula](/wiki/Delmarva_Peninsula \"Delmarva Peninsula\") (1769\\-1771\\), the second a paved road from the Susquehanna Valley to a river port south of Philadelphia and the third (1773\\) a canal using the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Rivers and their tributaries, the [Tulpehocken](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)\") and [Swatara](/wiki/Swatara_Creek \"Swatara Creek\") creeks.",
"The project became the goal of the Society for the Improvement of Roads and Inland Navigation organized in 1789 with [preeminent](/wiki/Preeminent \"Preeminent\"), wartime financier [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 \"Robert Morris (financier)\") as president, [David Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse \"David Rittenhouse\"), William Smith and John Nicolson. The Society petitioned the General Assembly to again survey the river routes, only this time the State acted upon the recommendations.",
"In the spring of 1790, the General Assembly passed a resolution on March 31, 1790, that authorized river surveys.Baer, Christopher T. \"A General Chronology of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company Predecessors and Successors and its Historical Context.\" Archived from the original on (2007\\), updated May 2015\\.Accessed at [http://www.prrths.com/newprr\\_files/Hagley/PRR1790\\.pdf](http://www.prrths.com/newprr_files/Hagley/PRR1790.pdf) on July 31, 2016\\. Governor [Thomas Mifflin](/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin \"Thomas Mifflin\") commissioned [Timothy Matlack](/wiki/Timothy_Matlack \"Timothy Matlack\") (1736–1829\\), [Samuel Maclay](/wiki/Samuel_Maclay \"Samuel Maclay\") (1741–1811\\) and [John Adlum](/wiki/John_Adlum \"John Adlum\") (1759–1836\\) to survey the Swatara, West Branch of the Susquehanna River, [Allegheny River](/wiki/Allegheny_River \"Allegheny River\"), French Creek with a portage to Lake Erie, the [Kiskiminetas](/wiki/Kiskiminetas_River \"Kiskiminetas River\")/[Conemaugh](/wiki/Conemaugh_River \"Conemaugh River\") to [Stony Creek](/wiki/Stonycreek_River \"Stonycreek River\"), the future site of [Johnstown](/wiki/Johnstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Johnstown, Pennsylvania\"), with a second portage to the [Frankstown branch](/wiki/Frankstown_Branch_Juniata_River \"Frankstown Branch Juniata River\") of the Juniata and then down the Juniata to the Susquehanna River and onto [Harrisburg](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania \"Harrisburg, Pennsylvania\").",
"Mifflin also appointed other survey teams:\n* Commissioners Samuel Boyd, Bartram Galbraith and Thomas Hulings, reported on January 30, 1790, a major obstruction to the navigation of the Susquehanna River: \"[Conewago Falls](/wiki/Conewago_Falls \"Conewago Falls\"), about 14 miles above [Wright's Ferry](/wiki/Wright%27s_Ferry \"Wright's Ferry\"), the great obstruction and barr to the wealth and population of our Western Country, is at present the grand object. We are clear that a canal is the sure and safe way of effecting a good navigation for boats to pass and repass.\".\n* Commissioners Reading Howell (1743\\-1827\\), Frederick Antes (1764\\-1801\\) and William Dean, to survey the upper Delaware with a portage to [the Great Bend on the Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River%23North_Branch_Susquehanna \"Susquehanna River#North Branch Susquehanna\"), the North Branch, the upper Lehigh with a portage to [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\"), and the upper Schuylkill and [Little Schuylkill](/wiki/Little_Schuylkill_River \"Little Schuylkill River\") with a portage to the Lehigh or Susquehanna.\n* Maclay surveyed the Swatara and [Quitapahilla Creeks](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\") to Old's Iron Works, then by land to Lebanon. Continuing to survey a [gap in the Allegheny barrier range](/wiki/Gaps_of_the_Allegheny%23List_of_Gaps \"Gaps of the Allegheny#List of Gaps\") in early September 1790, Maclay determined that Poplar Run Gap was the potential site for a future road across the [Allegheny Mountains](/wiki/Allegheny_Mountains \"Allegheny Mountains\").\nIn April 1790, Maclay surveyed \"...the Swatara Creek and Quitapahilla Creek to Old's Iron Works, then by to Lebanon; (noting that) the Quitapahilla can be made navigable for boats of 5 tons.\" On Dec. 14, 1790, Maclay and the other commissioners reported on their recommendations for rivers west of the [Allegheny Front](/wiki/Allegheny_Front \"Allegheny Front\") or barrier range. They recommend three routes; one via the Juniata and two using the West branch. The first uses the Juniata to go over the barrier range at Poplar Run gap to the [Kiskiminetas](/wiki/Kiskiminetas_River \"Kiskiminetas River\"), a tributary of the [Allegheny River](/wiki/Allegheny_River \"Allegheny River\"). The two West branch of the Susquehanna river routes, one via the north branch of [Sinnemahoning Creek](/wiki/Sinnemahoning_Creek \"Sinnemahoning Creek\"), a tributary of the West branch and thence over the barrier range to the Allegheny River, and one via west branch of the Sinnemahoning Creek and thence also over the barrier range to the Allegheny river. They also recommended the Allegheny and French Creek with portage to Lake Erie.Pennsylvania State Archives, House Journal, Appendix, pps 28 \\- 43",
"Maclay and the other commissioners found that most of the waterways could be constructed, but several portages were recommended to reduce costs such as the Lebanon summit crossing of four miles, a road from French Creek to [Presque Isle](/wiki/Fort_Presque_Isle \"Fort Presque Isle\") on Lake Erie and an {{Convert\\|18\\|mi\\|km}} portage over the Allegheny Mountains at Poplar run. The latter crossing was south of the route eventually selected in 1831 for the [Portage Railroad](/wiki/Allegheny_Portage_Railroad \"Allegheny Portage Railroad\") which, when built, was {{Convert\\|36\\|mi\\|km}} in length. Both the 1791 and 1831 routes converged on the [Little Conemaugh River](/wiki/Little_Conemaugh_River \"Little Conemaugh River\") as the route into [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\").",
"On February 10, 1791, reports were given on the second round of river surveys regarding improvements to the [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\") from the bay to the New York state line. Improvements were also recommended for the Schuylkill river with a portage road or canal from Reading to the Susquehanna River, and improvements for the North and West Branches of the Susquehanna and a second Allegheny portage to reach Lake Erie.",
"The Society proposed in its 1791 report to use the Schuylkill River from Philadelphia up to \"...Tulpehocken Creek, near Reading, continuing on the Tulpehocken as far as practicable.\"Hartman, J. Lee. \"Pennsylvania's Grand Plan of Post\\-Revolutionary Internal Improvement.\" The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 65\\.4 (1941\\): 439\\-457\\. Critically, the Society had yet to recommend or devise a way over the summit near Lebanon joining the \"...Quitapahilla and Swatara creeks, the latter leading to the Susquehanna ...\" river. The proposed mileages were:Hazard, Samuel, ed. Register of Pennsylvania. Vol. II., 1828\\. Accessed at <https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433081772430> on July 15, 2018 {{PD\\-notice}}\n* Up the Schuylkill River from Philadelphia to the mouth of the Tulpehocken, near [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania \"Reading, Pennsylvania\") \\- {{Convert\\|61\\|mi\\|km}}.\n* Westward, up the Tulpehocken Creek to the east end of the proposed summit canal crossing \\- {{Convert\\|37\\|mi\\|km}}. The plan was to clear thirty miles of the creek and cut a canal ({{Convert\\|20\\|ft\\|m}} wide by {{Convert\\|7\\|ft\\|m}} deep) for the last {{Convert\\|7\\|mi\\|km}} up to the summit crossing. An estimated ten locks were needed to ascend this distance.\n* Length of the summit canal \\- {{Convert\\|4\\|mi\\|km}}. The plan was to dig a canal on average {{Convert\\|25\\|ft\\|m}} deep and {{Convert\\|30\\|ft\\|m}} wide, a distance of approximately {{Convert\\|4\\.5\\|mi\\|km}}. This was also assumed to common earth excavation.\n* Down Quitipahilla to Swatara \\- {{Convert\\|15\\|mi\\|km}}. The 1791 report offered no detail on how this estimate was derived.\n* Down Swatara to Susquehanna River \\- {{Convert\\|23\\|mi\\|km}}. The 1791 report offered no detail on how this estimate was derived.",
"The concept of navigation in the context of the post\\-[colonial](/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States \"Colonial history of the United States\") United States and 1790 timeframe was predominately focused on improving river systems. A contemporary project, the [Western Inland Lock Navigation Company](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals \"Erie Canal#Proposals\") in New York which later became a part of the Erie Canal was also \"... primarily a river system.\" In the Pennsylvania scheme, large rivers such as the Susquehanna and to a lesser extent, the Schuylkill were to be improved by clearing channels through obstructions and building dams where needed. Most importantly, these larger segments of the scheme were to be connected by short sections of [slackwater](/wiki/Slack_water \"Slack water\") canals and in some instances such as the [Allegheny range crossing](/wiki/Allegheny_Portage_Railroad \"Allegheny Portage Railroad\"), portages. One author noted that ... \n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=While the Society mapped the prospective route with commendable diligence and care, its efforts were of course immeasurably handicapped by a lack of knowledge of canals which at that time were unknown in America but upon which the surveys of the board of commissioners indicated the waterway would have to depend for a short distance in the eastern region and perhaps in the vicinity of the Allegheny Mountains. Descriptions of the two canal connections given in the memorial clearly reflect the prevailing inexperience ... (of the Society). One of (the canal crossings), \"20 feet wide and 7 feet on an average,\" would be necessary between Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla creeks in order to provide an unbroken water link from the Schuylkill to the Susquehanna, but there was uncertainty about the immediate possibility of building it. ... (More detailed engineering to had to be done) ... to determine whether \"a plan of lock navigation\" might not be cheaper than a water\\-level channel. \"It is supposed that the canal or lock navigation between the heads of Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla, is to be compleated; but if that work should be thought too great to begin with, it will be only the addition of four miles portage, by an excellent and level road.\" '''In point of fact, no estimate could be included for \"the canal.\"''' (Emphasis added)\n\\|author\\=J. Lee. Hartman, \"Pennsylvania's Grand Plan of Post\\-Revolutionary Internal Improvement.\", p. 454 \n}}",
"The Society in its report estimated the total cost of the Schuylkill River improvements and canal connection with the Susquehanna River at £55,540 (£1791\\) or $8\\.6 million (in 2018 US dollars). The [Schuylkill Navigation Company](/wiki/Schuylkill_Canal \"Schuylkill Canal\") and the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Union Canal (Pennsylvania)\") ultimately completed this Society scheme by 1830 for a total reported cost of $2\\.8 million (in 1830 US dollars) or $73 million in (in 2018 US dollars):[Calculated using this website](https://www.officialdata.org/) roughly nine times the original estimate.",
"James Brindley (1745\\-1820\\), a well\\-known canal engineer and nephew of the famous British canal engineer [James Brindley](/wiki/James_Brindley \"James Brindley\") (1716\\-1772\\), was in Delaware in 1791\\.Robert J Kapsch \\& Yvonne E Long (2011\\) James Brindley, American Canal Engineer, The International Journal for the History of Engineering \\& Technology, 81:1, 22\\-59, DOI:10\\.1179/175812110X12869022260114 Brindley had been originally recruited in 1774 by the [Potomac Company](/wiki/Potomac_Company \"Potomac Company\") for the [Little Falls Bypass Canal](/wiki/Patowmack_Canal%23Little_Falls_Canal \"Patowmack Canal#Little Falls Canal\") on the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River \"Potomac River\").Robert J Kapsch \\& Yvonne E Long (2011\\) James Brindley, American Canal Engineer, The International Journal for the History of Engineering \\& Technology, 81:1, 22\\-59, Subsequently, Brindley worked on the [Susquehanna Canal](/wiki/Susquehanna_and_Tidewater_Canal%23Earlier_canal \"Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal#Earlier canal\") (1783\\-) in Maryland, [Santee Canal](/wiki/Santee_Canal \"Santee Canal\") in [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\") (1786\\) and the [James River Canal](/wiki/James_River_Canal \"James River Canal\") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\") (1787\\). In 1791, he was introduced to the Society for the purpose of resurveying the 1771 summit route for the canal between the Tulpehocken and Quittapahilla Creeks. The Society engaged Brindley to resurvey the 1771 summit route along with Timothy Matlack (1736\\-1829\\) and John Adlum (1759\\-1836\\). Later that year in the summer, they presented a final report and Brindley's map for the summit canal between the creeks. Crucially, they find that there is sufficient water at the summit to feed the canal within a four\\-mile radius. The society would later in February 1792 ask the newly incorporated Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company to pay for the expense of this survey.",
"In that same year of 1791, the Society presented proposals to the State proposing to connect the [Atlantic seaboard](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States \"East Coast of the United States\") with [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\"). This Pennsylvania plan was before the creation of New York's [Western and Northern Inland Lock Navigation Companies](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals \"Erie Canal#Proposals\") in 1792\\. The New York plan took the first steps to improve navigation on the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River \"Mohawk River\") by constructing a canal between the Mohawk and [Lake Ontario](/wiki/Lake_Ontario \"Lake Ontario\")Calhoun, Daniel Hovey. The American civil engineer: Origins and conflict. Technology Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1960\\. but that effort with private financing was insufficient. In the Pennsylvania plan, the Society proposed a canal route, 426 miles in length connecting Philadelphia with Pittsburgh by a canal. One part of this project was a canal segment up to the Schuylkill River to Tulpehocken Creek to a [summit\\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal \"Summit-level canal\") near [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\") and thence by way of the [Quitapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\") and Swatara creeks to the Susquehanna River.",
"This action resulted in the formation of two companies The first was the **Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company** incorporated on September 29, 1791,Mitchell, James Tyndale, et al. The Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania from 1682 to 1801\\. Vol. 6\\. No. 1759\\-1765\\. Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1899\\. {{PD\\-notice}}McCarthy, William D. \"Building the Beaver and Lake Erie Canal: The politics of public improvements in Pennsylvania, 1783\\-\\-1845\\.\" (2003\\): 3324\\-3324\\. to open a communication between the Schuylkill and Susquehanna rivers from Reading on the Schuylkill to Middletown on the Susquehanna. The second was the **Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Company** incorporated in 1792 to open a canal between the Schuylkill River and the Delaware River.An Historical account of the rise, progress and present state of the canal navigation in Pennsylvania. With an appendix, containing, abstracts of the acts of the Legislature since the year 1790, and their grants of money for improving roads and navigable waters throughout the state; to which is annexed, \"an explanatory map.\" / Published by direction of the president and managers of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, and the Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Companies. \\[Twenty two lines of verse] Morris, Robert, 1734\\-1806\\., Smith, William, 1727\\-1803\\., Howell, Reading, 1743\\-1827, cartographer., Trenchard, James, b. 1747, engraver., Delaware and Schuylkill Canal Company., Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation. Philadelphia:: Printed by Zachariah Poulson, Junior, number eighty, Chesnut\\-Street., MDCCXCV. \\[1795] {{PD\\-notice}} [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 \"Robert Morris (financier)\") was the president of both companies.",
"The 1791, Pennsylvania act incorporating the company contained an elaborate process for using Sheriff's juries to assess damages for taking of lands and waters becoming \"...the model for subsequent Pennsylvania canal statutes. \".Horwitz, Morton J. \"The Transformation of American Law, 1780\\-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977\\).\" Up to that point in time, the policy had been to only allow damages to improved lands. This 1791 act required the company to pay all damages resulting from its use of [eminent domain](/wiki/Eminent_domain_in_the_United_States \"Eminent domain in the United States\") authority to take all lands (improved or unimproved), water, and materials necessary for construction and operating the canal including mills, mill ponds, water and water courses. This caused many canal companies such as the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company great concern over the amount of damages awarded in these procedures. Charles G. Paleske, an officer of the company stated in 1807 that \"...the company could not complete the largest branch of its canal because, among other reasons, of \"the enormous sums paid for land and water rights.\"",
"In early 1792, the company was organized in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") with noted financier and land speculator [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 \"Robert Morris (financier)\") as president, [Tench Francis](/wiki/Tench_Francis_Jr. \"Tench Francis Jr.\") as treasurer and noted engrosser of the [declaration of independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence \"United States Declaration of Independence\") [Timothy Matlack](/wiki/Timothy_Matlack \"Timothy Matlack\") as secretary. The company's directors were also notable Philadelphians such as Morris' partner and former comptroller general of the State of Pennsylvania and president of the [Pennsylvania Population Company](/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania%23Westward_expansion \"History of Pennsylvania#Westward expansion\"), John Nicholson (1757\\-1800\\),Nicholson, John, 1757\\-1800, Biographical notes. Accessed on June 29, 2018 at <http://n2t.net/ark:/99166/w6tm7cfh> [Samuel Powel](/wiki/Samuel_Powel \"Samuel Powel\") (1738\\-1793\\) and University of Pennsylvania provost [William Smith](/wiki/William_Smith_%28Episcopal_priest%29 \"William Smith (Episcopal priest)\") (1727\\-1803\\). Junior founding partner of the notable Philadelphia shipping company James and Drinker and the [Philadelphia tea party](/wiki/Philadelphia_Tea_Party \"Philadelphia Tea Party\") incident, Henry Drinker (1734\\-1809\\), a \"substantial provider of credit\" in those timesMaxey, David W. \"The Union Farm: Henry Drinker's Experiment in Deriving Profit from Virtue.\" The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 107\\.4 (1983\\): 607\\-629\\. [Accessed](https://journals.psu.edu/pmhb/article/viewFile/43944/43665) on June 29, 2018 also was a director. Other notable directors included Brevet generals [Walter Stewart](/wiki/Walter_Stewart_%28general%29 \"Walter Stewart (general)\") and [Samuel Miles](/wiki/Samuel_Miles \"Samuel Miles\"), the latter, a former mayor of the city of Philadelphia. Philadelphia politician and brewer Robert Hare (1752\\-1811\\) father of chemist [Robert Hare](/wiki/Robert_Hare_%28chemist%29 \"Robert Hare (chemist)\") (1781\\-1858\\)[Robert Hare (1752\\-1811\\), PENN BIOGRAPHIES](https://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/hare_robt.html) was a director as well as the then treasurer of the United States, [Samuel Meredith](/wiki/Samuel_Meredith_%28American_politician%29 \"Samuel Meredith (American politician)\") (1741\\-1817\\) and his brother in law, a signatory to both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, [George Clymer](/wiki/George_Clymer \"George Clymer\") (1739\\-1813\\). Pennsylvania State Attorney General and future Attorney General for the United States, [William Bradford](/wiki/William_Bradford_%28Attorney_General%29 \"William Bradford (Attorney General)\") (1755\\-1795\\), future Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, [George Lattimer](/wiki/George_Latimer_%28Pennsylvania_politician%29 \"George Latimer (Pennsylvania politician)\") and [light horse cavalry](/wiki/First_Troop_Philadelphia_City_Cavalry \"First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry\") member and quartermaster John Donaldson (1754\\-1831\\);Keen, Gregory B. \"The Descendants of Jöran Kyn, the Founder of Upland.\" The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2\\.3 (1878\\): 325\\-335\\. Nicholson eventually has 270 shares on which $64,300 is paid; Robert Morris, 52 shares and $14,300\\. [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\") received one share of stock in the company, issued by Morris in 1792 worth one pound.Washington, W. L. (1920\\). William Lanier Washington's collection of relics and memorabilia of George Washington. New York. In recruiting stock subscriptions, the Commissioners were required to advertise in three newspapers for a month with one being in the German language. They were authorized to sell one thousand shares and if the stock was oversubscribed, a lottery was to be used to apportion the sales, no one person was to initially own more than ten shares.",
"At the time that Robert Morris and the others were organizing the company \"(p)oor harvests in Europe brought unprecedented agricultural and commercial prosperity to the Delaware Valley.\"Doerflinger, Thomas M.. A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia, University of North Carolina Press, 2012\\. One of the administration's first official acts as part of [Hamilton's economic plan](/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington%23Hamiltonian_economic_program \"Presidency of George Washington#Hamiltonian economic program\") was to \"...pour thousands of dollars into the pockets of prescient speculators by funding depreciated American bonds at 100 percent of their face value. The resulting ebullience in the investment markets facilitated the flotation of a series of new companies ...\" such as Morris' Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company. While post\\-revolutionary grain exports from Philadelphia had stagnated through 1788, the Continental [subsistence crisis](/wiki/Subsistence_crisis \"Subsistence crisis\") created a demand for American grain that Philadelphia rushed to fill.\n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\"Between 1788 and 1789 the value of Quaker City exports leaped 45 percent to the level of $3,510,765, and they continued to climb to the extraordinary level of $17,513,866 in 1796 ($450 million US in 2018\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.officialdata.org/1791\\-dollars\\-in\\-2018?amount\\=17513866\\|title \\= $17,513,866 in 1791 → 2018 \\| Inflation Calculator}} With Americans serving as neutral maritime carriers for the warring nations of Europe, the shipping industry also flourished. The amount of tonnage registered for foreign trade increased by 167 percent between 1789 and 1796\\.\"\n\\|author\\=Thomas M Doerflinger, ''A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia'' \n}}\nBeyond the [Delaware Valley](/wiki/Delaware_Valley \"Delaware Valley\") lay the vast Susquehanna River Valley, a major export market for Philadelphia despite the gains made by [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\") in shifting trade to its ports.BJORK, GORDON C. Stagnation And Growth In The American Economy, 1784\\-1792, University of Washington, Ann Arbor, 1963\\. ProQuest \"...the essential economic function of Philadelphia's merchant community was to link the city's hinterland with its overseas markets. It was the merchants who shipped flour to Lisbon, lumber to London, flaxseed to Belfast; and it was they who imported vast amounts of cloth and hardware from London and the outports.\" The Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company would provide the \"golden link\" between the two.",
"On December 1, 1791, the company's book was opened for stock subscriptions, and by one o'clock more than the five hundred shares ($200,000\\) required as a minimum were\nsubscribed, and when the books had been open the required fifteen days no less than forty\\-six thousand shares were subscribed.Davis, J. Stancliffe. (1917\\). Essays in the earlier history of American corporations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Accessed on July 25, 2018 at [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo1\\.ark:/13960/t2z32d90t?urlappend\\=%3Bseq\\=168](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t2z32d90t?urlappend=%3Bseq=168) {{PD\\-notice}} This was acclaimed \"another instance of the public spirit of the inhabitants of this state,\" though in reality it testifies chiefly to the speculative spirit then running riot. The subscriptions were reduced by lottery to one thousand shares, and canal scrip was soon selling at an advance. Several months later, the first financial panic in the new United States occurred, the [panic of 1792](/wiki/Panic_of_1792 \"Panic of 1792\"). This impacted the availability of cash for subscribers to fulfill their obligations from the previous December and the Company agreed to take notes in lieu of cash.",
"This process of financing the navigation company was managed by Morris in the same time period as large swaths of Northern Pennsylvania were being developed by the managers of the company.Wilkinson, Norman B. \"The\" Philadelphia Fever\" in Northern Pennsylvania.\" Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid\\-Atlantic Studies 20\\.1 (1953\\): 40\\-56\\.\n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\"Pennsylvania's backlands ... (were) ... the stakes in a giant speculative bubble: they were cheap, they could be bought on credit, they could be paid for in depreciated certificates, settlement and improvement requirements were generally overlooked, and those in actual charge of the disposal of lands were very cooperative. Convinced of getting a 10, 20, or 30\\-fold return, it is little wonder that other assets were converted into land, heavy mortgages taken, and credit stretched to fantastic lengths.\"\n\\|author\\=Norman B. Wilkinson, \"''The 'Philadelphia Fever' in Northern Pennsylvania.''\"\n}}\nThe problem was that speculators such as Robert Morris had too much credit. Often using the land to which \"...they had only preliminary claim, either selling, encumbering them with mortgages or using them as collateral for loans.\" The Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company prospectus promised greater trade and settlement, thus raising the value of the lands. In addition to the two navigation companies, Robert Morris, and other managers \"...established no less than six companies of this type between 1793 and 1797\\.\" These were the [Pennsylvania Population Company](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29%23Land_speculation \"Robert Morris (financier)#Land speculation\"), Asylum Land Company, [North American Land Company](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29%23Land_speculation \"Robert Morris (financier)#Land speculation\"), Territorial Land Company, Pennsylvania Land Company, Pennsylvania Property Company. This speculative bubble burst in 1796 just when the navigation company was trying to mobilize the financing for its operations. \n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\"...speculators had invested in roads, canals, and mills to encourage settlement, but often could not finance these projects to completion. By the late 1790s, most of these speculations failed due to overreaching. Robert Morris, the grandest speculator of them all, went to debtors' prison.\n\\|author\\=Marcus Terran Gallo, \"''Imaginary Lines, Real Power: Surveyors and Land Speculation in the Mid\\-Atlantic Borderlands, 1681\\-1800''\".Gallo, Marcus Terran. Imaginary Lines, Real Power: Surveyors and Land Speculation in the Mid\\-Atlantic Borderlands, 1681\\-1800\\. University of California, Davis, 2012\\.\n}}",
"{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\"The 'Philadelphia fever' that raged during the era of exploitation of our eastern public lands ruined many of those it infected. It despoiled a great portion of the Commonwealth's landed inheritance. It victimized the actual settler ... (a)nd it retarded the development of one\\-third of the State for several generations.\"\n\\|author\\=Norman B. Wilkinson, \"''The 'Philadelphia Fever' in Northern Pennsylvania.''\" (1953\\)\n}}",
"There were very few trained civil engineers in the new United States when the company was chartered.Kirby, Richard Shelton. \"William Weston and his contribution to early American engineering.\" Transactions of the Newcomen Society 16\\.1 (1935\\): 111\\-127\\. The earlier planning for locating the canal commissioned by the Society up through 1791 had been performed by members such as [John Lukens](/wiki/John_Lukens \"John Lukens\"), surveyor general of Pennsylvania and the eminent American astronomer and surveyor, [David Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse \"David Rittenhouse\"). Other than Brindley (1745\\-1820\\), no one had any experience with canal location or lockage.",
"The original engineering concept developed by the Society as well as the navigation company's charter had been to build a canal up the \"...Schuylkill valley to Norristown, and improving the river from there to Reading; while from Reading a canal was to extend to the Susquehanna, via Lebanon.\" This would have made the Schuylkill and Susquehanna canal the first [summit\\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal \"Summit-level canal\") in the United States. A four\\-mile summit crossing between Tulpehocken and the Quitipahilla would be an artificial waterway connecting two separate river valleys; namely the [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\") and the [Schuylkill](/wiki/Schuylkill_River \"Schuylkill River\") watersheds. The term refers to a canal that rises then falls, as opposed to a lateral canal, which has a continuous fall only.{{cite web\\|title\\=Canals and inland waterways\\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/technology/canal\\-waterway\\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica\\|accessdate\\=10 June 2016}} In this case, the proposed canal at 80 miles in length would rise 192 feet over 42 miles from the west at the Susquehanna River to the summit and then fall 311 feet over 34 miles to the Schuylkill River to the east.Tanner, Henry Schenck, 1786\\-1858, A description of the canals and railroads of the United States, comprehending notices of all the works of internal improvement throughout the several states. Accessed on August 31, 2018 at <https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcan00tann> Unfortunately, most of the four\\-mile summit crossing was underlain by the [Ontelaunee Formation](/wiki/Kittatinny_Formation \"Kittatinny Formation\"), a \"...dark grayish\\-brown weathering [dolomite](/wiki/Dolomite_%28rock%29 \"Dolomite (rock)\") ...\" or carbonate bedrock.Ousey Jr, John R., Ruth Egan, and William Maun. \"Geologic and Hydrologic Problems Encountered in the Construction and Operation of the Union Canal in Pennsylvania\", Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science (1998\\): 90\\-95\\. Accessed using JSTOR subscription. Other equally important parts of the summit crossing were constructed through the Annville Formation, a \"...very thick bedded, finely crystalline, light blue\\-gray to light pinkish\\-gray, high\\-calcium [limestone](/wiki/Limestone \"Limestone\").\" Crucially, that meant the summit traversed highly soluble bedrock with poor surface drainage and where sinkholes were common.\n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=This ... (summit crossing) ... offered a severe test of ... (18th century) ... engineering skills in both designing and operating a water\\-conveyance transportation system through an area where sinkholes are common, and surface water is scarce.\n\\|author\\=Ousey, Egan, and Maun\n}}\nUltimately, the 1794 engineering concept was flawed. The water supply for the summit crossing was inadequate. While the 1794 construction was never \"watered\", its successor, the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Union Canal (Pennsylvania)\") was faced with the choice of either \"[puddling](/wiki/Puddling_%28civil_engineering%29 \"Puddling (civil engineering)\")\" (packing low\\-permeability clay on the bottom and sides), or \"planking\" (lining the sides and bottom of the canal with wood planks) for the summit crossing in order to conserve water supplies. In the end, \"planking\" was chosen which required \"...close to 2,000,000 board\\-feet of lumber ...\" to seal the crossing. Even with two reservoirs constructed at the summit as feeders to the canal, the Union canal required pumped water from a waterworks at the junction of Swatara Creek and Clarke's run and later from a second waterworks on Furnace Creek on the Quitipahilla. At the first works, there were four pumps with the capacity to lift about \"...15,000 gallons per minute through 3\\.3 miles of wooden and brick pipes to the summit level, 95 feet above the pumps ...\" Of the four pumps only two could be powered by water, the other two had to be powered by [Cornish steam engines](/wiki/Cornish_engine \"Cornish engine\"), a technology available in 1828 when the canal opened but not in 1791\\.Nuvolari, Alessandro; Verspagen, Bart (2009\\). \"Technical choice, innovation and British steam engineering, 1800\\-1850\". Economic History Review. 63 (3\\): 685–710\\. by 1885, the Union canal was sold at a sheriff sale, \"unable to cope with ... (competition from) ... the railroads, poor planning, and the carbonate bedrock of Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. Had the Schuylkill and Susquehanna navigation company been successful in completing the canal in 1794\\-95, it probably would have succumbed to same poor planning and summit geology as its successor did.",
"While the navigation company was being organized in 1791, the Society asked Brindley to re\\-evaluate the summit level crossing Between [Lebanon, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\") and [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown \"Myerstown\"). Brindley was to reexamine the topography of the summit and produce a detailed location for the canal. He was also to ensure that the local supply of water was adequate to supply the amount of water necessary to operate the locks on both sides of the summit; critical for the success of the project, as well as to make an estimate of the \"...lands and waters necessary ...\" for the work. Brindley completed the work that summer, yet, Morris still agreed with George Washington's earlier assessment that although Brindley had \"more practical knowledge of cuts and locks for the improvement of inland navigation than any man among us ...\" in Morris' mind, Brindley's skills remained unproven. Nonetheless, the Navigation company hired Brindley in April 1792 for the construction season work as canal engineer along with Col. Thomas Bull (1744\\-1837\\) as superintendent.",
"In May, the board of directors with Brindley tour the summit crossing between the Quitapahilla and Tulpehocken Creeks as well as the waters to the north, including the Deep Run Branch of the Little Swatara. From west to east, the route was to follow [Swatara Creek](/wiki/Swatara_Creek \"Swatara Creek\") upstream from Middletown to [Quittapahilla Creek](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\"), which it then followed upstream through [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\") and towards [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Myerstown, Pennsylvania\"). It then crossed overland to the headwaters of [Tulpehocken Creek](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)\"), following Tulpehocken Creek downstream to Reading on the Schuylkill River. It was to follow the Schuylkill downriver to the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The summit route was fixed by the Board between Kuchner's dam on the Quittapahilla and Loy's springs on the Tulpehocken west of Myerstown.Augunst, Dean (1966\\). Two Canals of Lebanon County. Papers and addresses of the Lebanon County Historical Society, Volume 65, issue 1, pages 1\\-30",
"In August of that year, the company approves Brindley's engineering concept for crossing the summit. It was to be a twenty\\-five deep cut, thirty\\-feet wide at the bottom and watered to a depth of four feet. Based solely upon Brindley's work and before their new British engineer, Weston could review the scheme, in October 1792, the Board authorized Superintendent Bull to purchase a strip of land 100 feet wide for the canal route to the Swatara. In November,1792 the company purchases the mill of Baltzer Orth on the head of the Quittapahilla Creek for £4,250 and two tracts of Abraham Crow for £2,600\\. Superintendent Bull and Timothy Matlack begin construction staking for the summit canal using Brindley's route. The work is met with resistance from the local residents who \"resent the intrusion of rich Philadelphians into their entirely German community and having their farms cut up ...\" The local residents protested the exercise of eminent domain by the company in cutting up farms to build a straight and regular, rather than a traditional meandering and undulating road or canal.",
"During the time that Brindley acting as canal engineer, the company approached [Patrick Colquhoun](/wiki/Patrick_Colquhoun \"Patrick Colquhoun\") in London to recruit what the company considered to be a more qualified British engineer for the canal. In January 1792, Colquhoun initially tried to recruit [John Dadford](/wiki/John_Dadford \"John Dadford\") but he was unavailable. Colquhoun then approached the eminent British civil engineer [William Jessop](/wiki/William_Jessop \"William Jessop\") to select \"...a properly qualified engineer for North America, he recommended Weston.\" Colquhoun was finally able to secure the services [William Weston](/wiki/William_Weston_%28engineer%29 \"William Weston (engineer)\") twenty\\-nine years old at the time building at that time [canals in Ireland](/wiki/William_Jessop%23Grand_Canal_of_Ireland \"William Jessop#Grand Canal of Ireland\"). Weston signed a contract drafted by Colquhoun for his services to the company as its \"engineer\" with the annual salary of [£](/wiki/Pound_sign \"Pound sign\")800 in 1792 for no more than seven months in any one year worth $120,000 US in 2018\\.Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency accessed at <https://www.uwyo.edu/numimage/currency.htm> on July 13, 2018 At the time that Weston traveled over to the new country of the United States, ... \n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\\[\\[Prismatic compass (surveying)\\|Surveyors' compasses]] were common in the (United) States, \\[\\[Levelling\\#Older instruments\\|engineers' levels]] were almost, if not quite, non\\-existent. (David Rittenhouse doubtless could have made one, but it is quite certain that he had not). In fact, Weston may have brought with him the first leveling instrument used on this side of the Atlantic. It was, according to Weston's own description, a Y\\-levelThe Wye Level \\[https://web.archive.org/web/20160510061018/http://pages.suddenlink.net/topogs/wye\\_level.htm] Accessed on July 13, 2018\\. with \\[\\[Achromatic lens\\|achromatic glasses]], and had been made for him by Mr. \\[\\[Edward Troughton\\|Troughton]], a mathematical instrument maker on Fleet Street, London.\n\\|author\\=Richard Shelton Kirby \n}}\nAlmost immediately upon his arrival in Pennsylvania, the company attempted to renegotiate Weston's compensation to cover twelve months instead of seven, offering to raise it to £1,500 ($225,000 US in 2018\\) and increasing the geographical scope of his services to include the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Delaware.",
"Although the Board had authorized work for the summit crossing, there still was a question in their minds as of September 1792 over staying with their original concept of river navigation for improving the Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla and Swatara or to go for lock system navigation. The Board had also been faced with two routes across the summit and onto the Swatara using either the Quitapahilla to the south or Clark's run to the north.",
"The company was pursuing several construction projects during a time in which skilled labor was in short supply and very costly. The presence of several projects could easily drive up labor and material costs. Much as in the twentieth century where [project labor agreements](/wiki/Project_Labor_Agreement \"Project Labor Agreement\") are used to predetermine wages and working conditions, these eighteenth\\-century project managers sought to negotiate cooperative agreements with other projects to constrain the growth in wages and control working conditions. In October 1792, the Board of Directors appointed a committee to \"... confer with the Delaware \\& Schuylkill Canal and Philadelphia \\& Lancaster Turnpike Road on sending a joint agent to New England to recruit labor.\" The next month the Board directs superintendent Bull to limit wages to 3s6d (70 cents) per day with the company providing tools and provisions. More importantly, the Board also directs Bull to negotiate \"... an agreement with the Delaware \\& Schuylkill Canal and the Philadelphia \\& Lancaster Turnpike Road to observe a uniform ceiling on the wages to be offered.\"",
"The practice even went so far as have the Boards of several companies meet as a joint committee. Thus in November 1792, the Schuylkill \\& Susquehanna, Delaware \\& Schuylkill, and Conewago Canals and Philadelphia \\& Lancaster Turnpike Road met as a joint committee and \"... named Isaac Roberdeau (1763\\-1829\\), who had worked under Pierre C. L'Enfant on laying out Washington, D.C. and Paterson, N.J., is named agent of all three companies at $120 per month; he later becomes William Weston's assistant.\" The joint committee also agreed to \"... cooperate with each other and with local employers of day laborers so as not to increase wages by bidding against each other; workers imported from New England are to be excepted.\" The Joint committee continued to make plans for a coordinated effort over the winter of 1792–1793 to \"procure laborers in New England, 400 for each of the main canals, 150 for the Conewago Canal, and 200 for the turnpike, also 10 yokes of oxen, carts, and drivers for the turnpike; maximum wage rates and working conditions were established for moving expenses and the use of company teams.\" The committee also directed that all member companies were to sell provisions to the men at cost. The labor force was being mobilized in Philadelphia to start the construction season on March 10, 1793\\.",
"In January 1793, the Company reported that \"... 80 to 100 men are at work and about a half\\-mile of the canal has been dug; are working on the summit level on land purchased by John Nicholson from Jacob Schaffer.\" Brindley's design concept for the summit crossing was a cut twenty\\-five deep, thirty\\-feet wide at the bottom and watered to a depth of four feet. Brindley had assumed that the cut would entirely excavate earth instead they \"... struck rock at a depth of 9 feet.\" The next month, roughly 400 men are working on the Tulpehocken Creek side of the summit. Engineer Weston reviews Brindley's plans for the summit crossing including Brindley's scheme for supplying the summit with water. Weston changes the design to twenty feet from thirty feet but increases the depth from four to six feet of water, acting as a reservoir. By March, 1793, the company has exhausted its project funding and has accumulated $56,000 in liabilities ($1\\.5 million in 2018 US dollars). In April, the [Conewago Canal](/wiki/Conewago_Canal \"Conewago Canal\") is incorporated as a separate company with James Brindley as chief engineer. That same month the Company Board directs engineer Weston to \"make the Tulpehocken side of the summit the priority ...\" as well to develop more sources of water to supply the summit crossing.",
"During the same period, the company moved to acquire right of way on the Tulpehocken creekside by legally enforcing its eminent domain rights. However the effort was met with \"a large force . ... armed with clubs who oppose (seizing the land) ... in the meantime, landowners refuse to allow entry onto their land.\" The pace of construction slowed and in that summer of 1793, Superintendent Bull resigned. The company arranges for some interim financing in the form of a $4,000 loan from Major [Edward Burd](/wiki/Edward_Burd \"Edward Burd\"). That summer was also notable for the first [yellow fever epidemic](/wiki/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic \"1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic\") in 30 years began in the city of Philadelphia in August, 1793\\.[Mark A. Smith, \"Andrew Brown's 'Earnest Endeavor': The *Federal Gazette* 's Role in Philadelphia's Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793\"](https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/20093070?uid=3739744&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=55962658413), *The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,* Vol. 120, No. 4 (Oct., 1996\\), pp. 321–342, accessed 28 March 2012{{cite book \\| last\\=Rush \\| first\\=Benjamin \\|authorlink\\=Benjamin Rush\\| title\\= An Account of the Bilious Yellow Fever of 1793, 1794, p.6 \\| year\\=1794 \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=crA\\_AAAAcAAJ\\&q\\=%22an\\+account\\+of\\+the\\+epidemic\\+bilious\\+remitting\\+fever%22\\&pg\\=PA90 \\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2012 }} It was one of the most severe epidemics in the United States. At the height of the panic from the epidemic in late August 1793, the Company closed its offices, and they would remain closed through November of that year. This crippled the company's ability to raise additional funding for construction.",
"The Myerstown Riots occurred at [Myerstown, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Myerstown, Pennsylvania\"), in [Lebanon County](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon County, Pennsylvania\"), when \"a group of young men from the town crash(ed) a party of canal men at a local tavern and provoke(d) a brawl in response to a recent insult; the canal men (broke into) several houses looking for their assailants; German residents had long opposed the canal for exercising eminent domain, and fights were frequent because of ethnic differences between German residents and canal workers, who were Scots\\-Irish or Irish.\" The riots continued for several days and were further inflamed by a mob of over 100 canal men \"... armed with clubs and led by an overseer armed with pistols march on Myerstown and proceeded to intimidate townspeople while seizing and beating the young men they suspected of starting the brawl the previous night.\"",
"In 1794, as part of the [federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States \"Federal government of the United States\")'s response to the [Whiskey Rebellion](/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion%23Militia_expedition \"Whiskey Rebellion#Militia expedition\"), [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\"), according to historian [Joseph Ellis](/wiki/Joseph_Ellis \"Joseph Ellis\"), became \"the first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field\".Ellis, *His Excellency, George Washington*, 225\\. Washington left Philadelphia which at that time was the [capital city](/wiki/List_of_capitals_in_the_United_States%23Capitals_of_the_United_States \"List of capitals in the United States#Capitals of the United States\") for the country on the 30th of September to first dine at Norristown and then stay the night at what is now Trappe, Pennsylvania.Washington, G., Jackson, D., \\& Twohig, D. (1976\\). The diaries of George Washington. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Accessed at [https://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/644873705?page\\=frame\\&url\\=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkigTAQAAMAAJ%26checksum%3Dba5f03da41c8eb81c13f065ffff48b64\\&title\\=\\&linktype\\=digitalObject\\&detail\\=](https://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/644873705?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkigTAQAAMAAJ%26checksum%3Dba5f03da41c8eb81c13f065ffff48b64&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail=) on June 30, 2018\\. The next day he traveled to [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania \"Reading, Pennsylvania\") on his way to meet up with the rest of the militia he ordered mobilized at [Carlisle](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Pennsylvania \"Carlisle, Pennsylvania\"). On the second of October, 1794, Washington left Reading heading west to [Womelsdorf](/wiki/Womelsdorf%2C_Pennsylvania \"Womelsdorf, Pennsylvania\") in order to \"view the canal from Myerstown towards Lebanon and the locks between the two places ...\". Another officer on the march noted that at that time, ten miles of canal had been excavated and five locks constructed for a total lift of thirty feet in elevation.",
"By the end of 1793, Weston reported to the board that \"... lawsuits and jury awards have slowed the work. ... \" While Weston had over four hundred men working on the project that summer, by the end of the year, most of his workforce had left the project. The remaining workforce was assigned to work on the towpath. In the end, Weston had completed 4\\.25 miles of the canal prism through the narrows between the two springs. Weston, though had to narrow the summit cut to pass only one boat at a time. Crucially, Weston had also to acknowledge a problem that none of his predecessors had faced when he was forced to \"... line both sides of the canal with drywall stones to reduce leakage.\" Going into 1794, Weston estimated that he needed $231,000 ($4\\.9 million in 2018 US dollars) for the years work requiring the company to raise another $120 thousand in capital. The company was unable to raise the capital or borrow the money and on May 3, 1794, it reported that its funds were exhausted. However, the company continued to make attempts to raise funds for the project, and in December 1794, Chief engineer Weston reported on the state of the project.\n\"William Weston issues his last report on Schuylkill \\& Susquehanna Navigation; notes that £8,526 has been spent on 4 miles and 16½ chains of canal between Kreitzer's and the east end of the summit level, five locks and two bridges completed, and sixth lock and two more bridges nearly done.\"\nFunds are still insufficient and the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company in the close of 1794 makes its final payroll and informs Weston that in the future he is solely an employee of the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company. The company's efforts were futile as no additional funds were secured. Finally, in April 1795, the Board authorizes Weston \"to sell the company's teams and send the rest to Philadelphia for sale; the company's stock of black powder is to be sent to Norristown for the use of the Delaware \\& Schuylkill Canal; Weston appoints seven men to take care of the works, which are effectively abandoned and never brought into use.\" In the spring of 1796, the Board orders the disposal of all the bricks Weston had manufactured for construction of the canal's [locks](/wiki/Lock_%28water_navigation%29%23Use_of_water \"Lock (water navigation)#Use of water\") effectively terminating the project.",
"As the navigation company exhausted its funding by early 1795, in May of that year the Board terminated Weston's employment contract with the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company. Weston though was still was obligated to work with the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company. By the spring of 1796, Weston reported that six miles of canal had been completed, three at each side but that due to lack of funds, the work had been terminated. The Board for the canal company also terminated Weston's employment contract that spring. Weston went on to work with Gen. Phillip Schuyler for [Western Inland Lock Navigation Company](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals \"Erie Canal#Proposals\") for 4 years. During this period, [Benjamin Wright](/wiki/Benjamin_Wright_%28civil_engineer%29 \"Benjamin Wright (civil engineer)\") (1770\\-1842\\) who was later to become [chief engineer](/wiki/Chief_engineer \"Chief engineer\") of the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal \"Erie Canal\") and other projects, worked under Weston.",
"### 19th century",
"Despite the termination of construction and Weston's employment as canal engineer the company managed to forestall foreclosure on its property and constructed works.Baer, Christopher T. \"A General Chronology of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company Predecessors and Successors and its Historical Context.\" (For the period of 1800\\-1809\\)\\- Archived from the original on (2007\\), updated May 2015\\.Accessed at [http://www.prrths.com/newprr\\_files/Hagley/PRR1800\\.pdf](http://www.prrths.com/newprr_files/Hagley/PRR1800.pdf) on August 30, 2018\\. In 1802, the company had to fend off such an attempt and was only successful in holding onto its property and water rights through the sale of excess property, often whole farms were sold. Although originally set to expire in 1801, the company's corporate charter was extended in 1806 to 1820\\. In 1807, Charles Gottfried Paleske (1758\\-1816\\) was elected to the Board of Directors of the company and working with [James Milnor](/wiki/James_Milnor \"James Milnor\"), Robert Brooke, Isaac Roberdeau, and John Scott walked \"... the line of the Schuylkill \\& Susquehanna Navigation Company from Kruitzer's plantation where the canal ends to the end of the summit near Kucher's mill, about 9 miles; find the work in good condition including the five locks at Ley's, and the bridges decayed or collapsed ...\" In 1808, Paleske was elected president and Joseph S. Lewis (1778\\-1836\\) treasurer. In 1809, the company's directors appointed a committee to draft articles for a merger with the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company which was submitted to the State legislature. In 1810, [William John Duane](/wiki/William_J._Duane \"William J. Duane\") (1780\\-1865\\) writing as \"Franklin\" advocates for reviving the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company as part of a scheme for a canal route to Lake Erie instead of the Ohio Valley.Baer, Christopher T. \"A General Chronology of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company Predecessors and Successors and its Historical Context.\" (For the period of 1810\\-1814\\)\\- Archived from the original on (2007\\), updated May 2015\\.Accessed at [http://www.prrths.com/newprr\\_files/Hagley/PRR1810\\.pdf](http://www.prrths.com/newprr_files/Hagley/PRR1810.pdf) on August 30, 2018\\. In July,1811, the two corporations (Schuylkill \\& Susquehanna Navigation Company and Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company) were merged into the [Union Canal Company](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Union Canal (Pennsylvania)\") with Paleske as its first president and \"...authorized to extend to Lake Erie and to build turnpikes along right of way; company is also given monopoly of lotteries in Pennsylvania until $400,000 is raised ...\"",
"By 1885, the successor company, the Union Canal, was sold at a [sheriff sale](/wiki/Sheriff_Sale \"Sheriff Sale\"), being unable to cope with railroad competition, poor planning, and the technical challenges posed by a summit crossing underlain by the [carbonate](/wiki/Carbonate_rock \"Carbonate rock\") [bedrock](/wiki/Bedrock \"Bedrock\") of [Lebanon County](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon County, Pennsylvania\"). Had the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company been successful in completing the canal in 1794–95, it probably would have succumbed to the same poor planning and summit geology as its successor did. Much like the [Potomac Canal](/wiki/Potomac_Canal \"Potomac Canal\") (1785\\-1828\\), between the beginning of the Navigation Company in 1791 and its merger and completion by its successor company in 1828, the Union Canal of Pennsylvania (1811\\-1885\\), \"...civil engineering had come to America and Americans had become civil engineers.\"Kapsch, Robert J. \"George Washington, the Potomac Canal and the Beginning of American Civil Engineering: Engineering Problems and Solutions.\" *American Civil Engineering History: The Pioneering Years*. 2003\\. 129\\-194\\.",
""
] |
### 18th century
[thumb\|A 1791 map of the roads and inland navigation of [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), and part of the adjacent states based upon the river surveys in 1790 and 1791](/wiki/File:A_map_exhibiting_a_general_view_of_the_roads_and_inland_navigation_of_Pennsylvania%2C_and_part_of_the_adjacent_states_%285385393632%29.jpg "A map exhibiting a general view of the roads and inland navigation of Pennsylvania, and part of the adjacent states (5385393632).jpg")
[thumb\|A 1792 map of a proposed route for the summit canal based upon Brindley's survey of 1791](/wiki/File:1795_Schuykill_Navigation_company_Map_for_PA_canals.jpg "1795 Schuykill Navigation company Map for PA canals.jpg")
[thumb\|An 1816 map of [Lebanon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon County, Pennsylvania") showing 1794 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company summit crossing construction with its highlighted in red](/wiki/File:1816_map_of_Lebanon_County_Pennsylvania_showing_1794_Schuylkill_and_Susquehanna_Navigation_company_summit_crossing_construction.png "1816 map of Lebanon County Pennsylvania showing 1794 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company summit crossing construction.png")
[thumb\|An 1889 [USGS](/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey "United States Geological Survey") map of [Lebanon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon County, Pennsylvania"), showing topography of the summit crossing between [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania") and [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Myerstown, Pennsylvania") with the alignment highlighted](/wiki/File:1889_USGS_Lebanon_County_summit_crossing_topo.png "1889 USGS Lebanon County summit crossing topo.png")
The original engineering concept developed by the Society and the navigation company was to build a canal up the [Schuylkill River](/wiki/Schuylkill_River "Schuylkill River") to [Norristown](/wiki/Norristown%2C_Pennsylvania "Norristown, Pennsylvania"), improving the Schuylkill River from there to [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania "Reading, Pennsylvania"). While from Reading, the canal was to extend to the [Susquehanna River](/wiki/Susquehanna_River "Susquehanna River") via [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania"). This would have required a four\-mile summit crossing between [Tulpehocken](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)") and the [Quittapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek") with an artificial waterway connecting two separate river valleys; namely the Susquehanna and the Schuylkill watersheds. Its successful completion would have made the middle reach, the first [summit\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal "Summit-level canal") in the United States. The term refers to a canal that rises then falls, as opposed to a [lateral canal](/wiki/Lateral_canal "Lateral canal"), which has a continuous fall only. In this case, the proposed canal at 80 miles in length would rise {{Convert\|192\|ft\|m}} over {{Convert\|42\|mi\|km}} from the west at the Susquehanna River to the summit and then fall {{Convert\|311\|mi\|km}} over {{Convert\|34\|mi\|km}} to the Schuylkill River to the east. It was to be the golden link between [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") and the vast interior of Pennsylvania and beyond.
This proposed summit crossing offered a severe test of 18th\-century engineering skills, materials and construction techniques. For both designing and operating a water\-conveyance transportation system through an area where sinkholes are common, and surface water is scarce. Ultimately, the 1794 engineering concept was flawed, as the water supply for the summit crossing was inadequate and the technology for minimizing supply losses was still another century away. While the 1794 construction was never completed, the company's successor, the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Union Canal (Pennsylvania)"), was faced with the same challenges of sealing the canal bed to conserve water. The summit crossing was never able to handle the canal traffic. Even with two reservoirs constructed at the summit as feeders to the canal, the Union Canal still required pumped water from a [waterworks](/wiki/Waterworks "Waterworks") at the junction of [Swatara Creek](/wiki/Swatara_Creek "Swatara Creek") and [Clarks Run](/wiki/Clarks_Run_%28Beaver_River_tributary%29 "Clarks Run (Beaver River tributary)") and later from a second waterworks on Furnace Creek on the Quitipahilla. At the first works, there were four pumps necessary to provide summit water, but only two could be powered by river water. The other two had to be powered by [Cornish steam engines](/wiki/Cornish_steam_engine "Cornish steam engine"), a technology available in 1828 when the canal opened but not in 1791\.
Despite all of these problems, in 1791, the enthusiasm for this venture was such that it didn't seem at all impossible that Pennsylvania would have succeeded in securing the commercial prestige which the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal "Erie Canal") captured for [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"). By 1795 however, the navigation company's project was a commercial failure. The result was that with the onset of the Erie Canal still some thirty years into the future, Philadelphia lost the early initiative in water transportation. Despite Philadelphia and Pennsylvania's "heroic efforts" to hold their share of the internal trade which in 1796 was forty percent more than New York; by 1825 with the opening of the Erie Canal, Philadelphia's trade was forty\-five percent less than New York.
New York City's rise to preeminence among American cities was an important development, but was not a foregone conclusion. At the time the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company was chartered, Philadelphia was the leading American city; its residents, as well as others, generally expected it to take on more of a metropolitan role as the nation became independent, and prepared the city for that role. Instead, Philadelphia slid into second place. By 1807, New York was the acknowledged commercial capital of the nation; by 1837, it was the American metropolis. Philadelphia's dismal failure to build the "golden link" thirty years before New York opened the Erie Canal was a major factor in that slide into second place.
The idea of uniting the [Schuylkill](/wiki/Schuylkill_River "Schuylkill River") and [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River "Susquehanna River") rivers by a canal was first proposed and discussed by [William Penn](/wiki/William_Penn "William Penn") in 1690\.Engineering Record, Building Record and Sanitary Engineer, Volume 40, Charles Frederick Wingate, McGraw Publishing Company, 1899 Accessed at [Google books](https://books.google.com/books?id=D1U1AQAAMAAJ&dq=schuylkill+navigation+company+1791&pg=RA1-PA100) on July 30, 2016Bishop, Avard Longley. The State works of Pennsylvania. Vol. 13\. Tuttle, Morehouse \& Taylor Press, 1907\. {{PD\-notice}} Penn's plan, conceived a few years after he had founded Philadelphia, was to make "a second settlement" on the Susquehanna River, similar in size to that of Philadelphia itself. He made this plan, titled "Some Proposals for a Second Settlement in the Province of Pennsylvania" public in [England](/wiki/England "England") in 1690\.Swank, James Moore. *"Progressive Pennsylvania: A Record of the Remarkable Industrial Development of the Keystone State, with Some Account of Its Early and Its Later Transportation Systems, Its Early Settlers, and Its Prominent Men."* JB Lippincott, 1908\. Accessed at on July 31, 2016\. {{PD\-notice}} The route envisioned by Penn was a road up the west bank of the Schuylkill to the mouth of [French Creek](/wiki/French_Creek_%28Schuylkill_River%29 "French Creek (Schuylkill River)") near present\-day [Phoenixville](/wiki/Phoenixville%2C_Pennsylvania "Phoenixville, Pennsylvania"), heading west to the Susquehanna via present day [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania "Lancaster, Pennsylvania") and a Susquehanna [tributary](/wiki/Tributary "Tributary"), [Conestoga Creek](/wiki/Conestoga_River "Conestoga River"). Although Penn first proposed the project of continuous water transportation from the [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_River "Delaware River") to the [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River "Susquehanna River"), he did not call for the building of a canal.
In 1762, Philadelphia merchants petitioned the [Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly "Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly") to commission a project for the passage by water up the [west branch of the Susquehanna River](/wiki/West_Branch_Susquehanna_River "West Branch Susquehanna River") with an intervening portage to a navigable branch of the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River"). In 1769, another petition to the Assembly requested that then Province make the [Juniata River](/wiki/Juniata_River "Juniata River") navigable down to the Susquehanna River. Both petitions were unsuccessful, but neither mentioned canals as an essential element for the proposed improvement.
In 1769, the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society "American Philosophical Society") with [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin "Benjamin Franklin") as its first president was organized with six standing committees, one of which was on "Husbandry and [American Improvements](/wiki/American_Improvements "American Improvements")".Volume 1769\-1774\. (1885\). Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 22(119\), 23\-94\. Retrieved from <https://www.jstor.org/stable/982528> One of the first projects the committee looked at in February 1769 was a canal between the [Chesapeake](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay "Chesapeake Bay") and [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_Bay "Delaware Bay") bays using the [Chester River](/wiki/Chester_River "Chester River") in [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland") and [Duck Creek](/wiki/Duck_Creek_%28Smyrna_River_tributary%29 "Duck Creek (Smyrna River tributary)"), near [Smyrna, Delaware](/wiki/Smyrna%2C_Delaware "Smyrna, Delaware") some {{Convert\|15\|mi\|km}} south of the present location of the [Chesapeake and Delaware Canal](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Delaware_Canal "Chesapeake and Delaware Canal") (C\&D Canal). In March, the committee was tasked with preparing a "scheme of application" for the Philadelphia merchants for defraying the expenses of conducting a route location ("proper levels") for the canal as well as construction costs. In April, the committee discussed a more northerly route using the [Bohemia River](/wiki/Bohemia_River "Bohemia River"), a tributary of the [Elk River](/wiki/Elk_River_%28Maryland%29 "Elk River (Maryland)") with [headwaters](/wiki/Headwaters "Headwaters") extending into Delaware using [Drawyers Creek](/wiki/Appoquinimink_River "Appoquinimink River").
In June, this route was reported being feasible only with locks, as the cost of constructing a clear passage from river to river was too great. That same month, Thomas Gilpin, a member of the merchant committee, submitted an alternative "plan of a canal and elevation" using the original southerly route along the Chester River and Duck Creek. In April 1770, W. T. Fisher produced a map of the several canal routes proposed for connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware bays.
In August 1771, the committee then became aware of the prospect of joining the Susquehanna and Schuylkill Rivers by means of a canal. One of the key features of that survey was its emphasis on the middle ground or [summit level](/wiki/Summit-level_canal "Summit-level canal"), roughly {{Convert\|4\.5\|mi\|km}} miles between the headwaters of the [Quitapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek"), near [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania"), and those of Tulpehocken, near [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Myerstown, Pennsylvania"). The survey was conducted by [Dr. William Smith](/wiki/William_Smith_%28Episcopalian_priest%29 "William Smith (Episcopalian priest)"), [Provost](/wiki/Provost_%28education%29 "Provost (education)") of the [College of Philadelphia](/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania "University of Pennsylvania"), [John Lukens](/wiki/John_Lukens "John Lukens"), [Esquire](/wiki/Esquire "Esquire"), [Surveyor General](/wiki/Surveyor_general "Surveyor general")[http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn\-nr92038163/](http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-nr92038163/) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=September 2022}} of the then Province (now State) of Pennsylvania, and [John Sellers](/wiki/John_Sellers_%28scientist%29 "John Sellers (scientist)"). [Samuel Rhoads](/wiki/Samuel_Rhoads "Samuel Rhoads"), a Philadelphia architect, vice\-president of the Society and colonial mayor of Philadelphia, had also been on the survey with [Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse "David Rittenhouse") and company.Stapleton, D. H. (1984\). William Weston, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, and the Philadelphia plan for internal improvements. (Cutcliffe, Stephen Hosmer. ed. Science and technology in the eighteenth century.) Bethlehem, Pa. Rhoads had been impressed with the "... apparent practicality of a canal on the Tulpehocken\-Swatara route. But, he asked Franklin, whether it was better to dig a canal, or just to dam up the rivers and creeks to provide for navigation?"
The same year, the Society recommended the third route for a canal.{{cite book \| title\=The Pennsylvania Railroad, Volume 1: Building an Empire, 1846\-1917, Volume 1 \| publisher\=University of Pennsylvania Press \| author\=Albert J. Churella \| year\=2012 \| location\=Philadelphia \| pages\=976 \| isbn\=9780812243482}} The [Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly "Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly") then appointed a committee of its own to survey the Susquehanna, Schuylkill, and [Lehigh Rivers](/wiki/Lehigh_River "Lehigh River") and in 1773, David Rittenhouse delivered its report.8 Pa. Arch., viii, 6609–10, 6748, 6853; Brooke Hindle, David Rittenhouse (Princeton, 1964\), pp. 94–6\.Accessed at [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01\-19\-02\-0110](https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-19-02-0110) on August 18, 2016\. Nothing became of this work due to the coming of the Revolution.David Rittenhouse Papers accessed at [http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId\=ead/Mss.SMs.Coll.11\-ead.xml](http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.SMs.Coll.11-ead.xml) on August 18, 2016\. In total, the Society sponsored studies of three routes to the connect Philadelphia with the [Susquehanna Valley](/wiki/Susquehanna_Valley "Susquehanna Valley"): one by canal across the [Delmarva Peninsula](/wiki/Delmarva_Peninsula "Delmarva Peninsula") (1769\-1771\), the second a paved road from the Susquehanna Valley to a river port south of Philadelphia and the third (1773\) a canal using the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Rivers and their tributaries, the [Tulpehocken](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)") and [Swatara](/wiki/Swatara_Creek "Swatara Creek") creeks.
The project became the goal of the Society for the Improvement of Roads and Inland Navigation organized in 1789 with [preeminent](/wiki/Preeminent "Preeminent"), wartime financier [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 "Robert Morris (financier)") as president, [David Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse "David Rittenhouse"), William Smith and John Nicolson. The Society petitioned the General Assembly to again survey the river routes, only this time the State acted upon the recommendations.
In the spring of 1790, the General Assembly passed a resolution on March 31, 1790, that authorized river surveys.Baer, Christopher T. "A General Chronology of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company Predecessors and Successors and its Historical Context." Archived from the original on (2007\), updated May 2015\.Accessed at [http://www.prrths.com/newprr\_files/Hagley/PRR1790\.pdf](http://www.prrths.com/newprr_files/Hagley/PRR1790.pdf) on July 31, 2016\. Governor [Thomas Mifflin](/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin "Thomas Mifflin") commissioned [Timothy Matlack](/wiki/Timothy_Matlack "Timothy Matlack") (1736–1829\), [Samuel Maclay](/wiki/Samuel_Maclay "Samuel Maclay") (1741–1811\) and [John Adlum](/wiki/John_Adlum "John Adlum") (1759–1836\) to survey the Swatara, West Branch of the Susquehanna River, [Allegheny River](/wiki/Allegheny_River "Allegheny River"), French Creek with a portage to Lake Erie, the [Kiskiminetas](/wiki/Kiskiminetas_River "Kiskiminetas River")/[Conemaugh](/wiki/Conemaugh_River "Conemaugh River") to [Stony Creek](/wiki/Stonycreek_River "Stonycreek River"), the future site of [Johnstown](/wiki/Johnstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Johnstown, Pennsylvania"), with a second portage to the [Frankstown branch](/wiki/Frankstown_Branch_Juniata_River "Frankstown Branch Juniata River") of the Juniata and then down the Juniata to the Susquehanna River and onto [Harrisburg](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania "Harrisburg, Pennsylvania").
Mifflin also appointed other survey teams:
* Commissioners Samuel Boyd, Bartram Galbraith and Thomas Hulings, reported on January 30, 1790, a major obstruction to the navigation of the Susquehanna River: "[Conewago Falls](/wiki/Conewago_Falls "Conewago Falls"), about 14 miles above [Wright's Ferry](/wiki/Wright%27s_Ferry "Wright's Ferry"), the great obstruction and barr to the wealth and population of our Western Country, is at present the grand object. We are clear that a canal is the sure and safe way of effecting a good navigation for boats to pass and repass.".
* Commissioners Reading Howell (1743\-1827\), Frederick Antes (1764\-1801\) and William Dean, to survey the upper Delaware with a portage to [the Great Bend on the Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River%23North_Branch_Susquehanna "Susquehanna River#North Branch Susquehanna"), the North Branch, the upper Lehigh with a portage to [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming"), and the upper Schuylkill and [Little Schuylkill](/wiki/Little_Schuylkill_River "Little Schuylkill River") with a portage to the Lehigh or Susquehanna.
* Maclay surveyed the Swatara and [Quitapahilla Creeks](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek") to Old's Iron Works, then by land to Lebanon. Continuing to survey a [gap in the Allegheny barrier range](/wiki/Gaps_of_the_Allegheny%23List_of_Gaps "Gaps of the Allegheny#List of Gaps") in early September 1790, Maclay determined that Poplar Run Gap was the potential site for a future road across the [Allegheny Mountains](/wiki/Allegheny_Mountains "Allegheny Mountains").
In April 1790, Maclay surveyed "...the Swatara Creek and Quitapahilla Creek to Old's Iron Works, then by to Lebanon; (noting that) the Quitapahilla can be made navigable for boats of 5 tons." On Dec. 14, 1790, Maclay and the other commissioners reported on their recommendations for rivers west of the [Allegheny Front](/wiki/Allegheny_Front "Allegheny Front") or barrier range. They recommend three routes; one via the Juniata and two using the West branch. The first uses the Juniata to go over the barrier range at Poplar Run gap to the [Kiskiminetas](/wiki/Kiskiminetas_River "Kiskiminetas River"), a tributary of the [Allegheny River](/wiki/Allegheny_River "Allegheny River"). The two West branch of the Susquehanna river routes, one via the north branch of [Sinnemahoning Creek](/wiki/Sinnemahoning_Creek "Sinnemahoning Creek"), a tributary of the West branch and thence over the barrier range to the Allegheny River, and one via west branch of the Sinnemahoning Creek and thence also over the barrier range to the Allegheny river. They also recommended the Allegheny and French Creek with portage to Lake Erie.Pennsylvania State Archives, House Journal, Appendix, pps 28 \- 43
Maclay and the other commissioners found that most of the waterways could be constructed, but several portages were recommended to reduce costs such as the Lebanon summit crossing of four miles, a road from French Creek to [Presque Isle](/wiki/Fort_Presque_Isle "Fort Presque Isle") on Lake Erie and an {{Convert\|18\|mi\|km}} portage over the Allegheny Mountains at Poplar run. The latter crossing was south of the route eventually selected in 1831 for the [Portage Railroad](/wiki/Allegheny_Portage_Railroad "Allegheny Portage Railroad") which, when built, was {{Convert\|36\|mi\|km}} in length. Both the 1791 and 1831 routes converged on the [Little Conemaugh River](/wiki/Little_Conemaugh_River "Little Conemaugh River") as the route into [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh").
On February 10, 1791, reports were given on the second round of river surveys regarding improvements to the [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River "Delaware River") from the bay to the New York state line. Improvements were also recommended for the Schuylkill river with a portage road or canal from Reading to the Susquehanna River, and improvements for the North and West Branches of the Susquehanna and a second Allegheny portage to reach Lake Erie.
The Society proposed in its 1791 report to use the Schuylkill River from Philadelphia up to "...Tulpehocken Creek, near Reading, continuing on the Tulpehocken as far as practicable."Hartman, J. Lee. "Pennsylvania's Grand Plan of Post\-Revolutionary Internal Improvement." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 65\.4 (1941\): 439\-457\. Critically, the Society had yet to recommend or devise a way over the summit near Lebanon joining the "...Quitapahilla and Swatara creeks, the latter leading to the Susquehanna ..." river. The proposed mileages were:Hazard, Samuel, ed. Register of Pennsylvania. Vol. II., 1828\. Accessed at <https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433081772430> on July 15, 2018 {{PD\-notice}}
* Up the Schuylkill River from Philadelphia to the mouth of the Tulpehocken, near [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania "Reading, Pennsylvania") \- {{Convert\|61\|mi\|km}}.
* Westward, up the Tulpehocken Creek to the east end of the proposed summit canal crossing \- {{Convert\|37\|mi\|km}}. The plan was to clear thirty miles of the creek and cut a canal ({{Convert\|20\|ft\|m}} wide by {{Convert\|7\|ft\|m}} deep) for the last {{Convert\|7\|mi\|km}} up to the summit crossing. An estimated ten locks were needed to ascend this distance.
* Length of the summit canal \- {{Convert\|4\|mi\|km}}. The plan was to dig a canal on average {{Convert\|25\|ft\|m}} deep and {{Convert\|30\|ft\|m}} wide, a distance of approximately {{Convert\|4\.5\|mi\|km}}. This was also assumed to common earth excavation.
* Down Quitipahilla to Swatara \- {{Convert\|15\|mi\|km}}. The 1791 report offered no detail on how this estimate was derived.
* Down Swatara to Susquehanna River \- {{Convert\|23\|mi\|km}}. The 1791 report offered no detail on how this estimate was derived.
The concept of navigation in the context of the post\-[colonial](/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States "Colonial history of the United States") United States and 1790 timeframe was predominately focused on improving river systems. A contemporary project, the [Western Inland Lock Navigation Company](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals "Erie Canal#Proposals") in New York which later became a part of the Erie Canal was also "... primarily a river system." In the Pennsylvania scheme, large rivers such as the Susquehanna and to a lesser extent, the Schuylkill were to be improved by clearing channels through obstructions and building dams where needed. Most importantly, these larger segments of the scheme were to be connected by short sections of [slackwater](/wiki/Slack_water "Slack water") canals and in some instances such as the [Allegheny range crossing](/wiki/Allegheny_Portage_Railroad "Allegheny Portage Railroad"), portages. One author noted that ...
{{Blockquote
\|text\=While the Society mapped the prospective route with commendable diligence and care, its efforts were of course immeasurably handicapped by a lack of knowledge of canals which at that time were unknown in America but upon which the surveys of the board of commissioners indicated the waterway would have to depend for a short distance in the eastern region and perhaps in the vicinity of the Allegheny Mountains. Descriptions of the two canal connections given in the memorial clearly reflect the prevailing inexperience ... (of the Society). One of (the canal crossings), "20 feet wide and 7 feet on an average," would be necessary between Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla creeks in order to provide an unbroken water link from the Schuylkill to the Susquehanna, but there was uncertainty about the immediate possibility of building it. ... (More detailed engineering to had to be done) ... to determine whether "a plan of lock navigation" might not be cheaper than a water\-level channel. "It is supposed that the canal or lock navigation between the heads of Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla, is to be compleated; but if that work should be thought too great to begin with, it will be only the addition of four miles portage, by an excellent and level road." '''In point of fact, no estimate could be included for "the canal."''' (Emphasis added)
\|author\=J. Lee. Hartman, "Pennsylvania's Grand Plan of Post\-Revolutionary Internal Improvement.", p. 454
}}
The Society in its report estimated the total cost of the Schuylkill River improvements and canal connection with the Susquehanna River at £55,540 (£1791\) or $8\.6 million (in 2018 US dollars). The [Schuylkill Navigation Company](/wiki/Schuylkill_Canal "Schuylkill Canal") and the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Union Canal (Pennsylvania)") ultimately completed this Society scheme by 1830 for a total reported cost of $2\.8 million (in 1830 US dollars) or $73 million in (in 2018 US dollars):[Calculated using this website](https://www.officialdata.org/) roughly nine times the original estimate.
James Brindley (1745\-1820\), a well\-known canal engineer and nephew of the famous British canal engineer [James Brindley](/wiki/James_Brindley "James Brindley") (1716\-1772\), was in Delaware in 1791\.Robert J Kapsch \& Yvonne E Long (2011\) James Brindley, American Canal Engineer, The International Journal for the History of Engineering \& Technology, 81:1, 22\-59, DOI:10\.1179/175812110X12869022260114 Brindley had been originally recruited in 1774 by the [Potomac Company](/wiki/Potomac_Company "Potomac Company") for the [Little Falls Bypass Canal](/wiki/Patowmack_Canal%23Little_Falls_Canal "Patowmack Canal#Little Falls Canal") on the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River "Potomac River").Robert J Kapsch \& Yvonne E Long (2011\) James Brindley, American Canal Engineer, The International Journal for the History of Engineering \& Technology, 81:1, 22\-59, Subsequently, Brindley worked on the [Susquehanna Canal](/wiki/Susquehanna_and_Tidewater_Canal%23Earlier_canal "Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal#Earlier canal") (1783\-) in Maryland, [Santee Canal](/wiki/Santee_Canal "Santee Canal") in [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina") (1786\) and the [James River Canal](/wiki/James_River_Canal "James River Canal") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia") (1787\). In 1791, he was introduced to the Society for the purpose of resurveying the 1771 summit route for the canal between the Tulpehocken and Quittapahilla Creeks. The Society engaged Brindley to resurvey the 1771 summit route along with Timothy Matlack (1736\-1829\) and John Adlum (1759\-1836\). Later that year in the summer, they presented a final report and Brindley's map for the summit canal between the creeks. Crucially, they find that there is sufficient water at the summit to feed the canal within a four\-mile radius. The society would later in February 1792 ask the newly incorporated Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company to pay for the expense of this survey.
In that same year of 1791, the Society presented proposals to the State proposing to connect the [Atlantic seaboard](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States "East Coast of the United States") with [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie"). This Pennsylvania plan was before the creation of New York's [Western and Northern Inland Lock Navigation Companies](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals "Erie Canal#Proposals") in 1792\. The New York plan took the first steps to improve navigation on the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River "Mohawk River") by constructing a canal between the Mohawk and [Lake Ontario](/wiki/Lake_Ontario "Lake Ontario")Calhoun, Daniel Hovey. The American civil engineer: Origins and conflict. Technology Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1960\. but that effort with private financing was insufficient. In the Pennsylvania plan, the Society proposed a canal route, 426 miles in length connecting Philadelphia with Pittsburgh by a canal. One part of this project was a canal segment up to the Schuylkill River to Tulpehocken Creek to a [summit\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal "Summit-level canal") near [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania") and thence by way of the [Quitapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek") and Swatara creeks to the Susquehanna River.
This action resulted in the formation of two companies The first was the **Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company** incorporated on September 29, 1791,Mitchell, James Tyndale, et al. The Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania from 1682 to 1801\. Vol. 6\. No. 1759\-1765\. Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1899\. {{PD\-notice}}McCarthy, William D. "Building the Beaver and Lake Erie Canal: The politics of public improvements in Pennsylvania, 1783\-\-1845\." (2003\): 3324\-3324\. to open a communication between the Schuylkill and Susquehanna rivers from Reading on the Schuylkill to Middletown on the Susquehanna. The second was the **Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Company** incorporated in 1792 to open a canal between the Schuylkill River and the Delaware River.An Historical account of the rise, progress and present state of the canal navigation in Pennsylvania. With an appendix, containing, abstracts of the acts of the Legislature since the year 1790, and their grants of money for improving roads and navigable waters throughout the state; to which is annexed, "an explanatory map." / Published by direction of the president and managers of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, and the Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Companies. \[Twenty two lines of verse] Morris, Robert, 1734\-1806\., Smith, William, 1727\-1803\., Howell, Reading, 1743\-1827, cartographer., Trenchard, James, b. 1747, engraver., Delaware and Schuylkill Canal Company., Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation. Philadelphia:: Printed by Zachariah Poulson, Junior, number eighty, Chesnut\-Street., MDCCXCV. \[1795] {{PD\-notice}} [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 "Robert Morris (financier)") was the president of both companies.
The 1791, Pennsylvania act incorporating the company contained an elaborate process for using Sheriff's juries to assess damages for taking of lands and waters becoming "...the model for subsequent Pennsylvania canal statutes. ".Horwitz, Morton J. "The Transformation of American Law, 1780\-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977\)." Up to that point in time, the policy had been to only allow damages to improved lands. This 1791 act required the company to pay all damages resulting from its use of [eminent domain](/wiki/Eminent_domain_in_the_United_States "Eminent domain in the United States") authority to take all lands (improved or unimproved), water, and materials necessary for construction and operating the canal including mills, mill ponds, water and water courses. This caused many canal companies such as the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company great concern over the amount of damages awarded in these procedures. Charles G. Paleske, an officer of the company stated in 1807 that "...the company could not complete the largest branch of its canal because, among other reasons, of "the enormous sums paid for land and water rights."
In early 1792, the company was organized in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") with noted financier and land speculator [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 "Robert Morris (financier)") as president, [Tench Francis](/wiki/Tench_Francis_Jr. "Tench Francis Jr.") as treasurer and noted engrosser of the [declaration of independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence "United States Declaration of Independence") [Timothy Matlack](/wiki/Timothy_Matlack "Timothy Matlack") as secretary. The company's directors were also notable Philadelphians such as Morris' partner and former comptroller general of the State of Pennsylvania and president of the [Pennsylvania Population Company](/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania%23Westward_expansion "History of Pennsylvania#Westward expansion"), John Nicholson (1757\-1800\),Nicholson, John, 1757\-1800, Biographical notes. Accessed on June 29, 2018 at <http://n2t.net/ark:/99166/w6tm7cfh> [Samuel Powel](/wiki/Samuel_Powel "Samuel Powel") (1738\-1793\) and University of Pennsylvania provost [William Smith](/wiki/William_Smith_%28Episcopal_priest%29 "William Smith (Episcopal priest)") (1727\-1803\). Junior founding partner of the notable Philadelphia shipping company James and Drinker and the [Philadelphia tea party](/wiki/Philadelphia_Tea_Party "Philadelphia Tea Party") incident, Henry Drinker (1734\-1809\), a "substantial provider of credit" in those timesMaxey, David W. "The Union Farm: Henry Drinker's Experiment in Deriving Profit from Virtue." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 107\.4 (1983\): 607\-629\. [Accessed](https://journals.psu.edu/pmhb/article/viewFile/43944/43665) on June 29, 2018 also was a director. Other notable directors included Brevet generals [Walter Stewart](/wiki/Walter_Stewart_%28general%29 "Walter Stewart (general)") and [Samuel Miles](/wiki/Samuel_Miles "Samuel Miles"), the latter, a former mayor of the city of Philadelphia. Philadelphia politician and brewer Robert Hare (1752\-1811\) father of chemist [Robert Hare](/wiki/Robert_Hare_%28chemist%29 "Robert Hare (chemist)") (1781\-1858\)[Robert Hare (1752\-1811\), PENN BIOGRAPHIES](https://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/hare_robt.html) was a director as well as the then treasurer of the United States, [Samuel Meredith](/wiki/Samuel_Meredith_%28American_politician%29 "Samuel Meredith (American politician)") (1741\-1817\) and his brother in law, a signatory to both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, [George Clymer](/wiki/George_Clymer "George Clymer") (1739\-1813\). Pennsylvania State Attorney General and future Attorney General for the United States, [William Bradford](/wiki/William_Bradford_%28Attorney_General%29 "William Bradford (Attorney General)") (1755\-1795\), future Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, [George Lattimer](/wiki/George_Latimer_%28Pennsylvania_politician%29 "George Latimer (Pennsylvania politician)") and [light horse cavalry](/wiki/First_Troop_Philadelphia_City_Cavalry "First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry") member and quartermaster John Donaldson (1754\-1831\);Keen, Gregory B. "The Descendants of Jöran Kyn, the Founder of Upland." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2\.3 (1878\): 325\-335\. Nicholson eventually has 270 shares on which $64,300 is paid; Robert Morris, 52 shares and $14,300\. [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington") received one share of stock in the company, issued by Morris in 1792 worth one pound.Washington, W. L. (1920\). William Lanier Washington's collection of relics and memorabilia of George Washington. New York. In recruiting stock subscriptions, the Commissioners were required to advertise in three newspapers for a month with one being in the German language. They were authorized to sell one thousand shares and if the stock was oversubscribed, a lottery was to be used to apportion the sales, no one person was to initially own more than ten shares.
At the time that Robert Morris and the others were organizing the company "(p)oor harvests in Europe brought unprecedented agricultural and commercial prosperity to the Delaware Valley."Doerflinger, Thomas M.. A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia, University of North Carolina Press, 2012\. One of the administration's first official acts as part of [Hamilton's economic plan](/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington%23Hamiltonian_economic_program "Presidency of George Washington#Hamiltonian economic program") was to "...pour thousands of dollars into the pockets of prescient speculators by funding depreciated American bonds at 100 percent of their face value. The resulting ebullience in the investment markets facilitated the flotation of a series of new companies ..." such as Morris' Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company. While post\-revolutionary grain exports from Philadelphia had stagnated through 1788, the Continental [subsistence crisis](/wiki/Subsistence_crisis "Subsistence crisis") created a demand for American grain that Philadelphia rushed to fill.
{{Blockquote
\|text\="Between 1788 and 1789 the value of Quaker City exports leaped 45 percent to the level of $3,510,765, and they continued to climb to the extraordinary level of $17,513,866 in 1796 ($450 million US in 2018\).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.officialdata.org/1791\-dollars\-in\-2018?amount\=17513866\|title \= $17,513,866 in 1791 → 2018 \| Inflation Calculator}} With Americans serving as neutral maritime carriers for the warring nations of Europe, the shipping industry also flourished. The amount of tonnage registered for foreign trade increased by 167 percent between 1789 and 1796\."
\|author\=Thomas M Doerflinger, ''A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia''
}}
Beyond the [Delaware Valley](/wiki/Delaware_Valley "Delaware Valley") lay the vast Susquehanna River Valley, a major export market for Philadelphia despite the gains made by [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore") in shifting trade to its ports.BJORK, GORDON C. Stagnation And Growth In The American Economy, 1784\-1792, University of Washington, Ann Arbor, 1963\. ProQuest "...the essential economic function of Philadelphia's merchant community was to link the city's hinterland with its overseas markets. It was the merchants who shipped flour to Lisbon, lumber to London, flaxseed to Belfast; and it was they who imported vast amounts of cloth and hardware from London and the outports." The Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company would provide the "golden link" between the two.
On December 1, 1791, the company's book was opened for stock subscriptions, and by one o'clock more than the five hundred shares ($200,000\) required as a minimum were
subscribed, and when the books had been open the required fifteen days no less than forty\-six thousand shares were subscribed.Davis, J. Stancliffe. (1917\). Essays in the earlier history of American corporations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Accessed on July 25, 2018 at [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo1\.ark:/13960/t2z32d90t?urlappend\=%3Bseq\=168](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t2z32d90t?urlappend=%3Bseq=168) {{PD\-notice}} This was acclaimed "another instance of the public spirit of the inhabitants of this state," though in reality it testifies chiefly to the speculative spirit then running riot. The subscriptions were reduced by lottery to one thousand shares, and canal scrip was soon selling at an advance. Several months later, the first financial panic in the new United States occurred, the [panic of 1792](/wiki/Panic_of_1792 "Panic of 1792"). This impacted the availability of cash for subscribers to fulfill their obligations from the previous December and the Company agreed to take notes in lieu of cash.
This process of financing the navigation company was managed by Morris in the same time period as large swaths of Northern Pennsylvania were being developed by the managers of the company.Wilkinson, Norman B. "The" Philadelphia Fever" in Northern Pennsylvania." Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid\-Atlantic Studies 20\.1 (1953\): 40\-56\.
{{Blockquote
\|text\="Pennsylvania's backlands ... (were) ... the stakes in a giant speculative bubble: they were cheap, they could be bought on credit, they could be paid for in depreciated certificates, settlement and improvement requirements were generally overlooked, and those in actual charge of the disposal of lands were very cooperative. Convinced of getting a 10, 20, or 30\-fold return, it is little wonder that other assets were converted into land, heavy mortgages taken, and credit stretched to fantastic lengths."
\|author\=Norman B. Wilkinson, "''The 'Philadelphia Fever' in Northern Pennsylvania.''"
}}
The problem was that speculators such as Robert Morris had too much credit. Often using the land to which "...they had only preliminary claim, either selling, encumbering them with mortgages or using them as collateral for loans." The Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company prospectus promised greater trade and settlement, thus raising the value of the lands. In addition to the two navigation companies, Robert Morris, and other managers "...established no less than six companies of this type between 1793 and 1797\." These were the [Pennsylvania Population Company](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29%23Land_speculation "Robert Morris (financier)#Land speculation"), Asylum Land Company, [North American Land Company](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29%23Land_speculation "Robert Morris (financier)#Land speculation"), Territorial Land Company, Pennsylvania Land Company, Pennsylvania Property Company. This speculative bubble burst in 1796 just when the navigation company was trying to mobilize the financing for its operations.
{{Blockquote
\|text\="...speculators had invested in roads, canals, and mills to encourage settlement, but often could not finance these projects to completion. By the late 1790s, most of these speculations failed due to overreaching. Robert Morris, the grandest speculator of them all, went to debtors' prison.
\|author\=Marcus Terran Gallo, "''Imaginary Lines, Real Power: Surveyors and Land Speculation in the Mid\-Atlantic Borderlands, 1681\-1800''".Gallo, Marcus Terran. Imaginary Lines, Real Power: Surveyors and Land Speculation in the Mid\-Atlantic Borderlands, 1681\-1800\. University of California, Davis, 2012\.
}}
{{Blockquote
\|text\="The 'Philadelphia fever' that raged during the era of exploitation of our eastern public lands ruined many of those it infected. It despoiled a great portion of the Commonwealth's landed inheritance. It victimized the actual settler ... (a)nd it retarded the development of one\-third of the State for several generations."
\|author\=Norman B. Wilkinson, "''The 'Philadelphia Fever' in Northern Pennsylvania.''" (1953\)
}}
There were very few trained civil engineers in the new United States when the company was chartered.Kirby, Richard Shelton. "William Weston and his contribution to early American engineering." Transactions of the Newcomen Society 16\.1 (1935\): 111\-127\. The earlier planning for locating the canal commissioned by the Society up through 1791 had been performed by members such as [John Lukens](/wiki/John_Lukens "John Lukens"), surveyor general of Pennsylvania and the eminent American astronomer and surveyor, [David Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse "David Rittenhouse"). Other than Brindley (1745\-1820\), no one had any experience with canal location or lockage.
The original engineering concept developed by the Society as well as the navigation company's charter had been to build a canal up the "...Schuylkill valley to Norristown, and improving the river from there to Reading; while from Reading a canal was to extend to the Susquehanna, via Lebanon." This would have made the Schuylkill and Susquehanna canal the first [summit\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal "Summit-level canal") in the United States. A four\-mile summit crossing between Tulpehocken and the Quitipahilla would be an artificial waterway connecting two separate river valleys; namely the [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River "Susquehanna River") and the [Schuylkill](/wiki/Schuylkill_River "Schuylkill River") watersheds. The term refers to a canal that rises then falls, as opposed to a lateral canal, which has a continuous fall only.{{cite web\|title\=Canals and inland waterways\|url\=http://www.britannica.com/technology/canal\-waterway\|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica\|accessdate\=10 June 2016}} In this case, the proposed canal at 80 miles in length would rise 192 feet over 42 miles from the west at the Susquehanna River to the summit and then fall 311 feet over 34 miles to the Schuylkill River to the east.Tanner, Henry Schenck, 1786\-1858, A description of the canals and railroads of the United States, comprehending notices of all the works of internal improvement throughout the several states. Accessed on August 31, 2018 at <https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcan00tann> Unfortunately, most of the four\-mile summit crossing was underlain by the [Ontelaunee Formation](/wiki/Kittatinny_Formation "Kittatinny Formation"), a "...dark grayish\-brown weathering [dolomite](/wiki/Dolomite_%28rock%29 "Dolomite (rock)") ..." or carbonate bedrock.Ousey Jr, John R., Ruth Egan, and William Maun. "Geologic and Hydrologic Problems Encountered in the Construction and Operation of the Union Canal in Pennsylvania", Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science (1998\): 90\-95\. Accessed using JSTOR subscription. Other equally important parts of the summit crossing were constructed through the Annville Formation, a "...very thick bedded, finely crystalline, light blue\-gray to light pinkish\-gray, high\-calcium [limestone](/wiki/Limestone "Limestone")." Crucially, that meant the summit traversed highly soluble bedrock with poor surface drainage and where sinkholes were common.
{{Blockquote
\|text\=This ... (summit crossing) ... offered a severe test of ... (18th century) ... engineering skills in both designing and operating a water\-conveyance transportation system through an area where sinkholes are common, and surface water is scarce.
\|author\=Ousey, Egan, and Maun
}}
Ultimately, the 1794 engineering concept was flawed. The water supply for the summit crossing was inadequate. While the 1794 construction was never "watered", its successor, the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Union Canal (Pennsylvania)") was faced with the choice of either "[puddling](/wiki/Puddling_%28civil_engineering%29 "Puddling (civil engineering)")" (packing low\-permeability clay on the bottom and sides), or "planking" (lining the sides and bottom of the canal with wood planks) for the summit crossing in order to conserve water supplies. In the end, "planking" was chosen which required "...close to 2,000,000 board\-feet of lumber ..." to seal the crossing. Even with two reservoirs constructed at the summit as feeders to the canal, the Union canal required pumped water from a waterworks at the junction of Swatara Creek and Clarke's run and later from a second waterworks on Furnace Creek on the Quitipahilla. At the first works, there were four pumps with the capacity to lift about "...15,000 gallons per minute through 3\.3 miles of wooden and brick pipes to the summit level, 95 feet above the pumps ..." Of the four pumps only two could be powered by water, the other two had to be powered by [Cornish steam engines](/wiki/Cornish_engine "Cornish engine"), a technology available in 1828 when the canal opened but not in 1791\.Nuvolari, Alessandro; Verspagen, Bart (2009\). "Technical choice, innovation and British steam engineering, 1800\-1850". Economic History Review. 63 (3\): 685–710\. by 1885, the Union canal was sold at a sheriff sale, "unable to cope with ... (competition from) ... the railroads, poor planning, and the carbonate bedrock of Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. Had the Schuylkill and Susquehanna navigation company been successful in completing the canal in 1794\-95, it probably would have succumbed to same poor planning and summit geology as its successor did.
While the navigation company was being organized in 1791, the Society asked Brindley to re\-evaluate the summit level crossing Between [Lebanon, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania") and [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown "Myerstown"). Brindley was to reexamine the topography of the summit and produce a detailed location for the canal. He was also to ensure that the local supply of water was adequate to supply the amount of water necessary to operate the locks on both sides of the summit; critical for the success of the project, as well as to make an estimate of the "...lands and waters necessary ..." for the work. Brindley completed the work that summer, yet, Morris still agreed with George Washington's earlier assessment that although Brindley had "more practical knowledge of cuts and locks for the improvement of inland navigation than any man among us ..." in Morris' mind, Brindley's skills remained unproven. Nonetheless, the Navigation company hired Brindley in April 1792 for the construction season work as canal engineer along with Col. Thomas Bull (1744\-1837\) as superintendent.
In May, the board of directors with Brindley tour the summit crossing between the Quitapahilla and Tulpehocken Creeks as well as the waters to the north, including the Deep Run Branch of the Little Swatara. From west to east, the route was to follow [Swatara Creek](/wiki/Swatara_Creek "Swatara Creek") upstream from Middletown to [Quittapahilla Creek](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek "Quittapahilla Creek"), which it then followed upstream through [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon, Pennsylvania") and towards [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Myerstown, Pennsylvania"). It then crossed overland to the headwaters of [Tulpehocken Creek](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)"), following Tulpehocken Creek downstream to Reading on the Schuylkill River. It was to follow the Schuylkill downriver to the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The summit route was fixed by the Board between Kuchner's dam on the Quittapahilla and Loy's springs on the Tulpehocken west of Myerstown.Augunst, Dean (1966\). Two Canals of Lebanon County. Papers and addresses of the Lebanon County Historical Society, Volume 65, issue 1, pages 1\-30
In August of that year, the company approves Brindley's engineering concept for crossing the summit. It was to be a twenty\-five deep cut, thirty\-feet wide at the bottom and watered to a depth of four feet. Based solely upon Brindley's work and before their new British engineer, Weston could review the scheme, in October 1792, the Board authorized Superintendent Bull to purchase a strip of land 100 feet wide for the canal route to the Swatara. In November,1792 the company purchases the mill of Baltzer Orth on the head of the Quittapahilla Creek for £4,250 and two tracts of Abraham Crow for £2,600\. Superintendent Bull and Timothy Matlack begin construction staking for the summit canal using Brindley's route. The work is met with resistance from the local residents who "resent the intrusion of rich Philadelphians into their entirely German community and having their farms cut up ..." The local residents protested the exercise of eminent domain by the company in cutting up farms to build a straight and regular, rather than a traditional meandering and undulating road or canal.
During the time that Brindley acting as canal engineer, the company approached [Patrick Colquhoun](/wiki/Patrick_Colquhoun "Patrick Colquhoun") in London to recruit what the company considered to be a more qualified British engineer for the canal. In January 1792, Colquhoun initially tried to recruit [John Dadford](/wiki/John_Dadford "John Dadford") but he was unavailable. Colquhoun then approached the eminent British civil engineer [William Jessop](/wiki/William_Jessop "William Jessop") to select "...a properly qualified engineer for North America, he recommended Weston." Colquhoun was finally able to secure the services [William Weston](/wiki/William_Weston_%28engineer%29 "William Weston (engineer)") twenty\-nine years old at the time building at that time [canals in Ireland](/wiki/William_Jessop%23Grand_Canal_of_Ireland "William Jessop#Grand Canal of Ireland"). Weston signed a contract drafted by Colquhoun for his services to the company as its "engineer" with the annual salary of [£](/wiki/Pound_sign "Pound sign")800 in 1792 for no more than seven months in any one year worth $120,000 US in 2018\.Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency accessed at <https://www.uwyo.edu/numimage/currency.htm> on July 13, 2018 At the time that Weston traveled over to the new country of the United States, ...
{{Blockquote
\|text\=\[\[Prismatic compass (surveying)\|Surveyors' compasses]] were common in the (United) States, \[\[Levelling\#Older instruments\|engineers' levels]] were almost, if not quite, non\-existent. (David Rittenhouse doubtless could have made one, but it is quite certain that he had not). In fact, Weston may have brought with him the first leveling instrument used on this side of the Atlantic. It was, according to Weston's own description, a Y\-levelThe Wye Level \[https://web.archive.org/web/20160510061018/http://pages.suddenlink.net/topogs/wye\_level.htm] Accessed on July 13, 2018\. with \[\[Achromatic lens\|achromatic glasses]], and had been made for him by Mr. \[\[Edward Troughton\|Troughton]], a mathematical instrument maker on Fleet Street, London.
\|author\=Richard Shelton Kirby
}}
Almost immediately upon his arrival in Pennsylvania, the company attempted to renegotiate Weston's compensation to cover twelve months instead of seven, offering to raise it to £1,500 ($225,000 US in 2018\) and increasing the geographical scope of his services to include the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Delaware.
Although the Board had authorized work for the summit crossing, there still was a question in their minds as of September 1792 over staying with their original concept of river navigation for improving the Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla and Swatara or to go for lock system navigation. The Board had also been faced with two routes across the summit and onto the Swatara using either the Quitapahilla to the south or Clark's run to the north.
The company was pursuing several construction projects during a time in which skilled labor was in short supply and very costly. The presence of several projects could easily drive up labor and material costs. Much as in the twentieth century where [project labor agreements](/wiki/Project_Labor_Agreement "Project Labor Agreement") are used to predetermine wages and working conditions, these eighteenth\-century project managers sought to negotiate cooperative agreements with other projects to constrain the growth in wages and control working conditions. In October 1792, the Board of Directors appointed a committee to "... confer with the Delaware \& Schuylkill Canal and Philadelphia \& Lancaster Turnpike Road on sending a joint agent to New England to recruit labor." The next month the Board directs superintendent Bull to limit wages to 3s6d (70 cents) per day with the company providing tools and provisions. More importantly, the Board also directs Bull to negotiate "... an agreement with the Delaware \& Schuylkill Canal and the Philadelphia \& Lancaster Turnpike Road to observe a uniform ceiling on the wages to be offered."
The practice even went so far as have the Boards of several companies meet as a joint committee. Thus in November 1792, the Schuylkill \& Susquehanna, Delaware \& Schuylkill, and Conewago Canals and Philadelphia \& Lancaster Turnpike Road met as a joint committee and "... named Isaac Roberdeau (1763\-1829\), who had worked under Pierre C. L'Enfant on laying out Washington, D.C. and Paterson, N.J., is named agent of all three companies at $120 per month; he later becomes William Weston's assistant." The joint committee also agreed to "... cooperate with each other and with local employers of day laborers so as not to increase wages by bidding against each other; workers imported from New England are to be excepted." The Joint committee continued to make plans for a coordinated effort over the winter of 1792–1793 to "procure laborers in New England, 400 for each of the main canals, 150 for the Conewago Canal, and 200 for the turnpike, also 10 yokes of oxen, carts, and drivers for the turnpike; maximum wage rates and working conditions were established for moving expenses and the use of company teams." The committee also directed that all member companies were to sell provisions to the men at cost. The labor force was being mobilized in Philadelphia to start the construction season on March 10, 1793\.
In January 1793, the Company reported that "... 80 to 100 men are at work and about a half\-mile of the canal has been dug; are working on the summit level on land purchased by John Nicholson from Jacob Schaffer." Brindley's design concept for the summit crossing was a cut twenty\-five deep, thirty\-feet wide at the bottom and watered to a depth of four feet. Brindley had assumed that the cut would entirely excavate earth instead they "... struck rock at a depth of 9 feet." The next month, roughly 400 men are working on the Tulpehocken Creek side of the summit. Engineer Weston reviews Brindley's plans for the summit crossing including Brindley's scheme for supplying the summit with water. Weston changes the design to twenty feet from thirty feet but increases the depth from four to six feet of water, acting as a reservoir. By March, 1793, the company has exhausted its project funding and has accumulated $56,000 in liabilities ($1\.5 million in 2018 US dollars). In April, the [Conewago Canal](/wiki/Conewago_Canal "Conewago Canal") is incorporated as a separate company with James Brindley as chief engineer. That same month the Company Board directs engineer Weston to "make the Tulpehocken side of the summit the priority ..." as well to develop more sources of water to supply the summit crossing.
During the same period, the company moved to acquire right of way on the Tulpehocken creekside by legally enforcing its eminent domain rights. However the effort was met with "a large force . ... armed with clubs who oppose (seizing the land) ... in the meantime, landowners refuse to allow entry onto their land." The pace of construction slowed and in that summer of 1793, Superintendent Bull resigned. The company arranges for some interim financing in the form of a $4,000 loan from Major [Edward Burd](/wiki/Edward_Burd "Edward Burd"). That summer was also notable for the first [yellow fever epidemic](/wiki/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic "1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic") in 30 years began in the city of Philadelphia in August, 1793\.[Mark A. Smith, "Andrew Brown's 'Earnest Endeavor': The *Federal Gazette* 's Role in Philadelphia's Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793"](https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/20093070?uid=3739744&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=55962658413), *The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,* Vol. 120, No. 4 (Oct., 1996\), pp. 321–342, accessed 28 March 2012{{cite book \| last\=Rush \| first\=Benjamin \|authorlink\=Benjamin Rush\| title\= An Account of the Bilious Yellow Fever of 1793, 1794, p.6 \| year\=1794 \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=crA\_AAAAcAAJ\&q\=%22an\+account\+of\+the\+epidemic\+bilious\+remitting\+fever%22\&pg\=PA90 \|accessdate\=January 31, 2012 }} It was one of the most severe epidemics in the United States. At the height of the panic from the epidemic in late August 1793, the Company closed its offices, and they would remain closed through November of that year. This crippled the company's ability to raise additional funding for construction.
The Myerstown Riots occurred at [Myerstown, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania "Myerstown, Pennsylvania"), in [Lebanon County](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Lebanon County, Pennsylvania"), when "a group of young men from the town crash(ed) a party of canal men at a local tavern and provoke(d) a brawl in response to a recent insult; the canal men (broke into) several houses looking for their assailants; German residents had long opposed the canal for exercising eminent domain, and fights were frequent because of ethnic differences between German residents and canal workers, who were Scots\-Irish or Irish." The riots continued for several days and were further inflamed by a mob of over 100 canal men "... armed with clubs and led by an overseer armed with pistols march on Myerstown and proceeded to intimidate townspeople while seizing and beating the young men they suspected of starting the brawl the previous night."
In 1794, as part of the [federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States "Federal government of the United States")'s response to the [Whiskey Rebellion](/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion%23Militia_expedition "Whiskey Rebellion#Militia expedition"), [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington"), according to historian [Joseph Ellis](/wiki/Joseph_Ellis "Joseph Ellis"), became "the first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field".Ellis, *His Excellency, George Washington*, 225\. Washington left Philadelphia which at that time was the [capital city](/wiki/List_of_capitals_in_the_United_States%23Capitals_of_the_United_States "List of capitals in the United States#Capitals of the United States") for the country on the 30th of September to first dine at Norristown and then stay the night at what is now Trappe, Pennsylvania.Washington, G., Jackson, D., \& Twohig, D. (1976\). The diaries of George Washington. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Accessed at [https://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/644873705?page\=frame\&url\=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkigTAQAAMAAJ%26checksum%3Dba5f03da41c8eb81c13f065ffff48b64\&title\=\&linktype\=digitalObject\&detail\=](https://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/644873705?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkigTAQAAMAAJ%26checksum%3Dba5f03da41c8eb81c13f065ffff48b64&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail=) on June 30, 2018\. The next day he traveled to [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania "Reading, Pennsylvania") on his way to meet up with the rest of the militia he ordered mobilized at [Carlisle](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Pennsylvania "Carlisle, Pennsylvania"). On the second of October, 1794, Washington left Reading heading west to [Womelsdorf](/wiki/Womelsdorf%2C_Pennsylvania "Womelsdorf, Pennsylvania") in order to "view the canal from Myerstown towards Lebanon and the locks between the two places ...". Another officer on the march noted that at that time, ten miles of canal had been excavated and five locks constructed for a total lift of thirty feet in elevation.
By the end of 1793, Weston reported to the board that "... lawsuits and jury awards have slowed the work. ... " While Weston had over four hundred men working on the project that summer, by the end of the year, most of his workforce had left the project. The remaining workforce was assigned to work on the towpath. In the end, Weston had completed 4\.25 miles of the canal prism through the narrows between the two springs. Weston, though had to narrow the summit cut to pass only one boat at a time. Crucially, Weston had also to acknowledge a problem that none of his predecessors had faced when he was forced to "... line both sides of the canal with drywall stones to reduce leakage." Going into 1794, Weston estimated that he needed $231,000 ($4\.9 million in 2018 US dollars) for the years work requiring the company to raise another $120 thousand in capital. The company was unable to raise the capital or borrow the money and on May 3, 1794, it reported that its funds were exhausted. However, the company continued to make attempts to raise funds for the project, and in December 1794, Chief engineer Weston reported on the state of the project.
"William Weston issues his last report on Schuylkill \& Susquehanna Navigation; notes that £8,526 has been spent on 4 miles and 16½ chains of canal between Kreitzer's and the east end of the summit level, five locks and two bridges completed, and sixth lock and two more bridges nearly done."
Funds are still insufficient and the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company in the close of 1794 makes its final payroll and informs Weston that in the future he is solely an employee of the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company. The company's efforts were futile as no additional funds were secured. Finally, in April 1795, the Board authorizes Weston "to sell the company's teams and send the rest to Philadelphia for sale; the company's stock of black powder is to be sent to Norristown for the use of the Delaware \& Schuylkill Canal; Weston appoints seven men to take care of the works, which are effectively abandoned and never brought into use." In the spring of 1796, the Board orders the disposal of all the bricks Weston had manufactured for construction of the canal's [locks](/wiki/Lock_%28water_navigation%29%23Use_of_water "Lock (water navigation)#Use of water") effectively terminating the project.
As the navigation company exhausted its funding by early 1795, in May of that year the Board terminated Weston's employment contract with the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company. Weston though was still was obligated to work with the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company. By the spring of 1796, Weston reported that six miles of canal had been completed, three at each side but that due to lack of funds, the work had been terminated. The Board for the canal company also terminated Weston's employment contract that spring. Weston went on to work with Gen. Phillip Schuyler for [Western Inland Lock Navigation Company](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals "Erie Canal#Proposals") for 4 years. During this period, [Benjamin Wright](/wiki/Benjamin_Wright_%28civil_engineer%29 "Benjamin Wright (civil engineer)") (1770\-1842\) who was later to become [chief engineer](/wiki/Chief_engineer "Chief engineer") of the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal "Erie Canal") and other projects, worked under Weston.
|
[
"### 18th century",
"[thumb\\|A 1791 map of the roads and inland navigation of [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), and part of the adjacent states based upon the river surveys in 1790 and 1791](/wiki/File:A_map_exhibiting_a_general_view_of_the_roads_and_inland_navigation_of_Pennsylvania%2C_and_part_of_the_adjacent_states_%285385393632%29.jpg \"A map exhibiting a general view of the roads and inland navigation of Pennsylvania, and part of the adjacent states (5385393632).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A 1792 map of a proposed route for the summit canal based upon Brindley's survey of 1791](/wiki/File:1795_Schuykill_Navigation_company_Map_for_PA_canals.jpg \"1795 Schuykill Navigation company Map for PA canals.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|An 1816 map of [Lebanon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon County, Pennsylvania\") showing 1794 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company summit crossing construction with its highlighted in red](/wiki/File:1816_map_of_Lebanon_County_Pennsylvania_showing_1794_Schuylkill_and_Susquehanna_Navigation_company_summit_crossing_construction.png \"1816 map of Lebanon County Pennsylvania showing 1794 Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company summit crossing construction.png\")\n[thumb\\|An 1889 [USGS](/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey \"United States Geological Survey\") map of [Lebanon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon County, Pennsylvania\"), showing topography of the summit crossing between [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\") and [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Myerstown, Pennsylvania\") with the alignment highlighted](/wiki/File:1889_USGS_Lebanon_County_summit_crossing_topo.png \"1889 USGS Lebanon County summit crossing topo.png\")\nThe original engineering concept developed by the Society and the navigation company was to build a canal up the [Schuylkill River](/wiki/Schuylkill_River \"Schuylkill River\") to [Norristown](/wiki/Norristown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Norristown, Pennsylvania\"), improving the Schuylkill River from there to [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania \"Reading, Pennsylvania\"). While from Reading, the canal was to extend to the [Susquehanna River](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\") via [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\"). This would have required a four\\-mile summit crossing between [Tulpehocken](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)\") and the [Quittapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\") with an artificial waterway connecting two separate river valleys; namely the Susquehanna and the Schuylkill watersheds. Its successful completion would have made the middle reach, the first [summit\\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal \"Summit-level canal\") in the United States. The term refers to a canal that rises then falls, as opposed to a [lateral canal](/wiki/Lateral_canal \"Lateral canal\"), which has a continuous fall only. In this case, the proposed canal at 80 miles in length would rise {{Convert\\|192\\|ft\\|m}} over {{Convert\\|42\\|mi\\|km}} from the west at the Susquehanna River to the summit and then fall {{Convert\\|311\\|mi\\|km}} over {{Convert\\|34\\|mi\\|km}} to the Schuylkill River to the east. It was to be the golden link between [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") and the vast interior of Pennsylvania and beyond.",
"This proposed summit crossing offered a severe test of 18th\\-century engineering skills, materials and construction techniques. For both designing and operating a water\\-conveyance transportation system through an area where sinkholes are common, and surface water is scarce. Ultimately, the 1794 engineering concept was flawed, as the water supply for the summit crossing was inadequate and the technology for minimizing supply losses was still another century away. While the 1794 construction was never completed, the company's successor, the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Union Canal (Pennsylvania)\"), was faced with the same challenges of sealing the canal bed to conserve water. The summit crossing was never able to handle the canal traffic. Even with two reservoirs constructed at the summit as feeders to the canal, the Union Canal still required pumped water from a [waterworks](/wiki/Waterworks \"Waterworks\") at the junction of [Swatara Creek](/wiki/Swatara_Creek \"Swatara Creek\") and [Clarks Run](/wiki/Clarks_Run_%28Beaver_River_tributary%29 \"Clarks Run (Beaver River tributary)\") and later from a second waterworks on Furnace Creek on the Quitipahilla. At the first works, there were four pumps necessary to provide summit water, but only two could be powered by river water. The other two had to be powered by [Cornish steam engines](/wiki/Cornish_steam_engine \"Cornish steam engine\"), a technology available in 1828 when the canal opened but not in 1791\\.",
"Despite all of these problems, in 1791, the enthusiasm for this venture was such that it didn't seem at all impossible that Pennsylvania would have succeeded in securing the commercial prestige which the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal \"Erie Canal\") captured for [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"). By 1795 however, the navigation company's project was a commercial failure. The result was that with the onset of the Erie Canal still some thirty years into the future, Philadelphia lost the early initiative in water transportation. Despite Philadelphia and Pennsylvania's \"heroic efforts\" to hold their share of the internal trade which in 1796 was forty percent more than New York; by 1825 with the opening of the Erie Canal, Philadelphia's trade was forty\\-five percent less than New York.",
"New York City's rise to preeminence among American cities was an important development, but was not a foregone conclusion. At the time the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company was chartered, Philadelphia was the leading American city; its residents, as well as others, generally expected it to take on more of a metropolitan role as the nation became independent, and prepared the city for that role. Instead, Philadelphia slid into second place. By 1807, New York was the acknowledged commercial capital of the nation; by 1837, it was the American metropolis. Philadelphia's dismal failure to build the \"golden link\" thirty years before New York opened the Erie Canal was a major factor in that slide into second place.",
"The idea of uniting the [Schuylkill](/wiki/Schuylkill_River \"Schuylkill River\") and [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\") rivers by a canal was first proposed and discussed by [William Penn](/wiki/William_Penn \"William Penn\") in 1690\\.Engineering Record, Building Record and Sanitary Engineer, Volume 40, Charles Frederick Wingate, McGraw Publishing Company, 1899 Accessed at [Google books](https://books.google.com/books?id=D1U1AQAAMAAJ&dq=schuylkill+navigation+company+1791&pg=RA1-PA100) on July 30, 2016Bishop, Avard Longley. The State works of Pennsylvania. Vol. 13\\. Tuttle, Morehouse \\& Taylor Press, 1907\\. {{PD\\-notice}} Penn's plan, conceived a few years after he had founded Philadelphia, was to make \"a second settlement\" on the Susquehanna River, similar in size to that of Philadelphia itself. He made this plan, titled \"Some Proposals for a Second Settlement in the Province of Pennsylvania\" public in [England](/wiki/England \"England\") in 1690\\.Swank, James Moore. *\"Progressive Pennsylvania: A Record of the Remarkable Industrial Development of the Keystone State, with Some Account of Its Early and Its Later Transportation Systems, Its Early Settlers, and Its Prominent Men.\"* JB Lippincott, 1908\\. Accessed at on July 31, 2016\\. {{PD\\-notice}} The route envisioned by Penn was a road up the west bank of the Schuylkill to the mouth of [French Creek](/wiki/French_Creek_%28Schuylkill_River%29 \"French Creek (Schuylkill River)\") near present\\-day [Phoenixville](/wiki/Phoenixville%2C_Pennsylvania \"Phoenixville, Pennsylvania\"), heading west to the Susquehanna via present day [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lancaster, Pennsylvania\") and a Susquehanna [tributary](/wiki/Tributary \"Tributary\"), [Conestoga Creek](/wiki/Conestoga_River \"Conestoga River\"). Although Penn first proposed the project of continuous water transportation from the [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\") to the [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\"), he did not call for the building of a canal.",
"In 1762, Philadelphia merchants petitioned the [Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly \"Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly\") to commission a project for the passage by water up the [west branch of the Susquehanna River](/wiki/West_Branch_Susquehanna_River \"West Branch Susquehanna River\") with an intervening portage to a navigable branch of the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\"). In 1769, another petition to the Assembly requested that then Province make the [Juniata River](/wiki/Juniata_River \"Juniata River\") navigable down to the Susquehanna River. Both petitions were unsuccessful, but neither mentioned canals as an essential element for the proposed improvement.",
"In 1769, the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society \"American Philosophical Society\") with [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") as its first president was organized with six standing committees, one of which was on \"Husbandry and [American Improvements](/wiki/American_Improvements \"American Improvements\")\".Volume 1769\\-1774\\. (1885\\). Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 22(119\\), 23\\-94\\. Retrieved from <https://www.jstor.org/stable/982528> One of the first projects the committee looked at in February 1769 was a canal between the [Chesapeake](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay \"Chesapeake Bay\") and [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_Bay \"Delaware Bay\") bays using the [Chester River](/wiki/Chester_River \"Chester River\") in [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\") and [Duck Creek](/wiki/Duck_Creek_%28Smyrna_River_tributary%29 \"Duck Creek (Smyrna River tributary)\"), near [Smyrna, Delaware](/wiki/Smyrna%2C_Delaware \"Smyrna, Delaware\") some {{Convert\\|15\\|mi\\|km}} south of the present location of the [Chesapeake and Delaware Canal](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Delaware_Canal \"Chesapeake and Delaware Canal\") (C\\&D Canal). In March, the committee was tasked with preparing a \"scheme of application\" for the Philadelphia merchants for defraying the expenses of conducting a route location (\"proper levels\") for the canal as well as construction costs. In April, the committee discussed a more northerly route using the [Bohemia River](/wiki/Bohemia_River \"Bohemia River\"), a tributary of the [Elk River](/wiki/Elk_River_%28Maryland%29 \"Elk River (Maryland)\") with [headwaters](/wiki/Headwaters \"Headwaters\") extending into Delaware using [Drawyers Creek](/wiki/Appoquinimink_River \"Appoquinimink River\").",
"In June, this route was reported being feasible only with locks, as the cost of constructing a clear passage from river to river was too great. That same month, Thomas Gilpin, a member of the merchant committee, submitted an alternative \"plan of a canal and elevation\" using the original southerly route along the Chester River and Duck Creek. In April 1770, W. T. Fisher produced a map of the several canal routes proposed for connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware bays.",
"In August 1771, the committee then became aware of the prospect of joining the Susquehanna and Schuylkill Rivers by means of a canal. One of the key features of that survey was its emphasis on the middle ground or [summit level](/wiki/Summit-level_canal \"Summit-level canal\"), roughly {{Convert\\|4\\.5\\|mi\\|km}} miles between the headwaters of the [Quitapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\"), near [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\"), and those of Tulpehocken, near [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Myerstown, Pennsylvania\"). The survey was conducted by [Dr. William Smith](/wiki/William_Smith_%28Episcopalian_priest%29 \"William Smith (Episcopalian priest)\"), [Provost](/wiki/Provost_%28education%29 \"Provost (education)\") of the [College of Philadelphia](/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania \"University of Pennsylvania\"), [John Lukens](/wiki/John_Lukens \"John Lukens\"), [Esquire](/wiki/Esquire \"Esquire\"), [Surveyor General](/wiki/Surveyor_general \"Surveyor general\")[http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn\\-nr92038163/](http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-nr92038163/) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=September 2022}} of the then Province (now State) of Pennsylvania, and [John Sellers](/wiki/John_Sellers_%28scientist%29 \"John Sellers (scientist)\"). [Samuel Rhoads](/wiki/Samuel_Rhoads \"Samuel Rhoads\"), a Philadelphia architect, vice\\-president of the Society and colonial mayor of Philadelphia, had also been on the survey with [Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse \"David Rittenhouse\") and company.Stapleton, D. H. (1984\\). William Weston, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, and the Philadelphia plan for internal improvements. (Cutcliffe, Stephen Hosmer. ed. Science and technology in the eighteenth century.) Bethlehem, Pa. Rhoads had been impressed with the \"... apparent practicality of a canal on the Tulpehocken\\-Swatara route. But, he asked Franklin, whether it was better to dig a canal, or just to dam up the rivers and creeks to provide for navigation?\"",
"The same year, the Society recommended the third route for a canal.{{cite book \\| title\\=The Pennsylvania Railroad, Volume 1: Building an Empire, 1846\\-1917, Volume 1 \\| publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania Press \\| author\\=Albert J. Churella \\| year\\=2012 \\| location\\=Philadelphia \\| pages\\=976 \\| isbn\\=9780812243482}} The [Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly \"Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly\") then appointed a committee of its own to survey the Susquehanna, Schuylkill, and [Lehigh Rivers](/wiki/Lehigh_River \"Lehigh River\") and in 1773, David Rittenhouse delivered its report.8 Pa. Arch., viii, 6609–10, 6748, 6853; Brooke Hindle, David Rittenhouse (Princeton, 1964\\), pp. 94–6\\.Accessed at [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01\\-19\\-02\\-0110](https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-19-02-0110) on August 18, 2016\\. Nothing became of this work due to the coming of the Revolution.David Rittenhouse Papers accessed at [http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId\\=ead/Mss.SMs.Coll.11\\-ead.xml](http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.SMs.Coll.11-ead.xml) on August 18, 2016\\. In total, the Society sponsored studies of three routes to the connect Philadelphia with the [Susquehanna Valley](/wiki/Susquehanna_Valley \"Susquehanna Valley\"): one by canal across the [Delmarva Peninsula](/wiki/Delmarva_Peninsula \"Delmarva Peninsula\") (1769\\-1771\\), the second a paved road from the Susquehanna Valley to a river port south of Philadelphia and the third (1773\\) a canal using the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Rivers and their tributaries, the [Tulpehocken](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)\") and [Swatara](/wiki/Swatara_Creek \"Swatara Creek\") creeks.",
"The project became the goal of the Society for the Improvement of Roads and Inland Navigation organized in 1789 with [preeminent](/wiki/Preeminent \"Preeminent\"), wartime financier [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 \"Robert Morris (financier)\") as president, [David Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse \"David Rittenhouse\"), William Smith and John Nicolson. The Society petitioned the General Assembly to again survey the river routes, only this time the State acted upon the recommendations.",
"In the spring of 1790, the General Assembly passed a resolution on March 31, 1790, that authorized river surveys.Baer, Christopher T. \"A General Chronology of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company Predecessors and Successors and its Historical Context.\" Archived from the original on (2007\\), updated May 2015\\.Accessed at [http://www.prrths.com/newprr\\_files/Hagley/PRR1790\\.pdf](http://www.prrths.com/newprr_files/Hagley/PRR1790.pdf) on July 31, 2016\\. Governor [Thomas Mifflin](/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin \"Thomas Mifflin\") commissioned [Timothy Matlack](/wiki/Timothy_Matlack \"Timothy Matlack\") (1736–1829\\), [Samuel Maclay](/wiki/Samuel_Maclay \"Samuel Maclay\") (1741–1811\\) and [John Adlum](/wiki/John_Adlum \"John Adlum\") (1759–1836\\) to survey the Swatara, West Branch of the Susquehanna River, [Allegheny River](/wiki/Allegheny_River \"Allegheny River\"), French Creek with a portage to Lake Erie, the [Kiskiminetas](/wiki/Kiskiminetas_River \"Kiskiminetas River\")/[Conemaugh](/wiki/Conemaugh_River \"Conemaugh River\") to [Stony Creek](/wiki/Stonycreek_River \"Stonycreek River\"), the future site of [Johnstown](/wiki/Johnstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Johnstown, Pennsylvania\"), with a second portage to the [Frankstown branch](/wiki/Frankstown_Branch_Juniata_River \"Frankstown Branch Juniata River\") of the Juniata and then down the Juniata to the Susquehanna River and onto [Harrisburg](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania \"Harrisburg, Pennsylvania\").",
"Mifflin also appointed other survey teams:\n* Commissioners Samuel Boyd, Bartram Galbraith and Thomas Hulings, reported on January 30, 1790, a major obstruction to the navigation of the Susquehanna River: \"[Conewago Falls](/wiki/Conewago_Falls \"Conewago Falls\"), about 14 miles above [Wright's Ferry](/wiki/Wright%27s_Ferry \"Wright's Ferry\"), the great obstruction and barr to the wealth and population of our Western Country, is at present the grand object. We are clear that a canal is the sure and safe way of effecting a good navigation for boats to pass and repass.\".\n* Commissioners Reading Howell (1743\\-1827\\), Frederick Antes (1764\\-1801\\) and William Dean, to survey the upper Delaware with a portage to [the Great Bend on the Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River%23North_Branch_Susquehanna \"Susquehanna River#North Branch Susquehanna\"), the North Branch, the upper Lehigh with a portage to [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\"), and the upper Schuylkill and [Little Schuylkill](/wiki/Little_Schuylkill_River \"Little Schuylkill River\") with a portage to the Lehigh or Susquehanna.\n* Maclay surveyed the Swatara and [Quitapahilla Creeks](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\") to Old's Iron Works, then by land to Lebanon. Continuing to survey a [gap in the Allegheny barrier range](/wiki/Gaps_of_the_Allegheny%23List_of_Gaps \"Gaps of the Allegheny#List of Gaps\") in early September 1790, Maclay determined that Poplar Run Gap was the potential site for a future road across the [Allegheny Mountains](/wiki/Allegheny_Mountains \"Allegheny Mountains\").\nIn April 1790, Maclay surveyed \"...the Swatara Creek and Quitapahilla Creek to Old's Iron Works, then by to Lebanon; (noting that) the Quitapahilla can be made navigable for boats of 5 tons.\" On Dec. 14, 1790, Maclay and the other commissioners reported on their recommendations for rivers west of the [Allegheny Front](/wiki/Allegheny_Front \"Allegheny Front\") or barrier range. They recommend three routes; one via the Juniata and two using the West branch. The first uses the Juniata to go over the barrier range at Poplar Run gap to the [Kiskiminetas](/wiki/Kiskiminetas_River \"Kiskiminetas River\"), a tributary of the [Allegheny River](/wiki/Allegheny_River \"Allegheny River\"). The two West branch of the Susquehanna river routes, one via the north branch of [Sinnemahoning Creek](/wiki/Sinnemahoning_Creek \"Sinnemahoning Creek\"), a tributary of the West branch and thence over the barrier range to the Allegheny River, and one via west branch of the Sinnemahoning Creek and thence also over the barrier range to the Allegheny river. They also recommended the Allegheny and French Creek with portage to Lake Erie.Pennsylvania State Archives, House Journal, Appendix, pps 28 \\- 43",
"Maclay and the other commissioners found that most of the waterways could be constructed, but several portages were recommended to reduce costs such as the Lebanon summit crossing of four miles, a road from French Creek to [Presque Isle](/wiki/Fort_Presque_Isle \"Fort Presque Isle\") on Lake Erie and an {{Convert\\|18\\|mi\\|km}} portage over the Allegheny Mountains at Poplar run. The latter crossing was south of the route eventually selected in 1831 for the [Portage Railroad](/wiki/Allegheny_Portage_Railroad \"Allegheny Portage Railroad\") which, when built, was {{Convert\\|36\\|mi\\|km}} in length. Both the 1791 and 1831 routes converged on the [Little Conemaugh River](/wiki/Little_Conemaugh_River \"Little Conemaugh River\") as the route into [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\").",
"On February 10, 1791, reports were given on the second round of river surveys regarding improvements to the [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\") from the bay to the New York state line. Improvements were also recommended for the Schuylkill river with a portage road or canal from Reading to the Susquehanna River, and improvements for the North and West Branches of the Susquehanna and a second Allegheny portage to reach Lake Erie.",
"The Society proposed in its 1791 report to use the Schuylkill River from Philadelphia up to \"...Tulpehocken Creek, near Reading, continuing on the Tulpehocken as far as practicable.\"Hartman, J. Lee. \"Pennsylvania's Grand Plan of Post\\-Revolutionary Internal Improvement.\" The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 65\\.4 (1941\\): 439\\-457\\. Critically, the Society had yet to recommend or devise a way over the summit near Lebanon joining the \"...Quitapahilla and Swatara creeks, the latter leading to the Susquehanna ...\" river. The proposed mileages were:Hazard, Samuel, ed. Register of Pennsylvania. Vol. II., 1828\\. Accessed at <https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433081772430> on July 15, 2018 {{PD\\-notice}}\n* Up the Schuylkill River from Philadelphia to the mouth of the Tulpehocken, near [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania \"Reading, Pennsylvania\") \\- {{Convert\\|61\\|mi\\|km}}.\n* Westward, up the Tulpehocken Creek to the east end of the proposed summit canal crossing \\- {{Convert\\|37\\|mi\\|km}}. The plan was to clear thirty miles of the creek and cut a canal ({{Convert\\|20\\|ft\\|m}} wide by {{Convert\\|7\\|ft\\|m}} deep) for the last {{Convert\\|7\\|mi\\|km}} up to the summit crossing. An estimated ten locks were needed to ascend this distance.\n* Length of the summit canal \\- {{Convert\\|4\\|mi\\|km}}. The plan was to dig a canal on average {{Convert\\|25\\|ft\\|m}} deep and {{Convert\\|30\\|ft\\|m}} wide, a distance of approximately {{Convert\\|4\\.5\\|mi\\|km}}. This was also assumed to common earth excavation.\n* Down Quitipahilla to Swatara \\- {{Convert\\|15\\|mi\\|km}}. The 1791 report offered no detail on how this estimate was derived.\n* Down Swatara to Susquehanna River \\- {{Convert\\|23\\|mi\\|km}}. The 1791 report offered no detail on how this estimate was derived.",
"The concept of navigation in the context of the post\\-[colonial](/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States \"Colonial history of the United States\") United States and 1790 timeframe was predominately focused on improving river systems. A contemporary project, the [Western Inland Lock Navigation Company](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals \"Erie Canal#Proposals\") in New York which later became a part of the Erie Canal was also \"... primarily a river system.\" In the Pennsylvania scheme, large rivers such as the Susquehanna and to a lesser extent, the Schuylkill were to be improved by clearing channels through obstructions and building dams where needed. Most importantly, these larger segments of the scheme were to be connected by short sections of [slackwater](/wiki/Slack_water \"Slack water\") canals and in some instances such as the [Allegheny range crossing](/wiki/Allegheny_Portage_Railroad \"Allegheny Portage Railroad\"), portages. One author noted that ... \n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=While the Society mapped the prospective route with commendable diligence and care, its efforts were of course immeasurably handicapped by a lack of knowledge of canals which at that time were unknown in America but upon which the surveys of the board of commissioners indicated the waterway would have to depend for a short distance in the eastern region and perhaps in the vicinity of the Allegheny Mountains. Descriptions of the two canal connections given in the memorial clearly reflect the prevailing inexperience ... (of the Society). One of (the canal crossings), \"20 feet wide and 7 feet on an average,\" would be necessary between Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla creeks in order to provide an unbroken water link from the Schuylkill to the Susquehanna, but there was uncertainty about the immediate possibility of building it. ... (More detailed engineering to had to be done) ... to determine whether \"a plan of lock navigation\" might not be cheaper than a water\\-level channel. \"It is supposed that the canal or lock navigation between the heads of Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla, is to be compleated; but if that work should be thought too great to begin with, it will be only the addition of four miles portage, by an excellent and level road.\" '''In point of fact, no estimate could be included for \"the canal.\"''' (Emphasis added)\n\\|author\\=J. Lee. Hartman, \"Pennsylvania's Grand Plan of Post\\-Revolutionary Internal Improvement.\", p. 454 \n}}",
"The Society in its report estimated the total cost of the Schuylkill River improvements and canal connection with the Susquehanna River at £55,540 (£1791\\) or $8\\.6 million (in 2018 US dollars). The [Schuylkill Navigation Company](/wiki/Schuylkill_Canal \"Schuylkill Canal\") and the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Union Canal (Pennsylvania)\") ultimately completed this Society scheme by 1830 for a total reported cost of $2\\.8 million (in 1830 US dollars) or $73 million in (in 2018 US dollars):[Calculated using this website](https://www.officialdata.org/) roughly nine times the original estimate.",
"James Brindley (1745\\-1820\\), a well\\-known canal engineer and nephew of the famous British canal engineer [James Brindley](/wiki/James_Brindley \"James Brindley\") (1716\\-1772\\), was in Delaware in 1791\\.Robert J Kapsch \\& Yvonne E Long (2011\\) James Brindley, American Canal Engineer, The International Journal for the History of Engineering \\& Technology, 81:1, 22\\-59, DOI:10\\.1179/175812110X12869022260114 Brindley had been originally recruited in 1774 by the [Potomac Company](/wiki/Potomac_Company \"Potomac Company\") for the [Little Falls Bypass Canal](/wiki/Patowmack_Canal%23Little_Falls_Canal \"Patowmack Canal#Little Falls Canal\") on the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River \"Potomac River\").Robert J Kapsch \\& Yvonne E Long (2011\\) James Brindley, American Canal Engineer, The International Journal for the History of Engineering \\& Technology, 81:1, 22\\-59, Subsequently, Brindley worked on the [Susquehanna Canal](/wiki/Susquehanna_and_Tidewater_Canal%23Earlier_canal \"Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal#Earlier canal\") (1783\\-) in Maryland, [Santee Canal](/wiki/Santee_Canal \"Santee Canal\") in [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\") (1786\\) and the [James River Canal](/wiki/James_River_Canal \"James River Canal\") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\") (1787\\). In 1791, he was introduced to the Society for the purpose of resurveying the 1771 summit route for the canal between the Tulpehocken and Quittapahilla Creeks. The Society engaged Brindley to resurvey the 1771 summit route along with Timothy Matlack (1736\\-1829\\) and John Adlum (1759\\-1836\\). Later that year in the summer, they presented a final report and Brindley's map for the summit canal between the creeks. Crucially, they find that there is sufficient water at the summit to feed the canal within a four\\-mile radius. The society would later in February 1792 ask the newly incorporated Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company to pay for the expense of this survey.",
"In that same year of 1791, the Society presented proposals to the State proposing to connect the [Atlantic seaboard](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States \"East Coast of the United States\") with [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\"). This Pennsylvania plan was before the creation of New York's [Western and Northern Inland Lock Navigation Companies](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals \"Erie Canal#Proposals\") in 1792\\. The New York plan took the first steps to improve navigation on the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River \"Mohawk River\") by constructing a canal between the Mohawk and [Lake Ontario](/wiki/Lake_Ontario \"Lake Ontario\")Calhoun, Daniel Hovey. The American civil engineer: Origins and conflict. Technology Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1960\\. but that effort with private financing was insufficient. In the Pennsylvania plan, the Society proposed a canal route, 426 miles in length connecting Philadelphia with Pittsburgh by a canal. One part of this project was a canal segment up to the Schuylkill River to Tulpehocken Creek to a [summit\\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal \"Summit-level canal\") near [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\") and thence by way of the [Quitapahilla](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\") and Swatara creeks to the Susquehanna River.",
"This action resulted in the formation of two companies The first was the **Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company** incorporated on September 29, 1791,Mitchell, James Tyndale, et al. The Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania from 1682 to 1801\\. Vol. 6\\. No. 1759\\-1765\\. Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1899\\. {{PD\\-notice}}McCarthy, William D. \"Building the Beaver and Lake Erie Canal: The politics of public improvements in Pennsylvania, 1783\\-\\-1845\\.\" (2003\\): 3324\\-3324\\. to open a communication between the Schuylkill and Susquehanna rivers from Reading on the Schuylkill to Middletown on the Susquehanna. The second was the **Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Company** incorporated in 1792 to open a canal between the Schuylkill River and the Delaware River.An Historical account of the rise, progress and present state of the canal navigation in Pennsylvania. With an appendix, containing, abstracts of the acts of the Legislature since the year 1790, and their grants of money for improving roads and navigable waters throughout the state; to which is annexed, \"an explanatory map.\" / Published by direction of the president and managers of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, and the Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Companies. \\[Twenty two lines of verse] Morris, Robert, 1734\\-1806\\., Smith, William, 1727\\-1803\\., Howell, Reading, 1743\\-1827, cartographer., Trenchard, James, b. 1747, engraver., Delaware and Schuylkill Canal Company., Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation. Philadelphia:: Printed by Zachariah Poulson, Junior, number eighty, Chesnut\\-Street., MDCCXCV. \\[1795] {{PD\\-notice}} [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 \"Robert Morris (financier)\") was the president of both companies.",
"The 1791, Pennsylvania act incorporating the company contained an elaborate process for using Sheriff's juries to assess damages for taking of lands and waters becoming \"...the model for subsequent Pennsylvania canal statutes. \".Horwitz, Morton J. \"The Transformation of American Law, 1780\\-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977\\).\" Up to that point in time, the policy had been to only allow damages to improved lands. This 1791 act required the company to pay all damages resulting from its use of [eminent domain](/wiki/Eminent_domain_in_the_United_States \"Eminent domain in the United States\") authority to take all lands (improved or unimproved), water, and materials necessary for construction and operating the canal including mills, mill ponds, water and water courses. This caused many canal companies such as the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company great concern over the amount of damages awarded in these procedures. Charles G. Paleske, an officer of the company stated in 1807 that \"...the company could not complete the largest branch of its canal because, among other reasons, of \"the enormous sums paid for land and water rights.\"",
"In early 1792, the company was organized in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") with noted financier and land speculator [Robert Morris](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29 \"Robert Morris (financier)\") as president, [Tench Francis](/wiki/Tench_Francis_Jr. \"Tench Francis Jr.\") as treasurer and noted engrosser of the [declaration of independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence \"United States Declaration of Independence\") [Timothy Matlack](/wiki/Timothy_Matlack \"Timothy Matlack\") as secretary. The company's directors were also notable Philadelphians such as Morris' partner and former comptroller general of the State of Pennsylvania and president of the [Pennsylvania Population Company](/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania%23Westward_expansion \"History of Pennsylvania#Westward expansion\"), John Nicholson (1757\\-1800\\),Nicholson, John, 1757\\-1800, Biographical notes. Accessed on June 29, 2018 at <http://n2t.net/ark:/99166/w6tm7cfh> [Samuel Powel](/wiki/Samuel_Powel \"Samuel Powel\") (1738\\-1793\\) and University of Pennsylvania provost [William Smith](/wiki/William_Smith_%28Episcopal_priest%29 \"William Smith (Episcopal priest)\") (1727\\-1803\\). Junior founding partner of the notable Philadelphia shipping company James and Drinker and the [Philadelphia tea party](/wiki/Philadelphia_Tea_Party \"Philadelphia Tea Party\") incident, Henry Drinker (1734\\-1809\\), a \"substantial provider of credit\" in those timesMaxey, David W. \"The Union Farm: Henry Drinker's Experiment in Deriving Profit from Virtue.\" The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 107\\.4 (1983\\): 607\\-629\\. [Accessed](https://journals.psu.edu/pmhb/article/viewFile/43944/43665) on June 29, 2018 also was a director. Other notable directors included Brevet generals [Walter Stewart](/wiki/Walter_Stewart_%28general%29 \"Walter Stewart (general)\") and [Samuel Miles](/wiki/Samuel_Miles \"Samuel Miles\"), the latter, a former mayor of the city of Philadelphia. Philadelphia politician and brewer Robert Hare (1752\\-1811\\) father of chemist [Robert Hare](/wiki/Robert_Hare_%28chemist%29 \"Robert Hare (chemist)\") (1781\\-1858\\)[Robert Hare (1752\\-1811\\), PENN BIOGRAPHIES](https://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/hare_robt.html) was a director as well as the then treasurer of the United States, [Samuel Meredith](/wiki/Samuel_Meredith_%28American_politician%29 \"Samuel Meredith (American politician)\") (1741\\-1817\\) and his brother in law, a signatory to both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, [George Clymer](/wiki/George_Clymer \"George Clymer\") (1739\\-1813\\). Pennsylvania State Attorney General and future Attorney General for the United States, [William Bradford](/wiki/William_Bradford_%28Attorney_General%29 \"William Bradford (Attorney General)\") (1755\\-1795\\), future Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, [George Lattimer](/wiki/George_Latimer_%28Pennsylvania_politician%29 \"George Latimer (Pennsylvania politician)\") and [light horse cavalry](/wiki/First_Troop_Philadelphia_City_Cavalry \"First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry\") member and quartermaster John Donaldson (1754\\-1831\\);Keen, Gregory B. \"The Descendants of Jöran Kyn, the Founder of Upland.\" The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2\\.3 (1878\\): 325\\-335\\. Nicholson eventually has 270 shares on which $64,300 is paid; Robert Morris, 52 shares and $14,300\\. [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\") received one share of stock in the company, issued by Morris in 1792 worth one pound.Washington, W. L. (1920\\). William Lanier Washington's collection of relics and memorabilia of George Washington. New York. In recruiting stock subscriptions, the Commissioners were required to advertise in three newspapers for a month with one being in the German language. They were authorized to sell one thousand shares and if the stock was oversubscribed, a lottery was to be used to apportion the sales, no one person was to initially own more than ten shares.",
"At the time that Robert Morris and the others were organizing the company \"(p)oor harvests in Europe brought unprecedented agricultural and commercial prosperity to the Delaware Valley.\"Doerflinger, Thomas M.. A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia, University of North Carolina Press, 2012\\. One of the administration's first official acts as part of [Hamilton's economic plan](/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington%23Hamiltonian_economic_program \"Presidency of George Washington#Hamiltonian economic program\") was to \"...pour thousands of dollars into the pockets of prescient speculators by funding depreciated American bonds at 100 percent of their face value. The resulting ebullience in the investment markets facilitated the flotation of a series of new companies ...\" such as Morris' Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company. While post\\-revolutionary grain exports from Philadelphia had stagnated through 1788, the Continental [subsistence crisis](/wiki/Subsistence_crisis \"Subsistence crisis\") created a demand for American grain that Philadelphia rushed to fill.\n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\"Between 1788 and 1789 the value of Quaker City exports leaped 45 percent to the level of $3,510,765, and they continued to climb to the extraordinary level of $17,513,866 in 1796 ($450 million US in 2018\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.officialdata.org/1791\\-dollars\\-in\\-2018?amount\\=17513866\\|title \\= $17,513,866 in 1791 → 2018 \\| Inflation Calculator}} With Americans serving as neutral maritime carriers for the warring nations of Europe, the shipping industry also flourished. The amount of tonnage registered for foreign trade increased by 167 percent between 1789 and 1796\\.\"\n\\|author\\=Thomas M Doerflinger, ''A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia'' \n}}\nBeyond the [Delaware Valley](/wiki/Delaware_Valley \"Delaware Valley\") lay the vast Susquehanna River Valley, a major export market for Philadelphia despite the gains made by [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\") in shifting trade to its ports.BJORK, GORDON C. Stagnation And Growth In The American Economy, 1784\\-1792, University of Washington, Ann Arbor, 1963\\. ProQuest \"...the essential economic function of Philadelphia's merchant community was to link the city's hinterland with its overseas markets. It was the merchants who shipped flour to Lisbon, lumber to London, flaxseed to Belfast; and it was they who imported vast amounts of cloth and hardware from London and the outports.\" The Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company would provide the \"golden link\" between the two.",
"On December 1, 1791, the company's book was opened for stock subscriptions, and by one o'clock more than the five hundred shares ($200,000\\) required as a minimum were\nsubscribed, and when the books had been open the required fifteen days no less than forty\\-six thousand shares were subscribed.Davis, J. Stancliffe. (1917\\). Essays in the earlier history of American corporations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Accessed on July 25, 2018 at [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo1\\.ark:/13960/t2z32d90t?urlappend\\=%3Bseq\\=168](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t2z32d90t?urlappend=%3Bseq=168) {{PD\\-notice}} This was acclaimed \"another instance of the public spirit of the inhabitants of this state,\" though in reality it testifies chiefly to the speculative spirit then running riot. The subscriptions were reduced by lottery to one thousand shares, and canal scrip was soon selling at an advance. Several months later, the first financial panic in the new United States occurred, the [panic of 1792](/wiki/Panic_of_1792 \"Panic of 1792\"). This impacted the availability of cash for subscribers to fulfill their obligations from the previous December and the Company agreed to take notes in lieu of cash.",
"This process of financing the navigation company was managed by Morris in the same time period as large swaths of Northern Pennsylvania were being developed by the managers of the company.Wilkinson, Norman B. \"The\" Philadelphia Fever\" in Northern Pennsylvania.\" Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid\\-Atlantic Studies 20\\.1 (1953\\): 40\\-56\\.\n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\"Pennsylvania's backlands ... (were) ... the stakes in a giant speculative bubble: they were cheap, they could be bought on credit, they could be paid for in depreciated certificates, settlement and improvement requirements were generally overlooked, and those in actual charge of the disposal of lands were very cooperative. Convinced of getting a 10, 20, or 30\\-fold return, it is little wonder that other assets were converted into land, heavy mortgages taken, and credit stretched to fantastic lengths.\"\n\\|author\\=Norman B. Wilkinson, \"''The 'Philadelphia Fever' in Northern Pennsylvania.''\"\n}}\nThe problem was that speculators such as Robert Morris had too much credit. Often using the land to which \"...they had only preliminary claim, either selling, encumbering them with mortgages or using them as collateral for loans.\" The Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company prospectus promised greater trade and settlement, thus raising the value of the lands. In addition to the two navigation companies, Robert Morris, and other managers \"...established no less than six companies of this type between 1793 and 1797\\.\" These were the [Pennsylvania Population Company](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29%23Land_speculation \"Robert Morris (financier)#Land speculation\"), Asylum Land Company, [North American Land Company](/wiki/Robert_Morris_%28financier%29%23Land_speculation \"Robert Morris (financier)#Land speculation\"), Territorial Land Company, Pennsylvania Land Company, Pennsylvania Property Company. This speculative bubble burst in 1796 just when the navigation company was trying to mobilize the financing for its operations. \n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\"...speculators had invested in roads, canals, and mills to encourage settlement, but often could not finance these projects to completion. By the late 1790s, most of these speculations failed due to overreaching. Robert Morris, the grandest speculator of them all, went to debtors' prison.\n\\|author\\=Marcus Terran Gallo, \"''Imaginary Lines, Real Power: Surveyors and Land Speculation in the Mid\\-Atlantic Borderlands, 1681\\-1800''\".Gallo, Marcus Terran. Imaginary Lines, Real Power: Surveyors and Land Speculation in the Mid\\-Atlantic Borderlands, 1681\\-1800\\. University of California, Davis, 2012\\.\n}}",
"{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\"The 'Philadelphia fever' that raged during the era of exploitation of our eastern public lands ruined many of those it infected. It despoiled a great portion of the Commonwealth's landed inheritance. It victimized the actual settler ... (a)nd it retarded the development of one\\-third of the State for several generations.\"\n\\|author\\=Norman B. Wilkinson, \"''The 'Philadelphia Fever' in Northern Pennsylvania.''\" (1953\\)\n}}",
"There were very few trained civil engineers in the new United States when the company was chartered.Kirby, Richard Shelton. \"William Weston and his contribution to early American engineering.\" Transactions of the Newcomen Society 16\\.1 (1935\\): 111\\-127\\. The earlier planning for locating the canal commissioned by the Society up through 1791 had been performed by members such as [John Lukens](/wiki/John_Lukens \"John Lukens\"), surveyor general of Pennsylvania and the eminent American astronomer and surveyor, [David Rittenhouse](/wiki/David_Rittenhouse \"David Rittenhouse\"). Other than Brindley (1745\\-1820\\), no one had any experience with canal location or lockage.",
"The original engineering concept developed by the Society as well as the navigation company's charter had been to build a canal up the \"...Schuylkill valley to Norristown, and improving the river from there to Reading; while from Reading a canal was to extend to the Susquehanna, via Lebanon.\" This would have made the Schuylkill and Susquehanna canal the first [summit\\-level canal](/wiki/Summit-level_canal \"Summit-level canal\") in the United States. A four\\-mile summit crossing between Tulpehocken and the Quitipahilla would be an artificial waterway connecting two separate river valleys; namely the [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\") and the [Schuylkill](/wiki/Schuylkill_River \"Schuylkill River\") watersheds. The term refers to a canal that rises then falls, as opposed to a lateral canal, which has a continuous fall only.{{cite web\\|title\\=Canals and inland waterways\\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/technology/canal\\-waterway\\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica\\|accessdate\\=10 June 2016}} In this case, the proposed canal at 80 miles in length would rise 192 feet over 42 miles from the west at the Susquehanna River to the summit and then fall 311 feet over 34 miles to the Schuylkill River to the east.Tanner, Henry Schenck, 1786\\-1858, A description of the canals and railroads of the United States, comprehending notices of all the works of internal improvement throughout the several states. Accessed on August 31, 2018 at <https://archive.org/details/descriptionofcan00tann> Unfortunately, most of the four\\-mile summit crossing was underlain by the [Ontelaunee Formation](/wiki/Kittatinny_Formation \"Kittatinny Formation\"), a \"...dark grayish\\-brown weathering [dolomite](/wiki/Dolomite_%28rock%29 \"Dolomite (rock)\") ...\" or carbonate bedrock.Ousey Jr, John R., Ruth Egan, and William Maun. \"Geologic and Hydrologic Problems Encountered in the Construction and Operation of the Union Canal in Pennsylvania\", Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science (1998\\): 90\\-95\\. Accessed using JSTOR subscription. Other equally important parts of the summit crossing were constructed through the Annville Formation, a \"...very thick bedded, finely crystalline, light blue\\-gray to light pinkish\\-gray, high\\-calcium [limestone](/wiki/Limestone \"Limestone\").\" Crucially, that meant the summit traversed highly soluble bedrock with poor surface drainage and where sinkholes were common.\n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=This ... (summit crossing) ... offered a severe test of ... (18th century) ... engineering skills in both designing and operating a water\\-conveyance transportation system through an area where sinkholes are common, and surface water is scarce.\n\\|author\\=Ousey, Egan, and Maun\n}}\nUltimately, the 1794 engineering concept was flawed. The water supply for the summit crossing was inadequate. While the 1794 construction was never \"watered\", its successor, the [Union Canal](/wiki/Union_Canal_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Union Canal (Pennsylvania)\") was faced with the choice of either \"[puddling](/wiki/Puddling_%28civil_engineering%29 \"Puddling (civil engineering)\")\" (packing low\\-permeability clay on the bottom and sides), or \"planking\" (lining the sides and bottom of the canal with wood planks) for the summit crossing in order to conserve water supplies. In the end, \"planking\" was chosen which required \"...close to 2,000,000 board\\-feet of lumber ...\" to seal the crossing. Even with two reservoirs constructed at the summit as feeders to the canal, the Union canal required pumped water from a waterworks at the junction of Swatara Creek and Clarke's run and later from a second waterworks on Furnace Creek on the Quitipahilla. At the first works, there were four pumps with the capacity to lift about \"...15,000 gallons per minute through 3\\.3 miles of wooden and brick pipes to the summit level, 95 feet above the pumps ...\" Of the four pumps only two could be powered by water, the other two had to be powered by [Cornish steam engines](/wiki/Cornish_engine \"Cornish engine\"), a technology available in 1828 when the canal opened but not in 1791\\.Nuvolari, Alessandro; Verspagen, Bart (2009\\). \"Technical choice, innovation and British steam engineering, 1800\\-1850\". Economic History Review. 63 (3\\): 685–710\\. by 1885, the Union canal was sold at a sheriff sale, \"unable to cope with ... (competition from) ... the railroads, poor planning, and the carbonate bedrock of Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. Had the Schuylkill and Susquehanna navigation company been successful in completing the canal in 1794\\-95, it probably would have succumbed to same poor planning and summit geology as its successor did.",
"While the navigation company was being organized in 1791, the Society asked Brindley to re\\-evaluate the summit level crossing Between [Lebanon, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\") and [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown \"Myerstown\"). Brindley was to reexamine the topography of the summit and produce a detailed location for the canal. He was also to ensure that the local supply of water was adequate to supply the amount of water necessary to operate the locks on both sides of the summit; critical for the success of the project, as well as to make an estimate of the \"...lands and waters necessary ...\" for the work. Brindley completed the work that summer, yet, Morris still agreed with George Washington's earlier assessment that although Brindley had \"more practical knowledge of cuts and locks for the improvement of inland navigation than any man among us ...\" in Morris' mind, Brindley's skills remained unproven. Nonetheless, the Navigation company hired Brindley in April 1792 for the construction season work as canal engineer along with Col. Thomas Bull (1744\\-1837\\) as superintendent.",
"In May, the board of directors with Brindley tour the summit crossing between the Quitapahilla and Tulpehocken Creeks as well as the waters to the north, including the Deep Run Branch of the Little Swatara. From west to east, the route was to follow [Swatara Creek](/wiki/Swatara_Creek \"Swatara Creek\") upstream from Middletown to [Quittapahilla Creek](/wiki/Quittapahilla_Creek \"Quittapahilla Creek\"), which it then followed upstream through [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon, Pennsylvania\") and towards [Myerstown](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Myerstown, Pennsylvania\"). It then crossed overland to the headwaters of [Tulpehocken Creek](/wiki/Tulpehocken_Creek_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)\"), following Tulpehocken Creek downstream to Reading on the Schuylkill River. It was to follow the Schuylkill downriver to the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The summit route was fixed by the Board between Kuchner's dam on the Quittapahilla and Loy's springs on the Tulpehocken west of Myerstown.Augunst, Dean (1966\\). Two Canals of Lebanon County. Papers and addresses of the Lebanon County Historical Society, Volume 65, issue 1, pages 1\\-30",
"In August of that year, the company approves Brindley's engineering concept for crossing the summit. It was to be a twenty\\-five deep cut, thirty\\-feet wide at the bottom and watered to a depth of four feet. Based solely upon Brindley's work and before their new British engineer, Weston could review the scheme, in October 1792, the Board authorized Superintendent Bull to purchase a strip of land 100 feet wide for the canal route to the Swatara. In November,1792 the company purchases the mill of Baltzer Orth on the head of the Quittapahilla Creek for £4,250 and two tracts of Abraham Crow for £2,600\\. Superintendent Bull and Timothy Matlack begin construction staking for the summit canal using Brindley's route. The work is met with resistance from the local residents who \"resent the intrusion of rich Philadelphians into their entirely German community and having their farms cut up ...\" The local residents protested the exercise of eminent domain by the company in cutting up farms to build a straight and regular, rather than a traditional meandering and undulating road or canal.",
"During the time that Brindley acting as canal engineer, the company approached [Patrick Colquhoun](/wiki/Patrick_Colquhoun \"Patrick Colquhoun\") in London to recruit what the company considered to be a more qualified British engineer for the canal. In January 1792, Colquhoun initially tried to recruit [John Dadford](/wiki/John_Dadford \"John Dadford\") but he was unavailable. Colquhoun then approached the eminent British civil engineer [William Jessop](/wiki/William_Jessop \"William Jessop\") to select \"...a properly qualified engineer for North America, he recommended Weston.\" Colquhoun was finally able to secure the services [William Weston](/wiki/William_Weston_%28engineer%29 \"William Weston (engineer)\") twenty\\-nine years old at the time building at that time [canals in Ireland](/wiki/William_Jessop%23Grand_Canal_of_Ireland \"William Jessop#Grand Canal of Ireland\"). Weston signed a contract drafted by Colquhoun for his services to the company as its \"engineer\" with the annual salary of [£](/wiki/Pound_sign \"Pound sign\")800 in 1792 for no more than seven months in any one year worth $120,000 US in 2018\\.Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency accessed at <https://www.uwyo.edu/numimage/currency.htm> on July 13, 2018 At the time that Weston traveled over to the new country of the United States, ... \n{{Blockquote\n\\|text\\=\\[\\[Prismatic compass (surveying)\\|Surveyors' compasses]] were common in the (United) States, \\[\\[Levelling\\#Older instruments\\|engineers' levels]] were almost, if not quite, non\\-existent. (David Rittenhouse doubtless could have made one, but it is quite certain that he had not). In fact, Weston may have brought with him the first leveling instrument used on this side of the Atlantic. It was, according to Weston's own description, a Y\\-levelThe Wye Level \\[https://web.archive.org/web/20160510061018/http://pages.suddenlink.net/topogs/wye\\_level.htm] Accessed on July 13, 2018\\. with \\[\\[Achromatic lens\\|achromatic glasses]], and had been made for him by Mr. \\[\\[Edward Troughton\\|Troughton]], a mathematical instrument maker on Fleet Street, London.\n\\|author\\=Richard Shelton Kirby \n}}\nAlmost immediately upon his arrival in Pennsylvania, the company attempted to renegotiate Weston's compensation to cover twelve months instead of seven, offering to raise it to £1,500 ($225,000 US in 2018\\) and increasing the geographical scope of his services to include the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Delaware.",
"Although the Board had authorized work for the summit crossing, there still was a question in their minds as of September 1792 over staying with their original concept of river navigation for improving the Tulpehocken and Quitapahilla and Swatara or to go for lock system navigation. The Board had also been faced with two routes across the summit and onto the Swatara using either the Quitapahilla to the south or Clark's run to the north.",
"The company was pursuing several construction projects during a time in which skilled labor was in short supply and very costly. The presence of several projects could easily drive up labor and material costs. Much as in the twentieth century where [project labor agreements](/wiki/Project_Labor_Agreement \"Project Labor Agreement\") are used to predetermine wages and working conditions, these eighteenth\\-century project managers sought to negotiate cooperative agreements with other projects to constrain the growth in wages and control working conditions. In October 1792, the Board of Directors appointed a committee to \"... confer with the Delaware \\& Schuylkill Canal and Philadelphia \\& Lancaster Turnpike Road on sending a joint agent to New England to recruit labor.\" The next month the Board directs superintendent Bull to limit wages to 3s6d (70 cents) per day with the company providing tools and provisions. More importantly, the Board also directs Bull to negotiate \"... an agreement with the Delaware \\& Schuylkill Canal and the Philadelphia \\& Lancaster Turnpike Road to observe a uniform ceiling on the wages to be offered.\"",
"The practice even went so far as have the Boards of several companies meet as a joint committee. Thus in November 1792, the Schuylkill \\& Susquehanna, Delaware \\& Schuylkill, and Conewago Canals and Philadelphia \\& Lancaster Turnpike Road met as a joint committee and \"... named Isaac Roberdeau (1763\\-1829\\), who had worked under Pierre C. L'Enfant on laying out Washington, D.C. and Paterson, N.J., is named agent of all three companies at $120 per month; he later becomes William Weston's assistant.\" The joint committee also agreed to \"... cooperate with each other and with local employers of day laborers so as not to increase wages by bidding against each other; workers imported from New England are to be excepted.\" The Joint committee continued to make plans for a coordinated effort over the winter of 1792–1793 to \"procure laborers in New England, 400 for each of the main canals, 150 for the Conewago Canal, and 200 for the turnpike, also 10 yokes of oxen, carts, and drivers for the turnpike; maximum wage rates and working conditions were established for moving expenses and the use of company teams.\" The committee also directed that all member companies were to sell provisions to the men at cost. The labor force was being mobilized in Philadelphia to start the construction season on March 10, 1793\\.",
"In January 1793, the Company reported that \"... 80 to 100 men are at work and about a half\\-mile of the canal has been dug; are working on the summit level on land purchased by John Nicholson from Jacob Schaffer.\" Brindley's design concept for the summit crossing was a cut twenty\\-five deep, thirty\\-feet wide at the bottom and watered to a depth of four feet. Brindley had assumed that the cut would entirely excavate earth instead they \"... struck rock at a depth of 9 feet.\" The next month, roughly 400 men are working on the Tulpehocken Creek side of the summit. Engineer Weston reviews Brindley's plans for the summit crossing including Brindley's scheme for supplying the summit with water. Weston changes the design to twenty feet from thirty feet but increases the depth from four to six feet of water, acting as a reservoir. By March, 1793, the company has exhausted its project funding and has accumulated $56,000 in liabilities ($1\\.5 million in 2018 US dollars). In April, the [Conewago Canal](/wiki/Conewago_Canal \"Conewago Canal\") is incorporated as a separate company with James Brindley as chief engineer. That same month the Company Board directs engineer Weston to \"make the Tulpehocken side of the summit the priority ...\" as well to develop more sources of water to supply the summit crossing.",
"During the same period, the company moved to acquire right of way on the Tulpehocken creekside by legally enforcing its eminent domain rights. However the effort was met with \"a large force . ... armed with clubs who oppose (seizing the land) ... in the meantime, landowners refuse to allow entry onto their land.\" The pace of construction slowed and in that summer of 1793, Superintendent Bull resigned. The company arranges for some interim financing in the form of a $4,000 loan from Major [Edward Burd](/wiki/Edward_Burd \"Edward Burd\"). That summer was also notable for the first [yellow fever epidemic](/wiki/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic \"1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic\") in 30 years began in the city of Philadelphia in August, 1793\\.[Mark A. Smith, \"Andrew Brown's 'Earnest Endeavor': The *Federal Gazette* 's Role in Philadelphia's Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793\"](https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/20093070?uid=3739744&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=55962658413), *The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,* Vol. 120, No. 4 (Oct., 1996\\), pp. 321–342, accessed 28 March 2012{{cite book \\| last\\=Rush \\| first\\=Benjamin \\|authorlink\\=Benjamin Rush\\| title\\= An Account of the Bilious Yellow Fever of 1793, 1794, p.6 \\| year\\=1794 \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=crA\\_AAAAcAAJ\\&q\\=%22an\\+account\\+of\\+the\\+epidemic\\+bilious\\+remitting\\+fever%22\\&pg\\=PA90 \\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2012 }} It was one of the most severe epidemics in the United States. At the height of the panic from the epidemic in late August 1793, the Company closed its offices, and they would remain closed through November of that year. This crippled the company's ability to raise additional funding for construction.",
"The Myerstown Riots occurred at [Myerstown, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Myerstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Myerstown, Pennsylvania\"), in [Lebanon County](/wiki/Lebanon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lebanon County, Pennsylvania\"), when \"a group of young men from the town crash(ed) a party of canal men at a local tavern and provoke(d) a brawl in response to a recent insult; the canal men (broke into) several houses looking for their assailants; German residents had long opposed the canal for exercising eminent domain, and fights were frequent because of ethnic differences between German residents and canal workers, who were Scots\\-Irish or Irish.\" The riots continued for several days and were further inflamed by a mob of over 100 canal men \"... armed with clubs and led by an overseer armed with pistols march on Myerstown and proceeded to intimidate townspeople while seizing and beating the young men they suspected of starting the brawl the previous night.\"",
"In 1794, as part of the [federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States \"Federal government of the United States\")'s response to the [Whiskey Rebellion](/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion%23Militia_expedition \"Whiskey Rebellion#Militia expedition\"), [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\"), according to historian [Joseph Ellis](/wiki/Joseph_Ellis \"Joseph Ellis\"), became \"the first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field\".Ellis, *His Excellency, George Washington*, 225\\. Washington left Philadelphia which at that time was the [capital city](/wiki/List_of_capitals_in_the_United_States%23Capitals_of_the_United_States \"List of capitals in the United States#Capitals of the United States\") for the country on the 30th of September to first dine at Norristown and then stay the night at what is now Trappe, Pennsylvania.Washington, G., Jackson, D., \\& Twohig, D. (1976\\). The diaries of George Washington. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Accessed at [https://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/644873705?page\\=frame\\&url\\=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkigTAQAAMAAJ%26checksum%3Dba5f03da41c8eb81c13f065ffff48b64\\&title\\=\\&linktype\\=digitalObject\\&detail\\=](https://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/644873705?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkigTAQAAMAAJ%26checksum%3Dba5f03da41c8eb81c13f065ffff48b64&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail=) on June 30, 2018\\. The next day he traveled to [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania \"Reading, Pennsylvania\") on his way to meet up with the rest of the militia he ordered mobilized at [Carlisle](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Pennsylvania \"Carlisle, Pennsylvania\"). On the second of October, 1794, Washington left Reading heading west to [Womelsdorf](/wiki/Womelsdorf%2C_Pennsylvania \"Womelsdorf, Pennsylvania\") in order to \"view the canal from Myerstown towards Lebanon and the locks between the two places ...\". Another officer on the march noted that at that time, ten miles of canal had been excavated and five locks constructed for a total lift of thirty feet in elevation.",
"By the end of 1793, Weston reported to the board that \"... lawsuits and jury awards have slowed the work. ... \" While Weston had over four hundred men working on the project that summer, by the end of the year, most of his workforce had left the project. The remaining workforce was assigned to work on the towpath. In the end, Weston had completed 4\\.25 miles of the canal prism through the narrows between the two springs. Weston, though had to narrow the summit cut to pass only one boat at a time. Crucially, Weston had also to acknowledge a problem that none of his predecessors had faced when he was forced to \"... line both sides of the canal with drywall stones to reduce leakage.\" Going into 1794, Weston estimated that he needed $231,000 ($4\\.9 million in 2018 US dollars) for the years work requiring the company to raise another $120 thousand in capital. The company was unable to raise the capital or borrow the money and on May 3, 1794, it reported that its funds were exhausted. However, the company continued to make attempts to raise funds for the project, and in December 1794, Chief engineer Weston reported on the state of the project.\n\"William Weston issues his last report on Schuylkill \\& Susquehanna Navigation; notes that £8,526 has been spent on 4 miles and 16½ chains of canal between Kreitzer's and the east end of the summit level, five locks and two bridges completed, and sixth lock and two more bridges nearly done.\"\nFunds are still insufficient and the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company in the close of 1794 makes its final payroll and informs Weston that in the future he is solely an employee of the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company. The company's efforts were futile as no additional funds were secured. Finally, in April 1795, the Board authorizes Weston \"to sell the company's teams and send the rest to Philadelphia for sale; the company's stock of black powder is to be sent to Norristown for the use of the Delaware \\& Schuylkill Canal; Weston appoints seven men to take care of the works, which are effectively abandoned and never brought into use.\" In the spring of 1796, the Board orders the disposal of all the bricks Weston had manufactured for construction of the canal's [locks](/wiki/Lock_%28water_navigation%29%23Use_of_water \"Lock (water navigation)#Use of water\") effectively terminating the project.",
"As the navigation company exhausted its funding by early 1795, in May of that year the Board terminated Weston's employment contract with the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation company. Weston though was still was obligated to work with the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal company. By the spring of 1796, Weston reported that six miles of canal had been completed, three at each side but that due to lack of funds, the work had been terminated. The Board for the canal company also terminated Weston's employment contract that spring. Weston went on to work with Gen. Phillip Schuyler for [Western Inland Lock Navigation Company](/wiki/Erie_Canal%23Proposals \"Erie Canal#Proposals\") for 4 years. During this period, [Benjamin Wright](/wiki/Benjamin_Wright_%28civil_engineer%29 \"Benjamin Wright (civil engineer)\") (1770\\-1842\\) who was later to become [chief engineer](/wiki/Chief_engineer \"Chief engineer\") of the [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal \"Erie Canal\") and other projects, worked under Weston.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{main\|M\-35 (Michigan highway)\|l1\=M\-35}}
### Background
[thumb\|A section of the 1932 Michigan State Dept. of Highways road map showing M\-35 in northern Marquette and Baraga counties\|alt\=A map of northern Marquette and Baraga counties in Michigan's Upper Peninsula showing US 41/M\-28 running through the central part of the counties. M\-35 extends north into the Huron Mountains region with the central segment marked as "Impassable".](/wiki/File:M-35_1932.jpg "M-35 1932.jpg")
In 1919, the [Michigan State Highway Department](/wiki/Michigan_State_Highway_Department "Michigan State Highway Department") (MSHD) designated a scenic shoreline trunkline to run north from Negaunee to [Skanee](/wiki/Skanee%2C_Michigan "Skanee, Michigan") and [L'Anse](/wiki/L%27Anse%2C_Michigan "L'Anse, Michigan") by way of Big Bay. The highway would continue from the L'Anse and [Baraga](/wiki/Baraga%2C_Michigan "Baraga, Michigan") area to eventually end at [Ontonagon](/wiki/Ontonagon%2C_Michigan "Ontonagon, Michigan") at an intersection with [M\-64](/wiki/M-64_%28Michigan_highway%29 "M-64 (Michigan highway)").{{cite book \|author \= Automobile Legal Association \|year \= 1930 \|chapter \= Route Log of State Highway Systems \|title \= Automobile Green Book \|edition \= 1930–31 \|location \= Boston \|publisher \= Scarborough Motor Guide Co \|pages \= 45\+ \|oclc \= 24448978 }} Local Upper Peninsula historian Fred Rydholm summarized the routing planned in 1925 as extending "... in a northwesterly direction, across the [Dead River](/wiki/Dead_River_%28Michigan%29 "Dead River (Michigan)"), over the Panorama Hills, then west past the Elm Creek swamp, along the south side of Burnt Mountain, across the Cedar Creek, the Cliff Stream and out past Cliff Lake to Skanee and L'Anse".{{cite book \|last \= Rydholm \|first \= C. Fred \|year \= 1989 \|title \= Superior Heartland: A Backwoods History \|volume \= 1 \|location \= Ann Arbor, Michigan \|publisher \= Braun\-Brumfield \|pages \= 508–515 \|isbn \= 0\-9639948\-2\-4 \|lccn \= 89\-90710 \|oclc \= 20652946 }} This highway was designated as an extension of M\-35, which ended in downtown Negaunee. Work was completed on a significant portion of the route in [Marquette County](/wiki/Marquette_County%2C_Michigan "Marquette County, Michigan") by 1926\. M\-35 was routed east along M\-15 toward [Marquette](/wiki/Marquette%2C_Michigan "Marquette, Michigan") before turning north\-northwesterly toward Big Bay. This section of roadway follows the modern CR 510 in Marquette County. Similar work was completed in [Baraga County](/wiki/Baraga_County%2C_Michigan "Baraga County, Michigan") connecting L'Anse and Skanee by 1932\.
Construction on the two ends left the center portion through the [Huron Mountains](/wiki/Huron_Mountains "Huron Mountains") unfinished and shown on state maps as a dashed line marked "impassable".{{cite MDOT map \|date \= 1932\-07\-01 \|sections \= B4–B5 }} The section not included in CR 510, with guard rails and cement culverts has been called "Blind 35" since.{{cite map \|author1 \= Rockford Map Publishers \|author2 \= Michigan State University Cooperative Extension Service \|name\-list\-style \= amp \|year \= 2001 \|title \= Land Atlas and Plat Book of Marquette County, Michigan \|map \= Powell Twp. T51N–R27W \|edition \= 15th \|scale \= 1:50,688 \|location \= Rockford, Illinois \|publisher \= Rockford Map Publishers \|page \= 65 \|oclc \= 41970440 }}
[thumb\|left\|The Steel Bridge carrying M\-35 over the Dead River in 1922\|alt\=Historic photo of the Steel Bridge over the Dead River](/wiki/File:CR510_steel_bridge_1922.jpg "CR510 steel bridge 1922.jpg")
One of the first tasks for the MSHD was bridging the Dead River in Negaunee Township, {{convert\|3\|mi\|km\|spell\=in}} north of US 41\.{{cite book \|last \= Hyde \|first \= Charles K. \|year \= 1993 \|title \= Historic Highway Bridges of Michigan \|location \= Detroit \|publisher \= \[\[Wayne State University Press]] \|isbn \= 0\-8143\-2448\-7 \|oclc \= 27011079 \|pages \= 70–72 \|url\-access \= registration \|url \= https://archive.org/details/historichighwayb0000hyde/page/70 \|access\-date \= September 7, 2019 \|via \= \[\[Archive.org]] }} The state solved the problem by buying a bridge in Pennsylvania, where bridges of this design were more common. MDOT describes the bridge as:
{{Blockquote\|... a rare Pennsylvania through truss highway bridge, particularly because of the length \[{{convert\|271\|ft\|m\|0}}] of this single span. It was purchased by the State Highway Department in 1919, moved from an unspecified \[\[Allegheny River]] site, probably considerably upstream from \[\[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania\|Pittsburgh]], and then erected on this site in 1921\.{{cite web \|author \= Michigan Department of Transportation \|date \= April 19, 2002 \|url \= http://www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,1607,7\-151\-9620\_11154\_11188\-29396\-\-,00\.html \|title \= County Rd. 510–Dead River \|work \= Michigan's Historic Bridges \|publisher \= Michigan Department of Transportation \|access\-date \= May 9, 2012 }}}} The structure has been known as the Steel Bridge to local residents since it was reassembled over the Dead River.
### Henry Ford
Records of the [Huron Mountain Club](/wiki/Huron_Mountain_Club "Huron Mountain Club"), an exclusive private organization with large land holdings in northern Michigan, show that Henry Ford visited the Upper Peninsula many times, including at least once with [Harvey Firestone](/wiki/Harvey_Firestone "Harvey Firestone") and [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison "Thomas Edison") on Ford's yacht, *Sialia*. Many of these trips involved research to keep his operations supplied.{{cite book \|last \= Mayor \|first \= Archer \|year \= 1988 \|title \= Huron Mountain Club: The First Hundred Years \|location \= Dexter, Michigan \|publisher \= Thompson\-Shore \|pages \= 88–89 \|oclc \= 608430314 }} His UP land provided wood for the manufacture of Ford automobiles such as the [Model T](/wiki/Model_T "Model T"), which required {{convert\|250\|board feet\|lk\=on\|sigfig\=2}} of lumber per car. Ford, who was considering becoming the "owner–producer–handler" of the resources he needed, invested in [sawmills](/wiki/Sawmill "Sawmill") in [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta%2C_Michigan "Alberta, Michigan") and [Kingsford](/wiki/Kingsford%2C_Michigan "Kingsford, Michigan"). He also bought the entire town of [Pequaming](/wiki/Pequaming%2C_Michigan "Pequaming, Michigan"), along the shores of the [Keweenaw Bay](/wiki/Keweenaw_Bay "Keweenaw Bay"). The town belonged to Dan Hebard, who also sold Ford a sawmill, [tugboats](/wiki/Tugboat "Tugboat"), a 14\-room [bungalow](/wiki/Bungalow "Bungalow"), and land near the Huron Mountain Club. Hebard retired to spend his summers at a cabin on the Pine River on land belonging to the club.
Ford built a [hydroelectric dam](/wiki/Hydroelectric_dam "Hydroelectric dam") along the [Menominee River](/wiki/Menominee_River "Menominee River") to supply power to the Kingsford mill, bought the Imperial Mine, and opened the Blueberry Mine near [Ishpeming](/wiki/Ishpeming%2C_Michigan "Ishpeming, Michigan") to supply iron ore. The Ford Railroad was constructed between [L'Anse](/wiki/L%27Anse%2C_Michigan "L'Anse, Michigan") and the Cliff River for his logging operations on {{convert\|300000\|acre\|sigfig\=1\|lk\=on}} of timberland purchased in 1922\. He often visited the Upper Peninsula on business, but as early as 1917, the year he ran for a seat in the [U.S. Senate](/wiki/U.S._Senate "U.S. Senate"), he sought entry into the Huron Mountain Club. Since the club limited its membership, Ford worked to improve his chances. His admission would ultimately come when M\-35 construction was halted in the Huron Mountains.
Hunters, campers, hikers, fishermen and some landowners opposed highway construction near the Huron Mountains. Rydholm said, "... there seemed to be no groundswell of sentiment in favor of it, but it looked as the though the die was cast and nothing could be done to stop it". The Huron Mountain Club members opposed the highway because it would open vast reaches of the back country and might harm the wilderness. Highway construction would also open the possibility of a resort hotel. William C. Weber, a real estate developer from Detroit, owned property along Mountain Lake, in northern Marquette County. A [Michigan attorney general](/wiki/Michigan_Attorney_General "Michigan Attorney General")'s opinion provided a way for blocking the road if two\-thirds of the property over which the road would pass was owned by people opposed to the project. The proposed highway was to cross two {{convert\|40\|acre\|sigfig\=2\|adj\=on}} parcels of Huron Mountain Club property, but that was not enough to halt construction.
In 1926, Hebard was elected the new president at the Huron Mountain Club and changed its rules for admission. Before the changes, all existing members voted on new admissions, and four "no" votes meant rejection. After Hebard's changes, only club directors could vote, and only one "no" was needed to block election. In 1927, the road grading for M\-35 had reached the Salmon Trout River. That same year, Ford bought more land near Mountain Lake. This property encompassed more than the requisite two\-thirds necessary to stop construction of the road. In 1928, the road was moved to connect with the Big Bay Road (CR 550\), leaving the stub of "Blind 35" behind. According to club records, "by 1929, M\-35 was dead in its tracks and Henry Ford was a member". To commemorate his membership, Ford built a white pine log cabin on club property that cost between $80,000 and $100,000 in 1929 (equivalent to ${{Formatnum:{{Inflation\|US\-GDP\|80000\|1929\|r\=\-3}}}} to ${{Formatprice\|{{Inflation\|US\-GDP\|100000\|1929\|r\=\-3}}}} in {{inflation\-year\|US\-GDP}}{{inflation\-fn\|US\-GDP}}).
### After Ford
In 1939, M\-35 from Negaunee to Big Bay to L'Anse was officially canceled as a state trunkline highway.{{cite MDOT map \|date \= 1939\-04\-15 \|link \= yes \|c\-link \= yes \|section \= B5 }}{{cite MDOT map \|date \=1939\-07\-15 \|section \= B5 }} Constructed portions were turned over to local control, becoming CR 510 in Marquette County.
The Steel Bridge is still in place over the Dead River and previously carried CR 510 as the successor to M\-35 in northern Marquette County. It survived a May 15, 2003, flood caused by the breaching of the [Silver Lake Dam](/wiki/Silver_Lake_Dam_%28Michigan%29 "Silver Lake Dam (Michigan)").{{cite news \|last1 \= Lake \|first1 \= James \|last2 \= Sargent \|first2 \= Bud \|name\-list\-style \= amp \|date \= May 16, 2003 \|title \= Nature's Wrath: Silver Lake Dam Failure Triggers Disaster \|work \= The Mining Journal \|location \= Marquette, Michigan \|pages \= A1, A10 \|issn \= 0898\-4964 \|oclc \= 9729223 }} The Marquette County Road Commission had announced plans in 2006 to bypass the structure with a modern replacement, leaving the existing bridge as a footpath or bike path.{{cite news \|title \= Plans to Replace Historic Bridge Underway \|publisher \= WLUC\-TV \|location \= Negaunee, Michigan \|date \= May 2, 2006 }} Construction on the bypass road and replacement bridge began in October 2007\. The concrete work for the replacement span was started in late 2009, with an original projected completion date of November 1, 2010\. The new crossing is {{convert\|100\|ft}} above river level compared to the {{convert\|10\|ft}} for the 1921 span. The total budget for bridge construction was $4\.5 million and an additional $1\.7 million for the approach work, with an 80\-percent federal, 15\-percent state and 5\-percent county funding split.{{cite news \|last \= Pepin \|first \= John \|title \= 510 Bridge Replacement \|work \= \[\[The Mining Journal]] \|location \= Marquette, Michigan \|date \= June 7, 2010 \|url \= http://www.miningjournal.net/page/content.detail/id/545021\.html \|access\-date \= May 9, 2012 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718225137/http://www.miningjournal.net/page/content.detail/id/545021\.html \|archive\-date \= July 18, 2011 \|issn \= 0898\-4964 \|oclc \= 9729223 }} The new bridge opened to traffic in September 2010, diverting traffic from the Steel Bridge. Completion of the new span came after about a decade of planning.{{cite news \|last \= Pepin \|first \= John \|title \= New Bridge Over the Dead River Drawing a lot of Attention, but Be Careful \|url \= http://www.miningjournal.net/page/content.detail/id/549312/New\-bridge\-over\-the\-Dead\-River\-drawing\-a\-lot\-of\-attention\-\-but\-be\-careful.html \|work \= The Mining Journal \|location \= Marquette, Michigan \|date \= October 4, 2010 \|access\-date \= May 9, 2012 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718225150/http://www.miningjournal.net/page/content.detail/id/549312/New\-bridge\-over\-the\-Dead\-River\-drawing\-a\-lot\-of\-attention\-\-but\-be\-careful.html \|archive\-date \= July 18, 2011 \|issn \= 0898\-4964 \|url\-status \= live \|oclc \= 9729223 }}
{{\-}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{main\\|M\\-35 (Michigan highway)\\|l1\\=M\\-35}}",
"### Background",
"[thumb\\|A section of the 1932 Michigan State Dept. of Highways road map showing M\\-35 in northern Marquette and Baraga counties\\|alt\\=A map of northern Marquette and Baraga counties in Michigan's Upper Peninsula showing US 41/M\\-28 running through the central part of the counties. M\\-35 extends north into the Huron Mountains region with the central segment marked as \"Impassable\".](/wiki/File:M-35_1932.jpg \"M-35 1932.jpg\")\nIn 1919, the [Michigan State Highway Department](/wiki/Michigan_State_Highway_Department \"Michigan State Highway Department\") (MSHD) designated a scenic shoreline trunkline to run north from Negaunee to [Skanee](/wiki/Skanee%2C_Michigan \"Skanee, Michigan\") and [L'Anse](/wiki/L%27Anse%2C_Michigan \"L'Anse, Michigan\") by way of Big Bay. The highway would continue from the L'Anse and [Baraga](/wiki/Baraga%2C_Michigan \"Baraga, Michigan\") area to eventually end at [Ontonagon](/wiki/Ontonagon%2C_Michigan \"Ontonagon, Michigan\") at an intersection with [M\\-64](/wiki/M-64_%28Michigan_highway%29 \"M-64 (Michigan highway)\").{{cite book \\|author \\= Automobile Legal Association \\|year \\= 1930 \\|chapter \\= Route Log of State Highway Systems \\|title \\= Automobile Green Book \\|edition \\= 1930–31 \\|location \\= Boston \\|publisher \\= Scarborough Motor Guide Co \\|pages \\= 45\\+ \\|oclc \\= 24448978 }} Local Upper Peninsula historian Fred Rydholm summarized the routing planned in 1925 as extending \"... in a northwesterly direction, across the [Dead River](/wiki/Dead_River_%28Michigan%29 \"Dead River (Michigan)\"), over the Panorama Hills, then west past the Elm Creek swamp, along the south side of Burnt Mountain, across the Cedar Creek, the Cliff Stream and out past Cliff Lake to Skanee and L'Anse\".{{cite book \\|last \\= Rydholm \\|first \\= C. Fred \\|year \\= 1989 \\|title \\= Superior Heartland: A Backwoods History \\|volume \\= 1 \\|location \\= Ann Arbor, Michigan \\|publisher \\= Braun\\-Brumfield \\|pages \\= 508–515 \\|isbn \\= 0\\-9639948\\-2\\-4 \\|lccn \\= 89\\-90710 \\|oclc \\= 20652946 }} This highway was designated as an extension of M\\-35, which ended in downtown Negaunee. Work was completed on a significant portion of the route in [Marquette County](/wiki/Marquette_County%2C_Michigan \"Marquette County, Michigan\") by 1926\\. M\\-35 was routed east along M\\-15 toward [Marquette](/wiki/Marquette%2C_Michigan \"Marquette, Michigan\") before turning north\\-northwesterly toward Big Bay. This section of roadway follows the modern CR 510 in Marquette County. Similar work was completed in [Baraga County](/wiki/Baraga_County%2C_Michigan \"Baraga County, Michigan\") connecting L'Anse and Skanee by 1932\\.",
"Construction on the two ends left the center portion through the [Huron Mountains](/wiki/Huron_Mountains \"Huron Mountains\") unfinished and shown on state maps as a dashed line marked \"impassable\".{{cite MDOT map \\|date \\= 1932\\-07\\-01 \\|sections \\= B4–B5 }} The section not included in CR 510, with guard rails and cement culverts has been called \"Blind 35\" since.{{cite map \\|author1 \\= Rockford Map Publishers \\|author2 \\= Michigan State University Cooperative Extension Service \\|name\\-list\\-style \\= amp \\|year \\= 2001 \\|title \\= Land Atlas and Plat Book of Marquette County, Michigan \\|map \\= Powell Twp. T51N–R27W \\|edition \\= 15th \\|scale \\= 1:50,688 \\|location \\= Rockford, Illinois \\|publisher \\= Rockford Map Publishers \\|page \\= 65 \\|oclc \\= 41970440 }}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The Steel Bridge carrying M\\-35 over the Dead River in 1922\\|alt\\=Historic photo of the Steel Bridge over the Dead River](/wiki/File:CR510_steel_bridge_1922.jpg \"CR510 steel bridge 1922.jpg\")\nOne of the first tasks for the MSHD was bridging the Dead River in Negaunee Township, {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km\\|spell\\=in}} north of US 41\\.{{cite book \\|last \\= Hyde \\|first \\= Charles K. \\|year \\= 1993 \\|title \\= Historic Highway Bridges of Michigan \\|location \\= Detroit \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Wayne State University Press]] \\|isbn \\= 0\\-8143\\-2448\\-7 \\|oclc \\= 27011079 \\|pages \\= 70–72 \\|url\\-access \\= registration \\|url \\= https://archive.org/details/historichighwayb0000hyde/page/70 \\|access\\-date \\= September 7, 2019 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Archive.org]] }} The state solved the problem by buying a bridge in Pennsylvania, where bridges of this design were more common. MDOT describes the bridge as:\n{{Blockquote\\|... a rare Pennsylvania through truss highway bridge, particularly because of the length \\[{{convert\\|271\\|ft\\|m\\|0}}] of this single span. It was purchased by the State Highway Department in 1919, moved from an unspecified \\[\\[Allegheny River]] site, probably considerably upstream from \\[\\[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania\\|Pittsburgh]], and then erected on this site in 1921\\.{{cite web \\|author \\= Michigan Department of Transportation \\|date \\= April 19, 2002 \\|url \\= http://www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,1607,7\\-151\\-9620\\_11154\\_11188\\-29396\\-\\-,00\\.html \\|title \\= County Rd. 510–Dead River \\|work \\= Michigan's Historic Bridges \\|publisher \\= Michigan Department of Transportation \\|access\\-date \\= May 9, 2012 }}}} The structure has been known as the Steel Bridge to local residents since it was reassembled over the Dead River.",
"### Henry Ford",
"Records of the [Huron Mountain Club](/wiki/Huron_Mountain_Club \"Huron Mountain Club\"), an exclusive private organization with large land holdings in northern Michigan, show that Henry Ford visited the Upper Peninsula many times, including at least once with [Harvey Firestone](/wiki/Harvey_Firestone \"Harvey Firestone\") and [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison \"Thomas Edison\") on Ford's yacht, *Sialia*. Many of these trips involved research to keep his operations supplied.{{cite book \\|last \\= Mayor \\|first \\= Archer \\|year \\= 1988 \\|title \\= Huron Mountain Club: The First Hundred Years \\|location \\= Dexter, Michigan \\|publisher \\= Thompson\\-Shore \\|pages \\= 88–89 \\|oclc \\= 608430314 }} His UP land provided wood for the manufacture of Ford automobiles such as the [Model T](/wiki/Model_T \"Model T\"), which required {{convert\\|250\\|board feet\\|lk\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2}} of lumber per car. Ford, who was considering becoming the \"owner–producer–handler\" of the resources he needed, invested in [sawmills](/wiki/Sawmill \"Sawmill\") in [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta%2C_Michigan \"Alberta, Michigan\") and [Kingsford](/wiki/Kingsford%2C_Michigan \"Kingsford, Michigan\"). He also bought the entire town of [Pequaming](/wiki/Pequaming%2C_Michigan \"Pequaming, Michigan\"), along the shores of the [Keweenaw Bay](/wiki/Keweenaw_Bay \"Keweenaw Bay\"). The town belonged to Dan Hebard, who also sold Ford a sawmill, [tugboats](/wiki/Tugboat \"Tugboat\"), a 14\\-room [bungalow](/wiki/Bungalow \"Bungalow\"), and land near the Huron Mountain Club. Hebard retired to spend his summers at a cabin on the Pine River on land belonging to the club.",
"Ford built a [hydroelectric dam](/wiki/Hydroelectric_dam \"Hydroelectric dam\") along the [Menominee River](/wiki/Menominee_River \"Menominee River\") to supply power to the Kingsford mill, bought the Imperial Mine, and opened the Blueberry Mine near [Ishpeming](/wiki/Ishpeming%2C_Michigan \"Ishpeming, Michigan\") to supply iron ore. The Ford Railroad was constructed between [L'Anse](/wiki/L%27Anse%2C_Michigan \"L'Anse, Michigan\") and the Cliff River for his logging operations on {{convert\\|300000\\|acre\\|sigfig\\=1\\|lk\\=on}} of timberland purchased in 1922\\. He often visited the Upper Peninsula on business, but as early as 1917, the year he ran for a seat in the [U.S. Senate](/wiki/U.S._Senate \"U.S. Senate\"), he sought entry into the Huron Mountain Club. Since the club limited its membership, Ford worked to improve his chances. His admission would ultimately come when M\\-35 construction was halted in the Huron Mountains.",
"Hunters, campers, hikers, fishermen and some landowners opposed highway construction near the Huron Mountains. Rydholm said, \"... there seemed to be no groundswell of sentiment in favor of it, but it looked as the though the die was cast and nothing could be done to stop it\". The Huron Mountain Club members opposed the highway because it would open vast reaches of the back country and might harm the wilderness. Highway construction would also open the possibility of a resort hotel. William C. Weber, a real estate developer from Detroit, owned property along Mountain Lake, in northern Marquette County. A [Michigan attorney general](/wiki/Michigan_Attorney_General \"Michigan Attorney General\")'s opinion provided a way for blocking the road if two\\-thirds of the property over which the road would pass was owned by people opposed to the project. The proposed highway was to cross two {{convert\\|40\\|acre\\|sigfig\\=2\\|adj\\=on}} parcels of Huron Mountain Club property, but that was not enough to halt construction.",
"In 1926, Hebard was elected the new president at the Huron Mountain Club and changed its rules for admission. Before the changes, all existing members voted on new admissions, and four \"no\" votes meant rejection. After Hebard's changes, only club directors could vote, and only one \"no\" was needed to block election. In 1927, the road grading for M\\-35 had reached the Salmon Trout River. That same year, Ford bought more land near Mountain Lake. This property encompassed more than the requisite two\\-thirds necessary to stop construction of the road. In 1928, the road was moved to connect with the Big Bay Road (CR 550\\), leaving the stub of \"Blind 35\" behind. According to club records, \"by 1929, M\\-35 was dead in its tracks and Henry Ford was a member\". To commemorate his membership, Ford built a white pine log cabin on club property that cost between $80,000 and $100,000 in 1929 (equivalent to ${{Formatnum:{{Inflation\\|US\\-GDP\\|80000\\|1929\\|r\\=\\-3}}}} to ${{Formatprice\\|{{Inflation\\|US\\-GDP\\|100000\\|1929\\|r\\=\\-3}}}} in {{inflation\\-year\\|US\\-GDP}}{{inflation\\-fn\\|US\\-GDP}}).",
"### After Ford",
"In 1939, M\\-35 from Negaunee to Big Bay to L'Anse was officially canceled as a state trunkline highway.{{cite MDOT map \\|date \\= 1939\\-04\\-15 \\|link \\= yes \\|c\\-link \\= yes \\|section \\= B5 }}{{cite MDOT map \\|date \\=1939\\-07\\-15 \\|section \\= B5 }} Constructed portions were turned over to local control, becoming CR 510 in Marquette County.",
"The Steel Bridge is still in place over the Dead River and previously carried CR 510 as the successor to M\\-35 in northern Marquette County. It survived a May 15, 2003, flood caused by the breaching of the [Silver Lake Dam](/wiki/Silver_Lake_Dam_%28Michigan%29 \"Silver Lake Dam (Michigan)\").{{cite news \\|last1 \\= Lake \\|first1 \\= James \\|last2 \\= Sargent \\|first2 \\= Bud \\|name\\-list\\-style \\= amp \\|date \\= May 16, 2003 \\|title \\= Nature's Wrath: Silver Lake Dam Failure Triggers Disaster \\|work \\= The Mining Journal \\|location \\= Marquette, Michigan \\|pages \\= A1, A10 \\|issn \\= 0898\\-4964 \\|oclc \\= 9729223 }} The Marquette County Road Commission had announced plans in 2006 to bypass the structure with a modern replacement, leaving the existing bridge as a footpath or bike path.{{cite news \\|title \\= Plans to Replace Historic Bridge Underway \\|publisher \\= WLUC\\-TV \\|location \\= Negaunee, Michigan \\|date \\= May 2, 2006 }} Construction on the bypass road and replacement bridge began in October 2007\\. The concrete work for the replacement span was started in late 2009, with an original projected completion date of November 1, 2010\\. The new crossing is {{convert\\|100\\|ft}} above river level compared to the {{convert\\|10\\|ft}} for the 1921 span. The total budget for bridge construction was $4\\.5 million and an additional $1\\.7 million for the approach work, with an 80\\-percent federal, 15\\-percent state and 5\\-percent county funding split.{{cite news \\|last \\= Pepin \\|first \\= John \\|title \\= 510 Bridge Replacement \\|work \\= \\[\\[The Mining Journal]] \\|location \\= Marquette, Michigan \\|date \\= June 7, 2010 \\|url \\= http://www.miningjournal.net/page/content.detail/id/545021\\.html \\|access\\-date \\= May 9, 2012 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718225137/http://www.miningjournal.net/page/content.detail/id/545021\\.html \\|archive\\-date \\= July 18, 2011 \\|issn \\= 0898\\-4964 \\|oclc \\= 9729223 }} The new bridge opened to traffic in September 2010, diverting traffic from the Steel Bridge. Completion of the new span came after about a decade of planning.{{cite news \\|last \\= Pepin \\|first \\= John \\|title \\= New Bridge Over the Dead River Drawing a lot of Attention, but Be Careful \\|url \\= http://www.miningjournal.net/page/content.detail/id/549312/New\\-bridge\\-over\\-the\\-Dead\\-River\\-drawing\\-a\\-lot\\-of\\-attention\\-\\-but\\-be\\-careful.html \\|work \\= The Mining Journal \\|location \\= Marquette, Michigan \\|date \\= October 4, 2010 \\|access\\-date \\= May 9, 2012 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718225150/http://www.miningjournal.net/page/content.detail/id/549312/New\\-bridge\\-over\\-the\\-Dead\\-River\\-drawing\\-a\\-lot\\-of\\-attention\\-\\-but\\-be\\-careful.html \\|archive\\-date \\= July 18, 2011 \\|issn \\= 0898\\-4964 \\|url\\-status \\= live \\|oclc \\= 9729223 }}\n{{\\-}}",
""
] |
Gradual reunification under Cao Cao (196–207\)
----------------------------------------------
### Cao Cao's use of Emperor Xian as titular authority
While Yuan Shao was still indecisive on whether to welcome Emperor Xian or not, [Cao Cao](/wiki/Cao_Cao "Cao Cao") took advantage of the situation to bring the emperor to his territory. At that time, Cao Cao was still a relatively minor warlord, with only Yan Province (兗州; covering present\-day western [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong") and eastern [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")) under his control. In 196, Cao Cao led his army towards Luoyang. He encountered [Dong Cheng](/wiki/Dong_Cheng_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Dong Cheng (Han dynasty)") and [Yang Feng](/wiki/Yang_Feng "Yang Feng") (who were shielding Emperor Xian from Li Jue and Guo Si), convinced them of his loyalty, and was allowed to meet the emperor. In name, Cao Cao was sharing power with the other officials and nobles, but actually, he was in control, but yet he ensured that the officials and nobles were treated with due respect, hence he faced minimal opposition in the imperial court. Later, Cao Cao escorted the emperor back to his base in Xu (許; present\-day [Xuchang](/wiki/Xuchang "Xuchang"), Henan), establishing the new capital there.
From then on, although Cao Cao was a subject of Emperor Xian in name, he actually wielded state power and controlled the imperial court. Despite so, Cao Cao never showed disrespect to Emperor Xian, and instead, honoured the emperor according to formal imperial protocol. Cao Cao also issued imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name to other warlords, ordering them to submit to imperial authority when in fact they were actually submitting to him. Yuan Shao was among those who had received Cao Cao’s edicts; only then did Yuan realize that he had lost an opportunity to make use of the emperor to control other warlords.
### Cao Cao's rise to power (196–199\)
{{multiple image\| align \= right \| direction \= horizontal \| header \= \| header\_align \= left/right/center \| footer \= An \[\[Eastern Han]] glazed ceramic statue of a horse with \[\[bridle]] and \[\[halter]] headgear, from \[\[Sichuan]], late 2nd century to early 3rd century AD\| footer\_align \= left \| image1 \= Sichuan, han orientali, cavallo con ciuffo e criniera corta, seconda metà II\-inizio III sec. 02\.JPG \| width1 \= 130 \| caption1 \= \| image2 \= Sichuan, han orientali, cavallo con ciuffo e criniera corta, seconda metà II\-inizio III sec. 03\.JPG \| width2 \= 263\| caption2 \= }}
[thumb\|200px\|An Eastern Han glazed ceramic [cosmetics](/wiki/Cosmetics "Cosmetics") box with zoomorphic feet](/wiki/File:Shanghai_Museum_2006_17-53.jpg "Shanghai Museum 2006 17-53.jpg")
Even after moving to the new capital at Xu, the central government still lacked funds and food supplies. As suggested by Zao Zhi (棗祇), Cao Cao implemented a new *[tuntian](/wiki/Tuntian "Tuntian")* policy to promote agricultural production, in which soldiers were sent to grow crops, and the harvest would be shared between the military and civilian population. The policy yielded commendable results as the area around Xu developed into highly productive farmland and the problem of shortage of food was resolved.
At this time, the most prominent warlords in China were:
* Yuan Shao, who controlled [Ji](/wiki/Jizhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Jizhou (ancient China)"), [Bing](/wiki/Bingzhou "Bingzhou") and [Qing](/wiki/Qingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Qingzhou (ancient China)") provinces (covering most of present\-day [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi "Shanxi") and [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")). Some of the territories were governed by Yuan Shao's three sons ([Yuan Tan](/wiki/Yuan_Tan "Yuan Tan"), [Yuan Xi](/wiki/Yuan_Xi "Yuan Xi") and [Yuan Shang](/wiki/Yuan_Shang "Yuan Shang")) and nephew ([Gao Gan](/wiki/Gao_Gan "Gao Gan")).
* [Yuan Shu](/wiki/Yuan_Shu "Yuan Shu"), who controlled most of present\-day [Anhui](/wiki/Anhui "Anhui") and parts of [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu "Jiangsu")
* [Gongsun Zan](/wiki/Gongsun_Zan "Gongsun Zan"), who controlled [You Province](/wiki/Youzhou "Youzhou"), including present\-day [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"), [Tianjin](/wiki/Tianjin "Tianjin") and western [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning "Liaoning")
* [Liu Biao](/wiki/Liu_Biao "Liu Biao"), who controlled [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Jingzhou (ancient China)") (covering present\-day [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei") and [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan "Hunan"))
* [Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 "Liu Zhang (warlord)"), who controlled [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province "Yi Province") (covering the [Sichuan Basin](/wiki/Sichuan_Basin "Sichuan Basin"))
* [Lü Bu](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu "Lü Bu"), who seized control of [Xu Province](/wiki/Xuzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Xuzhou (ancient China)") (covering present\-day northern [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu "Jiangsu")) from its previous governor [Liu Bei](/wiki/Liu_Bei "Liu Bei")
There were still many other minor warlords, and Cao Cao particularly sought to get them to submit to him. In 197, [Zhang Xiu](/wiki/Zhang_Xiu_%28warlord%29 "Zhang Xiu (warlord)") surrendered Wancheng to Cao Cao. However, Cao Cao later had an affair with Zhang Xiu's widowed aunt, angering Zhang. Zhang, who learned of Cao Cao's planned assassination on his life, rebelled and launched a surprise attack on Cao Cao at Wancheng. In [this battle](/wiki/War_between_Cao_Cao_and_Zhang_Xiu "War between Cao Cao and Zhang Xiu"), Cao Cao's eldest son [Cao Ang](/wiki/Cao_Ang "Cao Ang"), nephew Cao Anmin, and bodyguard [Dian Wei](/wiki/Dian_Wei "Dian Wei") were killed, and Cao Cao himself narrowly escaped from death. On the advice of [Jia Xu](/wiki/Jia_Xu "Jia Xu"), Zhang Xiu eventually surrendered to Cao Cao in the winter of 199–200\. In addition, in 197, Cao Cao was able to persuade [Ma Teng](/wiki/Ma_Teng "Ma Teng") and [Han Sui](/wiki/Han_Sui "Han Sui"), who controlled Yong and Liang provinces (covering most of present\-day [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi") and [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu "Gansu")), to submit to him.
That year, Yuan Shu declared himself "[Son of Heaven](/wiki/Emperor_of_China "Emperor of China")" in Shouchun (壽春; present\-day [Shou County](/wiki/Shou_County "Shou County"), Anhui), an act perceived as treason against the Han dynasty government, prompting other warlords to use that as an excuse to attack him (see [Campaign against Yuan Shu](/wiki/Campaign_against_Yuan_Shu "Campaign against Yuan Shu")). [Sun Ce](/wiki/Sun_Ce "Sun Ce"), son of [Sun Jian](/wiki/Sun_Jian "Sun Jian"), who had [conquered several territories](/wiki/Sun_Ce%27s_conquests_in_Jiangdong "Sun Ce's conquests in Jiangdong") in [Jiangdong](/wiki/Jiangnan "Jiangnan") between 194 and 199, ended his alliance with Yuan Shu and became an independent warlord. Lü Bu, who was also previously Yuan Shu's ally, broke ties with Yuan and dealt him a major defeat near Shouchun. Cao Cao also attacked Yuan Shu and defeated him. Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao but his way was blocked and he would die of illness on his return to Shouchun in 199\.
In 198, Yuan Shao tried to persuade Cao Cao to move the capital to Juancheng (鄄城; in present\-day [Heze](/wiki/Heze "Heze"), Shandong), which was nearer to his own territory, in an attempt to wrestle Emperor Xian away from Cao, but Cao refused. Later that year, Cao Cao joined forces with Liu Bei to attack Lü Bu, defeating him at the [Battle of Xiapi](/wiki/Battle_of_Xiapi "Battle of Xiapi"). Lü Bu was captured and executed on Cao Cao's order, and Xu Province came under Cao's control.
In 199, Gongsun Zan was defeated by Yuan Shao at the [Battle of Yijing](/wiki/Battle_of_Yijing "Battle of Yijing") and he committed suicide by setting himself on fire. Gongsun Zan's territories, which extended to the northern boundaries of the Han dynasty's empire, were completely annexed by Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao then turned his attention south towards Cao Cao, who was an emerging power in central China. Yuan allied with Liu Biao and was intent on attacking Cao Cao.
### Guandu campaign (200–201\)
{{Campaignbox Guandu campaign}}
[400px\|thumb\|Cao Cao's conquests from the Yuan clan 200–207](/wiki/File:Cao_Cao%27s_conquest_of_northern_China_200%E2%80%93207.png "Cao Cao's conquest of northern China 200–207.png")
{{main\|Battle of Guandu}}
Against the advice of [Ju Shou](/wiki/Ju_Shou "Ju Shou") and [Tian Feng](/wiki/Tian_Feng "Tian Feng"), who reasoned that their troops were exhausted after the battles against Gongsun Zan and needed rest, Yuan Shao prepared for a campaign against Cao Cao, confident that his much larger army could easily crush Cao Cao's. While Cao Cao readied himself for battle, he discovered that [Dong Cheng](/wiki/Dong_Cheng_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Dong Cheng (Han dynasty)"), Liu Bei and a few other officials were conspiring against him. In early 200, Liu Bei used an opportunity to break away from Cao Cao and seize control of [Xu Province](/wiki/Xuzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Xuzhou (ancient China)"), after killing Cao Cao's appointed governor of the province, [Che Zhou](/wiki/Che_Zhou "Che Zhou") (車冑). On the other hand, Dong Cheng and the others were making plans to assassinate Cao Cao. However, the plot was exposed and all the conspirators in the capital were massacred along with their families. Cao Cao then took a risk by attacking Liu Bei in Xu Province, leaving his flank open to attacks from Yuan Shao. However, Cao Cao made the right choice because Yuan Shao did not heed Tian Feng's urging to seize the chance to attack him. Liu Bei was defeated and he fled north to join Yuan Shao. Liu Bei's general [Guan Yu](/wiki/Guan_Yu "Guan Yu") surrendered to Cao Cao and temporarily served under Cao.
Only after Liu Bei's defeat did Yuan Shao start implementing his plan to attack Cao Cao, but this time Tian Feng opposed his decision, saying that their opportunity had passed. Yuan Shao became annoyed with Tian Feng and had Tian imprisoned, after which he led his army south to attack Cao Cao. At the [Battle of Boma](/wiki/Battle_of_Boma "Battle of Boma"), Yuan Shao's general [Yan Liang](/wiki/Yan_Liang "Yan Liang") was slain by Guan Yu while another of Yuan's generals, [Wen Chou](/wiki/Wen_Chou "Wen Chou"), was killed in action against Cao Cao's forces. The morale of Yuan Shao's army was greatly affected by the loss of the two generals.
By late 200, the armies of Yuan Shao and Cao Cao finally clashed at Guandu (官渡; in present\-day [Zhengzhou](/wiki/Zhengzhou "Zhengzhou"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")), south of the [Yellow River](/wiki/Yellow_River "Yellow River"). Yuan Shao had two advantages over Cao Cao \- numerical superiority and a greater amount of supplies, but Cao Cao's troops were better trained than his. After some minor skirmishes, both sides became locked in a stalemate, until Cao Cao personally led a small detachment on a surprise attack on Yuan Shao's supply depot at Wuchao, which was defended by [Chunyu Qiong](/wiki/Chunyu_Qiong "Chunyu Qiong"). Instead of sending reinforcements to Wuchao, Yuan Shao sent [Zhang He](/wiki/Zhang_He "Zhang He") and Gao Lan (高覽) to attack Cao Cao's camp but was unsuccessful. The fall of Wuchao dealt a major blow to the morale of Yuan Shao's army, which was subsequently routed by Cao Cao's forces. Yuan Shao fled north of the Yellow River while most of his troops were either killed or surrendered to Cao Cao. From that point on, although Yuan Shao continued to remain as a major power player, he could no longer challenge Cao Cao's growing supremacy. The latter destroyed and defeated the remaining Yuan troops south of the Yellow River in the [Battle of Cangting](/wiki/Battle_of_Cangting "Battle of Cangting") (201\), concluding the Guandu campaign.
### Fall of the Yuan power bloc (202–207\)
[thumb\|300px\|Late Eastern Han mural showing chariots and cavalry, from the [Dahuting](/wiki/Dahuting "Dahuting") tombs](/wiki/File:Dahuting_Tomb_mural%2C_cavalry_and_chariots%2C_Eastern_Han.jpg "Dahuting Tomb mural, cavalry and chariots, Eastern Han.jpg")
After Yuan Shao died of illness in 202, a succession struggle developed between his oldest son [Yuan Tan](/wiki/Yuan_Tan "Yuan Tan") and third son [Yuan Shang](/wiki/Yuan_Shang "Yuan Shang"). Several years before Yuan Shao's death, based on the traditional order of succession, Yuan Tan should have been designated as the [heir apparent](/wiki/Heir_apparent "Heir apparent"), but as Yuan Shao's wife Lady Liu favoured Yuan Shang, Yuan Shao had Yuan Tan posthumously adopted by the latter's uncle, Yuan Cheng (袁成). Yuan Shao then divided his territories between his sons and nephew [Gao Gan](/wiki/Gao_Gan "Gao Gan"), ostensibly so that he could determine their abilities. His base of Ji Province was given to Yuan Shang, Yuan Tan controlled Qing Province, [Yuan Xi](/wiki/Yuan_Xi "Yuan Xi") governed You Province, and Gao Gan ruled Bing Province. On his deathbed, Yuan Shao did not leave any explicit instruction as to who should succeed him. Of Yuan Shao's followers, [Pang Ji](/wiki/Pang_Ji "Pang Ji") and [Shen Pei](/wiki/Shen_Pei "Shen Pei") supported Yuan Shang, while [Xin Ping](/wiki/Xin_Ping "Xin Ping") and [Guo Tu](/wiki/Guo_Tu "Guo Tu") favoured Yuan Tan. After Yuan Shao's death, most of his subordinates initially wanted Yuan Tan to be their new lord since he was the oldest son. However, Shen Pei and Peng Ji forged a will, naming Yuan Shang as the successor. Yuan Tan was furious and mobilized his forces under the pretext of attacking Cao Cao, drawing Cao's attention, and Cao preemptively retaliated. Yuan Shang came to his oldest brother's aid, and they fought inconclusively against Cao Cao in the [Battle of Liyang](/wiki/Battle_of_Liyang "Battle of Liyang").
In 203, Cao Cao scored a major victory over the Yuans, who retreated to Ji Province's capital, [Ye](/wiki/Ye%2C_China "Ye, China") (鄴). Cao Cao then planned to besiege Ye, but later withdrew his forces after heeding [Guo Jia](/wiki/Guo_Jia "Guo Jia")'s advice. Guo Jia reasoned that if Cao Cao pressured the Yuans, they might unite against a common enemy; however, if Cao Cao retreated, the disgruntled Yuan brothers would start fighting among themselves. Guo Jia's prediction came true later when Yuan Tan, still bearing a grudge against Yuan Shang for receiving a larger inheritance, attacked Yuan Shang, but his forces in Qing Province defected to Yuan Shang. Yuan Tan fled to [Pingyuan](/wiki/Pingyuan_Commandery "Pingyuan Commandery") (in present\-day [Dezhou](/wiki/Dezhou "Dezhou"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")) and was besieged by Yuan Shang there. Yuan Tan sought help from Cao Cao, and Cao advanced north to attack Ye, forcing Yuan Shang to lift the siege on Pingyuan. In early 204, Yuan Shang incorrectly believed that Cao Cao had withdrawn, so he attacked his brother again at Pingyuan. Cao Cao [attacked Ye once more](/wiki/Battle_of_Ye "Battle of Ye") and Yuan Shang headed back to defend his base but was defeated by Cao Cao. Yuan Shang then fled north to [Zhongshan](/wiki/Zhongshan_Kingdom_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Zhongshan Kingdom (Han dynasty)") (in present\-day [Shijiazhuang](/wiki/Shijiazhuang "Shijiazhuang"), Hebei), and Ye fell to Cao Cao. Gao Gan also surrendered Bing Province to Cao Cao.
During Cao Cao's siege on Ye, Yuan Tan did not help attack Ye but sought to take Yuan Shang's territories, defeating Yuan Shang in Zhongshan. Yuan Shang fled further north to join Yuan Xi in You Province. Cao Cao now accused Yuan Tan of breaching the trust in the alliance so he turned east to attack him, [capturing Yuan Tan's last stronghold at Nanpi](/wiki/Battle_of_Nanpi "Battle of Nanpi") (南皮; in present\-day [Cangzhou](/wiki/Cangzhou "Cangzhou"), Hebei) and killing Yuan. Meanwhile, in You Province, Yuan Xi's subordinate [Jiao Chu](/wiki/Jiao_Chu "Jiao Chu") (焦觸) revolted and surrendered to Cao Cao, forcing Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang to flee further north to join the [Wuhuan](/wiki/Wuhuan "Wuhuan") tribes under chief [Tadun](/wiki/Tadun "Tadun"). Around this time, Gao Gan also rebelled against Cao Cao but was defeated by 206 and killed while attempting to flee south to join [Liu Biao](/wiki/Liu_Biao "Liu Biao").
In 207, Cao Cao's army headed north to attack the Wuhuan, defeating them at the [Battle of White Wolf Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_White_Wolf_Mountain "Battle of White Wolf Mountain"). Tadun was killed in battle while Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang sought refuge under [Gongsun Kang](/wiki/Gongsun_Kang "Gongsun Kang"), a warlord who controlled most of present\-day [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning "Liaoning"). Gongsun Kang feared that the Yuans might turn against him and seize his territory, so he had them executed and sent their heads to Cao Cao. By this time, the Yuan clan had been eliminated and much of northern China had been reunified under Cao Cao's control.
### Developments in southern China (194–208\)
{{Further\|Sun Ce's conquests in Jiangdong\|Battle of Xiakou\|Battle of Jiangxia\|Battle of Bowang}}
During his reunification of northern China, Cao Cao did not conduct any major campaigns south while awaiting an opportunity to act against the remaining three most prominent warlords: [Sun Quan](/wiki/Sun_Quan "Sun Quan"), who had succeeded his older brother [Sun Ce](/wiki/Sun_Ce "Sun Ce") after the latter died in 200; [Liu Biao](/wiki/Liu_Biao "Liu Biao"), governor of [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Jingzhou (ancient China)"); and [Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 "Liu Zhang (warlord)"), governor of [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province "Yi Province"). During that time, Sun Quan was developing his territories in [Jiangdong](/wiki/Jiangnan "Jiangnan"), and strengthening his military forces. In 208, Sun Quan defeated and killed Liu Biao's vassal [Huang Zu](/wiki/Huang_Zu "Huang Zu") at the [Battle of Jiangxia](/wiki/Battle_of_Jiangxia "Battle of Jiangxia"), seizing most of Huang's territory at Jiangxia (江夏; present\-day [Xinzhou District, Wuhan](/wiki/Xinzhou_District%2C_Wuhan "Xinzhou District, Wuhan"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei")).
While Cao Cao was attacking the Yuan clan in northern China, [Liu Bei](/wiki/Liu_Bei "Liu Bei") fled south to join Liu Biao and became a vassal under the latter, who stationed him at the northern border in [Xinye County](/wiki/Xinye_County "Xinye County") to keep Cao Cao at bay.{{sfnp\|de Crespigny\|2007\|pp\=37}} An initial Cao attack on Liu Bei was repelled during the [Battle of Bowang](/wiki/Battle_of_Bowang "Battle of Bowang") (202\).
|
[
"Gradual reunification under Cao Cao (196–207\\)\n----------------------------------------------",
"### Cao Cao's use of Emperor Xian as titular authority",
"While Yuan Shao was still indecisive on whether to welcome Emperor Xian or not, [Cao Cao](/wiki/Cao_Cao \"Cao Cao\") took advantage of the situation to bring the emperor to his territory. At that time, Cao Cao was still a relatively minor warlord, with only Yan Province (兗州; covering present\\-day western [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\") and eastern [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")) under his control. In 196, Cao Cao led his army towards Luoyang. He encountered [Dong Cheng](/wiki/Dong_Cheng_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Dong Cheng (Han dynasty)\") and [Yang Feng](/wiki/Yang_Feng \"Yang Feng\") (who were shielding Emperor Xian from Li Jue and Guo Si), convinced them of his loyalty, and was allowed to meet the emperor. In name, Cao Cao was sharing power with the other officials and nobles, but actually, he was in control, but yet he ensured that the officials and nobles were treated with due respect, hence he faced minimal opposition in the imperial court. Later, Cao Cao escorted the emperor back to his base in Xu (許; present\\-day [Xuchang](/wiki/Xuchang \"Xuchang\"), Henan), establishing the new capital there.",
"From then on, although Cao Cao was a subject of Emperor Xian in name, he actually wielded state power and controlled the imperial court. Despite so, Cao Cao never showed disrespect to Emperor Xian, and instead, honoured the emperor according to formal imperial protocol. Cao Cao also issued imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name to other warlords, ordering them to submit to imperial authority when in fact they were actually submitting to him. Yuan Shao was among those who had received Cao Cao’s edicts; only then did Yuan realize that he had lost an opportunity to make use of the emperor to control other warlords.",
"### Cao Cao's rise to power (196–199\\)",
"{{multiple image\\| align \\= right \\| direction \\= horizontal \\| header \\= \\| header\\_align \\= left/right/center \\| footer \\= An \\[\\[Eastern Han]] glazed ceramic statue of a horse with \\[\\[bridle]] and \\[\\[halter]] headgear, from \\[\\[Sichuan]], late 2nd century to early 3rd century AD\\| footer\\_align \\= left \\| image1 \\= Sichuan, han orientali, cavallo con ciuffo e criniera corta, seconda metà II\\-inizio III sec. 02\\.JPG \\| width1 \\= 130 \\| caption1 \\= \\| image2 \\= Sichuan, han orientali, cavallo con ciuffo e criniera corta, seconda metà II\\-inizio III sec. 03\\.JPG \\| width2 \\= 263\\| caption2 \\= }}\n[thumb\\|200px\\|An Eastern Han glazed ceramic [cosmetics](/wiki/Cosmetics \"Cosmetics\") box with zoomorphic feet](/wiki/File:Shanghai_Museum_2006_17-53.jpg \"Shanghai Museum 2006 17-53.jpg\")",
"Even after moving to the new capital at Xu, the central government still lacked funds and food supplies. As suggested by Zao Zhi (棗祇), Cao Cao implemented a new *[tuntian](/wiki/Tuntian \"Tuntian\")* policy to promote agricultural production, in which soldiers were sent to grow crops, and the harvest would be shared between the military and civilian population. The policy yielded commendable results as the area around Xu developed into highly productive farmland and the problem of shortage of food was resolved.",
"At this time, the most prominent warlords in China were:\n* Yuan Shao, who controlled [Ji](/wiki/Jizhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Jizhou (ancient China)\"), [Bing](/wiki/Bingzhou \"Bingzhou\") and [Qing](/wiki/Qingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Qingzhou (ancient China)\") provinces (covering most of present\\-day [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") and [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")). Some of the territories were governed by Yuan Shao's three sons ([Yuan Tan](/wiki/Yuan_Tan \"Yuan Tan\"), [Yuan Xi](/wiki/Yuan_Xi \"Yuan Xi\") and [Yuan Shang](/wiki/Yuan_Shang \"Yuan Shang\")) and nephew ([Gao Gan](/wiki/Gao_Gan \"Gao Gan\")).\n* [Yuan Shu](/wiki/Yuan_Shu \"Yuan Shu\"), who controlled most of present\\-day [Anhui](/wiki/Anhui \"Anhui\") and parts of [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu \"Jiangsu\")\n* [Gongsun Zan](/wiki/Gongsun_Zan \"Gongsun Zan\"), who controlled [You Province](/wiki/Youzhou \"Youzhou\"), including present\\-day [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"), [Tianjin](/wiki/Tianjin \"Tianjin\") and western [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\")\n* [Liu Biao](/wiki/Liu_Biao \"Liu Biao\"), who controlled [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Jingzhou (ancient China)\") (covering present\\-day [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\") and [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan \"Hunan\"))\n* [Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 \"Liu Zhang (warlord)\"), who controlled [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province \"Yi Province\") (covering the [Sichuan Basin](/wiki/Sichuan_Basin \"Sichuan Basin\"))\n* [Lü Bu](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu \"Lü Bu\"), who seized control of [Xu Province](/wiki/Xuzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Xuzhou (ancient China)\") (covering present\\-day northern [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu \"Jiangsu\")) from its previous governor [Liu Bei](/wiki/Liu_Bei \"Liu Bei\")",
"There were still many other minor warlords, and Cao Cao particularly sought to get them to submit to him. In 197, [Zhang Xiu](/wiki/Zhang_Xiu_%28warlord%29 \"Zhang Xiu (warlord)\") surrendered Wancheng to Cao Cao. However, Cao Cao later had an affair with Zhang Xiu's widowed aunt, angering Zhang. Zhang, who learned of Cao Cao's planned assassination on his life, rebelled and launched a surprise attack on Cao Cao at Wancheng. In [this battle](/wiki/War_between_Cao_Cao_and_Zhang_Xiu \"War between Cao Cao and Zhang Xiu\"), Cao Cao's eldest son [Cao Ang](/wiki/Cao_Ang \"Cao Ang\"), nephew Cao Anmin, and bodyguard [Dian Wei](/wiki/Dian_Wei \"Dian Wei\") were killed, and Cao Cao himself narrowly escaped from death. On the advice of [Jia Xu](/wiki/Jia_Xu \"Jia Xu\"), Zhang Xiu eventually surrendered to Cao Cao in the winter of 199–200\\. In addition, in 197, Cao Cao was able to persuade [Ma Teng](/wiki/Ma_Teng \"Ma Teng\") and [Han Sui](/wiki/Han_Sui \"Han Sui\"), who controlled Yong and Liang provinces (covering most of present\\-day [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\") and [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\")), to submit to him.",
"That year, Yuan Shu declared himself \"[Son of Heaven](/wiki/Emperor_of_China \"Emperor of China\")\" in Shouchun (壽春; present\\-day [Shou County](/wiki/Shou_County \"Shou County\"), Anhui), an act perceived as treason against the Han dynasty government, prompting other warlords to use that as an excuse to attack him (see [Campaign against Yuan Shu](/wiki/Campaign_against_Yuan_Shu \"Campaign against Yuan Shu\")). [Sun Ce](/wiki/Sun_Ce \"Sun Ce\"), son of [Sun Jian](/wiki/Sun_Jian \"Sun Jian\"), who had [conquered several territories](/wiki/Sun_Ce%27s_conquests_in_Jiangdong \"Sun Ce's conquests in Jiangdong\") in [Jiangdong](/wiki/Jiangnan \"Jiangnan\") between 194 and 199, ended his alliance with Yuan Shu and became an independent warlord. Lü Bu, who was also previously Yuan Shu's ally, broke ties with Yuan and dealt him a major defeat near Shouchun. Cao Cao also attacked Yuan Shu and defeated him. Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao but his way was blocked and he would die of illness on his return to Shouchun in 199\\.",
"In 198, Yuan Shao tried to persuade Cao Cao to move the capital to Juancheng (鄄城; in present\\-day [Heze](/wiki/Heze \"Heze\"), Shandong), which was nearer to his own territory, in an attempt to wrestle Emperor Xian away from Cao, but Cao refused. Later that year, Cao Cao joined forces with Liu Bei to attack Lü Bu, defeating him at the [Battle of Xiapi](/wiki/Battle_of_Xiapi \"Battle of Xiapi\"). Lü Bu was captured and executed on Cao Cao's order, and Xu Province came under Cao's control.",
"In 199, Gongsun Zan was defeated by Yuan Shao at the [Battle of Yijing](/wiki/Battle_of_Yijing \"Battle of Yijing\") and he committed suicide by setting himself on fire. Gongsun Zan's territories, which extended to the northern boundaries of the Han dynasty's empire, were completely annexed by Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao then turned his attention south towards Cao Cao, who was an emerging power in central China. Yuan allied with Liu Biao and was intent on attacking Cao Cao.",
"### Guandu campaign (200–201\\)",
"{{Campaignbox Guandu campaign}}\n[400px\\|thumb\\|Cao Cao's conquests from the Yuan clan 200–207](/wiki/File:Cao_Cao%27s_conquest_of_northern_China_200%E2%80%93207.png \"Cao Cao's conquest of northern China 200–207.png\")\n{{main\\|Battle of Guandu}}\nAgainst the advice of [Ju Shou](/wiki/Ju_Shou \"Ju Shou\") and [Tian Feng](/wiki/Tian_Feng \"Tian Feng\"), who reasoned that their troops were exhausted after the battles against Gongsun Zan and needed rest, Yuan Shao prepared for a campaign against Cao Cao, confident that his much larger army could easily crush Cao Cao's. While Cao Cao readied himself for battle, he discovered that [Dong Cheng](/wiki/Dong_Cheng_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Dong Cheng (Han dynasty)\"), Liu Bei and a few other officials were conspiring against him. In early 200, Liu Bei used an opportunity to break away from Cao Cao and seize control of [Xu Province](/wiki/Xuzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Xuzhou (ancient China)\"), after killing Cao Cao's appointed governor of the province, [Che Zhou](/wiki/Che_Zhou \"Che Zhou\") (車冑). On the other hand, Dong Cheng and the others were making plans to assassinate Cao Cao. However, the plot was exposed and all the conspirators in the capital were massacred along with their families. Cao Cao then took a risk by attacking Liu Bei in Xu Province, leaving his flank open to attacks from Yuan Shao. However, Cao Cao made the right choice because Yuan Shao did not heed Tian Feng's urging to seize the chance to attack him. Liu Bei was defeated and he fled north to join Yuan Shao. Liu Bei's general [Guan Yu](/wiki/Guan_Yu \"Guan Yu\") surrendered to Cao Cao and temporarily served under Cao.",
"Only after Liu Bei's defeat did Yuan Shao start implementing his plan to attack Cao Cao, but this time Tian Feng opposed his decision, saying that their opportunity had passed. Yuan Shao became annoyed with Tian Feng and had Tian imprisoned, after which he led his army south to attack Cao Cao. At the [Battle of Boma](/wiki/Battle_of_Boma \"Battle of Boma\"), Yuan Shao's general [Yan Liang](/wiki/Yan_Liang \"Yan Liang\") was slain by Guan Yu while another of Yuan's generals, [Wen Chou](/wiki/Wen_Chou \"Wen Chou\"), was killed in action against Cao Cao's forces. The morale of Yuan Shao's army was greatly affected by the loss of the two generals.",
"By late 200, the armies of Yuan Shao and Cao Cao finally clashed at Guandu (官渡; in present\\-day [Zhengzhou](/wiki/Zhengzhou \"Zhengzhou\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")), south of the [Yellow River](/wiki/Yellow_River \"Yellow River\"). Yuan Shao had two advantages over Cao Cao \\- numerical superiority and a greater amount of supplies, but Cao Cao's troops were better trained than his. After some minor skirmishes, both sides became locked in a stalemate, until Cao Cao personally led a small detachment on a surprise attack on Yuan Shao's supply depot at Wuchao, which was defended by [Chunyu Qiong](/wiki/Chunyu_Qiong \"Chunyu Qiong\"). Instead of sending reinforcements to Wuchao, Yuan Shao sent [Zhang He](/wiki/Zhang_He \"Zhang He\") and Gao Lan (高覽) to attack Cao Cao's camp but was unsuccessful. The fall of Wuchao dealt a major blow to the morale of Yuan Shao's army, which was subsequently routed by Cao Cao's forces. Yuan Shao fled north of the Yellow River while most of his troops were either killed or surrendered to Cao Cao. From that point on, although Yuan Shao continued to remain as a major power player, he could no longer challenge Cao Cao's growing supremacy. The latter destroyed and defeated the remaining Yuan troops south of the Yellow River in the [Battle of Cangting](/wiki/Battle_of_Cangting \"Battle of Cangting\") (201\\), concluding the Guandu campaign.",
"### Fall of the Yuan power bloc (202–207\\)",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Late Eastern Han mural showing chariots and cavalry, from the [Dahuting](/wiki/Dahuting \"Dahuting\") tombs](/wiki/File:Dahuting_Tomb_mural%2C_cavalry_and_chariots%2C_Eastern_Han.jpg \"Dahuting Tomb mural, cavalry and chariots, Eastern Han.jpg\")\nAfter Yuan Shao died of illness in 202, a succession struggle developed between his oldest son [Yuan Tan](/wiki/Yuan_Tan \"Yuan Tan\") and third son [Yuan Shang](/wiki/Yuan_Shang \"Yuan Shang\"). Several years before Yuan Shao's death, based on the traditional order of succession, Yuan Tan should have been designated as the [heir apparent](/wiki/Heir_apparent \"Heir apparent\"), but as Yuan Shao's wife Lady Liu favoured Yuan Shang, Yuan Shao had Yuan Tan posthumously adopted by the latter's uncle, Yuan Cheng (袁成). Yuan Shao then divided his territories between his sons and nephew [Gao Gan](/wiki/Gao_Gan \"Gao Gan\"), ostensibly so that he could determine their abilities. His base of Ji Province was given to Yuan Shang, Yuan Tan controlled Qing Province, [Yuan Xi](/wiki/Yuan_Xi \"Yuan Xi\") governed You Province, and Gao Gan ruled Bing Province. On his deathbed, Yuan Shao did not leave any explicit instruction as to who should succeed him. Of Yuan Shao's followers, [Pang Ji](/wiki/Pang_Ji \"Pang Ji\") and [Shen Pei](/wiki/Shen_Pei \"Shen Pei\") supported Yuan Shang, while [Xin Ping](/wiki/Xin_Ping \"Xin Ping\") and [Guo Tu](/wiki/Guo_Tu \"Guo Tu\") favoured Yuan Tan. After Yuan Shao's death, most of his subordinates initially wanted Yuan Tan to be their new lord since he was the oldest son. However, Shen Pei and Peng Ji forged a will, naming Yuan Shang as the successor. Yuan Tan was furious and mobilized his forces under the pretext of attacking Cao Cao, drawing Cao's attention, and Cao preemptively retaliated. Yuan Shang came to his oldest brother's aid, and they fought inconclusively against Cao Cao in the [Battle of Liyang](/wiki/Battle_of_Liyang \"Battle of Liyang\").",
"In 203, Cao Cao scored a major victory over the Yuans, who retreated to Ji Province's capital, [Ye](/wiki/Ye%2C_China \"Ye, China\") (鄴). Cao Cao then planned to besiege Ye, but later withdrew his forces after heeding [Guo Jia](/wiki/Guo_Jia \"Guo Jia\")'s advice. Guo Jia reasoned that if Cao Cao pressured the Yuans, they might unite against a common enemy; however, if Cao Cao retreated, the disgruntled Yuan brothers would start fighting among themselves. Guo Jia's prediction came true later when Yuan Tan, still bearing a grudge against Yuan Shang for receiving a larger inheritance, attacked Yuan Shang, but his forces in Qing Province defected to Yuan Shang. Yuan Tan fled to [Pingyuan](/wiki/Pingyuan_Commandery \"Pingyuan Commandery\") (in present\\-day [Dezhou](/wiki/Dezhou \"Dezhou\"), [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")) and was besieged by Yuan Shang there. Yuan Tan sought help from Cao Cao, and Cao advanced north to attack Ye, forcing Yuan Shang to lift the siege on Pingyuan. In early 204, Yuan Shang incorrectly believed that Cao Cao had withdrawn, so he attacked his brother again at Pingyuan. Cao Cao [attacked Ye once more](/wiki/Battle_of_Ye \"Battle of Ye\") and Yuan Shang headed back to defend his base but was defeated by Cao Cao. Yuan Shang then fled north to [Zhongshan](/wiki/Zhongshan_Kingdom_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Zhongshan Kingdom (Han dynasty)\") (in present\\-day [Shijiazhuang](/wiki/Shijiazhuang \"Shijiazhuang\"), Hebei), and Ye fell to Cao Cao. Gao Gan also surrendered Bing Province to Cao Cao.",
"During Cao Cao's siege on Ye, Yuan Tan did not help attack Ye but sought to take Yuan Shang's territories, defeating Yuan Shang in Zhongshan. Yuan Shang fled further north to join Yuan Xi in You Province. Cao Cao now accused Yuan Tan of breaching the trust in the alliance so he turned east to attack him, [capturing Yuan Tan's last stronghold at Nanpi](/wiki/Battle_of_Nanpi \"Battle of Nanpi\") (南皮; in present\\-day [Cangzhou](/wiki/Cangzhou \"Cangzhou\"), Hebei) and killing Yuan. Meanwhile, in You Province, Yuan Xi's subordinate [Jiao Chu](/wiki/Jiao_Chu \"Jiao Chu\") (焦觸) revolted and surrendered to Cao Cao, forcing Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang to flee further north to join the [Wuhuan](/wiki/Wuhuan \"Wuhuan\") tribes under chief [Tadun](/wiki/Tadun \"Tadun\"). Around this time, Gao Gan also rebelled against Cao Cao but was defeated by 206 and killed while attempting to flee south to join [Liu Biao](/wiki/Liu_Biao \"Liu Biao\").",
"In 207, Cao Cao's army headed north to attack the Wuhuan, defeating them at the [Battle of White Wolf Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_White_Wolf_Mountain \"Battle of White Wolf Mountain\"). Tadun was killed in battle while Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang sought refuge under [Gongsun Kang](/wiki/Gongsun_Kang \"Gongsun Kang\"), a warlord who controlled most of present\\-day [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\"). Gongsun Kang feared that the Yuans might turn against him and seize his territory, so he had them executed and sent their heads to Cao Cao. By this time, the Yuan clan had been eliminated and much of northern China had been reunified under Cao Cao's control.",
"### Developments in southern China (194–208\\)",
"{{Further\\|Sun Ce's conquests in Jiangdong\\|Battle of Xiakou\\|Battle of Jiangxia\\|Battle of Bowang}}\nDuring his reunification of northern China, Cao Cao did not conduct any major campaigns south while awaiting an opportunity to act against the remaining three most prominent warlords: [Sun Quan](/wiki/Sun_Quan \"Sun Quan\"), who had succeeded his older brother [Sun Ce](/wiki/Sun_Ce \"Sun Ce\") after the latter died in 200; [Liu Biao](/wiki/Liu_Biao \"Liu Biao\"), governor of [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Jingzhou (ancient China)\"); and [Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 \"Liu Zhang (warlord)\"), governor of [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province \"Yi Province\"). During that time, Sun Quan was developing his territories in [Jiangdong](/wiki/Jiangnan \"Jiangnan\"), and strengthening his military forces. In 208, Sun Quan defeated and killed Liu Biao's vassal [Huang Zu](/wiki/Huang_Zu \"Huang Zu\") at the [Battle of Jiangxia](/wiki/Battle_of_Jiangxia \"Battle of Jiangxia\"), seizing most of Huang's territory at Jiangxia (江夏; present\\-day [Xinzhou District, Wuhan](/wiki/Xinzhou_District%2C_Wuhan \"Xinzhou District, Wuhan\"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\")).",
"While Cao Cao was attacking the Yuan clan in northern China, [Liu Bei](/wiki/Liu_Bei \"Liu Bei\") fled south to join Liu Biao and became a vassal under the latter, who stationed him at the northern border in [Xinye County](/wiki/Xinye_County \"Xinye County\") to keep Cao Cao at bay.{{sfnp\\|de Crespigny\\|2007\\|pp\\=37}} An initial Cao attack on Liu Bei was repelled during the [Battle of Bowang](/wiki/Battle_of_Bowang \"Battle of Bowang\") (202\\).",
""
] |
### Cao Cao's rise to power (196–199\)
{{multiple image\| align \= right \| direction \= horizontal \| header \= \| header\_align \= left/right/center \| footer \= An \[\[Eastern Han]] glazed ceramic statue of a horse with \[\[bridle]] and \[\[halter]] headgear, from \[\[Sichuan]], late 2nd century to early 3rd century AD\| footer\_align \= left \| image1 \= Sichuan, han orientali, cavallo con ciuffo e criniera corta, seconda metà II\-inizio III sec. 02\.JPG \| width1 \= 130 \| caption1 \= \| image2 \= Sichuan, han orientali, cavallo con ciuffo e criniera corta, seconda metà II\-inizio III sec. 03\.JPG \| width2 \= 263\| caption2 \= }}
[thumb\|200px\|An Eastern Han glazed ceramic [cosmetics](/wiki/Cosmetics "Cosmetics") box with zoomorphic feet](/wiki/File:Shanghai_Museum_2006_17-53.jpg "Shanghai Museum 2006 17-53.jpg")
Even after moving to the new capital at Xu, the central government still lacked funds and food supplies. As suggested by Zao Zhi (棗祇), Cao Cao implemented a new *[tuntian](/wiki/Tuntian "Tuntian")* policy to promote agricultural production, in which soldiers were sent to grow crops, and the harvest would be shared between the military and civilian population. The policy yielded commendable results as the area around Xu developed into highly productive farmland and the problem of shortage of food was resolved.
At this time, the most prominent warlords in China were:
* Yuan Shao, who controlled [Ji](/wiki/Jizhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Jizhou (ancient China)"), [Bing](/wiki/Bingzhou "Bingzhou") and [Qing](/wiki/Qingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Qingzhou (ancient China)") provinces (covering most of present\-day [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei "Hebei"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi "Shanxi") and [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong")). Some of the territories were governed by Yuan Shao's three sons ([Yuan Tan](/wiki/Yuan_Tan "Yuan Tan"), [Yuan Xi](/wiki/Yuan_Xi "Yuan Xi") and [Yuan Shang](/wiki/Yuan_Shang "Yuan Shang")) and nephew ([Gao Gan](/wiki/Gao_Gan "Gao Gan")).
* [Yuan Shu](/wiki/Yuan_Shu "Yuan Shu"), who controlled most of present\-day [Anhui](/wiki/Anhui "Anhui") and parts of [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu "Jiangsu")
* [Gongsun Zan](/wiki/Gongsun_Zan "Gongsun Zan"), who controlled [You Province](/wiki/Youzhou "Youzhou"), including present\-day [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"), [Tianjin](/wiki/Tianjin "Tianjin") and western [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning "Liaoning")
* [Liu Biao](/wiki/Liu_Biao "Liu Biao"), who controlled [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Jingzhou (ancient China)") (covering present\-day [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei") and [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan "Hunan"))
* [Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 "Liu Zhang (warlord)"), who controlled [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province "Yi Province") (covering the [Sichuan Basin](/wiki/Sichuan_Basin "Sichuan Basin"))
* [Lü Bu](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu "Lü Bu"), who seized control of [Xu Province](/wiki/Xuzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Xuzhou (ancient China)") (covering present\-day northern [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu "Jiangsu")) from its previous governor [Liu Bei](/wiki/Liu_Bei "Liu Bei")
There were still many other minor warlords, and Cao Cao particularly sought to get them to submit to him. In 197, [Zhang Xiu](/wiki/Zhang_Xiu_%28warlord%29 "Zhang Xiu (warlord)") surrendered Wancheng to Cao Cao. However, Cao Cao later had an affair with Zhang Xiu's widowed aunt, angering Zhang. Zhang, who learned of Cao Cao's planned assassination on his life, rebelled and launched a surprise attack on Cao Cao at Wancheng. In [this battle](/wiki/War_between_Cao_Cao_and_Zhang_Xiu "War between Cao Cao and Zhang Xiu"), Cao Cao's eldest son [Cao Ang](/wiki/Cao_Ang "Cao Ang"), nephew Cao Anmin, and bodyguard [Dian Wei](/wiki/Dian_Wei "Dian Wei") were killed, and Cao Cao himself narrowly escaped from death. On the advice of [Jia Xu](/wiki/Jia_Xu "Jia Xu"), Zhang Xiu eventually surrendered to Cao Cao in the winter of 199–200\. In addition, in 197, Cao Cao was able to persuade [Ma Teng](/wiki/Ma_Teng "Ma Teng") and [Han Sui](/wiki/Han_Sui "Han Sui"), who controlled Yong and Liang provinces (covering most of present\-day [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi") and [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu "Gansu")), to submit to him.
That year, Yuan Shu declared himself "[Son of Heaven](/wiki/Emperor_of_China "Emperor of China")" in Shouchun (壽春; present\-day [Shou County](/wiki/Shou_County "Shou County"), Anhui), an act perceived as treason against the Han dynasty government, prompting other warlords to use that as an excuse to attack him (see [Campaign against Yuan Shu](/wiki/Campaign_against_Yuan_Shu "Campaign against Yuan Shu")). [Sun Ce](/wiki/Sun_Ce "Sun Ce"), son of [Sun Jian](/wiki/Sun_Jian "Sun Jian"), who had [conquered several territories](/wiki/Sun_Ce%27s_conquests_in_Jiangdong "Sun Ce's conquests in Jiangdong") in [Jiangdong](/wiki/Jiangnan "Jiangnan") between 194 and 199, ended his alliance with Yuan Shu and became an independent warlord. Lü Bu, who was also previously Yuan Shu's ally, broke ties with Yuan and dealt him a major defeat near Shouchun. Cao Cao also attacked Yuan Shu and defeated him. Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao but his way was blocked and he would die of illness on his return to Shouchun in 199\.
In 198, Yuan Shao tried to persuade Cao Cao to move the capital to Juancheng (鄄城; in present\-day [Heze](/wiki/Heze "Heze"), Shandong), which was nearer to his own territory, in an attempt to wrestle Emperor Xian away from Cao, but Cao refused. Later that year, Cao Cao joined forces with Liu Bei to attack Lü Bu, defeating him at the [Battle of Xiapi](/wiki/Battle_of_Xiapi "Battle of Xiapi"). Lü Bu was captured and executed on Cao Cao's order, and Xu Province came under Cao's control.
In 199, Gongsun Zan was defeated by Yuan Shao at the [Battle of Yijing](/wiki/Battle_of_Yijing "Battle of Yijing") and he committed suicide by setting himself on fire. Gongsun Zan's territories, which extended to the northern boundaries of the Han dynasty's empire, were completely annexed by Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao then turned his attention south towards Cao Cao, who was an emerging power in central China. Yuan allied with Liu Biao and was intent on attacking Cao Cao.
|
[
"### Cao Cao's rise to power (196–199\\)",
"{{multiple image\\| align \\= right \\| direction \\= horizontal \\| header \\= \\| header\\_align \\= left/right/center \\| footer \\= An \\[\\[Eastern Han]] glazed ceramic statue of a horse with \\[\\[bridle]] and \\[\\[halter]] headgear, from \\[\\[Sichuan]], late 2nd century to early 3rd century AD\\| footer\\_align \\= left \\| image1 \\= Sichuan, han orientali, cavallo con ciuffo e criniera corta, seconda metà II\\-inizio III sec. 02\\.JPG \\| width1 \\= 130 \\| caption1 \\= \\| image2 \\= Sichuan, han orientali, cavallo con ciuffo e criniera corta, seconda metà II\\-inizio III sec. 03\\.JPG \\| width2 \\= 263\\| caption2 \\= }}\n[thumb\\|200px\\|An Eastern Han glazed ceramic [cosmetics](/wiki/Cosmetics \"Cosmetics\") box with zoomorphic feet](/wiki/File:Shanghai_Museum_2006_17-53.jpg \"Shanghai Museum 2006 17-53.jpg\")",
"Even after moving to the new capital at Xu, the central government still lacked funds and food supplies. As suggested by Zao Zhi (棗祇), Cao Cao implemented a new *[tuntian](/wiki/Tuntian \"Tuntian\")* policy to promote agricultural production, in which soldiers were sent to grow crops, and the harvest would be shared between the military and civilian population. The policy yielded commendable results as the area around Xu developed into highly productive farmland and the problem of shortage of food was resolved.",
"At this time, the most prominent warlords in China were:\n* Yuan Shao, who controlled [Ji](/wiki/Jizhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Jizhou (ancient China)\"), [Bing](/wiki/Bingzhou \"Bingzhou\") and [Qing](/wiki/Qingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Qingzhou (ancient China)\") provinces (covering most of present\\-day [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") and [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\")). Some of the territories were governed by Yuan Shao's three sons ([Yuan Tan](/wiki/Yuan_Tan \"Yuan Tan\"), [Yuan Xi](/wiki/Yuan_Xi \"Yuan Xi\") and [Yuan Shang](/wiki/Yuan_Shang \"Yuan Shang\")) and nephew ([Gao Gan](/wiki/Gao_Gan \"Gao Gan\")).\n* [Yuan Shu](/wiki/Yuan_Shu \"Yuan Shu\"), who controlled most of present\\-day [Anhui](/wiki/Anhui \"Anhui\") and parts of [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu \"Jiangsu\")\n* [Gongsun Zan](/wiki/Gongsun_Zan \"Gongsun Zan\"), who controlled [You Province](/wiki/Youzhou \"Youzhou\"), including present\\-day [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"), [Tianjin](/wiki/Tianjin \"Tianjin\") and western [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\")\n* [Liu Biao](/wiki/Liu_Biao \"Liu Biao\"), who controlled [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Jingzhou (ancient China)\") (covering present\\-day [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\") and [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan \"Hunan\"))\n* [Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 \"Liu Zhang (warlord)\"), who controlled [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province \"Yi Province\") (covering the [Sichuan Basin](/wiki/Sichuan_Basin \"Sichuan Basin\"))\n* [Lü Bu](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu \"Lü Bu\"), who seized control of [Xu Province](/wiki/Xuzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Xuzhou (ancient China)\") (covering present\\-day northern [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu \"Jiangsu\")) from its previous governor [Liu Bei](/wiki/Liu_Bei \"Liu Bei\")",
"There were still many other minor warlords, and Cao Cao particularly sought to get them to submit to him. In 197, [Zhang Xiu](/wiki/Zhang_Xiu_%28warlord%29 \"Zhang Xiu (warlord)\") surrendered Wancheng to Cao Cao. However, Cao Cao later had an affair with Zhang Xiu's widowed aunt, angering Zhang. Zhang, who learned of Cao Cao's planned assassination on his life, rebelled and launched a surprise attack on Cao Cao at Wancheng. In [this battle](/wiki/War_between_Cao_Cao_and_Zhang_Xiu \"War between Cao Cao and Zhang Xiu\"), Cao Cao's eldest son [Cao Ang](/wiki/Cao_Ang \"Cao Ang\"), nephew Cao Anmin, and bodyguard [Dian Wei](/wiki/Dian_Wei \"Dian Wei\") were killed, and Cao Cao himself narrowly escaped from death. On the advice of [Jia Xu](/wiki/Jia_Xu \"Jia Xu\"), Zhang Xiu eventually surrendered to Cao Cao in the winter of 199–200\\. In addition, in 197, Cao Cao was able to persuade [Ma Teng](/wiki/Ma_Teng \"Ma Teng\") and [Han Sui](/wiki/Han_Sui \"Han Sui\"), who controlled Yong and Liang provinces (covering most of present\\-day [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\") and [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\")), to submit to him.",
"That year, Yuan Shu declared himself \"[Son of Heaven](/wiki/Emperor_of_China \"Emperor of China\")\" in Shouchun (壽春; present\\-day [Shou County](/wiki/Shou_County \"Shou County\"), Anhui), an act perceived as treason against the Han dynasty government, prompting other warlords to use that as an excuse to attack him (see [Campaign against Yuan Shu](/wiki/Campaign_against_Yuan_Shu \"Campaign against Yuan Shu\")). [Sun Ce](/wiki/Sun_Ce \"Sun Ce\"), son of [Sun Jian](/wiki/Sun_Jian \"Sun Jian\"), who had [conquered several territories](/wiki/Sun_Ce%27s_conquests_in_Jiangdong \"Sun Ce's conquests in Jiangdong\") in [Jiangdong](/wiki/Jiangnan \"Jiangnan\") between 194 and 199, ended his alliance with Yuan Shu and became an independent warlord. Lü Bu, who was also previously Yuan Shu's ally, broke ties with Yuan and dealt him a major defeat near Shouchun. Cao Cao also attacked Yuan Shu and defeated him. Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao but his way was blocked and he would die of illness on his return to Shouchun in 199\\.",
"In 198, Yuan Shao tried to persuade Cao Cao to move the capital to Juancheng (鄄城; in present\\-day [Heze](/wiki/Heze \"Heze\"), Shandong), which was nearer to his own territory, in an attempt to wrestle Emperor Xian away from Cao, but Cao refused. Later that year, Cao Cao joined forces with Liu Bei to attack Lü Bu, defeating him at the [Battle of Xiapi](/wiki/Battle_of_Xiapi \"Battle of Xiapi\"). Lü Bu was captured and executed on Cao Cao's order, and Xu Province came under Cao's control.",
"In 199, Gongsun Zan was defeated by Yuan Shao at the [Battle of Yijing](/wiki/Battle_of_Yijing \"Battle of Yijing\") and he committed suicide by setting himself on fire. Gongsun Zan's territories, which extended to the northern boundaries of the Han dynasty's empire, were completely annexed by Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao then turned his attention south towards Cao Cao, who was an emerging power in central China. Yuan allied with Liu Biao and was intent on attacking Cao Cao.",
""
] |
Emergence of the Three Kingdoms (209–220\)
------------------------------------------
[thumb\|200px\|Late Han Luoyang tomb fresco showing chariots, horses and men](/wiki/File:Eastern_Han_Dynasty_tomb_fresco_of_chariots%2C_horses%2C_and_men%2C_Luoyang_3.jpg "Eastern Han Dynasty tomb fresco of chariots, horses, and men, Luoyang 3.jpg")
### Sun–Liu conquest of Jing Province (209–210\)
{{Main\|Battle of Jiangling (208\)}}
Immediately after the [Battle of Red Cliffs](/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs "Battle of Red Cliffs"), Sun Quan's forces under [Zhou Yu](/wiki/Zhou_Yu "Zhou Yu")'s command pressed on another attack on Cao Cao, leading to the [Battle of Jiangling](/wiki/Battle_of_Jiangling_%28208%29 "Battle of Jiangling (208)"). On the other hand, Liu Bei used the opportunity to attack the four [commanderies](/wiki/Commandery_%28China%29 "Commandery (China)") of Wuling, Changsha, Lingling and Guiyang in southern [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Jingzhou (ancient China)") and bring them under his control. By early 209, Cao Cao had lost most of Jing Province to the allies.
As Liu Bei had become relatively more powerful after his conquests of the four commanderies, Sun Quan became apprehensive of him and decided to strengthen their alliance by arranging for a marriage between his younger sister, [Lady Sun](/wiki/Lady_Sun "Lady Sun"), and Liu Bei. Zhou Yu was suspicious of Liu Bei's intentions and suggested to Sun Quan to capture Liu Bei, put him under house arrest, and then take control over Liu's forces. However, Sun Quan rejected Zhou Yu's idea as he believed that Liu Bei's forces would rebel against him even if the plan succeeded. Sun Quan did agree with Zhou Yu's suggestion to consider attacking the warlords [Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 "Liu Zhang (warlord)") and [Zhang Lu](/wiki/Zhang_Lu_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)"), who controlled parts of western China, including present\-day southern [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi") and the [Sichuan Basin](/wiki/Sichuan_Basin "Sichuan Basin"). The plan was not set into motion and eventually aborted when Zhou Yu died in 210\. Even though Sun Quan did not expand his borders west, he managed to persuade several local leaders in present\-day [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong "Guangdong"), [Guangxi](/wiki/Guangxi "Guangxi") and northern [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") to submit to him, and these territories became part of his domain. Sun Quan then agreed to "lend" northern Jing Province to Liu Bei as well when the latter complained that the south lacked resources to sustain its military.
### Cao Cao's northwestern campaign (211\)
[200px\|thumb\|
{{Legend\|\#0000FF\|Cao Cao's territory in 206}}
{{Legend\|RoyalBlue\|Cao Cao's conquests 207–215}}
{{Legend\|LimeGreen\|Other warlords}}](/wiki/File:Cao_exp200-220.png "Cao exp200-220.png")
{{Main\|Battle of Tong Pass (211\)}}
Cao Cao, after resting his forces for several years in light of his defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs, made a major advance again in 211, this time to ostensibly attack [Zhang Lu](/wiki/Zhang_Lu_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)") of [Hanzhong](/wiki/Hanzhong "Hanzhong"). Warlords [Han Sui](/wiki/Han_Sui "Han Sui") and [Ma Chao](/wiki/Ma_Chao "Ma Chao"), who controlled Liang and Yong provinces, suspected that Cao Cao had designs on them and launched attacks in retaliation. A coalition of forces from west of [Hangu Pass](/wiki/Hangu_Pass "Hangu Pass"), led by Ma Chao and Han Sui, was defeated by Cao Cao at the [Battle of Tong Pass](/wiki/Battle_of_Tong_Pass_%28211%29 "Battle of Tong Pass (211)") in 211, and their territories were annexed by Cao over the next few years.
{{\-}}
### Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province (212–214\)
{{main\|Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province\|Sun–Liu territorial dispute}}
[thumb\|200px\|Late Han stone\-carved Luoyang tomb door, representing a [door knocker](/wiki/Door_knocker "Door knocker") with a *[taotie](/wiki/Taotie "Taotie")* face motif, common in ancient [Chinese art](/wiki/Chinese_art "Chinese art").](/wiki/File:Eastern_Han_tomb_door%2C_Luoyang_2.jpg "Eastern Han tomb door, Luoyang 2.jpg")
[Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 "Liu Zhang (warlord)") of [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province "Yi Province") became worried of possible attacks from Zhang Lu and Cao Cao, so he sent [Fa Zheng](/wiki/Fa_Zheng "Fa Zheng") to invite Liu Bei into his domain to help him defend against Zhang Lu and Cao Cao. Fa Zheng was unimpressed with Liu Zhang's governorship and wanted Liu Bei to replace his lord, so he urged Liu Bei to use the opportunity to take control of Yi Province. Liu Bei heeded Fa Zheng's suggestion and led his army into Yi Province, where he received a warm welcome from Liu Zhang. Liu Zhang sent Liu Bei to the station at Jiameng Pass in northern Yi Province to resist Zhang Lu.
In 212, Liu Bei and Liu Zhang turned hostile towards each other and waged war. [Zhuge Liang](/wiki/Zhuge_Liang "Zhuge Liang") led a detachment of Liu Bei's forces left in [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Jingzhou (ancient China)") to join his lord in attacking Liu Zhang. [Guan Yu](/wiki/Guan_Yu "Guan Yu") remained behind to defend Jing Province. In 215, Liu Bei had defeated much of Liu Zhang's forces and besieged him in his capital of [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu "Chengdu"). Liu Zhang surrendered and yielded Yi Province to Liu Bei. The province became Liu Bei's new base, and he used the mountainous surroundings as natural defences against Cao Cao in the north.
In the same year Liu Bei took over Yi Province, diplomatic relations between him and Sun Quan deteriorated when he refused to return Jing Province, which he "borrowed" from Sun Quan five years ago. Sun Quan launched an initial attack on Guan Yu and much of eastern Jing Province quickly submitted. However, after negotiations between Guan Yu and [Lu Su](/wiki/Lu_Su "Lu Su"), Liu Bei agreed to give up the three commanderies of Changsha, Jiangxia and Guiyang to Sun Quan, renewing their alliance and dividing Jing Province between them along the [Xiang River](/wiki/Xiang_River "Xiang River").
{{\-}}
### Yangping and Hanzhong Campaign (215–219\)
{{main\|Hanzhong Campaign}}
[thumb\|200px\|Eastern Han stone\-carved [que pillar gates](/wiki/Que_%28tower%29 "Que (tower)") of Dingfang, [Zhong County](/wiki/Zhong_County "Zhong County") that once belonged to a [Ba Manzi](/wiki/Ba_Manzi "Ba Manzi") temple](/wiki/File:%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg "忠縣丁房雙闕02.jpg")
In 215, Cao Cao attacked [Zhang Lu](/wiki/Zhang_Lu_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)") and defeated him at the [Battle of Yangping](/wiki/Battle_of_Yangping "Battle of Yangping"). Zhang Lu surrendered and his domain in [Hanzhong](/wiki/Hanzhong "Hanzhong") came under Cao Cao's control (January 216\). Against the advice of his followers to move south and attack Liu Bei in [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province "Yi Province"), Cao Cao withdrew his armies and left [Xiahou Yuan](/wiki/Xiahou_Yuan "Xiahou Yuan") in command of a small force to defend Hanzhong. The following year, Cao Cao pressured Emperor Xian into granting him a title of nobility, "[King](/wiki/Kings_of_the_Han_dynasty "Kings of the Han dynasty") of Wei". Over the next few years, Cao Cao's style of living became more like the emperor's, and he also received greater honours.
In 217, Liu Bei started a [campaign](/wiki/Hanzhong_Campaign "Hanzhong Campaign") to seize Hanzhong from Cao Cao. After Xiahou Yuan was defeated and killed at the [Battle of Mount Dingjun](/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Dingjun "Battle of Mount Dingjun") in 219, Cao Cao became alarmed and quickly arrived with reinforcements to resist Liu Bei. Both sides became locked in a stalemate, except for a clash at the [Battle of Han River](/wiki/Battle_of_Han_River "Battle of Han River"), before Cao Cao eventually decided to withdraw his forces, giving up Hanzhong to Liu Bei. Liu Bei subsequently declared himself "King of Hanzhong" after his victory.
### Breaking of the Sun–Liu alliance (219–220\)
{{further\|Battle of Fancheng\|Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province}}
Around the time when Liu Bei was attacking Hanzhong, [Guan Yu](/wiki/Guan_Yu "Guan Yu") also advanced north from [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 "Jingzhou (ancient China)") to attack Cao Cao's city of Fancheng (樊城; present\-day [Fancheng District](/wiki/Fancheng_District "Fancheng District"), [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang "Xiangyang"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei")), which was defended by [Cao Ren](/wiki/Cao_Ren "Cao Ren"). While Cao Ren managed to hold on to his position firmly, Guan Yu besieged the city, and the situation was serious enough that Cao Cao even considered moving the capital away from Xu.
At the same time, [Sun Quan](/wiki/Sun_Quan "Sun Quan") became increasingly resentful of Guan Yu because the latter had previously shown hostility towards him in three incidents: Guan Yu drove away from the official's Sun Quan sent to the three commanderies that Liu Bei had promised to give up to Sun; Guan Yu forcefully seized food supplies from one of Sun Quan's bases for use in his Fancheng campaign; Guan Yu ridiculed Sun Quan when the latter proposed a marriage between his son and Guan's daughter. When Guan Yu was away attacking Fancheng, Sun Quan sent his general [Lü Meng](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Meng "Lü Meng") to launch an assault on Jing Province from the east, swiftly conquering the province within weeks. The morale of Guan Yu's forces fell sharply and his soldiers gradually deserted him until he was left with only about 300 men. Guan Yu was isolated and besieged by Sun Quan's forces in Maicheng, and he attempted to break out but fell into an ambush and was captured. Guan Yu refused to surrender and was eventually executed on Sun Quan's order. This marked the end of the alliance between Sun Quan and Liu Bei. Sun Quan nominally submitted to Cao Cao and was granted the title of "Marquis of Wu". Sun Quan also urged Cao Cao to take the emperor's throne but Cao declined.
|
[
"Emergence of the Three Kingdoms (209–220\\)\n------------------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Late Han Luoyang tomb fresco showing chariots, horses and men](/wiki/File:Eastern_Han_Dynasty_tomb_fresco_of_chariots%2C_horses%2C_and_men%2C_Luoyang_3.jpg \"Eastern Han Dynasty tomb fresco of chariots, horses, and men, Luoyang 3.jpg\")",
"### Sun–Liu conquest of Jing Province (209–210\\)",
"{{Main\\|Battle of Jiangling (208\\)}}\nImmediately after the [Battle of Red Cliffs](/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs \"Battle of Red Cliffs\"), Sun Quan's forces under [Zhou Yu](/wiki/Zhou_Yu \"Zhou Yu\")'s command pressed on another attack on Cao Cao, leading to the [Battle of Jiangling](/wiki/Battle_of_Jiangling_%28208%29 \"Battle of Jiangling (208)\"). On the other hand, Liu Bei used the opportunity to attack the four [commanderies](/wiki/Commandery_%28China%29 \"Commandery (China)\") of Wuling, Changsha, Lingling and Guiyang in southern [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Jingzhou (ancient China)\") and bring them under his control. By early 209, Cao Cao had lost most of Jing Province to the allies.",
"As Liu Bei had become relatively more powerful after his conquests of the four commanderies, Sun Quan became apprehensive of him and decided to strengthen their alliance by arranging for a marriage between his younger sister, [Lady Sun](/wiki/Lady_Sun \"Lady Sun\"), and Liu Bei. Zhou Yu was suspicious of Liu Bei's intentions and suggested to Sun Quan to capture Liu Bei, put him under house arrest, and then take control over Liu's forces. However, Sun Quan rejected Zhou Yu's idea as he believed that Liu Bei's forces would rebel against him even if the plan succeeded. Sun Quan did agree with Zhou Yu's suggestion to consider attacking the warlords [Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 \"Liu Zhang (warlord)\") and [Zhang Lu](/wiki/Zhang_Lu_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)\"), who controlled parts of western China, including present\\-day southern [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\") and the [Sichuan Basin](/wiki/Sichuan_Basin \"Sichuan Basin\"). The plan was not set into motion and eventually aborted when Zhou Yu died in 210\\. Even though Sun Quan did not expand his borders west, he managed to persuade several local leaders in present\\-day [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong \"Guangdong\"), [Guangxi](/wiki/Guangxi \"Guangxi\") and northern [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\") to submit to him, and these territories became part of his domain. Sun Quan then agreed to \"lend\" northern Jing Province to Liu Bei as well when the latter complained that the south lacked resources to sustain its military.",
"### Cao Cao's northwestern campaign (211\\)",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|\n{{Legend\\|\\#0000FF\\|Cao Cao's territory in 206}}\n{{Legend\\|RoyalBlue\\|Cao Cao's conquests 207–215}}\n{{Legend\\|LimeGreen\\|Other warlords}}](/wiki/File:Cao_exp200-220.png \"Cao exp200-220.png\")\n{{Main\\|Battle of Tong Pass (211\\)}}\nCao Cao, after resting his forces for several years in light of his defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs, made a major advance again in 211, this time to ostensibly attack [Zhang Lu](/wiki/Zhang_Lu_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)\") of [Hanzhong](/wiki/Hanzhong \"Hanzhong\"). Warlords [Han Sui](/wiki/Han_Sui \"Han Sui\") and [Ma Chao](/wiki/Ma_Chao \"Ma Chao\"), who controlled Liang and Yong provinces, suspected that Cao Cao had designs on them and launched attacks in retaliation. A coalition of forces from west of [Hangu Pass](/wiki/Hangu_Pass \"Hangu Pass\"), led by Ma Chao and Han Sui, was defeated by Cao Cao at the [Battle of Tong Pass](/wiki/Battle_of_Tong_Pass_%28211%29 \"Battle of Tong Pass (211)\") in 211, and their territories were annexed by Cao over the next few years.",
"{{\\-}}",
"### Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province (212–214\\)",
"{{main\\|Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province\\|Sun–Liu territorial dispute}}\n[thumb\\|200px\\|Late Han stone\\-carved Luoyang tomb door, representing a [door knocker](/wiki/Door_knocker \"Door knocker\") with a *[taotie](/wiki/Taotie \"Taotie\")* face motif, common in ancient [Chinese art](/wiki/Chinese_art \"Chinese art\").](/wiki/File:Eastern_Han_tomb_door%2C_Luoyang_2.jpg \"Eastern Han tomb door, Luoyang 2.jpg\")",
"[Liu Zhang](/wiki/Liu_Zhang_%28warlord%29 \"Liu Zhang (warlord)\") of [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province \"Yi Province\") became worried of possible attacks from Zhang Lu and Cao Cao, so he sent [Fa Zheng](/wiki/Fa_Zheng \"Fa Zheng\") to invite Liu Bei into his domain to help him defend against Zhang Lu and Cao Cao. Fa Zheng was unimpressed with Liu Zhang's governorship and wanted Liu Bei to replace his lord, so he urged Liu Bei to use the opportunity to take control of Yi Province. Liu Bei heeded Fa Zheng's suggestion and led his army into Yi Province, where he received a warm welcome from Liu Zhang. Liu Zhang sent Liu Bei to the station at Jiameng Pass in northern Yi Province to resist Zhang Lu.",
"In 212, Liu Bei and Liu Zhang turned hostile towards each other and waged war. [Zhuge Liang](/wiki/Zhuge_Liang \"Zhuge Liang\") led a detachment of Liu Bei's forces left in [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Jingzhou (ancient China)\") to join his lord in attacking Liu Zhang. [Guan Yu](/wiki/Guan_Yu \"Guan Yu\") remained behind to defend Jing Province. In 215, Liu Bei had defeated much of Liu Zhang's forces and besieged him in his capital of [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu \"Chengdu\"). Liu Zhang surrendered and yielded Yi Province to Liu Bei. The province became Liu Bei's new base, and he used the mountainous surroundings as natural defences against Cao Cao in the north.",
"In the same year Liu Bei took over Yi Province, diplomatic relations between him and Sun Quan deteriorated when he refused to return Jing Province, which he \"borrowed\" from Sun Quan five years ago. Sun Quan launched an initial attack on Guan Yu and much of eastern Jing Province quickly submitted. However, after negotiations between Guan Yu and [Lu Su](/wiki/Lu_Su \"Lu Su\"), Liu Bei agreed to give up the three commanderies of Changsha, Jiangxia and Guiyang to Sun Quan, renewing their alliance and dividing Jing Province between them along the [Xiang River](/wiki/Xiang_River \"Xiang River\").",
"{{\\-}}",
"### Yangping and Hanzhong Campaign (215–219\\)",
"{{main\\|Hanzhong Campaign}}\n[thumb\\|200px\\|Eastern Han stone\\-carved [que pillar gates](/wiki/Que_%28tower%29 \"Que (tower)\") of Dingfang, [Zhong County](/wiki/Zhong_County \"Zhong County\") that once belonged to a [Ba Manzi](/wiki/Ba_Manzi \"Ba Manzi\") temple](/wiki/File:%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg \"忠縣丁房雙闕02.jpg\")\nIn 215, Cao Cao attacked [Zhang Lu](/wiki/Zhang_Lu_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)\") and defeated him at the [Battle of Yangping](/wiki/Battle_of_Yangping \"Battle of Yangping\"). Zhang Lu surrendered and his domain in [Hanzhong](/wiki/Hanzhong \"Hanzhong\") came under Cao Cao's control (January 216\\). Against the advice of his followers to move south and attack Liu Bei in [Yi Province](/wiki/Yi_Province \"Yi Province\"), Cao Cao withdrew his armies and left [Xiahou Yuan](/wiki/Xiahou_Yuan \"Xiahou Yuan\") in command of a small force to defend Hanzhong. The following year, Cao Cao pressured Emperor Xian into granting him a title of nobility, \"[King](/wiki/Kings_of_the_Han_dynasty \"Kings of the Han dynasty\") of Wei\". Over the next few years, Cao Cao's style of living became more like the emperor's, and he also received greater honours.",
"In 217, Liu Bei started a [campaign](/wiki/Hanzhong_Campaign \"Hanzhong Campaign\") to seize Hanzhong from Cao Cao. After Xiahou Yuan was defeated and killed at the [Battle of Mount Dingjun](/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Dingjun \"Battle of Mount Dingjun\") in 219, Cao Cao became alarmed and quickly arrived with reinforcements to resist Liu Bei. Both sides became locked in a stalemate, except for a clash at the [Battle of Han River](/wiki/Battle_of_Han_River \"Battle of Han River\"), before Cao Cao eventually decided to withdraw his forces, giving up Hanzhong to Liu Bei. Liu Bei subsequently declared himself \"King of Hanzhong\" after his victory.",
"### Breaking of the Sun–Liu alliance (219–220\\)",
"{{further\\|Battle of Fancheng\\|Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province}}\nAround the time when Liu Bei was attacking Hanzhong, [Guan Yu](/wiki/Guan_Yu \"Guan Yu\") also advanced north from [Jing Province](/wiki/Jingzhou_%28ancient_China%29 \"Jingzhou (ancient China)\") to attack Cao Cao's city of Fancheng (樊城; present\\-day [Fancheng District](/wiki/Fancheng_District \"Fancheng District\"), [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang \"Xiangyang\"), [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\")), which was defended by [Cao Ren](/wiki/Cao_Ren \"Cao Ren\"). While Cao Ren managed to hold on to his position firmly, Guan Yu besieged the city, and the situation was serious enough that Cao Cao even considered moving the capital away from Xu.",
"At the same time, [Sun Quan](/wiki/Sun_Quan \"Sun Quan\") became increasingly resentful of Guan Yu because the latter had previously shown hostility towards him in three incidents: Guan Yu drove away from the official's Sun Quan sent to the three commanderies that Liu Bei had promised to give up to Sun; Guan Yu forcefully seized food supplies from one of Sun Quan's bases for use in his Fancheng campaign; Guan Yu ridiculed Sun Quan when the latter proposed a marriage between his son and Guan's daughter. When Guan Yu was away attacking Fancheng, Sun Quan sent his general [Lü Meng](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Meng \"Lü Meng\") to launch an assault on Jing Province from the east, swiftly conquering the province within weeks. The morale of Guan Yu's forces fell sharply and his soldiers gradually deserted him until he was left with only about 300 men. Guan Yu was isolated and besieged by Sun Quan's forces in Maicheng, and he attempted to break out but fell into an ambush and was captured. Guan Yu refused to surrender and was eventually executed on Sun Quan's order. This marked the end of the alliance between Sun Quan and Liu Bei. Sun Quan nominally submitted to Cao Cao and was granted the title of \"Marquis of Wu\". Sun Quan also urged Cao Cao to take the emperor's throne but Cao declined.",
""
] |
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