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Career ------ ### Green Bay Packers Taylor was selected by the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers") in the twelfth round of the [1984 NFL draft](/wiki/1984_NFL_draft "1984 NFL draft") and played with the team that season. ### Washington Commandos After sitting out for two seasons, Taylor played for the [Washington Commandos](/wiki/Washington_Commandos "Washington Commandos") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League"). ### Atlanta Falcons After two seasons away from the NFL, he played with the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons") during the [1987 NFL season](/wiki/1987_NFL_season "1987 NFL season") as a scab during the [1987 NFL strike](/wiki/1987_NFL_strike "1987 NFL strike"). ### Detroit Drive Taylor joined the [Detroit Drive](/wiki/Detroit_Drive "Detroit Drive") in 1988, helping the team win [ArenaBowl II](/wiki/ArenaBowl_II "ArenaBowl II"). He played at the collegiate level at the [University of Tennessee](/wiki/University_of_Tennessee "University of Tennessee").
[ "Career\n------", "### Green Bay Packers", "Taylor was selected by the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\") in the twelfth round of the [1984 NFL draft](/wiki/1984_NFL_draft \"1984 NFL draft\") and played with the team that season.", "### Washington Commandos", "After sitting out for two seasons, Taylor played for the [Washington Commandos](/wiki/Washington_Commandos \"Washington Commandos\") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\").", "### Atlanta Falcons", "After two seasons away from the NFL, he played with the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\") during the [1987 NFL season](/wiki/1987_NFL_season \"1987 NFL season\") as a scab during the [1987 NFL strike](/wiki/1987_NFL_strike \"1987 NFL strike\").", "### Detroit Drive", "Taylor joined the [Detroit Drive](/wiki/Detroit_Drive \"Detroit Drive\") in 1988, helping the team win [ArenaBowl II](/wiki/ArenaBowl_II \"ArenaBowl II\").", "He played at the collegiate level at the [University of Tennessee](/wiki/University_of_Tennessee \"University of Tennessee\").", "" ]
Beliefs ------- According to Seik Sopat and Sadang Tuo,Seik Sopat and Sadang Tuo: Collection of Cambodian Traditions (ប្រជុំរឿងព្រេងខ្មែរ), p.78\. the story of Yeay Mao dates from 1866, when she was a spirit of cruelty that attacked any traveller that did not pay respects to her at Pech Nil Mountain (ភ្នំពេជ្រនិល). If the person to whom the spirit sent strong pains because ignoring to pay veneration to her, repented, that person was healed. But if that person did not repent, he or she could die. It was also believed that if a person presented his offering asking to hurt an enemy, the spirit used to fulfil the wish.Seik Sopat and Sadang Tuo: Collection of Cambodian Traditions (ប្រជុំរឿងព្រេងខ្មែរ), p.80\. In 1900, the French army destroyed the first shrine and the divinity came in decadence. During the short Japanese invasion of Cambodia in 1940, the army of that country gathered the farmers of [Kampot Province](/wiki/Kampot_Province "Kampot Province") and Vietnamese, Chinese and [Cham](/wiki/Cham_%28Asia%29 "Cham (Asia)") Cambodians, to dig trenches at the ancient sacred place. According to the legend, the workers desecrated the site, bringing the fury of the spirit. People started to suffer epidemics and many died. They explained these epidemics as the fury of Yeay Mao.Seik Sopat and Sadang Tuo: Collection of Cambodian Traditions (ប្រជុំរឿងព្រេងខ្មែរ), p.79\. In order to placate the spirit, the people started again to offer gifts to Yeay Mao and the veneration revived. After the villages near to Pech Nil Mountain, pray to the divinity asking for health and protection. If there was, for example, a theft, they pray to the spirit to punish the criminal.
[ "Beliefs\n-------", "According to Seik Sopat and Sadang Tuo,Seik Sopat and Sadang Tuo: Collection of Cambodian Traditions (ប្រជុំរឿងព្រេងខ្មែរ), p.78\\. the story of Yeay Mao dates from 1866, when she was a spirit of cruelty that attacked any traveller that did not pay respects to her at Pech Nil Mountain (ភ្នំពេជ្រនិល).", "If the person to whom the spirit sent strong pains because ignoring to pay veneration to her, repented, that person was healed. But if that person did not repent, he or she could die.", "It was also believed that if a person presented his offering asking to hurt an enemy, the spirit used to fulfil the wish.Seik Sopat and Sadang Tuo: Collection of Cambodian Traditions (ប្រជុំរឿងព្រេងខ្មែរ), p.80\\.", "In 1900, the French army destroyed the first shrine and the divinity came in decadence.", "During the short Japanese invasion of Cambodia in 1940, the army of that country gathered the farmers of [Kampot Province](/wiki/Kampot_Province \"Kampot Province\") and Vietnamese, Chinese and [Cham](/wiki/Cham_%28Asia%29 \"Cham (Asia)\") Cambodians, to dig trenches at the ancient sacred place. According to the legend, the workers desecrated the site, bringing the fury of the spirit. People started to suffer epidemics and many died. They explained these epidemics as the fury of Yeay Mao.Seik Sopat and Sadang Tuo: Collection of Cambodian Traditions (ប្រជុំរឿងព្រេងខ្មែរ), p.79\\.", "In order to placate the spirit, the people started again to offer gifts to Yeay Mao and the veneration revived. After the villages near to Pech Nil Mountain, pray to the divinity asking for health and protection. If there was, for example, a theft, they pray to the spirit to punish the criminal.", "" ]
Plot ---- The game begins with the MC *(Main Character)* in an empty lot and is first introduced to the character Autumn Brooks. After a basic tutorial on the game, Autumn confides in the MC that she is miserable at a future rival school called Hearst High and wishes to attend the MC's school. They immediately receive a text from the main enemy, Max Warren, son of the principal of Hearst *(or Kara Sinclair, head [cheerleader](/wiki/Cheerleading "Cheerleading"), depending on the gender of the MC)* and are threatened stating that unless their school contains fifteen students, it will be closed down. After an introduction to Autumn's friend, Julian, the two characters try to convince him to transfer to the MC's school from Hearst due to him not being able to play because his coach benches him for Max. To their dismay, he turns them down because his being at the school is the only opportunity to be recognized by football scouts, as he is not entirely good in school or other activities. But when the MC and Autumn show up at a Hearst football game, Julian is banned from playing the game for the remaining season as a result of fighting Max. Seeing the capability of the MC's school, Julian joins the school because he sees there is teamwork, a quality that Hearst now woefully lacks. To celebrate, they throw a party to get other students to come to their school with the help of Hearst student, Payton. The party is a success, but Payton forgets about throwing a party for Mia, Max's sister, and she and Kara swear to make her life awful in Hearst. Payton, feeling terrible, is convinced by Autumn to join the MC's school. She is initially sad because she is dumped by her boyfriend, but is happy again as she is able to date again. Hearst challenges the MC and their school to a homecoming game. If they win, Autumn will be able to transfer to the MC's school. They are warned by an anonymous text messenger that Hearst has a plan to steal their playbook plans. Unfortunately, the text message comes to pass \- Hearst uses a [quadrocopter](/wiki/Quadrocopter "Quadrocopter") with a camera to view their plan and steal it. Julian manages to take it down in time but Max tells him that the footage has been streaming live and they have all that they need. They are able to create a new playbook, but as they practice it, Julian kicks the football to the direction of Payton's float and they have an argument with each other, leaving the MC to solve it. They work their differences out and Julian and the football team win the homecoming game. Owing to the success of the homecoming game, Autumn finally gets to transfer to the MC's school. The MC is still curious about the quadrocopter that Max used to spy on them. Autumn tells her the only person who seems to know how to create one but to talk to him, the MC is required to go undercover. The MC is almost caught but barely escapes. Upon arrival, they meet Nishan, nerdy inventor and scientist. The MC tries to convince him to transfer schools but he declines stating that Hearst has a better academic program and a robotics club.
[ "Plot\n----", "The game begins with the MC *(Main Character)* in an empty lot and is first introduced to the character Autumn Brooks. After a basic tutorial on the game, Autumn confides in the MC that she is miserable at a future rival school called Hearst High and wishes to attend the MC's school. They immediately receive a text from the main enemy, Max Warren, son of the principal of Hearst *(or Kara Sinclair, head [cheerleader](/wiki/Cheerleading \"Cheerleading\"), depending on the gender of the MC)* and are threatened stating that unless their school contains fifteen students, it will be closed down.", "After an introduction to Autumn's friend, Julian, the two characters try to convince him to transfer to the MC's school from Hearst due to him not being able to play because his coach benches him for Max. To their dismay, he turns them down because his being at the school is the only opportunity to be recognized by football scouts, as he is not entirely good in school or other activities. But when the MC and Autumn show up at a Hearst football game, Julian is banned from playing the game for the remaining season as a result of fighting Max.", "Seeing the capability of the MC's school, Julian joins the school because he sees there is teamwork, a quality that Hearst now woefully lacks. To celebrate, they throw a party to get other students to come to their school with the help of Hearst student, Payton. The party is a success, but Payton forgets about throwing a party for Mia, Max's sister, and she and Kara swear to make her life awful in Hearst. Payton, feeling terrible, is convinced by Autumn to join the MC's school. She is initially sad because she is dumped by her boyfriend, but is happy again as she is able to date again.", "Hearst challenges the MC and their school to a homecoming game. If they win, Autumn will be able to transfer to the MC's school. They are warned by an anonymous text messenger that Hearst has a plan to steal their playbook plans. Unfortunately, the text message comes to pass \\- Hearst uses a [quadrocopter](/wiki/Quadrocopter \"Quadrocopter\") with a camera to view their plan and steal it. Julian manages to take it down in time but Max tells him that the footage has been streaming live and they have all that they need. They are able to create a new playbook, but as they practice it, Julian kicks the football to the direction of Payton's float and they have an argument with each other, leaving the MC to solve it. They work their differences out and Julian and the football team win the homecoming game.", "Owing to the success of the homecoming game, Autumn finally gets to transfer to the MC's school. The MC is still curious about the quadrocopter that Max used to spy on them. Autumn tells her the only person who seems to know how to create one but to talk to him, the MC is required to go undercover. The MC is almost caught but barely escapes. Upon arrival, they meet Nishan, nerdy inventor and scientist. The MC tries to convince him to transfer schools but he declines stating that Hearst has a better academic program and a robotics club.", "" ]
Biography --------- Hélène Iswolsky was born in 1896 into the family of [Alexander Izvolsky](/wiki/Alexander_Izvolsky "Alexander Izvolsky"), a Russian diplomat, and Countess Marguerite von Toll, a [Baltic German noblewoman](/wiki/Baltic_German_nobility "Baltic German nobility"). Through her father, she was the niece of the [Ober\-Procurator](/wiki/Procurator_%28Russia%29 "Procurator (Russia)") of the [Most Holy Synod](/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod "Most Holy Synod"), [Pyotr Izvolskiy](/wiki/Pyotr_Izvolskiy "Pyotr Izvolskiy"). Her father was an ambassador of the Russian imperial government in different countries of [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") and Japan from 1894 to 1910, then Minister of Foreign Affairs and, from 1910 to 1917, Ambassador to France. When the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") broke out, Isvolsky and her mother were in [Konstanz](/wiki/Konstanz "Konstanz"), [Grand Duchy of Baden](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden "Grand Duchy of Baden"), [Imperial Germany](/wiki/Imperial_Germany "Imperial Germany"), while traveling from Russia back to [France](/wiki/France "France"). As Iswolsky's mother pleaded with the city's *Herr Kommandant*, a [general](/wiki/General_%28Germany%29 "General (Germany)") in the [Imperial German Army](/wiki/Imperial_German_Army "Imperial German Army"), for permission to leave the country, a messenger arrived, dismounted from a motorcycle, and shouted, "Germany has declared war on Russia!" The messenger then jumped back on his motorcycle and drove away. Iswolsky later wrote, "At the sound of that departure, it seemed to me that the very heavens were coming down over my head. I heard the crash of a world that would never again be the same." Even though Iswolsky and her mother were enemy nationals in time of war, the General explained that, as he had not yet officially received a report about the outbreak of war, he could still issue the necessary documents for both women to leave Germany for neutral [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland"). Iswolsky and her mother finally arrived in Paris on August 3, 1914, the day that Germany declared war on France. Helene Iswolsky (1985\), *No Time to Grieve: An Autobiographical Journey from Russia to Paris to New York*, pages 105\-106\. In Paris during the war, Iswolsky took care of the wounded and dying soldiers at the *Hôpital Russe*. Following the [February Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution "February Revolution"), Iswolsky learned that she and all other Russian doctors and nurses working there had been under surveillance by the Paris offices of the Tsarist [secret police](/wiki/Secret_police "Secret police"), or [Okhrana](/wiki/Okhrana "Okhrana").Helene Iswolsky (1985\), *No Time to Grieve: An Autobiographical Journey from Russia to Paris to New York*, page 120\. Isvolsky earned a living by working for French magazines, translating from Russian to French and English, and from French to Russian (among others, the philosophical works of [Nicholas Berdyaev](/wiki/Nicholas_Berdyaev "Nicholas Berdyaev") and [Vyacheslav Ivanov](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Ivanov_%28poet%29 "Vyacheslav Ivanov (poet)")). In 1923, she converted from Orthodoxy to the [Russian Greek Catholic Church](/wiki/Russian_Greek_Catholic_Church "Russian Greek Catholic Church"). The rite of joining the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") was in a Benedictine monastery, where she met two Russian\-born nuns, Paula and Eustochia Komarov (mother and daughter). Following her conversion, Iswolsky regularly attended the [Divine Liturgy](/wiki/Divine_Liturgy "Divine Liturgy") at the Church of the Holy Trinity, located near the [Porte d'Italie](/wiki/Porte_d%27Italie "Porte d'Italie") in Paris. She later praised the pastor, Mgr. [Alexander Evreinov](/wiki/Alexander_Evreinov "Alexander Evreinov"), in her memoirs. Evreinov offered the [Byzantine Rite](/wiki/Byzantine_Rite "Byzantine Rite") without the [Latin Rite borrowings](/wiki/Liturgical_latinisation "Liturgical latinisation") commonly added in [Galicia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria "Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria"), and "one might have thought oneself at an Orthodox service, except that prayers were offered for the Pope and our hierarchical head, the Archbishop of Paris". Iswolsky added that the chapel, although humble, "was decorated in the best of taste and according to the strictest Russian religious style; the [iconostasis](/wiki/Iconostasis "Iconostasis") was the work of a Russian painter well\-versed in ancient Eastern iconography. The central panel was a faithful copy of [Rubleff's Trinity](/wiki/Trinity_%28Andrei_Rublev%29 "Trinity (Andrei Rublev)")."Helen Iswolsky (1942\), *Light Before Dusk: A Russian Catholic in France, 1923\-1941*, pages 57\-59\. Iswolsky first met and befriended the poet [Marina Tsvetaeva](/wiki/Marina_Tsvetaeva "Marina Tsvetaeva") at a literary dinner at [Meudon](/wiki/Meudon "Meudon"). Iswolsky was approached on arrival and told, "I am Marina Tsvetaeva and I have a message for you from [Boris Pasternak](/wiki/Boris_Pasternak "Boris Pasternak")." Tvetaeva explained that Pasternak had read and enjoyed Iswolsky's translation into French of his poem about the [Russian Revolution of 1905](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905 "Russian Revolution of 1905").Helene Iswolsky (1985\), *No Time to Grieve: An Autobiographical Journey from Russia to Paris to New York*, pages 172\-174\. In 1931, Iswolsky went to Nagasaki in Japan where she was married and became Baroness R. Ungern\-Sternberg. The marriage was unhappy and, in 1932, she returned to Paris and since then used her original name only. In 1941, Isvolsky moved from France to the United States. She stopped in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") and, for the first time, received support from the Tolstoy Foundation. Here she met with Irma Manziarli who was born in Saint Petersburg and whose parents were German Protestants. During meetings at the home of Manziarli, she had the idea of publishing an ecumenical magazine. Among the founders of the magazine were people such as [Vasily Janowski](/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 "Яновский, Василий Семёнович"), the writer and doctor, [Arthur Lourie](/wiki/Arthur_Lourie "Arthur Lourie"), a composer and convert to Catholicism and [Alexander Kazembek](/wiki/Alexander_Lvovich_Kazembek "Alexander Lvovich Kazembek"), party leader of the [Mladorossi](/wiki/Mladorossi "Mladorossi"). The magazine title, *The Third Hour*, was taken from the [Acts of the Apostles](/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles "Acts of the Apostles") (Acts 2\. 4\-17\). The first issue was published in 1946 in three versions: English, Russian and French. There were ten issues published in all. The last, in 1976 after Isvolsky's death, was dedicated to her. The purpose of the magazine was to unite all Christians—Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants. The magazine published the work of authors such as [Simone Weil](/wiki/Simone_Weil "Simone Weil"), [Edith Stein](/wiki/Edith_Stein "Edith Stein"), Mother Maria Skobtsova and [Pierre Teilhard de Chardin](/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin "Pierre Teilhard de Chardin"). It was attended by eminent scholars [Jacques Maritain](/wiki/Jacques_Maritain "Jacques Maritain"), [Karl Barth](/wiki/Karl_Barth "Karl Barth") and [Jean Daniélou](/wiki/Jean_Dani%C3%A9lou "Jean Daniélou"). When it became possible, Hélène visited Russia. Initially, with [Dorothy Day](/wiki/Dorothy_Day "Dorothy Day") she traveled by train from [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") to [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok "Vladivostok"). In 1961, she made a journey by car along the route [Leningrad](/wiki/Leningrad "Leningrad") \- [Novgorod](/wiki/Novgorod "Novgorod") \- [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") \- [Vladimir](/wiki/Vladimir%2C_Russia "Vladimir, Russia") \- [Tula](/wiki/Tula%2C_Russia "Tula, Russia") \- [Oryol](/wiki/Oryol "Oryol") \- [Kharkiv](/wiki/Kharkiv "Kharkiv") \- [Poltava](/wiki/Poltava "Poltava") \- [Kiev](/wiki/Kiev "Kiev"). In Moscow, she visited the tomb of [Vladimir Solovyov](/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_%28philosopher%29 "Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)"), where she collected some soil (in December 1975 in [Tivoli, New York](/wiki/Tivoli%2C_New_York "Tivoli, New York"), the soil was placed in her grave). In the United States, she joined the social movement [Catholic Worker](/wiki/Catholic_Worker "Catholic Worker"). In her 60s, Isvolsky lived at times in Tivoli. Not far from Tivoli was a small Benedictine monastery and she began to take an active part in its spiritual life. In 1972, the monastery moved about 50 miles south to [Cold Spring, New York](/wiki/Cold_Spring%2C_New_York "Cold Spring, New York"), and in summer 1974, she moved from New York City to Cold Spring to be closer. The brothers helped her maintain a library, an extensive archive. Iswolsky died on [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve "Christmas Eve") 1975, in a hospital near Cold Spring. Shortly before her death, she became an [oblate](/wiki/Oblate "Oblate") of the [Traditionalist Catholic](/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic "Traditionalist Catholic") [Benedictine](/wiki/Benedictine "Benedictine") [Abbey of Regina Laudis](/wiki/Abbey_of_Regina_Laudis "Abbey of Regina Laudis"), taking the name Olga.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Hélène Iswolsky was born in 1896 into the family of [Alexander Izvolsky](/wiki/Alexander_Izvolsky \"Alexander Izvolsky\"), a Russian diplomat, and Countess Marguerite von Toll, a [Baltic German noblewoman](/wiki/Baltic_German_nobility \"Baltic German nobility\"). Through her father, she was the niece of the [Ober\\-Procurator](/wiki/Procurator_%28Russia%29 \"Procurator (Russia)\") of the [Most Holy Synod](/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod \"Most Holy Synod\"), [Pyotr Izvolskiy](/wiki/Pyotr_Izvolskiy \"Pyotr Izvolskiy\").", "Her father was an ambassador of the Russian imperial government in different countries of [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and Japan from 1894 to 1910, then Minister of Foreign Affairs and, from 1910 to 1917, Ambassador to France.", "When the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") broke out, Isvolsky and her mother were in [Konstanz](/wiki/Konstanz \"Konstanz\"), [Grand Duchy of Baden](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden \"Grand Duchy of Baden\"), [Imperial Germany](/wiki/Imperial_Germany \"Imperial Germany\"), while traveling from Russia back to [France](/wiki/France \"France\"). As Iswolsky's mother pleaded with the city's *Herr Kommandant*, a [general](/wiki/General_%28Germany%29 \"General (Germany)\") in the [Imperial German Army](/wiki/Imperial_German_Army \"Imperial German Army\"), for permission to leave the country, a messenger arrived, dismounted from a motorcycle, and shouted, \"Germany has declared war on Russia!\" The messenger then jumped back on his motorcycle and drove away. Iswolsky later wrote, \"At the sound of that departure, it seemed to me that the very heavens were coming down over my head. I heard the crash of a world that would never again be the same.\" Even though Iswolsky and her mother were enemy nationals in time of war, the General explained that, as he had not yet officially received a report about the outbreak of war, he could still issue the necessary documents for both women to leave Germany for neutral [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\"). Iswolsky and her mother finally arrived in Paris on August 3, 1914, the day that Germany declared war on France. Helene Iswolsky (1985\\), *No Time to Grieve: An Autobiographical Journey from Russia to Paris to New York*, pages 105\\-106\\.", "In Paris during the war, Iswolsky took care of the wounded and dying soldiers at the *Hôpital Russe*. Following the [February Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution \"February Revolution\"), Iswolsky learned that she and all other Russian doctors and nurses working there had been under surveillance by the Paris offices of the Tsarist [secret police](/wiki/Secret_police \"Secret police\"), or [Okhrana](/wiki/Okhrana \"Okhrana\").Helene Iswolsky (1985\\), *No Time to Grieve: An Autobiographical Journey from Russia to Paris to New York*, page 120\\.", "Isvolsky earned a living by working for French magazines, translating from Russian to French and English, and from French to Russian (among others, the philosophical works of [Nicholas Berdyaev](/wiki/Nicholas_Berdyaev \"Nicholas Berdyaev\") and [Vyacheslav Ivanov](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Ivanov_%28poet%29 \"Vyacheslav Ivanov (poet)\")). In 1923, she converted from Orthodoxy to the [Russian Greek Catholic Church](/wiki/Russian_Greek_Catholic_Church \"Russian Greek Catholic Church\"). The rite of joining the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") was in a Benedictine monastery, where she met two Russian\\-born nuns, Paula and Eustochia Komarov (mother and daughter).", "Following her conversion, Iswolsky regularly attended the [Divine Liturgy](/wiki/Divine_Liturgy \"Divine Liturgy\") at the Church of the Holy Trinity, located near the [Porte d'Italie](/wiki/Porte_d%27Italie \"Porte d'Italie\") in Paris. She later praised the pastor, Mgr. [Alexander Evreinov](/wiki/Alexander_Evreinov \"Alexander Evreinov\"), in her memoirs. Evreinov offered the [Byzantine Rite](/wiki/Byzantine_Rite \"Byzantine Rite\") without the [Latin Rite borrowings](/wiki/Liturgical_latinisation \"Liturgical latinisation\") commonly added in [Galicia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria \"Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria\"), and \"one might have thought oneself at an Orthodox service, except that prayers were offered for the Pope and our hierarchical head, the Archbishop of Paris\". Iswolsky added that the chapel, although humble, \"was decorated in the best of taste and according to the strictest Russian religious style; the [iconostasis](/wiki/Iconostasis \"Iconostasis\") was the work of a Russian painter well\\-versed in ancient Eastern iconography. The central panel was a faithful copy of [Rubleff's Trinity](/wiki/Trinity_%28Andrei_Rublev%29 \"Trinity (Andrei Rublev)\").\"Helen Iswolsky (1942\\), *Light Before Dusk: A Russian Catholic in France, 1923\\-1941*, pages 57\\-59\\.", "Iswolsky first met and befriended the poet [Marina Tsvetaeva](/wiki/Marina_Tsvetaeva \"Marina Tsvetaeva\") at a literary dinner at [Meudon](/wiki/Meudon \"Meudon\"). Iswolsky was approached on arrival and told, \"I am Marina Tsvetaeva and I have a message for you from [Boris Pasternak](/wiki/Boris_Pasternak \"Boris Pasternak\").\" Tvetaeva explained that Pasternak had read and enjoyed Iswolsky's translation into French of his poem about the [Russian Revolution of 1905](/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905 \"Russian Revolution of 1905\").Helene Iswolsky (1985\\), *No Time to Grieve: An Autobiographical Journey from Russia to Paris to New York*, pages 172\\-174\\.", "In 1931, Iswolsky went to Nagasaki in Japan where she was married and became Baroness R. Ungern\\-Sternberg. The marriage was unhappy and, in 1932, she returned to Paris and since then used her original name only.", "In 1941, Isvolsky moved from France to the United States. She stopped in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") and, for the first time, received support from the Tolstoy Foundation. Here she met with Irma Manziarli who was born in Saint Petersburg and whose parents were German Protestants. During meetings at the home of Manziarli, she had the idea of publishing an ecumenical magazine. Among the founders of the magazine were people such as [Vasily Janowski](/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 \"Яновский, Василий Семёнович\"), the writer and doctor, [Arthur Lourie](/wiki/Arthur_Lourie \"Arthur Lourie\"), a composer and convert to Catholicism and [Alexander Kazembek](/wiki/Alexander_Lvovich_Kazembek \"Alexander Lvovich Kazembek\"), party leader of the [Mladorossi](/wiki/Mladorossi \"Mladorossi\"). The magazine title, *The Third Hour*, was taken from the [Acts of the Apostles](/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles \"Acts of the Apostles\") (Acts 2\\. 4\\-17\\). The first issue was published in 1946 in three versions: English, Russian and French. There were ten issues published in all. The last, in 1976 after Isvolsky's death, was dedicated to her. The purpose of the magazine was to unite all Christians—Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants. The magazine published the work of authors such as [Simone Weil](/wiki/Simone_Weil \"Simone Weil\"), [Edith Stein](/wiki/Edith_Stein \"Edith Stein\"), Mother Maria Skobtsova and [Pierre Teilhard de Chardin](/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin \"Pierre Teilhard de Chardin\"). It was attended by eminent scholars [Jacques Maritain](/wiki/Jacques_Maritain \"Jacques Maritain\"), [Karl Barth](/wiki/Karl_Barth \"Karl Barth\") and [Jean Daniélou](/wiki/Jean_Dani%C3%A9lou \"Jean Daniélou\"). When it became possible, Hélène visited Russia. Initially, with [Dorothy Day](/wiki/Dorothy_Day \"Dorothy Day\") she traveled by train from [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") to [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok \"Vladivostok\").", "In 1961, she made a journey by car along the route [Leningrad](/wiki/Leningrad \"Leningrad\") \\- [Novgorod](/wiki/Novgorod \"Novgorod\") \\- [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") \\- [Vladimir](/wiki/Vladimir%2C_Russia \"Vladimir, Russia\") \\- [Tula](/wiki/Tula%2C_Russia \"Tula, Russia\") \\- [Oryol](/wiki/Oryol \"Oryol\") \\- [Kharkiv](/wiki/Kharkiv \"Kharkiv\") \\- [Poltava](/wiki/Poltava \"Poltava\") \\- [Kiev](/wiki/Kiev \"Kiev\"). In Moscow, she visited the tomb of [Vladimir Solovyov](/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_%28philosopher%29 \"Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)\"), where she collected some soil (in December 1975 in [Tivoli, New York](/wiki/Tivoli%2C_New_York \"Tivoli, New York\"), the soil was placed in her grave). In the United States, she joined the social movement [Catholic Worker](/wiki/Catholic_Worker \"Catholic Worker\"). In her 60s, Isvolsky lived at times in Tivoli. Not far from Tivoli was a small Benedictine monastery and she began to take an active part in its spiritual life. In 1972, the monastery moved about 50 miles south to [Cold Spring, New York](/wiki/Cold_Spring%2C_New_York \"Cold Spring, New York\"), and in summer 1974, she moved from New York City to Cold Spring to be closer. The brothers helped her maintain a library, an extensive archive. Iswolsky died on [Christmas Eve](/wiki/Christmas_Eve \"Christmas Eve\") 1975, in a hospital near Cold Spring. Shortly before her death, she became an [oblate](/wiki/Oblate \"Oblate\") of the [Traditionalist Catholic](/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic \"Traditionalist Catholic\") [Benedictine](/wiki/Benedictine \"Benedictine\") [Abbey of Regina Laudis](/wiki/Abbey_of_Regina_Laudis \"Abbey of Regina Laudis\"), taking the name Olga.", "" ]
Publication history ------------------- Rockerduck was created by [Carl Barks](/wiki/Carl_Barks "Carl Barks"), who used him in one story: "Boat Buster", first published in *[Walt Disney's Comics and Stories](/wiki/Walt_Disney%27s_Comics_and_Stories "Walt Disney's Comics and Stories")* \#255 (December 1961\).{{cite web \|title\=John D. Rockerduck index \|url\=https://inducks.org/character.php?c1\=date\&c\=RKD\&view\=4 \|website\=Inducks \|access\-date\=19 September 2019}} In that story, he was portrayed as an oil tycoon who argued with [Scrooge McDuck](/wiki/Scrooge_McDuck "Scrooge McDuck"), portrayed in that story as another oil tycoon, over which one of them made the best gasoline. To settle this, Scrooge and John agreed each one to enter a boat at an upcoming race. Scrooge was so confident of his victory he said he could win regardless of who was driving his boat. Trying to prove his point, Scrooge randomly picked somebody from the crowd watching their argument. However, he loses confidence when that somebody happened to be [Donald Duck](/wiki/Donald_Duck "Donald Duck"). To increase his chances of victory, Scrooge saw to it that all other boats in the race (there were a hundred boats counting Donald's and John's) were powered by his gasoline. Near the end, several boats (Donald's included) crashed and a loose motor pushed a freely\-floating Donald into the finish line in the first place. Scrooge claimed victory, but Rockerduck pointed out they first must find out whose gasoline was powering that motor. Despite the odds being for Scrooge, the motor happened to be the one powered by John Rockerduck's gasoline. Rockerduck was jumping in celebration while an enraged Scrooge chased Donald. The character has rarely appeared in American stories but appears regularly in Latin American and European stories, and especially in Italian ones. He also appeared in stories produced by the now defunct [Disney Studio Program](/wiki/Disney_comics%23Disney_Studio_Program "Disney comics#Disney Studio Program"). His first appearance in an Italian story was *Zio Paperone e il kiwi volante* ("Uncle Scrooge and the Flying Kiwi") by Giampaolo Barosso and Giorgio Bordini, first published on March 1, 1963\. After this, the Disney Studio Program developed the character, and since then the Italian creators have further developed Rockerduck and explored various aspects of his relationship with Scrooge. One distinctive character trait is a habit of eating his [bowler hat](/wiki/Bowler_hat "Bowler hat") whenever he is defeated by Scrooge. This has led in some stories to Rockerduck eating an entire truckload of hats, because of an especially abject defeat. Like his rival, he is a shrewd businessman and has managed to organize a worldwide financial empire that can easily rival those of Scrooge or [Flintheart Glomgold](/wiki/Flintheart_Glomgold "Flintheart Glomgold"). Unlike them, he is not a [tightwad](/wiki/Miser "Miser") but much more a liberal spender (but by no means a squanderer), as Rockerduck seems to maintain that "you have to spend money to make money". This trait makes him a natural antagonist to Scrooge, who is capable of going towards absurd lengths to spare even trivial sums of money. Their rivalry is further contrasted by the fact that Rockerduck was born into luxury, rather than earning his fortune by his own hard work, which is another reason for Scrooge's, and sometimes even Glomgold's disrespect toward him. Rockerduck has a taste for luxury, and likes to show off his wealth. Besides his secretary, advisor, and right\-hand man Jeeves, he does not seem to have any close confidants. Like Scrooge and Flintheart, Rockerduck is extremely competitive. He is rivaling them in the wealth department and has occasionally claimed the titles of "The Richest Duck in the World" and "The Second Richest Duck in the World". Since those titles belong to Scrooge and Flintheart respectively, it can be inferred that he owns the title of "The Third Richest Duck in the World", or that Glomgold and Rockerduck are constantly competing for the second and third places. Stories that have Rockerduck or Glomgold actually measuring their fortunes against that of Scrooge invariably end with Scrooge being ahead by an entirely trivial amount. In one story, Scrooge's and Rockerduck's fortunes turned out to be exactly the same, but Scrooge could triumphantly point out that his Number One Dime had not been included in the count, putting him ahead by exactly one dime. For all practical purposes, the three ducks would seem to be equally rich. Rockerduck is an influential member of the [Billionaires' Club](/wiki/Donald_Duck_universe%23Millionaires%27_club "Donald Duck universe#Millionaires' club") of [Duckburg](/wiki/Duckburg "Duckburg"), of which Scrooge and Flintheart are also members. Only five stories feature him and Flintheart both, though: *Zio Paperone e il bisbilione* ("Uncle Scrooge and the bil\-billion", 1967\), written by Osvaldo Pavese and drawn by [Giuseppe Perego](/wiki/Giuseppe_Perego "Giuseppe Perego"); *Whatever Happened to Scrooge McDuck?* (1996\), written by Lars Jensen and drawn by Maximino Tortajada Aguilar, where Rockerduck and Glomgold both make a cameo in a future vision that shows both of them having been made bankrupt by Donald's Duck charity company; *Scrooge's Last Adventure* (2003\), written by Francesco Artibani and drawn by Alessandro Perina, where they team up with the [Beagle Boys](/wiki/Beagle_Boys "Beagle Boys") and [Magica De Spell](/wiki/Magica_De_Spell "Magica De Spell") against Scrooge; *The Three Billionaires* (2005\), written and drawn by [Kari Korhonen](/wiki/Kari_Korhonen "Kari Korhonen"); and *The Great Egg Robbery* (2019\) written by Carol McGreal and Pat McGreal and drawn by Giorgio Cavazzano. Another possible distinction between the characters is their country of residence and where their investments lie. In contrast to the [Scottish](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") birth of Scrooge, Rockerduck claims to be hailing from England like his father Howard, where he is sometimes depicted to be living, and shown to be the more active in Europe than in America, with some stories having Scrooge having to buy land from him or compete with him to be able to expand his businesses on the European markets. This is often ignored in other stories to be able to have the rivals meet on a daily basis as in the case of Scrooge's other rival, Flintheart Glomgold (who in the Barks stories lives in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa")) with John primarily managing his activities from a large business building he owns in Duckburg, and the three characters sitting at the same table in the Billionaires' Club of the city. Rockerduck also has a passion for [collecting](/wiki/Collecting "Collecting"). Besides his valuable [coins](/wiki/Coin "Coin") and [stamp collection](/wiki/Stamp_collecting "Stamp collecting"), he is also the owner of an extensive art collection, including artifacts created from antiquity through to the 20th century. Since Scrooge also has collections of the same theme and similar value, many of their confrontations center on them trying to obtain a new addition to their collections. Many of the stories presenting him, especially during the 1970s and the 1980s, compare and contrast his and Scrooge's methods of organizing their business in order to gain profit. Some of those methods include researching new products for their industries, ways of refining and improving the existing ones, and the study of new producing methods. Also ways of improving their [marketing](/wiki/Marketing "Marketing") techniques and public relations, in order to increase sales. Or even trying to improve the ratings of their TV stations and the sales of their newspapers, in order to have more clients paying for advertisements in them. Both he and Scrooge try to predict each other's moves in order to act accordingly. In his efforts, Rockerduck often resorts to [industrial espionage](/wiki/Industrial_espionage "Industrial espionage") or [sabotage](/wiki/Sabotage "Sabotage"). Although less often, Scrooge occasionally uses the same methods. Sometimes Rockerduck's plans against Scrooge involve more severe actions like abduction, hijacking his planes, or blackmailing him. On these occasions, he usually lets his right\-hand man Jeeves do the dirty work, but he also hires the [Beagle Boys](/wiki/Beagle_Boys "Beagle Boys") to do his dirty work for him from time to time. On a more personal level, Scrooge and Rockerduck seem to bicker constantly, criticizing each other's ways of life and personal faults. Although his confrontations with Scrooge have often found him defeated or even humiliated, he has commented on at least enjoying the challenge that Scrooge presents to him. At times the two find each other co\-operating to achieve common goals. If they are worthy rivals to each other, they also seem to make effective partners—but only on a temporary basis. Some stories portray Rockerduck in a more positive light and portray him as friendly towards Scrooge's associates like [Brigitta McBridge](/wiki/Brigitta_McBridge "Brigitta McBridge") and [Donald Duck](/wiki/Donald_Duck "Donald Duck"), as he has no personal grudges against them. When relaxed, he can even be a pleasant companion for them or Scrooge. In all these traits, he differs from Flintheart Glomgold. In other stories, Donald Duck may be pitted against *both* Scrooge and Rockerduck during one of their temporary alliances. Such stories emphasize Scrooge's morally ambiguous role in Italian Disney comics, where he frequently exploits Donald, or makes his life miserable in other ways. When cooperating with Rockerduck, Scrooge may be particularly insufferable, and the reader is invited to sympathize with Donald as the [underdog](/wiki/Underdog_%28term%29 "Underdog (term)") in his conflict with the ruthless and powerful billionaires. In the story *Brother From Another Earth!* (1995\), written by Rudy Salvagnini and drawn by [Giorgio Cavazzano](/wiki/Giorgio_Cavazzano "Giorgio Cavazzano"), Scrooge is convinced to take a holiday on "Earth\-D" by his counterpart "Scrooge\-B". In this alternate reality, a discouraged Scrooge is heavily in debt to several creditors; one being Rockerduck. The alternate Rockerduck has no visible businesses save for a [greengrocery](/wiki/Greengrocer "Greengrocer") which he manages, and says that he made a mistake investing in the failing McDuck stock. When "Scrooge\-A" works to get his counterpart's business back on track, he retires the debt to Rockerduck, and also buys the produce store, keeping John D. Rockerduck on board as proprietor. Rockerduck admits that although odd to be part of McDuck's recovering business empire, he also say "it makes me feel almost like the free\-spending tycoon I used to be!"
[ "Publication history\n-------------------", "Rockerduck was created by [Carl Barks](/wiki/Carl_Barks \"Carl Barks\"), who used him in one story: \"Boat Buster\", first published in *[Walt Disney's Comics and Stories](/wiki/Walt_Disney%27s_Comics_and_Stories \"Walt Disney's Comics and Stories\")* \\#255 (December 1961\\).{{cite web \\|title\\=John D. Rockerduck index \\|url\\=https://inducks.org/character.php?c1\\=date\\&c\\=RKD\\&view\\=4 \\|website\\=Inducks \\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2019}} In that story, he was portrayed as an oil tycoon who argued with [Scrooge McDuck](/wiki/Scrooge_McDuck \"Scrooge McDuck\"), portrayed in that story as another oil tycoon, over which one of them made the best gasoline. To settle this, Scrooge and John agreed each one to enter a boat at an upcoming race. Scrooge was so confident of his victory he said he could win regardless of who was driving his boat. Trying to prove his point, Scrooge randomly picked somebody from the crowd watching their argument. However, he loses confidence when that somebody happened to be [Donald Duck](/wiki/Donald_Duck \"Donald Duck\"). To increase his chances of victory, Scrooge saw to it that all other boats in the race (there were a hundred boats counting Donald's and John's) were powered by his gasoline. Near the end, several boats (Donald's included) crashed and a loose motor pushed a freely\\-floating Donald into the finish line in the first place. Scrooge claimed victory, but Rockerduck pointed out they first must find out whose gasoline was powering that motor. Despite the odds being for Scrooge, the motor happened to be the one powered by John Rockerduck's gasoline. Rockerduck was jumping in celebration while an enraged Scrooge chased Donald.", "The character has rarely appeared in American stories but appears regularly in Latin American and European stories, and especially in Italian ones. He also appeared in stories produced by the now defunct [Disney Studio Program](/wiki/Disney_comics%23Disney_Studio_Program \"Disney comics#Disney Studio Program\"). His first appearance in an Italian story was *Zio Paperone e il kiwi volante* (\"Uncle Scrooge and the Flying Kiwi\") by Giampaolo Barosso and Giorgio Bordini, first published on March 1, 1963\\. After this, the Disney Studio Program developed the character, and since then the Italian creators have further developed Rockerduck and explored various aspects of his relationship with Scrooge.", "One distinctive character trait is a habit of eating his [bowler hat](/wiki/Bowler_hat \"Bowler hat\") whenever he is defeated by Scrooge. This has led in some stories to Rockerduck eating an entire truckload of hats, because of an especially abject defeat.", "Like his rival, he is a shrewd businessman and has managed to organize a worldwide financial empire that can easily rival those of Scrooge or [Flintheart Glomgold](/wiki/Flintheart_Glomgold \"Flintheart Glomgold\"). Unlike them, he is not a [tightwad](/wiki/Miser \"Miser\") but much more a liberal spender (but by no means a squanderer), as Rockerduck seems to maintain that \"you have to spend money to make money\". This trait makes him a natural antagonist to Scrooge, who is capable of going towards absurd lengths to spare even trivial sums of money. Their rivalry is further contrasted by the fact that Rockerduck was born into luxury, rather than earning his fortune by his own hard work, which is another reason for Scrooge's, and sometimes even Glomgold's disrespect toward him. Rockerduck has a taste for luxury, and likes to show off his wealth. Besides his secretary, advisor, and right\\-hand man Jeeves, he does not seem to have any close confidants.", "Like Scrooge and Flintheart, Rockerduck is extremely competitive. He is rivaling them in the wealth department and has occasionally claimed the titles of \"The Richest Duck in the World\" and \"The Second Richest Duck in the World\". Since those titles belong to Scrooge and Flintheart respectively, it can be inferred that he owns the title of \"The Third Richest Duck in the World\", or that Glomgold and Rockerduck are constantly competing for the second and third places. Stories that have Rockerduck or Glomgold actually measuring their fortunes against that of Scrooge invariably end with Scrooge being ahead by an entirely trivial amount. In one story, Scrooge's and Rockerduck's fortunes turned out to be exactly the same, but Scrooge could triumphantly point out that his Number One Dime had not been included in the count, putting him ahead by exactly one dime. For all practical purposes, the three ducks would seem to be equally rich.", "Rockerduck is an influential member of the [Billionaires' Club](/wiki/Donald_Duck_universe%23Millionaires%27_club \"Donald Duck universe#Millionaires' club\") of [Duckburg](/wiki/Duckburg \"Duckburg\"), of which Scrooge and Flintheart are also members. Only five stories feature him and Flintheart both, though: *Zio Paperone e il bisbilione* (\"Uncle Scrooge and the bil\\-billion\", 1967\\), written by Osvaldo Pavese and drawn by [Giuseppe Perego](/wiki/Giuseppe_Perego \"Giuseppe Perego\"); *Whatever Happened to Scrooge McDuck?* (1996\\), written by Lars Jensen and drawn by Maximino Tortajada Aguilar, where Rockerduck and Glomgold both make a cameo in a future vision that shows both of them having been made bankrupt by Donald's Duck charity company; *Scrooge's Last Adventure* (2003\\), written by Francesco Artibani and drawn by Alessandro Perina, where they team up with the [Beagle Boys](/wiki/Beagle_Boys \"Beagle Boys\") and [Magica De Spell](/wiki/Magica_De_Spell \"Magica De Spell\") against Scrooge; *The Three Billionaires* (2005\\), written and drawn by [Kari Korhonen](/wiki/Kari_Korhonen \"Kari Korhonen\"); and *The Great Egg Robbery* (2019\\) written by Carol McGreal and Pat McGreal and drawn by Giorgio Cavazzano.", "Another possible distinction between the characters is their country of residence and where their investments lie. In contrast to the [Scottish](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") birth of Scrooge, Rockerduck claims to be hailing from England like his father Howard, where he is sometimes depicted to be living, and shown to be the more active in Europe than in America, with some stories having Scrooge having to buy land from him or compete with him to be able to expand his businesses on the European markets. This is often ignored in other stories to be able to have the rivals meet on a daily basis as in the case of Scrooge's other rival, Flintheart Glomgold (who in the Barks stories lives in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\")) with John primarily managing his activities from a large business building he owns in Duckburg, and the three characters sitting at the same table in the Billionaires' Club of the city.", "Rockerduck also has a passion for [collecting](/wiki/Collecting \"Collecting\"). Besides his valuable [coins](/wiki/Coin \"Coin\") and [stamp collection](/wiki/Stamp_collecting \"Stamp collecting\"), he is also the owner of an extensive art collection, including artifacts created from antiquity through to the 20th century. Since Scrooge also has collections of the same theme and similar value, many of their confrontations center on them trying to obtain a new addition to their collections.", "Many of the stories presenting him, especially during the 1970s and the 1980s, compare and contrast his and Scrooge's methods of organizing their business in order to gain profit. Some of those methods include researching new products for their industries, ways of refining and improving the existing ones, and the study of new producing methods. Also ways of improving their [marketing](/wiki/Marketing \"Marketing\") techniques and public relations, in order to increase sales. Or even trying to improve the ratings of their TV stations and the sales of their newspapers, in order to have more clients paying for advertisements in them. Both he and Scrooge try to predict each other's moves in order to act accordingly. In his efforts, Rockerduck often resorts to [industrial espionage](/wiki/Industrial_espionage \"Industrial espionage\") or [sabotage](/wiki/Sabotage \"Sabotage\"). Although less often, Scrooge occasionally uses the same methods. Sometimes Rockerduck's plans against Scrooge involve more severe actions like abduction, hijacking his planes, or blackmailing him. On these occasions, he usually lets his right\\-hand man Jeeves do the dirty work, but he also hires the [Beagle Boys](/wiki/Beagle_Boys \"Beagle Boys\") to do his dirty work for him from time to time.", "On a more personal level, Scrooge and Rockerduck seem to bicker constantly, criticizing each other's ways of life and personal faults. Although his confrontations with Scrooge have often found him defeated or even humiliated, he has commented on at least enjoying the challenge that Scrooge presents to him. At times the two find each other co\\-operating to achieve common goals. If they are worthy rivals to each other, they also seem to make effective partners—but only on a temporary basis. Some stories portray Rockerduck in a more positive light and portray him as friendly towards Scrooge's associates like [Brigitta McBridge](/wiki/Brigitta_McBridge \"Brigitta McBridge\") and [Donald Duck](/wiki/Donald_Duck \"Donald Duck\"), as he has no personal grudges against them. When relaxed, he can even be a pleasant companion for them or Scrooge. In all these traits, he differs from Flintheart Glomgold.", "In other stories, Donald Duck may be pitted against *both* Scrooge and Rockerduck during one of their temporary alliances. Such stories emphasize Scrooge's morally ambiguous role in Italian Disney comics, where he frequently exploits Donald, or makes his life miserable in other ways. When cooperating with Rockerduck, Scrooge may be particularly insufferable, and the reader is invited to sympathize with Donald as the [underdog](/wiki/Underdog_%28term%29 \"Underdog (term)\") in his conflict with the ruthless and powerful billionaires.", "In the story *Brother From Another Earth!* (1995\\), written by Rudy Salvagnini and drawn by [Giorgio Cavazzano](/wiki/Giorgio_Cavazzano \"Giorgio Cavazzano\"), Scrooge is convinced to take a holiday on \"Earth\\-D\" by his counterpart \"Scrooge\\-B\". In this alternate reality, a discouraged Scrooge is heavily in debt to several creditors; one being Rockerduck. The alternate Rockerduck has no visible businesses save for a [greengrocery](/wiki/Greengrocer \"Greengrocer\") which he manages, and says that he made a mistake investing in the failing McDuck stock. When \"Scrooge\\-A\" works to get his counterpart's business back on track, he retires the debt to Rockerduck, and also buys the produce store, keeping John D. Rockerduck on board as proprietor. Rockerduck admits that although odd to be part of McDuck's recovering business empire, he also say \"it makes me feel almost like the free\\-spending tycoon I used to be!\"", "" ]
Character biography ------------------- Barks never gave Rockerduck an origin. [Don Rosa](/wiki/Don_Rosa "Don Rosa") later provided him with one, in his series *[The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck](/wiki/The_Life_and_Times_of_Scrooge_McDuck "The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck")*. According to Don Rosa, Rockerduck has several differences from both his fictional rival and his historical namesake. Rockefeller and Scrooge were born in poverty and worked to earn their fortunes. John D. Rockerduck was born c. 1878 (this is arguably in contrast to many stories where he seem to be at least 20 years younger than Scrooge) to [Howard Rockerduck](/wiki/Howard_Rockerduck "Howard Rockerduck"), an American millionaire who had earned his fortune in the [California gold rush](/wiki/California_gold_rush "California gold rush") of 1849\. While John's father was a shrewd businessman but a mild\-mannered man, his mother was a rather snobbish woman who spoiled her son. Much to his father's disappointment, John learned at an early age to look down on everyone less affluent than his family as a "peasant". While his father tried to remind him that he was once poor too, John became as snobbish as his mother. John's first meeting with Scrooge occurred in 1885, in [Butte, Montana](/wiki/Butte%2C_Montana "Butte, Montana"). At the time, John was around 7 years old and Scrooge was 18 years old. Howard Rockerduck was heading to a meeting with [Marcus Daly](/wiki/Marcus_Daly "Marcus Daly"), an Irish businessman known as the "Copper King", to discuss his investments in the [Anaconda Copper Mining Company](/wiki/The_Anaconda_Copper_Mining_Company "The Anaconda Copper Mining Company"). Unsure of the way, Howard stopped to ask for directions. The person he asked was young Scrooge, at the time an unsuccessful [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper") [prospector](/wiki/Prospecting "Prospecting"). Despite John's protestations, Howard started having a friendly discussion with the inexperienced prospector and ended up teaching Scrooge the secrets of the job, and helping him earn ten thousand dollars. While Scrooge had to leave for [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") to attend to family business, John again protested against his father's relationship with the "filthy peasant". Howard, to whom Scrooge resembled his younger\-self, introduced his son to corporal punishment in an effort to teach him some manners. (Judging from his later behaviour, this did not work.) John Rockerduck would later inherit his father's fortune and grow to become a rival of Scrooge. The appearance in *The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck* was the only use of the character by Don Rosa. The story *Il Matrimonio di Zio Paperone* ("Uncle Scrooge's Wedding"), created by {{ill\|Massimo De Vita\|it\|Massimo De Vita (fumettista)}}, tells another tale about the origins of Rockerduck's wealth and his rivalry with Scrooge. The story is told by Scrooge's secretary, Ms. Quackfaster, to Scrooge's nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie. Many years ago, when Rockerduck was not as rich as he is nowadays (he was a starting millionaire), he ran into Scrooge in the Millionaires Club. They started arguing and decided to settle their argument with a game of golf. If Rockerduck was to defeat Scrooge, he would win half of Scrooge's entire fortune. It looked like Scrooge was going to win. However, a bee stung him while golfing, so he missed the last hole, leading Rockerduck to win. He then won half of Scrooge's fortune. Other stories have further traced the Rockerduck family history. Although some depict John as a distant cousin of Scrooge, through an unspecified genealogical connection, others have traced their rivalry to their ancestors. Arguably, the most notable among the later stories is an eight\-part saga named *Storia e gloria della dinastia dei paperi* ("History and glory of the Duck dynasty") by [Guido Martina](/wiki/Guido_Martina "Guido Martina"), [Romano Scarpa](/wiki/Romano_Scarpa "Romano Scarpa"), [Giorgio Cavazzano](/wiki/Giorgio_Cavazzano "Giorgio Cavazzano") and [Giovan Battista Carpi](/wiki/Giovan_Battista_Carpi "Giovan Battista Carpi"), first published April 5\-May 24, 1970\. It depicts their family history, as a family feud that begun in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") during the 1st century BC and continues to the 20th century. In one story where Rockerduck was trying to ruin Scrooge's deal about cleaning the statue of [Cornelius Coot](/wiki/Cornelius_Coot "Cornelius Coot"), Jeeves sheepishly tells him "You have no conscience, sir", to which Rockerduck replies: "That's not true. I had a conscience a long time ago, but I'd rather not talk about that." According to the story *Whatever Happened to Scrooge McDuck?* by Lars Jensen and Maximino Tortajada Aguilar, Rockerduck (as well as Flintheart Glomgold) was made bankrupt by Donald Duck, after the latter had inherited Scrooge's fortune and turned it into a charity company. However, the end of the story reveals that it actually takes place in an alternate future, caused by Scrooge travelling 100 years into the past to retrieve his \#1 dime.
[ "Character biography\n-------------------", "Barks never gave Rockerduck an origin. [Don Rosa](/wiki/Don_Rosa \"Don Rosa\") later provided him with one, in his series *[The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck](/wiki/The_Life_and_Times_of_Scrooge_McDuck \"The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck\")*. According to Don Rosa, Rockerduck has several differences from both his fictional rival and his historical namesake. Rockefeller and Scrooge were born in poverty and worked to earn their fortunes. John D. Rockerduck was born c. 1878 (this is arguably in contrast to many stories where he seem to be at least 20 years younger than Scrooge) to [Howard Rockerduck](/wiki/Howard_Rockerduck \"Howard Rockerduck\"), an American millionaire who had earned his fortune in the [California gold rush](/wiki/California_gold_rush \"California gold rush\") of 1849\\. While John's father was a shrewd businessman but a mild\\-mannered man, his mother was a rather snobbish woman who spoiled her son. Much to his father's disappointment, John learned at an early age to look down on everyone less affluent than his family as a \"peasant\". While his father tried to remind him that he was once poor too, John became as snobbish as his mother.", "John's first meeting with Scrooge occurred in 1885, in [Butte, Montana](/wiki/Butte%2C_Montana \"Butte, Montana\"). At the time, John was around 7 years old and Scrooge was 18 years old. Howard Rockerduck was heading to a meeting with [Marcus Daly](/wiki/Marcus_Daly \"Marcus Daly\"), an Irish businessman known as the \"Copper King\", to discuss his investments in the [Anaconda Copper Mining Company](/wiki/The_Anaconda_Copper_Mining_Company \"The Anaconda Copper Mining Company\"). Unsure of the way, Howard stopped to ask for directions. The person he asked was young Scrooge, at the time an unsuccessful [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\") [prospector](/wiki/Prospecting \"Prospecting\"). Despite John's protestations, Howard started having a friendly discussion with the inexperienced prospector and ended up teaching Scrooge the secrets of the job, and helping him earn ten thousand dollars. While Scrooge had to leave for [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") to attend to family business, John again protested against his father's relationship with the \"filthy peasant\". Howard, to whom Scrooge resembled his younger\\-self, introduced his son to corporal punishment in an effort to teach him some manners. (Judging from his later behaviour, this did not work.) John Rockerduck would later inherit his father's fortune and grow to become a rival of Scrooge.", "The appearance in *The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck* was the only use of the character by Don Rosa.", "The story *Il Matrimonio di Zio Paperone* (\"Uncle Scrooge's Wedding\"), created by {{ill\\|Massimo De Vita\\|it\\|Massimo De Vita (fumettista)}}, tells another tale about the origins of Rockerduck's wealth and his rivalry with Scrooge. The story is told by Scrooge's secretary, Ms. Quackfaster, to Scrooge's nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie. Many years ago, when Rockerduck was not as rich as he is nowadays (he was a starting millionaire), he ran into Scrooge in the Millionaires Club. They started arguing and decided to settle their argument with a game of golf. If Rockerduck was to defeat Scrooge, he would win half of Scrooge's entire fortune. It looked like Scrooge was going to win. However, a bee stung him while golfing, so he missed the last hole, leading Rockerduck to win. He then won half of Scrooge's fortune.", "Other stories have further traced the Rockerduck family history. Although some depict John as a distant cousin of Scrooge, through an unspecified genealogical connection, others have traced their rivalry to their ancestors. Arguably, the most notable among the later stories is an eight\\-part saga named *Storia e gloria della dinastia dei paperi* (\"History and glory of the Duck dynasty\") by [Guido Martina](/wiki/Guido_Martina \"Guido Martina\"), [Romano Scarpa](/wiki/Romano_Scarpa \"Romano Scarpa\"), [Giorgio Cavazzano](/wiki/Giorgio_Cavazzano \"Giorgio Cavazzano\") and [Giovan Battista Carpi](/wiki/Giovan_Battista_Carpi \"Giovan Battista Carpi\"), first published April 5\\-May 24, 1970\\. It depicts their family history, as a family feud that begun in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") during the 1st century BC and continues to the 20th century.", "In one story where Rockerduck was trying to ruin Scrooge's deal about cleaning the statue of [Cornelius Coot](/wiki/Cornelius_Coot \"Cornelius Coot\"), Jeeves sheepishly tells him \"You have no conscience, sir\", to which Rockerduck replies: \"That's not true. I had a conscience a long time ago, but I'd rather not talk about that.\"", "According to the story *Whatever Happened to Scrooge McDuck?* by Lars Jensen and Maximino Tortajada Aguilar, Rockerduck (as well as Flintheart Glomgold) was made bankrupt by Donald Duck, after the latter had inherited Scrooge's fortune and turned it into a charity company. However, the end of the story reveals that it actually takes place in an alternate future, caused by Scrooge travelling 100 years into the past to retrieve his \\#1 dime.", "" ]
History ------- KPLC\-TV signed on September 29, 1954, with NBC's airing of the [1954 World Series](/wiki/1954_World_Series "1954 World Series"). Owner T. B. Lanford of [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport "Shreveport") had previously signed on KPLC radio (1470 AM, now [KLCL](/wiki/KLCL "KLCL"), and 99\.5 FM, now [KNGT](/wiki/KNGT "KNGT")) and was eager to expand into television, giving the new station the same callsign as their radio sisters. On the same day, Lanford helped sign on then\- and current sister station [KALB\-TV](/wiki/KALB-TV "KALB-TV") in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria%2C_Louisiana "Alexandria, Louisiana").{{citation needed\|date\=September 2019}} KPLC was a major beneficiary of a quirk in the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission "Federal Communications Commission") (FCC)'s plan for allocating stations. In the early days of broadcast television, there were twelve VHF channels available and 69 UHF channels (later reduced to 55 in 1983\). The VHF bands were more desirable because they carried longer distances. Since there were only twelve VHF channels available, there were limitations as to how closely the stations could be spaced. After the FCC's Sixth Report and Order ended the license freeze and opened the UHF band in 1952, it devised a plan for allocating VHF licenses. Under this plan, almost all of the country would be able to receive two commercial VHF channels plus one noncommercial channel. Most of the rest of the country ("1/2") would be able to receive a third VHF channel. Other areas would be designated as "UHF islands" since they were too close to larger cities for VHF service. The "2" networks became CBS and NBC, "\+1" represented non\-commercial educational stations, and "1/2" became ABC (which was the weakest network usually winding up with the UHF allocation where no VHF was available). However, what would become of the Lake Charles market was sandwiched between [Houston](/wiki/Houston "Houston") (channels [2](/wiki/KPRC-TV "KPRC-TV"), [8](/wiki/KUHT "KUHT"), [11](/wiki/KHOU "KHOU") and [13](/wiki/KTRK-TV "KTRK-TV")), [Beaumont](/wiki/Beaumont%2C_Texas "Beaumont, Texas")–[Port Arthur](/wiki/Port_Arthur%2C_Texas "Port Arthur, Texas") (channels [4](/wiki/KBTV-TV "KBTV-TV"), [6](/wiki/KFDM "KFDM"), and [12](/wiki/KBMT "KBMT")) and [Lufkin](/wiki/Lufkin "Lufkin") ([channel 9](/wiki/KTRE "KTRE")) to the west, [Lafayette](/wiki/Lafayette%2C_Louisiana "Lafayette, Louisiana") (channels [3](/wiki/KATC_%28TV%29 "KATC (TV)") and [10](/wiki/KLFY-TV "KLFY-TV")), [Baton Rouge](/wiki/Baton_Rouge "Baton Rouge") (channels [2](/wiki/WBRZ-TV "WBRZ-TV") and [9](/wiki/WAFB "WAFB")) and [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans") (channels [4](/wiki/WWL-TV "WWL-TV"), [6](/wiki/WDSU "WDSU"), [8](/wiki/WVUE-DT "WVUE-DT") and [12](/wiki/WYES-TV "WYES-TV")) to the east, and Alexandria (channel 5\), [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport "Shreveport") (channels [3](/wiki/KTBS-TV "KTBS-TV"), [6](/wiki/KTAL-TV "KTAL-TV"), and [12](/wiki/KSLA "KSLA")) and [Monroe](/wiki/Monroe%2C_Louisiana "Monroe, Louisiana") (channels [8](/wiki/KNOE-TV "KNOE-TV"), [10](/wiki/KTVE "KTVE"), and [13](/wiki/KLTM "KLTM")) to the north. This created a large "doughnut" in [southwestern Louisiana](/wiki/Southwestern_Louisiana "Southwestern Louisiana") where there could only be one VHF license. KPLC\-TV was fortunate to gain that license and eventually became the only station to be based in Lake Charles when the market's original TV station, [KTAG\-TV](/wiki/KTAG-TV "KTAG-TV") (channel 25\), went off the air due to being on the UHF frequency (before all\-channel tuning was [made mandatory on TVs in 1962](/wiki/All-Channel_Receiver_Act "All-Channel Receiver Act")) and unable to compete with KPLC in 1961\. This changed in the early 1980s when [LPB](/wiki/Louisiana_Public_Broadcasting "Louisiana Public Broadcasting") outlet KLTL (channel 18\) signed on in 1981, and independent\-turned\-Fox affiliate [KVHP](/wiki/KVHP "KVHP") (channel 29\) signed on a year later. In 1964, Lanford sold KPLC to a [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis") group headed by investor Elliot Stien. He visited KPLC frequently along with his friend, [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals "St. Louis Cardinals") baseball legend [Stan Musial](/wiki/Stan_Musial "Stan Musial"). Shortly after this sale, ABC programming began to disappear from the station's lineup, as then\-recently launched stations KBMT in Beaumont provided a grade A signal to Lake Charles and Lafayette's KATC a grade B signal.Various Broadcasting Yearbooks (ABC was last listed as an affiliate for KPLC in 1964\) and 1968 TV Factbook for contours Lanford continued to own fellow NBC affiliate KALB in Alexandria until 1993\. In 1970, G. Russell Chambers purchased KPLC\-TV from the St. Louis group and dramatically increased the station's coverage by adding a {{convert\|1500\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} tower, providing a quality signal for the NBC affiliate as far north as [Leesville](/wiki/Leesville%2C_Louisiana "Leesville, Louisiana"), as far east as Lafayette and to the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico "Gulf of Mexico"). FCC regulations required that the radio stations be sold. Perry Sanders purchased the AM/FM combo and changed its call letters to KLCL. Chambers established a company, Calcasieu Television \& Radio, Inc., to operate KPLC. On August 9, 1983, Chambers, acting both in his individual capacity and on behalf of CTR, entered into a purchase agreement to sell the station's facilities and broadcast license to respondent NASCO, Inc., for a purchase price of $18 million. The agreement was not recorded in the parishes in which the two properties housing the station's facilities were located. Consummation of the agreement was subject to the approval of the FCC; both parties were obligated to file the necessary documents with the FCC no later than September 23, 1983\. By late August, however, Chambers had changed his mind and tried to talk NASCO out of consummating the sale. NASCO refused. On September 23, Chambers, through counsel, informed NASCO that he would not file the necessary papers with the FCC.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/90\-256\.ZO.html \|title\=Chambers v. Nasco, Inc., 501 U.S. 32 (1991\) \|publisher\=Law.cornell.edu \|date\= \|accessdate\=May 9, 2022}} In 1986, the U.S. District Court ordered Chambers to sell the station to NASCO, and the deal was consummated on August 26, 1986\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60163047/\|title\=Sale of Louisiana TV station completed\|work\=Enterprise\-Journal\|date\=August 28, 1986\|page\=9\|access\-date\=September 28, 2020}} Less than two months after the sale of KPLC to NASCO, Cosmos Broadcasting, a subsidiary of [Liberty Life Insurance Company](/wiki/Liberty_Corporation "Liberty Corporation"), purchased the station and [KAIT](/wiki/KAIT "KAIT") of [Jonesboro, Arkansas](/wiki/Jonesboro%2C_Arkansas "Jonesboro, Arkansas"), from NASCO.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60162960/\|title\=NASCO to sell 3 TV stations for $83 million\|work\=The Tennessean\|date\=October 3, 1986\|page\=5\-B\|access\-date\=September 28, 2020}} This resulted in KPLC becoming a sister station to [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans") NBC affiliate and first Louisiana TV station [WDSU](/wiki/WDSU "WDSU") until that station was sold in 1989\. Within the next two years, the station adopted a [circle 7 logo](/wiki/Circle_7_logo "Circle 7 logo") and its current slogan "7 at your service". KPLC was one of the first television stations in the U.S. to launch its own website in the 1990s. In 2004, KPLC began broadcasting in digital as well as analog with the launch of KPLC\-DT. Later in the year, the station launched its first local 24\-hour weather channel, "KPLC WeatherPlus". Simultaneously, the station launched a service specifically for cellphones and PDAs, "7 On Your Cell". In March 2004, while workers were installing a new transmission tower in high winds, the old transmission tower fell, causing a service disruption lasting about two weeks to over\-the\-air viewers in Southwest Louisiana. Service to cable customers was not interrupted due to the station's signal being delivered by fiber lines. A lower\-power temporary tower was erected on top of the station's broadcast studios a couple of days after the tower fell, allowing viewers within a few miles of the station to again receive the signal over the air. KPLC was also simulcast on [KJEF\-CA](/wiki/KJEF-CA "KJEF-CA") in [Jennings](/wiki/Jennings%2C_Louisiana "Jennings, Louisiana"). In January 2006, Liberty and KPLC were purchased by Raycom Media, which also owned two other Louisiana television stations, KSLA in Shreveport and WAFB in Baton Rouge. In August 2012, KPLC started broadcasting in HD with a new HD studio. Until 2015, KPLC doubled as the default NBC affiliate for the Lafayette market, since that market did not have an NBC affiliate of its own. Before its purchase by Raycom, it even included Lafayette as one of the cities it served in station identifications. It operated a "virtual station" for [Acadiana](/wiki/Acadiana "Acadiana") cable systems and sold advertising in the area. On July 1, 2015, [KLAF\-LD](/wiki/KLAF-LD "KLAF-LD") became Lafayette's first local NBC affiliate since KLNI's shutdown in 1975, and local cable providers removed KPLC and Baton Rouge NBC affiliate WVLA from channel lineups. On August 31, 2017, KPLC\-DT2 became the market's [CW](/wiki/The_CW "The CW") affiliate. Virtual sister KVHP, which formerly operated as an affiliate of [The CW Plus](/wiki/The_CW_Plus "The CW Plus") on its DT2 subchannel, launched a new station, "SWLA ABC" on that day over KVHP\-DT2, carrying ABC and syndicated programming.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/106695/kvhp\-launching\-abc\-feed\-on\-subchannel\|title\=KVHP Launching ABC Feed On Subchannel\|last\=Miller\|first\=Mark\|date\=August 23, 2017\|work\=\[\[TVNewsCheck]]\|access\-date\=August 24, 2017}} [Grit](/wiki/Grit_%28TV_network%29 "Grit (TV network)"), which formerly occupied DT2, was subsequently moved to a new fourth subchannel. By September 2017, the over\-the\-air signal of KPLC\-DT2 had been upgraded into [720p](/wiki/720p "720p") [16:9](/wiki/16:9 "9") [HD](/wiki/High-definition_television "High-definition television").[RabbitEars TV Query for KPLC](http://www.rabbitears.info/market.php?request=print_station&facility_id=13994) On June 25, 2018, Gray Television announced its intent to acquire Raycom for $3\.65 billion.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/114556/gray\-to\-buy\-raycom\-for\-36\-billion\|title\=Gray To Buy Raycom For $3\.6 Billion\|last\=Miller\|first\=Mark K.\|work\=TVNewsCheck\|publisher\=NewsCheckMedia\|date\=June 25, 2018\|access\-date\=June 25, 2018}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/gray\-tv\-to\-buy\-raycom\-in\-3\-65\-billion\-deal\-1529932732\|title\=Gray TV to Buy Raycom in $3\.65 Billion Deal\|last\=Hufford\|first\=Austen\|date\=June 25, 2018\|work\=Wall Street Journal\|access\-date\=June 25, 2018\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0099\-9660}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://deadline.com/2018/06/grey\-acquiring\-raycom\-for\-3\-65\-billion\-forming\-no\-3\-local\-tv\-group\-1202416667/\|title\=Gray Acquiring Raycom For $3\.65B, Forming No. 3 Local TV Group\|last\=Hayes\|first\=Dade\|date\=June 25, 2018\|work\=Deadline\|access\-date\=June 25, 2018\|language\=en\-US}} Coincidentally, in 1983, Gray attempted to purchase KPLC from Chambers at the same time NASCO considered purchasing the station."Lake Charles TV Station Up for Sale," The Town Talk, Alexandria, LA, April 12, 1983, Page D\-3 The sale was approved by the FCC on December 20\.["FCC OK with Gray/Raycom Merger"](https://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/fcc-ok-with-gray-raycom-merger), [Broadcasting \& Cable](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable "Broadcasting & Cable"), December 20, 2018, Retrieved December 20, 2018\. The sale was completed on January 2, 2019\.["Gray Completes Acquisition of Raycom Media and Related Transactions"](https://gray.tv/uploads/documents/pressreleases/Press%20Release%20re%20Completion%20of%20Raycom%20Acquisition.pdf), [Gray Television](/wiki/Gray_Television "Gray Television"), January 2, 2019, Retrieved January 2, 2019\. On December 30, 2023, KPLC parent company Gray Television announced it had reached an agreement with the [New Orleans Pelicans](/wiki/New_Orleans_Pelicans "New Orleans Pelicans") to air 10 games on the station during the [2023–24 season](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_New_Orleans_Pelicans_season "2023–24 New Orleans Pelicans season").{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.wafb.com/2023/12/31/wafb\-will\-televise\-10\-this\-seasons\-pelicans\-games/\|title\=WAFB will televise 10 of this season’s Pelicans games\|publisher\=\[\[WAFB]]\|date\=December 30, 2023\|access\-date\=December 30, 2023}} On September 17, 2024, Gray and the Pelicans announced a broader deal to form the Gulf Coast Sports \& Entertainment Network, which will broadcast nearly all 2024–25 Pelicans games on Gray's stations in the [Gulf South](/wiki/Gulf_South "Gulf South"), including KPLC.{{cite news \|last1\=Clark \|first1\=Christian \|title\=The Pelicans officially have a new TV broadcast home. Here's how you can watch it. \|url\=https://www.nola.com/sports/pelicans/pelicans\-announce\-partnership\-with\-gulf\-coast\-sports\-and\-entertainment\-network/article\_492a62ea\-747a\-11ef\-9d92\-5b56342891ee.html \|access\-date\=17 September 2024 \|work\=NOLA.com \|date\=17 September 2024 \|language\=en}} ### Effects of Hurricanes Laura and Delta {{main\|Hurricane Laura\|Hurricane Delta}} KPLC and KVHP began 24\-hour continuous coverage of Hurricane Laura on August 25, 2020, from their shared studio building, a few days after it provided some coverage of [Hurricane Marco](/wiki/Hurricane_Marco_%282020%29 "Hurricane Marco (2020)"), which had affected Louisiana earlier that week; KPLC and KVHP were forced to relocate their operations to that of Baton Rouge sister station WAFB in the late afternoon hours of August 26, as mandatory evacuation orders had been issued for the city of Lake Charles ahead of the hurricane's landfall.{{cite news\|first\=Johnathan\|last\=Manning\|publisher\=KPLC\-TV\|date\=August 25, 2020\|access\-date\=August 25, 2020\|title\=Calcasieu officials issue mandatory evacuation ahead of Laura\|url\=https://www.kplctv.com/2020/08/25/calcasieu\-officials\-issue\-mandatory\-evacuation/}} When the hurricane made landfall in the early morning hours of August 27, both stations were forced off the air after their studio\-to\-transmitter\-link tower collapsed onto the roof of their shared studio building and punctured a hole in the building's roof; the city's [NWS](/wiki/National_Weather_Service "National Weather Service") radar was also destroyed in the storm.{{cite web \|first\=Daryl \|last\=Herzmann \|title\=IEM :: LSR from NWS LCH \|url\=https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil\=LSRLCH\&e\=202008271110 \|website\=mesonet.agron.iastate.edu \|access\-date\=August 27, 2020 \|language\=en}}{{cite web \|first\=Daryl \|last\=Herzmann \|title\=IEM :: LSR from NWS LCH \|url\=https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil\=LSRLCH\&e\=202008271111 \|website\=mesonet.agron.iastate.edu \|access\-date\=August 27, 2020 \|language\=en}}{{cite web \|first\=Daryl \|last\=Herzmann \|title\=IEM :: LSR from NWS LCH \|url\=https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil\=LSRLCH\&e\=202008271524 \|website\=mesonet.agron.iastate.edu \|access\-date\=August 27, 2020 \|language\=en}} Staff returned to the KPLC building on September 26; the anchor desk was moved to the station's newsroom.{{cite web\|date\=October 8, 2020\|title\=Innovating during a weather emergency {{!}} Knight\|url\=https://cronkitenewslab.com/broadcast/2020/10/08/kplc\-innovating\-during\-weather\-emergency/\|access\-date\=December 12, 2020\|website\=Cronkite News Lab\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|last\=Corder\|first\=Jillian\|title\=KPLC ready for first broadcast from Lake Charles station since Laura\|url\=https://www.kplctv.com/2020/09/25/kplc\-ready\-first\-broadcast\-lake\-charles\-station\-since\-laura/\|access\-date\=December 12, 2020\|website\=KPLC\-TV\|language\=en\-US}} While KPLC was able to resume operations following the hurricane, KVHP remained silent due to a lack of an alternate transmitter; as a result, Fox provided a [Foxnet](/wiki/Foxnet "Foxnet")\-like feed to cable companies in Southwestern Louisiana for a temporary period until KVHP resumed full operations at the end of 2020\.
[ "History\n-------", "KPLC\\-TV signed on September 29, 1954, with NBC's airing of the [1954 World Series](/wiki/1954_World_Series \"1954 World Series\"). Owner T. B. Lanford of [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport \"Shreveport\") had previously signed on KPLC radio (1470 AM, now [KLCL](/wiki/KLCL \"KLCL\"), and 99\\.5 FM, now [KNGT](/wiki/KNGT \"KNGT\")) and was eager to expand into television, giving the new station the same callsign as their radio sisters. On the same day, Lanford helped sign on then\\- and current sister station [KALB\\-TV](/wiki/KALB-TV \"KALB-TV\") in [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria%2C_Louisiana \"Alexandria, Louisiana\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2019}}", "KPLC was a major beneficiary of a quirk in the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission \"Federal Communications Commission\") (FCC)'s plan for allocating stations. In the early days of broadcast television, there were twelve VHF channels available and 69 UHF channels (later reduced to 55 in 1983\\). The VHF bands were more desirable because they carried longer distances. Since there were only twelve VHF channels available, there were limitations as to how closely the stations could be spaced.", "After the FCC's Sixth Report and Order ended the license freeze and opened the UHF band in 1952, it devised a plan for allocating VHF licenses. Under this plan, almost all of the country would be able to receive two commercial VHF channels plus one noncommercial channel. Most of the rest of the country (\"1/2\") would be able to receive a third VHF channel. Other areas would be designated as \"UHF islands\" since they were too close to larger cities for VHF service. The \"2\" networks became CBS and NBC, \"\\+1\" represented non\\-commercial educational stations, and \"1/2\" became ABC (which was the weakest network usually winding up with the UHF allocation where no VHF was available).", "However, what would become of the Lake Charles market was sandwiched between [Houston](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\") (channels [2](/wiki/KPRC-TV \"KPRC-TV\"), [8](/wiki/KUHT \"KUHT\"), [11](/wiki/KHOU \"KHOU\") and [13](/wiki/KTRK-TV \"KTRK-TV\")), [Beaumont](/wiki/Beaumont%2C_Texas \"Beaumont, Texas\")–[Port Arthur](/wiki/Port_Arthur%2C_Texas \"Port Arthur, Texas\") (channels [4](/wiki/KBTV-TV \"KBTV-TV\"), [6](/wiki/KFDM \"KFDM\"), and [12](/wiki/KBMT \"KBMT\")) and [Lufkin](/wiki/Lufkin \"Lufkin\") ([channel 9](/wiki/KTRE \"KTRE\")) to the west, [Lafayette](/wiki/Lafayette%2C_Louisiana \"Lafayette, Louisiana\") (channels [3](/wiki/KATC_%28TV%29 \"KATC (TV)\") and [10](/wiki/KLFY-TV \"KLFY-TV\")), [Baton Rouge](/wiki/Baton_Rouge \"Baton Rouge\") (channels [2](/wiki/WBRZ-TV \"WBRZ-TV\") and [9](/wiki/WAFB \"WAFB\")) and [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\") (channels [4](/wiki/WWL-TV \"WWL-TV\"), [6](/wiki/WDSU \"WDSU\"), [8](/wiki/WVUE-DT \"WVUE-DT\") and [12](/wiki/WYES-TV \"WYES-TV\")) to the east, and Alexandria (channel 5\\), [Shreveport](/wiki/Shreveport \"Shreveport\") (channels [3](/wiki/KTBS-TV \"KTBS-TV\"), [6](/wiki/KTAL-TV \"KTAL-TV\"), and [12](/wiki/KSLA \"KSLA\")) and [Monroe](/wiki/Monroe%2C_Louisiana \"Monroe, Louisiana\") (channels [8](/wiki/KNOE-TV \"KNOE-TV\"), [10](/wiki/KTVE \"KTVE\"), and [13](/wiki/KLTM \"KLTM\")) to the north. This created a large \"doughnut\" in [southwestern Louisiana](/wiki/Southwestern_Louisiana \"Southwestern Louisiana\") where there could only be one VHF license. KPLC\\-TV was fortunate to gain that license and eventually became the only station to be based in Lake Charles when the market's original TV station, [KTAG\\-TV](/wiki/KTAG-TV \"KTAG-TV\") (channel 25\\), went off the air due to being on the UHF frequency (before all\\-channel tuning was [made mandatory on TVs in 1962](/wiki/All-Channel_Receiver_Act \"All-Channel Receiver Act\")) and unable to compete with KPLC in 1961\\. This changed in the early 1980s when [LPB](/wiki/Louisiana_Public_Broadcasting \"Louisiana Public Broadcasting\") outlet KLTL (channel 18\\) signed on in 1981, and independent\\-turned\\-Fox affiliate [KVHP](/wiki/KVHP \"KVHP\") (channel 29\\) signed on a year later.", "In 1964, Lanford sold KPLC to a [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\") group headed by investor Elliot Stien. He visited KPLC frequently along with his friend, [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals \"St. Louis Cardinals\") baseball legend [Stan Musial](/wiki/Stan_Musial \"Stan Musial\"). Shortly after this sale, ABC programming began to disappear from the station's lineup, as then\\-recently launched stations KBMT in Beaumont provided a grade A signal to Lake Charles and Lafayette's KATC a grade B signal.Various Broadcasting Yearbooks (ABC was last listed as an affiliate for KPLC in 1964\\) and 1968 TV Factbook for contours Lanford continued to own fellow NBC affiliate KALB in Alexandria until 1993\\.", "In 1970, G. Russell Chambers purchased KPLC\\-TV from the St. Louis group and dramatically increased the station's coverage by adding a {{convert\\|1500\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} tower, providing a quality signal for the NBC affiliate as far north as [Leesville](/wiki/Leesville%2C_Louisiana \"Leesville, Louisiana\"), as far east as Lafayette and to the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico \"Gulf of Mexico\"). FCC regulations required that the radio stations be sold. Perry Sanders purchased the AM/FM combo and changed its call letters to KLCL. Chambers established a company, Calcasieu Television \\& Radio, Inc., to operate KPLC.", "On August 9, 1983, Chambers, acting both in his individual capacity and on behalf of CTR, entered into a purchase agreement to sell the station's facilities and broadcast license to respondent NASCO, Inc., for a purchase price of $18 million. The agreement was not recorded in the parishes in which the two properties housing the station's facilities were located. Consummation of the agreement was subject to the approval of the FCC; both parties were obligated to file the necessary documents with the FCC no later than September 23, 1983\\. By late August, however, Chambers had changed his mind and tried to talk NASCO out of consummating the sale. NASCO refused. On September 23, Chambers, through counsel, informed NASCO that he would not file the necessary papers with the FCC.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/90\\-256\\.ZO.html \\|title\\=Chambers v. Nasco, Inc., 501 U.S. 32 (1991\\) \\|publisher\\=Law.cornell.edu \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=May 9, 2022}} In 1986, the U.S. District Court ordered Chambers to sell the station to NASCO, and the deal was consummated on August 26, 1986\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60163047/\\|title\\=Sale of Louisiana TV station completed\\|work\\=Enterprise\\-Journal\\|date\\=August 28, 1986\\|page\\=9\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2020}}", "Less than two months after the sale of KPLC to NASCO, Cosmos Broadcasting, a subsidiary of [Liberty Life Insurance Company](/wiki/Liberty_Corporation \"Liberty Corporation\"), purchased the station and [KAIT](/wiki/KAIT \"KAIT\") of [Jonesboro, Arkansas](/wiki/Jonesboro%2C_Arkansas \"Jonesboro, Arkansas\"), from NASCO.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60162960/\\|title\\=NASCO to sell 3 TV stations for $83 million\\|work\\=The Tennessean\\|date\\=October 3, 1986\\|page\\=5\\-B\\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2020}} This resulted in KPLC becoming a sister station to [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\") NBC affiliate and first Louisiana TV station [WDSU](/wiki/WDSU \"WDSU\") until that station was sold in 1989\\. Within the next two years, the station adopted a [circle 7 logo](/wiki/Circle_7_logo \"Circle 7 logo\") and its current slogan \"7 at your service\". KPLC was one of the first television stations in the U.S. to launch its own website in the 1990s.", "In 2004, KPLC began broadcasting in digital as well as analog with the launch of KPLC\\-DT. Later in the year, the station launched its first local 24\\-hour weather channel, \"KPLC WeatherPlus\". Simultaneously, the station launched a service specifically for cellphones and PDAs, \"7 On Your Cell\".", "In March 2004, while workers were installing a new transmission tower in high winds, the old transmission tower fell, causing a service disruption lasting about two weeks to over\\-the\\-air viewers in Southwest Louisiana. Service to cable customers was not interrupted due to the station's signal being delivered by fiber lines. A lower\\-power temporary tower was erected on top of the station's broadcast studios a couple of days after the tower fell, allowing viewers within a few miles of the station to again receive the signal over the air. KPLC was also simulcast on [KJEF\\-CA](/wiki/KJEF-CA \"KJEF-CA\") in [Jennings](/wiki/Jennings%2C_Louisiana \"Jennings, Louisiana\").", "In January 2006, Liberty and KPLC were purchased by Raycom Media, which also owned two other Louisiana television stations, KSLA in Shreveport and WAFB in Baton Rouge.", "In August 2012, KPLC started broadcasting in HD with a new HD studio.", "Until 2015, KPLC doubled as the default NBC affiliate for the Lafayette market, since that market did not have an NBC affiliate of its own. Before its purchase by Raycom, it even included Lafayette as one of the cities it served in station identifications. It operated a \"virtual station\" for [Acadiana](/wiki/Acadiana \"Acadiana\") cable systems and sold advertising in the area. On July 1, 2015, [KLAF\\-LD](/wiki/KLAF-LD \"KLAF-LD\") became Lafayette's first local NBC affiliate since KLNI's shutdown in 1975, and local cable providers removed KPLC and Baton Rouge NBC affiliate WVLA from channel lineups.", "On August 31, 2017, KPLC\\-DT2 became the market's [CW](/wiki/The_CW \"The CW\") affiliate. Virtual sister KVHP, which formerly operated as an affiliate of [The CW Plus](/wiki/The_CW_Plus \"The CW Plus\") on its DT2 subchannel, launched a new station, \"SWLA ABC\" on that day over KVHP\\-DT2, carrying ABC and syndicated programming.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/106695/kvhp\\-launching\\-abc\\-feed\\-on\\-subchannel\\|title\\=KVHP Launching ABC Feed On Subchannel\\|last\\=Miller\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=August 23, 2017\\|work\\=\\[\\[TVNewsCheck]]\\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2017}} [Grit](/wiki/Grit_%28TV_network%29 \"Grit (TV network)\"), which formerly occupied DT2, was subsequently moved to a new fourth subchannel. By September 2017, the over\\-the\\-air signal of KPLC\\-DT2 had been upgraded into [720p](/wiki/720p \"720p\") [16:9](/wiki/16:9 \"9\") [HD](/wiki/High-definition_television \"High-definition television\").[RabbitEars TV Query for KPLC](http://www.rabbitears.info/market.php?request=print_station&facility_id=13994)", "On June 25, 2018, Gray Television announced its intent to acquire Raycom for $3\\.65 billion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/114556/gray\\-to\\-buy\\-raycom\\-for\\-36\\-billion\\|title\\=Gray To Buy Raycom For $3\\.6 Billion\\|last\\=Miller\\|first\\=Mark K.\\|work\\=TVNewsCheck\\|publisher\\=NewsCheckMedia\\|date\\=June 25, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=June 25, 2018}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/gray\\-tv\\-to\\-buy\\-raycom\\-in\\-3\\-65\\-billion\\-deal\\-1529932732\\|title\\=Gray TV to Buy Raycom in $3\\.65 Billion Deal\\|last\\=Hufford\\|first\\=Austen\\|date\\=June 25, 2018\\|work\\=Wall Street Journal\\|access\\-date\\=June 25, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0099\\-9660}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2018/06/grey\\-acquiring\\-raycom\\-for\\-3\\-65\\-billion\\-forming\\-no\\-3\\-local\\-tv\\-group\\-1202416667/\\|title\\=Gray Acquiring Raycom For $3\\.65B, Forming No. 3 Local TV Group\\|last\\=Hayes\\|first\\=Dade\\|date\\=June 25, 2018\\|work\\=Deadline\\|access\\-date\\=June 25, 2018\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Coincidentally, in 1983, Gray attempted to purchase KPLC from Chambers at the same time NASCO considered purchasing the station.\"Lake Charles TV Station Up for Sale,\" The Town Talk, Alexandria, LA, April 12, 1983, Page D\\-3 The sale was approved by the FCC on December 20\\.[\"FCC OK with Gray/Raycom Merger\"](https://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/fcc-ok-with-gray-raycom-merger), [Broadcasting \\& Cable](/wiki/Broadcasting_%26_Cable \"Broadcasting & Cable\"), December 20, 2018, Retrieved December 20, 2018\\. The sale was completed on January 2, 2019\\.[\"Gray Completes Acquisition of Raycom Media and Related Transactions\"](https://gray.tv/uploads/documents/pressreleases/Press%20Release%20re%20Completion%20of%20Raycom%20Acquisition.pdf), [Gray Television](/wiki/Gray_Television \"Gray Television\"), January 2, 2019, Retrieved January 2, 2019\\.", "On December 30, 2023, KPLC parent company Gray Television announced it had reached an agreement with the [New Orleans Pelicans](/wiki/New_Orleans_Pelicans \"New Orleans Pelicans\") to air 10 games on the station during the [2023–24 season](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_New_Orleans_Pelicans_season \"2023–24 New Orleans Pelicans season\").{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.wafb.com/2023/12/31/wafb\\-will\\-televise\\-10\\-this\\-seasons\\-pelicans\\-games/\\|title\\=WAFB will televise 10 of this season’s Pelicans games\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[WAFB]]\\|date\\=December 30, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2023}}", "On September 17, 2024, Gray and the Pelicans announced a broader deal to form the Gulf Coast Sports \\& Entertainment Network, which will broadcast nearly all 2024–25 Pelicans games on Gray's stations in the [Gulf South](/wiki/Gulf_South \"Gulf South\"), including KPLC.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Clark \\|first1\\=Christian \\|title\\=The Pelicans officially have a new TV broadcast home. Here's how you can watch it. \\|url\\=https://www.nola.com/sports/pelicans/pelicans\\-announce\\-partnership\\-with\\-gulf\\-coast\\-sports\\-and\\-entertainment\\-network/article\\_492a62ea\\-747a\\-11ef\\-9d92\\-5b56342891ee.html \\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2024 \\|work\\=NOLA.com \\|date\\=17 September 2024 \\|language\\=en}}", "### Effects of Hurricanes Laura and Delta", "{{main\\|Hurricane Laura\\|Hurricane Delta}}\nKPLC and KVHP began 24\\-hour continuous coverage of Hurricane Laura on August 25, 2020, from their shared studio building, a few days after it provided some coverage of [Hurricane Marco](/wiki/Hurricane_Marco_%282020%29 \"Hurricane Marco (2020)\"), which had affected Louisiana earlier that week; KPLC and KVHP were forced to relocate their operations to that of Baton Rouge sister station WAFB in the late afternoon hours of August 26, as mandatory evacuation orders had been issued for the city of Lake Charles ahead of the hurricane's landfall.{{cite news\\|first\\=Johnathan\\|last\\=Manning\\|publisher\\=KPLC\\-TV\\|date\\=August 25, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2020\\|title\\=Calcasieu officials issue mandatory evacuation ahead of Laura\\|url\\=https://www.kplctv.com/2020/08/25/calcasieu\\-officials\\-issue\\-mandatory\\-evacuation/}} When the hurricane made landfall in the early morning hours of August 27, both stations were forced off the air after their studio\\-to\\-transmitter\\-link tower collapsed onto the roof of their shared studio building and punctured a hole in the building's roof; the city's [NWS](/wiki/National_Weather_Service \"National Weather Service\") radar was also destroyed in the storm.{{cite web \\|first\\=Daryl \\|last\\=Herzmann \\|title\\=IEM :: LSR from NWS LCH \\|url\\=https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil\\=LSRLCH\\&e\\=202008271110 \\|website\\=mesonet.agron.iastate.edu \\|access\\-date\\=August 27, 2020 \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web \\|first\\=Daryl \\|last\\=Herzmann \\|title\\=IEM :: LSR from NWS LCH \\|url\\=https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil\\=LSRLCH\\&e\\=202008271111 \\|website\\=mesonet.agron.iastate.edu \\|access\\-date\\=August 27, 2020 \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web \\|first\\=Daryl \\|last\\=Herzmann \\|title\\=IEM :: LSR from NWS LCH \\|url\\=https://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pil\\=LSRLCH\\&e\\=202008271524 \\|website\\=mesonet.agron.iastate.edu \\|access\\-date\\=August 27, 2020 \\|language\\=en}} Staff returned to the KPLC building on September 26; the anchor desk was moved to the station's newsroom.{{cite web\\|date\\=October 8, 2020\\|title\\=Innovating during a weather emergency {{!}} Knight\\|url\\=https://cronkitenewslab.com/broadcast/2020/10/08/kplc\\-innovating\\-during\\-weather\\-emergency/\\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020\\|website\\=Cronkite News Lab\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Corder\\|first\\=Jillian\\|title\\=KPLC ready for first broadcast from Lake Charles station since Laura\\|url\\=https://www.kplctv.com/2020/09/25/kplc\\-ready\\-first\\-broadcast\\-lake\\-charles\\-station\\-since\\-laura/\\|access\\-date\\=December 12, 2020\\|website\\=KPLC\\-TV\\|language\\=en\\-US}} While KPLC was able to resume operations following the hurricane, KVHP remained silent due to a lack of an alternate transmitter; as a result, Fox provided a [Foxnet](/wiki/Foxnet \"Foxnet\")\\-like feed to cable companies in Southwestern Louisiana for a temporary period until KVHP resumed full operations at the end of 2020\\.", "" ]
Plot ---- American adventurer Harry Steele makes a living as a tour guide in [Cusco](/wiki/Cusco "Cusco"), [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") but plans to earn his fortune by finding the legendary gold and jeweled "[sunburst](/wiki/Sunburst "Sunburst")", a lost [Inca](/wiki/Inca_Empire "Inca Empire") treasure, at the ancient capital of [Machu Picchu](/wiki/Machu_Picchu "Machu Picchu"). He possesses a fragment of a carved stone block which gives the location of the sunburst when placed on a stone map of the ancient tomb complex, housed at a local museum. Bar owner Ed Morgan, who is older and feeling his age, has been searching for the treasure for fourteen years and hires a [sniper](/wiki/Sniper "Sniper") to frighten off Harry. Harry dodges the bullet and threatens Morgan; when the former refuses to sell him the stone, Morgan swears to get even. Through Morgan, Harry learns that Elena Antonescu, a [Romanian](/wiki/Romanians "Romanians") [defector](/wiki/Defection "Defection"), may be a prospect for his services. With little money and the police on her trail, she plays on Harry's sympathy by informing him that she is fleeing from Anton Marcu, a Romanian official with a small plane who is pursuing her. Harry uses her situation to his own advantage by informing Marcu of Elena’s whereabouts. Harry ostensibly agrees to help her travel to [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") so she can then get to America if she helps him steal Marcu’s plane. After getting him drunk so Elena can slip into his room and steal his keys, the pair depart. Without letting Elena know of the change in plan, Harry detours their trip to Machu Picchu. Elena becomes wary of Harry’s intent to fulfill his promise to take her to Mexico, but Harry seduces her into cooperating. At Machu Picchu, they discover an [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology") expedition headed by Dr. Stanley Moorehead, who is preparing to enter the tomb where the sunburst is presumed to be located. Harry falsely tells Moorehead that their plane needs gas and disables the expedition’s radio to block news of pursuit by the authorities. Elena accuses Harry of dishonesty and expresses disappointment at his plan to steal the sunburst. Morgan arrives and informs Harry that Marcu never reported the plane stolen out of embarrassment, so the authorities are not searching for him. Morgan attempts to coerce Harry into helping him find the treasure, and Harry feigns cooperation. Elena asks Harry to abandon his plan and leave with her. When Harry refuses, instructing her to keep Moorhead occupied, she disdainfully compares Harry to Morgan, claiming that latter reflects what Harry will be like in a few years. Moorehead becomes infatuated with Elena, and asks her to marry him, offering to take her to America. Although Elena likes Moorehead, she is ambivalent, as she is strongly attracted to Harry even if repelled by his dishonesty. When Elena informs Harry of Moorehead’s proposal, he asserts that she will be bored with Moorehead. The expedition opens a wall of [Manco](/wiki/Manco_C%C3%A1pac "Manco Cápac")’s tomb and is disappointed to find a carved stone sunburst. Harry gives Morgan the bad news. Later, believing Morgan asleep, Harry slips away and enters the tomb, using a reflection of light on an artifact to highlight where the sunburst is hidden inside a hollow pillar. Morgan appears and takes the sunburst from Harry at gunpoint, explaining that Harry was too casual breaking the bad news. Morgan flees, pursued by Harry. Trapping Morgan on a cliff edge, the two men wrestle for the treasure and Morgan falls to his death. Rather than take it for himself, Harry gives the sunburst back to the native locals, who return it ritually to the [Temple of the Sun](/wiki/Sun_temple "Sun temple"). When Moorehead asks Harry why he brought the sunburst back, Harry says that finding it meant more to him than keeping it. To the authorities, Harry convinces them that Morgan forced him to help steal the sunburst. As Harry and Elena are led away by Colonel Cardoza, Harry says to Elena that unless the colonel is “real friendly”, they may have a long engagement. In the meantime, in place of a ring, Harry gives Elena an ancient gold Incan pin that “fell into his pocket.”
[ "Plot\n----", "American adventurer Harry Steele makes a living as a tour guide in [Cusco](/wiki/Cusco \"Cusco\"), [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") but plans to earn his fortune by finding the legendary gold and jeweled \"[sunburst](/wiki/Sunburst \"Sunburst\")\", a lost [Inca](/wiki/Inca_Empire \"Inca Empire\") treasure, at the ancient capital of [Machu Picchu](/wiki/Machu_Picchu \"Machu Picchu\"). He possesses a fragment of a carved stone block which gives the location of the sunburst when placed on a stone map of the ancient tomb complex, housed at a local museum. Bar owner Ed Morgan, who is older and feeling his age, has been searching for the treasure for fourteen years and hires a [sniper](/wiki/Sniper \"Sniper\") to frighten off Harry. Harry dodges the bullet and threatens Morgan; when the former refuses to sell him the stone, Morgan swears to get even.", "Through Morgan, Harry learns that Elena Antonescu, a [Romanian](/wiki/Romanians \"Romanians\") [defector](/wiki/Defection \"Defection\"), may be a prospect for his services. With little money and the police on her trail, she plays on Harry's sympathy by informing him that she is fleeing from Anton Marcu, a Romanian official with a small plane who is pursuing her. Harry uses her situation to his own advantage by informing Marcu of Elena’s whereabouts. Harry ostensibly agrees to help her travel to [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") so she can then get to America if she helps him steal Marcu’s plane. After getting him drunk so Elena can slip into his room and steal his keys, the pair depart. Without letting Elena know of the change in plan, Harry detours their trip to Machu Picchu. Elena becomes wary of Harry’s intent to fulfill his promise to take her to Mexico, but Harry seduces her into cooperating.", "At Machu Picchu, they discover an [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\") expedition headed by Dr. Stanley Moorehead, who is preparing to enter the tomb where the sunburst is presumed to be located. Harry falsely tells Moorehead that their plane needs gas and disables the expedition’s radio to block news of pursuit by the authorities. Elena accuses Harry of dishonesty and expresses disappointment at his plan to steal the sunburst. Morgan arrives and informs Harry that Marcu never reported the plane stolen out of embarrassment, so the authorities are not searching for him. Morgan attempts to coerce Harry into helping him find the treasure, and Harry feigns cooperation.", "Elena asks Harry to abandon his plan and leave with her. When Harry refuses, instructing her to keep Moorhead occupied, she disdainfully compares Harry to Morgan, claiming that latter reflects what Harry will be like in a few years. Moorehead becomes infatuated with Elena, and asks her to marry him, offering to take her to America. Although Elena likes Moorehead, she is ambivalent, as she is strongly attracted to Harry even if repelled by his dishonesty. When Elena informs Harry of Moorehead’s proposal, he asserts that she will be bored with Moorehead.", "The expedition opens a wall of [Manco](/wiki/Manco_C%C3%A1pac \"Manco Cápac\")’s tomb and is disappointed to find a carved stone sunburst. Harry gives Morgan the bad news. Later, believing Morgan asleep, Harry slips away and enters the tomb, using a reflection of light on an artifact to highlight where the sunburst is hidden inside a hollow pillar. Morgan appears and takes the sunburst from Harry at gunpoint, explaining that Harry was too casual breaking the bad news. Morgan flees, pursued by Harry. Trapping Morgan on a cliff edge, the two men wrestle for the treasure and Morgan falls to his death.", "Rather than take it for himself, Harry gives the sunburst back to the native locals, who return it ritually to the [Temple of the Sun](/wiki/Sun_temple \"Sun temple\"). When Moorehead asks Harry why he brought the sunburst back, Harry says that finding it meant more to him than keeping it. To the authorities, Harry convinces them that Morgan forced him to help steal the sunburst. As Harry and Elena are led away by Colonel Cardoza, Harry says to Elena that unless the colonel is “real friendly”, they may have a long engagement. In the meantime, in place of a ring, Harry gives Elena an ancient gold Incan pin that “fell into his pocket.”", "" ]
Plot ---- In an alternate 18th Century [Britain](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), scientist [Victor Frankenstein](/wiki/Victor_Frankenstein "Victor Frankenstein") discovered a method of reanimating a corpse with a soul that could think, feel, and speak. After his creation was destroyed another method was used to replace the missing [soul](/wiki/Soul "Soul") with an artificial one known as "Necroware", which can be upgraded like a computer program, though the corpses are unable to talk, feel, or think for themselves. By the 19th century, corpses have become the main part of the labor force, with Necroware improving daily via a machine known as the [Analytical Engine](/wiki/Analytical_Engine "Analytical Engine"), invented by [Charles Babbage](/wiki/Charles_Babbage "Charles Babbage"). [John Watson](/wiki/John_Watson_%28Sherlock_Holmes%29 "John Watson (Sherlock Holmes)"), a medical student and aspiring corpse engineer, illegally creates his own Necroware to resurrect his deceased friend, Friday, and aspires to find a way to truly return him to life. Eventually, Watson is caught by [M](/wiki/M_%28James_Bond%29 "M (James Bond)"), a member of the British [Secret Service](/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service "Secret Intelligence Service"), and to avoid a prison sentence, he agrees to become an agent for the British Empire. He is then tasked to find and retrieve The Memorandum, Frankenstein's original research on reanimating a corpse with a soul, and which is believed to be in the possession of [Alexei Frodorovich Karamazov](/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov "The Brothers Karamazov"), a Russian corpse engineer who is hiding in [Kabul](/wiki/Kabul "Kabul"). Accompanied by [Captain](/wiki/Captain "Captain") [Frederick Burnaby](/wiki/Frederick_Gustavus_Burnaby "Frederick Gustavus Burnaby"), Watson's bodyguard, and their guide, [Nikolai Krasotkin](/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov "The Brothers Karamazov"), Watson and Friday reach [Khyber Pass](/wiki/Khyber_Pass "Khyber Pass"), where they are ambushed by upgraded corpses now capable of limited human\-like intelligence before they are saved by [Hadaly Lilith](/wiki/The_Future_Eve "The Future Eve"), the mysterious secretary of former U.S. President [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant "Ulysses S. Grant"). Afterwards, upon retrieving one of the advanced corpses, Watson discovers it is able to remember and speak its own name. The group finally reach Karamazov, but the next day, Watson and Friday discover the disillusioned Karamazov forcibly upgrading Nikolai while he is still alive, killing him and creating a more intelligent corpse capable of limited thought and speech. When Waston refuses to accept that it was a part of Frankenstein's original research, Karamazov commits suicide by having the corpsified Nikolai forcibly upgrade him, but not before telling Watson that the Memorandum is in [Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan") and asking him to destroy it. In [Tokyo, Japan](/wiki/Tokyo%2C_Japan "Tokyo, Japan"), Waston meets [Yamazawa Seigo](/wiki/Seigo_Yamazawa "Seigo Yamazawa") of the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army "Imperial Japanese Army"), who reveals the Memorandum is being held by the [Osato Chemical company](/wiki/You_Only_Live_Twice_%28film%29 "You Only Live Twice (film)"). As they make their way to it, the group is attacked by advanced corpses, and Watson hurries to find the Memorandum to destroy it. However, upon reaching it, he suddenly hesitates and chooses to analyze the notes, setting off a trap that sets fire to the building and causing all corpses nearby, including Friday, to lash out and Friday to try to speak. Following an explosion, and before losing consciousness, Watson witnesses a mysterious man taking the Memorandum, who reveals himself as [Frankenstein's original creation](/wiki/Frankenstein%27s_monster "Frankenstein's monster"), known as The One \- still alive after 100 years and just as intelligent as a human. Watson awakens aboard the [USS *Richmond*](/wiki/USS_Richmond_%281860%29 "USS Richmond (1860)") heading for [America](/wiki/America "America"), where he is treated by Hadaly and is asked along with Burnaby by Grant to help him defeat The One, who he believes is lashing out at humanity as vengeance for creating him. However, Watson spends the voyage trying to help Friday, who has become aggressive and hostile and has been chained up as a result. Upon reaching [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), The One uses the Memorandum to send out a signal that causes corpses to attack humans, including the corpse crew of the USS *Richmond*. During their escape, Hadaly reveals that she is an artificial lifeform that can control corpses using sound waves and desires a soul of her own. Grant is killed by an exploding corpse, and Hadaly guides Watson and Friday to a sewer entrance that will take them to her safehouse before she and Burnaby briefly part ways. However, the still\-hostile Friday attempts to kill Watson, but then begins to recognize him and hesitate long enough for Watson to subdue him. Finally, at Hadaly's safehouse, Watson manages to finish fixing Friday, making him immune to the Memorandum's signal. Meanwhile, The One is captured by M, who plans to turn all humans into corpses; thus ending every war. He is taken to the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London "Tower of London") where his mind is analyzed by Charles Babbage and Frankenstein's preserved brain, which creates a stronger signal that causes more corpses to attack humans. Using a submarine, the [USS *Nautilus*](/wiki/USS_Nautilus_%281838%29 "USS Nautilus (1838)"), Watson, Hadaly, Friday, and Burnaby smash through the [Traitors' Gate](/wiki/Traitors%27_Gate "Traitors' Gate"), and Burnaby distracts the corpse guards while the others make their way to M. Hadaly manages to subdue M and use her abilities to suppress The One, while Friday takes over Charles Babbage to stop the signal. However, M manages to shoot Hadaly before being shot by Watson, freeing The One, who then kills M, overpowers Hadaly, and takes over Friday. Shortly after, The One reveals that he is attempting to create the bride that Frankenstein promised him and combine all the corpses' primitive minds into a true human mind. Then, using the Memorandum, Charles Babbage, and Frankenstein's brain, The One beckons forth his bride's soul and mind and inserts them into Hadaly while transferring his own soul and mind into Friday. However, before he can complete the ritual, Burnaby damages Charles Babbage, forcing The One to return to his own body, and with Friday's help, Watson manages to permanently seal The One into the Memorandum, defeating him and destroying the Tower. Before parting ways, Watson declares that Hadaly is developing of a soul of her own, which prompts her to urge Watson to not give up on truly resurrecting Friday. Back at the house where he resurrected Friday, Watson and Friday are seen combining the research of Karamazov with the surviving pages of the Memorandum to perform an unknown corpse upgrade on the former. Four years later, in a post\-credits scene, Watson is seen fleeing with his new companion, [Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes "Sherlock Holmes"), whilst Burnaby and Hadaly, who now goes by the name [Irene Adler](/wiki/Irene_Adler "Irene Adler"), watch from nearby, with what appears to be a fully resurrected Friday also watching from a rooftop.
[ "Plot\n----", "In an alternate 18th Century [Britain](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), scientist [Victor Frankenstein](/wiki/Victor_Frankenstein \"Victor Frankenstein\") discovered a method of reanimating a corpse with a soul that could think, feel, and speak. After his creation was destroyed another method was used to replace the missing [soul](/wiki/Soul \"Soul\") with an artificial one known as \"Necroware\", which can be upgraded like a computer program, though the corpses are unable to talk, feel, or think for themselves. By the 19th century, corpses have become the main part of the labor force, with Necroware improving daily via a machine known as the [Analytical Engine](/wiki/Analytical_Engine \"Analytical Engine\"), invented by [Charles Babbage](/wiki/Charles_Babbage \"Charles Babbage\").", "[John Watson](/wiki/John_Watson_%28Sherlock_Holmes%29 \"John Watson (Sherlock Holmes)\"), a medical student and aspiring corpse engineer, illegally creates his own Necroware to resurrect his deceased friend, Friday, and aspires to find a way to truly return him to life. Eventually, Watson is caught by [M](/wiki/M_%28James_Bond%29 \"M (James Bond)\"), a member of the British [Secret Service](/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service \"Secret Intelligence Service\"), and to avoid a prison sentence, he agrees to become an agent for the British Empire. He is then tasked to find and retrieve The Memorandum, Frankenstein's original research on reanimating a corpse with a soul, and which is believed to be in the possession of [Alexei Frodorovich Karamazov](/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov \"The Brothers Karamazov\"), a Russian corpse engineer who is hiding in [Kabul](/wiki/Kabul \"Kabul\").", "Accompanied by [Captain](/wiki/Captain \"Captain\") [Frederick Burnaby](/wiki/Frederick_Gustavus_Burnaby \"Frederick Gustavus Burnaby\"), Watson's bodyguard, and their guide, [Nikolai Krasotkin](/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov \"The Brothers Karamazov\"), Watson and Friday reach [Khyber Pass](/wiki/Khyber_Pass \"Khyber Pass\"), where they are ambushed by upgraded corpses now capable of limited human\\-like intelligence before they are saved by [Hadaly Lilith](/wiki/The_Future_Eve \"The Future Eve\"), the mysterious secretary of former U.S. President [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant \"Ulysses S. Grant\"). Afterwards, upon retrieving one of the advanced corpses, Watson discovers it is able to remember and speak its own name.", "The group finally reach Karamazov, but the next day, Watson and Friday discover the disillusioned Karamazov forcibly upgrading Nikolai while he is still alive, killing him and creating a more intelligent corpse capable of limited thought and speech. When Waston refuses to accept that it was a part of Frankenstein's original research, Karamazov commits suicide by having the corpsified Nikolai forcibly upgrade him, but not before telling Watson that the Memorandum is in [Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") and asking him to destroy it.", "In [Tokyo, Japan](/wiki/Tokyo%2C_Japan \"Tokyo, Japan\"), Waston meets [Yamazawa Seigo](/wiki/Seigo_Yamazawa \"Seigo Yamazawa\") of the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army \"Imperial Japanese Army\"), who reveals the Memorandum is being held by the [Osato Chemical company](/wiki/You_Only_Live_Twice_%28film%29 \"You Only Live Twice (film)\"). As they make their way to it, the group is attacked by advanced corpses, and Watson hurries to find the Memorandum to destroy it. However, upon reaching it, he suddenly hesitates and chooses to analyze the notes, setting off a trap that sets fire to the building and causing all corpses nearby, including Friday, to lash out and Friday to try to speak. Following an explosion, and before losing consciousness, Watson witnesses a mysterious man taking the Memorandum, who reveals himself as [Frankenstein's original creation](/wiki/Frankenstein%27s_monster \"Frankenstein's monster\"), known as The One \\- still alive after 100 years and just as intelligent as a human.", "Watson awakens aboard the [USS *Richmond*](/wiki/USS_Richmond_%281860%29 \"USS Richmond (1860)\") heading for [America](/wiki/America \"America\"), where he is treated by Hadaly and is asked along with Burnaby by Grant to help him defeat The One, who he believes is lashing out at humanity as vengeance for creating him. However, Watson spends the voyage trying to help Friday, who has become aggressive and hostile and has been chained up as a result. Upon reaching [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), The One uses the Memorandum to send out a signal that causes corpses to attack humans, including the corpse crew of the USS *Richmond*. During their escape, Hadaly reveals that she is an artificial lifeform that can control corpses using sound waves and desires a soul of her own. Grant is killed by an exploding corpse, and Hadaly guides Watson and Friday to a sewer entrance that will take them to her safehouse before she and Burnaby briefly part ways. However, the still\\-hostile Friday attempts to kill Watson, but then begins to recognize him and hesitate long enough for Watson to subdue him. Finally, at Hadaly's safehouse, Watson manages to finish fixing Friday, making him immune to the Memorandum's signal.", "Meanwhile, The One is captured by M, who plans to turn all humans into corpses; thus ending every war. He is taken to the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London \"Tower of London\") where his mind is analyzed by Charles Babbage and Frankenstein's preserved brain, which creates a stronger signal that causes more corpses to attack humans. Using a submarine, the [USS *Nautilus*](/wiki/USS_Nautilus_%281838%29 \"USS Nautilus (1838)\"), Watson, Hadaly, Friday, and Burnaby smash through the [Traitors' Gate](/wiki/Traitors%27_Gate \"Traitors' Gate\"), and Burnaby distracts the corpse guards while the others make their way to M. Hadaly manages to subdue M and use her abilities to suppress The One, while Friday takes over Charles Babbage to stop the signal. However, M manages to shoot Hadaly before being shot by Watson, freeing The One, who then kills M, overpowers Hadaly, and takes over Friday.", "Shortly after, The One reveals that he is attempting to create the bride that Frankenstein promised him and combine all the corpses' primitive minds into a true human mind. Then, using the Memorandum, Charles Babbage, and Frankenstein's brain, The One beckons forth his bride's soul and mind and inserts them into Hadaly while transferring his own soul and mind into Friday. However, before he can complete the ritual, Burnaby damages Charles Babbage, forcing The One to return to his own body, and with Friday's help, Watson manages to permanently seal The One into the Memorandum, defeating him and destroying the Tower. Before parting ways, Watson declares that Hadaly is developing of a soul of her own, which prompts her to urge Watson to not give up on truly resurrecting Friday.", "Back at the house where he resurrected Friday, Watson and Friday are seen combining the research of Karamazov with the surviving pages of the Memorandum to perform an unknown corpse upgrade on the former. Four years later, in a post\\-credits scene, Watson is seen fleeing with his new companion, [Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes \"Sherlock Holmes\"), whilst Burnaby and Hadaly, who now goes by the name [Irene Adler](/wiki/Irene_Adler \"Irene Adler\"), watch from nearby, with what appears to be a fully resurrected Friday also watching from a rooftop.", "" ]
Plot ---- The 16\-year\-old amateur photographer Charles ([Jon Cryer](/wiki/Jon_Cryer "Jon Cryer")) accidentally takes a photo of Laura ([Demi Moore](/wiki/Demi_Moore "Demi Moore")) while shooting the pier and falls in love with her when he develops the picture. Enlarging the photo, Charles circulates the area, looking for her, even checks with local police with no luck. When his big brother Leonard and his fiancée come into town, they sneak him into a bar, where he sees her sing. Photographing her by the stage, the bouncer tries to drag him out and finally the cops do, but he finds out her name is Laura. The lead guitarist of Laura's band quits, so she is about to lose her job. Although rejected at first by the 22\-year\-old, Charles offers to photograph her. That night, he convinces his brother and friends to move the stag night to her bar. Even though Charles had increased the numbers that night, Laura's band was still cut, so she let him do a shoot. Afterwards, they dress up to sneak into a wedding reception. Caught by the father of the bride, Charles convinces him to let Laura literally sing for their supper. Using the publicity photos he took, and all of his savings, Charles attempts to boost her performing career by starting an ad campaign without her knowing on the city's taxis — with unexpected results. Added to the taxi ads was a short article that goes national, explaining the ad and their story. Laura has a huge gig, and a major record label picks her up. Before she moves to L.A., Charles stops by her place, spends the night and loses his virginity.
[ "Plot\n----", "The 16\\-year\\-old amateur photographer Charles ([Jon Cryer](/wiki/Jon_Cryer \"Jon Cryer\")) accidentally takes a photo of Laura ([Demi Moore](/wiki/Demi_Moore \"Demi Moore\")) while shooting the pier and falls in love with her when he develops the picture.", "Enlarging the photo, Charles circulates the area, looking for her, even checks with local police with no luck. When his big brother Leonard and his fiancée come into town, they sneak him into a bar, where he sees her sing. Photographing her by the stage, the bouncer tries to drag him out and finally the cops do, but he finds out her name is Laura.", "The lead guitarist of Laura's band quits, so she is about to lose her job. Although rejected at first by the 22\\-year\\-old, Charles offers to photograph her. That night, he convinces his brother and friends to move the stag night to her bar.", "Even though Charles had increased the numbers that night, Laura's band was still cut, so she let him do a shoot. Afterwards, they dress up to sneak into a wedding reception. Caught by the father of the bride, Charles convinces him to let Laura literally sing for their supper.", "Using the publicity photos he took, and all of his savings, Charles attempts to boost her performing career by starting an ad campaign without her knowing on the city's taxis — with unexpected results.", "Added to the taxi ads was a short article that goes national, explaining the ad and their story. Laura has a huge gig, and a major record label picks her up. Before she moves to L.A., Charles stops by her place, spends the night and loses his virginity.", "" ]
Translation ----------- There are hundreds of neoclassical compounds in English and other European languages. As traditionally defined, combining forms cannot stand alone as free words, but there are many exceptions to this rule, and in the late 20th century such forms are increasingly used independently: *bio* as a clipping of *biography*, *telly* as a respelt clipping of *television*. Most neoclassical combining forms translate readily into everyday language, especially nouns: *bio\-* as 'life' *\-graphy* as 'writing, description'. Because of this, the compounds of which they are part (usually *classical* or *learned compounds*) can be more or less straightforwardly paraphrased: *biography* as 'writing about a life', *neurology* as 'the study of the nervous system'. Many classical combining forms are designed to take initial or final position: *autobiography* has the two initial or preposed forms *auto\-* and *bio\-*, and one postposed form *\-graphy*. Although most occupy one position or the other, some can occupy both: *\-graph\-* as in *graphology* and *monograph*; *\-phil\-* as in *philology* and *Anglophile*. Occasionally, the same base is repeated in one word: *logology* the study of words, *phobophobia* the fear of fear. ### Preposed and postposed Prefixes include: *aero\-* air, *crypto\-* hidden, *demo\-* people, *geo\-* earth, *odonto\-* tooth, *ornitho\-* bird, *thalasso\-* sea. Many have both a traditional simple meaning and a modern telescopic meaning: in *biology*, *bio\-* means 'life', but in *[bio\-degradable](/wiki/Biodegradation "Biodegradation")* it telescopes 'biologically'; although *hypno\-* basically means 'sleep' (*hypnopaedia* learning through sleep), it also stands for 'hypnosis' (*hypnotherapy* cure through hypnosis). When a form stands alone as a present\-day word, it is usually a telescopic abbreviation: *bio* biography, *chemo* chemotherapy, *hydro* hydroelectricity, *metro* metropolitan. Some telescoped forms are shorter than the original neoclassical combining form: *gynie* is shorter than *gyneco\-* and stands for both *gynecology* and *gynecologist*; *anthro* is shorter than *anthropo\-* and stands for *anthropology*. Suffixes include: *\-ectomy* cutting out, *\-graphy* writing, description, *\-kinesis* motion, *\-logy* study, *\-mancy* divination, *\-onym* name, *\-phagy* eating, *\-phony* sound, *\-therapy* healing, *\-tomy* cutting. They are generally listed in dictionaries without the interfixed vowel, which appears however in such casual phrases as 'ologies and isms'. ### Variants Some classical combining forms are variants of one base. Some are also free words, such as *mania* in *dipsomania* and *phobia* in *claustrophobia*. Some are composites of other elements, such as *encephalo\-* brain, from *en\-* in, *\-cephal\-* head; and *\-ectomy* cutting out, from *ec\-* out, *\-tom\-* cut, *\-y*, a noun\-forming suffix that means "process of". ### Formation In Greek and Latin grammar, combining bases usually require a thematic or stem\-forming vowel. In *biography*, from Greek, the thematic is \-*o*\-; in *agriculture*, from Latin, it is *\-i\-*. In English morphology, this vowel can be considered as an [interfix](/wiki/Interfix "Interfix"): in biology, the interfix *[\-o\-](/wiki/wikt:-o-%23Interfix "-o-#Interfix")*; in *miniskirt*, the interfix *[\-i\-](/wiki/wikt:-i-%23Interfix "-i-#Interfix")*. It is usually regarded as attached to the initial base (*bio\-*, *mini\-*) rather than the final base (*\-graphy*, *\-skirt*), but in forms where it is conventionally [stressed](/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English "Stress and vowel reduction in English"), it is sometimes considered as part of the final base (*\-ography*, *\-ology*). If the final element begins with a vowel (for example, *\-archy* as in *monarchy*), the mediating vowel has traditionally been avoided (not \**{{Not a typo\|monoarchy}}*), but in recent coinages it is often kept, sometimes accompanied by a hyphen (*auto\-analysis*, *[bioenergy](/wiki/Bioenergy "Bioenergy")*, *[hydroelectricity](/wiki/Hydroelectricity "Hydroelectricity")*, not \**{{Not a typo\|autanalysis}}*, \**bienergy*, \**{{Not a typo\|hydrelectricity}}*). Its presence helps to distinguish neoclassical compounds like *biography* and *agriculture* from vernacular compounds like *teapot* and *blackbird*.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2024}} ### Origin Generally, English has acquired its neoclassical compounds in three ways: through French from Latin and Greek, directly from Latin and Greek, and by coinage in English on Greek and Latin patterns. An exception is *schizophrenia*, which came into English through German, and is therefore pronounced 'skitso', not '{{Not a typo\|skyzo}}'.
[ "Translation\n-----------", "There are hundreds of neoclassical compounds in English and other European languages. As traditionally defined, combining forms cannot stand alone as free words, but there are many exceptions to this rule, and in the late 20th century such forms are increasingly used independently: *bio* as a clipping of *biography*, *telly* as a respelt clipping of *television*. Most neoclassical combining forms translate readily into everyday language, especially nouns: *bio\\-* as 'life' *\\-graphy* as 'writing, description'.", "Because of this, the compounds of which they are part (usually *classical* or *learned compounds*) can be more or less straightforwardly paraphrased: *biography* as 'writing about a life', *neurology* as 'the study of the nervous system'. Many classical combining forms are designed to take initial or final position: *autobiography* has the two initial or preposed forms *auto\\-* and *bio\\-*, and one postposed form *\\-graphy*. Although most occupy one position or the other, some can occupy both: *\\-graph\\-* as in *graphology* and *monograph*; *\\-phil\\-* as in *philology* and *Anglophile*. Occasionally, the same base is repeated in one word: *logology* the study of words, *phobophobia* the fear of fear.", "### Preposed and postposed", "Prefixes include: *aero\\-* air, *crypto\\-* hidden, *demo\\-* people, *geo\\-* earth, *odonto\\-* tooth, *ornitho\\-* bird, *thalasso\\-* sea. Many have both a traditional simple meaning and a modern telescopic meaning: in *biology*, *bio\\-* means 'life', but in *[bio\\-degradable](/wiki/Biodegradation \"Biodegradation\")* it telescopes 'biologically'; although *hypno\\-* basically means 'sleep' (*hypnopaedia* learning through sleep), it also stands for 'hypnosis' (*hypnotherapy* cure through hypnosis).", "When a form stands alone as a present\\-day word, it is usually a telescopic abbreviation: *bio* biography, *chemo* chemotherapy, *hydro* hydroelectricity, *metro* metropolitan. Some telescoped forms are shorter than the original neoclassical combining form: *gynie* is shorter than *gyneco\\-* and stands for both *gynecology* and *gynecologist*; *anthro* is shorter than *anthropo\\-* and stands for *anthropology*.", "Suffixes include: *\\-ectomy* cutting out, *\\-graphy* writing, description, *\\-kinesis* motion, *\\-logy* study, *\\-mancy* divination, *\\-onym* name, *\\-phagy* eating, *\\-phony* sound, *\\-therapy* healing, *\\-tomy* cutting. They are generally listed in dictionaries without the interfixed vowel, which appears however in such casual phrases as 'ologies and isms'.", "### Variants", "Some classical combining forms are variants of one base.", "Some are also free words, such as *mania* in *dipsomania* and *phobia* in *claustrophobia*.", "Some are composites of other elements, such as *encephalo\\-* brain, from *en\\-* in, *\\-cephal\\-* head; and *\\-ectomy* cutting out, from *ec\\-* out, *\\-tom\\-* cut, *\\-y*, a noun\\-forming suffix that means \"process of\".", "### Formation", "In Greek and Latin grammar, combining bases usually require a thematic or stem\\-forming vowel. In *biography*, from Greek, the thematic is \\-*o*\\-; in *agriculture*, from Latin, it is *\\-i\\-*. In English morphology, this vowel can be considered as an [interfix](/wiki/Interfix \"Interfix\"): in biology, the interfix *[\\-o\\-](/wiki/wikt:-o-%23Interfix \"-o-#Interfix\")*; in *miniskirt*, the interfix *[\\-i\\-](/wiki/wikt:-i-%23Interfix \"-i-#Interfix\")*. It is usually regarded as attached to the initial base (*bio\\-*, *mini\\-*) rather than the final base (*\\-graphy*, *\\-skirt*), but in forms where it is conventionally [stressed](/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English \"Stress and vowel reduction in English\"), it is sometimes considered as part of the final base (*\\-ography*, *\\-ology*). If the final element begins with a vowel (for example, *\\-archy* as in *monarchy*), the mediating vowel has traditionally been avoided (not \\**{{Not a typo\\|monoarchy}}*), but in recent coinages it is often kept, sometimes accompanied by a hyphen (*auto\\-analysis*, *[bioenergy](/wiki/Bioenergy \"Bioenergy\")*, *[hydroelectricity](/wiki/Hydroelectricity \"Hydroelectricity\")*, not \\**{{Not a typo\\|autanalysis}}*, \\**bienergy*, \\**{{Not a typo\\|hydrelectricity}}*).", "Its presence helps to distinguish neoclassical compounds like *biography* and *agriculture* from vernacular compounds like *teapot* and *blackbird*.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2024}}", "### Origin", "Generally, English has acquired its neoclassical compounds in three ways: through French from Latin and Greek, directly from Latin and Greek, and by coinage in English on Greek and Latin patterns. An exception is *schizophrenia*, which came into English through German, and is therefore pronounced 'skitso', not '{{Not a typo\\|skyzo}}'.", "" ]
Philology --------- ### Conservative philological tradition From the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") until the mid\-20th century, the concept of derivational purity has often regulated the use of classical compounds, with a [philological](/wiki/Philology "Philology") goal of like with like (Greek with Greek, Latin with Latin) and a minimum of [hybridization](/wiki/Hybrid_word "Hybrid word"). For example, *biography* is Greek, *agriculture* Latin; but this ideal has seen only limited realization in practice, as for example the word *television* is a hybrid of Greek *tele\-* and Latin *\-vision* (probably so coined because the 'pure' form *telescope* had already been adopted for another purpose). ### Contemporary developments Generally, classical compounds were a closed system from the 16th century to the earlier 20th century: the people who used them were [classically educated](/wiki/Classics "Classics"), their teachers and exemplars generally took a purist's view on their use, contexts of use were mainly technical, and there was relatively little seepage into the language at large. However, with the decline of classical education and the spread of technical and quasitechnical jargon in the media, a continuum has evolved, with at least five stages: #### Pure classical usage In the older sciences, classical combining forms are generally used to form such strictly classical and usually Greek compounds as *anthocyanin*, *astrobleme*, *chemotherapy*, *chronobiology*, *cytokinesis*, *glossolalia*, *lalophobia*, *narcolepsy*, *osteoporosis*, *Pliohippus*, *sympathomimetic*. #### Hybrid classical usage In technical, semitechnical, and quasitechnical usage at large, coiners of compounds increasingly treat Latin and Greek as one resource to produce such forms as *accelerometer*, *aero\-generator*, *bioprospector*, *communicology*, *electroconductive*, *futurology*, *mammography*, *micro\-gravity*, *neoliberal*, *Scientology*, *servomechanism*. #### Hybrid classical/vernacular usage In the later 20th century, many forms have cut loose from ancient moorings: *crypto\-* as in preposed *Crypto\-Fascist* and *pseudo\-* as in *pseudoradical*; postposed *\-meter* in *speedometer*, *clapometer*. Processes of analogy have created coinages like *[petrodollar](/wiki/Petrodollar "Petrodollar")*, *[psycho\-warfare](/wiki/Psychological_warfare "Psychological warfare")*, *microwave* on such models as *[petrochemical](/wiki/Petrochemical "Petrochemical")*, *psychology*, *microscope*. Such stunt usages as *eco\-doom*, *eco\-fears*, *eco\-freaks*, common in journalism, often employ classical combining forms telescopically: *eco\-* standing for *ecology* and *ecological* and not as used in *economics*. In such matters, precision of meaning is secondary to compactness and vividness of expression. #### Combining forms as separate words In recent years, the orthography of many word forms has changed, usually without affecting pronunciation and stress. The same spoken usage may be written *micro\-missile*, *micro missile*, *micromissile*, reflecting the same uncertainty or flexibility as in *businessman*, *business\-man*, *business man*. When used in such ways, classical compounds are often telescopic: *Hydro substation* Hydro\-Electricity Board substation, *Metro highways* Metropolitan highways, *porno cult* pornography cult. #### New classical compounds The mix of late 20th century techno\-commercial coinages includes three groups of post\- and non\-classical forms: 1. *Established forms*: *econo\-* from 'economic', as in *econometric*, *Econo\-Car*; *mini\-* from 'miniature', as in *miniskirt*, *mini\-boom*; *\-matic* from 'automatic', as in *Adjustamatic*, *[Instamatic](/wiki/Instamatic "Instamatic")*, *Stackomatic*. 2. Less established forms, often created by blending: *accu\-* from 'accurate', as in *[Accuvision](/wiki/Accuvision "Accuvision")*; *compu\-* from 'computer', as in *Compucorp*; *docu\-* from 'documentary', as in *docudrama*; *perma\-* from 'permanent', as in *permafrost* and *permaban*; *dura\-* from 'durable', as in *Duramark*. 3. Informal vernacular material in pseudo\-classical form: *[Easibird](/wiki/Easibird "Easibird")*, *[Healthitone](/wiki/Healthitone "Healthitone")*, *[Redi\-pak](/wiki/Redi-pak "Redi-pak")*, *[Relax\-A\-Cizor](/wiki/Relax-A-Cizor "Relax-A-Cizor")* (relax, exerciser).
[ "Philology\n---------", "### Conservative philological tradition", "From the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") until the mid\\-20th century, the concept of derivational purity has often regulated the use of classical compounds, with a [philological](/wiki/Philology \"Philology\") goal of like with like (Greek with Greek, Latin with Latin) and a minimum of [hybridization](/wiki/Hybrid_word \"Hybrid word\"). For example, *biography* is Greek, *agriculture* Latin; but this ideal has seen only limited realization in practice, as for example the word *television* is a hybrid of Greek *tele\\-* and Latin *\\-vision* (probably so coined because the 'pure' form *telescope* had already been adopted for another purpose).", "### Contemporary developments", "Generally, classical compounds were a closed system from the 16th century to the earlier 20th century: the people who used them were [classically educated](/wiki/Classics \"Classics\"), their teachers and exemplars generally took a purist's view on their use, contexts of use were mainly technical, and there was relatively little seepage into the language at large. However, with the decline of classical education and the spread of technical and quasitechnical jargon in the media, a continuum has evolved, with at least five stages:", "#### Pure classical usage", "In the older sciences, classical combining forms are generally used to form such strictly classical and usually Greek compounds as *anthocyanin*, *astrobleme*, *chemotherapy*, *chronobiology*, *cytokinesis*, *glossolalia*, *lalophobia*, *narcolepsy*, *osteoporosis*, *Pliohippus*, *sympathomimetic*.", "#### Hybrid classical usage", "In technical, semitechnical, and quasitechnical usage at large, coiners of compounds increasingly treat Latin and Greek as one resource to produce such forms as *accelerometer*, *aero\\-generator*, *bioprospector*, *communicology*, *electroconductive*, *futurology*, *mammography*, *micro\\-gravity*, *neoliberal*, *Scientology*, *servomechanism*.", "#### Hybrid classical/vernacular usage", "In the later 20th century, many forms have cut loose from ancient moorings: *crypto\\-* as in preposed *Crypto\\-Fascist* and *pseudo\\-* as in *pseudoradical*; postposed *\\-meter* in *speedometer*, *clapometer*. Processes of analogy have created coinages like *[petrodollar](/wiki/Petrodollar \"Petrodollar\")*, *[psycho\\-warfare](/wiki/Psychological_warfare \"Psychological warfare\")*, *microwave* on such models as *[petrochemical](/wiki/Petrochemical \"Petrochemical\")*, *psychology*, *microscope*. Such stunt usages as *eco\\-doom*, *eco\\-fears*, *eco\\-freaks*, common in journalism, often employ classical combining forms telescopically: *eco\\-* standing for *ecology* and *ecological* and not as used in *economics*. In such matters, precision of meaning is secondary to compactness and vividness of expression.", "#### Combining forms as separate words", "In recent years, the orthography of many word forms has changed, usually without affecting pronunciation and stress. The same spoken usage may be written *micro\\-missile*, *micro missile*, *micromissile*, reflecting the same uncertainty or flexibility as in *businessman*, *business\\-man*, *business man*. When used in such ways, classical compounds are often telescopic: *Hydro substation* Hydro\\-Electricity Board substation, *Metro highways* Metropolitan highways, *porno cult* pornography cult.", "#### New classical compounds", "The mix of late 20th century techno\\-commercial coinages includes three groups of post\\- and non\\-classical forms:\n1. *Established forms*: *econo\\-* from 'economic', as in *econometric*, *Econo\\-Car*; *mini\\-* from 'miniature', as in *miniskirt*, *mini\\-boom*; *\\-matic* from 'automatic', as in *Adjustamatic*, *[Instamatic](/wiki/Instamatic \"Instamatic\")*, *Stackomatic*.\n2. Less established forms, often created by blending: *accu\\-* from 'accurate', as in *[Accuvision](/wiki/Accuvision \"Accuvision\")*; *compu\\-* from 'computer', as in *Compucorp*; *docu\\-* from 'documentary', as in *docudrama*; *perma\\-* from 'permanent', as in *permafrost* and *permaban*; *dura\\-* from 'durable', as in *Duramark*.\n3. Informal vernacular material in pseudo\\-classical form: *[Easibird](/wiki/Easibird \"Easibird\")*, *[Healthitone](/wiki/Healthitone \"Healthitone\")*, *[Redi\\-pak](/wiki/Redi-pak \"Redi-pak\")*, *[Relax\\-A\\-Cizor](/wiki/Relax-A-Cizor \"Relax-A-Cizor\")* (relax, exerciser).", "" ]
### Contemporary developments Generally, classical compounds were a closed system from the 16th century to the earlier 20th century: the people who used them were [classically educated](/wiki/Classics "Classics"), their teachers and exemplars generally took a purist's view on their use, contexts of use were mainly technical, and there was relatively little seepage into the language at large. However, with the decline of classical education and the spread of technical and quasitechnical jargon in the media, a continuum has evolved, with at least five stages: #### Pure classical usage In the older sciences, classical combining forms are generally used to form such strictly classical and usually Greek compounds as *anthocyanin*, *astrobleme*, *chemotherapy*, *chronobiology*, *cytokinesis*, *glossolalia*, *lalophobia*, *narcolepsy*, *osteoporosis*, *Pliohippus*, *sympathomimetic*. #### Hybrid classical usage In technical, semitechnical, and quasitechnical usage at large, coiners of compounds increasingly treat Latin and Greek as one resource to produce such forms as *accelerometer*, *aero\-generator*, *bioprospector*, *communicology*, *electroconductive*, *futurology*, *mammography*, *micro\-gravity*, *neoliberal*, *Scientology*, *servomechanism*. #### Hybrid classical/vernacular usage In the later 20th century, many forms have cut loose from ancient moorings: *crypto\-* as in preposed *Crypto\-Fascist* and *pseudo\-* as in *pseudoradical*; postposed *\-meter* in *speedometer*, *clapometer*. Processes of analogy have created coinages like *[petrodollar](/wiki/Petrodollar "Petrodollar")*, *[psycho\-warfare](/wiki/Psychological_warfare "Psychological warfare")*, *microwave* on such models as *[petrochemical](/wiki/Petrochemical "Petrochemical")*, *psychology*, *microscope*. Such stunt usages as *eco\-doom*, *eco\-fears*, *eco\-freaks*, common in journalism, often employ classical combining forms telescopically: *eco\-* standing for *ecology* and *ecological* and not as used in *economics*. In such matters, precision of meaning is secondary to compactness and vividness of expression. #### Combining forms as separate words In recent years, the orthography of many word forms has changed, usually without affecting pronunciation and stress. The same spoken usage may be written *micro\-missile*, *micro missile*, *micromissile*, reflecting the same uncertainty or flexibility as in *businessman*, *business\-man*, *business man*. When used in such ways, classical compounds are often telescopic: *Hydro substation* Hydro\-Electricity Board substation, *Metro highways* Metropolitan highways, *porno cult* pornography cult. #### New classical compounds The mix of late 20th century techno\-commercial coinages includes three groups of post\- and non\-classical forms: 1. *Established forms*: *econo\-* from 'economic', as in *econometric*, *Econo\-Car*; *mini\-* from 'miniature', as in *miniskirt*, *mini\-boom*; *\-matic* from 'automatic', as in *Adjustamatic*, *[Instamatic](/wiki/Instamatic "Instamatic")*, *Stackomatic*. 2. Less established forms, often created by blending: *accu\-* from 'accurate', as in *[Accuvision](/wiki/Accuvision "Accuvision")*; *compu\-* from 'computer', as in *Compucorp*; *docu\-* from 'documentary', as in *docudrama*; *perma\-* from 'permanent', as in *permafrost* and *permaban*; *dura\-* from 'durable', as in *Duramark*. 3. Informal vernacular material in pseudo\-classical form: *[Easibird](/wiki/Easibird "Easibird")*, *[Healthitone](/wiki/Healthitone "Healthitone")*, *[Redi\-pak](/wiki/Redi-pak "Redi-pak")*, *[Relax\-A\-Cizor](/wiki/Relax-A-Cizor "Relax-A-Cizor")* (relax, exerciser).
[ "### Contemporary developments", "Generally, classical compounds were a closed system from the 16th century to the earlier 20th century: the people who used them were [classically educated](/wiki/Classics \"Classics\"), their teachers and exemplars generally took a purist's view on their use, contexts of use were mainly technical, and there was relatively little seepage into the language at large. However, with the decline of classical education and the spread of technical and quasitechnical jargon in the media, a continuum has evolved, with at least five stages:", "#### Pure classical usage", "In the older sciences, classical combining forms are generally used to form such strictly classical and usually Greek compounds as *anthocyanin*, *astrobleme*, *chemotherapy*, *chronobiology*, *cytokinesis*, *glossolalia*, *lalophobia*, *narcolepsy*, *osteoporosis*, *Pliohippus*, *sympathomimetic*.", "#### Hybrid classical usage", "In technical, semitechnical, and quasitechnical usage at large, coiners of compounds increasingly treat Latin and Greek as one resource to produce such forms as *accelerometer*, *aero\\-generator*, *bioprospector*, *communicology*, *electroconductive*, *futurology*, *mammography*, *micro\\-gravity*, *neoliberal*, *Scientology*, *servomechanism*.", "#### Hybrid classical/vernacular usage", "In the later 20th century, many forms have cut loose from ancient moorings: *crypto\\-* as in preposed *Crypto\\-Fascist* and *pseudo\\-* as in *pseudoradical*; postposed *\\-meter* in *speedometer*, *clapometer*. Processes of analogy have created coinages like *[petrodollar](/wiki/Petrodollar \"Petrodollar\")*, *[psycho\\-warfare](/wiki/Psychological_warfare \"Psychological warfare\")*, *microwave* on such models as *[petrochemical](/wiki/Petrochemical \"Petrochemical\")*, *psychology*, *microscope*. Such stunt usages as *eco\\-doom*, *eco\\-fears*, *eco\\-freaks*, common in journalism, often employ classical combining forms telescopically: *eco\\-* standing for *ecology* and *ecological* and not as used in *economics*. In such matters, precision of meaning is secondary to compactness and vividness of expression.", "#### Combining forms as separate words", "In recent years, the orthography of many word forms has changed, usually without affecting pronunciation and stress. The same spoken usage may be written *micro\\-missile*, *micro missile*, *micromissile*, reflecting the same uncertainty or flexibility as in *businessman*, *business\\-man*, *business man*. When used in such ways, classical compounds are often telescopic: *Hydro substation* Hydro\\-Electricity Board substation, *Metro highways* Metropolitan highways, *porno cult* pornography cult.", "#### New classical compounds", "The mix of late 20th century techno\\-commercial coinages includes three groups of post\\- and non\\-classical forms:\n1. *Established forms*: *econo\\-* from 'economic', as in *econometric*, *Econo\\-Car*; *mini\\-* from 'miniature', as in *miniskirt*, *mini\\-boom*; *\\-matic* from 'automatic', as in *Adjustamatic*, *[Instamatic](/wiki/Instamatic \"Instamatic\")*, *Stackomatic*.\n2. Less established forms, often created by blending: *accu\\-* from 'accurate', as in *[Accuvision](/wiki/Accuvision \"Accuvision\")*; *compu\\-* from 'computer', as in *Compucorp*; *docu\\-* from 'documentary', as in *docudrama*; *perma\\-* from 'permanent', as in *permafrost* and *permaban*; *dura\\-* from 'durable', as in *Duramark*.\n3. Informal vernacular material in pseudo\\-classical form: *[Easibird](/wiki/Easibird \"Easibird\")*, *[Healthitone](/wiki/Healthitone \"Healthitone\")*, *[Redi\\-pak](/wiki/Redi-pak \"Redi-pak\")*, *[Relax\\-A\\-Cizor](/wiki/Relax-A-Cizor \"Relax-A-Cizor\")* (relax, exerciser).", "" ]
Plot ---- A convict named Malcolm Rivers awaits execution for a vicious mass murder that took place at an apartment building. Journals belonging to Malcolm are discovered misfiled in the case evidence; they were not introduced during the trial. Malcolm's psychiatrist, Dr. Malick, and his defense attorney argue the journals prove Malcolm's insanity. Meanwhile, ten strangers find themselves stranded in a torrential rainstorm at a remote [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada") motel, run by Larry Washington. The group consists of an ex\-cop, now limousine driver, Ed Dakota; Caroline Suzanne, a washed\-up, irritable actress; Officer Rhodes, who is transporting convicted murderer Robert Maine; Paris Nevada, a sex worker; newlyweds Lou and Ginny Isiana; and the York family, George, Alice (who was severely injured when Ed accidentally hit her with his limo), and their nine\-year\-old son, Timmy. With the group all in separate rooms, Suzanne is killed by an unknown assailant. Ed discovers Suzanne's head in a dryer, along with the number 10 motel key. Maine is suspected to be the killer as he has escaped. Ginny locks herself in the bathroom to escape Lou during a fight, only for the unknown assailant to murder Lou out of Ginny's sight. At the hearing, Malcolm's diaries indicate that Malcolm suffers from [dissociative identity disorder](/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder "Dissociative identity disorder"), harboring eleven distinct personalities. His defense attorney argues that he is unaware of his crimes, which is in violation of existing [Supreme Court](/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court "United States Supreme Court") rulings on capital punishment. Dr. Malick is introducing the concept of integrating the personalities of someone with dissociative identity disorder as Malcolm is brought in. While taking photos of Lou's crime scene, Ed finds the number 9 key in Lou's hands. He begins to suspect that the killer is counting down and targeting them in order. Maine fails to escape the motel area, and he is subdued by Rhodes and Ed. Larry is instructed to guard Maine, but suspicion falls on him when Maine is found dead. Rhodes and Ed find the number 8 key next to his body, and they harass Larry, who takes Paris hostage. Paris wrestles him off, causing Larry to attempt to escape in his truck, but he accidentally crushes George against a dumpster as he tries to save Timmy from being run over. Rhodes ties Larry to a chair and orders the other guests to stay until dawn. Larry convinces Paris and Ed that he is not the perpetrator by telling them how he ended up at the motel. Alice, still in bed, is checked on and presumably has died from her injuries, but Rhodes finds the number 6 key. George's body is recovered and the number 7 key is found in his pocket, which confuses the others. Ed tells Ginny and Timmy to flee in a car, but it explodes upon their arrival. The last four survivors discover that the bodies of all the previous victims have disappeared. Paris has a mental breakdown, revealing her birthday is on May 10; it transpires that all eleven people were born on May 10 — which is also Malcolm's birthday and the day he committed the murders. Ed checks their ID cards in the office, discovering that each one of them is named after a state, and that their birthdays all match. With Dr. Malick calling out to him, Ed finds he is at the hearing, but is confused as to why he is there. Dr. Malick explains that he is one of the personalities that Malcolm Rivers created as a child. Learning one of the personalities committed the murders, Ed is instructed to "go back" to the motel to try to eliminate them. As Ed returns to the motel, Paris finds convict\-transportation files for both Maine and Rhodes in the police car, revealing Rhodes is a criminal acting as an officer. Rhodes attacks Paris, but she is saved by Larry, who is shot to death by Rhodes. Finally believing Rhodes to be the murderous personality, Ed goes after him and the two men end up shooting each other fatally, leaving only Paris still alive. With the homicidal personality removed, Malcolm's execution is stayed and he is ordered to be placed in a [mental institution](/wiki/Mental_institution "Mental institution") under Dr. Malick's care. In Malcolm's mind, Paris settles down in her hometown of [Frostproof, Florida](/wiki/Frostproof%2C_Florida "Frostproof, Florida"). As she tends to her orange grove, she discovers the number 1 key buried in the dirt, and she finds Timmy behind her. It is revealed Timmy is actually the murderous personality and that he orchestrated all of the deaths at the motel, including faking his own death. Timmy kills Paris and takes over completely, causing Malcolm to strangle Malick and forcing the van that is en route to the mental institution to swerve off the road and stop before Timmy's voice repeats the poem "[Antigonish](/wiki/Antigonish_%28poem%29 "Antigonish (poem)")" by [William Hughes Mearns](/wiki/William_Hughes_Mearns "William Hughes Mearns") one more time.
[ "Plot\n----", "A convict named Malcolm Rivers awaits execution for a vicious mass murder that took place at an apartment building. Journals belonging to Malcolm are discovered misfiled in the case evidence; they were not introduced during the trial. Malcolm's psychiatrist, Dr. Malick, and his defense attorney argue the journals prove Malcolm's insanity.", "Meanwhile, ten strangers find themselves stranded in a torrential rainstorm at a remote [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\") motel, run by Larry Washington. The group consists of an ex\\-cop, now limousine driver, Ed Dakota; Caroline Suzanne, a washed\\-up, irritable actress; Officer Rhodes, who is transporting convicted murderer Robert Maine; Paris Nevada, a sex worker; newlyweds Lou and Ginny Isiana; and the York family, George, Alice (who was severely injured when Ed accidentally hit her with his limo), and their nine\\-year\\-old son, Timmy.", "With the group all in separate rooms, Suzanne is killed by an unknown assailant. Ed discovers Suzanne's head in a dryer, along with the number 10 motel key. Maine is suspected to be the killer as he has escaped. Ginny locks herself in the bathroom to escape Lou during a fight, only for the unknown assailant to murder Lou out of Ginny's sight.", "At the hearing, Malcolm's diaries indicate that Malcolm suffers from [dissociative identity disorder](/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder \"Dissociative identity disorder\"), harboring eleven distinct personalities. His defense attorney argues that he is unaware of his crimes, which is in violation of existing [Supreme Court](/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court \"United States Supreme Court\") rulings on capital punishment. Dr. Malick is introducing the concept of integrating the personalities of someone with dissociative identity disorder as Malcolm is brought in.", "While taking photos of Lou's crime scene, Ed finds the number 9 key in Lou's hands. He begins to suspect that the killer is counting down and targeting them in order. Maine fails to escape the motel area, and he is subdued by Rhodes and Ed. Larry is instructed to guard Maine, but suspicion falls on him when Maine is found dead. Rhodes and Ed find the number 8 key next to his body, and they harass Larry, who takes Paris hostage. Paris wrestles him off, causing Larry to attempt to escape in his truck, but he accidentally crushes George against a dumpster as he tries to save Timmy from being run over.", "Rhodes ties Larry to a chair and orders the other guests to stay until dawn. Larry convinces Paris and Ed that he is not the perpetrator by telling them how he ended up at the motel. Alice, still in bed, is checked on and presumably has died from her injuries, but Rhodes finds the number 6 key. George's body is recovered and the number 7 key is found in his pocket, which confuses the others.", "Ed tells Ginny and Timmy to flee in a car, but it explodes upon their arrival. The last four survivors discover that the bodies of all the previous victims have disappeared. Paris has a mental breakdown, revealing her birthday is on May 10; it transpires that all eleven people were born on May 10 — which is also Malcolm's birthday and the day he committed the murders.", "Ed checks their ID cards in the office, discovering that each one of them is named after a state, and that their birthdays all match. With Dr. Malick calling out to him, Ed finds he is at the hearing, but is confused as to why he is there. Dr. Malick explains that he is one of the personalities that Malcolm Rivers created as a child. Learning one of the personalities committed the murders, Ed is instructed to \"go back\" to the motel to try to eliminate them.", "As Ed returns to the motel, Paris finds convict\\-transportation files for both Maine and Rhodes in the police car, revealing Rhodes is a criminal acting as an officer. Rhodes attacks Paris, but she is saved by Larry, who is shot to death by Rhodes. Finally believing Rhodes to be the murderous personality, Ed goes after him and the two men end up shooting each other fatally, leaving only Paris still alive.", "With the homicidal personality removed, Malcolm's execution is stayed and he is ordered to be placed in a [mental institution](/wiki/Mental_institution \"Mental institution\") under Dr. Malick's care. In Malcolm's mind, Paris settles down in her hometown of [Frostproof, Florida](/wiki/Frostproof%2C_Florida \"Frostproof, Florida\"). As she tends to her orange grove, she discovers the number 1 key buried in the dirt, and she finds Timmy behind her. It is revealed Timmy is actually the murderous personality and that he orchestrated all of the deaths at the motel, including faking his own death. Timmy kills Paris and takes over completely, causing Malcolm to strangle Malick and forcing the van that is en route to the mental institution to swerve off the road and stop before Timmy's voice repeats the poem \"[Antigonish](/wiki/Antigonish_%28poem%29 \"Antigonish (poem)\")\" by [William Hughes Mearns](/wiki/William_Hughes_Mearns \"William Hughes Mearns\") one more time.", "" ]
Architectural and engineering benefits -------------------------------------- {{More citations needed section\|date\=July 2020}} ### Durability GGBS cement is routinely specified in concrete to provide protection against both sulfate attack and chloride attack. GGBS has now effectively replaced sulfate\-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) on the market for sulfate resistance because of its superior performance and greatly reduced cost compared to SRPC. Most projects in [Dublin's docklands](/wiki/Dublin_Docklands "Dublin Docklands"), including [Spencer Dock](/wiki/Spencer_Dock "Spencer Dock"), are using GGBS in subsurface concrete for sulfate resistance. Bulk Electrical Resistivity is a test method that can measure the resistivity of concrete samples. (ASTM 1876–19\) The higher electrical resistivity can be an indication of higher ion transfer resistivity and thus higher durability. By replacing up to 50% GGBS in concrete, researchers have shown that some durability properties can be significantly improved.{{cite journal \|last1\=Askarian \|first1\=Mahya \|last2\=Fakhretaha Aval \|first2\=Siavash \|last3\=Joshaghani \|first3\=Alireza \|title\=A comprehensive experimental study on the performance of pumice powder in self\-compacting concrete (SCC) \|journal\=Journal of Sustainable Cement\-Based Materials \|date\=22 January 2019 \|volume\=7 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=340–356 \|doi\=10\.1080/21650373\.2018\.1511486\|s2cid\=139554392}} To protect against chloride attack, GGBS is used at a replacement level of 50% in concrete. Instances of chloride attack occur in reinforced concrete in marine environments and in road bridges where the concrete is exposed to splashing from road de\-icing salts. In most [NRA](/wiki/National_Roads_Authority "National Roads Authority") projects in Ireland GGBS is now specified in structural concrete for bridge piers and [abutments](/wiki/Abutment "Abutment") for protection against chloride attack. The use of GGBS in such instances will increase the life of the structure by up to 50% had only Portland cement been used, and precludes the need for more expensive [stainless steel](/wiki/Stainless_steel "Stainless steel") reinforcing. GGBS is also routinely used to limit the temperature rise in large concrete pours. The more gradual hydration of GGBS cement generates both lower temperature peak and less total overall heat than Portland cement. This reduces thermal gradients in the concrete, which prevents the occurrence of [microcracking](/wiki/Microcracking "Microcracking") which can weaken the concrete and reduce its durability, and was used for this purpose in the construction of the [Jack Lynch Tunnel](/wiki/Jack_Lynch_Tunnel "Jack Lynch Tunnel") in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 "Cork (city)"). ### Appearance In contrast to the stony grey of concrete made with Portland cement, the near\-white color of GGBS cement permits architects to achieve a lighter color for exposed fair\-faced concrete finishes, at no extra cost. To achieve a lighter color finish, GGBS is usually specified at replacement levels of between 50% and 70%, although levels as high as 85% can be used. GGBS cement also produces a smoother, more defect\-free surface, due to the fineness of the GGBS particles. Dirt does not adhere to GGBS concrete as easily as concrete made with Portland cement, reducing maintenance costs. GGBS cement prevents the occurrence of [efflorescence](/wiki/Efflorescence "Efflorescence"), the staining of concrete surfaces by [calcium carbonate](/wiki/Calcium_carbonate "Calcium carbonate") deposits. Due to its much lower [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28mineral%29 "Lime (mineral)") content and lower permeability, GGBS is effective in preventing efflorescence when used at replacement levels of 50%\-to\-60%. ### Strength Concrete containing GGBS cement has a higher ultimate strength than concrete made with Portland cement. It has a higher proportion of the strength\-enhancing [calcium silicate hydrates](/wiki/Calcium_silicate_hydrate "Calcium silicate hydrate") (CSH) than concrete made with Portland cement only, and a reduced content of free lime, which does not contribute to concrete strength. Concrete made with GGBS continues to gain strength over time, and has been shown to double its 28\-day strength over periods of 10 to 12 years.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2008}} The optimum dosage of Ground granulated blast\-furnace slag (GGBS) for replacement in concrete was reported to be 20\-30% by mass to provide higher compressive strength compared to the concrete made with only cement. ### Sustainability Since GGBS is a by\-product of steel manufacturing process, its use in concrete is recognized by [LEED](/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design "Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design"), as well as [Building Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM) Plus](https://www.beamsociety.org.hk/en/) in Hong Kong, etc. as improving the sustainability of the project and will therefore add points towards LEED and BEAM Plus certifications. In this respect, GGBS can also be used for superstructure in addition to the cases where the concrete is in contact with chlorides and sulfates — provided that the slower setting time for casting of the superstructure is justified.
[ "Architectural and engineering benefits\n--------------------------------------", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=July 2020}}", "### Durability", "GGBS cement is routinely specified in concrete to provide protection against both sulfate attack and chloride attack. GGBS has now effectively replaced sulfate\\-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) on the market for sulfate resistance because of its superior performance and greatly reduced cost compared to SRPC. Most projects in [Dublin's docklands](/wiki/Dublin_Docklands \"Dublin Docklands\"), including [Spencer Dock](/wiki/Spencer_Dock \"Spencer Dock\"), are using GGBS in subsurface concrete for sulfate resistance.", "Bulk Electrical Resistivity is a test method that can measure the resistivity of concrete samples. (ASTM 1876–19\\) The higher electrical resistivity can be an indication of higher ion transfer resistivity and thus higher durability. By replacing up to 50% GGBS in concrete, researchers have shown that some durability properties can be significantly improved.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Askarian \\|first1\\=Mahya \\|last2\\=Fakhretaha Aval \\|first2\\=Siavash \\|last3\\=Joshaghani \\|first3\\=Alireza \\|title\\=A comprehensive experimental study on the performance of pumice powder in self\\-compacting concrete (SCC) \\|journal\\=Journal of Sustainable Cement\\-Based Materials \\|date\\=22 January 2019 \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=340–356 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/21650373\\.2018\\.1511486\\|s2cid\\=139554392}}", "To protect against chloride attack, GGBS is used at a replacement level of 50% in concrete. Instances of chloride attack occur in reinforced concrete in marine environments and in road bridges where the concrete is exposed to splashing from road de\\-icing salts. In most [NRA](/wiki/National_Roads_Authority \"National Roads Authority\") projects in Ireland GGBS is now specified in structural concrete for bridge piers and [abutments](/wiki/Abutment \"Abutment\") for protection against chloride attack. The use of GGBS in such instances will increase the life of the structure by up to 50% had only Portland cement been used, and precludes the need for more expensive [stainless steel](/wiki/Stainless_steel \"Stainless steel\") reinforcing.", "GGBS is also routinely used to limit the temperature rise in large concrete pours. The more gradual hydration of GGBS cement generates both lower temperature peak and less total overall heat than Portland cement. This reduces thermal gradients in the concrete, which prevents the occurrence of [microcracking](/wiki/Microcracking \"Microcracking\") which can weaken the concrete and reduce its durability, and was used for this purpose in the construction of the [Jack Lynch Tunnel](/wiki/Jack_Lynch_Tunnel \"Jack Lynch Tunnel\") in [Cork](/wiki/Cork_%28city%29 \"Cork (city)\").", "### Appearance", "In contrast to the stony grey of concrete made with Portland cement, the near\\-white color of GGBS cement permits architects to achieve a lighter color for exposed fair\\-faced concrete finishes, at no extra cost. To achieve a lighter color finish, GGBS is usually specified at replacement levels of between 50% and 70%, although levels as high as 85% can be used. GGBS cement also produces a smoother, more defect\\-free surface, due to the fineness of the GGBS particles. Dirt does not adhere to GGBS concrete as easily as concrete made with Portland cement, reducing maintenance costs. GGBS cement prevents the occurrence of [efflorescence](/wiki/Efflorescence \"Efflorescence\"), the staining of concrete surfaces by [calcium carbonate](/wiki/Calcium_carbonate \"Calcium carbonate\") deposits. Due to its much lower [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28mineral%29 \"Lime (mineral)\") content and lower permeability, GGBS is effective in preventing efflorescence when used at replacement levels of 50%\\-to\\-60%.", "### Strength", "Concrete containing GGBS cement has a higher ultimate strength than concrete made with Portland cement. It has a higher proportion of the strength\\-enhancing [calcium silicate hydrates](/wiki/Calcium_silicate_hydrate \"Calcium silicate hydrate\") (CSH) than concrete made with Portland cement only, and a reduced content of free lime, which does not contribute to concrete strength. Concrete made with GGBS continues to gain strength over time, and has been shown to double its 28\\-day strength over periods of 10 to 12 years.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2008}}", "The optimum dosage of Ground granulated blast\\-furnace slag (GGBS) for replacement in concrete was reported to be 20\\-30% by mass to provide higher compressive strength compared to the concrete made with only cement.", "### Sustainability", "Since GGBS is a by\\-product of steel manufacturing process, its use in concrete is recognized by [LEED](/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design \"Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design\"), as well as [Building Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM) Plus](https://www.beamsociety.org.hk/en/) in Hong Kong, etc. as improving the sustainability of the project and will therefore add points towards LEED and BEAM Plus certifications. In this respect, GGBS can also be used for superstructure in addition to the cases where the concrete is in contact with chlorides and sulfates — provided that the slower setting time for casting of the superstructure is justified.", "" ]
Regular season -------------- In terms of total goals scored during an NHL regular season, the 2005–06 regular season turned out to be the highest\-scoring in NHL history, with 7,443 goals scored in 1,230 games.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hockey\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\_2006\_skaters.html \|title \= 2005\-06 NHL Season Skater Statistics {{!}} Hockey\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-25 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204004240/http://www.hockey\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\_2006\_skaters.html \|archive\-date\=December 4, 2013 \|df\=mdy }} However, the highest\-scoring season in terms of goals per game still belonged to the 1992–93 regular season, in which 7,311 goals were scored in only 1,008 games, for an average of 7\.25 per game (the average in 2005–06 was 6\.05 per game).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hockey\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\_1993\.html\|title\=1992\-93 NHL Summary}} The record for most shorthanded goals scored in a season, set in 1992–93 and matched in 1993–94 at 312, was broken as 318 shorthanded goals were scored.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hockey\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\_2006\.html\|title\=2005\-06 NHL Summary}} A total of 117 shutouts were recorded,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hockey\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\_2006\_goalies.html\|title \= 2005\-06 NHL Goalie Statistics}} down from an all\-time high of 192 in 2003–04\. The higher offensive numbers were largely attributable, among other things, to greater frequency of power plays. In 2003–04, teams had an average of 348 power plays over 82 games.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.hockey\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\_2004\.html\|title\=2003\-04 NHL Summary}} In 2005–06, the average number of power plays per team over 82 games was 480\. The NHL season began on October 5, which marked the first time ever that all 30 teams in the league played a game on the same day.{{Cite web \|last\=Zator \|first\=Matthew \|date\=October 5, 2022 \|title\=Today in Hockey History: Oct. 5 \|url\=https://thehockeywriters.com/oct\-5\-history\-yzerman\-ovechkin\-lemieux/ \|access\-date\=January 14, 2023 \|website\=The Hockey Writers}} In the first period of each game, all teams wore a jersey with a special patch; the league and players association then auctioned off the jerseys for the benefit of the [Red Cross](/wiki/Red_Cross "Red Cross") in both the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") and [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), earmarking the proceeds for [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina "Hurricane Katrina") victims ([the Islanders' ECHL affiliate in Biloxi, Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi_Sea_Wolves "Mississippi Sea Wolves") suspended operations for the 2005–06 and 2006–07 seasons because of this disaster, and the NHL toured ECHL cities with the Stanley Cup to raise additional funds for relief efforts). [Jean\-Pierre Dumont](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Dumont "Jean-Pierre Dumont") of the [Buffalo Sabres](/wiki/Buffalo_Sabres "Buffalo Sabres") scored the first goal of the regular season, and [Daniel Alfredsson](/wiki/Daniel_Alfredsson "Daniel Alfredsson") and [Dany Heatley](/wiki/Dany_Heatley "Dany Heatley"), of the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators "Ottawa Senators") became the first players to score the winning goals for a shootout in NHL history, both scoring against [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs") goaltender [Ed Belfour](/wiki/Ed_Belfour "Ed Belfour"). Their sticks were subsequently sent to the nearby [Hockey Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame "Hockey Hall of Fame") in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto"). The [All\-Star Game](/wiki/National_Hockey_League_All-Star_Game "National Hockey League All-Star Game"), which would have been in [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona") did not take place; the league instead took a break in February so that many of its players could participate in the [XX Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics "2006 Winter Olympics") in [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"). The new schedule features more intra\-division games in order to promote division rivalries. Consequently, there are whole divisions in the opposite conference that teams never played during the season. This season saw the much\-hyped debuts of (and immediate rivalry between) [Sidney Crosby](/wiki/Sidney_Crosby "Sidney Crosby") and [Alexander Ovechkin](/wiki/Alexander_Ovechkin "Alexander Ovechkin"). It was only the second time that two rookies had over 100 points in a season ([Teemu Selanne](/wiki/Teemu_Sel%C3%A4nne "Teemu Selänne") and [Joe Juneau](/wiki/Jo%C3%A9_Juneau "Joé Juneau") performed the feat in [1992–93](/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_NHL_season "1992–93 NHL season")). Ovechkin finished with 106 points, which is third best all\-time among NHL rookies. Crosby surpassed teammate [Mario Lemieux](/wiki/Mario_Lemieux "Mario Lemieux")'s 100\-point rookie season, finishing with 102 points, currently fifth best all\-time.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.hhof.com/html/r%26rRo.shtml \|title \= HHOF Records and Rankings \-\- NHL Rookies \|access\-date\=May 10, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203091752/http://www.hhof.com/html/r%26rRo.shtml \|archive\-date\=December 3, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=mdy\-all }} On November 30, 2005, [Joe Thornton](/wiki/Joe_Thornton "Joe Thornton") was traded from the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins "Boston Bruins") to the [San Jose Sharks](/wiki/San_Jose_Sharks "San Jose Sharks") in a four\-player deal which sent forwards [Marco Sturm](/wiki/Marco_Sturm "Marco Sturm") and [Wayne Primeau](/wiki/Wayne_Primeau "Wayne Primeau") and defenceman [Brad Stuart](/wiki/Brad_Stuart "Brad Stuart") to Boston. Thornton went on to win the scoring title. The Bruins would not make the playoffs until 2008\. On November 26, the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers "New York Rangers") and [Washington Capitals](/wiki/Washington_Capitals "Washington Capitals") played the second\-longest NHL [shootout](/wiki/Overtime_%28ice_hockey%29 "Overtime (ice hockey)") to date. Rangers defenceman [Marek Malik](/wiki/Marek_Mal%C3%ADk "Marek Malík") scored the winning goal in the 15th round, pulling the puck between his own legs to defeat Capitals goaltender [Olaf Kolzig](/wiki/Olaf_K%C3%B6lzig "Olaf Kölzig"), giving the Rangers the victory by the final score of 3–2\. Three early\-season games had to be rescheduled due to various events. [Hurricane Wilma](/wiki/Hurricane_Wilma "Hurricane Wilma") had forced the NHL to reschedule two [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers "Florida Panthers") home games, in which their game against Ottawa Senators scheduled on October 22 was rescheduled to December 5; the game against the Washington Capitals scheduled for October 29 was moved to December 1\. The [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators")–[Detroit Red Wings](/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings "Detroit Red Wings") game on November 22 was called off with 7:30 left in the first period after Red Wings defenceman [Jiri Fischer](/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Fischer "Jiří Fischer") suffered a seizure and had to be resuscitated. It was rescheduled to January 23, 2006, with the game starting 1–0 for Nashville as [Greg Johnson](/wiki/Greg_Johnson_%28ice_hockey%29 "Greg Johnson (ice hockey)")'s goal from the original date was allowed to stand. The game that was originally scheduled for January 23 at Nashville between the two teams was moved to March 30, 2006\. On January 12, the New York Rangers retired the number 11 of long\-time captain [Mark Messier](/wiki/Mark_Messier "Mark Messier") to the rafters of [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden "Madison Square Garden"). The Rangers would beat Messier's former team, the [Edmonton Oilers](/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers "Edmonton Oilers"), 5–4 in overtime. On January 16 in Phoenix, Washington Capitals rookie winger Alexander Ovechkin [added himself](https://sports.yahoo.com/nhl/news?slug=mr-powerrankings011906&prov=yhoo&type=lgns) to the league's historical highlight reel by scoring a goal from his back while rolling and sliding past the goal. Ovechkin was checked to the ice by Coyotes defenceman [Paul Mara](/wiki/Paul_Mara "Paul Mara") on a breakaway between the Coyotes' faceoff circles, but rolled to his back, reached over his head with his stick and hooked the puck in behind goaltender [Brian Boucher](/wiki/Brian_Boucher "Brian Boucher").[Watch Ovechkin's goal](https://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2636503729289931176) at [Google Videos](/wiki/Google_Videos "Google Videos") {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208075339/https://video.google.com/videoplay?docid\=2636503729289931176 \|date\=February 8, 2012 }} On January 19, [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings "Los Angeles Kings") veteran [left winger](/wiki/Winger_%28ice_hockey%29 "Winger (ice hockey)") [Luc Robitaille](/wiki/Luc_Robitaille "Luc Robitaille") scored his 550th, 551st and 552nd goals as a member of the Kings, eclipsing [Marcel Dionne](/wiki/Marcel_Dionne "Marcel Dionne")'s franchise record of 550 goals. The 40\-year\-old Robitaille retired at season's end. The season was rocked with scandal in early February when it came to light that [Phoenix Coyotes](/wiki/Arizona_Coyotes "Arizona Coyotes") [Assistant coach](/wiki/Coach_%28sport%29 "Coach (sport)") [Rick Tocchet](/wiki/Rick_Tocchet "Rick Tocchet") was found to be involved in a $1\.6 million illegal sports [gambling](/wiki/Gambling "Gambling") ring with [Mafia](/wiki/American_Mafia "American Mafia") ties. Apparently, no betting on NHL games was being done, but bets were being placed on college and professional football and college and [professional basketball](/wiki/Basketball "Basketball"). Although Coyotes [Head Coach](/wiki/Head_Coach "Head Coach") [Wayne Gretzky](/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky "Wayne Gretzky") denied any knowledge or involvement in the ring, initial reports stated that [wiretapped](/wiki/Telephone_tapping "Telephone tapping") phone conversations he had proved that he not only knew about the ring, but was trying to find ways to conceal [his wife](/wiki/Janet_Jones "Janet Jones")'s involvement in it. He was later cleared of these accusations, but long\-term implications to his reputation are still unknown. On April 15, in the Nashville Predators' 81st game of the season, Nashville goaltender [Chris Mason](/wiki/Chris_Mason_%28ice_hockey%29 "Chris Mason (ice hockey)") was credited with a goal when the Phoenix Coyotes' [Geoff Sanderson](/wiki/Geoff_Sanderson "Geoff Sanderson") put the puck in his own net. Mason was awarded credit for the goal, as he was the last Predator to have touched the puck. It was the ninth regular season [goal scored by a goaltender](/wiki/Goaltender%23Goaltenders_credited_with_goals "Goaltender#Goaltenders credited with goals") in NHL history. The last goal of the regular season was scored by [Kyle Calder](/wiki/Kyle_Calder "Kyle Calder") of the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks "Chicago Blackhawks") in overtime in a 3–2 victory over the [St. Louis Blues](/wiki/St._Louis_Blues "St. Louis Blues"), which ended the 2005–06 regular season at 10:50 [EDT](/wiki/Eastern_Daylight_Time "Eastern Daylight Time") on April 18, 2006\. The [Tampa Bay Lightning](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Lightning "Tampa Bay Lightning") narrowly avoided becoming the first team since the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils "New Jersey Devils") in the [1995–96 season](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_NHL_season "1995–96 NHL season") to miss the post\-season after winning the Stanley Cup the previous season. This season also marked the first time since the [1978–79 season](/wiki/1978%E2%80%9379_NHL_season "1978–79 NHL season") that the St. Louis Blues did not qualify for the Stanley Cup playoffs, ending the third\-longest NHL post\-season appearance streak at 25 seasons. Only the Chicago Blackhawks (28 seasons) and the Boston Bruins (29 seasons) had longer [streaks](/wiki/List_of_NHL_franchise_post-season_appearance_streaks "List of NHL franchise post-season appearance streaks"). This season also marked the last time until the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NHL_season "2022–23 NHL season") that the [Pittsburgh Penguins](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Penguins "Pittsburgh Penguins") missed the playoffs. ### Final standings The **Detroit Red Wings** won the [Presidents' Trophy](/wiki/Presidents%27_Trophy "Presidents' Trophy") and home\-ice advantage throughout the playoffs. For ranking in conference, division leaders are automatically ranked 1–3\. These three, plus the next five teams in the conference standings, earn playoff berths at the end of the season. #### [Eastern Conference](/wiki/Eastern_Conference_%28NHL%29 "Eastern Conference (NHL)") {{2005–06 NHL Atlantic Division standings}} {{2005–06 NHL Northeast Division standings}} {{2005–06 NHL Southeast Division standings}} {{2005–06 NHL Eastern Conference standings}} #### [Western Conference](/wiki/Western_Conference_%28NHL%29 "Western Conference (NHL)") {{2005–06 NHL Central Division standings}} {{2005–06 NHL Northwest Division standings}} {{2005–06 NHL Pacific Division standings \|team\=NHL}} {{2005–06 NHL Western Conference standings}} #### Tiebreaking procedures If two or more clubs are tied in points during the regular season, the standing of the clubs is determined in the following order: [http://www.nhl.com/nhl/app?service\=page\&page\=StandingsPage\&type\=CON\#tieBreak](http://www.nhl.com/nhl/app?service=page&page=StandingsPage&type=CON#tieBreak){{dead link\|date\=June 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} 1. The fewer number of games played (i.e., superior points percentage). 2. The greater number of games won. 3. The greater number of points earned in games between the tied clubs. 4. The greater differential between goals for and against.
[ "Regular season\n--------------", "In terms of total goals scored during an NHL regular season, the 2005–06 regular season turned out to be the highest\\-scoring in NHL history, with 7,443 goals scored in 1,230 games.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hockey\\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\\_2006\\_skaters.html \\|title \\= 2005\\-06 NHL Season Skater Statistics {{!}} Hockey\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-25 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204004240/http://www.hockey\\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\\_2006\\_skaters.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 4, 2013 \\|df\\=mdy }} However, the highest\\-scoring season in terms of goals per game still belonged to the 1992–93 regular season, in which 7,311 goals were scored in only 1,008 games, for an average of 7\\.25 per game (the average in 2005–06 was 6\\.05 per game).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hockey\\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\\_1993\\.html\\|title\\=1992\\-93 NHL Summary}} The record for most shorthanded goals scored in a season, set in 1992–93 and matched in 1993–94 at 312, was broken as 318 shorthanded goals were scored.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hockey\\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\\_2006\\.html\\|title\\=2005\\-06 NHL Summary}} A total of 117 shutouts were recorded,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hockey\\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\\_2006\\_goalies.html\\|title \\= 2005\\-06 NHL Goalie Statistics}} down from an all\\-time high of 192 in 2003–04\\. The higher offensive numbers were largely attributable, among other things, to greater frequency of power plays. In 2003–04, teams had an average of 348 power plays over 82 games.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hockey\\-reference.com/leagues/NHL\\_2004\\.html\\|title\\=2003\\-04 NHL Summary}} In 2005–06, the average number of power plays per team over 82 games was 480\\.", "The NHL season began on October 5, which marked the first time ever that all 30 teams in the league played a game on the same day.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Zator \\|first\\=Matthew \\|date\\=October 5, 2022 \\|title\\=Today in Hockey History: Oct. 5 \\|url\\=https://thehockeywriters.com/oct\\-5\\-history\\-yzerman\\-ovechkin\\-lemieux/ \\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2023 \\|website\\=The Hockey Writers}} In the first period of each game, all teams wore a jersey with a special patch; the league and players association then auctioned off the jerseys for the benefit of the [Red Cross](/wiki/Red_Cross \"Red Cross\") in both the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), earmarking the proceeds for [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina \"Hurricane Katrina\") victims ([the Islanders' ECHL affiliate in Biloxi, Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi_Sea_Wolves \"Mississippi Sea Wolves\") suspended operations for the 2005–06 and 2006–07 seasons because of this disaster, and the NHL toured ECHL cities with the Stanley Cup to raise additional funds for relief efforts). [Jean\\-Pierre Dumont](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Dumont \"Jean-Pierre Dumont\") of the [Buffalo Sabres](/wiki/Buffalo_Sabres \"Buffalo Sabres\") scored the first goal of the regular season, and [Daniel Alfredsson](/wiki/Daniel_Alfredsson \"Daniel Alfredsson\") and [Dany Heatley](/wiki/Dany_Heatley \"Dany Heatley\"), of the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators \"Ottawa Senators\") became the first players to score the winning goals for a shootout in NHL history, both scoring against [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\") goaltender [Ed Belfour](/wiki/Ed_Belfour \"Ed Belfour\"). Their sticks were subsequently sent to the nearby [Hockey Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"Hockey Hall of Fame\") in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\").", "The [All\\-Star Game](/wiki/National_Hockey_League_All-Star_Game \"National Hockey League All-Star Game\"), which would have been in [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\") did not take place; the league instead took a break in February so that many of its players could participate in the [XX Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics \"2006 Winter Olympics\") in [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). The new schedule features more intra\\-division games in order to promote division rivalries. Consequently, there are whole divisions in the opposite conference that teams never played during the season.", "This season saw the much\\-hyped debuts of (and immediate rivalry between) [Sidney Crosby](/wiki/Sidney_Crosby \"Sidney Crosby\") and [Alexander Ovechkin](/wiki/Alexander_Ovechkin \"Alexander Ovechkin\"). It was only the second time that two rookies had over 100 points in a season ([Teemu Selanne](/wiki/Teemu_Sel%C3%A4nne \"Teemu Selänne\") and [Joe Juneau](/wiki/Jo%C3%A9_Juneau \"Joé Juneau\") performed the feat in [1992–93](/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_NHL_season \"1992–93 NHL season\")). Ovechkin finished with 106 points, which is third best all\\-time among NHL rookies. Crosby surpassed teammate [Mario Lemieux](/wiki/Mario_Lemieux \"Mario Lemieux\")'s 100\\-point rookie season, finishing with 102 points, currently fifth best all\\-time.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hhof.com/html/r%26rRo.shtml \\|title \\= HHOF Records and Rankings \\-\\- NHL Rookies \\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203091752/http://www.hhof.com/html/r%26rRo.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=December 3, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=mdy\\-all }}", "On November 30, 2005, [Joe Thornton](/wiki/Joe_Thornton \"Joe Thornton\") was traded from the [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins \"Boston Bruins\") to the [San Jose Sharks](/wiki/San_Jose_Sharks \"San Jose Sharks\") in a four\\-player deal which sent forwards [Marco Sturm](/wiki/Marco_Sturm \"Marco Sturm\") and [Wayne Primeau](/wiki/Wayne_Primeau \"Wayne Primeau\") and defenceman [Brad Stuart](/wiki/Brad_Stuart \"Brad Stuart\") to Boston. Thornton went on to win the scoring title. The Bruins would not make the playoffs until 2008\\.", "On November 26, the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers \"New York Rangers\") and [Washington Capitals](/wiki/Washington_Capitals \"Washington Capitals\") played the second\\-longest NHL [shootout](/wiki/Overtime_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Overtime (ice hockey)\") to date. Rangers defenceman [Marek Malik](/wiki/Marek_Mal%C3%ADk \"Marek Malík\") scored the winning goal in the 15th round, pulling the puck between his own legs to defeat Capitals goaltender [Olaf Kolzig](/wiki/Olaf_K%C3%B6lzig \"Olaf Kölzig\"), giving the Rangers the victory by the final score of 3–2\\.", "Three early\\-season games had to be rescheduled due to various events. [Hurricane Wilma](/wiki/Hurricane_Wilma \"Hurricane Wilma\") had forced the NHL to reschedule two [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers \"Florida Panthers\") home games, in which their game against Ottawa Senators scheduled on October 22 was rescheduled to December 5; the game against the Washington Capitals scheduled for October 29 was moved to December 1\\. The [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\")–[Detroit Red Wings](/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings \"Detroit Red Wings\") game on November 22 was called off with 7:30 left in the first period after Red Wings defenceman [Jiri Fischer](/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Fischer \"Jiří Fischer\") suffered a seizure and had to be resuscitated. It was rescheduled to January 23, 2006, with the game starting 1–0 for Nashville as [Greg Johnson](/wiki/Greg_Johnson_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Greg Johnson (ice hockey)\")'s goal from the original date was allowed to stand. The game that was originally scheduled for January 23 at Nashville between the two teams was moved to March 30, 2006\\.", "On January 12, the New York Rangers retired the number 11 of long\\-time captain [Mark Messier](/wiki/Mark_Messier \"Mark Messier\") to the rafters of [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\"). The Rangers would beat Messier's former team, the [Edmonton Oilers](/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers \"Edmonton Oilers\"), 5–4 in overtime.", "On January 16 in Phoenix, Washington Capitals rookie winger Alexander Ovechkin [added himself](https://sports.yahoo.com/nhl/news?slug=mr-powerrankings011906&prov=yhoo&type=lgns) to the league's historical highlight reel by scoring a goal from his back while rolling and sliding past the goal. Ovechkin was checked to the ice by Coyotes defenceman [Paul Mara](/wiki/Paul_Mara \"Paul Mara\") on a breakaway between the Coyotes' faceoff circles, but rolled to his back, reached over his head with his stick and hooked the puck in behind goaltender [Brian Boucher](/wiki/Brian_Boucher \"Brian Boucher\").[Watch Ovechkin's goal](https://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2636503729289931176) at [Google Videos](/wiki/Google_Videos \"Google Videos\") {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208075339/https://video.google.com/videoplay?docid\\=2636503729289931176 \\|date\\=February 8, 2012 }}", "On January 19, [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings \"Los Angeles Kings\") veteran [left winger](/wiki/Winger_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Winger (ice hockey)\") [Luc Robitaille](/wiki/Luc_Robitaille \"Luc Robitaille\") scored his 550th, 551st and 552nd goals as a member of the Kings, eclipsing [Marcel Dionne](/wiki/Marcel_Dionne \"Marcel Dionne\")'s franchise record of 550 goals. The 40\\-year\\-old Robitaille retired at season's end.", "The season was rocked with scandal in early February when it came to light that [Phoenix Coyotes](/wiki/Arizona_Coyotes \"Arizona Coyotes\") [Assistant coach](/wiki/Coach_%28sport%29 \"Coach (sport)\") [Rick Tocchet](/wiki/Rick_Tocchet \"Rick Tocchet\") was found to be involved in a $1\\.6 million illegal sports [gambling](/wiki/Gambling \"Gambling\") ring with [Mafia](/wiki/American_Mafia \"American Mafia\") ties. Apparently, no betting on NHL games was being done, but bets were being placed on college and professional football and college and [professional basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\"). Although Coyotes [Head Coach](/wiki/Head_Coach \"Head Coach\") [Wayne Gretzky](/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky \"Wayne Gretzky\") denied any knowledge or involvement in the ring, initial reports stated that [wiretapped](/wiki/Telephone_tapping \"Telephone tapping\") phone conversations he had proved that he not only knew about the ring, but was trying to find ways to conceal [his wife](/wiki/Janet_Jones \"Janet Jones\")'s involvement in it. He was later cleared of these accusations, but long\\-term implications to his reputation are still unknown.", "On April 15, in the Nashville Predators' 81st game of the season, Nashville goaltender [Chris Mason](/wiki/Chris_Mason_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Chris Mason (ice hockey)\") was credited with a goal when the Phoenix Coyotes' [Geoff Sanderson](/wiki/Geoff_Sanderson \"Geoff Sanderson\") put the puck in his own net. Mason was awarded credit for the goal, as he was the last Predator to have touched the puck. It was the ninth regular season [goal scored by a goaltender](/wiki/Goaltender%23Goaltenders_credited_with_goals \"Goaltender#Goaltenders credited with goals\") in NHL history. The last goal of the regular season was scored by [Kyle Calder](/wiki/Kyle_Calder \"Kyle Calder\") of the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks \"Chicago Blackhawks\") in overtime in a 3–2 victory over the [St. Louis Blues](/wiki/St._Louis_Blues \"St. Louis Blues\"), which ended the 2005–06 regular season at 10:50 [EDT](/wiki/Eastern_Daylight_Time \"Eastern Daylight Time\") on April 18, 2006\\.", "The [Tampa Bay Lightning](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Lightning \"Tampa Bay Lightning\") narrowly avoided becoming the first team since the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils \"New Jersey Devils\") in the [1995–96 season](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_NHL_season \"1995–96 NHL season\") to miss the post\\-season after winning the Stanley Cup the previous season.", "This season also marked the first time since the [1978–79 season](/wiki/1978%E2%80%9379_NHL_season \"1978–79 NHL season\") that the St. Louis Blues did not qualify for the Stanley Cup playoffs, ending the third\\-longest NHL post\\-season appearance streak at 25 seasons. Only the Chicago Blackhawks (28 seasons) and the Boston Bruins (29 seasons) had longer [streaks](/wiki/List_of_NHL_franchise_post-season_appearance_streaks \"List of NHL franchise post-season appearance streaks\").", "This season also marked the last time until the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NHL_season \"2022–23 NHL season\") that the [Pittsburgh Penguins](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Penguins \"Pittsburgh Penguins\") missed the playoffs.", "### Final standings", "The **Detroit Red Wings** won the [Presidents' Trophy](/wiki/Presidents%27_Trophy \"Presidents' Trophy\") and home\\-ice advantage throughout the playoffs.", "For ranking in conference, division leaders are automatically ranked 1–3\\. These three, plus the next five teams in the conference standings, earn playoff berths at the end of the season.", "#### [Eastern Conference](/wiki/Eastern_Conference_%28NHL%29 \"Eastern Conference (NHL)\")", "{{2005–06 NHL Atlantic Division standings}}\n{{2005–06 NHL Northeast Division standings}}\n{{2005–06 NHL Southeast Division standings}}\n{{2005–06 NHL Eastern Conference standings}}", "#### [Western Conference](/wiki/Western_Conference_%28NHL%29 \"Western Conference (NHL)\")", "{{2005–06 NHL Central Division standings}}\n{{2005–06 NHL Northwest Division standings}}\n{{2005–06 NHL Pacific Division standings \\|team\\=NHL}}\n{{2005–06 NHL Western Conference standings}}", "#### Tiebreaking procedures", "If two or more clubs are tied in points during the regular season, the standing of the clubs is determined in the following order: [http://www.nhl.com/nhl/app?service\\=page\\&page\\=StandingsPage\\&type\\=CON\\#tieBreak](http://www.nhl.com/nhl/app?service=page&page=StandingsPage&type=CON#tieBreak){{dead link\\|date\\=June 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "1. The fewer number of games played (i.e., superior points percentage).\n2. The greater number of games won.\n3. The greater number of points earned in games between the tied clubs.\n4. The greater differential between goals for and against." ]
The coastline ------------- [thumb\|Turtle hatchery on Playa Tlalcoyunque](/wiki/File:TurtleHatcheryTlalcoyunque.JPG "TurtleHatcheryTlalcoyunque.JPG") Most of the beaches of the Costa Grande are considered to be "semi\-virgin," meaning there is no or relatively little development. Many do not have hotels but rather offer camping or simple bungalows, with restaurants in the open air under ramadas. While the hunting of [sea turtles](/wiki/Sea_turtles "Sea turtles") and the consumption of their eggs was legal in Mexico until recently, they are now not only banned, but many beaches along the Costa Grande have "campamentos tortugeros," or turtle breeding stations. These are areas where turtle eggs are collected after a female deposits them, then taken to a place where they are incubated safe from predators and humans, as there is still a [black market](/wiki/Black_market "Black market") for turtle eggs. Some of these stations are located in the Isla de los Pájaros and Playa Michigan, and Piedra de Tlacoyunque. Most are locally run either voluntarily or with government support. When the baby turtles hatch, volunteers release them into the nearby ocean and in many places, local schoolchildren and tourists are encouraged in participate in the release of turtles and sometimes in the collection of turtle eggs. In Tenexpa area alone, 150,000 baby turtles were released into the ocean in one year.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.culturaspopulareseindigenas.gob.mx/index.php/colaboraciones/162\-la\-isla\-de\-los\-pajaros\-un\-oasis\-para\-tortugas\-la\-costa\-grande\-de\-guerrero.html \|title\=Un oasis de tortugas \|first\=Fernando \|last\=Garcia Alvarez \|date\=June 11, 2009 \|publisher\=Direccion General de Culturas Populares CONACULTA \|location\=Mexico \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=An oasis of turtles \|accessdate\=January 21, 2011 \|archive\-date\=January 24, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124154029/http://culturaspopulareseindigenas.gob.mx/index.php/colaboraciones/162\-la\-isla\-de\-los\-pajaros\-un\-oasis\-para\-tortugas\-la\-costa\-grande\-de\-guerrero.html \|url\-status\=live }} In the municipality of La Unión, there are a number of beaches such as Troncones, La Saladita, Petacalco, Manzanillo and Majahua, where whales and dolphins can be seen. Troncones is a growing beach area located {{cvt\|35\|km\|mi\|0}} northwest of Zihuatanejo, with hotels, bed and breakfasts and guesthouses, many of which are owned by Americans. The area extends for about six km along the coast. The area is known for moderate waves and has a number of establishments catering to novice surfers, including lessons. The other beaches of the municipality are mostly popular with surfers, including La Saladita, El Rancho and La Boca. [thumb\|View of Zihuatanejo Bay](/wiki/File:ZihuaBayPlayaPrincipal2.JPG "ZihuaBayPlayaPrincipal2.JPG") In the José Azueta (Zihuatanejo) municipality, the best known beaches are associated with the large town/small city of Zihuatanejo and the resort of Ixtapa. Zihuatanejo's beaches line the port's bay, which mostly shelter them from open ocean. The three largest are the Playa Principal or Playa Municipal, next to the port's docks, Playa Madera and Playa La Ropa. Playa La Ropa (literally Clothes Beach) gets its name from a cargo of silks and other textiles which washed up onto it when a ship wrecked outside the bay. At the far southeast end is Playa Las Gatas, which can only be reached by boat or by foot from Playa La Ropa, along a narrow rocky path on the edge of the bay. It has an artificial stone reef which was supposedly built by a Purépecha chief, who favored this beach as a recreational area.{{cite book \|title\= Lonely Planet Mexico \|last\=Noble \|first\=John \|author2\=Sandra Bao and Susan Forsyth \|year\=2004 \|publisher\= Lonely Planet Publications \|location\= Oakland CA \|isbn\=978\-1\-74059\-686\-2 \|pages\=475–476}} Ixtapa was created by [FONATUR](/wiki/FONATUR "FONATUR") as a planned resort development between 1968 and 1971 on {{cvt\|4\.5\|km\|mi}} of beaches and with a [marina](/wiki/Marina "Marina") that mostly serves [yachts](/wiki/Yacht "Yacht"). Beaches include Playa Linda, Playa de Palmar on the mainland with Playa Quieta, Playa Varadera en la Isla and Playa Coral en la Isla, which are on [Isla Ixtapa](/wiki/Isla_Ixtapa "Isla Ixtapa"). There are two golf courses and a long line of luxury mega\-hotels lining the beaches, with the exception of those on Isla Ixtapa. Beach areas in the Petalan include El Calvario, with its lookout point, the Las Salinas Estuary, which is a local salt producer, Barra de Potosí, Playa La Barrita and the Valentín Beach and Estuary, noted for its oysters. With the exception of parts of the {{cvt\|5\|km\|mi}} long Barra de Potosí, there is almost no development on these beaches. Most are similar to La Barrita, which has restaurants, bungalows and rooms for rent. It is one of the better places for surfing along this coast. [thumb\|Tlalcoyunque Rock](/wiki/File:PiedraTlalcoyunque.JPG "PiedraTlalcoyunque.JPG") Tecpan has seven semi virgin beaches, two lagoons and an estuary. Two of its most important beaches are Playa Michigan (reachable only by boat) and Playa La Laguna/Isla de los Pájaros, which are popular with younger travelers. The latter is a combination of a beach/estuary with a small island just offshore filled with wildlife. Playa El Carrizal and Playa Tlalcoyunque are part of the Santuario de Proteccion a la Tortuga Marina (Marine Turtle Protection Sanctuary). San Jerónimo has three beaches: Playa San Jerónimo, Playa Paraíso Escondido and El Dorado. Another visited place is the Hacienda de Cabañas spa, which also offers camping. Playa Paraiso is reached by boat across the lagoon. Coyuca de Benitéz has a number of beaches including Espinalillo, El Carrizal and Playa Azul with host a large number of aquatic birds among tropical vegetation. Ecotourism is an attraction here, with activities such as sports fishing, canoeing, water skiing, sailing, camping, swimming and photo safaris. The Laguna de Coyuca also contains wildlife such as herons, pelicans, ducks and lizards, beach areas such as Barra de Coyuca, Los Pajaros and La Pelona only reachable by boat. The Laguna de Mitla contains mangroves and many species of birds. Just off of here is the El Embarcadero Islands, called La Montosa and La Pelona. These islands are inhabited by the descendants of a single family. The Paso Real Beach is relatively unknown, where there is a sulfur spring. There are no lakes in the region, but there are a number of lagoons along the coast, which are separated from open ocean by a strip of land or beach. The Laguna de Potosí is located northwest of the Morro de Petatlán and is connected on the west side with Potosí Bay. The Lagunas de Mitla is situated between land and a sandy strand. It has a length of {{cvt\|21\|km\|mi}} and a maximum width of {{cvt\|3\|km\|mi}}. The lagoon empties into the sea through a canal on the southeast. The Laguna de Nusco is connected to the sea via the Barra (sand bar) del Nusco on the south. The Nusco River empties into it. The Laguna de Coyuca is just west of Acapulco Bay. It extends along the coast for {{cvt\|10\|km\|mi}} and has a width of over {{cvt\|5\|km\|mi}}. It empties into the ocean on the west side and receives fresh water from the Coyuca River. It is known for its abundance of fish. The most important lagoon ecosystems are in Coyuca, Mitla, Tenexpa, Playa Blanca and Potosí. Others include San Valentin and El Tular. Most of the islands off the coast of Guerrero are located in this region. [Isla Ixtapa](/wiki/Isla_Ixtapa "Isla Ixtapa") (Ixtapa Island), also called Isla Grande, is located just off Ixtapa only {{convert\|360\|m\|ft\|sp\=us\|abbr\=off}} into the ocean. It measures {{cvt\|7\|km\|mi}} from north to south and has an area of {{cvt\|34\|km2\|sqmi}}. Most is still covered in shrubs and small trees. Just southeast ({{cvt\|1\.6\|km\|mi\|disp\=or}}) of Isla Ixtapa is Isla Apies, which has a surface area of {{cvt\|0\.07\|km2\|sqmi}}. It is undeveloped and surrounded by a beach that extends for about {{convert\|3\|m\|ft\|sp\=us\|abbr\=off}}. The Islas Blancas are a group of six tiny islands with the names of Las Bolitas, La Concepción, La Merced, San Antonio, Placer Nuevo and the last without a name. These are found in the San Juan de Dios bay, about {{cvt\|2\.5\|km\|mi}} from Ixtapa. They vary in altitude from {{convert\|6\|to\|43\|m\|ft\|sp\=us\|abbr\=off}}. The Islote (big island) de San Gabriel is also located in the same bay to the west, just off the coast. The Frailes Blancos (White Friairs), also called the Rocas de Potosí (Potosi Rocks) are a group so twelve tiny bare islands, just over {{cvt\|2\|km\|mi}} from Punta Gorda facing the Petatlán Bay. The Roca Negra (Black Rock) or Roca Solitaria (Solitary Rock) is located at the entrance of Zihuatanejo Bay. It rises {{convert\|14\|m\|ft\|sp\=us\|abbr\=off}} over the sea. Isla Pájaros is located in the large lagoon of Coyuca. Also near this lagoon is another called Caballos.
[ "The coastline\n-------------", "[thumb\\|Turtle hatchery on Playa Tlalcoyunque](/wiki/File:TurtleHatcheryTlalcoyunque.JPG \"TurtleHatcheryTlalcoyunque.JPG\")\nMost of the beaches of the Costa Grande are considered to be \"semi\\-virgin,\" meaning there is no or relatively little development. Many do not have hotels but rather offer camping or simple bungalows, with restaurants in the open air under ramadas. While the hunting of [sea turtles](/wiki/Sea_turtles \"Sea turtles\") and the consumption of their eggs was legal in Mexico until recently, they are now not only banned, but many beaches along the Costa Grande have \"campamentos tortugeros,\" or turtle breeding stations. These are areas where turtle eggs are collected after a female deposits them, then taken to a place where they are incubated safe from predators and humans, as there is still a [black market](/wiki/Black_market \"Black market\") for turtle eggs. Some of these stations are located in the Isla de los Pájaros and Playa Michigan, and Piedra de Tlacoyunque. Most are locally run either voluntarily or with government support. When the baby turtles hatch, volunteers release them into the nearby ocean and in many places, local schoolchildren and tourists are encouraged in participate in the release of turtles and sometimes in the collection of turtle eggs. In Tenexpa area alone, 150,000 baby turtles were released into the ocean in one year.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.culturaspopulareseindigenas.gob.mx/index.php/colaboraciones/162\\-la\\-isla\\-de\\-los\\-pajaros\\-un\\-oasis\\-para\\-tortugas\\-la\\-costa\\-grande\\-de\\-guerrero.html \\|title\\=Un oasis de tortugas \\|first\\=Fernando \\|last\\=Garcia Alvarez \\|date\\=June 11, 2009 \\|publisher\\=Direccion General de Culturas Populares CONACULTA \\|location\\=Mexico \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=An oasis of turtles \\|accessdate\\=January 21, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 24, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124154029/http://culturaspopulareseindigenas.gob.mx/index.php/colaboraciones/162\\-la\\-isla\\-de\\-los\\-pajaros\\-un\\-oasis\\-para\\-tortugas\\-la\\-costa\\-grande\\-de\\-guerrero.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In the municipality of La Unión, there are a number of beaches such as Troncones, La Saladita, Petacalco, Manzanillo and Majahua, where whales and dolphins can be seen. Troncones is a growing beach area located {{cvt\\|35\\|km\\|mi\\|0}} northwest of Zihuatanejo, with hotels, bed and breakfasts and guesthouses, many of which are owned by Americans. The area extends for about six km along the coast. The area is known for moderate waves and has a number of establishments catering to novice surfers, including lessons. The other beaches of the municipality are mostly popular with surfers, including La Saladita, El Rancho and La Boca.\n[thumb\\|View of Zihuatanejo Bay](/wiki/File:ZihuaBayPlayaPrincipal2.JPG \"ZihuaBayPlayaPrincipal2.JPG\")\nIn the José Azueta (Zihuatanejo) municipality, the best known beaches are associated with the large town/small city of Zihuatanejo and the resort of Ixtapa. Zihuatanejo's beaches line the port's bay, which mostly shelter them from open ocean. The three largest are the Playa Principal or Playa Municipal, next to the port's docks, Playa Madera and Playa La Ropa. Playa La Ropa (literally Clothes Beach) gets its name from a cargo of silks and other textiles which washed up onto it when a ship wrecked outside the bay. At the far southeast end is Playa Las Gatas, which can only be reached by boat or by foot from Playa La Ropa, along a narrow rocky path on the edge of the bay. It has an artificial stone reef which was supposedly built by a Purépecha chief, who favored this beach as a recreational area.{{cite book \\|title\\= Lonely Planet Mexico \\|last\\=Noble \\|first\\=John \\|author2\\=Sandra Bao and Susan Forsyth \\|year\\=2004 \\|publisher\\= Lonely Planet Publications \\|location\\= Oakland CA \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-74059\\-686\\-2 \\|pages\\=475–476}} Ixtapa was created by [FONATUR](/wiki/FONATUR \"FONATUR\") as a planned resort development between 1968 and 1971 on {{cvt\\|4\\.5\\|km\\|mi}} of beaches and with a [marina](/wiki/Marina \"Marina\") that mostly serves [yachts](/wiki/Yacht \"Yacht\"). Beaches include Playa Linda, Playa de Palmar on the mainland with Playa Quieta, Playa Varadera en la Isla and Playa Coral en la Isla, which are on [Isla Ixtapa](/wiki/Isla_Ixtapa \"Isla Ixtapa\"). There are two golf courses and a long line of luxury mega\\-hotels lining the beaches, with the exception of those on Isla Ixtapa.", "Beach areas in the Petalan include El Calvario, with its lookout point, the Las Salinas Estuary, which is a local salt producer, Barra de Potosí, Playa La Barrita and the Valentín Beach and Estuary, noted for its oysters. With the exception of parts of the {{cvt\\|5\\|km\\|mi}} long Barra de Potosí, there is almost no development on these beaches. Most are similar to La Barrita, which has restaurants, bungalows and rooms for rent. It is one of the better places for surfing along this coast.\n[thumb\\|Tlalcoyunque Rock](/wiki/File:PiedraTlalcoyunque.JPG \"PiedraTlalcoyunque.JPG\")\nTecpan has seven semi virgin beaches, two lagoons and an estuary. Two of its most important beaches are Playa Michigan (reachable only by boat) and Playa La Laguna/Isla de los Pájaros, which are popular with younger travelers. The latter is a combination of a beach/estuary with a small island just offshore filled with wildlife. Playa El Carrizal and Playa Tlalcoyunque are part of the Santuario de Proteccion a la Tortuga Marina (Marine Turtle Protection Sanctuary).", "San Jerónimo has three beaches: Playa San Jerónimo, Playa Paraíso Escondido and El Dorado. Another visited place is the Hacienda de Cabañas spa, which also offers camping. Playa Paraiso is reached by boat across the lagoon.\nCoyuca de Benitéz has a number of beaches including Espinalillo, El Carrizal and Playa Azul with host a large number of aquatic birds among tropical vegetation. Ecotourism is an attraction here, with activities such as sports fishing, canoeing, water skiing, sailing, camping, swimming and photo safaris. The Laguna de Coyuca also contains wildlife such as herons, pelicans, ducks and lizards, beach areas such as Barra de Coyuca, Los Pajaros and La Pelona only reachable by boat. The Laguna de Mitla contains mangroves and many species of birds. Just off of here is the El Embarcadero Islands, called La Montosa and La Pelona. These islands are inhabited by the descendants of a single family. The Paso Real Beach is relatively unknown, where there is a sulfur spring.", "There are no lakes in the region, but there are a number of lagoons along the coast, which are separated from open ocean by a strip of land or beach. The Laguna de Potosí is located northwest of the Morro de Petatlán and is connected on the west side with Potosí Bay. The Lagunas de Mitla is situated between land and a sandy strand. It has a length of {{cvt\\|21\\|km\\|mi}} and a maximum width of {{cvt\\|3\\|km\\|mi}}. The lagoon empties into the sea through a canal on the southeast. The Laguna de Nusco is connected to the sea via the Barra (sand bar) del Nusco on the south. The Nusco River empties into it. The Laguna de Coyuca is just west of Acapulco Bay. It extends along the coast for {{cvt\\|10\\|km\\|mi}} and has a width of over {{cvt\\|5\\|km\\|mi}}. It empties into the ocean on the west side and receives fresh water from the Coyuca River. It is known for its abundance of fish. The most important lagoon ecosystems are in Coyuca, Mitla, Tenexpa, Playa Blanca and Potosí. Others include San Valentin and El Tular.", "Most of the islands off the coast of Guerrero are located in this region. [Isla Ixtapa](/wiki/Isla_Ixtapa \"Isla Ixtapa\") (Ixtapa Island), also called Isla Grande, is located just off Ixtapa only {{convert\\|360\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us\\|abbr\\=off}} into the ocean. It measures {{cvt\\|7\\|km\\|mi}} from north to south and has an area of {{cvt\\|34\\|km2\\|sqmi}}. Most is still covered in shrubs and small trees. Just southeast ({{cvt\\|1\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|disp\\=or}}) of Isla Ixtapa is Isla Apies, which has a surface area of {{cvt\\|0\\.07\\|km2\\|sqmi}}. It is undeveloped and surrounded by a beach that extends for about {{convert\\|3\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us\\|abbr\\=off}}. The Islas Blancas are a group of six tiny islands with the names of Las Bolitas, La Concepción, La Merced, San Antonio, Placer Nuevo and the last without a name. These are found in the San Juan de Dios bay, about {{cvt\\|2\\.5\\|km\\|mi}} from Ixtapa. They vary in altitude from {{convert\\|6\\|to\\|43\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us\\|abbr\\=off}}. The Islote (big island) de San Gabriel is also located in the same bay to the west, just off the coast. The Frailes Blancos (White Friairs), also called the Rocas de Potosí (Potosi Rocks) are a group so twelve tiny bare islands, just over {{cvt\\|2\\|km\\|mi}} from Punta Gorda facing the Petatlán Bay. The Roca Negra (Black Rock) or Roca Solitaria (Solitary Rock) is located at the entrance of Zihuatanejo Bay. It rises {{convert\\|14\\|m\\|ft\\|sp\\=us\\|abbr\\=off}} over the sea. Isla Pájaros is located in the large lagoon of Coyuca. Also near this lagoon is another called Caballos.", "" ]
History ------- ### Pre\-Hispanic period The first human occupants of the region were nomadic tribes with a hunting and gathering culture.{{cite web \|author\=INEGI \|title\=Archivo Historico de las Localidades\- Zihuatanejo \|url\=http://mapserver.inegi.org.mx/AHL/realizaBusquedaurl.do?cvegeo\=120380001 \|publisher\=INEGI \|location\=Mexico \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=Historical Archive of the Communities\- Zihuatanejo \|accessdate\=October 14, 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304181146/http://mapserver.inegi.org.mx/AHL/realizaBusquedaurl.do?cvegeo\=120380001 \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2009 \|url\-status\=dead }} Before the Mexican colonial period, the area had always been sparsely populated, with widely dispersed settlements. Little is known of the early cultures of the area, but archeological sites in the area show settled human presence since at least 2000 B.C.E, and ceramic pieces and other finds have shown that the inhabitants had contact with both the Olmecs and [Toltecs](/wiki/Toltec "Toltec") by the 8th century. It is not known if this contact was direct, or via the [Mezcala culture](/wiki/Mezcala_culture "Mezcala culture"), which was centered further inland.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.e\-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/hist.htm \|title\= Estado de Guerrero Historia \|year\= 2005 \|work\= Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México \|publisher\= Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal \|location\= Mexico \|language\= Spanish \|trans\-title\= State of Guerrero History \|accessdate\= January 21, 2011 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110616192940/http://www.e\-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/hist.htm \|archive\-date\= June 16, 2011 \|url\-status\= dead }} In Atoyac municipality, there are a number of archeological remains corresponding to the Mezcala culture, which developed between the 5th and 7th centuries.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.guerrero.gob.mx/?P\=atoyac\_de\_alvarez \|title\= Atoyac de Álvarez \|publisher\= Government of Guerrero \|location\= Mexico \|language\= Spanish \|accessdate\= January 21, 2011 \|archive\-date\= December 17, 2010 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101217101635/http://guerrero.gob.mx/?P\=atoyac\_de\_alvarez \|url\-status\= live }} By the 11th century, Petatlán was inhabited by the [Cuitlatecos](/wiki/Cuitlatec_people "Cuitlatec people"), the [Chumbias](/wiki/Chumbia "Chumbia") and the Pantecas.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.e\-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/municipios/12048a.htm \|title\= Estado de Guerrero – Coyuca de Benítez \|year\= 2009 \|work\= Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México \|publisher\= Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal \|location\= Mexico \|language\= Spanish \|trans\-title\= Stateof Guerrero – Petatlán \|accessdate\= January 21, 2011 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110616192930/http://www.e\-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/municipios/12048a.htm \|archive\-date\= June 16, 2011 \|url\-status\= dead }} Many of these inhabitants migrated from the north, through Zacatula. The original settlement of Tecpan is thought to have been founded in 1326 by a [Mexica](/wiki/Mexica "Mexica") tribe which migrated from the north. However, in the 14th century, much of the area, along with another Guerrero region called Tierra Caliente, came under the control of the Cuitlatecos, with their capital at Mezcaltepec. Other cultures in the area included the Tolimecas, Chubias, Coixas, Pantecas and Cuitlecas. The two largest settlements of this dominion were Cuitlatepan, near Zihuatanejo, and Petatlán. In the 15th century, both the rising Aztec Empire and Purépecha Empire were putting pressure onto the Cuitlateco dominion, which eventually brought it to an end. The Purépecha held some areas of the Costa Grande, including Zihuatanejo Bay, which was used as a kind of retreat on what is now Playa Las Gatas. The Aztecs took Cuitlatepan in 1497 and much of the rest of the Costa Grande by 1504, renaming Cuitlaetepan to Cihuatlán, and forming a tributary province which roughly coincides with the Costa Grande today. The Aztec conquest caused much of the population to flee and abandon the cities of Petatlán and Cihuatlán. For this reason, little remains of them today. Aztec control of the area was loose and some small areas still remained allied with the Purépecha.Bartra, p. 17 ### Colonial period Initial Spanish interest in the Guerrero area revolved around the search for more gold, and to establish a route between Mexico and Asia. After the [Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire](/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire "Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire"), [Hernán Cortés](/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s "Hernán Cortés") sent expeditions to Zacatula under [Gonzalo de Ungiría](/wiki/Gonzalo_de_Ungir%C3%ADa "Gonzalo de Ungiría") and [Juan Alvarez Chico](/wiki/Juan_Alvarez_Chico "Juan Alvarez Chico"). In 1523, [Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte](/wiki/Juan_Rodr%C3%ADguez_de_Villafuerte "Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte") and [Simon de Cuenca](/wiki/Simon_de_Cuenca "Simon de Cuenca") took over Cihuatlán and almost all of the Costa Grande. He destroyed the indigenous settlement of Zacatula, which was located on the Balsas River, and founded in its place the Villa de la Concepción, with a fortified shipyard and port he named Puerto Santiago. This was the eighth Spanish municipality established in Mexico and the first on the Pacific Coast. The settlement was established with 122 Spaniards, and a two [brigantines](/wiki/Brigantine "Brigantine"), but it was attacked and destroyed by local natives in the latter half of the century. A new shipyard and port was constructed at Zihuatanejo. The Spanish used the bay as a point of departure to explore the Pacific coast as well as a port for the first ships to sail to the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), named the Florida, the Espiritu Santo and the Santiago. These ships were ordered built by Hernán Cortés and offered to the Spanish king [Carlos V](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor"). They left Zihuatanejo Bay on 31 October 1527, with Captain Alvaro de Saavedra y Cerón. Only the Florida made it to the Asian islands, and neither the captain nor crew ever returned to Mexico. Zihuatenejo would be replaced by the port of Acapulco, which has the most sheltered bay on the Pacific Coast. From this point on, ports on the Costa Grande would only be used for the shipping of local agricultural products to markets, and occasionally as hideouts by Dutch and English pirates, such as [Sir Francis Drake](/wiki/Francis_Drake "Francis Drake") and [William Dampier](/wiki/William_Dampier "William Dampier"), who attacked the galleons leaving from and arriving to Acapulco. For the most part, the Spanish takeover of the Costa Grande did not meet with resistance after news arrived about the fall of [Tenochtitlan](/wiki/Tenochtitlan "Tenochtitlan"), but much of the already sparse population disappeared and it is not known where many of them went. Local dialects in most areas have been lost. In a number of areas, Spanish evangelizers worked to group remaining dispersed indigenous populations. Frair Juan Bautista Moya and Pedro de Gerovillas, regrouped the natives in the Tecpan area to refound the old pre\-Hispanic settlement in 1538\. Atoyac was founded as a religious congregation called Santa María de Concepción Atoyac in 1541, as was Petatlán in 1550\. Spanish interest in Guerrero during the colonial period was mostly focused on the gold and other minerals coming out of Taxco and the Asian trade centered on Acapulco. Third in line was the production of various cash crops such as cotton, [cacao](/wiki/Cacoa_bean "Cacoa bean") and coconuts, much of which was grown on the coast. These were produced on large [encomiendas](/wiki/Encomienda "Encomienda") and [haciendas](/wiki/Hacienda "Hacienda"), which exploited the local indigenous and later [mestizo](/wiki/Mestizo "Mestizo") populations. As part of the Conquest, most of the lands of the Costa Grande were divided among [conquistadors](/wiki/Conquistador "Conquistador") into "encomiendas," which used and overworked indigenous labor. This caused a severe drop in the already sparse native population. This led to the importation of African slaves in a few areas of the Costa Grande closest to Acapulco, but the practice was wider spread in the Costa Chica. In other parts, fields and forests were worked by Spaniards due to the utter lack of native peoples, leaving little in the way of the colonial system what was prevalent in other parts of Mexico. The main early export was tropical woods such as [cedar](/wiki/Cedrela_odorata "Cedrela odorata"), oak, walnut and others. Much of this was exported to Europe. The Spanish [galleons](/wiki/Galleon "Galleon") of Manila brought coconut trees to the area, which became the basis of the economy of the coast for some time. Few, if any, vestiges of the haciendas of the area remain, mostly because lasting constructions such as stone mansions or aqueducts were ever built, as they were in other parts of Mexico. The Spanish co\-opted the indigenous "[cacique](/wiki/Cacique "Cacique")" or local strongman leadership at the beginning of the colonial period, with only a few areas in all of Guerrero, such as Acapulco, having European style governance from the beginning. Encomienda holders made arrangements with these leaders to control the population and force them to work. Eventually, caciques became Spanish ([criollo](/wiki/Criollo_people "Criollo people")) and more locally mestizos, who rose to their position through their economic power and/or political/social connections. Major encomienda holders included Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, [Isidro Moreno](/wiki/Isidro_Moreno "Isidro Moreno"), [Ginés de Pinzón](/wiki/Gin%C3%A9s_de_Pinz%C3%B3n "Ginés de Pinzón") and [Anton Sanchez](/wiki/Anton_Sanchez "Anton Sanchez"). Encomiendas eventually gave way to the hacienda system, but these were controlled by cacique families such as the Galeana family in Tecpan. For the most part, the haciendas and caciques reduced most of the population to near servitude.Bartra, pp. 19–20 ### Mexican War of Independence to the present The abuses of the hacienda system and the caciques made the area ripe for the insurgent movement under [Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla](/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla "Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla"). In 1810, José María Morelos y Pavón passed through the Costa Grande from Michoacán in order to take Acapulco, having little trouble recruiting soldiers. However, many hacienda owners were also recruited, especially in Tecpan and Coyuca, mostly due to strong nationalist and anti\-Spanish sentiment among criollos in the area. For the most part, the Costa Grande would remain in insurgent hands, with a major insurgent headquarters in Tecpan, which was a province created by Morelos himself in 1811\. During and after the [Independence](/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence "Mexican War of Independence"), the Costa Grande initially became part of the Capitania General del Sur, but then the area became part of the states of Michoacán and Mexico. It would remain such until the creation of the state of Guerrero in 1849\. After the end of the reign of [Agustín de Iturbide](/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide "Agustín de Iturbide"), the process of dividing the Costa Grande into municipalities began with Tecpan in 1824\. which was far larger than it is today. The rest were created between then and 1953 the last being José Azueta (Zihuatanejo) by separating territories from Tecpan, and then by dividing these. Some municipal seats, such as Coyuca, Petatlán and Zihuatanejo would achieve city status over time. Despite the imposition of the municipality system by liberal elements of the Mexican government, real political and economic power remained uninterrupted in the hand of cacique families, a number of whom are still honored for their roles in the War of Independence. After independence, the most powerful cacique was [Juan Álvarez](/wiki/Juan_%C3%81lvarez "Juan Álvarez"), who would keep economic, political and military power concentrated in this family and those affiliated with it. Independence and the liberal reforms of the 19th century would have little to no effect on the daily lives of the vast majority of people in the Costa Grande.Bartra, pp. 27–29 During the [Porfirio Díaz](/wiki/Porfirio_D%C3%ADaz "Porfirio Díaz") era in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the cacique system again co\-opted, in this case with the federal government selling lands very cheaply to foreign interests and contracting with caciques to provide labor. In the Costa Grande area, much of the land came under the control of a family named Miller. Intensive agriculture based on cash crops such as cotton, coconuts, coffee and citrus fruit were introduced. Many workers became indentured servants, a situation which would continue until the [Mexican Revolution](/wiki/Mexican_Revolution "Mexican Revolution"). During this war, the area was mostly sympathetic the [Liberation Army of the South](/wiki/Liberation_Army_of_the_South "Liberation Army of the South") as was the rest of Guerrero; however, fighting was mostly done in the state's central valleys. The major effect of the war was the redistribution of land and the institution of the [ejido](/wiki/Ejido "Ejido") system afterwards, with the aim of giving "campesinos" (peasant farmers) lands that could not be taken away from them. However, their formation did not do away with the old caciques, which still exerted considerable influence. One example of this was Silvestre Mariscal, who controlled the municipality of Atoyac starting in 1914\. For the rest of the 20th century to the present, the history of the area has been dominated by the struggles of campesinos against local and regional caciques, along with national and international interests which have worked with caciques for their own ends. Early efforts, to strengthen campesino rights included a league established in 1925, in Atoyac by Amadeo Vidales. In the 1930s, the ejido system gained the support of the presidency of [Lázaro Cárdenas](/wiki/L%C3%A1zaro_C%C3%A1rdenas "Lázaro Cárdenas"), and it was strengthened with thirty six created in the municipality of Atoyac alone. However, large estates still remained such as the lands belonging to the Guerrero Land and Timber Co. which included parts of La Unión, Petatlán, Tecpan, Atoyac, as well as [Ajuchitlán](/wiki/Ajuchitl%C3%A1n "Ajuchitlán"), [Coyuca de Catlán](/wiki/Coyuca_de_Catl%C3%A1n "Coyuca de Catlán") and even [Chilpancingo](/wiki/Chilpancingo "Chilpancingo") in the interior. This left large parts of the Costa Grande still under the control of a few landholders. Labor movements in general were active from the 1930s to the 1950s, culminating is a strike by workers on coconut plantations from Acapulco to Zihuatanejo in 1952, which blocked roads. In the 1990s, guerrillas of the [EZLN](/wiki/EZLN "EZLN") based in [Chiapas](/wiki/Chiapas "Chiapas") gained footing in the Costa Grande, especially in the municipalities close to Acapulco such as Coyuca. These fought police and military forces for a number of years during this decade along with local groups such as the Comando Armado Revolucionario del Sur (CARS). This fighting lead to the militarization of many of the roads in the Costa Grande, including Highway 200\.{{cite news \|title\= Siguen rebeldes en la Costa Grande Grande en Guerrero \|author\= Sergio Flores \|newspaper\=Reforma \|location\=Mexico City \|date\=September 25, 1995 \|page\= 2 \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=Rebels continue in the Costa Grande in Guerrero}}{{cite news \|title\= Detectan 'focos rojos' en Guerrero \|newspaper\=El Norte \|location\=Monterrery, Mexico \|date\=August 7, 1995 \|page\= 16 \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=Detect "red bulbs" in Guerrero}} This fighting also coincided with the political struggles between the PRD party and the then\-ruling PRI.{{cite news \|title\= Guerrero: Focos rojos desactivados? \|author\= Sergio Flores \|newspaper\=Reforma \|location\=Mexico City \|date\=September 30, 1996 \|page\= 4 \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=Guerrero: Red bulbs deactivated?}} Another struggle has been between local farmers and logging interests, especially in Petatlán. In the 1990s, arrangements with national and local leaders to log forests located on [ejido](/wiki/Ejido "Ejido") land in the area.{{cite news \|title\= Opinion\-Peasant ecologist must face charges against him \|author\=Talli Nauman \|newspaper\=NoticiasFinancieras. \|location\=Miami \|date\=November 22, 2004 \|page\=1 }} The logging quickly began to exceed legal limits and began seriously damaging the ecology of the area, such as causing rivers and streams like the Coyuquilla River to dry up.{{cite journal \|author\=John Ross \|date\=July–August 2000 \|title\= Defending the forest and other crimes \|journal\=Sierra \|volume\=85 \|issue\=4 \|page\=66 }} Local farmers depend on these resources and in the late 1990s, banded together to form the Campesino Environmentalist Organization of Petatlan and Coyuca de Catalan (OCEP).{{cite news \|title\= MEXICO: JUSTICE AT LAST FOR PEASANT ENVIRONMENTALISTS IN MEXICO \|author\=Emilio Godoy \|newspaper\=Global Information Network \|location\=New York \|date\=December 23, 2010 \|page\=1 }} The group is best known for blocking logging roads, which had an effect on the industry. In 1998, two of the movement's leaders, Rodolfo Montiel and Teodoro Cabrerea and made to confess to charges leveled against them by the federal government. With the support of [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International"), [Greenpeace](/wiki/Greenpeace "Greenpeace") and others, the two were released in 2001\.{{cite news \|title\= Exigen proteger a familia de ecologista \|newspaper\=El Norte \|location\=Monterrery, Mexico \|date\=May 26, 2005 \|page\=15 \|trans\-title\=Demand to protect family of a ecologist}} Since then, there has been continued sporadic violence, including killings, leading to human rights condemnations. Another activist, Felipe Arriaga Sanchez, was detained on charges of murder and criminal association in 2004\. Amnesty International believes that it is politically motivated. The OCEP continues to exist and fight deforestation mostly through legal channels, although some are still accused by authorities of drug trafficking and membership in a guerrilla group. The group states the charges come from local caciques when the group pushes for new legal actions. The group has had more success in the Petatlan Valley than in Coyuquilla Valley, but in both areas there continues to be large scale illegal cutting, with cleared areas then being used for pasture or to grow drugs. The environment destruction forces many local farmers to become part of the drug production in order to survive.{{cite journal \|author\=Jordi Pius Llopart\|date\=September–October 2002 \|title\= Guerrero ecologists promote drug crop alternatives \|journal\=NACLA Report on the Americas \|volume\=36 \|issue\=2 \|page\=20 \|doi\=10\.1080/10714839\.2002\.11722500 \|s2cid\=218601551 }} In addition to this violence, efforts to curb the drug trade in Mexico have had serious effects on the area. Since 2005, the Costa Grande has been dominated by drug related violence according to the [Procuraduría General de la República](/wiki/Procuradur%C3%ADa_General_de_la_Rep%C3%BAblica "Procuraduría General de la República") and state authorities. Incidents have included kidnappings and executions; including those of police and local political figures as local criminal organizations ally themselves with rival Sinaloa and Gulf cartels fighting for dominance in the region. Petatlán has been especially hard hit by the violence.{{cite news \|title\=Narcotráfico domina Costa Grande de Guerrero: PGR \|url\=http://www.informador.com.mx/mexico/2008/10410/6/narcotrafico\-domina\-costa\-grande\-de\-guerrero\-pgr.htm \|newspaper\=El Informador \|location\=Guadalajara, Mexico \|date\=May 6, 2008 \|accessdate\=January 21, 2011 \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=Drug trafficking dominates the Costa Grande of Guerreo:Attorney General of Mexico \|archive\-date\=March 10, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310070302/http://www.informador.com.mx/mexico/2008/10410/6/narcotrafico\-domina\-costa\-grande\-de\-guerrero\-pgr.htm \|url\-status\=live }} Federal Highway 200 between Acapulco and Zihuatanejo remains militarized, with soldiers manning checkpoints along the stretch looking for guns and weapons. These checkpoints randomly search private and commercial vehicles, including tour busses.{{cite news \|title\=Militarizan carretera hacia la Costa Grande en Guerrero \|author\=Francisca Meza Carranza \|url\=http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/537444\.html \|newspaper\=El Universal \|location\=Mexico City \|date\=September 10, 2008 \|accessdate\=January 21, 2011 \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=Militarize highway to the Costa Grande in Guerrero \|archive\-date\=October 11, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011105755/http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/537444\.html \|url\-status\=live }} In the 1930s and 1940s, the development of Acapulco as a resort began the Guerrero's coast tourism economy, bringing it an international reputation as well as major infrastructure such as the highway linking the Costa Grande with Mexico City via Highway 200\. On the Costa Grande proper, the government developed the beach area of Ixtapa, near Zihuatanejo in the 1970s. The two are promoted together, but with two very different atmospheres. Ixtapa is promoted as a world class luxury resort and Zihuatanejo is promoted as a more "typical" Mexican experience. The rest of the coast has only spotty tourism development, with the next most developed area being Troncones, with its bed and breakfasts and bungalows.{{cite news \|title\= Instalaran corredor turistico \|newspaper\=Reforma \|location\=Mexico City \|date\=September 26, 1999 \|page\= 19 \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=Will instill a tourism corridor}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Pre\\-Hispanic period", "The first human occupants of the region were nomadic tribes with a hunting and gathering culture.{{cite web \\|author\\=INEGI \\|title\\=Archivo Historico de las Localidades\\- Zihuatanejo \\|url\\=http://mapserver.inegi.org.mx/AHL/realizaBusquedaurl.do?cvegeo\\=120380001 \\|publisher\\=INEGI \\|location\\=Mexico \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=Historical Archive of the Communities\\- Zihuatanejo \\|accessdate\\=October 14, 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304181146/http://mapserver.inegi.org.mx/AHL/realizaBusquedaurl.do?cvegeo\\=120380001 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Before the Mexican colonial period, the area had always been sparsely populated, with widely dispersed settlements. Little is known of the early cultures of the area, but archeological sites in the area show settled human presence since at least 2000 B.C.E, and ceramic pieces and other finds have shown that the inhabitants had contact with both the Olmecs and [Toltecs](/wiki/Toltec \"Toltec\") by the 8th century. It is not known if this contact was direct, or via the [Mezcala culture](/wiki/Mezcala_culture \"Mezcala culture\"), which was centered further inland.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.e\\-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/hist.htm \\|title\\= Estado de Guerrero Historia \\|year\\= 2005 \\|work\\= Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México \\|publisher\\= Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal \\|location\\= Mexico \\|language\\= Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\= State of Guerrero History \\|accessdate\\= January 21, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110616192940/http://www.e\\-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/hist.htm \\|archive\\-date\\= June 16, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\= dead }} In Atoyac municipality, there are a number of archeological remains corresponding to the Mezcala culture, which developed between the 5th and 7th centuries.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.guerrero.gob.mx/?P\\=atoyac\\_de\\_alvarez \\|title\\= Atoyac de Álvarez \\|publisher\\= Government of Guerrero \\|location\\= Mexico \\|language\\= Spanish \\|accessdate\\= January 21, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\= December 17, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101217101635/http://guerrero.gob.mx/?P\\=atoyac\\_de\\_alvarez \\|url\\-status\\= live }}", "By the 11th century, Petatlán was inhabited by the [Cuitlatecos](/wiki/Cuitlatec_people \"Cuitlatec people\"), the [Chumbias](/wiki/Chumbia \"Chumbia\") and the Pantecas.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.e\\-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/municipios/12048a.htm \\|title\\= Estado de Guerrero – Coyuca de Benítez \\|year\\= 2009 \\|work\\= Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México \\|publisher\\= Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal \\|location\\= Mexico \\|language\\= Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\= Stateof Guerrero – Petatlán \\|accessdate\\= January 21, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110616192930/http://www.e\\-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/guerrero/municipios/12048a.htm \\|archive\\-date\\= June 16, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\= dead }} Many of these inhabitants migrated from the north, through Zacatula. The original settlement of Tecpan is thought to have been founded in 1326 by a [Mexica](/wiki/Mexica \"Mexica\") tribe which migrated from the north. However, in the 14th century, much of the area, along with another Guerrero region called Tierra Caliente, came under the control of the Cuitlatecos, with their capital at Mezcaltepec. Other cultures in the area included the Tolimecas, Chubias, Coixas, Pantecas and Cuitlecas. The two largest settlements of this dominion were Cuitlatepan, near Zihuatanejo, and Petatlán. In the 15th century, both the rising Aztec Empire and Purépecha Empire were putting pressure onto the Cuitlateco dominion, which eventually brought it to an end. The Purépecha held some areas of the Costa Grande, including Zihuatanejo Bay, which was used as a kind of retreat on what is now Playa Las Gatas. The Aztecs took Cuitlatepan in 1497 and much of the rest of the Costa Grande by 1504, renaming Cuitlaetepan to Cihuatlán, and forming a tributary province which roughly coincides with the Costa Grande today. The Aztec conquest caused much of the population to flee and abandon the cities of Petatlán and Cihuatlán. For this reason, little remains of them today. Aztec control of the area was loose and some small areas still remained allied with the Purépecha.Bartra, p. 17", "### Colonial period", "Initial Spanish interest in the Guerrero area revolved around the search for more gold, and to establish a route between Mexico and Asia. After the [Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire](/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire \"Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire\"), [Hernán Cortés](/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s \"Hernán Cortés\") sent expeditions to Zacatula under [Gonzalo de Ungiría](/wiki/Gonzalo_de_Ungir%C3%ADa \"Gonzalo de Ungiría\") and [Juan Alvarez Chico](/wiki/Juan_Alvarez_Chico \"Juan Alvarez Chico\"). In 1523, [Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte](/wiki/Juan_Rodr%C3%ADguez_de_Villafuerte \"Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte\") and [Simon de Cuenca](/wiki/Simon_de_Cuenca \"Simon de Cuenca\") took over Cihuatlán and almost all of the Costa Grande. He destroyed the indigenous settlement of Zacatula, which was located on the Balsas River, and founded in its place the Villa de la Concepción, with a fortified shipyard and port he named Puerto Santiago. This was the eighth Spanish municipality established in Mexico and the first on the Pacific Coast. The settlement was established with 122 Spaniards, and a two [brigantines](/wiki/Brigantine \"Brigantine\"), but it was attacked and destroyed by local natives in the latter half of the century. A new shipyard and port was constructed at Zihuatanejo. The Spanish used the bay as a point of departure to explore the Pacific coast as well as a port for the first ships to sail to the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), named the Florida, the Espiritu Santo and the Santiago. These ships were ordered built by Hernán Cortés and offered to the Spanish king [Carlos V](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\"). They left Zihuatanejo Bay on 31 October 1527, with Captain Alvaro de Saavedra y Cerón. Only the Florida made it to the Asian islands, and neither the captain nor crew ever returned to Mexico. Zihuatenejo would be replaced by the port of Acapulco, which has the most sheltered bay on the Pacific Coast. From this point on, ports on the Costa Grande would only be used for the shipping of local agricultural products to markets, and occasionally as hideouts by Dutch and English pirates, such as [Sir Francis Drake](/wiki/Francis_Drake \"Francis Drake\") and [William Dampier](/wiki/William_Dampier \"William Dampier\"), who attacked the galleons leaving from and arriving to Acapulco.", "For the most part, the Spanish takeover of the Costa Grande did not meet with resistance after news arrived about the fall of [Tenochtitlan](/wiki/Tenochtitlan \"Tenochtitlan\"), but much of the already sparse population disappeared and it is not known where many of them went. Local dialects in most areas have been lost. In a number of areas, Spanish evangelizers worked to group remaining dispersed indigenous populations. Frair Juan Bautista Moya and Pedro de Gerovillas, regrouped the natives in the Tecpan area to refound the old pre\\-Hispanic settlement in 1538\\. Atoyac was founded as a religious congregation called Santa María de Concepción Atoyac in 1541, as was Petatlán in 1550\\.", "Spanish interest in Guerrero during the colonial period was mostly focused on the gold and other minerals coming out of Taxco and the Asian trade centered on Acapulco. Third in line was the production of various cash crops such as cotton, [cacao](/wiki/Cacoa_bean \"Cacoa bean\") and coconuts, much of which was grown on the coast. These were produced on large [encomiendas](/wiki/Encomienda \"Encomienda\") and [haciendas](/wiki/Hacienda \"Hacienda\"), which exploited the local indigenous and later [mestizo](/wiki/Mestizo \"Mestizo\") populations. As part of the Conquest, most of the lands of the Costa Grande were divided among [conquistadors](/wiki/Conquistador \"Conquistador\") into \"encomiendas,\" which used and overworked indigenous labor. This caused a severe drop in the already sparse native population. This led to the importation of African slaves in a few areas of the Costa Grande closest to Acapulco, but the practice was wider spread in the Costa Chica. In other parts, fields and forests were worked by Spaniards due to the utter lack of native peoples, leaving little in the way of the colonial system what was prevalent in other parts of Mexico. The main early export was tropical woods such as [cedar](/wiki/Cedrela_odorata \"Cedrela odorata\"), oak, walnut and others. Much of this was exported to Europe. The Spanish [galleons](/wiki/Galleon \"Galleon\") of Manila brought coconut trees to the area, which became the basis of the economy of the coast for some time. Few, if any, vestiges of the haciendas of the area remain, mostly because lasting constructions such as stone mansions or aqueducts were ever built, as they were in other parts of Mexico.", "The Spanish co\\-opted the indigenous \"[cacique](/wiki/Cacique \"Cacique\")\" or local strongman leadership at the beginning of the colonial period, with only a few areas in all of Guerrero, such as Acapulco, having European style governance from the beginning. Encomienda holders made arrangements with these leaders to control the population and force them to work. Eventually, caciques became Spanish ([criollo](/wiki/Criollo_people \"Criollo people\")) and more locally mestizos, who rose to their position through their economic power and/or political/social connections. Major encomienda holders included Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, [Isidro Moreno](/wiki/Isidro_Moreno \"Isidro Moreno\"), [Ginés de Pinzón](/wiki/Gin%C3%A9s_de_Pinz%C3%B3n \"Ginés de Pinzón\") and [Anton Sanchez](/wiki/Anton_Sanchez \"Anton Sanchez\"). Encomiendas eventually gave way to the hacienda system, but these were controlled by cacique families such as the Galeana family in Tecpan. For the most part, the haciendas and caciques reduced most of the population to near servitude.Bartra, pp. 19–20", "### Mexican War of Independence to the present", "The abuses of the hacienda system and the caciques made the area ripe for the insurgent movement under [Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla](/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla \"Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla\"). In 1810, José María Morelos y Pavón passed through the Costa Grande from Michoacán in order to take Acapulco, having little trouble recruiting soldiers. However, many hacienda owners were also recruited, especially in Tecpan and Coyuca, mostly due to strong nationalist and anti\\-Spanish sentiment among criollos in the area. For the most part, the Costa Grande would remain in insurgent hands, with a major insurgent headquarters in Tecpan, which was a province created by Morelos himself in 1811\\.", "During and after the [Independence](/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence \"Mexican War of Independence\"), the Costa Grande initially became part of the Capitania General del Sur, but then the area became part of the states of Michoacán and Mexico. It would remain such until the creation of the state of Guerrero in 1849\\. After the end of the reign of [Agustín de Iturbide](/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide \"Agustín de Iturbide\"), the process of dividing the Costa Grande into municipalities began with Tecpan in 1824\\. which was far larger than it is today. The rest were created between then and 1953 the last being José Azueta (Zihuatanejo) by separating territories from Tecpan, and then by dividing these. Some municipal seats, such as Coyuca, Petatlán and Zihuatanejo would achieve city status over time. Despite the imposition of the municipality system by liberal elements of the Mexican government, real political and economic power remained uninterrupted in the hand of cacique families, a number of whom are still honored for their roles in the War of Independence. After independence, the most powerful cacique was [Juan Álvarez](/wiki/Juan_%C3%81lvarez \"Juan Álvarez\"), who would keep economic, political and military power concentrated in this family and those affiliated with it. Independence and the liberal reforms of the 19th century would have little to no effect on the daily lives of the vast majority of people in the Costa Grande.Bartra, pp. 27–29", "During the [Porfirio Díaz](/wiki/Porfirio_D%C3%ADaz \"Porfirio Díaz\") era in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the cacique system again co\\-opted, in this case with the federal government selling lands very cheaply to foreign interests and contracting with caciques to provide labor. In the Costa Grande area, much of the land came under the control of a family named Miller. Intensive agriculture based on cash crops such as cotton, coconuts, coffee and citrus fruit were introduced. Many workers became indentured servants, a situation which would continue until the [Mexican Revolution](/wiki/Mexican_Revolution \"Mexican Revolution\").", "During this war, the area was mostly sympathetic the [Liberation Army of the South](/wiki/Liberation_Army_of_the_South \"Liberation Army of the South\") as was the rest of Guerrero; however, fighting was mostly done in the state's central valleys. The major effect of the war was the redistribution of land and the institution of the [ejido](/wiki/Ejido \"Ejido\") system afterwards, with the aim of giving \"campesinos\" (peasant farmers) lands that could not be taken away from them. However, their formation did not do away with the old caciques, which still exerted considerable influence. One example of this was Silvestre Mariscal, who controlled the municipality of Atoyac starting in 1914\\.", "For the rest of the 20th century to the present, the history of the area has been dominated by the struggles of campesinos against local and regional caciques, along with national and international interests which have worked with caciques for their own ends. Early efforts, to strengthen campesino rights included a league established in 1925, in Atoyac by Amadeo Vidales. In the 1930s, the ejido system gained the support of the presidency of [Lázaro Cárdenas](/wiki/L%C3%A1zaro_C%C3%A1rdenas \"Lázaro Cárdenas\"), and it was strengthened with thirty six created in the municipality of Atoyac alone. However, large estates still remained such as the lands belonging to the Guerrero Land and Timber Co. which included parts of La Unión, Petatlán, Tecpan, Atoyac, as well as [Ajuchitlán](/wiki/Ajuchitl%C3%A1n \"Ajuchitlán\"), [Coyuca de Catlán](/wiki/Coyuca_de_Catl%C3%A1n \"Coyuca de Catlán\") and even [Chilpancingo](/wiki/Chilpancingo \"Chilpancingo\") in the interior. This left large parts of the Costa Grande still under the control of a few landholders. Labor movements in general were active from the 1930s to the 1950s, culminating is a strike by workers on coconut plantations from Acapulco to Zihuatanejo in 1952, which blocked roads. In the 1990s, guerrillas of the [EZLN](/wiki/EZLN \"EZLN\") based in [Chiapas](/wiki/Chiapas \"Chiapas\") gained footing in the Costa Grande, especially in the municipalities close to Acapulco such as Coyuca. These fought police and military forces for a number of years during this decade along with local groups such as the Comando Armado Revolucionario del Sur (CARS). This fighting lead to the militarization of many of the roads in the Costa Grande, including Highway 200\\.{{cite news \\|title\\= Siguen rebeldes en la Costa Grande Grande en Guerrero \\|author\\= Sergio Flores \\|newspaper\\=Reforma \\|location\\=Mexico City \\|date\\=September 25, 1995 \\|page\\= 2 \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=Rebels continue in the Costa Grande in Guerrero}}{{cite news \\|title\\= Detectan 'focos rojos' en Guerrero \\|newspaper\\=El Norte \\|location\\=Monterrery, Mexico \\|date\\=August 7, 1995 \\|page\\= 16 \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=Detect \"red bulbs\" in Guerrero}} This fighting also coincided with the political struggles between the PRD party and the then\\-ruling PRI.{{cite news \\|title\\= Guerrero: Focos rojos desactivados? \\|author\\= Sergio Flores \\|newspaper\\=Reforma \\|location\\=Mexico City \\|date\\=September 30, 1996 \\|page\\= 4 \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=Guerrero: Red bulbs deactivated?}} Another struggle has been between local farmers and logging interests, especially in Petatlán. In the 1990s, arrangements with national and local leaders to log forests located on [ejido](/wiki/Ejido \"Ejido\") land in the area.{{cite news \\|title\\= Opinion\\-Peasant ecologist must face charges against him \\|author\\=Talli Nauman \\|newspaper\\=NoticiasFinancieras. \\|location\\=Miami \\|date\\=November 22, 2004 \\|page\\=1 }} The logging quickly began to exceed legal limits and began seriously damaging the ecology of the area, such as causing rivers and streams like the Coyuquilla River to dry up.{{cite journal \\|author\\=John Ross \\|date\\=July–August 2000 \\|title\\= Defending the forest and other crimes \\|journal\\=Sierra \\|volume\\=85 \\|issue\\=4 \\|page\\=66 }} Local farmers depend on these resources and in the late 1990s, banded together to form the Campesino Environmentalist Organization of Petatlan and Coyuca de Catalan (OCEP).{{cite news \\|title\\= MEXICO: JUSTICE AT LAST FOR PEASANT ENVIRONMENTALISTS IN MEXICO \\|author\\=Emilio Godoy \\|newspaper\\=Global Information Network \\|location\\=New York \\|date\\=December 23, 2010 \\|page\\=1 }} The group is best known for blocking logging roads, which had an effect on the industry. In 1998, two of the movement's leaders, Rodolfo Montiel and Teodoro Cabrerea and made to confess to charges leveled against them by the federal government. With the support of [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International \"Amnesty International\"), [Greenpeace](/wiki/Greenpeace \"Greenpeace\") and others, the two were released in 2001\\.{{cite news \\|title\\= Exigen proteger a familia de ecologista \\|newspaper\\=El Norte \\|location\\=Monterrery, Mexico \\|date\\=May 26, 2005 \\|page\\=15 \\|trans\\-title\\=Demand to protect family of a ecologist}} Since then, there has been continued sporadic violence, including killings, leading to human rights condemnations. Another activist, Felipe Arriaga Sanchez, was detained on charges of murder and criminal association in 2004\\. Amnesty International believes that it is politically motivated. The OCEP continues to exist and fight deforestation mostly through legal channels, although some are still accused by authorities of drug trafficking and membership in a guerrilla group. The group states the charges come from local caciques when the group pushes for new legal actions. The group has had more success in the Petatlan Valley than in Coyuquilla Valley, but in both areas there continues to be large scale illegal cutting, with cleared areas then being used for pasture or to grow drugs. The environment destruction forces many local farmers to become part of the drug production in order to survive.{{cite journal \\|author\\=Jordi Pius Llopart\\|date\\=September–October 2002 \\|title\\= Guerrero ecologists promote drug crop alternatives \\|journal\\=NACLA Report on the Americas \\|volume\\=36 \\|issue\\=2 \\|page\\=20 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/10714839\\.2002\\.11722500 \\|s2cid\\=218601551 }}", "In addition to this violence, efforts to curb the drug trade in Mexico have had serious effects on the area. Since 2005, the Costa Grande has been dominated by drug related violence according to the [Procuraduría General de la República](/wiki/Procuradur%C3%ADa_General_de_la_Rep%C3%BAblica \"Procuraduría General de la República\") and state authorities. Incidents have included kidnappings and executions; including those of police and local political figures as local criminal organizations ally themselves with rival Sinaloa and Gulf cartels fighting for dominance in the region. Petatlán has been especially hard hit by the violence.{{cite news \\|title\\=Narcotráfico domina Costa Grande de Guerrero: PGR \\|url\\=http://www.informador.com.mx/mexico/2008/10410/6/narcotrafico\\-domina\\-costa\\-grande\\-de\\-guerrero\\-pgr.htm \\|newspaper\\=El Informador \\|location\\=Guadalajara, Mexico \\|date\\=May 6, 2008 \\|accessdate\\=January 21, 2011 \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=Drug trafficking dominates the Costa Grande of Guerreo:Attorney General of Mexico \\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310070302/http://www.informador.com.mx/mexico/2008/10410/6/narcotrafico\\-domina\\-costa\\-grande\\-de\\-guerrero\\-pgr.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Federal Highway 200 between Acapulco and Zihuatanejo remains militarized, with soldiers manning checkpoints along the stretch looking for guns and weapons. These checkpoints randomly search private and commercial vehicles, including tour busses.{{cite news \\|title\\=Militarizan carretera hacia la Costa Grande en Guerrero \\|author\\=Francisca Meza Carranza \\|url\\=http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/537444\\.html \\|newspaper\\=El Universal \\|location\\=Mexico City \\|date\\=September 10, 2008 \\|accessdate\\=January 21, 2011 \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=Militarize highway to the Costa Grande in Guerrero \\|archive\\-date\\=October 11, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011105755/http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/537444\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In the 1930s and 1940s, the development of Acapulco as a resort began the Guerrero's coast tourism economy, bringing it an international reputation as well as major infrastructure such as the highway linking the Costa Grande with Mexico City via Highway 200\\. On the Costa Grande proper, the government developed the beach area of Ixtapa, near Zihuatanejo in the 1970s. The two are promoted together, but with two very different atmospheres. Ixtapa is promoted as a world class luxury resort and Zihuatanejo is promoted as a more \"typical\" Mexican experience. The rest of the coast has only spotty tourism development, with the next most developed area being Troncones, with its bed and breakfasts and bungalows.{{cite news \\|title\\= Instalaran corredor turistico \\|newspaper\\=Reforma \\|location\\=Mexico City \\|date\\=September 26, 1999 \\|page\\= 19 \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=Will instill a tourism corridor}}", "" ]
Economy ------- ### Agriculture, other food products and forestry The area is fertile, with agriculture and livestock dominating the economy in most areas. One major crop is coffee, which is grown over about {{convert\|30000\|ha\|acre}} in the municipalities of Atoyac, Coyuca and Tecpan just to the northwest of Acapulco. Most coffee is grown in small plantations of under {{convert\|5\|ha\|acre}} on ejidos or communal lands. The sale of this coffee constitutes most of these ejido members’ income. However, most of these coffee farms have old coffee plants and little maintenance, leading to low yields.{{cite book \|last1\=Flores \|first1\=Margarita \|first2\=Rello \|last2\=Fernando \|title\=Capital Social Rural: Experiencás de México y Centroamérica \|trans\-title\=Social Rural Capital: Experiences from Mexico and Central America \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qo1nj9w2MfoC\&dq\=costa\+grande\+guerrero\&pg\=PA83 \|accessdate\=January 21, 2011 \|year\=2002 \|publisher\=Plaza y Valdes SA de CV \|location\=Mexico City \|language\=Spanish \|isbn\=978\-970\-722\-021\-8 \|pages\=83–90 \|archive\-date\=May 18, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518080035/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qo1nj9w2MfoC\&dq\=costa\+grande\+guerrero\&pg\=PA83\#v\=onepage\&q\=costa%20grande%20guerrero\&f\=false \|url\-status\=live }} Most of the coffee production of the coast and the state is in Atoyac, and the processing of it is the major industry. The state delegation of [Inmacafé](/wiki/Inmacaf%C3%A9 "Inmacafé"), the federal authority overseeing coffee production and promotion is located here. Coconut palms were introduced to the area during the colonial period from the Philippines. For some time after that, they were the major cash crop. Coconut plantations still dominate the landscape along almost all of the coast, and the drying of coconut kernels (copra) is one of few widespread industries in the area. Other crops that are raised in the area include corn, tropical fruit, sesame seed, citrus fruit, melons, tamarind and [hibiscus](/wiki/Hibiscus "Hibiscus") flowers,{{cite web \|url\= http://www.guerrero.gob.mx/?P\=atoyac\_de\_alvarez\#05 \|title\= Actividad Económica \|publisher\= Government of Guerrero \|location\= Mexico \|language\= Spanish \|trans\-title\= Economic Activity \|accessdate\= January 21, 2011 \|archive\-date\= December 17, 2010 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101217101635/http://guerrero.gob.mx/?P\=atoyac\_de\_alvarez\#05 \|url\-status\= live }} with rice and sugar cane grown in Tecpan. Livestock raising is dominated by meat and dairy cattle, although the production of honey is a traditional product as well. There is a beehive construction industry in Atoyac. The area is an important source of forestry products, with most forested lands controlled by ejidos and some under private ownership. Most harvested trees are pines, holm oak and oyamel. Tropical woods are harvested in La Unión and Coyuca. In Coyuca, Tecpan and Petatlán logging is officially supervised by a public cooperative with the name of Vicente Guerrero. The Costa Grande along with the rest of the Guerrero coast is important nationally as a source of seafood. Major fishing communities exist in Petacalco and Zihuatanejo. Exploited species include shark, [sailfish](/wiki/Sailfish "Sailfish"), [huachinango](/wiki/Huachinango "Huachinango"), [sea bass](/wiki/Giant_sea_bass "Giant sea bass"), [mojarra](/wiki/Mojarra "Mojarra"), octopus, shrimp, lobster, clams and crabs. Other large fishing areas include Barra Potosí, Playa Azul, El Carrizal, la Barrita, La Laguna, El Camalote and El Embarcadero in Coyuca and along the shoreline in Petatlan. Zihuatanejo has a major fishing port and fish market. It is also an important port for sports fishing. Shrimp fishing and raising is important in the Atoyac municipality, especially in the areas of Mexcaltepec, Agua Fria and Junda de los Rios. Industry in the area is limited. The most widely distributed industry is food production and the production of ice, most of which is for local markets. Coffee and coconut kernels are processing for wider distribution. There is furniture making in Coyuca and Tecpan, a soap factory in San Jeronimito, Petatlán and a livestock feed production facility in Tecpan. Most commerce and services in the municipalities are geared to local needs, with some hotels and restaurants for tourists along beach areas. ### Tourism The major tourism center for the area (not counting Acapulco) is the twin developed attractions of Ixtapa and Zihuatanejo. In recent years, Troncones has been growing and has become better known. Since the mid 20th century, Acapulco and later Ixtapa/Zihuatanejo, have been traditional beaches for vacationers from Mexico. Troncones and beaches near it attract surfers, backpackers and others attracted to its more laid\-back atmosphere. Less developed beach areas such as Barra Potosí and Playa Michigan are popular among young travelers. There is also a fair amount of tourist infrastructure in the municipality of Coyuca, but most of the rest of the beaches of the Costa Grande have only open air restaurants and one or two places to stay. Some do not have even that, and are almost completely empty. Starting in 2008, the state government began to create artificial reefs off the coast using blocks of cement, with the idea of creating attractions for sport divers and in some cases help the local environment by promoting greater biodiversity. The first blocks were placed in the port of Acapulco. As of March 2010, more than 300 modules had been placed in various parts of the Costa Chica with artificial reefs planned for various areas of the Costa Grande including Petacalco, Ixtapa, Zihuatanejo, Playa Ventura and Puerto Vicente Guerrero.{{cite news \|title\= Apuesta Guerrero a arrecife artificial \|author\= Alfonso Juárez. \|newspaper\=Reforma \|location\=Mexico City \|date\=March 21, 2010 \|page\=16 \|language\=Spanish \|trans\-title\=Guerrero lays down artificial reefs}} In addition to La Soledad de Maciel, there are archeological remains scattered in various parts of the coast. Zihuatanejo has a museum dedicated to the archeology of the region.
[ "Economy\n-------", "### Agriculture, other food products and forestry", "The area is fertile, with agriculture and livestock dominating the economy in most areas. One major crop is coffee, which is grown over about {{convert\\|30000\\|ha\\|acre}} in the municipalities of Atoyac, Coyuca and Tecpan just to the northwest of Acapulco. Most coffee is grown in small plantations of under {{convert\\|5\\|ha\\|acre}} on ejidos or communal lands. The sale of this coffee constitutes most of these ejido members’ income. However, most of these coffee farms have old coffee plants and little maintenance, leading to low yields.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Flores \\|first1\\=Margarita \\|first2\\=Rello \\|last2\\=Fernando \\|title\\=Capital Social Rural: Experiencás de México y Centroamérica \\|trans\\-title\\=Social Rural Capital: Experiences from Mexico and Central America \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qo1nj9w2MfoC\\&dq\\=costa\\+grande\\+guerrero\\&pg\\=PA83 \\|accessdate\\=January 21, 2011 \\|year\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Plaza y Valdes SA de CV \\|location\\=Mexico City \\|language\\=Spanish \\|isbn\\=978\\-970\\-722\\-021\\-8 \\|pages\\=83–90 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 18, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518080035/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qo1nj9w2MfoC\\&dq\\=costa\\+grande\\+guerrero\\&pg\\=PA83\\#v\\=onepage\\&q\\=costa%20grande%20guerrero\\&f\\=false \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Most of the coffee production of the coast and the state is in Atoyac, and the processing of it is the major industry. The state delegation of [Inmacafé](/wiki/Inmacaf%C3%A9 \"Inmacafé\"), the federal authority overseeing coffee production and promotion is located here.", "Coconut palms were introduced to the area during the colonial period from the Philippines. For some time after that, they were the major cash crop. Coconut plantations still dominate the landscape along almost all of the coast, and the drying of coconut kernels (copra) is one of few widespread industries in the area. Other crops that are raised in the area include corn, tropical fruit, sesame seed, citrus fruit, melons, tamarind and [hibiscus](/wiki/Hibiscus \"Hibiscus\") flowers,{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.guerrero.gob.mx/?P\\=atoyac\\_de\\_alvarez\\#05 \\|title\\= Actividad Económica \\|publisher\\= Government of Guerrero \\|location\\= Mexico \\|language\\= Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\= Economic Activity \\|accessdate\\= January 21, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\= December 17, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101217101635/http://guerrero.gob.mx/?P\\=atoyac\\_de\\_alvarez\\#05 \\|url\\-status\\= live }} with rice and sugar cane grown in Tecpan. Livestock raising is dominated by meat and dairy cattle, although the production of honey is a traditional product as well. There is a beehive construction industry in Atoyac.", "The area is an important source of forestry products, with most forested lands controlled by ejidos and some under private ownership. Most harvested trees are pines, holm oak and oyamel. Tropical woods are harvested in La Unión and Coyuca. In Coyuca, Tecpan and Petatlán logging is officially supervised by a public cooperative with the name of Vicente Guerrero.", "The Costa Grande along with the rest of the Guerrero coast is important nationally as a source of seafood. Major fishing communities exist in Petacalco and Zihuatanejo. Exploited species include shark, [sailfish](/wiki/Sailfish \"Sailfish\"), [huachinango](/wiki/Huachinango \"Huachinango\"), [sea bass](/wiki/Giant_sea_bass \"Giant sea bass\"), [mojarra](/wiki/Mojarra \"Mojarra\"), octopus, shrimp, lobster, clams and crabs. Other large fishing areas include Barra Potosí, Playa Azul, El Carrizal, la Barrita, La Laguna, El Camalote and El Embarcadero in Coyuca and along the shoreline in Petatlan. Zihuatanejo has a major fishing port and fish market. It is also an important port for sports fishing. Shrimp fishing and raising is important in the Atoyac municipality, especially in the areas of Mexcaltepec, Agua Fria and Junda de los Rios.", "Industry in the area is limited. The most widely distributed industry is food production and the production of ice, most of which is for local markets. Coffee and coconut kernels are processing for wider distribution. There is furniture making in Coyuca and Tecpan, a soap factory in San Jeronimito, Petatlán and a livestock feed production facility in Tecpan. Most commerce and services in the municipalities are geared to local needs, with some hotels and restaurants for tourists along beach areas.", "### Tourism", "The major tourism center for the area (not counting Acapulco) is the twin developed attractions of Ixtapa and Zihuatanejo. In recent years, Troncones has been growing and has become better known. Since the mid 20th century, Acapulco and later Ixtapa/Zihuatanejo, have been traditional beaches for vacationers from Mexico. Troncones and beaches near it attract surfers, backpackers and others attracted to its more laid\\-back atmosphere. Less developed beach areas such as Barra Potosí and Playa Michigan are popular among young travelers. There is also a fair amount of tourist infrastructure in the municipality of Coyuca, but most of the rest of the beaches of the Costa Grande have only open air restaurants and one or two places to stay. Some do not have even that, and are almost completely empty.", "Starting in 2008, the state government began to create artificial reefs off the coast using blocks of cement, with the idea of creating attractions for sport divers and in some cases help the local environment by promoting greater biodiversity. The first blocks were placed in the port of Acapulco. As of March 2010, more than 300 modules had been placed in various parts of the Costa Chica with artificial reefs planned for various areas of the Costa Grande including Petacalco, Ixtapa, Zihuatanejo, Playa Ventura and Puerto Vicente Guerrero.{{cite news \\|title\\= Apuesta Guerrero a arrecife artificial \\|author\\= Alfonso Juárez. \\|newspaper\\=Reforma \\|location\\=Mexico City \\|date\\=March 21, 2010 \\|page\\=16 \\|language\\=Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\=Guerrero lays down artificial reefs}}", "In addition to La Soledad de Maciel, there are archeological remains scattered in various parts of the coast. Zihuatanejo has a museum dedicated to the archeology of the region.", "" ]
### Agriculture, other food products and forestry The area is fertile, with agriculture and livestock dominating the economy in most areas. One major crop is coffee, which is grown over about {{convert\|30000\|ha\|acre}} in the municipalities of Atoyac, Coyuca and Tecpan just to the northwest of Acapulco. Most coffee is grown in small plantations of under {{convert\|5\|ha\|acre}} on ejidos or communal lands. The sale of this coffee constitutes most of these ejido members’ income. However, most of these coffee farms have old coffee plants and little maintenance, leading to low yields.{{cite book \|last1\=Flores \|first1\=Margarita \|first2\=Rello \|last2\=Fernando \|title\=Capital Social Rural: Experiencás de México y Centroamérica \|trans\-title\=Social Rural Capital: Experiences from Mexico and Central America \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qo1nj9w2MfoC\&dq\=costa\+grande\+guerrero\&pg\=PA83 \|accessdate\=January 21, 2011 \|year\=2002 \|publisher\=Plaza y Valdes SA de CV \|location\=Mexico City \|language\=Spanish \|isbn\=978\-970\-722\-021\-8 \|pages\=83–90 \|archive\-date\=May 18, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518080035/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qo1nj9w2MfoC\&dq\=costa\+grande\+guerrero\&pg\=PA83\#v\=onepage\&q\=costa%20grande%20guerrero\&f\=false \|url\-status\=live }} Most of the coffee production of the coast and the state is in Atoyac, and the processing of it is the major industry. The state delegation of [Inmacafé](/wiki/Inmacaf%C3%A9 "Inmacafé"), the federal authority overseeing coffee production and promotion is located here. Coconut palms were introduced to the area during the colonial period from the Philippines. For some time after that, they were the major cash crop. Coconut plantations still dominate the landscape along almost all of the coast, and the drying of coconut kernels (copra) is one of few widespread industries in the area. Other crops that are raised in the area include corn, tropical fruit, sesame seed, citrus fruit, melons, tamarind and [hibiscus](/wiki/Hibiscus "Hibiscus") flowers,{{cite web \|url\= http://www.guerrero.gob.mx/?P\=atoyac\_de\_alvarez\#05 \|title\= Actividad Económica \|publisher\= Government of Guerrero \|location\= Mexico \|language\= Spanish \|trans\-title\= Economic Activity \|accessdate\= January 21, 2011 \|archive\-date\= December 17, 2010 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101217101635/http://guerrero.gob.mx/?P\=atoyac\_de\_alvarez\#05 \|url\-status\= live }} with rice and sugar cane grown in Tecpan. Livestock raising is dominated by meat and dairy cattle, although the production of honey is a traditional product as well. There is a beehive construction industry in Atoyac. The area is an important source of forestry products, with most forested lands controlled by ejidos and some under private ownership. Most harvested trees are pines, holm oak and oyamel. Tropical woods are harvested in La Unión and Coyuca. In Coyuca, Tecpan and Petatlán logging is officially supervised by a public cooperative with the name of Vicente Guerrero. The Costa Grande along with the rest of the Guerrero coast is important nationally as a source of seafood. Major fishing communities exist in Petacalco and Zihuatanejo. Exploited species include shark, [sailfish](/wiki/Sailfish "Sailfish"), [huachinango](/wiki/Huachinango "Huachinango"), [sea bass](/wiki/Giant_sea_bass "Giant sea bass"), [mojarra](/wiki/Mojarra "Mojarra"), octopus, shrimp, lobster, clams and crabs. Other large fishing areas include Barra Potosí, Playa Azul, El Carrizal, la Barrita, La Laguna, El Camalote and El Embarcadero in Coyuca and along the shoreline in Petatlan. Zihuatanejo has a major fishing port and fish market. It is also an important port for sports fishing. Shrimp fishing and raising is important in the Atoyac municipality, especially in the areas of Mexcaltepec, Agua Fria and Junda de los Rios. Industry in the area is limited. The most widely distributed industry is food production and the production of ice, most of which is for local markets. Coffee and coconut kernels are processing for wider distribution. There is furniture making in Coyuca and Tecpan, a soap factory in San Jeronimito, Petatlán and a livestock feed production facility in Tecpan. Most commerce and services in the municipalities are geared to local needs, with some hotels and restaurants for tourists along beach areas.
[ "### Agriculture, other food products and forestry", "The area is fertile, with agriculture and livestock dominating the economy in most areas. One major crop is coffee, which is grown over about {{convert\\|30000\\|ha\\|acre}} in the municipalities of Atoyac, Coyuca and Tecpan just to the northwest of Acapulco. Most coffee is grown in small plantations of under {{convert\\|5\\|ha\\|acre}} on ejidos or communal lands. The sale of this coffee constitutes most of these ejido members’ income. However, most of these coffee farms have old coffee plants and little maintenance, leading to low yields.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Flores \\|first1\\=Margarita \\|first2\\=Rello \\|last2\\=Fernando \\|title\\=Capital Social Rural: Experiencás de México y Centroamérica \\|trans\\-title\\=Social Rural Capital: Experiences from Mexico and Central America \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qo1nj9w2MfoC\\&dq\\=costa\\+grande\\+guerrero\\&pg\\=PA83 \\|accessdate\\=January 21, 2011 \\|year\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Plaza y Valdes SA de CV \\|location\\=Mexico City \\|language\\=Spanish \\|isbn\\=978\\-970\\-722\\-021\\-8 \\|pages\\=83–90 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 18, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518080035/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qo1nj9w2MfoC\\&dq\\=costa\\+grande\\+guerrero\\&pg\\=PA83\\#v\\=onepage\\&q\\=costa%20grande%20guerrero\\&f\\=false \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Most of the coffee production of the coast and the state is in Atoyac, and the processing of it is the major industry. The state delegation of [Inmacafé](/wiki/Inmacaf%C3%A9 \"Inmacafé\"), the federal authority overseeing coffee production and promotion is located here.", "Coconut palms were introduced to the area during the colonial period from the Philippines. For some time after that, they were the major cash crop. Coconut plantations still dominate the landscape along almost all of the coast, and the drying of coconut kernels (copra) is one of few widespread industries in the area. Other crops that are raised in the area include corn, tropical fruit, sesame seed, citrus fruit, melons, tamarind and [hibiscus](/wiki/Hibiscus \"Hibiscus\") flowers,{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.guerrero.gob.mx/?P\\=atoyac\\_de\\_alvarez\\#05 \\|title\\= Actividad Económica \\|publisher\\= Government of Guerrero \\|location\\= Mexico \\|language\\= Spanish \\|trans\\-title\\= Economic Activity \\|accessdate\\= January 21, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\= December 17, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101217101635/http://guerrero.gob.mx/?P\\=atoyac\\_de\\_alvarez\\#05 \\|url\\-status\\= live }} with rice and sugar cane grown in Tecpan. Livestock raising is dominated by meat and dairy cattle, although the production of honey is a traditional product as well. There is a beehive construction industry in Atoyac.", "The area is an important source of forestry products, with most forested lands controlled by ejidos and some under private ownership. Most harvested trees are pines, holm oak and oyamel. Tropical woods are harvested in La Unión and Coyuca. In Coyuca, Tecpan and Petatlán logging is officially supervised by a public cooperative with the name of Vicente Guerrero.", "The Costa Grande along with the rest of the Guerrero coast is important nationally as a source of seafood. Major fishing communities exist in Petacalco and Zihuatanejo. Exploited species include shark, [sailfish](/wiki/Sailfish \"Sailfish\"), [huachinango](/wiki/Huachinango \"Huachinango\"), [sea bass](/wiki/Giant_sea_bass \"Giant sea bass\"), [mojarra](/wiki/Mojarra \"Mojarra\"), octopus, shrimp, lobster, clams and crabs. Other large fishing areas include Barra Potosí, Playa Azul, El Carrizal, la Barrita, La Laguna, El Camalote and El Embarcadero in Coyuca and along the shoreline in Petatlan. Zihuatanejo has a major fishing port and fish market. It is also an important port for sports fishing. Shrimp fishing and raising is important in the Atoyac municipality, especially in the areas of Mexcaltepec, Agua Fria and Junda de los Rios.", "Industry in the area is limited. The most widely distributed industry is food production and the production of ice, most of which is for local markets. Coffee and coconut kernels are processing for wider distribution. There is furniture making in Coyuca and Tecpan, a soap factory in San Jeronimito, Petatlán and a livestock feed production facility in Tecpan. Most commerce and services in the municipalities are geared to local needs, with some hotels and restaurants for tourists along beach areas.", "" ]
Publication history ------------------- The first run of *Venom* titles consisted of eighteen [limited series](/wiki/Limited_series_%28comics%29 "Limited series (comics)") published consecutively, [cover dated](/wiki/Cover_date "Cover date") from February 1993 to January 1998\. This limited\-series run consisted of 60 issues altogether, effectively acting as an ongoing monthly series whose issue numbering reset with each story arc. The first limited series, *[Venom: Lethal Protector](/wiki/Venom:Lethal_Protector "Lethal Protector")*, was written by Venom co\-creator [David Michelinie](/wiki/David_Michelinie "David Michelinie") and began the character's transition from unambiguous villain to anti\-hero; the story also introduced the symbiote offspring ([Scream](/wiki/Scream_%28comics%29 "Scream (comics)"), [Phage](/wiki/Phage_%28comics%29 "Phage (comics)"), [Riot](/wiki/Riot_%28comics%29 "Riot (comics)"), [Lasher](/wiki/Lasher_%28comics%29 "Lasher (comics)") and [Agony](/wiki/Agony_%28comics%29 "Agony (comics)")), who would recur in Marvel comics until the 2011 *[Carnage, U.S.A.](/wiki/Carnage%2C_U.S.A. "Carnage, U.S.A.")* limited series. Subsequent limited series included 1994's *[Venom: Separation Anxiety](/wiki/Venom:Separation_Anxiety "Separation Anxiety")*, which continued the story of Venom's offspring and spawned the 1995 "[Planet of the Symbiotes](/wiki/Planet_of_the_Symbiotes "Planet of the Symbiotes")" cross\-series story arc; 1996's *Venom: Along Came a Spider*, which introduced symbiote anti\-hero [Hybrid](/wiki/Hybrid_%28Scott_Washington%29 "Hybrid (Scott Washington)"); and 1997's *Venom: On Trial*, which saw Eddie Brock tried for his crimes as Venom. Also published during this time was the [prequel](/wiki/Prequel "Prequel") [one\-shot](/wiki/One-shot_%28comics%29 "One-shot (comics)") comic *Venom: Seed of Darkness* \#\-1 (cover dated July 1997\), following a pre\-Venom Eddie Brock. [Larry Hama](/wiki/Larry_Hama "Larry Hama") wrote the most individual series with eight in total, including the 1997 final instalment *Venom: The Finale* which saw the symbiote apparently killed. According to editor [Tom Brevoort](/wiki/Tom_Brevoort "Tom Brevoort"), the series was cancelled because "The return on the book had declined to the point where any immediate financial reward was overshadowed by \[then editor\-in\-chief [Bob Harras](/wiki/Bob_Harras "Bob Harras"){{'}}s] discomfort with the character starring in his own title."{{cite news \| last \= Shutt \| first\= Craig \| date \= August 1997 \| title \= Villain Turned Hero: Venom \| work \= \[\[Wizard (magazine)\|Wizard]] \| issue \= 72 \| page \= 37}} A new ongoing *Venom* series began in June 2003, written by [Daniel Way](/wiki/Daniel_Way "Daniel Way"). This series followed a new character, Patricia Robertson, and a clone of the Venom symbiote. Eighteen issues were produced by Way through November 2004, comprising the story arcs "Shiver" (\#1\-5\), "Run" (\#6\-10\), "Patterns" (\#11\-13\), and "Twist" (\#14\-18\). In 2011, an ongoing *Venom* series began under writer [Rick Remender](/wiki/Rick_Remender "Rick Remender") with Spider\-Man supporting character [Flash Thompson](/wiki/Flash_Thompson "Flash Thompson") in a leading role. The character regained the use of his legs while using the symbiote following their loss during his service in the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War") (as shown in *[The Amazing Spider\-Man](/wiki/The_Amazing_Spider-Man "The Amazing Spider-Man")* \#574\). The first issue introduced new versions of the villains [Crime Master](/wiki/Crime_Master%23Bennett_Brant "Crime Master#Bennett Brant") and [Jack O'Lantern](/wiki/Jack_O%27Lantern_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Crime_Master.27s_Jack_O.27Lantern "Jack O'Lantern (Marvel Comics)#Crime Master.27s Jack O.27Lantern"), who became recurring antagonists for Thompson. Issue \#18 featured the return of Brock, who killed Hybrid and Scream in his crusade against the symbiotes and eventually bonded to the Toxin symbiote. The series was born after Thompson was first unveiled as the new Venom by writer [Dan Slott](/wiki/Dan_Slott "Dan Slott") in *[The Amazing Spider\-Man](/wiki/The_Amazing_Spider-Man "The Amazing Spider-Man")* \#654\. Remender was unsure how to develop the Thompson narrative until he realized that he was a tragic hero: a violent man, haunted by a drinking problem and physical abuse suffered at the hands of his father. Slott suggested that the new Crime Master's secret identity would be Bennett Brant, the thought\-dead brother of Thompson's then\-girlfriend Betty. Remender and his co\-writer Cullen Bunn developed the new character, with Bunn developing the idea of multiple Crime Masters existing throughout history. Thompson found an arch\-rival in the new Jack O'Lantern, developed by Remender and artist Tony Moore. Remender decided that making him a parallel of Thompson would create a stronger nemesis; therefore, Jack was also given a traumatic childhood in which he was exploited by Crime Master. *Venom* \#13 saw the first mini\-event of the series: a crossover with the [Red Hulk](/wiki/Red_Hulk "Red Hulk"), [X\-23](/wiki/X-23 "X-23") and the new [Ghost Rider](/wiki/Ghost_Rider "Ghost Rider"). The event was initially conceived as a reunion of [New Fantastic Four](/wiki/List_of_Fantastic_Four_members%23New_Fantastic_Four "List of Fantastic Four members#New Fantastic Four") members [Hulk](/wiki/Hulk "Hulk"), [Wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29 "Wolverine (character)"), Ghost Rider and Spider\-Man as part of a *Venom*\-*Wolverine* crossover. As the idea developed with writer [Jason Aaron](/wiki/Jason_Aaron "Jason Aaron"), it was decided to incorporate those characters' legacy characters into the Red Hulk, X\-23, the new female Ghost Rider and Thompson's Venom. Following the event, Thompson joined another Remender\-written book (*[Secret Avengers](/wiki/Secret_Avengers "Secret Avengers")*). Remender stopped writing *Venom* in August 2012 (after issue \#22\) to work on *[Captain America](/wiki/Captain_America "Captain America")* and the launch of *[Uncanny Avengers](/wiki/Uncanny_Avengers "Uncanny Avengers")*. He was replaced by Cullen Bunn, who had periodically worked as co\-writer during Remender's term. The Venom character remained a member of the Secret Avengers, a series still written by Remender. In September 2012, Bunn said that Thompson would be moved from New York to Philadelphia from *Venom* \#28\. This relocation would allow the introduction of a new love interest, the superhero [Valkyrie](/wiki/Valkyrie_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Valkyrie_.28Brunnhilde.29 "Valkyrie (Marvel Comics)#Valkyrie .28Brunnhilde.29"). Editor Tom Brennan explained, "His superhero career almost cost him everything...this is a good man with a troubled past who needed a fresh start...to take his next steps in becoming the hero he was born to be." Marvel editor Stephen Wacker said the location change reflected Marvel's desire to expand the Marvel universe beyond New York City. Bunn's run introduced the new character Mania, one of Thompson's students who is empowered by part of the Venom symbiote. In August 2013, Marvel announced that *Venom* would end with issue \#42 in October 2013\. Bunn was informed of the decision while writing *Venom* \#31\-\#38, which he stated gave him time to bring some plot threads to a conclusion, but having originally outlined thirty issues worth of stories, there would be some ideas left to be told. As part of the [All\-New, All\-Different Marvel](/wiki/All-New%2C_All-Different_Marvel "All-New, All-Different Marvel") line\-wide relaunch, a new ongoing title *Venom: Space Knight* was launched with writer Robbie Thompson and artist [Ariel Olivetti](/wiki/Ariel_Olivetti "Ariel Olivetti"). The series ran for 13 issues, cover\-dated January 2016 to December 2016\. *Venom: Space Knight* was immediately followed by a new ongoing *Venom* series (beginning January 2017\) written by Mike Costa, starring new Venom host Lee Price. After six issues, the series was re\-numbered to \#150 and Eddie Brock was brought back as Venom's host. During Costa's run on the ongoing *Venom* title, two Venom\-centric comic events were published, both centred around five\-issue weekly series written by Cullen Bunn: *Venomverse* (November to December 2017\) and *Venomized* (June 2018\). Costa's run ended with issue \#165, after which he wrote the five\-issue limited series *Venom: First Host* (October to November 2018\). As part of the [Fresh Start](/wiki/Fresh_Start_%28comics%29 "Fresh Start (comics)") line\-wide relaunch, a new volume of *Venom* was launched (cover\-dated July 2018, published May 9\) written by Donny Cates. Event miniseries during this time included *Absolute Carnage* in 2019 and *King in Black* in 2020–21, both also by Cates. This volume concluded in 2021 with the end of Cates's run. The fifth and current ongoing volume of *Venom* is written by Al Ewing, Ram V, and Torunn Grønbekk with art by Bryan Hitch, CAFU, Rogê Antônio, Ramón Bachs, Ken Lashley, Sergio Fernandez Dávila, Julius Ohta, and Rafael T. Pimentel. The first issue, cover\-dated January 2022, went on sale November 10th 2021\. It stars Dylan Brock, son of Eddie Brock, as Venom's latest host while Eddie Brock establishes himself as the new King in Black following Knull's death.
[ "Publication history\n-------------------", "The first run of *Venom* titles consisted of eighteen [limited series](/wiki/Limited_series_%28comics%29 \"Limited series (comics)\") published consecutively, [cover dated](/wiki/Cover_date \"Cover date\") from February 1993 to January 1998\\. This limited\\-series run consisted of 60 issues altogether, effectively acting as an ongoing monthly series whose issue numbering reset with each story arc. The first limited series, *[Venom: Lethal Protector](/wiki/Venom:Lethal_Protector \"Lethal Protector\")*, was written by Venom co\\-creator [David Michelinie](/wiki/David_Michelinie \"David Michelinie\") and began the character's transition from unambiguous villain to anti\\-hero; the story also introduced the symbiote offspring ([Scream](/wiki/Scream_%28comics%29 \"Scream (comics)\"), [Phage](/wiki/Phage_%28comics%29 \"Phage (comics)\"), [Riot](/wiki/Riot_%28comics%29 \"Riot (comics)\"), [Lasher](/wiki/Lasher_%28comics%29 \"Lasher (comics)\") and [Agony](/wiki/Agony_%28comics%29 \"Agony (comics)\")), who would recur in Marvel comics until the 2011 *[Carnage, U.S.A.](/wiki/Carnage%2C_U.S.A. \"Carnage, U.S.A.\")* limited series. Subsequent limited series included 1994's *[Venom: Separation Anxiety](/wiki/Venom:Separation_Anxiety \"Separation Anxiety\")*, which continued the story of Venom's offspring and spawned the 1995 \"[Planet of the Symbiotes](/wiki/Planet_of_the_Symbiotes \"Planet of the Symbiotes\")\" cross\\-series story arc; 1996's *Venom: Along Came a Spider*, which introduced symbiote anti\\-hero [Hybrid](/wiki/Hybrid_%28Scott_Washington%29 \"Hybrid (Scott Washington)\"); and 1997's *Venom: On Trial*, which saw Eddie Brock tried for his crimes as Venom. Also published during this time was the [prequel](/wiki/Prequel \"Prequel\") [one\\-shot](/wiki/One-shot_%28comics%29 \"One-shot (comics)\") comic *Venom: Seed of Darkness* \\#\\-1 (cover dated July 1997\\), following a pre\\-Venom Eddie Brock. [Larry Hama](/wiki/Larry_Hama \"Larry Hama\") wrote the most individual series with eight in total, including the 1997 final instalment *Venom: The Finale* which saw the symbiote apparently killed. According to editor [Tom Brevoort](/wiki/Tom_Brevoort \"Tom Brevoort\"), the series was cancelled because \"The return on the book had declined to the point where any immediate financial reward was overshadowed by \\[then editor\\-in\\-chief [Bob Harras](/wiki/Bob_Harras \"Bob Harras\"){{'}}s] discomfort with the character starring in his own title.\"{{cite news \\| last \\= Shutt \\| first\\= Craig \\| date \\= August 1997 \\| title \\= Villain Turned Hero: Venom \\| work \\= \\[\\[Wizard (magazine)\\|Wizard]] \\| issue \\= 72 \\| page \\= 37}}", "A new ongoing *Venom* series began in June 2003, written by [Daniel Way](/wiki/Daniel_Way \"Daniel Way\"). This series followed a new character, Patricia Robertson, and a clone of the Venom symbiote. Eighteen issues were produced by Way through November 2004, comprising the story arcs \"Shiver\" (\\#1\\-5\\), \"Run\" (\\#6\\-10\\), \"Patterns\" (\\#11\\-13\\), and \"Twist\" (\\#14\\-18\\).", "In 2011, an ongoing *Venom* series began under writer [Rick Remender](/wiki/Rick_Remender \"Rick Remender\") with Spider\\-Man supporting character [Flash Thompson](/wiki/Flash_Thompson \"Flash Thompson\") in a leading role. The character regained the use of his legs while using the symbiote following their loss during his service in the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\") (as shown in *[The Amazing Spider\\-Man](/wiki/The_Amazing_Spider-Man \"The Amazing Spider-Man\")* \\#574\\). The first issue introduced new versions of the villains [Crime Master](/wiki/Crime_Master%23Bennett_Brant \"Crime Master#Bennett Brant\") and [Jack O'Lantern](/wiki/Jack_O%27Lantern_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Crime_Master.27s_Jack_O.27Lantern \"Jack O'Lantern (Marvel Comics)#Crime Master.27s Jack O.27Lantern\"), who became recurring antagonists for Thompson. Issue \\#18 featured the return of Brock, who killed Hybrid and Scream in his crusade against the symbiotes and eventually bonded to the Toxin symbiote. The series was born after Thompson was first unveiled as the new Venom by writer [Dan Slott](/wiki/Dan_Slott \"Dan Slott\") in *[The Amazing Spider\\-Man](/wiki/The_Amazing_Spider-Man \"The Amazing Spider-Man\")* \\#654\\. Remender was unsure how to develop the Thompson narrative until he realized that he was a tragic hero: a violent man, haunted by a drinking problem and physical abuse suffered at the hands of his father.", "Slott suggested that the new Crime Master's secret identity would be Bennett Brant, the thought\\-dead brother of Thompson's then\\-girlfriend Betty. Remender and his co\\-writer Cullen Bunn developed the new character, with Bunn developing the idea of multiple Crime Masters existing throughout history. Thompson found an arch\\-rival in the new Jack O'Lantern, developed by Remender and artist Tony Moore. Remender decided that making him a parallel of Thompson would create a stronger nemesis; therefore, Jack was also given a traumatic childhood in which he was exploited by Crime Master. *Venom* \\#13 saw the first mini\\-event of the series: a crossover with the [Red Hulk](/wiki/Red_Hulk \"Red Hulk\"), [X\\-23](/wiki/X-23 \"X-23\") and the new [Ghost Rider](/wiki/Ghost_Rider \"Ghost Rider\"). The event was initially conceived as a reunion of [New Fantastic Four](/wiki/List_of_Fantastic_Four_members%23New_Fantastic_Four \"List of Fantastic Four members#New Fantastic Four\") members [Hulk](/wiki/Hulk \"Hulk\"), [Wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29 \"Wolverine (character)\"), Ghost Rider and Spider\\-Man as part of a *Venom*\\-*Wolverine* crossover. As the idea developed with writer [Jason Aaron](/wiki/Jason_Aaron \"Jason Aaron\"), it was decided to incorporate those characters' legacy characters into the Red Hulk, X\\-23, the new female Ghost Rider and Thompson's Venom. Following the event, Thompson joined another Remender\\-written book (*[Secret Avengers](/wiki/Secret_Avengers \"Secret Avengers\")*).", "Remender stopped writing *Venom* in August 2012 (after issue \\#22\\) to work on *[Captain America](/wiki/Captain_America \"Captain America\")* and the launch of *[Uncanny Avengers](/wiki/Uncanny_Avengers \"Uncanny Avengers\")*. He was replaced by Cullen Bunn, who had periodically worked as co\\-writer during Remender's term. The Venom character remained a member of the Secret Avengers, a series still written by Remender. In September 2012, Bunn said that Thompson would be moved from New York to Philadelphia from *Venom* \\#28\\. This relocation would allow the introduction of a new love interest, the superhero [Valkyrie](/wiki/Valkyrie_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Valkyrie_.28Brunnhilde.29 \"Valkyrie (Marvel Comics)#Valkyrie .28Brunnhilde.29\"). Editor Tom Brennan explained, \"His superhero career almost cost him everything...this is a good man with a troubled past who needed a fresh start...to take his next steps in becoming the hero he was born to be.\" Marvel editor Stephen Wacker said the location change reflected Marvel's desire to expand the Marvel universe beyond New York City. Bunn's run introduced the new character Mania, one of Thompson's students who is empowered by part of the Venom symbiote. In August 2013, Marvel announced that *Venom* would end with issue \\#42 in October 2013\\. Bunn was informed of the decision while writing *Venom* \\#31\\-\\#38, which he stated gave him time to bring some plot threads to a conclusion, but having originally outlined thirty issues worth of stories, there would be some ideas left to be told.", "As part of the [All\\-New, All\\-Different Marvel](/wiki/All-New%2C_All-Different_Marvel \"All-New, All-Different Marvel\") line\\-wide relaunch, a new ongoing title *Venom: Space Knight* was launched with writer Robbie Thompson and artist [Ariel Olivetti](/wiki/Ariel_Olivetti \"Ariel Olivetti\"). The series ran for 13 issues, cover\\-dated January 2016 to December 2016\\.", "*Venom: Space Knight* was immediately followed by a new ongoing *Venom* series (beginning January 2017\\) written by Mike Costa, starring new Venom host Lee Price. After six issues, the series was re\\-numbered to \\#150 and Eddie Brock was brought back as Venom's host. During Costa's run on the ongoing *Venom* title, two Venom\\-centric comic events were published, both centred around five\\-issue weekly series written by Cullen Bunn: *Venomverse* (November to December 2017\\) and *Venomized* (June 2018\\). Costa's run ended with issue \\#165, after which he wrote the five\\-issue limited series *Venom: First Host* (October to November 2018\\).", "As part of the [Fresh Start](/wiki/Fresh_Start_%28comics%29 \"Fresh Start (comics)\") line\\-wide relaunch, a new volume of *Venom* was launched (cover\\-dated July 2018, published May 9\\) written by Donny Cates. Event miniseries during this time included *Absolute Carnage* in 2019 and *King in Black* in 2020–21, both also by Cates. This volume concluded in 2021 with the end of Cates's run.", "The fifth and current ongoing volume of *Venom* is written by Al Ewing, Ram V, and Torunn Grønbekk with art by Bryan Hitch, CAFU, Rogê Antônio, Ramón Bachs, Ken Lashley, Sergio Fernandez Dávila, Julius Ohta, and Rafael T. Pimentel. The first issue, cover\\-dated January 2022, went on sale November 10th 2021\\. It stars Dylan Brock, son of Eddie Brock, as Venom's latest host while Eddie Brock establishes himself as the new King in Black following Knull's death.", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- ### Indianapolis Colts After going undrafted in the [2006 NFL draft](/wiki/2006_NFL_draft "2006 NFL draft"), Johnson joined the [Indianapolis Colts](/wiki/Indianapolis_Colts "Indianapolis Colts") on May 1, 2006, and was signed on May 9\. He was released at the end of [training camp](/wiki/Training_camp "Training camp") on September 2, 2006\. Johnson didn't play football for the rest of 2006\. On January 4, 2007, he was re\-signed by the Colts and then assigned to the [Cologne Centurions](/wiki/Cologne_Centurions_%28NFL_Europe%29 "Cologne Centurions (NFL Europe)") of the [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europe "NFL Europe"), where he notched 2\.5 sacks during the 2007 season. Following the season, he returned to the United States to go to training camp with the Colts. He was released on August 28, 2007, in the roster cutdown. ### Philadelphia Soul and Grand Rapids Rampage In 2008, Johnson played in the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League") (AFL) with the [Philadelphia Soul](/wiki/Philadelphia_Soul "Philadelphia Soul") and [Grand Rapids Rampage](/wiki/Grand_Rapids_Rampage "Grand Rapids Rampage"). Listed at 6'3", 288, Johnson played in four games with the Soul and recorded 3 tackles and 2 fumble recoveries before being waived after he had been named defensive player of a game. Johnson played the last six games of the 2008 season with the Rampage and collected 2 tackles and a sack. ### Calgary Stampeders On February 19, 2009, Johnson was signed by the [Calgary Stampeders](/wiki/Calgary_Stampeders "Calgary Stampeders") of the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League "Canadian Football League") (CFL). He arrived at training camp with high expectations, but was hampered by injuries, and then missed the Stamps' season opener on July 1 in order to attend the funeral of his grandfather.[Tom Johnson set to make CFL debut](https://calgaryherald.com/sports/football/cfl/calgary-stampeders/tom-johnson-set-to-make-cfl-debut) In his CFL debut season, Johnson played in 6 games for Calgary, starting all of them, and was credited with 3\.0 sacks and 13 tackles, helping the team advance to the West Division Final before losing to the [Saskatchewan Roughriders](/wiki/Saskatchewan_Roughriders "Saskatchewan Roughriders"). In his second season with the Stampeders, Johnson was part of a defensive unit that tied for first in the league in yards per carry allowed (only 5\.5\) and that saw him dominate the rivals' offensive linemens for 39 total tackles and four sacks, helping lead Calgary to a 13–5 record and a first\-round bye into the league's division final and earning [West Division](/wiki/CFL_West_Division "CFL West Division") All\-star honors for his outstanding work as Calgary dominated the All\-Star ballot with 13 selections.[CFL East and West All\-Stars announced](https://www.cfl.ca/2010/11/10/cfl-east-and-west-all-stars-announced/) ### New Orleans Saints On January 20, 2011, Johnson was signed to a three\-year contract with the New Orleans Saints that would end up paying him more than $1\.6 million. His $75,000 signing bonus alone was more than seven years worth of NFL Europe money. Johnson finally landed in an NFL roster spot at the age of 27, five seasons after his rookie season back in 2006\. Johnson stated that he picked the Saints because he fit well in the aggressive 4\-3 scheme under then\-defensive coordinator [Gregg Williams](/wiki/Gregg_Williams "Gregg Williams").[Tom Johnson's football oddysey](http://www.twincities.com/2014/05/30/minnesota-vikings-new-dt-tom-johnson-lives-a-football-odyssey/) Showing the persistence to jumpstart an NFL career by appearing in different football leagues, Johnson became a significant contributor to the New Orleans defensive line rotation during his tenure with the team. As a member of the Saints, Johnson appeared in 40 games over three seasons and posted 55 tackles (35 solo), five sacks and a forced fumble. #### 2011 season Johnson made his debut on an NFL regular\-season roster for a 2011 Saints club that went 13\-3 and advanced to the NFC Divisional Playoffs. After recovering from a calf injury suffered in training camp, Johnson appeared in 13 games and recorded 15 tackles (11 solo), one sack and one forced fumble. On December 28, he was credited with his first career sack when he tackled Vikings' quarterback [Christian Ponder](/wiki/Christian_Ponder "Christian Ponder") for a six\-yard loss in the win at Minnesota. In the playoffs, he played in both games for the Saints, that featured a win over the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions") in the wild\-card round and a loss against the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers "San Francisco 49ers") in the divisional round. #### 2012 season In his second season with the Saints, Johnson played in 15 games as a reserve at defensive tackle and finished with 33 tackles (21 solo) and two sacks, setting then career\-highs in both categories. He got his first sack of the season at the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/Oakland_Raiders "Oakland Raiders") on November 18, bringing down [Carson Palmer](/wiki/Carson_Palmer "Carson Palmer"). In week 16 against the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys "Dallas Cowboys"), he brought down [Tony Romo](/wiki/Tony_Romo "Tony Romo") for an eight\-yard loss on third down that forced the Cowboys to punt. He tallied a season\-high 4 tackles in the final game of the season against the [Carolina Panthers](/wiki/Carolina_Panthers "Carolina Panthers"). #### 2013 season In his last season with the Saints in 2013, Johnson saw action in 12 regular season games as he was inactive weeks 3–4 with a hamstring injury and also inactive for the final two contests of the regular season. He played in both playoff contests, seeing significant action in the team's defensive line rotation. He had 15 tackles (6 solo) and tied a career\-high with two sacks. On December 2, he tied a career\-high with four tackles at the [Seattle Seahawks](/wiki/Seattle_Seahawks "Seattle Seahawks"). In the NFC Wild Card Playoff game at the [Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eagles "Philadelphia Eagles"), he was credited with one assisted tackle. ### Minnesota Vikings On March 19, 2014, Johnson signed a one\-year contract with the [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/Minnesota_Vikings "Minnesota Vikings") worth $845,000 that included a $100,000 signing bonus and had incentives up to an additional $600,000\. He was also being looked at by Chicago, Dallas, Miami and Seattle.{{cite news \|first\=Christopher \|last\=Gates \|title\=Tom Johnson Signs With Minnesota Vikings \|url\=http://www.dailynorseman.com/2014/3/20/5528874/tom\-johnson\-signs\-with\-minnesota\-vikings \|work\=Daily Norseman \|publisher\=Vox Media \|date\=March 20, 2014 \|accessdate\=March 20, 2014 }} After a surprising career\-year with the Vikings in which he recorded 6\.5 sacks after entering the season with 5\.0 sacks in his 40 previous career games, Johnson re\-signed with the Vikings during the 2015 offseason. Johnson ranks sixth in the league among interior linemen over the past 2 seasons with 12\.0 sacks, with that being the highest total by an undrafted defensive tackle in that span. He played in his fifth career playoff game when the Vikings hosted the [Seattle Seahawks](/wiki/Seattle_Seahawks "Seattle Seahawks") on January 10, 2016\. #### 2014 season Johnson enjoyed a breakout season as a reserve defensive tackle in his first season as a Viking as he posted 22 total tackles, 6\.5 sacks (a career\-high that ranked him ranked fifth in the NFC for most sacks by a defensive tackle) and a forced fumble, playing a key role in the Vikings defensive transformation under new Head Coach [Mike Zimmer](/wiki/Mike_Zimmer "Mike Zimmer"), the most improved defense in the NFL in 2014\. In the season\-opener win at the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/St._Louis_Rams "St. Louis Rams"), he entered the game as a reserve defensive tackle and was credited with a strip\-sack and 2 tackles. In week 3, he started his first game as a Viking against his old [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints "New Orleans Saints") teammates on September 21 and then started against the Detroit Lions three weeks later. From that game on, he had a streak of 4 straight weeks with at least 0\.5 sack in a game (Detroit (10/12\), at Buffalo (10/19\), at Tampa Bay (10/26\) and Washington (11/2\). On November 30, he notched a career\-high 5 tackles against the [Carolina Panthers](/wiki/Carolina_Panthers "Carolina Panthers"). Following the season, [Pro Football Focus](/wiki/Pro_Football_Focus "Pro Football Focus") (PFF) ranked Johnson the Vikings' best interior pass\-rusher, crediting him with 30 pressures in 301 pass\-rush snaps.[PFF PRP, DEFENSIVE INTERIOR](https://www.profootballfocus.com/sig-stats-prp-defensive-interior/) #### 2015 season On March 8, 2015, Johnson re\-signed with the Vikings on a three\-year contract. According to a league source, he agreed on a three\-year deal worth a total of $7 million with a $1\.5 million signing bonus and approximately $3 million in guaranteed money.{{cite web\|last1\=Gantt\|first1\=Darin\|title\=Vikings keep defensive tackle Tom Johnson with three\-year deal\|date\=March 8, 2015 \|url\=http://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2015/03/08/vikings\-keep\-defensive\-tackle\-tom\-johnson\-with\-three\-year\-deal/\|publisher\=Pro Football Talk\|accessdate\=March 8, 2015}} The Vikings had preliminary talks with Johnson's agent, Bardia Ghahremani, about a new contract late last season, and got a new deal done before Johnson could reach the open market after the best season of his career.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.espn.com/nfl/story/\_/id/12445683/minnesota\-vikings\-re\-sign\-defensive\-tackle\-tom\-johnson\|title\=Vikings re\-sign DT Tom Johnson\|author\=Goessling, Ben\|website\=ESPN.com\|date\=March 8, 2015}} Johnson went on to start a career\-high 8 games and played in all 16 along with the Wild Card Playoff game. He helped the Vikings claim the [NFC North](/wiki/NFC_North "NFC North") title for the first time since the 2009 season, winning the crown in the regular season finale at the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers"), snapping the Packers’ 4\-year streak. He recorded 5\.5 sacks on the season, trailing only his career\-high 6\.5 set in his 2014 debut with the Vikings. He started 8 games at defensive tackle when [Sharrif Floyd](/wiki/Sharrif_Floyd "Sharrif Floyd") would shift to nose tackle in place of injured [Linval Joseph](/wiki/Linval_Joseph "Linval Joseph"). He posted his first career multi\-sack game against the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants "New York Giants") on December 27 when he brought down [Eli Manning](/wiki/Eli_Manning "Eli Manning") twice. He broke his previous career\-high 5 tackles set in 2014 with 7 tackles against the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/St._Louis_Rams "St. Louis Rams") in week 9, helping hold rookie sensation [Todd Gurley](/wiki/Todd_Gurley "Todd Gurley") in check during the Vikings overtime victory. #### 2016 season After a quiet Week 1, in which Johnson wasn't credited with a single tackle, he contributed with one of the five sacks the Vikings' defensive line had on [Aaron Rodgers](/wiki/Aaron_Rodgers "Aaron Rodgers") during the team's 17–14 win over the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers") in [U.S. Bank Stadium](/wiki/U.S._Bank_Stadium "U.S. Bank Stadium"). In Week 3, Johnson intercepted the first pass of his career when Panthers' [Cam Newton](/wiki/Cam_Newton "Cam Newton") threw the ball away on a desperate toss. He suffered a torn hamstring in Week 15 and was placed on injured reserve on December 20, 2016\.{{cite web\|title\=Vikings Place Tom Johnson on IR; Sign Toby Johnson\|url\=https://www.vikings.com/news/vikings\-place\-tom\-johnson\-on\-ir\-sign\-toby\-johnson\-18306462\|author\=Peters, Craig\|website\=Vikings.com\|date\=December 20, 2016}} ### Seattle Seahawks On March 23, 2018, Johnson signed with the [Seattle Seahawks](/wiki/Seattle_Seahawks "Seattle Seahawks").{{cite web\|title\=Seahawks Sign Defensive Tackle Tom Johnson\|url\=https://www.seahawks.com/news/seahawks\-sign\-defensive\-tackle\-tom\-johnson\-206071\|author\=Boyle, John\|website\=Seahawks.com\|date\=March 23, 2018}} He was released on September 15, 2018\.{{cite web\|title\=Seahawks Promote Shalom Luani From Practice Squad; Release Tom Johnson\|url\=https://www.seahawks.com/news/seahawks\-promote\-shalom\-luani\-from\-practice\-squad\-release\-tom\-johnson\|author\=Boyle, John\|website\=Seahawks.com\|date\=September 15, 2018}} ### Minnesota Vikings (second stint) On September 19, 2018, Johnson re\-signed with the Minnesota Vikings.{{cite web\|title\=Tom Johnson Rejoining Vikings After Stint with Seahawks\|url\=https://www.vikings.com/news/tom\-johnson\-rejoining\-vikings\-after\-stint\-with\-seahawks\|website\=Vikings.com\|date\=September 19, 2018}} After sitting out the 2019 season, Johnson announced his retirement on April 10, 2020\.{{cite news \|author\=Gantt, Darin \|title\=Longtime defensive tackle Tom Johnson retires \|url\=https://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2020/04/10/longtime\-defensive\-tackle\-tom\-johnson\-retires/ \|website\=NBCSports.com \|date\=April 10, 2020 \|accessdate\=April 14, 2020}} ### NFL statistics | Season | | Games | | Tackles | | | | | Interceptions | | | | | | Fumbles | | | | | Year | Team | {{tooltip\|GP\|Games played (regular season)}} | {{tooltip\|GS\|Games started (regular season)}} | {{Tooltip\| Total \| Total tackles}} | {{Tooltip\| Solo \| Solo tackles}} | {{Tooltip\| Ast \| Assisted tackles}} | {{Tooltip\| Sck \| Sacks}} | {{Tooltip\| Sfty \| Safeties}} | {{Tooltip\| PDef \| Passes defended}} | {{Tooltip\| Int \| Interceptions}} | {{Tooltip\| Yds \| Return yards}} | {{Tooltip\| Avg \| Average return yards}} | {{Tooltip\| Lng \| Long interception}} | {{Tooltip\| TDs \| Touchdowns}} | {{Tooltip\|FF\|Forced fumbles}} | {{Tooltip\|FR\|Fumble recoveries}} | {{Tooltip\|YDS\|Fumble return yards}} | {{Tooltip\|TD\|Touchdowns}} | | [2011](/wiki/2011_NFL_season "2011 NFL season") | [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/2011_New_Orleans_Saints_season "2011 New Orleans Saints season") | 13 | 0 | 15 | 11 | 4 | 1\.0 | \-\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\.0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | [2012](/wiki/2012_NFL_season "2012 NFL season") | [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/2012_New_Orleans_Saints_season "2012 New Orleans Saints season") | 15 | 0 | 28 | 18 | 10 | 2\.0 | \-\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | [2013](/wiki/2013_NFL_season "2013 NFL season") | [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/2013_New_Orleans_Saints_season "2013 New Orleans Saints season") | 12 | 0 | 12 | 6 | 6 | 2\.0 | \-\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | [2014](/wiki/2014_NFL_season "2014 NFL season") | [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2014_Minnesota_Vikings_season "2014 Minnesota Vikings season") | 16 | 2 | 22 | 14 | 8 | 6\.5 | \-\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\.0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | [2015](/wiki/2015_NFL_season "2015 NFL season") | [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2015_Minnesota_Vikings_season "2015 Minnesota Vikings season") | 16 | 8 | 36 | 25 | 11 | 5\.5 | \-\- | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0\.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | [2016](/wiki/2016_NFL_season "2016 NFL season") | [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2016_Minnesota_Vikings_season "2016 Minnesota Vikings season") | 14 | 0 | 17 | 11 | 6 | 2\.0 | \-\- | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4\.0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | [2017](/wiki/2017_NFL_season "2017 NFL season") | [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2017_Minnesota_Vikings_season "2017 Minnesota Vikings season") | 16 | 15 | 32 | 17 | 15 | 2\.0 | \-\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Total | | 102 | 25 | 162 | 102 | 60 | 21\.0 | \-\- | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4\.0 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | {{cite web\|title\=Tom Johnson Stats\|url\=http://www.espn.com/nfl/player/\_/id/16695/tom\-johnson\|website\=ESPN\|publisher\=ESPN Internet Ventures\|accessdate\=August 26, 2016}}
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "### Indianapolis Colts", "After going undrafted in the [2006 NFL draft](/wiki/2006_NFL_draft \"2006 NFL draft\"), Johnson joined the [Indianapolis Colts](/wiki/Indianapolis_Colts \"Indianapolis Colts\") on May 1, 2006, and was signed on May 9\\. He was released at the end of [training camp](/wiki/Training_camp \"Training camp\") on September 2, 2006\\. Johnson didn't play football for the rest of 2006\\. On January 4, 2007, he was re\\-signed by the Colts and then assigned to the [Cologne Centurions](/wiki/Cologne_Centurions_%28NFL_Europe%29 \"Cologne Centurions (NFL Europe)\") of the [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europe \"NFL Europe\"), where he notched 2\\.5 sacks during the 2007 season. Following the season, he returned to the United States to go to training camp with the Colts. He was released on August 28, 2007, in the roster cutdown.", "### Philadelphia Soul and Grand Rapids Rampage", "In 2008, Johnson played in the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\") (AFL) with the [Philadelphia Soul](/wiki/Philadelphia_Soul \"Philadelphia Soul\") and [Grand Rapids Rampage](/wiki/Grand_Rapids_Rampage \"Grand Rapids Rampage\"). Listed at 6'3\", 288, Johnson played in four games with the Soul and recorded 3 tackles and 2 fumble recoveries before being waived after he had been named defensive player of a game. Johnson played the last six games of the 2008 season with the Rampage and collected 2 tackles and a sack.", "### Calgary Stampeders", "On February 19, 2009, Johnson was signed by the [Calgary Stampeders](/wiki/Calgary_Stampeders \"Calgary Stampeders\") of the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League \"Canadian Football League\") (CFL). He arrived at training camp with high expectations, but was hampered by injuries, and then missed the Stamps' season opener on July 1 in order to attend the funeral of his grandfather.[Tom Johnson set to make CFL debut](https://calgaryherald.com/sports/football/cfl/calgary-stampeders/tom-johnson-set-to-make-cfl-debut) In his CFL debut season, Johnson played in 6 games for Calgary, starting all of them, and was credited with 3\\.0 sacks and 13 tackles, helping the team advance to the West Division Final before losing to the [Saskatchewan Roughriders](/wiki/Saskatchewan_Roughriders \"Saskatchewan Roughriders\"). In his second season with the Stampeders, Johnson was part of a defensive unit that tied for first in the league in yards per carry allowed (only 5\\.5\\) and that saw him dominate the rivals' offensive linemens for 39 total tackles and four sacks, helping lead Calgary to a 13–5 record and a first\\-round bye into the league's division final and earning [West Division](/wiki/CFL_West_Division \"CFL West Division\") All\\-star honors for his outstanding work as Calgary dominated the All\\-Star ballot with 13 selections.[CFL East and West All\\-Stars announced](https://www.cfl.ca/2010/11/10/cfl-east-and-west-all-stars-announced/)", "### New Orleans Saints", "On January 20, 2011, Johnson was signed to a three\\-year contract with the New Orleans Saints that would end up paying him more than $1\\.6 million. His $75,000 signing bonus alone was more than seven years worth of NFL Europe money. Johnson finally landed in an NFL roster spot at the age of 27, five seasons after his rookie season back in 2006\\. Johnson stated that he picked the Saints because he fit well in the aggressive 4\\-3 scheme under then\\-defensive coordinator [Gregg Williams](/wiki/Gregg_Williams \"Gregg Williams\").[Tom Johnson's football oddysey](http://www.twincities.com/2014/05/30/minnesota-vikings-new-dt-tom-johnson-lives-a-football-odyssey/) Showing the persistence to jumpstart an NFL career by appearing in different football leagues, Johnson became a significant contributor to the New Orleans defensive line rotation during his tenure with the team. As a member of the Saints, Johnson appeared in 40 games over three seasons and posted 55 tackles (35 solo), five sacks and a forced fumble.", "#### 2011 season", "Johnson made his debut on an NFL regular\\-season roster for a 2011 Saints club that went 13\\-3 and advanced to the NFC Divisional Playoffs. After recovering from a calf injury suffered in training camp, Johnson appeared in 13 games and recorded 15 tackles (11 solo), one sack and one forced fumble. On December 28, he was credited with his first career sack when he tackled Vikings' quarterback [Christian Ponder](/wiki/Christian_Ponder \"Christian Ponder\") for a six\\-yard loss in the win at Minnesota. In the playoffs, he played in both games for the Saints, that featured a win over the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\") in the wild\\-card round and a loss against the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers \"San Francisco 49ers\") in the divisional round.", "#### 2012 season", "In his second season with the Saints, Johnson played in 15 games as a reserve at defensive tackle and finished with 33 tackles (21 solo) and two sacks, setting then career\\-highs in both categories. He got his first sack of the season at the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/Oakland_Raiders \"Oakland Raiders\") on November 18, bringing down [Carson Palmer](/wiki/Carson_Palmer \"Carson Palmer\"). In week 16 against the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys \"Dallas Cowboys\"), he brought down [Tony Romo](/wiki/Tony_Romo \"Tony Romo\") for an eight\\-yard loss on third down that forced the Cowboys to punt. He tallied a season\\-high 4 tackles in the final game of the season against the [Carolina Panthers](/wiki/Carolina_Panthers \"Carolina Panthers\").", "#### 2013 season", "In his last season with the Saints in 2013, Johnson saw action in 12 regular season games as he was inactive weeks 3–4 with a hamstring injury and also inactive for the final two contests of the regular season. He played in both playoff contests, seeing significant action in the team's defensive line rotation. He had 15 tackles (6 solo) and tied a career\\-high with two sacks. On December 2, he tied a career\\-high with four tackles at the [Seattle Seahawks](/wiki/Seattle_Seahawks \"Seattle Seahawks\"). In the NFC Wild Card Playoff game at the [Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eagles \"Philadelphia Eagles\"), he was credited with one assisted tackle.", "### Minnesota Vikings", "On March 19, 2014, Johnson signed a one\\-year contract with the [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/Minnesota_Vikings \"Minnesota Vikings\") worth $845,000 that included a $100,000 signing bonus and had incentives up to an additional $600,000\\. He was also being looked at by Chicago, Dallas, Miami and Seattle.{{cite news \\|first\\=Christopher \\|last\\=Gates \\|title\\=Tom Johnson Signs With Minnesota Vikings \\|url\\=http://www.dailynorseman.com/2014/3/20/5528874/tom\\-johnson\\-signs\\-with\\-minnesota\\-vikings \\|work\\=Daily Norseman \\|publisher\\=Vox Media \\|date\\=March 20, 2014 \\|accessdate\\=March 20, 2014 }} After a surprising career\\-year with the Vikings in which he recorded 6\\.5 sacks after entering the season with 5\\.0 sacks in his 40 previous career games, Johnson re\\-signed with the Vikings during the 2015 offseason. Johnson ranks sixth in the league among interior linemen over the past 2 seasons with 12\\.0 sacks, with that being the highest total by an undrafted defensive tackle in that span. He played in his fifth career playoff game when the Vikings hosted the [Seattle Seahawks](/wiki/Seattle_Seahawks \"Seattle Seahawks\") on January 10, 2016\\.", "#### 2014 season", "Johnson enjoyed a breakout season as a reserve defensive tackle in his first season as a Viking as he posted 22 total tackles, 6\\.5 sacks (a career\\-high that ranked him ranked fifth in the NFC for most sacks by a defensive tackle) and a forced fumble, playing a key role in the Vikings defensive transformation under new Head Coach [Mike Zimmer](/wiki/Mike_Zimmer \"Mike Zimmer\"), the most improved defense in the NFL in 2014\\. In the season\\-opener win at the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/St._Louis_Rams \"St. Louis Rams\"), he entered the game as a reserve defensive tackle and was credited with a strip\\-sack and 2 tackles. In week 3, he started his first game as a Viking against his old [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints \"New Orleans Saints\") teammates on September 21 and then started against the Detroit Lions three weeks later. From that game on, he had a streak of 4 straight weeks with at least 0\\.5 sack in a game (Detroit (10/12\\), at Buffalo (10/19\\), at Tampa Bay (10/26\\) and Washington (11/2\\). On November 30, he notched a career\\-high 5 tackles against the [Carolina Panthers](/wiki/Carolina_Panthers \"Carolina Panthers\"). Following the season, [Pro Football Focus](/wiki/Pro_Football_Focus \"Pro Football Focus\") (PFF) ranked Johnson the Vikings' best interior pass\\-rusher, crediting him with 30 pressures in 301 pass\\-rush snaps.[PFF PRP, DEFENSIVE INTERIOR](https://www.profootballfocus.com/sig-stats-prp-defensive-interior/)", "#### 2015 season", "On March 8, 2015, Johnson re\\-signed with the Vikings on a three\\-year contract. According to a league source, he agreed on a three\\-year deal worth a total of $7 million with a $1\\.5 million signing bonus and approximately $3 million in guaranteed money.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Gantt\\|first1\\=Darin\\|title\\=Vikings keep defensive tackle Tom Johnson with three\\-year deal\\|date\\=March 8, 2015 \\|url\\=http://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2015/03/08/vikings\\-keep\\-defensive\\-tackle\\-tom\\-johnson\\-with\\-three\\-year\\-deal/\\|publisher\\=Pro Football Talk\\|accessdate\\=March 8, 2015}} The Vikings had preliminary talks with Johnson's agent, Bardia Ghahremani, about a new contract late last season, and got a new deal done before Johnson could reach the open market after the best season of his career.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.espn.com/nfl/story/\\_/id/12445683/minnesota\\-vikings\\-re\\-sign\\-defensive\\-tackle\\-tom\\-johnson\\|title\\=Vikings re\\-sign DT Tom Johnson\\|author\\=Goessling, Ben\\|website\\=ESPN.com\\|date\\=March 8, 2015}} Johnson went on to start a career\\-high 8 games and played in all 16 along with the Wild Card Playoff game. He helped the Vikings claim the [NFC North](/wiki/NFC_North \"NFC North\") title for the first time since the 2009 season, winning the crown in the regular season finale at the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\"), snapping the Packers’ 4\\-year streak. He recorded 5\\.5 sacks on the season, trailing only his career\\-high 6\\.5 set in his 2014 debut with the Vikings. He started 8 games at defensive tackle when [Sharrif Floyd](/wiki/Sharrif_Floyd \"Sharrif Floyd\") would shift to nose tackle in place of injured [Linval Joseph](/wiki/Linval_Joseph \"Linval Joseph\"). He posted his first career multi\\-sack game against the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants \"New York Giants\") on December 27 when he brought down [Eli Manning](/wiki/Eli_Manning \"Eli Manning\") twice. He broke his previous career\\-high 5 tackles set in 2014 with 7 tackles against the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/St._Louis_Rams \"St. Louis Rams\") in week 9, helping hold rookie sensation [Todd Gurley](/wiki/Todd_Gurley \"Todd Gurley\") in check during the Vikings overtime victory.", "#### 2016 season", "After a quiet Week 1, in which Johnson wasn't credited with a single tackle, he contributed with one of the five sacks the Vikings' defensive line had on [Aaron Rodgers](/wiki/Aaron_Rodgers \"Aaron Rodgers\") during the team's 17–14 win over the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\") in [U.S. Bank Stadium](/wiki/U.S._Bank_Stadium \"U.S. Bank Stadium\"). In Week 3, Johnson intercepted the first pass of his career when Panthers' [Cam Newton](/wiki/Cam_Newton \"Cam Newton\") threw the ball away on a desperate toss. He suffered a torn hamstring in Week 15 and was placed on injured reserve on December 20, 2016\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Vikings Place Tom Johnson on IR; Sign Toby Johnson\\|url\\=https://www.vikings.com/news/vikings\\-place\\-tom\\-johnson\\-on\\-ir\\-sign\\-toby\\-johnson\\-18306462\\|author\\=Peters, Craig\\|website\\=Vikings.com\\|date\\=December 20, 2016}}", "### Seattle Seahawks", "On March 23, 2018, Johnson signed with the [Seattle Seahawks](/wiki/Seattle_Seahawks \"Seattle Seahawks\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Seahawks Sign Defensive Tackle Tom Johnson\\|url\\=https://www.seahawks.com/news/seahawks\\-sign\\-defensive\\-tackle\\-tom\\-johnson\\-206071\\|author\\=Boyle, John\\|website\\=Seahawks.com\\|date\\=March 23, 2018}} He was released on September 15, 2018\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Seahawks Promote Shalom Luani From Practice Squad; Release Tom Johnson\\|url\\=https://www.seahawks.com/news/seahawks\\-promote\\-shalom\\-luani\\-from\\-practice\\-squad\\-release\\-tom\\-johnson\\|author\\=Boyle, John\\|website\\=Seahawks.com\\|date\\=September 15, 2018}}", "### Minnesota Vikings (second stint)", "On September 19, 2018, Johnson re\\-signed with the Minnesota Vikings.{{cite web\\|title\\=Tom Johnson Rejoining Vikings After Stint with Seahawks\\|url\\=https://www.vikings.com/news/tom\\-johnson\\-rejoining\\-vikings\\-after\\-stint\\-with\\-seahawks\\|website\\=Vikings.com\\|date\\=September 19, 2018}}", "After sitting out the 2019 season, Johnson announced his retirement on April 10, 2020\\.{{cite news \\|author\\=Gantt, Darin \\|title\\=Longtime defensive tackle Tom Johnson retires \\|url\\=https://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2020/04/10/longtime\\-defensive\\-tackle\\-tom\\-johnson\\-retires/ \\|website\\=NBCSports.com \\|date\\=April 10, 2020 \\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2020}}", "### NFL statistics", "", "| Season | | Games | | Tackles | | | | | Interceptions | | | | | | Fumbles | | | |\n| Year | Team | {{tooltip\\|GP\\|Games played (regular season)}} | {{tooltip\\|GS\\|Games started (regular season)}} | {{Tooltip\\| Total \\| Total tackles}} | {{Tooltip\\| Solo \\| Solo tackles}} | {{Tooltip\\| Ast \\| Assisted tackles}} | {{Tooltip\\| Sck \\| Sacks}} | {{Tooltip\\| Sfty \\| Safeties}} | {{Tooltip\\| PDef \\| Passes defended}} | {{Tooltip\\| Int \\| Interceptions}} | {{Tooltip\\| Yds \\| Return yards}} | {{Tooltip\\| Avg \\| Average return yards}} | {{Tooltip\\| Lng \\| Long interception}} | {{Tooltip\\| TDs \\| Touchdowns}} | {{Tooltip\\|FF\\|Forced fumbles}} | {{Tooltip\\|FR\\|Fumble recoveries}} | {{Tooltip\\|YDS\\|Fumble return yards}} | {{Tooltip\\|TD\\|Touchdowns}} |\n| [2011](/wiki/2011_NFL_season \"2011 NFL season\") | [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/2011_New_Orleans_Saints_season \"2011 New Orleans Saints season\") | 13 | 0 | 15 | 11 | 4 | 1\\.0 | \\-\\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\\.0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n| [2012](/wiki/2012_NFL_season \"2012 NFL season\") | [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/2012_New_Orleans_Saints_season \"2012 New Orleans Saints season\") | 15 | 0 | 28 | 18 | 10 | 2\\.0 | \\-\\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\\.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n| [2013](/wiki/2013_NFL_season \"2013 NFL season\") | [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/2013_New_Orleans_Saints_season \"2013 New Orleans Saints season\") | 12 | 0 | 12 | 6 | 6 | 2\\.0 | \\-\\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\\.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n| [2014](/wiki/2014_NFL_season \"2014 NFL season\") | [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2014_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"2014 Minnesota Vikings season\") | 16 | 2 | 22 | 14 | 8 | 6\\.5 | \\-\\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\\.0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n| [2015](/wiki/2015_NFL_season \"2015 NFL season\") | [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2015_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"2015 Minnesota Vikings season\") | 16 | 8 | 36 | 25 | 11 | 5\\.5 | \\-\\- | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0\\.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n| [2016](/wiki/2016_NFL_season \"2016 NFL season\") | [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2016_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"2016 Minnesota Vikings season\") | 14 | 0 | 17 | 11 | 6 | 2\\.0 | \\-\\- | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4\\.0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n| [2017](/wiki/2017_NFL_season \"2017 NFL season\") | [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/2017_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"2017 Minnesota Vikings season\") | 16 | 15 | 32 | 17 | 15 | 2\\.0 | \\-\\- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0\\.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n| Total | | 102 | 25 | 162 | 102 | 60 | 21\\.0 | \\-\\- | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4\\.0 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n{{cite web\\|title\\=Tom Johnson Stats\\|url\\=http://www.espn.com/nfl/player/\\_/id/16695/tom\\-johnson\\|website\\=ESPN\\|publisher\\=ESPN Internet Ventures\\|accessdate\\=August 26, 2016}}", "" ]
College of Fisheries -------------------- [thumb\|Cobb photo of the College of Fisheries building at UW, ca. 1921](/wiki/File:College_of_Fisheries_building%2C_University_of_Washington%2C_ca_1921_%28COBB_327%29.jpeg "College of Fisheries building, University of Washington, ca 1921 (COBB 327).jpeg") The origin of the idea of a fisheries school at the University of Washington is unknown, but Miller Freeman, owner of *Pacific Fisherman* magazine and Cobb's one\-time supervisor, likely played a vital role in the establishment of this new College. In his memoirs, Freeman wrote that he used the editorial pages of *Pacific Fisherman* to advocate the establishment of a school of fisheries at the [University of Washington](/wiki/University_of_Washington "University of Washington") as early as 1914\. Hugh McCormick Smith (1865‒1941\), Commissioner, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, was also an active supporter of the proposed school. At the University of Washington, planning for a school of fisheries continued at a more rapid pace. In October 1918, UW President Henry Suzzallo (1875‒1933\) wrote Cobb that through Miller Freeman he had heard that Cobb "might like to participate in the organization of such a school as a member of this faculty." Suzzallo was most concerned about the salary Cobb would require, noting that "Until this year our maximum salary has been $3,000\." Cobb responded to Suzzallo on December 26, 1918, with his application for the position of director, and he noted that he had merely a common school education. He listed some 35 publications on fisheries topics in his application. Suzzallo answered Cobb on January 4, 1919, appointing him Professor of Fisheries, administrative head of the Department of Fisheries, and Director of the College of Fisheries, at a salary of $4,000 per year. Cobb's initial appointment was for a four\-year period. Two weeks later, on 17 January 1919, Suzzallo recommended to the Board of Regents that a College of Fisheries be established at the University of Washington. The Board agreed and the establishment of the College was authorized. This event was duly reported in the *Pacific Fisherman*. Cobb began the new College on a fast track. In an announcement for the College of Fisheries issued in early 1919, he wrote that so much interest was generated by the announcement of the establishment of the College that "Professor Cobb, the Director, is open \[sic] it for the coming spring quarter, March 31st, instead of waiting until the beginning of the fall quarter as originally planned." The announcement indicated the College would offer a four\-year course of instruction in Fish Culture and Fisheries Technology, and briefly described the potential job market for graduates. The announcement further stated that the College would, so far as possible, "assist students in securing employment during summer vacations" in various aspects of the fishing industry, hatcheries, and elsewhere. The new college apparently began life housed in two temporary wooden buildings along the [Lake Washington](/wiki/Lake_Washington "Lake Washington") Ship Canal at the southern margin of the UW campus. The College soon relocated to other "temporary" housing located just north of the present UW Medical Center, where it remained until new quarters were built in the early 1950s. The initial faculty consisted of two new hires, one who taught courses in fish culture and another who was responsible for courses in fisheries technology. Trevor Charles Digby Kincaid (1872‒1970\) of the Zoology Department taught ichthyology. Cobb taught at various times Introduction to Fisheries, Fisheries Methods, Fisheries Problems, and History of Fisheries. [thumb\| Faculty of the UW College of Fisheries, 1929\. Left to right: Norman Jarvis, Donald Crawford, John Cobb, Clarence Parks, and Leonard Schultz. University of Washington Archives, UW 15484\.](/wiki/File:UW_Fisheries_Faculty.jpg "UW Fisheries Faculty.jpg") During Cobb's directorship, the faculty remained small and underwent considerable turnover, likely caused in part by the low salaries paid to instructors. The number of faculty listed in course catalogs from 1919 to 1930 ranged from two to five, including Cobb. Numerous "Associated Faculty" drawn from other UW departments or from industry or government agencies were listed in the Colleges entry in UW Course Catalogs. The design of the curriculum largely followed that suggested earlier to the UW President by Professor Kincaid and previously outlined by Cobb. Two curricular tracks were initially established, fish culture and fisheries technology. The two lines of inquiry were quite similar for the first two years, differing mainly in that the requirements for the technology major included twice as many chemistry credits as did the fish culture major. The number of fisheries courses offered increased from 12 in the initial year of the College to 24 in the academic year 1928 to 1929\. [thumb\|Cobb in his office at UW](/wiki/File:John_Cobb_in_his_office%2C_University_of_Washington_campus%2C_nd_%28COBB_325%29.jpeg "John Cobb in his office, University of Washington campus, nd (COBB 325).jpeg") Enrollment in the college was strong during the first decade of its existence, ranging from 30 to 117 students a year. The College initially offered Bachelor and Master of Science Degrees and, later, a Doctor of Philosophy Degree. The first graduating class in Fisheries was in 1922, with five B.S. degrees conferred as well as the first Ph.D. degree, awarded to Ray Clough, then on the College of Fisheries faculty. Identical numbers of degrees were apparently awarded each year in 1923, 1924, and 1925\. The first M.S. degree was awarded in 1924 to Clarence Anderson, also on the faculty of the College. During Cobb's reign as Director and Dean, there were 31 B.S. degrees granted (from 1919 through the 1928 academic year) as well as one M.A., eight M.S., and two Ph.D. degrees. Thus, only about 42 students graduated during the first decade of the College. Cobb vigorously promoted the college in a variety of ways. As a former newspaperman, he ensured that many articles were published in the local press. The College was also the subject of attention in the national and international print media. As Dean, he was the subject of a number of profiles in various newspapers and magazines. Cobb published several articles about the College and gave talks about fisheries to various clubs and organizations in Seattle as well as towns in outlying areas. Cobb was also active in the community, holding memberships in the Arctic Club of Seattle, the Puget Sound Academy of Science, and the Aquarium Society of Seattle for which he served as founding president. All of these social engagements served as a focal point for the College and for Cobb. After spending some time in the university system, Cobb became aware that the college was not held in high esteem by many of his colleagues, likely because of its applied emphasis and lack of scholarly endeavor. Cobb initiated three actions likely designed to counter some of this criticism. In 1924 he began a research program on the passage of salmon over dams in which he was the sole investigator, he initiated in 1925 a journal of the College titled *UW Publications in Fisheries*, and he hired a trained ichthyologist to teach and conduct research. Cobb and the department became involved in opposing the rise of new hydroelectric dams in the Northwest. Cobb himself began research on how to pass salmon over high dams, but was not qualified to do such research. He did not seek help from either biologists or engineers and his efforts became the focus of strong criticism. Cobb's experiments were a failure and he encountered substantial criticism from various quarters. It was obvious that he did not have a sufficient background in science or engineering to conduct this work. In the late 1920s, Cobb planned to create a Department of Ichthyology that would be "separate" from the applied courses in the College. Presumably this new department would engage in "scholarly research." In 1927, he began to search for a qualified ichthyologist to teach, conduct research, and to begin a systematic fish collection in the College. After a nation\-wide search, Cobb selected Leonard Peter Schultz (1901‒1986\) whom Cobb had met in 1926\. Schultz had received an M.S. degree at the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan") and was teaching zoology at the Michigan State Normal College at Ypsilanti. Schultz was apparently planning to pursue a Ph.D. degree in ichthyology at the University of Michigan. Schultz moved to Seattle in the fall of 1928 and immediately began to teach and to assemble a research collection of fishes. Cobb was well known for having a "strong personality." He apparently antagonized the faculty, but the hostility of his colleagues did not surface until Cobb's incapacitation due to ill health in 1929\. In a ten\-page memorandum titled "Confidential: Conditions at the College of Fisheries" and signed "Staff," the authors laid out a series of complaints against the Dean. The authors wrote that the College had lost prestige, mainly since 1925, due to the Dean's activities. They criticized Cobb's work on passage of salmon over dams complaining that he was unqualified to do so because he lacked training as a scientist and was neither a biologist nor an engineer. Complaints about his "science" also reached the news media.
[ "College of Fisheries\n--------------------", "[thumb\\|Cobb photo of the College of Fisheries building at UW, ca. 1921](/wiki/File:College_of_Fisheries_building%2C_University_of_Washington%2C_ca_1921_%28COBB_327%29.jpeg \"College of Fisheries building, University of Washington, ca 1921 (COBB 327).jpeg\")\nThe origin of the idea of a fisheries school at the University of Washington is unknown, but Miller Freeman, owner of *Pacific Fisherman* magazine and Cobb's one\\-time supervisor, likely played a vital role in the establishment of this new College. In his memoirs, Freeman wrote that he used the editorial pages of *Pacific Fisherman* to advocate the establishment of a school of fisheries at the [University of Washington](/wiki/University_of_Washington \"University of Washington\") as early as 1914\\. Hugh McCormick Smith (1865‒1941\\), Commissioner, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, was also an active supporter of the proposed school.", "At the University of Washington, planning for a school of fisheries continued at a more rapid pace. In October 1918, UW President Henry Suzzallo (1875‒1933\\) wrote Cobb that through Miller Freeman he had heard that Cobb \"might like to participate in the organization of such a school as a member of this faculty.\" Suzzallo was most concerned about the salary Cobb would require, noting that \"Until this year our maximum salary has been $3,000\\.\" Cobb responded to Suzzallo on December 26, 1918, with his application for the position of director, and he noted that he had merely a common school education. He listed some 35 publications on fisheries topics in his application. Suzzallo answered Cobb on January 4, 1919, appointing him Professor of Fisheries, administrative head of the Department of Fisheries, and Director of the College of Fisheries, at a salary of $4,000 per year. Cobb's initial appointment was for a four\\-year period. Two weeks later, on 17 January 1919, Suzzallo recommended to the Board of Regents that a College of Fisheries be established at the University of Washington. The Board agreed and the establishment of the College was authorized. This event was duly reported in the *Pacific Fisherman*.", "Cobb began the new College on a fast track. In an announcement for the College of Fisheries issued in early 1919, he wrote that so much interest was generated by the announcement of the establishment of the College that \"Professor Cobb, the Director, is open \\[sic] it for the coming spring quarter, March 31st, instead of waiting until the beginning of the fall quarter as originally planned.\" The announcement indicated the College would offer a four\\-year course of instruction in Fish Culture and Fisheries Technology, and briefly described the potential job market for graduates. The announcement further stated that the College would, so far as possible, \"assist students in securing employment during summer vacations\" in various aspects of the fishing industry, hatcheries, and elsewhere.", "The new college apparently began life housed in two temporary wooden buildings along the [Lake Washington](/wiki/Lake_Washington \"Lake Washington\") Ship Canal at the southern margin of the UW campus. The College soon relocated to other \"temporary\" housing located just north of the present UW Medical Center, where it remained until new quarters were built in the early 1950s. The initial faculty consisted of two new hires, one who taught courses in fish culture and another who was responsible for courses in fisheries technology. Trevor Charles Digby Kincaid (1872‒1970\\) of the Zoology Department taught ichthyology. Cobb taught at various times Introduction to Fisheries, Fisheries Methods, Fisheries Problems, and History of Fisheries.", "[thumb\\|\nFaculty of the UW College of Fisheries, 1929\\.", "Left to right: Norman Jarvis, Donald Crawford, John Cobb, Clarence Parks, and Leonard Schultz. University of Washington Archives, UW 15484\\.](/wiki/File:UW_Fisheries_Faculty.jpg \"UW Fisheries Faculty.jpg\")", "During Cobb's directorship, the faculty remained small and underwent considerable turnover, likely caused in part by the low salaries paid to instructors. The number of faculty listed in course catalogs from 1919 to 1930 ranged from two to five, including Cobb. Numerous \"Associated Faculty\" drawn from other UW departments or from industry or government agencies were listed in the Colleges entry in UW Course Catalogs.", "The design of the curriculum largely followed that suggested earlier to the UW President by Professor Kincaid and previously outlined by Cobb. Two curricular tracks were initially established, fish culture and fisheries technology. The two lines of inquiry were quite similar for the first two years, differing mainly in that the requirements for the technology major included twice as many chemistry credits as did the fish culture major. The number of fisheries courses offered increased from 12 in the initial year of the College to 24 in the academic year 1928 to 1929\\.", "[thumb\\|Cobb in his office at UW](/wiki/File:John_Cobb_in_his_office%2C_University_of_Washington_campus%2C_nd_%28COBB_325%29.jpeg \"John Cobb in his office, University of Washington campus, nd (COBB 325).jpeg\")\nEnrollment in the college was strong during the first decade of its existence, ranging from 30 to 117 students a year. The College initially offered Bachelor and Master of Science Degrees and, later, a Doctor of Philosophy Degree. The first graduating class in Fisheries was in 1922, with five B.S. degrees conferred as well as the first Ph.D. degree, awarded to Ray Clough, then on the College of Fisheries faculty. Identical numbers of degrees were apparently awarded each year in 1923, 1924, and 1925\\. The first M.S. degree was awarded in 1924 to Clarence Anderson, also on the faculty of the College. During Cobb's reign as Director and Dean, there were 31 B.S. degrees granted (from 1919 through the 1928 academic year) as well as one M.A., eight M.S., and two Ph.D. degrees. Thus, only about 42 students graduated during the first decade of the College.", "Cobb vigorously promoted the college in a variety of ways. As a former newspaperman, he ensured that many articles were published in the local press. The College was also the subject of attention in the national and international print media. As Dean, he was the subject of a number of profiles in various newspapers and magazines. Cobb published several articles about the College and gave talks about fisheries to various clubs and organizations in Seattle as well as towns in outlying areas. Cobb was also active in the community, holding memberships in the Arctic Club of Seattle, the Puget Sound Academy of Science, and the Aquarium Society of Seattle for which he served as founding president. All of these social engagements served as a focal point for the College and for Cobb.", "After spending some time in the university system, Cobb became aware that the college was not held in high esteem by many of his colleagues, likely because of its applied emphasis and lack of scholarly endeavor. Cobb initiated three actions likely designed to counter some of this criticism. In 1924 he began a research program on the passage of salmon over dams in which he was the sole investigator, he initiated in 1925 a journal of the College titled *UW Publications in Fisheries*, and he hired a trained ichthyologist to teach and conduct research.", "Cobb and the department became involved in opposing the rise of new hydroelectric dams in the Northwest. Cobb himself began research on how to pass salmon over high dams, but was not qualified to do such research. He did not seek help from either biologists or engineers and his efforts became the focus of strong criticism. Cobb's experiments were a failure and he encountered substantial criticism from various quarters. It was obvious that he did not have a sufficient background in science or engineering to conduct this work.", "In the late 1920s, Cobb planned to create a Department of Ichthyology that would be \"separate\" from the applied courses in the College. Presumably this new department would engage in \"scholarly research.\" In 1927, he began to search for a qualified ichthyologist to teach, conduct research, and to begin a systematic fish collection in the College. After a nation\\-wide search, Cobb selected Leonard Peter Schultz (1901‒1986\\) whom Cobb had met in 1926\\. Schultz had received an M.S. degree at the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\") and was teaching zoology at the Michigan State Normal College at Ypsilanti. Schultz was apparently planning to pursue a Ph.D. degree in ichthyology at the University of Michigan. Schultz moved to Seattle in the fall of 1928 and immediately began to teach and to assemble a research collection of fishes.", "Cobb was well known for having a \"strong personality.\" He apparently antagonized the faculty, but the hostility of his colleagues did not surface until Cobb's incapacitation due to ill health in 1929\\. In a ten\\-page memorandum titled \"Confidential: Conditions at the College of Fisheries\" and signed \"Staff,\" the authors laid out a series of complaints against the Dean. The authors wrote that the College had lost prestige, mainly since 1925, due to the Dean's activities. They criticized Cobb's work on passage of salmon over dams complaining that he was unqualified to do so because he lacked training as a scientist and was neither a biologist nor an engineer. Complaints about his \"science\" also reached the news media.", "" ]
Later life and death -------------------- John Nathan Cobb suffered from heart disease and endured a heart attack in the summer of 1929\. He was ill for many months and spent his final days in the warmer climate of [La Jolla, California](/wiki/La_Jolla%2C_California "La Jolla, California"), where he died on January 13, 1930, at the age of 61\. His death was prominently noted in local newspapers and in numerous fisheries publications. Shortly after Cobb's death, Washington State Governor [Roland Hill Hartley](/wiki/Roland_Hill_Hartley "Roland Hill Hartley") (1864‒1952\) appointed a new President of the University, [Matthew Lyle Spencer](/wiki/Matthew_Lyle_Spencer "Matthew Lyle Spencer") (1881‒1969\). Spencer sought scholarship and high academic standards at the UW and he did not think highly of the College of Fisheries. Apparently, courses in canning and fishing methods did not meet the new President's criteria of scholarship. As a result, the College was dissolved in April, 1930, and all faculty of the College were dismissed, except for Leonard Schultz, who was apparently considered a bona\-fide academic and was assigned to a position in the new College of Science. Uproar occurred among the students in the College who now faced a situation wherein they now had no major field. They sent a telegram to Governor Hartley protesting President Spencer's decision, stating in part that his judgment was "Protested by unanimous action of fisheries students." Upon his inquiry of the UW, Governor Hartley was told that the Board of Regents had created a new College of Science and had elected to consolidate the College of Fisheries as a Department in the new College. A new director was appointed for the department in the person of [William Francis Thompson](/wiki/William_Francis_Thompson_%28biologist%29 "William Francis Thompson (biologist)") (1888‒1965\), who was to become the dominant figure in the UW Department (later, School) of Fisheries for over 16 years and the preeminent fishery scientist of the Pacific Northwest for nearly 40 years. Thompson had offices in the College of Fisheries where, since 1925, he was Director of the International Fisheries Commission (now International Pacific Halibut Commission) charged with the management of, and research on, the Pacific halibut, *[Hippoglossus stenolepis](/wiki/Hippoglossus_stenolepis "Hippoglossus stenolepis")*, fishery. A Ph.D. from Stanford University, Thompson was appointed Research Professor and Director of the new department on a part\-time basis, as he remained Director of the International Fisheries Commission. He remained Director of the School until 1947 when he resigned to establish and head the UW's new Fisheries Research Institute. Thompson instituted an entirely new approach to fisheries education at the UW, concentrating on the emerging field of fisheries science. He revised the curriculum to emphasize basic science and not the technology of the commercial fishing industry. To the present day, the School of Fisheries (now School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences) has continued the emphasis on fisheries science and on graduate study.
[ "Later life and death\n--------------------", "John Nathan Cobb suffered from heart disease and endured a heart attack in the summer of 1929\\. He was ill for many months and spent his final days in the warmer climate of [La Jolla, California](/wiki/La_Jolla%2C_California \"La Jolla, California\"), where he died on January 13, 1930, at the age of 61\\. His death was prominently noted in local newspapers and in numerous fisheries publications.", "Shortly after Cobb's death, Washington State Governor [Roland Hill Hartley](/wiki/Roland_Hill_Hartley \"Roland Hill Hartley\") (1864‒1952\\) appointed a new President of the University, [Matthew Lyle Spencer](/wiki/Matthew_Lyle_Spencer \"Matthew Lyle Spencer\") (1881‒1969\\). Spencer sought scholarship and high academic standards at the UW and he did not think highly of the College of Fisheries. Apparently, courses in canning and fishing methods did not meet the new President's criteria of scholarship. As a result, the College was dissolved in April, 1930, and all faculty of the College were dismissed, except for Leonard Schultz, who was apparently considered a bona\\-fide academic and was assigned to a position in the new College of Science.", "Uproar occurred among the students in the College who now faced a situation wherein they now had no major field. They sent a telegram to Governor Hartley protesting President Spencer's decision, stating in part that his judgment was \"Protested by unanimous action of fisheries students.\" Upon his inquiry of the UW, Governor Hartley was told that the Board of Regents had created a new College of Science and had elected to consolidate the College of Fisheries as a Department in the new College.", "A new director was appointed for the department in the person of [William Francis Thompson](/wiki/William_Francis_Thompson_%28biologist%29 \"William Francis Thompson (biologist)\") (1888‒1965\\), who was to become the dominant figure in the UW Department (later, School) of Fisheries for over 16 years and the preeminent fishery scientist of the Pacific Northwest for nearly 40 years. Thompson had offices in the College of Fisheries where, since 1925, he was Director of the International Fisheries Commission (now International Pacific Halibut Commission) charged with the management of, and research on, the Pacific halibut, *[Hippoglossus stenolepis](/wiki/Hippoglossus_stenolepis \"Hippoglossus stenolepis\")*, fishery. A Ph.D. from Stanford University, Thompson was appointed Research Professor and Director of the new department on a part\\-time basis, as he remained Director of the International Fisheries Commission. He remained Director of the School until 1947 when he resigned to establish and head the UW's new Fisheries Research Institute.", "Thompson instituted an entirely new approach to fisheries education at the UW, concentrating on the emerging field of fisheries science. He revised the curriculum to emphasize basic science and not the technology of the commercial fishing industry. To the present day, the School of Fisheries (now School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences) has continued the emphasis on fisheries science and on graduate study.", "" ]
Biography --------- William Constable was born in Eaglehawk a suburb of [Bendigo](/wiki/Bendigo "Bendigo"), Victoria.William Henry Constable, 13 May 1950, Smith's Weekly, Sydney, <https://search.sl.nsw.gov.au/permalink/f/1ocrdrt/SLNSW_ALMA2197020680002626> Constable was raised with two younger brothers in the family of the Reverend Archibald Henry Constable, rector of St. John's Church of England. Constable's childhood home still standing next to the church in Malmsbury, a small town in regional Victoria, Australia. Trained as apprentice electrical fitter at the [Jolimont Workshops](/wiki/Jolimont_Workshops "Jolimont Workshops") he worked for Victorian Railways. He took watercolour lessons from Meta Townsend. In 1926 he was laid off from the position, he left for England, where studied in London's [Saint Martin's School of Art](/wiki/Saint_Martin%27s_School_of_Art "Saint Martin's School of Art"). At nights, he was involved with the most advanced experimental theatres in England, which set his passion for life. On return to Australia in 1930s, Constable worked on several commercial design projects, and was noticed after his very first theatrical commission in 1933, the cubist stage decorations for the Gregan McMahon Players’ production of Bridie's *Jonah and the Whale* at the Garrick in South Melbourne. The play was directed by Alec Coppel. The press claimed that the "production will be notable for the unusual settings by William Constable, a young artist who recently reached Melbourne from abroad … Constable's stage settings are great fun. They are simple and attractive." Constable took several commissions to create promotional visuals for Ford, Shell, some Government departments and even designed the float. In 1940s Constable illustrated Sir Eugene Goossens’ vision of his "dream child" Opera House. The two published an article with the visual proposal to build an Australian National Theatre in the style of a Greek amphitheatre built at Bennelong Point (4\) With Constable's departure for Europe and the scandalous conclusion of Goossen's career in Australia, the proposed design was forgotten along with a few others of the time. Constable's artwork is not held in the Opera House archives. Ironically, Constable's older son, Bill Junior, was involved in the production of the documentary 'Autopsy on a Dream' re\-discovered in 2016: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=cuHtP8OFOIA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cuHtP8OFOIA). The film contains photographs and camera work of Bill Constable Jnr. As an ABC cameraman, his job was to make video/photo recording of day by day building of what is now the iconic view of Sydney. Constable and Edouard Borovansky met in the 1940s, beginning a lifelong creative partnership and friendship. As scenic director of the Borovansky Ballet Company for 15 years, Constable was behind most productions as a designer and a painter. Frank Salter described Borovansky and Constable working together "in total harmony over his \[Constable] entire Australian career." Constable "was always fascinated by Boro's method of working with him" and often was entertained by Boro's comments, such as "You clever bastard, Bill; you’ve realised exactly what I had in mind". (2\) The 1950 World Premier of Australian ballet *Corroboree* with the Rock motif on the backdrop designed by Constable was a milestone for Constable's career. This minimalistic composition accurately translated the desert of Central Australia. He used bold organic shapes, strong details, variation in textures and contrasting colours. The inclusion of a full solar eclipse added drama and mystery, and possibly represented the everlasting life cycle. The highlighted top of the stone is the visual focus of the composition, where a pastel pink sandy foreground is the centre of action during the dance. The fine lines of dried trees, a ritual pole and still [sand waves](/wiki/Sand_waves "Sand waves") make a statement of human presence and support the greatness of the rock. Constable was production designer and Art Director for *Long John Silver*, which was shot in Sydney in 1954\. The film was produced by Joseph Kaufman at Pagewood Studios and starred Robert Newton. He also worked on the subsequent television series *The Adventures of Long John Silver* in 1956\-1957\. Constable created almost 160 dramas, operas (16 of these for Sir Eugene Goossens), ballets (mostly for the Borovansky Ballet) and a long list of films with his artistic abilities and impeccable taste as claimed by Sydney Ure. The designer illustrated books and had several commissions for theaters. In 1952 he produced two murals, one for the lower foyer of the Theatre Royal which was partially demolished to clear way for the current ML Center. And another for The Empire Theatre on Quay Street in Sydney in 1953, that was destroyed by a fire in 1970s. After departure from Australia again in 1955 for England, he produced sets and costumes for the only ballet by Sir Noël Coward *London Morning* and then dedicated himself to design for cult movies such as *Taste of Fear*, *The Hellions*, *The Skull*, *Doctor Who*, and *Casino Royal*. The village built for "Long Ships" set has become a tourist attraction in Yugoslavia. His sets and for *The Trials of Oscar Wilde* has won him Medallion for the Best Art\-Direction in Moscow 1960 Film Festival. The production of the film *Lord Jim* took Constable to Cambodia in 1963 where he extended his stay for a few months to paint. His collection of prints and paintings on Cambodia was exhibited across Australia and in England. Designer himself considered it another milestone after *Corroborree*. Constable returned to Melbourne in 1972 to design and supervise the production of the curtain for Her Majesty Theatre in Melbourne, which was recently located in Queensland. Paintings of Australia and prints of Great barrier Reef prints produced by Constable in 1970s were extensively exhibited across the country. William Constable was significant in retaining great traditions of style and perfection that were established by the Ballets Russes and its artists. His legacy in stage decor, his input into Australian theatrical design and according to Frank Van Straten, his "most important legacy, however, is the generation of Australian theatre makers who admired and loved him, and to whom he passed on his vast knowledge and his deep love of theatre" (5\). 1 Meta Townsend, wife of Reginald Sturgess, Victorian Art Society members, Australian artists, Meta Townsend's family lived in Malmsbury 2 Salter, Frank, *Borovansky, the man who made Australian ballet*, Wild Cat Press, 1980 3 Introduction to Catalogue of Exhibition, Sydney Ure Smith, O.B.E., President, Society of artists 4 Eugene Goossens, How Long Before Our Opera House Dream Comes True? *The Sunday Herald*, 17 April 1949\. <https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/page/1019234> 5 Van Straten, Frank, *The Sorcerer*, 2007 {{usurped\|1\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20070829222349/http://www.australiadancing.org/apps/ad?action\=ViewSubject\&id\=3681\&resourceType\=Manuscript William Constable biography]}} at Australian Dancing{{cite web \|title\=William Constable, 83, Painter and Designer (Published 1989\) \|website\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220074203/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/26/obituaries/william\-constable\-83\-painter\-and\-designer.html \|archive\-date\=20 December 2017 \|url\-status\=live \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/26/obituaries/william\-constable\-83\-painter\-and\-designer.html}}{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article51197276 \|title\=FLAMES AND ASHES ON NEW CURTAIN FOR HER MAJESTY'S THEATRE. \|newspaper\=\[\[The Australian Women's Weekly]] \| date\=28 November 1973 \|accessdate\=25 August 2012 \|page\=27 \|publisher\=National Library of Australia}} Sedneva, Olga, "Corroboree: White Fella Vision," original thesis for Master of Art Curatorship held by Schaeffer Library of the Power Institute Foundation for Art \& Visual Culture, the University of Sydney
[ "Biography\n---------", "William Constable was born in Eaglehawk a suburb of [Bendigo](/wiki/Bendigo \"Bendigo\"), Victoria.William Henry Constable, 13 May 1950, Smith's Weekly, Sydney, <https://search.sl.nsw.gov.au/permalink/f/1ocrdrt/SLNSW_ALMA2197020680002626> Constable was raised with two younger brothers in the family of the Reverend Archibald Henry Constable, rector of St. John's Church of England. Constable's childhood home still standing next to the church in Malmsbury, a small town in regional Victoria, Australia. Trained as apprentice electrical fitter at the [Jolimont Workshops](/wiki/Jolimont_Workshops \"Jolimont Workshops\") he worked for Victorian Railways. He took watercolour lessons from Meta Townsend. In 1926 he was laid off from the position, he left for England, where studied in London's [Saint Martin's School of Art](/wiki/Saint_Martin%27s_School_of_Art \"Saint Martin's School of Art\"). At nights, he was involved with the most advanced experimental theatres in England, which set his passion for life.", "On return to Australia in 1930s, Constable worked on several commercial design projects, and was noticed after his very first theatrical commission in 1933, the cubist stage decorations for the Gregan McMahon Players’ production of Bridie's *Jonah and the Whale* at the Garrick in South Melbourne. The play was directed by Alec Coppel. The press claimed that the \"production will be notable for the unusual settings by William Constable, a young artist who recently reached Melbourne from abroad … Constable's stage settings are great fun. They are simple and attractive.\" Constable took several commissions to create promotional visuals for Ford, Shell, some Government departments and even designed the float.", "In 1940s Constable illustrated Sir Eugene Goossens’ vision of his \"dream child\" Opera House. The two published an article with the visual proposal to build an Australian National Theatre in the style of a Greek amphitheatre built at Bennelong Point (4\\) With Constable's departure for Europe and the scandalous conclusion of Goossen's career in Australia, the proposed design was forgotten along with a few others of the time. Constable's artwork is not held in the Opera House archives.", "Ironically, Constable's older son, Bill Junior, was involved in the production of the documentary 'Autopsy on a Dream' re\\-discovered in 2016: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=cuHtP8OFOIA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cuHtP8OFOIA). The film contains photographs and camera work of Bill Constable Jnr. As an ABC cameraman, his job was to make video/photo recording of day by day building of what is now the iconic view of Sydney.", "Constable and Edouard Borovansky met in the 1940s, beginning a lifelong creative partnership and friendship. As scenic director of the Borovansky Ballet Company for 15 years, Constable was behind most productions as a designer and a painter. Frank Salter described Borovansky and Constable working together \"in total harmony over his \\[Constable] entire Australian career.\" Constable \"was always fascinated by Boro's method of working with him\" and often was entertained by Boro's comments, such as \"You clever bastard, Bill; you’ve realised exactly what I had in mind\". (2\\)", "The 1950 World Premier of Australian ballet *Corroboree* with the Rock motif on the backdrop designed by Constable was a milestone for Constable's career. This minimalistic composition accurately translated the desert of Central Australia. He used bold organic shapes, strong details, variation in textures and contrasting colours. The inclusion of a full solar eclipse added drama and mystery, and possibly represented the everlasting life cycle. The highlighted top of the stone is the visual focus of the composition, where a pastel pink sandy foreground is the centre of action during the dance. The fine lines of dried trees, a ritual pole and still [sand waves](/wiki/Sand_waves \"Sand waves\") make a statement of human presence and support the greatness of the rock.", "Constable was production designer and Art Director for *Long John Silver*, which was shot in Sydney in 1954\\. The film was produced by Joseph Kaufman at Pagewood Studios and starred Robert Newton. He also worked on the subsequent television series *The Adventures of Long John Silver* in 1956\\-1957\\.", "Constable created almost 160 dramas, operas (16 of these for Sir Eugene Goossens), ballets (mostly for the Borovansky Ballet) and a long list of films with his artistic abilities and impeccable taste as claimed by Sydney Ure.", "The designer illustrated books and had several commissions for theaters. In 1952 he produced two murals, one for the lower foyer of the Theatre Royal which was partially demolished to clear way for the current ML Center. And another for The Empire Theatre on Quay Street in Sydney in 1953, that was destroyed by a fire in 1970s.", "After departure from Australia again in 1955 for England, he produced sets and costumes for the only ballet by Sir Noël Coward *London Morning* and then dedicated himself to design for cult movies such as *Taste of Fear*, *The Hellions*, *The Skull*, *Doctor Who*, and *Casino Royal*. The village built for \"Long Ships\" set has become a tourist attraction in Yugoslavia. His sets and for *The Trials of Oscar Wilde* has won him Medallion for the Best Art\\-Direction in Moscow 1960 Film Festival.", "The production of the film *Lord Jim* took Constable to Cambodia in 1963 where he extended his stay for a few months to paint. His collection of prints and paintings on Cambodia was exhibited across Australia and in England. Designer himself considered it another milestone after *Corroborree*.", "Constable returned to Melbourne in 1972 to design and supervise the production of the curtain for Her Majesty Theatre in Melbourne, which was recently located in Queensland.", "Paintings of Australia and prints of Great barrier Reef prints produced by Constable in 1970s were extensively exhibited across the country.", "William Constable was significant in retaining great traditions of style and perfection that were established by the Ballets Russes and its artists. His legacy in stage decor, his input into Australian theatrical design and according to Frank Van Straten, his \"most important legacy, however, is the generation of Australian theatre makers who admired and loved him, and to whom he passed on his vast knowledge and his deep love of theatre\" (5\\).", "1 Meta Townsend, wife of Reginald Sturgess, Victorian Art Society members, Australian artists, Meta Townsend's family lived in Malmsbury\n2 Salter, Frank, *Borovansky, the man who made Australian ballet*, Wild Cat Press, 1980 \n3 Introduction to Catalogue of Exhibition, Sydney Ure Smith, O.B.E., President, Society of artists \n4 Eugene Goossens, How Long Before Our Opera House Dream Comes True? *The Sunday Herald*, 17 April 1949\\. <https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/page/1019234>\n5 Van Straten, Frank, *The Sorcerer*, 2007", "{{usurped\\|1\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20070829222349/http://www.australiadancing.org/apps/ad?action\\=ViewSubject\\&id\\=3681\\&resourceType\\=Manuscript William Constable biography]}} at Australian Dancing{{cite web \\|title\\=William Constable, 83, Painter and Designer (Published 1989\\) \\|website\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220074203/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/26/obituaries/william\\-constable\\-83\\-painter\\-and\\-designer.html \\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/26/obituaries/william\\-constable\\-83\\-painter\\-and\\-designer.html}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article51197276 \\|title\\=FLAMES AND ASHES ON NEW CURTAIN FOR HER MAJESTY'S THEATRE. \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Australian Women's Weekly]] \\| date\\=28 November 1973 \\|accessdate\\=25 August 2012 \\|page\\=27 \\|publisher\\=National Library of Australia}}\nSedneva, Olga, \"Corroboree: White Fella Vision,\" original thesis for Master of Art Curatorship held by Schaeffer Library of the Power Institute Foundation for Art \\& Visual Culture, the University of Sydney", "" ]
Tennessee Supreme Court ----------------------- In 1996, Janice M. Holder was appointed as a Justice by Governor Sundquist to the Tennessee Supreme Court. Justice Holder served from 1996 until 2014 on the Tennessee Supreme Court. From 2008 until 2014, Holder was the Chief Justice on the Tennessee Supreme Court. Chief Justice Holder was the first woman in Tennessee to be a Chief Justice. In accordance with the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan"), Justice Holder went up for [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election "Retention election") in 1998 and 2006\. In both elections Holder was retained by state voters. Justice Holder authored over 335 court opinions for the Tennessee Supreme Court. Justice Holder created the Access for Justice Commission while on the bench. ### Appointment #### Political climate Janice M. Holder applied for the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") in 1994 when Justice John Byers announced his retirement, but she did not get the spot on the bench. The [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan") came into effect when the search for a new justice commenced. There was also [litigation](/wiki/Lawsuit "Lawsuit") over the [constitutionality](/wiki/Constitutionality "Constitutionality") and procedures of the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan") during the search for a new justice. These legal challenges reviewed the evaluation process for judges. A Special Supreme Court was appointed to rule on the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan"), making rulings leading up to the election. Unaware that [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan") had already been implemented by the Special Supreme Court, [Governor McWherter](/wiki/Ned_McWherter "Ned McWherter") announced his appointment of [Penny J. White](/wiki/Penny_J._White "Penny J. White") to the bench. Other potential justices, including Holder, still applied for the position as a Supreme Court [justices](/wiki/Judge "Judge") so that the process of the new Tennessee Plan could be followed through. Holder knew White would get the appointment, but she wanted to apply because to go through the application process under the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan") to help her if she were to apply later in life. Janice M. Holder was appointed by [Governor Don Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist "Don Sundquist") in 1996 to the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"). When Holder was appointed under the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan"), judicial selection was executed through [merit selection](/wiki/Missouri_Plan "Missouri Plan") in which the governor picked from three nominees chosen by the nominating commission.{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-04\-09 \|title\=Gavel Gap {{!}} ACS \|url\=https://www.acslaw.org/analysis/reports/gavel\-gap/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-25 \|language\=en\-US}} Holder was preceded by Justice [Penny J. White](/wiki/Penny_J._White "Penny J. White").Behm, Margaret and Henry, Candi. “Judicial Selection In Tennessee: Deciding ’The Decider.” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY, 2014\. [https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract\=2480621](https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2480621). [Penny J. White](/wiki/Penny_J._White "Penny J. White") was removed from the bench in her [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election "Retention election") due to a conservative campaign against her.Dieter, R.C. “Killing for Votes: The Dangers of Politicizing the Death Penalty Process.” Death Penalty Information Center, October 18, 1996\. [https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/facts\-and\-research/dpic\-reports/in\-depth/killing\-for\-votes\-the\-dangers\-of\-politicizing\-the\-death\-penalty\-processs.](https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/facts-and-research/dpic-reports/in-depth/killing-for-votes-the-dangers-of-politicizing-the-death-penalty-processs.) In light of the [capital punishment](/wiki/Capital_punishment "Capital punishment") campaign against White, [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") [Governor](/wiki/Governor "Governor") [Don Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist "Don Sundquist") publicly promised before the [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election "Retention election") that he would not appoint someone to the judiciary unless he was sure that the nominee supported the [death penalty](/wiki/Capital_punishment "Capital punishment"). When Governor [Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist "Don Sundquist") appointed Justice Holder, the extremely politicized [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election "Retention election") of [Justice White](/wiki/Penny_J._White "Penny J. White") had left the political climate of the judiciary marked by one's stance on [capital punishment](/wiki/Capital_punishment "Capital punishment").Carelli, Richard. “Judge Pays Price of Her Convictions.” *Los Angeles Times*, December 1, 1996, sec. World \& Nation. [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1996\-12\-01\-mn\-4584\-story.html.](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-01-mn-4584-story.html.) Justice Holder is regarded as a judge with a slight conservative ideological leaning. In her [oral history](/wiki/Oral_history "Oral history"), Holder states that White's loss was felt by many women across the state, and that Holder now had the pressure of being the only woman on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"). #### Legal battle When former Justice Penny J. White lost her [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election "Retention election"), the [Tennessee Attorney General](/wiki/Tennessee_Attorney_General "Tennessee Attorney General") had announced the vacant seat on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") would be filled by a nominee from the Eastern or Western Grand Division for more geographical representation on the bench. Proceeding this declaration, the [Tennessee Judicial Selection Commission](/wiki/Judicial_nominating_commission "Judicial nominating commission") decided to only review applicants from the Eastern Grand Division. Because Holder was an applicant from the Western Grand Division, she filed a lawsuit so the vacancy on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") could be fulfilled by either Eastern or Western Grand Division applicants. Holder filed the case in [Davidson County](/wiki/Davidson_County%2C_Tennessee "Davidson County, Tennessee") with a [chancery court](/wiki/Court_of_Chancery "Court of Chancery"). An appeal was filed with a reach down motion which gave the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") the authority to rule on the case. The [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") ruled that applicants from both the Eastern Grand Division and Western Grand Division must be considered. The Court also concluded that the [State Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Tennessee "Constitution of Tennessee") and the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan") were in accordance. Since Holder already submitted her application for the court, this lawsuit ensured that her application would be considered. After this struggle to be considered, Holder was eventually appointed to the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") in 1996 by Governor [Don Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist "Don Sundquist"). Following this struggle about geographical representation, the [Tennessee Bar Association](/wiki/Tennessee_Bar_Association "Tennessee Bar Association") reacted by creating judicial selection task force to study [merit selection](/wiki/Missouri_Plan "Missouri Plan"), and the [Tennessee Bar Association](/wiki/Tennessee_Bar_Association "Tennessee Bar Association") continued to support merit selection. In accordance with the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan"), Justice Holder went up for [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election "Retention election") in 1998 and 2006\. In both elections Holder was retained by state voters. ### Transition Transitioning from the Circuit Court to the Tennessee Supreme Court was difficult for Holder. The [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") is an [appellate court](/wiki/Appellate_court "Appellate court"). Holder's colleagues on the Court were [Justice Drowota](/wiki/Frank_Drowota "Frank Drowota"), [Justice Anderson](/wiki/E._Riley_Anderson "E. Riley Anderson"), Justice Lyle Reid, and [Justice Birch](/wiki/A._A._Birch_Jr. "A. A. Birch Jr."). Her colleagues were from older generations than Holder. Holder had not practiced as a judge on an [appellate court](/wiki/Appellate_court "Appellate court") before, but [Justice Frank Drowota](/wiki/Frank_Drowota "Frank Drowota") helped Holder make her transition in supporting her. Holder hired an administrative assistant and law clerks to adjust. Her administrative assistant was Kathy Colyer, and her first law clerk was Duck Hanson. Holder stated that the transition was difficult. Many of the cases Holder was deciding were criminal cases which she had not primarily handled before. It took time for Holder to learn all of the procedures of the Court. Holder had to grow into her position, but she felt that she was always meant to be a [judge](/wiki/Judge "Judge"). ### Advocacy While serving on the court, Justice Holder has prioritized advocating for [justice](/wiki/Justice "Justice"). She was a key player in creating the Access to Justice Commission for the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"). Her [advocacy](/wiki/Advocacy "Advocacy") promoted unique ways to administer legal services to individuals needing civil legal counsel who had trouble accessing justice. The Access to Justice Commission made access to justice the [Tennessee Supreme Court's](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") priority. This commission resolved issues concerning access to [justice](/wiki/Justice "Justice") in [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee "Tennessee"). Holder acted as the Court's liaison for the commission. Justice Holder stated that providing legal services to the [indigent](/wiki/Poverty "Poverty") was the most satisfying work in her career. Justice Holder also helped introduce the Tennessee Lawyers Assistance Program with the goal of helping people in the legal profession ameliorate personal problems or health issues. While working as a partner in a law firm, one of Holder's partners committed suicide. After this, Holder started a program called Lawyers Helping Lawyers in [Shelby County](/wiki/Shelby_County%2C_Tennessee "Shelby County, Tennessee"), TN under the Memphis Bar Association. When working on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"), Holder wanted to start a statewide program after Lawyers Helping Lawyers. However, the other justices were not particularly supportive of Holder's idea. While on a retreat with the justices on the Supreme Court, Holder hosted an out\-of\-state speaker at the retreat to explain how the Lawyers Assistance Program in Texas functions and why it is so necessary. After the retreat, the other justices hastened to create a commission to assist lawyers with personal [mental health](/wiki/Mental_health "Mental health") issues, [substance abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse "Substance abuse") issues, and other personal life issues. Other states used Tennessee's model as a gold standard when creating other state lawyer assistance programs. ### Chief Justice In 2008, Janice M. Holder became the first woman on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") to serve as the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_justice "Chief justice").{{Cite web \|title\=Hon. Janice M. Holder (Ret.) \- Mediator based in Memphis, Tennessee. \|url\=https://www.tennesseemediators.org/janice\-holder\# \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-25 \|website\=www.tennesseemediators.org}} As [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_justice "Chief justice"), Holder assigned opinions to the justices, led the administrative conferences, led the opinion conferences, and guided the justices in areas where the Court and other areas of [government](/wiki/Government "Government") meet. Justice Holder served as the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_justice "Chief justice") from September 2008 until August 2010\. As a judge, Holder's philosophy was not to search for a result, but to find a better approach to a case. [Chief Justice Gary R. Wade](/wiki/Gary_R._Wade "Gary R. Wade") stated that Justice Holder mastered, "the art of judicial restraint, writing concise, authoritative opinions, and never reaching beyond issues presented to the court." When Justice Holder announced her [retirement](/wiki/Retirement "Retirement"), [Justice Wade](/wiki/Gary_R._Wade "Gary R. Wade") commented that Justice Holder was a fearless champion of women's rights in the [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary "Judiciary"). ### Distinctions As the first woman appointed as Chief Justice to the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"), the [Tennessee General Assembly](/wiki/Tennessee_General_Assembly "Tennessee General Assembly") passed Joint Resolution 1401 honoring her achievement. During her term on the bench, Justice Holder served on the Board of Directors of the Conference of Chief Justices in 2011 as well as the fulfilling the role of the Second Vice President for this conference. Additionally, Justice Holder received a plethora of awards and recognition on the bench including being recognized by the Southern Regional Conference of the [National Association of Women Judges](/wiki/National_Association_of_Women_Judges "National Association of Women Judges") as the leader of state courts, receiving Jurist of the Year by the Southeastern Region of the American Board of Trial Advocates, and awarded the Marion Griffin\-Frances Loring Award by the Association for Women Attorneys. ### Legal and social impact Holder describes many instances of gender discrimination working in the legal profession in her oral history with the Tennessee Bar foundation. However, once Justice [Sharon G. Lee](/wiki/Sharon_G._Lee "Sharon G. Lee") was appointed in 2008, the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court") had the a majority of women justices for the first time while Justice Holder served on the five member court along with Justice [Cornelia A. Clark](/wiki/Cornelia_Clark "Cornelia Clark") and Justice [Sharon G. Lee](/wiki/Sharon_G._Lee "Sharon G. Lee"). Justice Holder retired from the Supreme Court in 2014 totaling twenty\-four years of service. Her position on the bench was succeeded by Justice [Holly Kirby.](/wiki/Holly_M._Kirby "Holly M. Kirby")Ballotpedia. Accessed September 19, 2023\. [“Janice Holder.”](https://ballotpedia.org/Janice_Holder) Her legacy on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"), according to Justice Wade, will be remembered by her valiant promotion of women's rights, her leadership in the Access to Justice Initiative, and her servant leadership to all Tennesseans.
[ "Tennessee Supreme Court\n-----------------------", "In 1996, Janice M. Holder was appointed as a Justice by Governor Sundquist to the Tennessee Supreme Court. Justice Holder served from 1996 until 2014 on the Tennessee Supreme Court. From 2008 until 2014, Holder was the Chief Justice on the Tennessee Supreme Court. Chief Justice Holder was the first woman in Tennessee to be a Chief Justice. In accordance with the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\"), Justice Holder went up for [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election \"Retention election\") in 1998 and 2006\\. In both elections Holder was retained by state voters. Justice Holder authored over 335 court opinions for the Tennessee Supreme Court. Justice Holder created the Access for Justice Commission while on the bench.", "### Appointment", "#### Political climate", "Janice M. Holder applied for the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") in 1994 when Justice John Byers announced his retirement, but she did not get the spot on the bench. The [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\") came into effect when the search for a new justice commenced. There was also [litigation](/wiki/Lawsuit \"Lawsuit\") over the [constitutionality](/wiki/Constitutionality \"Constitutionality\") and procedures of the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\") during the search for a new justice. These legal challenges reviewed the evaluation process for judges. A Special Supreme Court was appointed to rule on the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\"), making rulings leading up to the election. Unaware that [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\") had already been implemented by the Special Supreme Court, [Governor McWherter](/wiki/Ned_McWherter \"Ned McWherter\") announced his appointment of [Penny J. White](/wiki/Penny_J._White \"Penny J. White\") to the bench. Other potential justices, including Holder, still applied for the position as a Supreme Court [justices](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") so that the process of the new Tennessee Plan could be followed through. Holder knew White would get the appointment, but she wanted to apply because to go through the application process under the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\") to help her if she were to apply later in life.", "Janice M. Holder was appointed by [Governor Don Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist \"Don Sundquist\") in 1996 to the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"). When Holder was appointed under the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\"), judicial selection was executed through [merit selection](/wiki/Missouri_Plan \"Missouri Plan\") in which the governor picked from three nominees chosen by the nominating commission.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-09 \\|title\\=Gavel Gap {{!}} ACS \\|url\\=https://www.acslaw.org/analysis/reports/gavel\\-gap/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-25 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Holder was preceded by Justice [Penny J. White](/wiki/Penny_J._White \"Penny J. White\").Behm, Margaret and Henry, Candi. “Judicial Selection In Tennessee: Deciding ’The Decider.” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY, 2014\\. [https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract\\=2480621](https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2480621). [Penny J. White](/wiki/Penny_J._White \"Penny J. White\") was removed from the bench in her [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election \"Retention election\") due to a conservative campaign against her.Dieter, R.C. “Killing for Votes: The Dangers of Politicizing the Death Penalty Process.” Death Penalty Information Center, October 18, 1996\\. [https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/facts\\-and\\-research/dpic\\-reports/in\\-depth/killing\\-for\\-votes\\-the\\-dangers\\-of\\-politicizing\\-the\\-death\\-penalty\\-processs.](https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/facts-and-research/dpic-reports/in-depth/killing-for-votes-the-dangers-of-politicizing-the-death-penalty-processs.)", "In light of the [capital punishment](/wiki/Capital_punishment \"Capital punishment\") campaign against White, [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") [Governor](/wiki/Governor \"Governor\") [Don Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist \"Don Sundquist\") publicly promised before the [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election \"Retention election\") that he would not appoint someone to the judiciary unless he was sure that the nominee supported the [death penalty](/wiki/Capital_punishment \"Capital punishment\"). When Governor [Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist \"Don Sundquist\") appointed Justice Holder, the extremely politicized [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election \"Retention election\") of [Justice White](/wiki/Penny_J._White \"Penny J. White\") had left the political climate of the judiciary marked by one's stance on [capital punishment](/wiki/Capital_punishment \"Capital punishment\").Carelli, Richard. “Judge Pays Price of Her Convictions.” *Los Angeles Times*, December 1, 1996, sec. World \\& Nation. [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1996\\-12\\-01\\-mn\\-4584\\-story.html.](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-12-01-mn-4584-story.html.) Justice Holder is regarded as a judge with a slight conservative ideological leaning. In her [oral history](/wiki/Oral_history \"Oral history\"), Holder states that White's loss was felt by many women across the state, and that Holder now had the pressure of being the only woman on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\").", "#### Legal battle", "When former Justice Penny J. White lost her [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election \"Retention election\"), the [Tennessee Attorney General](/wiki/Tennessee_Attorney_General \"Tennessee Attorney General\") had announced the vacant seat on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") would be filled by a nominee from the Eastern or Western Grand Division for more geographical representation on the bench. Proceeding this declaration, the [Tennessee Judicial Selection Commission](/wiki/Judicial_nominating_commission \"Judicial nominating commission\") decided to only review applicants from the Eastern Grand Division. Because Holder was an applicant from the Western Grand Division, she filed a lawsuit so the vacancy on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") could be fulfilled by either Eastern or Western Grand Division applicants. Holder filed the case in [Davidson County](/wiki/Davidson_County%2C_Tennessee \"Davidson County, Tennessee\") with a [chancery court](/wiki/Court_of_Chancery \"Court of Chancery\"). An appeal was filed with a reach down motion which gave the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") the authority to rule on the case. The [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") ruled that applicants from both the Eastern Grand Division and Western Grand Division must be considered. The Court also concluded that the [State Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Tennessee \"Constitution of Tennessee\") and the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\") were in accordance. Since Holder already submitted her application for the court, this lawsuit ensured that her application would be considered.", "After this struggle to be considered, Holder was eventually appointed to the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") in 1996 by Governor [Don Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist \"Don Sundquist\"). Following this struggle about geographical representation, the [Tennessee Bar Association](/wiki/Tennessee_Bar_Association \"Tennessee Bar Association\") reacted by creating judicial selection task force to study [merit selection](/wiki/Missouri_Plan \"Missouri Plan\"), and the [Tennessee Bar Association](/wiki/Tennessee_Bar_Association \"Tennessee Bar Association\") continued to support merit selection. In accordance with the [Tennessee Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\"), Justice Holder went up for [retention election](/wiki/Retention_election \"Retention election\") in 1998 and 2006\\. In both elections Holder was retained by state voters.", "### Transition", "Transitioning from the Circuit Court to the Tennessee Supreme Court was difficult for Holder. The [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") is an [appellate court](/wiki/Appellate_court \"Appellate court\"). Holder's colleagues on the Court were [Justice Drowota](/wiki/Frank_Drowota \"Frank Drowota\"), [Justice Anderson](/wiki/E._Riley_Anderson \"E. Riley Anderson\"), Justice Lyle Reid, and [Justice Birch](/wiki/A._A._Birch_Jr. \"A. A. Birch Jr.\"). Her colleagues were from older generations than Holder. Holder had not practiced as a judge on an [appellate court](/wiki/Appellate_court \"Appellate court\") before, but [Justice Frank Drowota](/wiki/Frank_Drowota \"Frank Drowota\") helped Holder make her transition in supporting her. Holder hired an administrative assistant and law clerks to adjust. Her administrative assistant was Kathy Colyer, and her first law clerk was Duck Hanson. Holder stated that the transition was difficult. Many of the cases Holder was deciding were criminal cases which she had not primarily handled before. It took time for Holder to learn all of the procedures of the Court. Holder had to grow into her position, but she felt that she was always meant to be a [judge](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\").", "### Advocacy", "While serving on the court, Justice Holder has prioritized advocating for [justice](/wiki/Justice \"Justice\"). She was a key player in creating the Access to Justice Commission for the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"). Her [advocacy](/wiki/Advocacy \"Advocacy\") promoted unique ways to administer legal services to individuals needing civil legal counsel who had trouble accessing justice. The Access to Justice Commission made access to justice the [Tennessee Supreme Court's](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") priority. This commission resolved issues concerning access to [justice](/wiki/Justice \"Justice\") in [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee \"Tennessee\"). Holder acted as the Court's liaison for the commission. Justice Holder stated that providing legal services to the [indigent](/wiki/Poverty \"Poverty\") was the most satisfying work in her career.", "Justice Holder also helped introduce the Tennessee Lawyers Assistance Program with the goal of helping people in the legal profession ameliorate personal problems or health issues. While working as a partner in a law firm, one of Holder's partners committed suicide. After this, Holder started a program called Lawyers Helping Lawyers in [Shelby County](/wiki/Shelby_County%2C_Tennessee \"Shelby County, Tennessee\"), TN under the Memphis Bar Association. When working on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), Holder wanted to start a statewide program after Lawyers Helping Lawyers. However, the other justices were not particularly supportive of Holder's idea. While on a retreat with the justices on the Supreme Court, Holder hosted an out\\-of\\-state speaker at the retreat to explain how the Lawyers Assistance Program in Texas functions and why it is so necessary. After the retreat, the other justices hastened to create a commission to assist lawyers with personal [mental health](/wiki/Mental_health \"Mental health\") issues, [substance abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse \"Substance abuse\") issues, and other personal life issues. Other states used Tennessee's model as a gold standard when creating other state lawyer assistance programs.", "### Chief Justice", "In 2008, Janice M. Holder became the first woman on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") to serve as the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_justice \"Chief justice\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Hon. Janice M. Holder (Ret.) \\- Mediator based in Memphis, Tennessee. \\|url\\=https://www.tennesseemediators.org/janice\\-holder\\# \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-25 \\|website\\=www.tennesseemediators.org}} As [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_justice \"Chief justice\"), Holder assigned opinions to the justices, led the administrative conferences, led the opinion conferences, and guided the justices in areas where the Court and other areas of [government](/wiki/Government \"Government\") meet. Justice Holder served as the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_justice \"Chief justice\") from September 2008 until August 2010\\. As a judge, Holder's philosophy was not to search for a result, but to find a better approach to a case. [Chief Justice Gary R. Wade](/wiki/Gary_R._Wade \"Gary R. Wade\") stated that Justice Holder mastered, \"the art of judicial restraint, writing concise, authoritative opinions, and never reaching beyond issues presented to the court.\" When Justice Holder announced her [retirement](/wiki/Retirement \"Retirement\"), [Justice Wade](/wiki/Gary_R._Wade \"Gary R. Wade\") commented that Justice Holder was a fearless champion of women's rights in the [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary \"Judiciary\").", "### Distinctions", "As the first woman appointed as Chief Justice to the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), the [Tennessee General Assembly](/wiki/Tennessee_General_Assembly \"Tennessee General Assembly\") passed Joint Resolution 1401 honoring her achievement. During her term on the bench, Justice Holder served on the Board of Directors of the Conference of Chief Justices in 2011 as well as the fulfilling the role of the Second Vice President for this conference. Additionally, Justice Holder received a plethora of awards and recognition on the bench including being recognized by the Southern Regional Conference of the [National Association of Women Judges](/wiki/National_Association_of_Women_Judges \"National Association of Women Judges\") as the leader of state courts, receiving Jurist of the Year by the Southeastern Region of the American Board of Trial Advocates, and awarded the Marion Griffin\\-Frances Loring Award by the Association for Women Attorneys.", "### Legal and social impact", "Holder describes many instances of gender discrimination working in the legal profession in her oral history with the Tennessee Bar foundation. However, once Justice [Sharon G. Lee](/wiki/Sharon_G._Lee \"Sharon G. Lee\") was appointed in 2008, the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\") had the a majority of women justices for the first time while Justice Holder served on the five member court along with Justice [Cornelia A. Clark](/wiki/Cornelia_Clark \"Cornelia Clark\") and Justice [Sharon G. Lee](/wiki/Sharon_G._Lee \"Sharon G. Lee\"). Justice Holder retired from the Supreme Court in 2014 totaling twenty\\-four years of service. Her position on the bench was succeeded by Justice [Holly Kirby.](/wiki/Holly_M._Kirby \"Holly M. Kirby\")Ballotpedia. Accessed September 19, 2023\\. [“Janice Holder.”](https://ballotpedia.org/Janice_Holder) Her legacy on the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), according to Justice Wade, will be remembered by her valiant promotion of women's rights, her leadership in the Access to Justice Initiative, and her servant leadership to all Tennesseans.", "" ]
Storylines ---------- ### Original series J.R. Ewing was the eldest son of [John Ross "Jock" Ewing Sr.](/wiki/Jock_Ewing "Jock Ewing") ([Jim Davis](/wiki/Jim_Davis_%28actor%29 "Jim Davis (actor)")) and [Eleanor "Miss Ellie" Ewing](/wiki/Miss_Ellie_Ewing "Miss Ellie Ewing") ([Barbara Bel Geddes](/wiki/Barbara_Bel_Geddes "Barbara Bel Geddes"), briefly [Donna Reed](/wiki/Donna_Reed "Donna Reed")). J.R. was born on the family's [Southfork Ranch](/wiki/Southfork_Ranch "Southfork Ranch").*[Dallas: The Early Years](/wiki/Dallas:The_Early_Years "The Early Years")* The year of his birth is inconsistent: in *[Dallas: The Early Years](/wiki/Dallas:The_Early_Years "The Early Years")*, Miss Ellie announces her pregnancy with J.R. in 1936, making the year of his birth 1936 or at the latest 1937, while in the 2012 continuation of *Dallas*, J.R.'s gravestone gives his birth year as 1939\. J.R. has two younger brothers, [Gary](/wiki/Gary_Ewing "Gary Ewing") ([Ted Shackelford](/wiki/Ted_Shackelford "Ted Shackelford"), briefly [David Ackroyd](/wiki/David_Ackroyd "David Ackroyd")) and [Bobby](/wiki/Bobby_Ewing "Bobby Ewing") ([Patrick Duffy](/wiki/Patrick_Duffy "Patrick Duffy")); a half\-brother, [Ray Krebbs](/wiki/Ray_Krebbs "Ray Krebbs") ([Steve Kanaly](/wiki/Steve_Kanaly "Steve Kanaly")), from his father's affair with an Army nurse named Margaret Hunter during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). Starting at age five, J.R. was groomed to be the heir apparent to his father Jock at [Ewing Oil](/wiki/Ewing_family_%28television%29%23Ewing_Oil "Ewing family (television)#Ewing Oil"), an independent oil company that Jock ran in a very cutthroat, ruthless manner. After coming home from serving for a short time in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") during the 1960s, J.R. began his long tenure as an employee of Ewing Oil. He had no interest in working on Southfork Ranch, which was mostly the domain of his mother Miss Ellie, and brothers Bobby and Ray Krebbs, but he did have a strong desire to keep Southfork in the family. Gary was mostly influenced by his mother and embraced the Southworth tradition of ranching on Southfork and had no interest in Ewing Oil. Like their father Jock, J.R. saw Gary as weak, lacking the Ewing character and growing up Gary was unable to stand up to J.R.'s bullying. A teenage Gary met his wife [Valene Clements](/wiki/Valene_Ewing "Valene Ewing") ([Joan Van Ark](/wiki/Joan_Van_Ark "Joan Van Ark")) in the early 1960s, they married when she became pregnant with their daughter [Lucy](/wiki/Lucy_Ewing "Lucy Ewing") ([Charlene Tilton](/wiki/Charlene_Tilton "Charlene Tilton")). J.R. did not approve of Gary marrying someone of Valene's status. When their marriage began to disintegrate, Gary left Southfork leaving Valene and Lucy. When Valene attempted to leave with Lucy, J.R. had her run out of town and took Lucy back to live with the Ewings at Southfork. In 1979, Gary and Valene reunited in Dallas and remarried, but rather than try to live at Southfork again, they left to go and live in the California suburb of *[Knots Landing](/wiki/Knots_Landing "Knots Landing")*. Bobby spent his time alternating between Southfork and Ewing Oil, and was Jock's favorite son. This made J.R. enormously determined to impress Jock, but despite his huge success in the oil business, J.R. was never able to overcome Jock's favoritism for Bobby. This led to a rivalry between them in childhood that continued as they grew up, especially when Bobby married [Pamela Barnes](/wiki/Pam_Ewing "Pam Ewing") ([Victoria Principal](/wiki/Victoria_Principal "Victoria Principal"), briefly [Margaret Michaels](/wiki/Margaret_Michaels "Margaret Michaels")), who was a member of the Ewings' rival family. The legendary Barnes\-Ewing feud began in the 1930s between Jock and Pam's legal father [Digger](/wiki/Willard_%22Digger%22_Barnes "Willard ") ([Keenan Wynn](/wiki/Keenan_Wynn "Keenan Wynn"), originally [David Wayne](/wiki/David_Wayne "David Wayne")) after their partnership in the oil business dissolved due to Digger's alcoholism and resentment. Jock had earlier married Digger's girlfriend, [Eleanor Southworth](/wiki/Miss_Ellie_Ewing "Miss Ellie Ewing"), which had caused a dent in their relationship prior to the big schism. The feud continued on decades later with J.R. and Digger's son [Cliff](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes "Cliff Barnes") ([Ken Kercheval](/wiki/Ken_Kercheval "Ken Kercheval")). In 1971, J.R. married Sue Ellen Shepard ([Linda Gray](/wiki/Linda_Gray "Linda Gray")), a former "[Miss Texas](/wiki/Miss_Texas "Miss Texas")". Their marriage became increasingly turbulent with J.R. ignoring her first with Ewing Oil then philandering with other women. By the late 1970s Sue Ellen had become an alcoholic. They divorced in 1981 only to remarry in 1982 and divorce again in 1988\. In 1989 Sue Ellen moves to London with her new lover Don Lockwood ([Ian McShane](/wiki/Ian_McShane "Ian McShane")), they marry in 1991\. J.R. had two wives and three children during the show's run. His eldest son, [James Richard Beaumont](/wiki/James_Beaumont_%28Dallas%29 "James Beaumont (Dallas)") ([Sasha Mitchell](/wiki/Sasha_Mitchell "Sasha Mitchell")), was by an off\-screen affair with Vanessa Beaumont ([Gayle Hunnicutt](/wiki/Gayle_Hunnicutt "Gayle Hunnicutt")) which occurred in the 1960s but was only brought to knowledge in 1989\. His second and most favored son was [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III "John Ross Ewing III") ([Omri Katz](/wiki/Omri_Katz "Omri Katz")) from his first wife Sue Ellen, born in 1979\. His third son was with his second wife [Cally](/wiki/Cally_Harper_Ewing "Cally Harper Ewing") ([Cathy Podewell](/wiki/Cathy_Podewell "Cathy Podewell")) born in 1991, however, Cally didn't give birth until after leaving Dallas. J.R. also initially believed he was the father of [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing "Christopher Ewing") ([Joshua Harris](/wiki/Joshua_Harris_%28actor%29 "Joshua Harris (actor)"), originally Eric Farlow), the son of his sister\-in\-law and former mistress [Kristin Shepard](/wiki/Kristin_Shepard "Kristin Shepard") ([Mary Crosby](/wiki/Mary_Crosby "Mary Crosby")), but it was later revealed J.R. was not the father. Christopher was adopted by Bobby and Pam. In addition to that, J.R.'s second wife Cally and his illegitimate son James successfully plotted to gain revenge on him. After JR kicked Cally off of Southfork he checked into a sanitarium in order to get Clayton Farlow's sister, Jessica Montford, to sign over voting rights in WestStar stock to him. Unbeknownst to him, James and Cally managed to get his release papers from his lawyer, Walter Berman. James pretended to be his lawyer and ultimately left him in the sanitarium. Cally eventually freed him. This was the start of what would eventually be a year where J.R. lost everything. First, he lost control of Ewing Oil to Cliff, then was fired at West Star Oil by a vengeful [Carter McKay](/wiki/Carter_McKay "Carter McKay") ([George Kennedy](/wiki/George_Kennedy "George Kennedy")). To top it all off, he lost control of Southfork and was disowned by his son who moved to Europe to be with Sue Ellen. All J.R. was left with was a room in Southfork that Bobby let him stay in and not much else. Contemplating suicide, the character roamed the lonely Southfork with a bottle of bourbon and a loaded revolver. After an *[It's a Wonderful Life](/wiki/It%27s_a_Wonderful_Life "It's a Wonderful Life")*\-like fantasy, J.R. is shown what life would have been like had he never been born. The series ended with a single gunshot and Bobby dashing into J.R.'s room, uttering "Oh my God!" at what he found. J.R.'s fate was not revealed. The "Conundrum" cliffhanger was not resolved until 1996, with the first *Dallas* reunion movie, *[Dallas: J.R. Returns](/wiki/Dallas:J.R._Returns "J.R. Returns")*. It was revealed in the beginning of the movie that J.R. had not, in fact, shot himself, but had instead shot at the mirror where the demon Adam ([Joel Grey](/wiki/Joel_Grey "Joel Grey")) was appearing to him. [The 2012 revival series](/wiki/Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29 "Dallas (2012 TV series)") does not follow the reunion film, but shows J.R. still alive. According to the Dallas Facebook page, J.R. had indeed shot the mirror, but unlike the Reunion film, he didn't flee to Europe to recover. ### *Dallas* (2012\) J.R. returns in the [2012 revival of the series](/wiki/Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29 "Dallas (2012 TV series)"), which focuses on J.R.'s son [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III "John Ross Ewing III") and Bobby's adopted son [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing "Christopher Ewing"). To J.R.'s delight, John Ross has become a carbon copy of him, in that he is more focused on oil, money and power. As the series begins J.R. has spent the last few years in a nursing home, suffering from chronic depression and not speaking despite visits from Bobby. All the events of the two TV movies are ignored. Bobby visits and tells J.R. that all of their fights over [Ewing Oil](/wiki/Ewing_family_%28television%29%23Ewing_Oil "Ewing family (television)#Ewing Oil") and Southfork changed him in ways he doesn't like and that he wants Christopher and John Ross to be a real family and not be like them always fighting. When John Ross eventually visits him on Bobby's suggestion, he says that Bobby plans to sell Southfork and give the money from the sale to Christopher to fund Christopher's renewable energy project. John Ross also tells J.R. that he discovered a 2 billion barrel oil reserve under Southfork but Bobby has blocked the drilling. J.R. finally rouses himself to help his son fight the attempts to block his drilling for oil on the ranch and tells John Ross that Bobby was always a fool. He reveals that he is working alongside Marta Del Sol, the daughter of an old friend of J.R.'s, who owns millions of acres of land. Marta is supposedly offering a partnership to Bobby but it's J.R. pulling the strings when Bobby signs Southfork to Marta's conservatory, it'll really be going to J.R. John Ross is really working alongside Marta, with J.R. seeing them together but not seeming to mind. J.R. surprises everyone by showing up at a family gathering (acting as an invalid by using a walker) and apologizing to Bobby and Sue Ellen for his past actions. He later goes to Mexico to see Marta's father, Carlos Del Sol, but he knows nothing of any deal. He then introduces his daughter only she's not the woman J.R. knows as Marta. Realizing he's been fooled, J.R. tells Del Sol he's made a mistake and bites out that Marta should meet his son as "he's a chip off the old block." J.R. eventually succeeds in getting Southfork from Bobby and doesn't waste any time in beginning to drill for oil on Southfork. He also cuts John Ross out of the partnership. However, he does give his son power of attorney to run his business ventures. J.R. is forced to return ownership of Southfork to Bobby when J.R. and John Ross' Venezuelan investor, Vicente Cano, turns violent against the Ewings when the loan isn't repaid. J.R. and John Ross are given immunity and sign confessions against Cano, who is sent to prison. Bobby keeps a copy of J.R.'s confession and warns him that he will send J.R. to prison if he uses any more dirty tricks. John Ross' fiancée [Elena Ramos](/wiki/Elena_Ramos "Elena Ramos") discovers John Ross' role in the plot, she breaks up with him and returns to Christopher. The first season ends with John Ross and J.R. joining forces against Bobby, Christopher and Elena, who have apparently reunited as a couple. At the start of the second season, J.R. is mentoring John Ross in business and dirty tricks and they are plotting to take control of Ewing Energies. J.R. also plots against his old rival [Cliff Barnes](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes "Cliff Barnes") and his daughter [Pamela Rebecca Barnes](/wiki/Pamela_Rebecca_Barnes "Pamela Rebecca Barnes"), who is pregnant with Christopher's twins and is having an affair with John Ross. Bobby asks for J.R.'s help to take down [Harris Ryland](/wiki/Harris_Ryland "Harris Ryland") when it's revealed Ryland kidnapped Bobby's stepdaughter Emma and let Bobby's wife Ann think her daughter was dead. J.R. assures Bobby that he will take Ryland down. In the episode "[The Furious and the Fast](/wiki/The_Furious_and_the_Fast "The Furious and the Fast")", J.R. talks to John Ross by phone about a "master plan" to defeat Cliff Barnes and Harris Ryland and to help John Ross take control of Ewing Energies, saying it will be his "masterpiece" when somebody apparently walks into the room and shoots twice, killing him. J.R.'s memorial was held at the Dallas Petroleum Club where many guests from his past attended. J.R.'s favorite drink, bourbon and [branch](/wiki/Branch_water "Branch water") was served. Guests included J.R.'s half\-brother [Ray Krebbs](/wiki/Ray_Krebbs "Ray Krebbs"), niece [Lucy Ewing](/wiki/Lucy_Ewing "Lucy Ewing"), brothers [Gary Ewing](/wiki/Gary_Ewing "Gary Ewing") and [Bobby Ewing](/wiki/Bobby_Ewing "Bobby Ewing"), ex\-wives [Sue Ellen Ewing](/wiki/Sue_Ellen_Ewing "Sue Ellen Ewing") and [Cally Harper Ewing](/wiki/Cally_Harper_Ewing "Cally Harper Ewing"), ex\-mistress Mandy Winger, adopted nephew [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing "Christopher Ewing"), [Elena Ramos](/wiki/Elena_Ramos "Elena Ramos") and her brother Drew Ramos and J.R.'s son [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III "John Ross Ewing III"). Other notable guests included Dallas Mayor [Mike Rawlings](/wiki/Mike_Rawlings "Mike Rawlings"), Dallas Mavericks owner [Mark Cuban](/wiki/Mark_Cuban "Mark Cuban") and Dallas Cowboys owner [Jerry Jones](/wiki/Jerry_Jones "Jerry Jones"). J.R.'s funeral was held at the family cemetery plot on Southfork Ranch. Ray, Lucy, Gary, Christopher, Elena, Sue Ellen, and Bobby all spoke. J.R. was buried next to the graves of Jock and Miss Ellie. At his funeral, Sue Ellen read the letter that J.R. had written to her before he was murdered where he stated that he wanted another chance with her. Sue Ellen referred to J.R. as "the love of my life". Since J.R. had been a war veteran, his coffin was draped in a U.S. Stars and Stripes flag and was handed folded to John Ross because he was his son and next\-of\-kin. At the end of the funeral J.R.'s private investigator [Bum Jones](/wiki/List_of_Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29_characters%23Steve_%22Bum%22_Jones "List of Dallas (2012 TV series) characters#Steve ") arrives at the gravesite. In the office at Southfork, Bum tells Bobby, John Ross, and Christopher that J.R. was in [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi") closing a deal to buy some oil leases but that his real reason for being in Abu Dhabi was because for the last several months he was trying to find Christopher's adoptive mother and Bobby's ex\-wife [Pamela Barnes Ewing](/wiki/Pam_Ewing "Pam Ewing"). Bum gives Christopher some papers that would tell why it was important for Christopher to find Pam. Bum reveals that J.R. was in [Nuevo Laredo](/wiki/Nuevo_Laredo "Nuevo Laredo") following a lead to take down Harris Ryland using the quail hunt as a cover story. John Ross assumes that Ryland was behind his father's murder but Bum says that J.R. was killed by a random mugger. John Ross is given a box containing a pistol and a note from J.R. telling John Ross that now that he is dead, [Cliff Barnes](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes "Cliff Barnes") and Ryland will join forces to take down the Ewings. The note also says John Ross should use the contents of the box "to take from them what they want to take from us" and that afterwards "Bobby will know what to do." J.R. ends the note by telling John Ross not to forget that he is J.R.'s son "from tip to tail". Bum gives a letter to Bobby. Bobby reads the letter but doesn't reveal what it says and tells John Ross and Christopher that it is between J.R. and him for the time being. Bobby and Bum talk outside the office where Bobby tells Bum to pay off whoever he has to in order to make everyone believe that J.R. was killed by a mugger and when the time is right the Ewings will handle the situation as a family. Bobby goes to J.R.'s bedroom and drinks some of J.R.'s trademark bourbon. Bobby, imagining talking to J.R., says that he knew J.R. would have one final card to play and it was a good one. Bobby says he loves J.R. and he breaks down crying. Bobby, John Ross and Christopher continue working together on the plan and they realise how important it is to find Pam, because she owns one\-third of Barnes Global shares along with Katherine and Cliff. With Katherine dead it only leaves her. It was said she entered Abu Dhabi with her husband in 1989\. Bobby finally reveals that J.R's master plan was to frame Cliff for his death "from beyond the grave". He reveals that J.R., knowing that he only had days to live from terminal cancer, had Bum steal Cliff's pistol. J.R. knew that Cliff went to Nuevo Laredo, Mexico every year for a fishing competition. J.R. had Bum meet him there and kill him. His plan was to have the Ewing family plant the pistol and J.R.'s trademark belt buckle in Cliff's car and safety deposit box.
[ "Storylines\n----------", "### Original series", "J.R. Ewing was the eldest son of [John Ross \"Jock\" Ewing Sr.](/wiki/Jock_Ewing \"Jock Ewing\") ([Jim Davis](/wiki/Jim_Davis_%28actor%29 \"Jim Davis (actor)\")) and [Eleanor \"Miss Ellie\" Ewing](/wiki/Miss_Ellie_Ewing \"Miss Ellie Ewing\") ([Barbara Bel Geddes](/wiki/Barbara_Bel_Geddes \"Barbara Bel Geddes\"), briefly [Donna Reed](/wiki/Donna_Reed \"Donna Reed\")). J.R. was born on the family's [Southfork Ranch](/wiki/Southfork_Ranch \"Southfork Ranch\").*[Dallas: The Early Years](/wiki/Dallas:The_Early_Years \"The Early Years\")* The year of his birth is inconsistent: in *[Dallas: The Early Years](/wiki/Dallas:The_Early_Years \"The Early Years\")*, Miss Ellie announces her pregnancy with J.R. in 1936, making the year of his birth 1936 or at the latest 1937, while in the 2012 continuation of *Dallas*, J.R.'s gravestone gives his birth year as 1939\\.", "J.R. has two younger brothers, [Gary](/wiki/Gary_Ewing \"Gary Ewing\") ([Ted Shackelford](/wiki/Ted_Shackelford \"Ted Shackelford\"), briefly [David Ackroyd](/wiki/David_Ackroyd \"David Ackroyd\")) and [Bobby](/wiki/Bobby_Ewing \"Bobby Ewing\") ([Patrick Duffy](/wiki/Patrick_Duffy \"Patrick Duffy\")); a half\\-brother, [Ray Krebbs](/wiki/Ray_Krebbs \"Ray Krebbs\") ([Steve Kanaly](/wiki/Steve_Kanaly \"Steve Kanaly\")), from his father's affair with an Army nurse named Margaret Hunter during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").", "Starting at age five, J.R. was groomed to be the heir apparent to his father Jock at [Ewing Oil](/wiki/Ewing_family_%28television%29%23Ewing_Oil \"Ewing family (television)#Ewing Oil\"), an independent oil company that Jock ran in a very cutthroat, ruthless manner. After coming home from serving for a short time in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") during the 1960s, J.R. began his long tenure as an employee of Ewing Oil. He had no interest in working on Southfork Ranch, which was mostly the domain of his mother Miss Ellie, and brothers Bobby and Ray Krebbs, but he did have a strong desire to keep Southfork in the family. Gary was mostly influenced by his mother and embraced the Southworth tradition of ranching on Southfork and had no interest in Ewing Oil. Like their father Jock, J.R. saw Gary as weak, lacking the Ewing character and growing up Gary was unable to stand up to J.R.'s bullying. A teenage Gary met his wife [Valene Clements](/wiki/Valene_Ewing \"Valene Ewing\") ([Joan Van Ark](/wiki/Joan_Van_Ark \"Joan Van Ark\")) in the early 1960s, they married when she became pregnant with their daughter [Lucy](/wiki/Lucy_Ewing \"Lucy Ewing\") ([Charlene Tilton](/wiki/Charlene_Tilton \"Charlene Tilton\")). J.R. did not approve of Gary marrying someone of Valene's status. When their marriage began to disintegrate, Gary left Southfork leaving Valene and Lucy. When Valene attempted to leave with Lucy, J.R. had her run out of town and took Lucy back to live with the Ewings at Southfork. In 1979, Gary and Valene reunited in Dallas and remarried, but rather than try to live at Southfork again, they left to go and live in the California suburb of *[Knots Landing](/wiki/Knots_Landing \"Knots Landing\")*.", "Bobby spent his time alternating between Southfork and Ewing Oil, and was Jock's favorite son. This made J.R. enormously determined to impress Jock, but despite his huge success in the oil business, J.R. was never able to overcome Jock's favoritism for Bobby. This led to a rivalry between them in childhood that continued as they grew up, especially when Bobby married [Pamela Barnes](/wiki/Pam_Ewing \"Pam Ewing\") ([Victoria Principal](/wiki/Victoria_Principal \"Victoria Principal\"), briefly [Margaret Michaels](/wiki/Margaret_Michaels \"Margaret Michaels\")), who was a member of the Ewings' rival family. The legendary Barnes\\-Ewing feud began in the 1930s between Jock and Pam's legal father [Digger](/wiki/Willard_%22Digger%22_Barnes \"Willard \") ([Keenan Wynn](/wiki/Keenan_Wynn \"Keenan Wynn\"), originally [David Wayne](/wiki/David_Wayne \"David Wayne\")) after their partnership in the oil business dissolved due to Digger's alcoholism and resentment. Jock had earlier married Digger's girlfriend, [Eleanor Southworth](/wiki/Miss_Ellie_Ewing \"Miss Ellie Ewing\"), which had caused a dent in their relationship prior to the big schism. The feud continued on decades later with J.R. and Digger's son [Cliff](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes \"Cliff Barnes\") ([Ken Kercheval](/wiki/Ken_Kercheval \"Ken Kercheval\")).", "In 1971, J.R. married Sue Ellen Shepard ([Linda Gray](/wiki/Linda_Gray \"Linda Gray\")), a former \"[Miss Texas](/wiki/Miss_Texas \"Miss Texas\")\". Their marriage became increasingly turbulent with J.R. ignoring her first with Ewing Oil then philandering with other women. By the late 1970s Sue Ellen had become an alcoholic. They divorced in 1981 only to remarry in 1982 and divorce again in 1988\\. In 1989 Sue Ellen moves to London with her new lover Don Lockwood ([Ian McShane](/wiki/Ian_McShane \"Ian McShane\")), they marry in 1991\\.", "J.R. had two wives and three children during the show's run. His eldest son, [James Richard Beaumont](/wiki/James_Beaumont_%28Dallas%29 \"James Beaumont (Dallas)\") ([Sasha Mitchell](/wiki/Sasha_Mitchell \"Sasha Mitchell\")), was by an off\\-screen affair with Vanessa Beaumont ([Gayle Hunnicutt](/wiki/Gayle_Hunnicutt \"Gayle Hunnicutt\")) which occurred in the 1960s but was only brought to knowledge in 1989\\. His second and most favored son was [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III \"John Ross Ewing III\") ([Omri Katz](/wiki/Omri_Katz \"Omri Katz\")) from his first wife Sue Ellen, born in 1979\\. His third son was with his second wife [Cally](/wiki/Cally_Harper_Ewing \"Cally Harper Ewing\") ([Cathy Podewell](/wiki/Cathy_Podewell \"Cathy Podewell\")) born in 1991, however, Cally didn't give birth until after leaving Dallas. J.R. also initially believed he was the father of [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing \"Christopher Ewing\") ([Joshua Harris](/wiki/Joshua_Harris_%28actor%29 \"Joshua Harris (actor)\"), originally Eric Farlow), the son of his sister\\-in\\-law and former mistress [Kristin Shepard](/wiki/Kristin_Shepard \"Kristin Shepard\") ([Mary Crosby](/wiki/Mary_Crosby \"Mary Crosby\")), but it was later revealed J.R. was not the father. Christopher was adopted by Bobby and Pam.\nIn addition to that, J.R.'s second wife Cally and his illegitimate son James successfully plotted to gain revenge on him. After JR kicked Cally off of Southfork he checked into a sanitarium in order to get Clayton Farlow's sister, Jessica Montford, to sign over voting rights in WestStar stock to him. Unbeknownst to him, James and Cally managed to get his release papers from his lawyer, Walter Berman. James pretended to be his lawyer and ultimately left him in the sanitarium. Cally eventually freed him. This was the start of what would eventually be a year where J.R. lost everything. First, he lost control of Ewing Oil to Cliff, then was fired at West Star Oil by a vengeful [Carter McKay](/wiki/Carter_McKay \"Carter McKay\") ([George Kennedy](/wiki/George_Kennedy \"George Kennedy\")). To top it all off, he lost control of Southfork and was disowned by his son who moved to Europe to be with Sue Ellen. All J.R. was left with was a room in Southfork that Bobby let him stay in and not much else. Contemplating suicide, the character roamed the lonely Southfork with a bottle of bourbon and a loaded revolver. After an *[It's a Wonderful Life](/wiki/It%27s_a_Wonderful_Life \"It's a Wonderful Life\")*\\-like fantasy, J.R. is shown what life would have been like had he never been born. The series ended with a single gunshot and Bobby dashing into J.R.'s room, uttering \"Oh my God!\" at what he found. J.R.'s fate was not revealed. The \"Conundrum\" cliffhanger was not resolved until 1996, with the first *Dallas* reunion movie, *[Dallas: J.R. Returns](/wiki/Dallas:J.R._Returns \"J.R. Returns\")*. It was revealed in the beginning of the movie that J.R. had not, in fact, shot himself, but had instead shot at the mirror where the demon Adam ([Joel Grey](/wiki/Joel_Grey \"Joel Grey\")) was appearing to him. [The 2012 revival series](/wiki/Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29 \"Dallas (2012 TV series)\") does not follow the reunion film, but shows J.R. still alive. According to the Dallas Facebook page, J.R. had indeed shot the mirror, but unlike the Reunion film, he didn't flee to Europe to recover.", "### *Dallas* (2012\\)", "J.R. returns in the [2012 revival of the series](/wiki/Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29 \"Dallas (2012 TV series)\"), which focuses on J.R.'s son [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III \"John Ross Ewing III\") and Bobby's adopted son [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing \"Christopher Ewing\"). To J.R.'s delight, John Ross has become a carbon copy of him, in that he is more focused on oil, money and power. As the series begins J.R. has spent the last few years in a nursing home, suffering from chronic depression and not speaking despite visits from Bobby. All the events of the two TV movies are ignored.", "Bobby visits and tells J.R. that all of their fights over [Ewing Oil](/wiki/Ewing_family_%28television%29%23Ewing_Oil \"Ewing family (television)#Ewing Oil\") and Southfork changed him in ways he doesn't like and that he wants Christopher and John Ross to be a real family and not be like them always fighting. When John Ross eventually visits him on Bobby's suggestion, he says that Bobby plans to sell Southfork and give the money from the sale to Christopher to fund Christopher's renewable energy project. John Ross also tells J.R. that he discovered a 2 billion barrel oil reserve under Southfork but Bobby has blocked the drilling. J.R. finally rouses himself to help his son fight the attempts to block his drilling for oil on the ranch and tells John Ross that Bobby was always a fool. He reveals that he is working alongside Marta Del Sol, the daughter of an old friend of J.R.'s, who owns millions of acres of land. Marta is supposedly offering a partnership to Bobby but it's J.R. pulling the strings when Bobby signs Southfork to Marta's conservatory, it'll really be going to J.R. John Ross is really working alongside Marta, with J.R. seeing them together but not seeming to mind. J.R. surprises everyone by showing up at a family gathering (acting as an invalid by using a walker) and apologizing to Bobby and Sue Ellen for his past actions. He later goes to Mexico to see Marta's father, Carlos Del Sol, but he knows nothing of any deal. He then introduces his daughter only she's not the woman J.R. knows as Marta. Realizing he's been fooled, J.R. tells Del Sol he's made a mistake and bites out that Marta should meet his son as \"he's a chip off the old block.\"", "J.R. eventually succeeds in getting Southfork from Bobby and doesn't waste any time in beginning to drill for oil on Southfork. He also cuts John Ross out of the partnership. However, he does give his son power of attorney to run his business ventures. J.R. is forced to return ownership of Southfork to Bobby when J.R. and John Ross' Venezuelan investor, Vicente Cano, turns violent against the Ewings when the loan isn't repaid. J.R. and John Ross are given immunity and sign confessions against Cano, who is sent to prison. Bobby keeps a copy of J.R.'s confession and warns him that he will send J.R. to prison if he uses any more dirty tricks. John Ross' fiancée [Elena Ramos](/wiki/Elena_Ramos \"Elena Ramos\") discovers John Ross' role in the plot, she breaks up with him and returns to Christopher. The first season ends with John Ross and J.R. joining forces against Bobby, Christopher and Elena, who have apparently reunited as a couple.", "At the start of the second season, J.R. is mentoring John Ross in business and dirty tricks and they are plotting to take control of Ewing Energies. J.R. also plots against his old rival [Cliff Barnes](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes \"Cliff Barnes\") and his daughter [Pamela Rebecca Barnes](/wiki/Pamela_Rebecca_Barnes \"Pamela Rebecca Barnes\"), who is pregnant with Christopher's twins and is having an affair with John Ross. Bobby asks for J.R.'s help to take down [Harris Ryland](/wiki/Harris_Ryland \"Harris Ryland\") when it's revealed Ryland kidnapped Bobby's stepdaughter Emma and let Bobby's wife Ann think her daughter was dead. J.R. assures Bobby that he will take Ryland down. In the episode \"[The Furious and the Fast](/wiki/The_Furious_and_the_Fast \"The Furious and the Fast\")\", J.R. talks to John Ross by phone about a \"master plan\" to defeat Cliff Barnes and Harris Ryland and to help John Ross take control of Ewing Energies, saying it will be his \"masterpiece\" when somebody apparently walks into the room and shoots twice, killing him.", "J.R.'s memorial was held at the Dallas Petroleum Club where many guests from his past attended. J.R.'s favorite drink, bourbon and [branch](/wiki/Branch_water \"Branch water\") was served. Guests included J.R.'s half\\-brother [Ray Krebbs](/wiki/Ray_Krebbs \"Ray Krebbs\"), niece [Lucy Ewing](/wiki/Lucy_Ewing \"Lucy Ewing\"), brothers [Gary Ewing](/wiki/Gary_Ewing \"Gary Ewing\") and [Bobby Ewing](/wiki/Bobby_Ewing \"Bobby Ewing\"), ex\\-wives [Sue Ellen Ewing](/wiki/Sue_Ellen_Ewing \"Sue Ellen Ewing\") and [Cally Harper Ewing](/wiki/Cally_Harper_Ewing \"Cally Harper Ewing\"), ex\\-mistress Mandy Winger, adopted nephew [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing \"Christopher Ewing\"), [Elena Ramos](/wiki/Elena_Ramos \"Elena Ramos\") and her brother Drew Ramos and J.R.'s son [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III \"John Ross Ewing III\"). Other notable guests included Dallas Mayor [Mike Rawlings](/wiki/Mike_Rawlings \"Mike Rawlings\"), Dallas Mavericks owner [Mark Cuban](/wiki/Mark_Cuban \"Mark Cuban\") and Dallas Cowboys owner [Jerry Jones](/wiki/Jerry_Jones \"Jerry Jones\"). J.R.'s funeral was held at the family cemetery plot on Southfork Ranch. Ray, Lucy, Gary, Christopher, Elena, Sue Ellen, and Bobby all spoke. J.R. was buried next to the graves of Jock and Miss Ellie. At his funeral, Sue Ellen read the letter that J.R. had written to her before he was murdered where he stated that he wanted another chance with her. Sue Ellen referred to J.R. as \"the love of my life\". Since J.R. had been a war veteran, his coffin was draped in a U.S. Stars and Stripes flag and was handed folded to John Ross because he was his son and next\\-of\\-kin.", "At the end of the funeral J.R.'s private investigator [Bum Jones](/wiki/List_of_Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29_characters%23Steve_%22Bum%22_Jones \"List of Dallas (2012 TV series) characters#Steve \") arrives at the gravesite. In the office at Southfork, Bum tells Bobby, John Ross, and Christopher that J.R. was in [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi \"Abu Dhabi\") closing a deal to buy some oil leases but that his real reason for being in Abu Dhabi was because for the last several months he was trying to find Christopher's adoptive mother and Bobby's ex\\-wife [Pamela Barnes Ewing](/wiki/Pam_Ewing \"Pam Ewing\"). Bum gives Christopher some papers that would tell why it was important for Christopher to find Pam. Bum reveals that J.R. was in [Nuevo Laredo](/wiki/Nuevo_Laredo \"Nuevo Laredo\") following a lead to take down Harris Ryland using the quail hunt as a cover story. John Ross assumes that Ryland was behind his father's murder but Bum says that J.R. was killed by a random mugger. John Ross is given a box containing a pistol and a note from J.R. telling John Ross that now that he is dead, [Cliff Barnes](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes \"Cliff Barnes\") and Ryland will join forces to take down the Ewings. The note also says John Ross should use the contents of the box \"to take from them what they want to take from us\" and that afterwards \"Bobby will know what to do.\" J.R. ends the note by telling John Ross not to forget that he is J.R.'s son \"from tip to tail\". Bum gives a letter to Bobby. Bobby reads the letter but doesn't reveal what it says and tells John Ross and Christopher that it is between J.R. and him for the time being. Bobby and Bum talk outside the office where Bobby tells Bum to pay off whoever he has to in order to make everyone believe that J.R. was killed by a mugger and when the time is right the Ewings will handle the situation as a family. Bobby goes to J.R.'s bedroom and drinks some of J.R.'s trademark bourbon. Bobby, imagining talking to J.R., says that he knew J.R. would have one final card to play and it was a good one. Bobby says he loves J.R. and he breaks down crying. Bobby, John Ross and Christopher continue working together on the plan and they realise how important it is to find Pam, because she owns one\\-third of Barnes Global shares along with Katherine and Cliff. With Katherine dead it only leaves her. It was said she entered Abu Dhabi with her husband in 1989\\. Bobby finally reveals that J.R's master plan was to frame Cliff for his death \"from beyond the grave\". He reveals that J.R., knowing that he only had days to live from terminal cancer, had Bum steal Cliff's pistol. J.R. knew that Cliff went to Nuevo Laredo, Mexico every year for a fishing competition. J.R. had Bum meet him there and kill him. His plan was to have the Ewing family plant the pistol and J.R.'s trademark belt buckle in Cliff's car and safety deposit box.", "" ]
### Original series J.R. Ewing was the eldest son of [John Ross "Jock" Ewing Sr.](/wiki/Jock_Ewing "Jock Ewing") ([Jim Davis](/wiki/Jim_Davis_%28actor%29 "Jim Davis (actor)")) and [Eleanor "Miss Ellie" Ewing](/wiki/Miss_Ellie_Ewing "Miss Ellie Ewing") ([Barbara Bel Geddes](/wiki/Barbara_Bel_Geddes "Barbara Bel Geddes"), briefly [Donna Reed](/wiki/Donna_Reed "Donna Reed")). J.R. was born on the family's [Southfork Ranch](/wiki/Southfork_Ranch "Southfork Ranch").*[Dallas: The Early Years](/wiki/Dallas:The_Early_Years "The Early Years")* The year of his birth is inconsistent: in *[Dallas: The Early Years](/wiki/Dallas:The_Early_Years "The Early Years")*, Miss Ellie announces her pregnancy with J.R. in 1936, making the year of his birth 1936 or at the latest 1937, while in the 2012 continuation of *Dallas*, J.R.'s gravestone gives his birth year as 1939\. J.R. has two younger brothers, [Gary](/wiki/Gary_Ewing "Gary Ewing") ([Ted Shackelford](/wiki/Ted_Shackelford "Ted Shackelford"), briefly [David Ackroyd](/wiki/David_Ackroyd "David Ackroyd")) and [Bobby](/wiki/Bobby_Ewing "Bobby Ewing") ([Patrick Duffy](/wiki/Patrick_Duffy "Patrick Duffy")); a half\-brother, [Ray Krebbs](/wiki/Ray_Krebbs "Ray Krebbs") ([Steve Kanaly](/wiki/Steve_Kanaly "Steve Kanaly")), from his father's affair with an Army nurse named Margaret Hunter during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). Starting at age five, J.R. was groomed to be the heir apparent to his father Jock at [Ewing Oil](/wiki/Ewing_family_%28television%29%23Ewing_Oil "Ewing family (television)#Ewing Oil"), an independent oil company that Jock ran in a very cutthroat, ruthless manner. After coming home from serving for a short time in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") during the 1960s, J.R. began his long tenure as an employee of Ewing Oil. He had no interest in working on Southfork Ranch, which was mostly the domain of his mother Miss Ellie, and brothers Bobby and Ray Krebbs, but he did have a strong desire to keep Southfork in the family. Gary was mostly influenced by his mother and embraced the Southworth tradition of ranching on Southfork and had no interest in Ewing Oil. Like their father Jock, J.R. saw Gary as weak, lacking the Ewing character and growing up Gary was unable to stand up to J.R.'s bullying. A teenage Gary met his wife [Valene Clements](/wiki/Valene_Ewing "Valene Ewing") ([Joan Van Ark](/wiki/Joan_Van_Ark "Joan Van Ark")) in the early 1960s, they married when she became pregnant with their daughter [Lucy](/wiki/Lucy_Ewing "Lucy Ewing") ([Charlene Tilton](/wiki/Charlene_Tilton "Charlene Tilton")). J.R. did not approve of Gary marrying someone of Valene's status. When their marriage began to disintegrate, Gary left Southfork leaving Valene and Lucy. When Valene attempted to leave with Lucy, J.R. had her run out of town and took Lucy back to live with the Ewings at Southfork. In 1979, Gary and Valene reunited in Dallas and remarried, but rather than try to live at Southfork again, they left to go and live in the California suburb of *[Knots Landing](/wiki/Knots_Landing "Knots Landing")*. Bobby spent his time alternating between Southfork and Ewing Oil, and was Jock's favorite son. This made J.R. enormously determined to impress Jock, but despite his huge success in the oil business, J.R. was never able to overcome Jock's favoritism for Bobby. This led to a rivalry between them in childhood that continued as they grew up, especially when Bobby married [Pamela Barnes](/wiki/Pam_Ewing "Pam Ewing") ([Victoria Principal](/wiki/Victoria_Principal "Victoria Principal"), briefly [Margaret Michaels](/wiki/Margaret_Michaels "Margaret Michaels")), who was a member of the Ewings' rival family. The legendary Barnes\-Ewing feud began in the 1930s between Jock and Pam's legal father [Digger](/wiki/Willard_%22Digger%22_Barnes "Willard ") ([Keenan Wynn](/wiki/Keenan_Wynn "Keenan Wynn"), originally [David Wayne](/wiki/David_Wayne "David Wayne")) after their partnership in the oil business dissolved due to Digger's alcoholism and resentment. Jock had earlier married Digger's girlfriend, [Eleanor Southworth](/wiki/Miss_Ellie_Ewing "Miss Ellie Ewing"), which had caused a dent in their relationship prior to the big schism. The feud continued on decades later with J.R. and Digger's son [Cliff](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes "Cliff Barnes") ([Ken Kercheval](/wiki/Ken_Kercheval "Ken Kercheval")). In 1971, J.R. married Sue Ellen Shepard ([Linda Gray](/wiki/Linda_Gray "Linda Gray")), a former "[Miss Texas](/wiki/Miss_Texas "Miss Texas")". Their marriage became increasingly turbulent with J.R. ignoring her first with Ewing Oil then philandering with other women. By the late 1970s Sue Ellen had become an alcoholic. They divorced in 1981 only to remarry in 1982 and divorce again in 1988\. In 1989 Sue Ellen moves to London with her new lover Don Lockwood ([Ian McShane](/wiki/Ian_McShane "Ian McShane")), they marry in 1991\. J.R. had two wives and three children during the show's run. His eldest son, [James Richard Beaumont](/wiki/James_Beaumont_%28Dallas%29 "James Beaumont (Dallas)") ([Sasha Mitchell](/wiki/Sasha_Mitchell "Sasha Mitchell")), was by an off\-screen affair with Vanessa Beaumont ([Gayle Hunnicutt](/wiki/Gayle_Hunnicutt "Gayle Hunnicutt")) which occurred in the 1960s but was only brought to knowledge in 1989\. His second and most favored son was [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III "John Ross Ewing III") ([Omri Katz](/wiki/Omri_Katz "Omri Katz")) from his first wife Sue Ellen, born in 1979\. His third son was with his second wife [Cally](/wiki/Cally_Harper_Ewing "Cally Harper Ewing") ([Cathy Podewell](/wiki/Cathy_Podewell "Cathy Podewell")) born in 1991, however, Cally didn't give birth until after leaving Dallas. J.R. also initially believed he was the father of [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing "Christopher Ewing") ([Joshua Harris](/wiki/Joshua_Harris_%28actor%29 "Joshua Harris (actor)"), originally Eric Farlow), the son of his sister\-in\-law and former mistress [Kristin Shepard](/wiki/Kristin_Shepard "Kristin Shepard") ([Mary Crosby](/wiki/Mary_Crosby "Mary Crosby")), but it was later revealed J.R. was not the father. Christopher was adopted by Bobby and Pam. In addition to that, J.R.'s second wife Cally and his illegitimate son James successfully plotted to gain revenge on him. After JR kicked Cally off of Southfork he checked into a sanitarium in order to get Clayton Farlow's sister, Jessica Montford, to sign over voting rights in WestStar stock to him. Unbeknownst to him, James and Cally managed to get his release papers from his lawyer, Walter Berman. James pretended to be his lawyer and ultimately left him in the sanitarium. Cally eventually freed him. This was the start of what would eventually be a year where J.R. lost everything. First, he lost control of Ewing Oil to Cliff, then was fired at West Star Oil by a vengeful [Carter McKay](/wiki/Carter_McKay "Carter McKay") ([George Kennedy](/wiki/George_Kennedy "George Kennedy")). To top it all off, he lost control of Southfork and was disowned by his son who moved to Europe to be with Sue Ellen. All J.R. was left with was a room in Southfork that Bobby let him stay in and not much else. Contemplating suicide, the character roamed the lonely Southfork with a bottle of bourbon and a loaded revolver. After an *[It's a Wonderful Life](/wiki/It%27s_a_Wonderful_Life "It's a Wonderful Life")*\-like fantasy, J.R. is shown what life would have been like had he never been born. The series ended with a single gunshot and Bobby dashing into J.R.'s room, uttering "Oh my God!" at what he found. J.R.'s fate was not revealed. The "Conundrum" cliffhanger was not resolved until 1996, with the first *Dallas* reunion movie, *[Dallas: J.R. Returns](/wiki/Dallas:J.R._Returns "J.R. Returns")*. It was revealed in the beginning of the movie that J.R. had not, in fact, shot himself, but had instead shot at the mirror where the demon Adam ([Joel Grey](/wiki/Joel_Grey "Joel Grey")) was appearing to him. [The 2012 revival series](/wiki/Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29 "Dallas (2012 TV series)") does not follow the reunion film, but shows J.R. still alive. According to the Dallas Facebook page, J.R. had indeed shot the mirror, but unlike the Reunion film, he didn't flee to Europe to recover.
[ "### Original series", "J.R. Ewing was the eldest son of [John Ross \"Jock\" Ewing Sr.](/wiki/Jock_Ewing \"Jock Ewing\") ([Jim Davis](/wiki/Jim_Davis_%28actor%29 \"Jim Davis (actor)\")) and [Eleanor \"Miss Ellie\" Ewing](/wiki/Miss_Ellie_Ewing \"Miss Ellie Ewing\") ([Barbara Bel Geddes](/wiki/Barbara_Bel_Geddes \"Barbara Bel Geddes\"), briefly [Donna Reed](/wiki/Donna_Reed \"Donna Reed\")). J.R. was born on the family's [Southfork Ranch](/wiki/Southfork_Ranch \"Southfork Ranch\").*[Dallas: The Early Years](/wiki/Dallas:The_Early_Years \"The Early Years\")* The year of his birth is inconsistent: in *[Dallas: The Early Years](/wiki/Dallas:The_Early_Years \"The Early Years\")*, Miss Ellie announces her pregnancy with J.R. in 1936, making the year of his birth 1936 or at the latest 1937, while in the 2012 continuation of *Dallas*, J.R.'s gravestone gives his birth year as 1939\\.", "J.R. has two younger brothers, [Gary](/wiki/Gary_Ewing \"Gary Ewing\") ([Ted Shackelford](/wiki/Ted_Shackelford \"Ted Shackelford\"), briefly [David Ackroyd](/wiki/David_Ackroyd \"David Ackroyd\")) and [Bobby](/wiki/Bobby_Ewing \"Bobby Ewing\") ([Patrick Duffy](/wiki/Patrick_Duffy \"Patrick Duffy\")); a half\\-brother, [Ray Krebbs](/wiki/Ray_Krebbs \"Ray Krebbs\") ([Steve Kanaly](/wiki/Steve_Kanaly \"Steve Kanaly\")), from his father's affair with an Army nurse named Margaret Hunter during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").", "Starting at age five, J.R. was groomed to be the heir apparent to his father Jock at [Ewing Oil](/wiki/Ewing_family_%28television%29%23Ewing_Oil \"Ewing family (television)#Ewing Oil\"), an independent oil company that Jock ran in a very cutthroat, ruthless manner. After coming home from serving for a short time in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") during the 1960s, J.R. began his long tenure as an employee of Ewing Oil. He had no interest in working on Southfork Ranch, which was mostly the domain of his mother Miss Ellie, and brothers Bobby and Ray Krebbs, but he did have a strong desire to keep Southfork in the family. Gary was mostly influenced by his mother and embraced the Southworth tradition of ranching on Southfork and had no interest in Ewing Oil. Like their father Jock, J.R. saw Gary as weak, lacking the Ewing character and growing up Gary was unable to stand up to J.R.'s bullying. A teenage Gary met his wife [Valene Clements](/wiki/Valene_Ewing \"Valene Ewing\") ([Joan Van Ark](/wiki/Joan_Van_Ark \"Joan Van Ark\")) in the early 1960s, they married when she became pregnant with their daughter [Lucy](/wiki/Lucy_Ewing \"Lucy Ewing\") ([Charlene Tilton](/wiki/Charlene_Tilton \"Charlene Tilton\")). J.R. did not approve of Gary marrying someone of Valene's status. When their marriage began to disintegrate, Gary left Southfork leaving Valene and Lucy. When Valene attempted to leave with Lucy, J.R. had her run out of town and took Lucy back to live with the Ewings at Southfork. In 1979, Gary and Valene reunited in Dallas and remarried, but rather than try to live at Southfork again, they left to go and live in the California suburb of *[Knots Landing](/wiki/Knots_Landing \"Knots Landing\")*.", "Bobby spent his time alternating between Southfork and Ewing Oil, and was Jock's favorite son. This made J.R. enormously determined to impress Jock, but despite his huge success in the oil business, J.R. was never able to overcome Jock's favoritism for Bobby. This led to a rivalry between them in childhood that continued as they grew up, especially when Bobby married [Pamela Barnes](/wiki/Pam_Ewing \"Pam Ewing\") ([Victoria Principal](/wiki/Victoria_Principal \"Victoria Principal\"), briefly [Margaret Michaels](/wiki/Margaret_Michaels \"Margaret Michaels\")), who was a member of the Ewings' rival family. The legendary Barnes\\-Ewing feud began in the 1930s between Jock and Pam's legal father [Digger](/wiki/Willard_%22Digger%22_Barnes \"Willard \") ([Keenan Wynn](/wiki/Keenan_Wynn \"Keenan Wynn\"), originally [David Wayne](/wiki/David_Wayne \"David Wayne\")) after their partnership in the oil business dissolved due to Digger's alcoholism and resentment. Jock had earlier married Digger's girlfriend, [Eleanor Southworth](/wiki/Miss_Ellie_Ewing \"Miss Ellie Ewing\"), which had caused a dent in their relationship prior to the big schism. The feud continued on decades later with J.R. and Digger's son [Cliff](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes \"Cliff Barnes\") ([Ken Kercheval](/wiki/Ken_Kercheval \"Ken Kercheval\")).", "In 1971, J.R. married Sue Ellen Shepard ([Linda Gray](/wiki/Linda_Gray \"Linda Gray\")), a former \"[Miss Texas](/wiki/Miss_Texas \"Miss Texas\")\". Their marriage became increasingly turbulent with J.R. ignoring her first with Ewing Oil then philandering with other women. By the late 1970s Sue Ellen had become an alcoholic. They divorced in 1981 only to remarry in 1982 and divorce again in 1988\\. In 1989 Sue Ellen moves to London with her new lover Don Lockwood ([Ian McShane](/wiki/Ian_McShane \"Ian McShane\")), they marry in 1991\\.", "J.R. had two wives and three children during the show's run. His eldest son, [James Richard Beaumont](/wiki/James_Beaumont_%28Dallas%29 \"James Beaumont (Dallas)\") ([Sasha Mitchell](/wiki/Sasha_Mitchell \"Sasha Mitchell\")), was by an off\\-screen affair with Vanessa Beaumont ([Gayle Hunnicutt](/wiki/Gayle_Hunnicutt \"Gayle Hunnicutt\")) which occurred in the 1960s but was only brought to knowledge in 1989\\. His second and most favored son was [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III \"John Ross Ewing III\") ([Omri Katz](/wiki/Omri_Katz \"Omri Katz\")) from his first wife Sue Ellen, born in 1979\\. His third son was with his second wife [Cally](/wiki/Cally_Harper_Ewing \"Cally Harper Ewing\") ([Cathy Podewell](/wiki/Cathy_Podewell \"Cathy Podewell\")) born in 1991, however, Cally didn't give birth until after leaving Dallas. J.R. also initially believed he was the father of [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing \"Christopher Ewing\") ([Joshua Harris](/wiki/Joshua_Harris_%28actor%29 \"Joshua Harris (actor)\"), originally Eric Farlow), the son of his sister\\-in\\-law and former mistress [Kristin Shepard](/wiki/Kristin_Shepard \"Kristin Shepard\") ([Mary Crosby](/wiki/Mary_Crosby \"Mary Crosby\")), but it was later revealed J.R. was not the father. Christopher was adopted by Bobby and Pam.\nIn addition to that, J.R.'s second wife Cally and his illegitimate son James successfully plotted to gain revenge on him. After JR kicked Cally off of Southfork he checked into a sanitarium in order to get Clayton Farlow's sister, Jessica Montford, to sign over voting rights in WestStar stock to him. Unbeknownst to him, James and Cally managed to get his release papers from his lawyer, Walter Berman. James pretended to be his lawyer and ultimately left him in the sanitarium. Cally eventually freed him. This was the start of what would eventually be a year where J.R. lost everything. First, he lost control of Ewing Oil to Cliff, then was fired at West Star Oil by a vengeful [Carter McKay](/wiki/Carter_McKay \"Carter McKay\") ([George Kennedy](/wiki/George_Kennedy \"George Kennedy\")). To top it all off, he lost control of Southfork and was disowned by his son who moved to Europe to be with Sue Ellen. All J.R. was left with was a room in Southfork that Bobby let him stay in and not much else. Contemplating suicide, the character roamed the lonely Southfork with a bottle of bourbon and a loaded revolver. After an *[It's a Wonderful Life](/wiki/It%27s_a_Wonderful_Life \"It's a Wonderful Life\")*\\-like fantasy, J.R. is shown what life would have been like had he never been born. The series ended with a single gunshot and Bobby dashing into J.R.'s room, uttering \"Oh my God!\" at what he found. J.R.'s fate was not revealed. The \"Conundrum\" cliffhanger was not resolved until 1996, with the first *Dallas* reunion movie, *[Dallas: J.R. Returns](/wiki/Dallas:J.R._Returns \"J.R. Returns\")*. It was revealed in the beginning of the movie that J.R. had not, in fact, shot himself, but had instead shot at the mirror where the demon Adam ([Joel Grey](/wiki/Joel_Grey \"Joel Grey\")) was appearing to him. [The 2012 revival series](/wiki/Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29 \"Dallas (2012 TV series)\") does not follow the reunion film, but shows J.R. still alive. According to the Dallas Facebook page, J.R. had indeed shot the mirror, but unlike the Reunion film, he didn't flee to Europe to recover.", "" ]
### *Dallas* (2012\) J.R. returns in the [2012 revival of the series](/wiki/Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29 "Dallas (2012 TV series)"), which focuses on J.R.'s son [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III "John Ross Ewing III") and Bobby's adopted son [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing "Christopher Ewing"). To J.R.'s delight, John Ross has become a carbon copy of him, in that he is more focused on oil, money and power. As the series begins J.R. has spent the last few years in a nursing home, suffering from chronic depression and not speaking despite visits from Bobby. All the events of the two TV movies are ignored. Bobby visits and tells J.R. that all of their fights over [Ewing Oil](/wiki/Ewing_family_%28television%29%23Ewing_Oil "Ewing family (television)#Ewing Oil") and Southfork changed him in ways he doesn't like and that he wants Christopher and John Ross to be a real family and not be like them always fighting. When John Ross eventually visits him on Bobby's suggestion, he says that Bobby plans to sell Southfork and give the money from the sale to Christopher to fund Christopher's renewable energy project. John Ross also tells J.R. that he discovered a 2 billion barrel oil reserve under Southfork but Bobby has blocked the drilling. J.R. finally rouses himself to help his son fight the attempts to block his drilling for oil on the ranch and tells John Ross that Bobby was always a fool. He reveals that he is working alongside Marta Del Sol, the daughter of an old friend of J.R.'s, who owns millions of acres of land. Marta is supposedly offering a partnership to Bobby but it's J.R. pulling the strings when Bobby signs Southfork to Marta's conservatory, it'll really be going to J.R. John Ross is really working alongside Marta, with J.R. seeing them together but not seeming to mind. J.R. surprises everyone by showing up at a family gathering (acting as an invalid by using a walker) and apologizing to Bobby and Sue Ellen for his past actions. He later goes to Mexico to see Marta's father, Carlos Del Sol, but he knows nothing of any deal. He then introduces his daughter only she's not the woman J.R. knows as Marta. Realizing he's been fooled, J.R. tells Del Sol he's made a mistake and bites out that Marta should meet his son as "he's a chip off the old block." J.R. eventually succeeds in getting Southfork from Bobby and doesn't waste any time in beginning to drill for oil on Southfork. He also cuts John Ross out of the partnership. However, he does give his son power of attorney to run his business ventures. J.R. is forced to return ownership of Southfork to Bobby when J.R. and John Ross' Venezuelan investor, Vicente Cano, turns violent against the Ewings when the loan isn't repaid. J.R. and John Ross are given immunity and sign confessions against Cano, who is sent to prison. Bobby keeps a copy of J.R.'s confession and warns him that he will send J.R. to prison if he uses any more dirty tricks. John Ross' fiancée [Elena Ramos](/wiki/Elena_Ramos "Elena Ramos") discovers John Ross' role in the plot, she breaks up with him and returns to Christopher. The first season ends with John Ross and J.R. joining forces against Bobby, Christopher and Elena, who have apparently reunited as a couple. At the start of the second season, J.R. is mentoring John Ross in business and dirty tricks and they are plotting to take control of Ewing Energies. J.R. also plots against his old rival [Cliff Barnes](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes "Cliff Barnes") and his daughter [Pamela Rebecca Barnes](/wiki/Pamela_Rebecca_Barnes "Pamela Rebecca Barnes"), who is pregnant with Christopher's twins and is having an affair with John Ross. Bobby asks for J.R.'s help to take down [Harris Ryland](/wiki/Harris_Ryland "Harris Ryland") when it's revealed Ryland kidnapped Bobby's stepdaughter Emma and let Bobby's wife Ann think her daughter was dead. J.R. assures Bobby that he will take Ryland down. In the episode "[The Furious and the Fast](/wiki/The_Furious_and_the_Fast "The Furious and the Fast")", J.R. talks to John Ross by phone about a "master plan" to defeat Cliff Barnes and Harris Ryland and to help John Ross take control of Ewing Energies, saying it will be his "masterpiece" when somebody apparently walks into the room and shoots twice, killing him. J.R.'s memorial was held at the Dallas Petroleum Club where many guests from his past attended. J.R.'s favorite drink, bourbon and [branch](/wiki/Branch_water "Branch water") was served. Guests included J.R.'s half\-brother [Ray Krebbs](/wiki/Ray_Krebbs "Ray Krebbs"), niece [Lucy Ewing](/wiki/Lucy_Ewing "Lucy Ewing"), brothers [Gary Ewing](/wiki/Gary_Ewing "Gary Ewing") and [Bobby Ewing](/wiki/Bobby_Ewing "Bobby Ewing"), ex\-wives [Sue Ellen Ewing](/wiki/Sue_Ellen_Ewing "Sue Ellen Ewing") and [Cally Harper Ewing](/wiki/Cally_Harper_Ewing "Cally Harper Ewing"), ex\-mistress Mandy Winger, adopted nephew [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing "Christopher Ewing"), [Elena Ramos](/wiki/Elena_Ramos "Elena Ramos") and her brother Drew Ramos and J.R.'s son [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III "John Ross Ewing III"). Other notable guests included Dallas Mayor [Mike Rawlings](/wiki/Mike_Rawlings "Mike Rawlings"), Dallas Mavericks owner [Mark Cuban](/wiki/Mark_Cuban "Mark Cuban") and Dallas Cowboys owner [Jerry Jones](/wiki/Jerry_Jones "Jerry Jones"). J.R.'s funeral was held at the family cemetery plot on Southfork Ranch. Ray, Lucy, Gary, Christopher, Elena, Sue Ellen, and Bobby all spoke. J.R. was buried next to the graves of Jock and Miss Ellie. At his funeral, Sue Ellen read the letter that J.R. had written to her before he was murdered where he stated that he wanted another chance with her. Sue Ellen referred to J.R. as "the love of my life". Since J.R. had been a war veteran, his coffin was draped in a U.S. Stars and Stripes flag and was handed folded to John Ross because he was his son and next\-of\-kin. At the end of the funeral J.R.'s private investigator [Bum Jones](/wiki/List_of_Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29_characters%23Steve_%22Bum%22_Jones "List of Dallas (2012 TV series) characters#Steve ") arrives at the gravesite. In the office at Southfork, Bum tells Bobby, John Ross, and Christopher that J.R. was in [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi") closing a deal to buy some oil leases but that his real reason for being in Abu Dhabi was because for the last several months he was trying to find Christopher's adoptive mother and Bobby's ex\-wife [Pamela Barnes Ewing](/wiki/Pam_Ewing "Pam Ewing"). Bum gives Christopher some papers that would tell why it was important for Christopher to find Pam. Bum reveals that J.R. was in [Nuevo Laredo](/wiki/Nuevo_Laredo "Nuevo Laredo") following a lead to take down Harris Ryland using the quail hunt as a cover story. John Ross assumes that Ryland was behind his father's murder but Bum says that J.R. was killed by a random mugger. John Ross is given a box containing a pistol and a note from J.R. telling John Ross that now that he is dead, [Cliff Barnes](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes "Cliff Barnes") and Ryland will join forces to take down the Ewings. The note also says John Ross should use the contents of the box "to take from them what they want to take from us" and that afterwards "Bobby will know what to do." J.R. ends the note by telling John Ross not to forget that he is J.R.'s son "from tip to tail". Bum gives a letter to Bobby. Bobby reads the letter but doesn't reveal what it says and tells John Ross and Christopher that it is between J.R. and him for the time being. Bobby and Bum talk outside the office where Bobby tells Bum to pay off whoever he has to in order to make everyone believe that J.R. was killed by a mugger and when the time is right the Ewings will handle the situation as a family. Bobby goes to J.R.'s bedroom and drinks some of J.R.'s trademark bourbon. Bobby, imagining talking to J.R., says that he knew J.R. would have one final card to play and it was a good one. Bobby says he loves J.R. and he breaks down crying. Bobby, John Ross and Christopher continue working together on the plan and they realise how important it is to find Pam, because she owns one\-third of Barnes Global shares along with Katherine and Cliff. With Katherine dead it only leaves her. It was said she entered Abu Dhabi with her husband in 1989\. Bobby finally reveals that J.R's master plan was to frame Cliff for his death "from beyond the grave". He reveals that J.R., knowing that he only had days to live from terminal cancer, had Bum steal Cliff's pistol. J.R. knew that Cliff went to Nuevo Laredo, Mexico every year for a fishing competition. J.R. had Bum meet him there and kill him. His plan was to have the Ewing family plant the pistol and J.R.'s trademark belt buckle in Cliff's car and safety deposit box.
[ "### *Dallas* (2012\\)", "J.R. returns in the [2012 revival of the series](/wiki/Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29 \"Dallas (2012 TV series)\"), which focuses on J.R.'s son [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III \"John Ross Ewing III\") and Bobby's adopted son [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing \"Christopher Ewing\"). To J.R.'s delight, John Ross has become a carbon copy of him, in that he is more focused on oil, money and power. As the series begins J.R. has spent the last few years in a nursing home, suffering from chronic depression and not speaking despite visits from Bobby. All the events of the two TV movies are ignored.", "Bobby visits and tells J.R. that all of their fights over [Ewing Oil](/wiki/Ewing_family_%28television%29%23Ewing_Oil \"Ewing family (television)#Ewing Oil\") and Southfork changed him in ways he doesn't like and that he wants Christopher and John Ross to be a real family and not be like them always fighting. When John Ross eventually visits him on Bobby's suggestion, he says that Bobby plans to sell Southfork and give the money from the sale to Christopher to fund Christopher's renewable energy project. John Ross also tells J.R. that he discovered a 2 billion barrel oil reserve under Southfork but Bobby has blocked the drilling. J.R. finally rouses himself to help his son fight the attempts to block his drilling for oil on the ranch and tells John Ross that Bobby was always a fool. He reveals that he is working alongside Marta Del Sol, the daughter of an old friend of J.R.'s, who owns millions of acres of land. Marta is supposedly offering a partnership to Bobby but it's J.R. pulling the strings when Bobby signs Southfork to Marta's conservatory, it'll really be going to J.R. John Ross is really working alongside Marta, with J.R. seeing them together but not seeming to mind. J.R. surprises everyone by showing up at a family gathering (acting as an invalid by using a walker) and apologizing to Bobby and Sue Ellen for his past actions. He later goes to Mexico to see Marta's father, Carlos Del Sol, but he knows nothing of any deal. He then introduces his daughter only she's not the woman J.R. knows as Marta. Realizing he's been fooled, J.R. tells Del Sol he's made a mistake and bites out that Marta should meet his son as \"he's a chip off the old block.\"", "J.R. eventually succeeds in getting Southfork from Bobby and doesn't waste any time in beginning to drill for oil on Southfork. He also cuts John Ross out of the partnership. However, he does give his son power of attorney to run his business ventures. J.R. is forced to return ownership of Southfork to Bobby when J.R. and John Ross' Venezuelan investor, Vicente Cano, turns violent against the Ewings when the loan isn't repaid. J.R. and John Ross are given immunity and sign confessions against Cano, who is sent to prison. Bobby keeps a copy of J.R.'s confession and warns him that he will send J.R. to prison if he uses any more dirty tricks. John Ross' fiancée [Elena Ramos](/wiki/Elena_Ramos \"Elena Ramos\") discovers John Ross' role in the plot, she breaks up with him and returns to Christopher. The first season ends with John Ross and J.R. joining forces against Bobby, Christopher and Elena, who have apparently reunited as a couple.", "At the start of the second season, J.R. is mentoring John Ross in business and dirty tricks and they are plotting to take control of Ewing Energies. J.R. also plots against his old rival [Cliff Barnes](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes \"Cliff Barnes\") and his daughter [Pamela Rebecca Barnes](/wiki/Pamela_Rebecca_Barnes \"Pamela Rebecca Barnes\"), who is pregnant with Christopher's twins and is having an affair with John Ross. Bobby asks for J.R.'s help to take down [Harris Ryland](/wiki/Harris_Ryland \"Harris Ryland\") when it's revealed Ryland kidnapped Bobby's stepdaughter Emma and let Bobby's wife Ann think her daughter was dead. J.R. assures Bobby that he will take Ryland down. In the episode \"[The Furious and the Fast](/wiki/The_Furious_and_the_Fast \"The Furious and the Fast\")\", J.R. talks to John Ross by phone about a \"master plan\" to defeat Cliff Barnes and Harris Ryland and to help John Ross take control of Ewing Energies, saying it will be his \"masterpiece\" when somebody apparently walks into the room and shoots twice, killing him.", "J.R.'s memorial was held at the Dallas Petroleum Club where many guests from his past attended. J.R.'s favorite drink, bourbon and [branch](/wiki/Branch_water \"Branch water\") was served. Guests included J.R.'s half\\-brother [Ray Krebbs](/wiki/Ray_Krebbs \"Ray Krebbs\"), niece [Lucy Ewing](/wiki/Lucy_Ewing \"Lucy Ewing\"), brothers [Gary Ewing](/wiki/Gary_Ewing \"Gary Ewing\") and [Bobby Ewing](/wiki/Bobby_Ewing \"Bobby Ewing\"), ex\\-wives [Sue Ellen Ewing](/wiki/Sue_Ellen_Ewing \"Sue Ellen Ewing\") and [Cally Harper Ewing](/wiki/Cally_Harper_Ewing \"Cally Harper Ewing\"), ex\\-mistress Mandy Winger, adopted nephew [Christopher Ewing](/wiki/Christopher_Ewing \"Christopher Ewing\"), [Elena Ramos](/wiki/Elena_Ramos \"Elena Ramos\") and her brother Drew Ramos and J.R.'s son [John Ross Ewing III](/wiki/John_Ross_Ewing_III \"John Ross Ewing III\"). Other notable guests included Dallas Mayor [Mike Rawlings](/wiki/Mike_Rawlings \"Mike Rawlings\"), Dallas Mavericks owner [Mark Cuban](/wiki/Mark_Cuban \"Mark Cuban\") and Dallas Cowboys owner [Jerry Jones](/wiki/Jerry_Jones \"Jerry Jones\"). J.R.'s funeral was held at the family cemetery plot on Southfork Ranch. Ray, Lucy, Gary, Christopher, Elena, Sue Ellen, and Bobby all spoke. J.R. was buried next to the graves of Jock and Miss Ellie. At his funeral, Sue Ellen read the letter that J.R. had written to her before he was murdered where he stated that he wanted another chance with her. Sue Ellen referred to J.R. as \"the love of my life\". Since J.R. had been a war veteran, his coffin was draped in a U.S. Stars and Stripes flag and was handed folded to John Ross because he was his son and next\\-of\\-kin.", "At the end of the funeral J.R.'s private investigator [Bum Jones](/wiki/List_of_Dallas_%282012_TV_series%29_characters%23Steve_%22Bum%22_Jones \"List of Dallas (2012 TV series) characters#Steve \") arrives at the gravesite. In the office at Southfork, Bum tells Bobby, John Ross, and Christopher that J.R. was in [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi \"Abu Dhabi\") closing a deal to buy some oil leases but that his real reason for being in Abu Dhabi was because for the last several months he was trying to find Christopher's adoptive mother and Bobby's ex\\-wife [Pamela Barnes Ewing](/wiki/Pam_Ewing \"Pam Ewing\"). Bum gives Christopher some papers that would tell why it was important for Christopher to find Pam. Bum reveals that J.R. was in [Nuevo Laredo](/wiki/Nuevo_Laredo \"Nuevo Laredo\") following a lead to take down Harris Ryland using the quail hunt as a cover story. John Ross assumes that Ryland was behind his father's murder but Bum says that J.R. was killed by a random mugger. John Ross is given a box containing a pistol and a note from J.R. telling John Ross that now that he is dead, [Cliff Barnes](/wiki/Cliff_Barnes \"Cliff Barnes\") and Ryland will join forces to take down the Ewings. The note also says John Ross should use the contents of the box \"to take from them what they want to take from us\" and that afterwards \"Bobby will know what to do.\" J.R. ends the note by telling John Ross not to forget that he is J.R.'s son \"from tip to tail\". Bum gives a letter to Bobby. Bobby reads the letter but doesn't reveal what it says and tells John Ross and Christopher that it is between J.R. and him for the time being. Bobby and Bum talk outside the office where Bobby tells Bum to pay off whoever he has to in order to make everyone believe that J.R. was killed by a mugger and when the time is right the Ewings will handle the situation as a family. Bobby goes to J.R.'s bedroom and drinks some of J.R.'s trademark bourbon. Bobby, imagining talking to J.R., says that he knew J.R. would have one final card to play and it was a good one. Bobby says he loves J.R. and he breaks down crying. Bobby, John Ross and Christopher continue working together on the plan and they realise how important it is to find Pam, because she owns one\\-third of Barnes Global shares along with Katherine and Cliff. With Katherine dead it only leaves her. It was said she entered Abu Dhabi with her husband in 1989\\. Bobby finally reveals that J.R's master plan was to frame Cliff for his death \"from beyond the grave\". He reveals that J.R., knowing that he only had days to live from terminal cancer, had Bum steal Cliff's pistol. J.R. knew that Cliff went to Nuevo Laredo, Mexico every year for a fishing competition. J.R. had Bum meet him there and kill him. His plan was to have the Ewing family plant the pistol and J.R.'s trademark belt buckle in Cliff's car and safety deposit box.", "" ]
Origins and education --------------------- ### Early life Prosper Morey was born in Nancy in the actual [rue des Quatre\-Eglises](/wiki/Rue_des_Quatre-Eglises "Rue des Quatre-Eglises"). He was the son of Jean\-François Morey, a plasterer["Civil status brith register. An XIV, 1er vendémiaire\-1806, 24 mars (2 E 50\)". Image 74\.](https://recherche-archives.nancy.fr/viewer/series/2_E/2_E_50) Found on the viewer of the City archives of Nancy on February, 26th, 2024\. and Reine Sauret. His childhood and initial education are not known; he may have started working as an apprentice in the building trades.Hubert Elie, *Un architecte nancéien, Prosper Morey (1805–1886\),*Nancy, Imprimerie Georges Thomas, 1964, 122 p., p. 7 Unlike many architects of his time, he belonged to a lower social class. Despite this background, he prepared successfully the entrance examination to the [Beaux\-Arts de Paris](/wiki/Beaux-Arts_de_Paris "Beaux-Arts de Paris").{{Cite web \|last\=Hacquet \|first\=Claire \|title\="Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi" \|url\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\-morey\-un\-architecte\-a\-pompei/p1 \|website\=Limédia galeries}} Such an ambition, added to the financial effort, is probably linked to a soon revealed talent, in addition to family support.Claire Haquet, « Les jeunes années d'un architecte : Prosper Morey, 1827–1850 », *Le Pays Lorrain*, vol. 94, no 2, juin 2013, p. 140–141 ### Studies at the Beaux\-Arts de Paris Prosper Morey entered the Beaux\-Arts de Paris in 1827\. He attended the classes of [Achille Leclère](/wiki/Achille_Lecl%C3%A8re "Achille Leclère"),{{Cite book \|last\=Lance \|first\=Adolphe \|title\=Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Achille Leclère \|publisher\=Librairie d'architecture de B. Bance \|year\=1854 \|location\=Paris \|pages\=14–15 \|trans\-title\=Biographical note about the life and works of Mr Achille Leclère}} a French architect during whose course he first encountered [Eugène Viollet\-le\-Duc](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Viollet-le-Duc "Eugène Viollet-le-Duc"), an even more famous French architect well known for his restoration of [Notre\-Dame de Paris](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris "Notre-Dame de Paris").{{Cite web \|last\=Hacquet \|first\=Claire \|date\=2024 \|title\="Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi" \|url\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\-morey\-un\-architecte\-a\-pompei/p1 \|website\=Limédia galeries}} Several testimonies of his time as a student exist in the form of drawing exercices, including sketchs for a staircase, a library, copies of a house created by [Baldassare Pedruzzi](/wiki/Baldassare_Peruzzi "Baldassare Peruzzi"), a water tank, the [Chapelle expiatoire](/wiki/Chapelle_expiatoire "Chapelle expiatoire") in Paris or [Tuileries](/wiki/Tuileries_Garden "Tuileries Garden") engines... A sketchbook exists and shows the classical architectural style students were learning. Prosper Morey's academic performance was outstanding; he won the [Prix de Rome](/wiki/Prix_de_Rome "Prix de Rome") in architecture in 1831{{Cite book \|last1\=Guiffrey \|first1\=Jules \|title\=Liste des pensionnaires de l'Académie de France à Rome : donnant les noms de tous les artistes récompensés dans les concours du Prix de Rome de 1663 à 1907 \|last2\=Barthelemy \|first2\=Joseph \|publisher\=Firmin\-Didot \|year\=1908 \|pages\=92 \|language\=FR \|trans\-title\=List of the pensionaries of the Academy of France in Rome...}} for a project on a thermal spa, mandatory subject. The interpretation he gave distinguished itself wit a majestic composition and antique taste already high. ### French Academy in Rome and submissions from Rome Laureates of the Grand Prix de Rome would have the opportunity to travel and study in Rome. As such, Morey stayed in [Villa Médicis](/wiki/Villa_Medici "Villa Medici") from January 1832 until the end of spring in 1837\.*Voyages en Italie et en Grèce de Prosper Morey, 1805–1886, architecte lorrain,* Nancy, Musée des Beaux\-Arts, 1990, 174 p., p.39 Prosper Morey there diligently fulfilled his duties, earning regular praise from the Academy of Fine Arts which judged the annual submissions by students.Jean\-Michel Leniaud (dir.), *Minutes of the Academy of Beaux\-Arts,* t. V, 1830–1834, Paris, Droz, 2004, 452 p., p.386, 396; t. VI, 1835–1839, Paris, Droz, 2003, 591 p., p.390, 401, 432–433, 441–442\. At the Villa Médicis led by [Horace Vernet](/wiki/Horace_Vernet "Horace Vernet") and later [Ingres](/wiki/Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres "Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres"), his fellow workers included [Léon Vaudoyer](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Vaudoyer "Léon Vaudoyer"), [Victor Baltard](/wiki/Victor_Baltard "Victor Baltard") and [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz "Hector Berlioz"). He also met [Gottfried Semper](/wiki/Gottfried_Semper "Gottfried Semper") who had come around Messine to study antique architecture.Harry Francis Mallgrave, *Gottfried Semper, architect of the nineteenth century : a personal and intellectual biography,* New Haven, Yale University Press, 1996, 443 p. Submissions were the assignments of Villa Medici's residents. Completed in early January, they were briefly exhibited in Rome before being sent to Paris to be judged by the Academie des Beaux\-Arts. Due to the time it took for judging and postal delays, students often received feedback only in November or December; just a few weeks before submitting a more advanced phase of their work. Prosper Morey's submissions were the following (the year being when the work was sent, the work having been done mostly the year before):{{Cite book \|last1\=Verger \|first1\=Annie \|title\=Dictionnaire biographique des pensionnaires de l'Académie de France à Rome: 1666–1968 \|last2\=Verger \|first2\=Gabriel \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=l'Échelle de Jacob Académie de France à Rome, Villa Médicis \|isbn\=978\-2\-35968\-024\-9 \|location\=Dijon \[Rome]}} * First\-year submission (1833\) : [Temple of Mars Ultor](/wiki/Temple_of_Mars_Ultor "Temple of Mars Ultor") and restoration project of [Forum of Augustus](/wiki/Forum_of_Augustus "Forum of Augustus"); * Second\-year submission (1834\) : Study of details for the [Panthéon of Agrippa](/wiki/Pantheon%2C_Rome "Pantheon, Rome"), the triangular forum in [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") and the Temple of Peace in [Paestum](/wiki/Paestum "Paestum") ; * Third\-year submissions (1835\) : Arches of [Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus "Arch of Titus"), [Constantin](/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine "Arch of Constantine") and [Septimius Severus](/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus "Arch of Septimius Severus"), [Temple of Vesta (Tivoli)](/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta%2C_Tivoli "Temple of Vesta, Tivoli"), temple of Hercule in Cori ; * Fourth\-year submission (1836\) : Project for the restoration of [Trajan's Forum](/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum "Trajan's Forum") ; * Fifth\-year submission (1837\) : Pantheon project. [thumb\|Trajan Forum in Rome by Prosper Morey](/wiki/File:Rome._Forum_de_Trajan_par_Prosper_Morey.jpg "Rome. Forum de Trajan par Prosper Morey.jpg") Among his submissions, his fourth\-year work on the Trajan Forum remains one of Prosper Morey's most ambitious projects. The area covered is considerable, spanning an area of 300 meters by 180 meters. In 1835, Prosper Morey submitted a total of 14 drawings regarding the ornamentation and proposals for the restoration of the main monuments. His work marks the earliest representations of the ruins since the beginning of their excavations, ordered by Napoleon in 1811\. The first to devote his submissions to the forum was [Jean\-Baptiste Lesueur](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lesueur "Jean-Baptiste Lesueur") in 1824\. These two submissions allow for comparison and correction of certain errors made by Lesueur or Morey. Indeed, the architect from Nancy restores two apses to the Ulpia Basilica, which Lesueur had omitted. However, the student draws all the entrances in an identical manner, whereas Lesueur, correctly, attributes only four columns to the central entrances.{{Cite journal \|last\=Jeusset \|first\=Erwan \|date\=2021 \|title\="Le forum de Trajan et sa représentation du XVIIe au XXe siècle" \|url\=https://hal.science/hal\-03355927 \|journal\=Revue des études anciennes \|volume\=123 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=173–192\|doi\=10\.3406/rea.2021\.6982 }} Morey's submissions on the Trajan Forum provoked various reactions. On one hand, this remarkable work received recognition in the collection of atlases of restorations of ancient monuments.*Restorations of antique monuments by architects in the Académie de France in Rome. From 1788 to our days,* vol. 7, Paris, Frimin\-Didot et Cie, 1877, p. 6\. On the other hand, a number of criticisms are expressed by [Etienne\-Jean Delécluze](/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Jean_Del%C3%A9cluze "Étienne-Jean Delécluze") in the *[Journal des débats](/wiki/Journal_des_d%C3%A9bats "Journal des débats").* The architect then complained to the nephew of the journalist : Eugène Viollet\-le\-Duc. Despite this remarkable piece, Morey's submissions were not particularly distinguished by their originality but were highly appreciated by the judges. In every aspect, he proved to be a model and diligent resident. For example, he reproduced some sketches made by his fellow workers such as [Alphonse Goujon](/wiki/Alphonse_Goujon "Alphonse Goujon"). Copy was one of the best ways to become and learn to be an architect.
[ "Origins and education\n---------------------", "### Early life", "Prosper Morey was born in Nancy in the actual [rue des Quatre\\-Eglises](/wiki/Rue_des_Quatre-Eglises \"Rue des Quatre-Eglises\"). He was the son of Jean\\-François Morey, a plasterer[\"Civil status brith register. An XIV, 1er vendémiaire\\-1806, 24 mars (2 E 50\\)\". Image 74\\.](https://recherche-archives.nancy.fr/viewer/series/2_E/2_E_50) Found on the viewer of the City archives of Nancy on February, 26th, 2024\\. and Reine Sauret. His childhood and initial education are not known; he may have started working as an apprentice in the building trades.Hubert Elie, *Un architecte nancéien, Prosper Morey (1805–1886\\),*Nancy, Imprimerie Georges Thomas, 1964, 122 p., p. 7 Unlike many architects of his time, he belonged to a lower social class. Despite this background, he prepared successfully the entrance examination to the [Beaux\\-Arts de Paris](/wiki/Beaux-Arts_de_Paris \"Beaux-Arts de Paris\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hacquet \\|first\\=Claire \\|title\\=\"Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi\" \\|url\\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\\-morey\\-un\\-architecte\\-a\\-pompei/p1 \\|website\\=Limédia galeries}} Such an ambition, added to the financial effort, is probably linked to a soon revealed talent, in addition to family support.Claire Haquet, « Les jeunes années d'un architecte : Prosper Morey, 1827–1850 », *Le Pays Lorrain*, vol. 94, no 2, juin 2013, p. 140–141", "### Studies at the Beaux\\-Arts de Paris", "Prosper Morey entered the Beaux\\-Arts de Paris in 1827\\. He attended the classes of [Achille Leclère](/wiki/Achille_Lecl%C3%A8re \"Achille Leclère\"),{{Cite book \\|last\\=Lance \\|first\\=Adolphe \\|title\\=Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Achille Leclère \\|publisher\\=Librairie d'architecture de B. Bance \\|year\\=1854 \\|location\\=Paris \\|pages\\=14–15 \\|trans\\-title\\=Biographical note about the life and works of Mr Achille Leclère}} a French architect during whose course he first encountered [Eugène Viollet\\-le\\-Duc](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Viollet-le-Duc \"Eugène Viollet-le-Duc\"), an even more famous French architect well known for his restoration of [Notre\\-Dame de Paris](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris \"Notre-Dame de Paris\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hacquet \\|first\\=Claire \\|date\\=2024 \\|title\\=\"Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi\" \\|url\\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\\-morey\\-un\\-architecte\\-a\\-pompei/p1 \\|website\\=Limédia galeries}}", "Several testimonies of his time as a student exist in the form of drawing exercices, including sketchs for a staircase, a library, copies of a house created by [Baldassare Pedruzzi](/wiki/Baldassare_Peruzzi \"Baldassare Peruzzi\"), a water tank, the [Chapelle expiatoire](/wiki/Chapelle_expiatoire \"Chapelle expiatoire\") in Paris or [Tuileries](/wiki/Tuileries_Garden \"Tuileries Garden\") engines... A sketchbook exists and shows the classical architectural style students were learning. Prosper Morey's academic performance was outstanding; he won the [Prix de Rome](/wiki/Prix_de_Rome \"Prix de Rome\") in architecture in 1831{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Guiffrey \\|first1\\=Jules \\|title\\=Liste des pensionnaires de l'Académie de France à Rome : donnant les noms de tous les artistes récompensés dans les concours du Prix de Rome de 1663 à 1907 \\|last2\\=Barthelemy \\|first2\\=Joseph \\|publisher\\=Firmin\\-Didot \\|year\\=1908 \\|pages\\=92 \\|language\\=FR \\|trans\\-title\\=List of the pensionaries of the Academy of France in Rome...}} for a project on a thermal spa, mandatory subject. The interpretation he gave distinguished itself wit a majestic composition and antique taste already high.", "### French Academy in Rome and submissions from Rome", "Laureates of the Grand Prix de Rome would have the opportunity to travel and study in Rome. As such, Morey stayed in [Villa Médicis](/wiki/Villa_Medici \"Villa Medici\") from January 1832 until the end of spring in 1837\\.*Voyages en Italie et en Grèce de Prosper Morey, 1805–1886, architecte lorrain,* Nancy, Musée des Beaux\\-Arts, 1990, 174 p., p.39 Prosper Morey there diligently fulfilled his duties, earning regular praise from the Academy of Fine Arts which judged the annual submissions by students.Jean\\-Michel Leniaud (dir.), *Minutes of the Academy of Beaux\\-Arts,* t. V, 1830–1834, Paris, Droz, 2004, 452 p., p.386, 396; t. VI, 1835–1839, Paris, Droz, 2003, 591 p., p.390, 401, 432–433, 441–442\\. At the Villa Médicis led by [Horace Vernet](/wiki/Horace_Vernet \"Horace Vernet\") and later [Ingres](/wiki/Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres \"Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres\"), his fellow workers included [Léon Vaudoyer](/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Vaudoyer \"Léon Vaudoyer\"), [Victor Baltard](/wiki/Victor_Baltard \"Victor Baltard\") and [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz \"Hector Berlioz\"). He also met [Gottfried Semper](/wiki/Gottfried_Semper \"Gottfried Semper\") who had come around Messine to study antique architecture.Harry Francis Mallgrave, *Gottfried Semper, architect of the nineteenth century : a personal and intellectual biography,* New Haven, Yale University Press, 1996, 443 p.", "Submissions were the assignments of Villa Medici's residents. Completed in early January, they were briefly exhibited in Rome before being sent to Paris to be judged by the Academie des Beaux\\-Arts. Due to the time it took for judging and postal delays, students often received feedback only in November or December; just a few weeks before submitting a more advanced phase of their work.", "Prosper Morey's submissions were the following (the year being when the work was sent, the work having been done mostly the year before):{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Verger \\|first1\\=Annie \\|title\\=Dictionnaire biographique des pensionnaires de l'Académie de France à Rome: 1666–1968 \\|last2\\=Verger \\|first2\\=Gabriel \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=l'Échelle de Jacob Académie de France à Rome, Villa Médicis \\|isbn\\=978\\-2\\-35968\\-024\\-9 \\|location\\=Dijon \\[Rome]}}\n* First\\-year submission (1833\\) : [Temple of Mars Ultor](/wiki/Temple_of_Mars_Ultor \"Temple of Mars Ultor\") and restoration project of [Forum of Augustus](/wiki/Forum_of_Augustus \"Forum of Augustus\");\n* Second\\-year submission (1834\\) : Study of details for the [Panthéon of Agrippa](/wiki/Pantheon%2C_Rome \"Pantheon, Rome\"), the triangular forum in [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") and the Temple of Peace in [Paestum](/wiki/Paestum \"Paestum\") ;\n* Third\\-year submissions (1835\\) : Arches of [Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus \"Arch of Titus\"), [Constantin](/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine \"Arch of Constantine\") and [Septimius Severus](/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus \"Arch of Septimius Severus\"), [Temple of Vesta (Tivoli)](/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta%2C_Tivoli \"Temple of Vesta, Tivoli\"), temple of Hercule in Cori ;\n* Fourth\\-year submission (1836\\) : Project for the restoration of [Trajan's Forum](/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum \"Trajan's Forum\") ;\n* Fifth\\-year submission (1837\\) : Pantheon project.\n[thumb\\|Trajan Forum in Rome by Prosper Morey](/wiki/File:Rome._Forum_de_Trajan_par_Prosper_Morey.jpg \"Rome. Forum de Trajan par Prosper Morey.jpg\")\nAmong his submissions, his fourth\\-year work on the Trajan Forum remains one of Prosper Morey's most ambitious projects. The area covered is considerable, spanning an area of 300 meters by 180 meters. In 1835, Prosper Morey submitted a total of 14 drawings regarding the ornamentation and proposals for the restoration of the main monuments. His work marks the earliest representations of the ruins since the beginning of their excavations, ordered by Napoleon in 1811\\. The first to devote his submissions to the forum was [Jean\\-Baptiste Lesueur](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lesueur \"Jean-Baptiste Lesueur\") in 1824\\. These two submissions allow for comparison and correction of certain errors made by Lesueur or Morey. Indeed, the architect from Nancy restores two apses to the Ulpia Basilica, which Lesueur had omitted. However, the student draws all the entrances in an identical manner, whereas Lesueur, correctly, attributes only four columns to the central entrances.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Jeusset \\|first\\=Erwan \\|date\\=2021 \\|title\\=\"Le forum de Trajan et sa représentation du XVIIe au XXe siècle\" \\|url\\=https://hal.science/hal\\-03355927 \\|journal\\=Revue des études anciennes \\|volume\\=123 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=173–192\\|doi\\=10\\.3406/rea.2021\\.6982 }}", "Morey's submissions on the Trajan Forum provoked various reactions. On one hand, this remarkable work received recognition in the collection of atlases of restorations of ancient monuments.*Restorations of antique monuments by architects in the Académie de France in Rome. From 1788 to our days,* vol. 7, Paris, Frimin\\-Didot et Cie, 1877, p. 6\\. On the other hand, a number of criticisms are expressed by [Etienne\\-Jean Delécluze](/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Jean_Del%C3%A9cluze \"Étienne-Jean Delécluze\") in the *[Journal des débats](/wiki/Journal_des_d%C3%A9bats \"Journal des débats\").* The architect then complained to the nephew of the journalist : Eugène Viollet\\-le\\-Duc.", "Despite this remarkable piece, Morey's submissions were not particularly distinguished by their originality but were highly appreciated by the judges. In every aspect, he proved to be a model and diligent resident. For example, he reproduced some sketches made by his fellow workers such as [Alphonse Goujon](/wiki/Alphonse_Goujon \"Alphonse Goujon\"). Copy was one of the best ways to become and learn to be an architect.", "" ]
Travels abroad -------------- Many travels abroad happened during Prosper Morey's career. In addition to his journey in Rome, in 1838, Morey joined the archaeological mission in Greece and Asia Minor led by [Raoul Rochette](/wiki/Desir%C3%A9-Raoul_Rochette "Desiré-Raoul Rochette"). In [1846](/wiki/1846_in_architecture "1846 in architecture"), he participated in the creation of the [École française d'Athènes](/wiki/French_School_at_Athens "French School at Athens"). Prosper Morey conducted numerous archaeological and architectural travels during which, as his fellows, he would sketch many buildings he visited. These sketches, blue prints or views were put together in portfolios. Prosper Morey consulted these references throughout his career.{{Cite book \|title\=Voyages en Italie et en Grèce de Prosper Morey, 1805–1886, architecte lorrain \|publisher\=Musée des beaux\-arts \|year\=1990 \|location\=Nancy \|page\=39}} The Morey's portfolio was given to [Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy](/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_municipale_de_Nancy "Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy") after his death in 1886\. It contains 19 albums with sketches and studies both from his submissions from Rome as a student and from his travels in Rome's area, in Italy and Middle East. Some sketches have probably disappear as there are very few from Middle East despite Morey's trip from May to August in 1838\.{{Cite book \|title\=Voyages en Italie et en Grèce de Prosper Morey, 1805–1886, architecte lorrain \|publisher\=Musée des beaux\-arts \|year\=1990 \|location\=Nancy \|page\=40}} ### Morey in Pompeii [left\|thumb\|View from [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") by Prosper Morey](/wiki/File:%22Pompeie._Ex%C3%A8dre_sur_la_voie_des_tombeaux%22_dessin_de_Prosper_Morey%2C_vers_1832-1837.jpg) Prosper Morey was among the first to visit and document the ruins of Pompeii which he visited twice. First in 1833 during his second year as a student at the Villa Medicis. Then in 1838 after his Greek expedition.{{Cite web \|last\=Claire Haquet \|title\="Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi" \|url\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\-morey\-un\-architecte\-a\-pompei/p6 \|website\=Limédia galeries \|page\=6}} At that time, only a quarter of the city's surface had been excavated. Morey possessed great talent for observing and rendering architectural details and decorations. He provided striking and fresh views of the frescoes in numerous [Pompeian villas](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") such as « the black bedroom villa » which he was the first to draw, the « Ariane's villa », the « Hunting villa », the « Salluste villa », or the « Pansa villa ».{{Cite web \|last\=Claire Haquet \|title\="Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi" \|url\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\-morey\-un\-architecte\-a\-pompei/p6 \|website\=Limédia galeries \|page\=6}}{{Cite book \|title\=Voyages en Italie et en Grèce de Prosper Morey, 1805–1886, architecte lorrain \|publisher\=Musée des beaux\-arts \|year\=1990 \|location\=Nancy \|pages\=22–23}} He also sketched many elevations, architectural pieces, columns and some public buildings such as thermal spa and the small theatre.{{Cite web \|title\=Carte interactive retraçant l'itinéraire de Prosper Morey à Pompéi et les relevés de fresques effectués \|url\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\-morey\-un\-architecte\-a\-pompei/p7 \|website\=Limédia galeries \|page\=7}} Between 1833 and 1834, the architect had done 35 Pompeian sketchs. They are all in volume XV of his portfolio. Over a hundred of his drawings are kept at the [bibliothèque municipale de Nancy](/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_municipale_de_Nancy "Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy"). Many were retouched with painting when Morey came back to Paris.{{Cite web \|last\=Claire Haquet \|title\="Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi" \|url\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\-morey\-un\-architecte\-a\-pompei/p6 \|website\=Limédia galeries \|page\=6}} These sketches are very important to the knowledge about Pompeii. They give precise information on this famous archeological site from the beginning of the 19th century. ### Other travels in Italy Students were encouraged to travel in Italy to refine their taste with perfect ancient models, but they also showed interest in medieval and Renaissance architecture. Morey traveled to Sicily with Victor Baltard. There, he met Viollet\-le\-Duc again; Palermo and, especially, the Cathedral of Messina received much of his attention. He was also seen in Naples and Venice, documenting elevations and details of the Doge's Palace. ### Archeological mission in Greece and Asia Minor In 1838, Prosper Morey joined the archaeological mission in Greece and Asia Minor led by Désirée Raoul RochetteGeorges Perrot, « Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Désiré Raoul\-Rochette », dans Comptes\-rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles\-Lettres, vol. 50 no 9, 1906, p. 638\-701\. as architect and drawer. During three months, he was in charge of drawing antic ruins from [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens"), [Aegina](/wiki/Aegina "Aegina") and some of the [Cyclades](/wiki/Cyclades "Cyclades") islands visited such as [Syros](/wiki/Syros "Syros"), [Delos](/wiki/Delos "Delos"), [Milos](/wiki/Milos "Milos"), [Mykonos](/wiki/Mykonos "Mykonos") and [Santorini](/wiki/Santorini "Santorini"). File:Dessin de l'île de Syros par Prosper Morey.jpg\|Syros island view by Prosper Morey File:Dessin du temple d'Egine par Prosper Morey.jpg\|Egine temple view by Prosper Morey around 1838 File:Dessin du Temple de Thésée par Prosper Morey.jpg\|Thésée's temple view by Prosper Morey around 1838 File:Dessin d'Athènes par Prosper Morey.jpg\|Athens view by Prosper Morey around 1838 In August 1838, Morey and Raoul\-Rouchette traveled to Asia Minor, to the Troad, with the aim of obtaining from the Ottoman Empire the transfer of the bas\-reliefs from the temple of Athena in Assos to France, as well as to search tor the ruins of Troy. They were successful and obtained authorization from Governor Mehmet Rechid Pasha to transfer ownership of the bas\-reliefs to the Louvre. Additionally, they purportedly identified the entrance gates to the mythical city of Troy in the valley of the Scamander. In his reception speech at the Académie de Stanislas in 1850, later published under the title "Archaeological Research in the Troad", Morey recounts that a shepherd led them into the valley of the Scamander, where they recognized the landscapes described by Homer in the Iliad, specifically citing the distances between mountain peaks and river plains. Upon their return from the Troad, they stayed in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople") for a few days, where Morey explored the city and made drawings, notably of the tomb of [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent "Suleiman the Magnificent"). The archaeological mission led by Raoul\-Rouchette is one the many scientific missions of that time. Scientists and artists would map the fauna and flora and conduct archaeological excavations. The publications of the work from these various missions led to the establishment of the French School of Athens in 1846\.
[ "Travels abroad\n--------------", "Many travels abroad happened during Prosper Morey's career. In addition to his journey in Rome, in 1838, Morey joined the archaeological mission in Greece and Asia Minor led by [Raoul Rochette](/wiki/Desir%C3%A9-Raoul_Rochette \"Desiré-Raoul Rochette\"). In [1846](/wiki/1846_in_architecture \"1846 in architecture\"), he participated in the creation of the [École française d'Athènes](/wiki/French_School_at_Athens \"French School at Athens\").", "Prosper Morey conducted numerous archaeological and architectural travels during which, as his fellows, he would sketch many buildings he visited. These sketches, blue prints or views were put together in portfolios. Prosper Morey consulted these references throughout his career.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Voyages en Italie et en Grèce de Prosper Morey, 1805–1886, architecte lorrain \\|publisher\\=Musée des beaux\\-arts \\|year\\=1990 \\|location\\=Nancy \\|page\\=39}}", "The Morey's portfolio was given to [Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy](/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_municipale_de_Nancy \"Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy\") after his death in 1886\\. It contains 19 albums with sketches and studies both from his submissions from Rome as a student and from his travels in Rome's area, in Italy and Middle East. Some sketches have probably disappear as there are very few from Middle East despite Morey's trip from May to August in 1838\\.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Voyages en Italie et en Grèce de Prosper Morey, 1805–1886, architecte lorrain \\|publisher\\=Musée des beaux\\-arts \\|year\\=1990 \\|location\\=Nancy \\|page\\=40}}", "### Morey in Pompeii", "[left\\|thumb\\|View from [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") by Prosper Morey](/wiki/File:%22Pompeie._Ex%C3%A8dre_sur_la_voie_des_tombeaux%22_dessin_de_Prosper_Morey%2C_vers_1832-1837.jpg)\nProsper Morey was among the first to visit and document the ruins of Pompeii which he visited twice. First in 1833 during his second year as a student at the Villa Medicis. Then in 1838 after his Greek expedition.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Claire Haquet \\|title\\=\"Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi\" \\|url\\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\\-morey\\-un\\-architecte\\-a\\-pompei/p6 \\|website\\=Limédia galeries \\|page\\=6}}", "At that time, only a quarter of the city's surface had been excavated. Morey possessed great talent for observing and rendering architectural details and decorations. He provided striking and fresh views of the frescoes in numerous [Pompeian villas](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") such as « the black bedroom villa » which he was the first to draw, the « Ariane's villa », the « Hunting villa », the « Salluste villa », or the « Pansa villa ».{{Cite web \\|last\\=Claire Haquet \\|title\\=\"Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi\" \\|url\\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\\-morey\\-un\\-architecte\\-a\\-pompei/p6 \\|website\\=Limédia galeries \\|page\\=6}}{{Cite book \\|title\\=Voyages en Italie et en Grèce de Prosper Morey, 1805–1886, architecte lorrain \\|publisher\\=Musée des beaux\\-arts \\|year\\=1990 \\|location\\=Nancy \\|pages\\=22–23}} He also sketched many elevations, architectural pieces, columns and some public buildings such as thermal spa and the small theatre.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Carte interactive retraçant l'itinéraire de Prosper Morey à Pompéi et les relevés de fresques effectués \\|url\\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\\-morey\\-un\\-architecte\\-a\\-pompei/p7 \\|website\\=Limédia galeries \\|page\\=7}} Between 1833 and 1834, the architect had done 35 Pompeian sketchs. They are all in volume XV of his portfolio.", "Over a hundred of his drawings are kept at the [bibliothèque municipale de Nancy](/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_municipale_de_Nancy \"Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy\"). Many were retouched with painting when Morey came back to Paris.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Claire Haquet \\|title\\=\"Prosper Morey, architecte : de Nancy à Pompéi\" \\|url\\=https://galeries.limedia.fr/expositions/prosper\\-morey\\-un\\-architecte\\-a\\-pompei/p6 \\|website\\=Limédia galeries \\|page\\=6}} These sketches are very important to the knowledge about Pompeii. They give precise information on this famous archeological site from the beginning of the 19th century.", "### Other travels in Italy", "Students were encouraged to travel in Italy to refine their taste with perfect ancient models, but they also showed interest in medieval and Renaissance architecture.", "Morey traveled to Sicily with Victor Baltard. There, he met Viollet\\-le\\-Duc again; Palermo and, especially, the Cathedral of Messina received much of his attention. He was also seen in Naples and Venice, documenting elevations and details of the Doge's Palace.\n### Archeological mission in Greece and Asia Minor", "In 1838, Prosper Morey joined the archaeological mission in Greece and Asia Minor led by Désirée Raoul RochetteGeorges Perrot, « Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Désiré Raoul\\-Rochette », dans Comptes\\-rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles\\-Lettres, vol. 50 no 9, 1906, p. 638\\-701\\. as architect and drawer. During three months, he was in charge of drawing antic ruins from [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\"), [Aegina](/wiki/Aegina \"Aegina\") and some of the [Cyclades](/wiki/Cyclades \"Cyclades\") islands visited such as [Syros](/wiki/Syros \"Syros\"), [Delos](/wiki/Delos \"Delos\"), [Milos](/wiki/Milos \"Milos\"), [Mykonos](/wiki/Mykonos \"Mykonos\") and [Santorini](/wiki/Santorini \"Santorini\").\nFile:Dessin de l'île de Syros par Prosper Morey.jpg\\|Syros island view by Prosper Morey\nFile:Dessin du temple d'Egine par Prosper Morey.jpg\\|Egine temple view by Prosper Morey around 1838\nFile:Dessin du Temple de Thésée par Prosper Morey.jpg\\|Thésée's temple view by Prosper Morey around 1838\nFile:Dessin d'Athènes par Prosper Morey.jpg\\|Athens view by Prosper Morey around 1838\nIn August 1838, Morey and Raoul\\-Rouchette traveled to Asia Minor, to the Troad, with the aim of obtaining from the Ottoman Empire the transfer of the bas\\-reliefs from the temple of Athena in Assos to France, as well as to search tor the ruins of Troy. They were successful and obtained authorization from Governor Mehmet Rechid Pasha to transfer ownership of the bas\\-reliefs to the Louvre.", "Additionally, they purportedly identified the entrance gates to the mythical city of Troy in the valley of the Scamander. In his reception speech at the Académie de Stanislas in 1850, later published under the title \"Archaeological Research in the Troad\", Morey recounts that a shepherd led them into the valley of the Scamander, where they recognized the landscapes described by Homer in the Iliad, specifically citing the distances between mountain peaks and river plains. Upon their return from the Troad, they stayed in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\") for a few days, where Morey explored the city and made drawings, notably of the tomb of [Suleiman the Magnificent](/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent \"Suleiman the Magnificent\").", "The archaeological mission led by Raoul\\-Rouchette is one the many scientific missions of that time. Scientists and artists would map the fauna and flora and conduct archaeological excavations. The publications of the work from these various missions led to the establishment of the French School of Athens in 1846\\.", "" ]
Minicar Mark B (1951–1952\) --------------------------- {{Infobox automobile \| name \= Bond Minicar Mark B \| image \= Mark B.jpg \| caption \= 1951 Bond Minicar Mark B 2/3 seater Tourer \| production \= 1951–1952 1,414 made \| successor \= Bond Minicar Mark C \| body\_style \= \[\[Convertible]] \| engine \= \[\[Villiers Engineering\|Villiers]] 6E {{convert\|197\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} single\-cylinder 2\-stroke \| transmission \= 3\-speed \[\[manual transmission\|manual]] \| length \= {{convert\|9\|ft\|1\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| width \= {{convert\|5\|ft\|0\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| height \= {{convert\|3\|ft\|9\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| weight \= {{convert\|420\|lb\|kg\|abbr\=on}} \| sp \= uk }} Progressive development of the Minicar and Minicar Deluxe continued until the more significant introduction of coil sprung independent rear suspension and the much\-needed Triplex Safety glass windscreen. (The Triplex windscreen was subsequently offered by Sharp's Commercials as a retro\-fit kit for the earlier Minicar.) This provided an ideal opportunity to relaunch the car as the Bond Minicar (Mark B) in July 1951\.{{cite press release\|title\=The Bond Minicar (Mark B)\|publisher\=Sharps Commercials Ltd\|date\=1 July 1951}} Much of the design work for the Mark B, in particular the rear suspension, was carried out by the engineer [Granville Bradshaw](/wiki/Granville_Bradshaw "Granville Bradshaw"). Bradshaw had become involved with the Minicar at the invitation of his brother Ewart Bradshaw, the chairman of Loxhams and Bradshaws Group of which Sharp's Commercials was a [subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary "Subsidiary").{{cite book\|last\=Jones\|first\=Barry. M.\|title\=Granville Bradshaw: A Flawed Genius?\|year\=2008\|publisher\=Panther Publishing Ltd\|isbn\=978\-0\-9556595\-4\-6}} The rear suspension system was of the [sliding pillar](/wiki/Sliding_pillar "Sliding pillar") type, a block carrying the stub axle rode up and down on two guide pillars mounted on a solid casting bolted to the side of the body. The block's vertical movement was controlled by coil springs. The front suspension was upgraded with a [hydraulic shock absorber](/wiki/Shock_absorber "Shock absorber") Externally, the differences between the Mark A and Mark B Minicar were very subtle. The rear mudguards were slightly smaller but wider to accommodate the wheel movement whilst the storage area behind the rear seats was also enlarged, increasing the cars overall length slightly and changing its rear profile. Beneath the bodywork, there were improvements to the electrics and to the braking system. The hood was also redesigned to provide more head room inside the car. Only one version of the Mark B Tourer was produced, and all production cars had the Villiers 6E engine and Triplex safety glass windscreens.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markb.html\|title\=Mark B – April 1951 to November 1952 Vehicle Modifications By Chassis Number\|year\=2001\|work\=The Bond Owners Club\|publisher\=The Bond Owners Club\|accessdate\=11 September 2011\|archive\-date\=22 March 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322164920/http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markb.html\|url\-status\=dead}} ### Sharp's Commercial vehicles (1951–1952\) At the motorcycle show in November 1951, Sharp's announced what they described as "a revolutionary design in the field of [commercial vehicles](/wiki/Commercial_vehicle "Commercial vehicle")".{{cite press release\|title\=The Sharp's Commercial 3 cwt.\|publisher\=Sharp's Commercials Ltd\|date\=November 1951}} The Sharp's Commercial 3 Cwt took the concept of the Minicar's light, three\-wheeled, utilitarian design, and adapted it as the basis for an open\-top lightweight industrial vehicle. The yellow and black prototype at the show was powered by an Indian Brave[Indian Brave](http://www.classicbikersclub.com/articles/2011-11/when-was-it-indian/) {{convert\|248\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} [four\-stroke](/wiki/Four-stroke "Four-stroke") side valve engine (supplied by Brockhouse Engineering Co., Southport) and mounted in a cradle ahead and above the front wheel. Though described as "constructed on the stressed\-skin principle", large cut outs to allow easy access from either side of the vehicle required much additional strengthening to the floor, with a central steel backbone girder, a cross member between the rear wheels and further triangular bracing. The single seat was located centrally as was the steering wheel. Steering was by [worm and sector](/wiki/Worm_and_sector "Worm and sector"), and flared side panels allowed the single front wheel to turn a full 180°, making the vehicle extremely manoeuvrable. The entire engine, drive\-train and steering unit could be removed by undoing four bolts to allow for easy servicing. Unlike the Minicar, there were brakes on all three wheels and there was a wooden\-slatted floor behind the driver.{{cite journal\|date\=16 November 1951\|title\=Chassisless 3\-Cwt Three\-Wheeler\|journal\=Commercial Motor\|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd\|location\=London\|volume\=94\|page\=422}} Though the Sharp's Commercial never entered production,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/types/others/3cwt.html\|title\=Sharp's Commercial 3 cwt.\|year\=2001\|work\=The Bond Owners Club\|publisher\=The Bond Owners Club\|accessdate\=20 December 2011\|archive\-date\=15 April 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415005925/http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/types/others/3cwt.html\|url\-status\=dead}} it served as a forerunner to [van](/wiki/Van "Van") and [pickup](/wiki/Pickup_truck "Pickup truck") versions of the Mark B which appeared in 1952\. The Sharp's Minitruck, (initially, they were referred to as Utility in the production records) was the pickup version, which outwardly was very similar to the Mark B Tourer, but included an extension of the bodywork behind the rear wheel. It also replaced the Tourer's bench seat with a single seat for the driver although unlike the centrally mounted one in the Commercial 3 Cwt, this was conventionally placed on the right. The extended goods compartment and space alongside the driver provided a claimed load capacity of 3 cwt and {{convert\|24\|cuft\|m3\|abbr\=on}}. The open\-top vehicle had a folding hood with a roll\-up flap at the back of the car to assist loading. The Sharp's Minivan, was introduced alongside the Minitruck.{{cite journal \|date\=18 June 1952 \|journal\=The Motor \|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd. \|title\=Trade and Industry \|page\=664 \|oclc\=436659712}} It had the same load capacity and also shared the same extended length of the pick\-up, but had an enclosed aluminium compartment behind the driver's seat with a side hinged rear door. A short fabric roof covered the gap between the van compartment and the windscreen. A further final development based on the Minivan was the Bond Family "Safety Saloon". Additional side windows were fitted to the rear compartment of the van and two small [hammock](/wiki/Hammock "Hammock") type seats were added either side of the rear door facing inwards. With the bench seat of the tourer replacing the single front seat of the van and pickup, this gave enough room for two children and two adults.{{cite book \|last\=Wotherspoon \|first\=Nick \|title\='Lawrie' Bond The Man \& The Marque \|edition\=1 \|year\=1993 \|publisher\=Bookmarque Publishing \|isbn\=1\-870519\-16\-7\|page\=66}} The number of "Safety Saloons" produced is unknown, as factory records do not distinguish between the Saloon and the Minivan. Total production for the Mark B was 1,414 vehicles including 240 Minitrucks / Utilities and 84 Minivans (and "Safety Saloons"). {{clear}}
[ "Minicar Mark B (1951–1952\\)\n---------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Bond Minicar Mark B\n\\| image \\= Mark B.jpg\n\\| caption \\= 1951 Bond Minicar Mark B 2/3 seater Tourer\n\\| production \\= 1951–1952 \n 1,414 made\n\\| successor \\= Bond Minicar Mark C\n\\| body\\_style \\= \\[\\[Convertible]]\n\\| engine \\= \\[\\[Villiers Engineering\\|Villiers]] 6E {{convert\\|197\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} single\\-cylinder 2\\-stroke\n\\| transmission \\= 3\\-speed \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|9\\|ft\\|1\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|0\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|9\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|420\\|lb\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| sp \\= uk\n}}", "Progressive development of the Minicar and Minicar Deluxe continued until the more significant introduction of coil sprung independent rear suspension and the much\\-needed Triplex Safety glass windscreen. (The Triplex windscreen was subsequently offered by Sharp's Commercials as a retro\\-fit kit for the earlier Minicar.) This provided an ideal opportunity to relaunch the car as the Bond Minicar (Mark B) in July 1951\\.{{cite press release\\|title\\=The Bond Minicar (Mark B)\\|publisher\\=Sharps Commercials Ltd\\|date\\=1 July 1951}}", "Much of the design work for the Mark B, in particular the rear suspension, was carried out by the engineer [Granville Bradshaw](/wiki/Granville_Bradshaw \"Granville Bradshaw\"). Bradshaw had become involved with the Minicar at the invitation of his brother Ewart Bradshaw, the chairman of Loxhams and Bradshaws Group of which Sharp's Commercials was a [subsidiary](/wiki/Subsidiary \"Subsidiary\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Jones\\|first\\=Barry. M.\\|title\\=Granville Bradshaw: A Flawed Genius?\\|year\\=2008\\|publisher\\=Panther Publishing Ltd\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9556595\\-4\\-6}}", "The rear suspension system was of the [sliding pillar](/wiki/Sliding_pillar \"Sliding pillar\") type, a block carrying the stub axle rode up and down on two guide pillars mounted on a solid casting bolted to the side of the body. The block's vertical movement was controlled by coil springs. The front suspension was upgraded with a [hydraulic shock absorber](/wiki/Shock_absorber \"Shock absorber\")", "Externally, the differences between the Mark A and Mark B Minicar were very subtle. The rear mudguards were slightly smaller but wider to accommodate the wheel movement whilst the storage area behind the rear seats was also enlarged, increasing the cars overall length slightly and changing its rear profile. Beneath the bodywork, there were improvements to the electrics and to the braking system. The hood was also redesigned to provide more head room inside the car.", "Only one version of the Mark B Tourer was produced, and all production cars had the Villiers 6E engine and Triplex safety glass windscreens.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markb.html\\|title\\=Mark B – April 1951 to November 1952 Vehicle Modifications By Chassis Number\\|year\\=2001\\|work\\=The Bond Owners Club\\|publisher\\=The Bond Owners Club\\|accessdate\\=11 September 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=22 March 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322164920/http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markb.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Sharp's Commercial vehicles (1951–1952\\)", "At the motorcycle show in November 1951, Sharp's announced what they described as \"a revolutionary design in the field of [commercial vehicles](/wiki/Commercial_vehicle \"Commercial vehicle\")\".{{cite press release\\|title\\=The Sharp's Commercial 3 cwt.\\|publisher\\=Sharp's Commercials Ltd\\|date\\=November 1951}} The Sharp's Commercial 3 Cwt took the concept of the Minicar's light, three\\-wheeled, utilitarian design, and adapted it as the basis for an open\\-top lightweight industrial vehicle. The yellow and black prototype at the show was powered by an Indian Brave[Indian Brave](http://www.classicbikersclub.com/articles/2011-11/when-was-it-indian/) {{convert\\|248\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} [four\\-stroke](/wiki/Four-stroke \"Four-stroke\") side valve engine (supplied by Brockhouse Engineering Co., Southport) and mounted in a cradle ahead and above the front wheel. Though described as \"constructed on the stressed\\-skin principle\", large cut outs to allow easy access from either side of the vehicle required much additional strengthening to the floor, with a central steel backbone girder, a cross member between the rear wheels and further triangular bracing. The single seat was located centrally as was the steering wheel. Steering was by [worm and sector](/wiki/Worm_and_sector \"Worm and sector\"), and flared side panels allowed the single front wheel to turn a full 180°, making the vehicle extremely manoeuvrable. The entire engine, drive\\-train and steering unit could be removed by undoing four bolts to allow for easy servicing. Unlike the Minicar, there were brakes on all three wheels and there was a wooden\\-slatted floor behind the driver.{{cite journal\\|date\\=16 November 1951\\|title\\=Chassisless 3\\-Cwt Three\\-Wheeler\\|journal\\=Commercial Motor\\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd\\|location\\=London\\|volume\\=94\\|page\\=422}} Though the Sharp's Commercial never entered production,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/types/others/3cwt.html\\|title\\=Sharp's Commercial 3 cwt.\\|year\\=2001\\|work\\=The Bond Owners Club\\|publisher\\=The Bond Owners Club\\|accessdate\\=20 December 2011\\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415005925/http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/types/others/3cwt.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} it served as a forerunner to [van](/wiki/Van \"Van\") and [pickup](/wiki/Pickup_truck \"Pickup truck\") versions of the Mark B which appeared in 1952\\.", "The Sharp's Minitruck, (initially, they were referred to as Utility in the production records) was the pickup version, which outwardly was very similar to the Mark B Tourer, but included an extension of the bodywork behind the rear wheel. It also replaced the Tourer's bench seat with a single seat for the driver although unlike the centrally mounted one in the Commercial 3 Cwt, this was conventionally placed on the right. The extended goods compartment and space alongside the driver provided a claimed load capacity of 3 cwt and {{convert\\|24\\|cuft\\|m3\\|abbr\\=on}}. The open\\-top vehicle had a folding hood with a roll\\-up flap at the back of the car to assist loading.", "The Sharp's Minivan, was introduced alongside the Minitruck.{{cite journal \\|date\\=18 June 1952 \\|journal\\=The Motor \\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd. \\|title\\=Trade and Industry \\|page\\=664 \\|oclc\\=436659712}} It had the same load capacity and also shared the same extended length of the pick\\-up, but had an enclosed aluminium compartment behind the driver's seat with a side hinged rear door. A short fabric roof covered the gap between the van compartment and the windscreen.", "A further final development based on the Minivan was the Bond Family \"Safety Saloon\". Additional side windows were fitted to the rear compartment of the van and two small [hammock](/wiki/Hammock \"Hammock\") type seats were added either side of the rear door facing inwards. With the bench seat of the tourer replacing the single front seat of the van and pickup, this gave enough room for two children and two adults.{{cite book \\|last\\=Wotherspoon \\|first\\=Nick \\|title\\='Lawrie' Bond The Man \\& The Marque \\|edition\\=1 \\|year\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Bookmarque Publishing \\|isbn\\=1\\-870519\\-16\\-7\\|page\\=66}} The number of \"Safety Saloons\" produced is unknown, as factory records do not distinguish between the Saloon and the Minivan.", "Total production for the Mark B was 1,414 vehicles including 240 Minitrucks / Utilities and 84 Minivans (and \"Safety Saloons\").\n{{clear}}", "" ]
Minicar Mark C (1952–1956\) --------------------------- {{Infobox automobile \| name \= Bond Minicar Mark C \| image \= 1955 Bond Minicar Mark C Family Safety Model.jpg \| caption \= 1955 Bond Minicar Mark C Deluxe Family Safety model with the Type I grille \| production \= 1952–1956 6,399 made \| successor \= Bond Minicar Mark D \| body\_style \= \[\[Convertible]] \| engine \= \[\[Villiers Ltd\|Villiers]] 6E \& 8E {{convert\|197\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} \[\[Single cylinder engine\|Single cylinder 2 stroke]] \| transmission \= 3\-speed \[\[manual transmission\|manual]] \| wheelbase \= {{convert\|5\|ft\|6\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| length \= {{convert\|9\|ft\|10\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| width \= {{convert\|4\|ft\|9\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| height \= {{convert\|4\|ft\|2\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| weight \= {{convert\|460\|lb\|kg\|abbr\=on}} \| sp \= uk }} Around the same time as the Mark B was launched, work had begun on what was referred to subsequently as a "streamlined version" of the Minicar.{{cite journal \|date\=25 September 1952 \|title\=Four Bond Minicars \|journal\=The Motor Cycle \|publisher\=Iliffe \& Sons \|volume\=89 \|issue\=2581 \|page\=345 \|quote\=This streamlined version of the Mark B model}} Badged as the 'ESC' (England's Smallest Car), this prototype utilised the main body and rear suspension of the Mark B, but added mock front [wings](/wiki/Fender_%28vehicle%29 "Fender (vehicle)"), a passenger side door and a valance beneath its oval\-shaped grille. By the time of the Earl's Court Cycle and Motor Cycle Show in November 1951, three pre\-production Mark C's were on show.{{cite journal \|date\=15 November 1951 \|title\=The 1951 Show Reviewed \|journal\=Motor Cycling \|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd \|volume\=85 \|issue\=2181 \|page\=66}} On these the front wings had become longer and less triangular in profile than the ESC, the grille was also lower and more rounded and the front valance was now a more defined [bumper](/wiki/Bumper_%28automobile%29 "Bumper (automobile)") shape.{{cite journal \|date\=December 1951 \|title\=Two New Three\-Wheelers \|journal\=The Light Car \|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd \|page\=612}} The new Minicar design was very well received,{{cite book \|last\=Wotherspoon \|first\=Nick\| title\='Lawrie' Bond The Man \& The Marque\|edition\=1 \|year\=1993\|publisher\=Bookmarque Publishing \|isbn\=1\-870519\-16\-7 \|page\=67}} and was due to go on sale in early 1952\.{{cite journal \|date\=3 April 1952 \|title\=Buyers' Guide \|journal\=The Motor Cycle\|publisher\=Iliffe \& sons Ltd \|volume\=88 \|issue\=2556 \|page\=358}} By July however, "owing to supply difficulties" it was still unavailable,{{cite journal\|last\=Taylor\|first\=Ashley\|date\=July 1952\|title\=All About The Bond\|journal\=The Light Car\|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd\|location\=London\|quote\=Successor to the current model will be the Mk.C which is progressing towards the production stage but which, owing to supply difficulties, is not expected to be manufactured for some months and then only for export.}} and the earliest production cars were not recorded as being built until October 1952\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markc.html \|title\=Mark C – October 1952 to May 1956 \|year\=2001 \|work\=Production Statistics And Vehicle Modifications By Chassis Number \|publisher\=The Bond Owners Club \|accessdate\=27 February 2012 \|archive\-date\=15 April 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415005445/http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markc.html \|url\-status\=dead }} Four of the cars were on display at that year's show along with a Sharp's Minivan.{{cite book \|title\=Classic Images Earls Court Shows \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=Mortons Motorcycle Media \|isbn\=0\-9538357\-4\-X\|pages\=40–42\|chapter\=Earls Court 1952}} The change in the body style from the Mark B was both functional and aesthetic. The Mark C utilised the same 180° steering lock and worm and sector steering system that was seen in the prototype Commercial and the front wings allowed for ample clearance at full lock. They also addressed a demand from customers for a "greater smoothness of line", and allowed a more robust location for the mounting of the front lights.{{cite book\|last\=Marshall\|first\=Tony\|title\=Microcars\|series\=Sutton Photographic History of Transport\|year\=1999\|publisher\=Sutton Publishing Ltd\|location\=Stroud, Gloucestershire\|isbn\=0\-7509\-2082\-3\|page\=32\|chapter\=2}} Other improvements included rod and cable operated brakes on all three wheels, which "appreciably shortens stopping distances."{{cite journal \|last\=Bolster \|first\=John\|date\=1 April 1955 \|title\=The 1955 Bond Minicar \|journal\=Autosport \|publisher\=Haymarket Media}} During development, the Mark C had utilised the same sliding pillar suspension on the rear as the Mark B, but by September 1952, this had been changed for Flexitor suspension units produced by George Spencer Moulton \& Co. Ltd.{{cite journal\|date\=29 November 1952\|title\=George Spencer Moulton \& Co Ltd. Advertisement\|journal\=Motor Cycling\|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd\|location\=London\|volume\=86\|issue\=2235\|page\=30}} The Flexitor units were a type of [lever arm shock absorber](/wiki/Lever_arm_shock_absorber "Lever arm shock absorber") which used bonded rubber in torsion as the shock absorber. On these units a stub axle is mounted upon a trailing\-arm with the pivot point being a steel rod. This rod is bonded inside a rubber tube which runs through and is also bonded to an external steel housing. The housing is bolted to the underside of the car. The units provide about {{convert\|3\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} of vertical movement to each independent rear axle. The engine mounting was substantially different. Instead of being suspended from an alloy cradle as on the Mark A and B, the engine now sat in a steel cradle bolted to a steeply inclined steel tube that pivoted directly behind the engine through an alloy steering head bracket. This bracket, holding the engine and front wheel unit is bolted to a cast alloy bulkhead which forms a major structural component of the car.{{cite journal \|date\=October 1952 \|title\=Mark\-C is the Bond for '53 \|journal\=The Light Car \|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd \|pages\=440–441}} The engine mounting was said to have been a regular source of failures on both the Mark A and the Mark B, and this new design was again the work of Granville Bradshaw. The single side door, which had been introduced to around 6½ per cent of Mark B production vehicles after November 1951, became a standard fixture on the Mark C. Because the car's [monocoque](/wiki/Monocoque "Monocoque") construction depended principally upon its skin for rigidity, the size of door was severely limited and to overcome the resulting decrease in [structural rigidity](/wiki/Structural_rigidity "Structural rigidity"), vertical steel strengthening brackets were fitted either side and along the bottom edge of the door aperture. By January 1953, some cars were being fitted with fibreglass rear wings.{{cite journal \|date\=8 January 1953 \|title\=In The News – Glass\-Winged Minicars \|journal\=Motor Cycling\|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd \|volume\=87 \|issue\=2241\|page\=299}} Bonnets in fibreglass followed soon after,{{cite news\|title\=Overseas experiments in body materials\|date\=10 March 1953\|work\=The Advertiser\|publisher\=News Limited\|page\=10\|location\=Adelaide}} but these were not used on production vehicles until December 1954\. The production cost of the fibreglass parts was about the same as those of aluminium, but the parts were said to be both lighter and stronger. [thumb\|left\|1956 Bond Minicar Mark C Deluxe Tourer showing the later Type II grilleInitially](/wiki/File:1956_Bond_Minicar_Mark_C_De_Luxe_Tourer.jpg "1956 Bond Minicar Mark C De Luxe Tourer.jpg"), the Mark C was available only as either the Standard Tourer or the Deluxe Tourer with a single bench seat, seating two or three people. The Deluxe version included an electric starter along with rear bumpers. The range was expanded in March 1954, when the Standard Family Safety and Deluxe Family Safety versions were added. On these models the bodywork was extended behind the front seat and, like the earlier Bond Family Safety Saloon, two child\-size inward facing hammock\-style seats were added in the gap. Factory advertising material resurrected the *Safety* label as part of this model's name, but it was generally dropped elsewhere. The Sharp’s Minitruck continued in production but now incorporated all the new Mark C styling and mechanical features. The last one was made in March 1956\. Attempts were made to penetrate the American market in 1953–54 where the car was marketed by Craven and Hedrick of New York and renamed the Sharp's Bear Cub.{{cite journal \|date\=August 1953 \|title\=There's a Surprise Under This Hood \|journal\=Popular Science \|publisher\=Bonnier Corporation \|volume\=163 \|issue\=2 \|page\=97\|issn\=0161\-7370}} However it appears it made little impact and the arrangement was short\-lived. As with previous Minicars, the Mark C was improved and developed over time with numerous minor changes. Most notably, Villiers replaced the 6E engine with the 8E version in June 1953\. This had the same overall capacity, but slightly increased performance, now {{convert\|9\|bhp\|kW PS\|0\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite journal \|date\=23 September 1954 \|title\=Bond Minicar \|journal\=Motor Cycling \|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd \|volume\=90 \|issue\=2330 \|page\=650}} In October 1953 a new Triplex windscreen and surround was introduced, the dashboard glove box was removed, a two\-roll seat replaced the earlier round top variety and the old gearchange and steering shaft u/j's were eliminated. Steel was sometimes used for rear wings when supplies of aluminium became difficult to obtain. The following October's updates redesigned the braking system, introduced rear bumpers on the Tourer models and front bumpers for all Deluxes. Several more minor changes in October 1955 were marked by a much more notable change to the shape of the front [grille](/wiki/Grille_%28car%29%23In_powered_vehicles "Grille (car)#In powered vehicles") from the familiar oval to a more angular design (designated Type II). {{clear}}
[ "Minicar Mark C (1952–1956\\)\n---------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Bond Minicar Mark C\n\\| image \\= 1955 Bond Minicar Mark C Family Safety Model.jpg\n\\| caption \\= 1955 Bond Minicar Mark C Deluxe Family Safety model with the Type I grille\n\\| production \\= 1952–1956 \n 6,399 made\n\\| successor \\= Bond Minicar Mark D\n\\| body\\_style \\= \\[\\[Convertible]]\n\\| engine \\= \\[\\[Villiers Ltd\\|Villiers]] 6E \\& 8E {{convert\\|197\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \\[\\[Single cylinder engine\\|Single cylinder 2 stroke]]\n\\| transmission \\= 3\\-speed \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|9\\|ft\\|10\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|9\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|2\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|460\\|lb\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| sp \\= uk\n}}\nAround the same time as the Mark B was launched, work had begun on what was referred to subsequently as a \"streamlined version\" of the Minicar.{{cite journal \\|date\\=25 September 1952 \\|title\\=Four Bond Minicars \\|journal\\=The Motor Cycle \\|publisher\\=Iliffe \\& Sons \\|volume\\=89 \\|issue\\=2581 \\|page\\=345 \\|quote\\=This streamlined version of the Mark B model}} Badged as the 'ESC' (England's Smallest Car), this prototype utilised the main body and rear suspension of the Mark B, but added mock front [wings](/wiki/Fender_%28vehicle%29 \"Fender (vehicle)\"), a passenger side door and a valance beneath its oval\\-shaped grille.", "By the time of the Earl's Court Cycle and Motor Cycle Show in November 1951, three pre\\-production Mark C's were on show.{{cite journal \\|date\\=15 November 1951 \\|title\\=The 1951 Show Reviewed \\|journal\\=Motor Cycling \\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd \\|volume\\=85 \\|issue\\=2181 \\|page\\=66}} On these the front wings had become longer and less triangular in profile than the ESC, the grille was also lower and more rounded and the front valance was now a more defined [bumper](/wiki/Bumper_%28automobile%29 \"Bumper (automobile)\") shape.{{cite journal \\|date\\=December 1951 \\|title\\=Two New Three\\-Wheelers \\|journal\\=The Light Car \\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd \\|page\\=612}} The new Minicar design was very well received,{{cite book \\|last\\=Wotherspoon \\|first\\=Nick\\| title\\='Lawrie' Bond The Man \\& The Marque\\|edition\\=1 \\|year\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Bookmarque Publishing \\|isbn\\=1\\-870519\\-16\\-7 \\|page\\=67}} and was due to go on sale in early 1952\\.{{cite journal \\|date\\=3 April 1952 \\|title\\=Buyers' Guide \\|journal\\=The Motor Cycle\\|publisher\\=Iliffe \\& sons Ltd \\|volume\\=88 \\|issue\\=2556 \\|page\\=358}} By July however, \"owing to supply difficulties\" it was still unavailable,{{cite journal\\|last\\=Taylor\\|first\\=Ashley\\|date\\=July 1952\\|title\\=All About The Bond\\|journal\\=The Light Car\\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd\\|location\\=London\\|quote\\=Successor to the current model will be the Mk.C which is progressing towards the production stage but which, owing to supply difficulties, is not expected to be manufactured for some months and then only for export.}} and the earliest production cars were not recorded as being built until October 1952\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markc.html \\|title\\=Mark C – October 1952 to May 1956 \\|year\\=2001 \\|work\\=Production Statistics And Vehicle Modifications By Chassis Number \\|publisher\\=The Bond Owners Club \\|accessdate\\=27 February 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415005445/http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markc.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Four of the cars were on display at that year's show along with a Sharp's Minivan.{{cite book \\|title\\=Classic Images Earls Court Shows \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Mortons Motorcycle Media \\|isbn\\=0\\-9538357\\-4\\-X\\|pages\\=40–42\\|chapter\\=Earls Court 1952}}", "The change in the body style from the Mark B was both functional and aesthetic. The Mark C utilised the same 180° steering lock and worm and sector steering system that was seen in the prototype Commercial and the front wings allowed for ample clearance at full lock. They also addressed a demand from customers for a \"greater smoothness of line\", and allowed a more robust location for the mounting of the front lights.{{cite book\\|last\\=Marshall\\|first\\=Tony\\|title\\=Microcars\\|series\\=Sutton Photographic History of Transport\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Sutton Publishing Ltd\\|location\\=Stroud, Gloucestershire\\|isbn\\=0\\-7509\\-2082\\-3\\|page\\=32\\|chapter\\=2}} Other improvements included rod and cable operated brakes on all three wheels, which \"appreciably shortens stopping distances.\"{{cite journal \\|last\\=Bolster \\|first\\=John\\|date\\=1 April 1955 \\|title\\=The 1955 Bond Minicar \\|journal\\=Autosport \\|publisher\\=Haymarket Media}}", "During development, the Mark C had utilised the same sliding pillar suspension on the rear as the Mark B, but by September 1952, this had been changed for Flexitor suspension units produced by George Spencer Moulton \\& Co. Ltd.{{cite journal\\|date\\=29 November 1952\\|title\\=George Spencer Moulton \\& Co Ltd. Advertisement\\|journal\\=Motor Cycling\\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd\\|location\\=London\\|volume\\=86\\|issue\\=2235\\|page\\=30}} The Flexitor units were a type of [lever arm shock absorber](/wiki/Lever_arm_shock_absorber \"Lever arm shock absorber\") which used bonded rubber in torsion as the shock absorber. On these units a stub axle is mounted upon a trailing\\-arm with the pivot point being a steel rod. This rod is bonded inside a rubber tube which runs through and is also bonded to an external steel housing. The housing is bolted to the underside of the car. The units provide about {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} of vertical movement to each independent rear axle.", "The engine mounting was substantially different. Instead of being suspended from an alloy cradle as on the Mark A and B, the engine now sat in a steel cradle bolted to a steeply inclined steel tube that pivoted directly behind the engine through an alloy steering head bracket. This bracket, holding the engine and front wheel unit is bolted to a cast alloy bulkhead which forms a major structural component of the car.{{cite journal \\|date\\=October 1952 \\|title\\=Mark\\-C is the Bond for '53 \\|journal\\=The Light Car \\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd \\|pages\\=440–441}} The engine mounting was said to have been a regular source of failures on both the Mark A and the Mark B, and this new design was again the work of Granville Bradshaw.", "The single side door, which had been introduced to around 6½ per cent of Mark B production vehicles after November 1951, became a standard fixture on the Mark C. Because the car's [monocoque](/wiki/Monocoque \"Monocoque\") construction depended principally upon its skin for rigidity, the size of door was severely limited and to overcome the resulting decrease in [structural rigidity](/wiki/Structural_rigidity \"Structural rigidity\"), vertical steel strengthening brackets were fitted either side and along the bottom edge of the door aperture.", "By January 1953, some cars were being fitted with fibreglass rear wings.{{cite journal \\|date\\=8 January 1953 \\|title\\=In The News – Glass\\-Winged Minicars \\|journal\\=Motor Cycling\\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd \\|volume\\=87 \\|issue\\=2241\\|page\\=299}} Bonnets in fibreglass followed soon after,{{cite news\\|title\\=Overseas experiments in body materials\\|date\\=10 March 1953\\|work\\=The Advertiser\\|publisher\\=News Limited\\|page\\=10\\|location\\=Adelaide}} but these were not used on production vehicles until December 1954\\. The production cost of the fibreglass parts was about the same as those of aluminium, but the parts were said to be both lighter and stronger.", "[thumb\\|left\\|1956 Bond Minicar Mark C Deluxe Tourer showing the later Type II grilleInitially](/wiki/File:1956_Bond_Minicar_Mark_C_De_Luxe_Tourer.jpg \"1956 Bond Minicar Mark C De Luxe Tourer.jpg\"), the Mark C was available only as either the Standard Tourer or the Deluxe Tourer with a single bench seat, seating two or three people. The Deluxe version included an electric starter along with rear bumpers. The range was expanded in March 1954, when the Standard Family Safety and Deluxe Family Safety versions were added. On these models the bodywork was extended behind the front seat and, like the earlier Bond Family Safety Saloon, two child\\-size inward facing hammock\\-style seats were added in the gap. Factory advertising material resurrected the *Safety* label as part of this model's name, but it was generally dropped elsewhere.", "The Sharp’s Minitruck continued in production but now incorporated all the new Mark C styling and mechanical features. The last one was made in March 1956\\.", "Attempts were made to penetrate the American market in 1953–54 where the car was marketed by Craven and Hedrick of New York and renamed the Sharp's Bear Cub.{{cite journal \\|date\\=August 1953 \\|title\\=There's a Surprise Under This Hood \\|journal\\=Popular Science \\|publisher\\=Bonnier Corporation \\|volume\\=163 \\|issue\\=2 \\|page\\=97\\|issn\\=0161\\-7370}} However it appears it made little impact and the arrangement was short\\-lived.", "As with previous Minicars, the Mark C was improved and developed over time with numerous minor changes. Most notably, Villiers replaced the 6E engine with the 8E version in June 1953\\. This had the same overall capacity, but slightly increased performance, now {{convert\\|9\\|bhp\\|kW PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite journal \\|date\\=23 September 1954 \\|title\\=Bond Minicar \\|journal\\=Motor Cycling \\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd \\|volume\\=90 \\|issue\\=2330 \\|page\\=650}} In October 1953 a new Triplex windscreen and surround was introduced, the dashboard glove box was removed, a two\\-roll seat replaced the earlier round top variety and the old gearchange and steering shaft u/j's were eliminated. Steel was sometimes used for rear wings when supplies of aluminium became difficult to obtain. The following October's updates redesigned the braking system, introduced rear bumpers on the Tourer models and front bumpers for all Deluxes. Several more minor changes in October 1955 were marked by a much more notable change to the shape of the front [grille](/wiki/Grille_%28car%29%23In_powered_vehicles \"Grille (car)#In powered vehicles\") from the familiar oval to a more angular design (designated Type II).\n{{clear}}", "" ]
Minicar Mark G (1961–1966\) --------------------------- {{Infobox automobile \| name \= Bond Minicar Mark G \| image \= 1963 Bond 250G (16372612291\).jpg \| caption \= 1963 Bond Minicar Mark G Estate \| aka \= \| production \= 1961–1966 3,253 made \| successor \= \[\[Bond 875]] \| body\_style \= Saloon, Ranger Van, Estate and Tourer \| engine \= \[\[Villiers Ltd\|Villiers]] 35A {{convert\|247\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} single\-cylinder 2\-stroke or \[\[Villiers Ltd\|Villiers]] 4T {{convert\|247\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} \[\[Straight\-twin engine\|twin\-cylinder]] 2\-stroke \| transmission \= 4\-speed \[\[manual transmission\|manual]] \| wheelbase \= {{convert\|5\|ft\|6\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| length \= {{convert\|11\|ft\|0\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| width \= {{convert\|5\|ft\|2\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| height \= {{convert\|4\|ft\|7\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on}} \| weight \= {{convert\|826\|lb\|kg\|abbr\=on}} for single\-cylinder models or {{convert\|856\|lb\|kg\|abbr\=on}} for twin\-cylinder models \| sp \= uk }} Billed extensively as the "new\-line" Minicar,{{cite press release \|title\=The Bond 250 G. \|publisher\=Sharp's Commercials Ltd \|year\=1961}} the final evolution of the Bond Minicar was still based to a large extent on the bodyshell of the Mark F. Nevertheless, a revised shape fibreglass roof, new doors, new windscreen with opening [quarter lights](/wiki/Quarter_glass "Quarter glass") and bigger wheels largely transformed the car's appearance. However, although the car was similar in layout to the Mark F, almost everything mechanically about the Mark G was different with very few components carried over.{{cite journal \|date\=28 September 1961 \|title\=The 'New\-Line Minicar' \|journal\=Motor Cycling \|publisher\=Temple Press Ltd \|pages\=674–675}} Steel supports around the quarter lights allowed the windscreen to be both more steeply raked and moved forwards to provide more interior room. This also allowed a properly sprung bench\-type rear seat to be fitted, capable of seating two adults. The front seats were adjustable for position and the passenger side now folded much further forward than on previous models to allow easier access to the rear, although the doors were still felt to be too narrow for easy entry.{{cite journal \|date\=9 November 1962 \|title\=Bond 250 G Estate Car \|journal\=Autocar \|publisher\=Iliffe and Sons Ltd}} Controls were similar to the Mark F, but the fuel tap was now moved from beneath the bonnet to under the dash. Doors were now lockable and included wind\-up windows. Production of the Mark G began in August 1961{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markg.html \|title\=Mark G – August 1961 to December 1966 Vehicle Modifications By Chassis Number \|last1\=Grogan \|first1\=Paul \|last2\=Mander \|first2\=James \|work\=Bond Owners Club \|accessdate\=4 August 2012 \|archive\-date\=15 September 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915074135/http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markg.html \|url\-status\=dead }} and initially the Bond 250 G Minicar was the only version available. The new style roof offered several inches more headroom and incorporated a backward\-slanted rear window of the type popularised in the UK by the [Ford Anglia](/wiki/Ford_Anglia%23Anglia_105E_%281959%E2%80%931968%29 "Ford Anglia#Anglia 105E (1959–1968)"). This was initially mirrored by nominal fibreglass [tailfins](/wiki/Car_tailfin "Car tailfin") inserted into the aluminium rear wings before the wings became entirely made from fibreglass. Under the bonnet, the car utilised the new Villiers Mk 35A unit designed specifically for it. A development of the 31A, the new engine incorporated numerous mechanical refinements to improve strength and reliability, albeit slightly at the cost of overall power, now rated at {{convert\|11\.5\|bhp\|kW PS\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,500 rpm. Rear suspension was completely revised, with [trailing arm](/wiki/Trailing_arm "Trailing arm") units controlled by [Armstrong dampers](/wiki/Shock_absorber "Shock absorber"). The rod and cable brake systems of previous cars was also replaced by a Lockheed semi hydraulic and rod braking system (front brake fully hydraulic, but rear brakes still rod operated from a central floor\-mounted hydraulic cylinder) acting on all three wheels. Two further models were added to the range in May 1962 and June 1962 respectively, the Mark G Ranger and the Mark G Estate. The estate featured a large [hatchback](/wiki/Hatchback "Hatchback"), hinged at the roof. Inside, the rear seats could also be folded flat or removed entirely.{{cite journal \|date\=28 June 1962 \|title\=Bond with a back door\|journal\=Motor Cycle \|publisher\=Iliffe Specialist Publications Ltd \|volume\=108 \|issue\=3081 \|page\=852}} On the Ranger version the rear seats and rear side windows were omitted. Although public response at the 1962 Motorcycle show remained encouraging, the changes to purchase tax meant there was now a much less significant price difference between the Minicar and other small cars and in November production was scaled back with consequential job losses. Nevertheless, development continued, and a choice of engines was offered on all models from March 1963\. Villiers modified and developed their {{convert\|249\|cc\|cuin\|0\|abbr\=on}} 2T twin\-cylinder engine unit specifically for Bond and this new engine was designated the 4T. It produced ({{convert\|14\.6\|bhp\|kW PS\|0\|abbr\=on}}) at 5,500 rpm{{cite journal \|last\=Cox \|first\=Bruce \|date\=June 1963 \|title\=New Mini\-car Engine \|journal\=Motorcycle Mechanics \|publisher\=Mercury House Publications Ltd \|volume\=5 \|issue\=9 \|page\=58}} and top speed was now said to be "just over" {{convert\|60\|mph\|km/h\|0\|abbr\=on}} with an average fuel consumption of {{convert\|58\|mpgimp\|L/100 km mpgus\|abbr\=on}}. Saloon models were fitted with an opening boot from April 1964\. In a bid to stem declining sales, a 2\-seat economy version of the Minicar was introduced in October 1964, the Bond Mark G Tourer. This basically used the saloon car body, but with a larger rear deck incorporating an opening boot lid, a folding hood, new fibreglass bonnet, plain door panels, no chrome side trim and non\-opening quarter lights. In standard form it came with the 35A engine, but the side trim and 4T engine were available as an option. Saloon and Tourer production ceased in October and December 1965 respectively, whilst production of the Ranger and the Estate ended in April 1966\. The last ever Minicar produced was an Estate painted only in primer in November 1966\. The production records do not show any engine number for this vehicle but it is recorded as being destined for Greece. {{clear}}
[ "Minicar Mark G (1961–1966\\)\n---------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= Bond Minicar Mark G\n\\| image \\= 1963 Bond 250G (16372612291\\).jpg\n\\| caption \\= 1963 Bond Minicar Mark G Estate\n\\| aka \\= \n\\| production \\= 1961–1966 \n 3,253 made\n\\| successor \\= \\[\\[Bond 875]]\n\\| body\\_style \\= Saloon, Ranger Van, Estate and Tourer\n\\| engine \\= \\[\\[Villiers Ltd\\|Villiers]] 35A {{convert\\|247\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} single\\-cylinder 2\\-stroke or \\[\\[Villiers Ltd\\|Villiers]] 4T {{convert\\|247\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} \\[\\[Straight\\-twin engine\\|twin\\-cylinder]] 2\\-stroke\n\\| transmission \\= 4\\-speed \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|6\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|11\\|ft\\|0\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|2\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|7\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|826\\|lb\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} for single\\-cylinder models or {{convert\\|856\\|lb\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} for twin\\-cylinder models\n\\| sp \\= uk\n}}\nBilled extensively as the \"new\\-line\" Minicar,{{cite press release \\|title\\=The Bond 250 G. \\|publisher\\=Sharp's Commercials Ltd \\|year\\=1961}} the final evolution of the Bond Minicar was still based to a large extent on the bodyshell of the Mark F. Nevertheless, a revised shape fibreglass roof, new doors, new windscreen with opening [quarter lights](/wiki/Quarter_glass \"Quarter glass\") and bigger wheels largely transformed the car's appearance. However, although the car was similar in layout to the Mark F, almost everything mechanically about the Mark G was different with very few components carried over.{{cite journal \\|date\\=28 September 1961 \\|title\\=The 'New\\-Line Minicar' \\|journal\\=Motor Cycling \\|publisher\\=Temple Press Ltd \\|pages\\=674–675}}", "Steel supports around the quarter lights allowed the windscreen to be both more steeply raked and moved forwards to provide more interior room. This also allowed a properly sprung bench\\-type rear seat to be fitted, capable of seating two adults. The front seats were adjustable for position and the passenger side now folded much further forward than on previous models to allow easier access to the rear, although the doors were still felt to be too narrow for easy entry.{{cite journal \\|date\\=9 November 1962 \\|title\\=Bond 250 G Estate Car \\|journal\\=Autocar \\|publisher\\=Iliffe and Sons Ltd}} Controls were similar to the Mark F, but the fuel tap was now moved from beneath the bonnet to under the dash. Doors were now lockable and included wind\\-up windows.", "Production of the Mark G began in August 1961{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markg.html \\|title\\=Mark G – August 1961 to December 1966 Vehicle Modifications By Chassis Number \\|last1\\=Grogan \\|first1\\=Paul \\|last2\\=Mander \\|first2\\=James \\|work\\=Bond Owners Club \\|accessdate\\=4 August 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 September 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915074135/http://www.bondownersclub.co.uk/stats/markg.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and initially the Bond 250 G Minicar was the only version available. The new style roof offered several inches more headroom and incorporated a backward\\-slanted rear window of the type popularised in the UK by the [Ford Anglia](/wiki/Ford_Anglia%23Anglia_105E_%281959%E2%80%931968%29 \"Ford Anglia#Anglia 105E (1959–1968)\"). This was initially mirrored by nominal fibreglass [tailfins](/wiki/Car_tailfin \"Car tailfin\") inserted into the aluminium rear wings before the wings became entirely made from fibreglass.", "Under the bonnet, the car utilised the new Villiers Mk 35A unit designed specifically for it. A development of the 31A, the new engine incorporated numerous mechanical refinements to improve strength and reliability, albeit slightly at the cost of overall power, now rated at {{convert\\|11\\.5\\|bhp\\|kW PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,500 rpm. Rear suspension was completely revised, with [trailing arm](/wiki/Trailing_arm \"Trailing arm\") units controlled by [Armstrong dampers](/wiki/Shock_absorber \"Shock absorber\"). The rod and cable brake systems of previous cars was also replaced by a Lockheed semi hydraulic and rod braking system (front brake fully hydraulic, but rear brakes still rod operated from a central floor\\-mounted hydraulic cylinder) acting on all three wheels.\nTwo further models were added to the range in May 1962 and June 1962 respectively, the Mark G Ranger and the Mark G Estate. The estate featured a large [hatchback](/wiki/Hatchback \"Hatchback\"), hinged at the roof. Inside, the rear seats could also be folded flat or removed entirely.{{cite journal \\|date\\=28 June 1962 \\|title\\=Bond with a back door\\|journal\\=Motor Cycle \\|publisher\\=Iliffe Specialist Publications Ltd \\|volume\\=108 \\|issue\\=3081 \\|page\\=852}} On the Ranger version the rear seats and rear side windows were omitted.", "Although public response at the 1962 Motorcycle show remained encouraging, the changes to purchase tax meant there was now a much less significant price difference between the Minicar and other small cars and in November production was scaled back with consequential job losses.", "Nevertheless, development continued, and a choice of engines was offered on all models from March 1963\\. Villiers modified and developed their {{convert\\|249\\|cc\\|cuin\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} 2T twin\\-cylinder engine unit specifically for Bond and this new engine was designated the 4T. It produced ({{convert\\|14\\.6\\|bhp\\|kW PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}) at 5,500 rpm{{cite journal \\|last\\=Cox \\|first\\=Bruce \\|date\\=June 1963 \\|title\\=New Mini\\-car Engine \\|journal\\=Motorcycle Mechanics \\|publisher\\=Mercury House Publications Ltd \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=9 \\|page\\=58}} and top speed was now said to be \"just over\" {{convert\\|60\\|mph\\|km/h\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} with an average fuel consumption of {{convert\\|58\\|mpgimp\\|L/100 km mpgus\\|abbr\\=on}}. Saloon models were fitted with an opening boot from April 1964\\.", "In a bid to stem declining sales, a 2\\-seat economy version of the Minicar was introduced in October 1964, the Bond Mark G Tourer. This basically used the saloon car body, but with a larger rear deck incorporating an opening boot lid, a folding hood, new fibreglass bonnet, plain door panels, no chrome side trim and non\\-opening quarter lights. In standard form it came with the 35A engine, but the side trim and 4T engine were available as an option.", "Saloon and Tourer production ceased in October and December 1965 respectively, whilst production of the Ranger and the Estate ended in April 1966\\.", "The last ever Minicar produced was an Estate painted only in primer in November 1966\\. The production records do not show any engine number for this vehicle but it is recorded as being destined for Greece.\n{{clear}}", "" ]
Life ---- He was born at [Blackadder](/wiki/Blackadder%2C_Scottish_Borders "Blackadder, Scottish Borders"), near [Edrington](/wiki/Edrington "Edrington"), [Berwickshire](/wiki/Berwickshire "Berwickshire"), on 23 September 1734\. His father, a shepherd, died in 1754\. On 1 December 1755 he was admitted to membership in a religious society at [Chirnside](/wiki/Chirnside "Chirnside"), Berwickshire; it was one of several "fellowship societies" formed by [James Fraser of Brae](/wiki/James_Fraser_of_Brae "James Fraser of Brae"). They had joined the [Reformed Presbytery](/wiki/Reformed_Presbyterian_Church_of_Scotland "Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland") in 1743, but separated from it in 1753, as holders of the doctrine of [universal atonement](/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity "Atonement in Christianity") (this split occurred at the death of [John Macmillan](/wiki/John_Macmillan_%28minister%29 "John Macmillan (minister)"), and they were without a fixed ministry). Purves in 1756 bound himself apprentice to his uncle, a wright in [Duns](/wiki/Duns%2C_Scottish_Borders "Duns, Scottish Borders"), Berwickshire. He read [Isaac Watts](/wiki/Isaac_Watts "Isaac Watts")'s *Dissertation on the Logos*, 1726, and adopted the doctrine of the pre\-existence of the human soul of Christ. In 1763 the Berwickshire societies sent him as their commissioner to [Coleraine](/wiki/Coleraine "Coleraine"), [County Londonderry](/wiki/County_Londonderry "County Londonderry"), to consult with a branch of the Irish secession church holding similar doctrines. A minute expressing concurrence of doctrine was signed at Coleraine by John Hopkins, Samuel Lind, and Purves. In 1769 the Berwickshire societies decided to qualify one of their members as a public preacher. Three candidates delivered trial discourses on 8 June 1769; one of these withdrew from membership: of the remaining two, Purves was selected by lot (27 July), and sent to [Glasgow College](/wiki/Glasgow_College "Glasgow College"). Here he learned some Latin, and Greek and Hebrew so as to read the scriptures in the originals. In 1771 a statement of principles drawn up by Purves was adopted by the societies. Its theology was high [Arian](/wiki/Arian "Arian"), but its distinctive position was the duty of free inquiry into the scriptures, unbiassed by creed. This document led to controversy with ministers of the Reformed Presbytery. In 1776 several members of the Berwickshire societies, headed by Alexander Forton or Fortune, migrated to Edinburgh and established a religious society, calling themselves "successors of the remnant who testified against the revolution constitution". Purves joined them on their invitation. he supported himself by teaching, and on 15 November 1776 was elected pastor. The site of his school and place of worship at Broughton, then near Edinburgh, was later taken by St. Paul's episcopal chapel, York Place, Edinburgh. In 1777 hemoved his residence to Wright's Houses, Bruntsfield Links, Edinburgh. Purves came to know [Thomas Fyshe Palmer](/wiki/Thomas_Fyshe_Palmer "Thomas Fyshe Palmer") in 1786, sharing his politics, but not his theological positions. In 1792 the worship of the society, in the Barbers' Hall, Edinburgh, was made public, and the name "universalist dissenters" was adopted, and a declaration of opinions was issued. From 1793 the reading of scripture lessons was made a part of the public services, a practice not then common in Scotland; members were at the same time encouraged to deliver public exhortations, preliminary to the minister's discourse. Purves's congregations were very small; but he preached three time every Sunday, and advocated his views through the press. His earlier tracts were printed with his own hand, and he cast the Hebrew type for them. In the autumn of 1794 Purves ceased to preach. He died on 1 February 1795 and was buried in the [Calton cemetery](/wiki/Calton_cemetery "Calton cemetery"). His grave was in a portion of the cemetery removed in the construction of Regent Road. His congregation was without a minister till the appointment (November 1812\) of [Thomas Southwood Smith](/wiki/Thomas_Southwood_Smith "Thomas Southwood Smith"); it later moved to St. Mark's Chapel, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh.
[ "Life\n----", "He was born at [Blackadder](/wiki/Blackadder%2C_Scottish_Borders \"Blackadder, Scottish Borders\"), near [Edrington](/wiki/Edrington \"Edrington\"), [Berwickshire](/wiki/Berwickshire \"Berwickshire\"), on 23 September 1734\\. His father, a shepherd, died in 1754\\. On 1 December 1755 he was admitted to membership in a religious society at [Chirnside](/wiki/Chirnside \"Chirnside\"), Berwickshire; it was one of several \"fellowship societies\" formed by [James Fraser of Brae](/wiki/James_Fraser_of_Brae \"James Fraser of Brae\"). They had joined the [Reformed Presbytery](/wiki/Reformed_Presbyterian_Church_of_Scotland \"Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland\") in 1743, but separated from it in 1753, as holders of the doctrine of [universal atonement](/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity \"Atonement in Christianity\") (this split occurred at the death of [John Macmillan](/wiki/John_Macmillan_%28minister%29 \"John Macmillan (minister)\"), and they were without a fixed ministry).", "Purves in 1756 bound himself apprentice to his uncle, a wright in [Duns](/wiki/Duns%2C_Scottish_Borders \"Duns, Scottish Borders\"), Berwickshire. He read [Isaac Watts](/wiki/Isaac_Watts \"Isaac Watts\")'s *Dissertation on the Logos*, 1726, and adopted the doctrine of the pre\\-existence of the human soul of Christ. In 1763 the Berwickshire societies sent him as their commissioner to [Coleraine](/wiki/Coleraine \"Coleraine\"), [County Londonderry](/wiki/County_Londonderry \"County Londonderry\"), to consult with a branch of the Irish secession church holding similar doctrines. A minute expressing concurrence of doctrine was signed at Coleraine by John Hopkins, Samuel Lind, and Purves.", "In 1769 the Berwickshire societies decided to qualify one of their members as a public preacher. Three candidates delivered trial discourses on 8 June 1769; one of these withdrew from membership: of the remaining two, Purves was selected by lot (27 July), and sent to [Glasgow College](/wiki/Glasgow_College \"Glasgow College\"). Here he learned some Latin, and Greek and Hebrew so as to read the scriptures in the originals. In 1771 a statement of principles drawn up by Purves was adopted by the societies. Its theology was high [Arian](/wiki/Arian \"Arian\"), but its distinctive position was the duty of free inquiry into the scriptures, unbiassed by creed. This document led to controversy with ministers of the Reformed Presbytery.", "In 1776 several members of the Berwickshire societies, headed by Alexander Forton or Fortune, migrated to Edinburgh and established a religious society, calling themselves \"successors of the remnant who testified against the revolution constitution\". Purves joined them on their invitation. he supported himself by teaching, and on 15 November 1776 was elected pastor. The site of his school and place of worship at Broughton, then near Edinburgh, was later taken by St. Paul's episcopal chapel, York Place, Edinburgh. In 1777 hemoved his residence to Wright's Houses, Bruntsfield Links, Edinburgh.", "Purves came to know [Thomas Fyshe Palmer](/wiki/Thomas_Fyshe_Palmer \"Thomas Fyshe Palmer\") in 1786, sharing his politics, but not his theological positions. In 1792 the worship of the society, in the Barbers' Hall, Edinburgh, was made public, and the name \"universalist dissenters\" was adopted, and a declaration of opinions was issued. From 1793 the reading of scripture lessons was made a part of the public services, a practice not then common in Scotland; members were at the same time encouraged to deliver public exhortations, preliminary to the minister's discourse. Purves's congregations were very small; but he preached three time every Sunday, and advocated his views through the press. His earlier tracts were printed with his own hand, and he cast the Hebrew type for them.", "In the autumn of 1794 Purves ceased to preach. He died on 1 February 1795 and was buried in the [Calton cemetery](/wiki/Calton_cemetery \"Calton cemetery\"). His grave was in a portion of the cemetery removed in the construction of Regent Road. His congregation was without a minister till the appointment (November 1812\\) of [Thomas Southwood Smith](/wiki/Thomas_Southwood_Smith \"Thomas Southwood Smith\"); it later moved to St. Mark's Chapel, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh.", "" ]
Plot ---- The 50\-year\-old Georg Komann and his colleagues at Jaffcorp Investment AG are completely unexpectedly dismissed from their employer without adequate compensation. They are facing a personal end because they know that no one is hiring new people over 50\. Komann forges a risky plan with which he could secure the future for himself and his friends. He puts everything on one card and asks his boss Sebastian Berg for a conversation, one that could change his life \- in any direction \- a conversation of 15 minutes. Berg offers Komann a severance payment, which he refuses because he is apparently the only one who is to be lavishly rewarded. He wants to stand up for the employees and demands severance payments for all those who are to be laid off, as many are over 50 and no longer have a chance to get a new job. Berg leaves that cold. During the conversation, Komann said that he knew that the company had a secret bank account in Switzerland and that a lot of money had been stashed away. With the knowledge he wants to put his young boss under pressure and threatens to go public. Berg does not agree to this because he believes that Komann has no evidence. Komann tells his boss that this was only used by the management to open the account. Thus, the board is above suspicion and Berg is the bogeyman. Komann claims that he and his employees have already cleared the secret account. Berg doesn't think so. He has a notebook with the TAN numbers on his desk so that he can carry out transactions. Komann says that he can't memorize anything either, whereupon Berg believes that Komann secretly stole the notebook and photocopied it. In fact, Komann pulls copies out of his jacket pocket. Since the TAN numbers are only valid once, Berg does not worry and secretly calls the security service via live mail. When Komann leaves the office, Berg has him arrested by the security guard. Berg now calls the bank in Zurich to see if there have been any transactions in the last 24 hours. The alleged employee on the phone says no. Berg then goes into the anteroom, where Komann is in handcuffs, and says with a grin that he almost had him. Komann thinks that the attempt was worth it. Berg sees Komann as a traitor. He had abused the trust when he was caught stealing confidential documents. He gambled everything away and no one would hire him anymore. At Berg's instructions, the security guard reaches into Komann's jacket pocket and pulls out the alleged copy of the TAN numbers, which, to Berg's horror, turns out to be a menu card. In the presence of the security guard, however, he pretends that this is really a copy of the TAN numbers and alleges that Komann is spying. In addition, by the time Komann unpacks, all evidence would have been removed. Berg cuts his severance payment because traitors would get nothing. Then he has Komann taken away by the security service. This should hand him over to the police. Berg goes back to the office. As soon as he is sitting at his desk, he receives a live mail sent by his secretary in the anteroom. A video opens, recorded by the surveillance camera in the anteroom. The entire conversation was recorded. The video also shows that Berg did not speak to the bank in Zurich, but first to the secretary, who disguise her voice, and then to a Jaffcorp employee who also spoke in a Swiss accent. The conversation was deliberately diverted by the secretary. Shortly afterwards, Berg received a voice mail from Komann; the whole thing was planned by the employees in order to get to the transaction number that Berg gave on the phone. The employee who posed as a Swiss banker on the phone wrote down this transaction number and called the bank in Switzerland to complete a transaction. Now the employees have the money. Berg then calls the security guard and has Komann released. Komann explains on the voice mail that Berg will get the money back, minus a reasonable compensation for the employees. Only then would they keep the secret. He assures him that he will have a long and prosperous future at Jaffcorp and that he will find a way to discreetly balance everything. Berg is angry and kicks over the chair in his office on which Komann was just sitting. Komann, the secretary and the colleague who pretended to be Swiss leave the company and hand in their IDs to the porter. The latter gives Komann a recording device. On the tape you can hear the voice mail that the porter sent to Berg as a recording. He also recorded the conversation in the anteroom.
[ "Plot\n----", "The 50\\-year\\-old Georg Komann and his colleagues at Jaffcorp Investment AG are completely unexpectedly dismissed from their employer without adequate compensation. They are facing a personal end because they know that no one is hiring new people over 50\\. Komann forges a risky plan with which he could secure the future for himself and his friends. He puts everything on one card and asks his boss Sebastian Berg for a conversation, one that could change his life \\- in any direction \\- a conversation of 15 minutes.", "Berg offers Komann a severance payment, which he refuses because he is apparently the only one who is to be lavishly rewarded. He wants to stand up for the employees and demands severance payments for all those who are to be laid off, as many are over 50 and no longer have a chance to get a new job. Berg leaves that cold. During the conversation, Komann said that he knew that the company had a secret bank account in Switzerland and that a lot of money had been stashed away. With the knowledge he wants to put his young boss under pressure and threatens to go public. Berg does not agree to this because he believes that Komann has no evidence. Komann tells his boss that this was only used by the management to open the account. Thus, the board is above suspicion and Berg is the bogeyman. Komann claims that he and his employees have already cleared the secret account. Berg doesn't think so. He has a notebook with the TAN numbers on his desk so that he can carry out transactions. Komann says that he can't memorize anything either, whereupon Berg believes that Komann secretly stole the notebook and photocopied it. In fact, Komann pulls copies out of his jacket pocket. Since the TAN numbers are only valid once, Berg does not worry and secretly calls the security service via live mail. When Komann leaves the office, Berg has him arrested by the security guard.", "Berg now calls the bank in Zurich to see if there have been any transactions in the last 24 hours. The alleged employee on the phone says no. Berg then goes into the anteroom, where Komann is in handcuffs, and says with a grin that he almost had him. Komann thinks that the attempt was worth it. Berg sees Komann as a traitor. He had abused the trust when he was caught stealing confidential documents. He gambled everything away and no one would hire him anymore. At Berg's instructions, the security guard reaches into Komann's jacket pocket and pulls out the alleged copy of the TAN numbers, which, to Berg's horror, turns out to be a menu card. In the presence of the security guard, however, he pretends that this is really a copy of the TAN numbers and alleges that Komann is spying. In addition, by the time Komann unpacks, all evidence would have been removed. Berg cuts his severance payment because traitors would get nothing.", "Then he has Komann taken away by the security service. This should hand him over to the police. Berg goes back to the office. As soon as he is sitting at his desk, he receives a live mail sent by his secretary in the anteroom. A video opens, recorded by the surveillance camera in the anteroom. The entire conversation was recorded. The video also shows that Berg did not speak to the bank in Zurich, but first to the secretary, who disguise her voice, and then to a Jaffcorp employee who also spoke in a Swiss accent. The conversation was deliberately diverted by the secretary.", "Shortly afterwards, Berg received a voice mail from Komann; the whole thing was planned by the employees in order to get to the transaction number that Berg gave on the phone. The employee who posed as a Swiss banker on the phone wrote down this transaction number and called the bank in Switzerland to complete a transaction. Now the employees have the money. Berg then calls the security guard and has Komann released. Komann explains on the voice mail that Berg will get the money back, minus a reasonable compensation for the employees. Only then would they keep the secret. He assures him that he will have a long and prosperous future at Jaffcorp and that he will find a way to discreetly balance everything. Berg is angry and kicks over the chair in his office on which Komann was just sitting. Komann, the secretary and the colleague who pretended to be Swiss leave the company and hand in their IDs to the porter. The latter gives Komann a recording device. On the tape you can hear the voice mail that the porter sent to Berg as a recording. He also recorded the conversation in the anteroom.", "" ]
A I --- [thumb\|Class A at Gleisdreieck](/wiki/File:20061119b_Gleisdreieck.jpg "20061119b Gleisdreieck.jpg") | Order | Year | Motor cars | Trailer carsbefore 1912, the side cars were numbered in 2xx series | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1\. | 1901/03 | 1–42 | 501–522 | | 2\. | 1902/03 | 43–57 | 523–528 | | 3\. | 1902/03 | 58–66 | 529–531 | | 4\. | 1903/04 | | 532–538 | Two test vehicles were ordered for the first Berlin U\-Bahn line from the Cologne coach builders, *van der Zypen \& Charlier*. One of these vehicles was used by [Wilhelm II](/wiki/Wilhelm_II_of_Germany "Wilhelm II of Germany") in 1908, leading to their nickname *Kaiserwagen* ("emperor's coach"). The train width of 2\.30 meters was already fixed at this point. At that time, trains and subways were still modelled on [streetcars](/wiki/Streetcar "Streetcar"). The first production vehicles, which were appropriately titled *A\-I*, were built in the Warschauer Brücke workshop. At the U\-Bahn's opening in 1902, 42 motor cars and 21 trailer cars were ready for service. Unlike the test vehicles, the seating was placed along the walls of the train, which was considered more comfortable. This arrangement is still used today in Kleinprofil trains. These trains had a top speed of 50 km/h. During the high traffic accident at Gleisdreieck on September 26, 1908; the railcar 3 was so badly damaged that it left the vehicle fleet. The other cars in an accident are repaired. Because Berlin or more specifically the *Nord\-Süd\-Bahn AG* had no Großprofil trains for the opening of the [Hallesches Tor](/wiki/Hallesches_Tor_%28Berlin_U-Bahn%29 "Hallesches Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)") – [Stettiner Bahnhof](/wiki/Berlin_Nordbahnhof "Berlin Nordbahnhof") route (now [U6](/wiki/U6_%28Berlin_U-Bahn%29 "U6 (Berlin U-Bahn)")), the running of that route was handed to the (then) privately owned Hochbahngesellschaft, which serviced the route using Kleinprofil trains with wooden boards (the so\-called *Blumenbretter*, "flower boards") attached to the sides. In 1926, a total of 32 railcars were converted to sidecar to allow better operation with four\-car trains. An unconverted sidecar was retired this year. These trains were retired after serious accidents in 1937\. Of the eight, four were badly damaged in World War II. At [Stadtmitte](/wiki/Stadtmitte_%28Berlin_U-Bahn%29 "Stadtmitte (Berlin U-Bahn)"), the train was badly destroyed by an artillery battery. The other four came in equal parts of BVB and BVG where they were retired after the erection of [Berlin Wall](/wiki/Berlin_Wall "Berlin Wall") on 14 August 1961\. Of the four deliveries of the cars, no vehicle has been preserved. [thumb\|A IK trains at Alexanderplatz](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-C0201-0002-001%2C_Berlin%2C_Alexanderplatz.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 183-C0201-0002-001, Berlin, Alexanderplatz.jpg") ### Holzwagen Trains | Order | Year | Motor cars | Trailer cars | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 5\. | 1906/07 | 67–{{0}}72 | 539–551 | | 6\. | 1908 | 73–{{0}}78 | 552–559 | | 7\. | 1908 | 79–{{0}}82 | | | 8\. | 1908 | 83–114 | 558–586 | | 9\. | 1909 | 115–120 | | | 10\. | 1909 | 121–129 | 587–596 | | 11\. | 1910 | 130–133 | 597–600 | | 12\. | 1912 | 131–139 | 601–612 | | 13\. | 1913 | 140–163 | 613–636 | | 14\. | 1913 | 164–226 | 637–674 | | 15\. | 1913 | 227–229 | 675–680 | Between 1906 and 1913, further batches of A\-I vehicles were delivered; making possible 8\-car trains, which had become necessary due to rising traffic. Originally there were smoking compartments and third class cars on the U\-Bahn. Different classes were abandoned in 1927\. In 1935, multiple units of the 5 and 6 class were withdrawn. 22 multiple units and 26 side cars were destroyed in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). The trains were retired in 1966 in the BVG\-West and were replaced by A3L66, and 1989 in the BVB\-Ost. ### Schöneberg Trains | Lieferung | Year | BVG | SchönebergNumbers before 1928 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1\. | 1910 | 358–369 | 11–{{0}}22 | | 2\. | 1912 | 765–770 | 23–{{0}}29 | In 1926 the Schöneberg U\-Bahn, which had been independent and had used their own vehicles up to that point, was taken over by the main U\-Bahn network. Because a connection to the rest of the network had been planned from the beginning, the Schöneberg trains had been built to the same specifications as the main network. Some trains went over to the U5 in 1945\. ### Stahlwagen Trains | Order | Year | Motor cars | Trailer cars | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 16\. | 1924/25 | 230–280 | 681–731 | | 17\. | 1925/26 | 281–292 | 732–743 | | 18\. | 1926 | 1–{{0}}58293–306 | 751–764 | One\-person operation had begun in 1964, resulting in all A\-I Class trains were phased out from Line AIII and Line BI, followed by AI and BII by 1966\. BVG\-West had withdrawn the wooden cars by 1966 and the steel cars by 1968\. The last trains ran on the Line 3 and 4 and replaced by A3L67\. All the BVG\-Ost trains, took their time because they did not have technology, and they were in desperate need for replacement \- the G\-Zug. Finally, by 5 November 1989, all the trains have been withdrawn. It is the only train that lasts during the East Berlin division.
[ "A I\n---", "[thumb\\|Class A at Gleisdreieck](/wiki/File:20061119b_Gleisdreieck.jpg \"20061119b Gleisdreieck.jpg\")", "| Order | Year | Motor cars | Trailer carsbefore 1912, the side cars were numbered in 2xx series |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1\\. | 1901/03 | 1–42 | 501–522 |\n| 2\\. | 1902/03 | 43–57 | 523–528 |\n| 3\\. | 1902/03 | 58–66 | 529–531 |\n| 4\\. | 1903/04 | | 532–538 |", "", "Two test vehicles were ordered for the first Berlin U\\-Bahn line from the Cologne coach builders, *van der Zypen \\& Charlier*. One of these vehicles was used by [Wilhelm II](/wiki/Wilhelm_II_of_Germany \"Wilhelm II of Germany\") in 1908, leading to their nickname *Kaiserwagen* (\"emperor's coach\"). The train width of 2\\.30 meters was already fixed at this point. At that time, trains and subways were still modelled on [streetcars](/wiki/Streetcar \"Streetcar\"). The first production vehicles, which were appropriately titled *A\\-I*, were built in the Warschauer Brücke workshop. At the U\\-Bahn's opening in 1902, 42 motor cars and 21 trailer cars were ready for service. Unlike the test vehicles, the seating was placed along the walls of the train, which was considered more comfortable. This arrangement is still used today in Kleinprofil trains. These trains had a top speed of 50 km/h.", "During the high traffic accident at Gleisdreieck on September 26, 1908; the railcar 3 was so badly damaged that it left the vehicle fleet. The other cars in an accident are repaired.", "Because Berlin or more specifically the *Nord\\-Süd\\-Bahn AG* had no Großprofil trains for the opening of the [Hallesches Tor](/wiki/Hallesches_Tor_%28Berlin_U-Bahn%29 \"Hallesches Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)\") – [Stettiner Bahnhof](/wiki/Berlin_Nordbahnhof \"Berlin Nordbahnhof\") route (now [U6](/wiki/U6_%28Berlin_U-Bahn%29 \"U6 (Berlin U-Bahn)\")), the running of that route was handed to the (then) privately owned Hochbahngesellschaft, which serviced the route using Kleinprofil trains with wooden boards (the so\\-called *Blumenbretter*, \"flower boards\") attached to the sides.", "In 1926, a total of 32 railcars were converted to sidecar to allow better operation with four\\-car trains. An unconverted sidecar was retired this year. These trains were retired after serious accidents in 1937\\. Of the eight, four were badly damaged in World War II. At [Stadtmitte](/wiki/Stadtmitte_%28Berlin_U-Bahn%29 \"Stadtmitte (Berlin U-Bahn)\"), the train was badly destroyed by an artillery battery. The other four came in equal parts of BVB and BVG where they were retired after the erection of [Berlin Wall](/wiki/Berlin_Wall \"Berlin Wall\") on 14 August 1961\\. Of the four deliveries of the cars, no vehicle has been preserved.\n[thumb\\|A IK trains at Alexanderplatz](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-C0201-0002-001%2C_Berlin%2C_Alexanderplatz.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 183-C0201-0002-001, Berlin, Alexanderplatz.jpg\")", "### Holzwagen Trains", "", "| Order | Year | Motor cars | Trailer cars |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 5\\. | 1906/07 | 67–{{0}}72 | 539–551 |\n| 6\\. | 1908 | 73–{{0}}78 | 552–559 |\n| 7\\. | 1908 | 79–{{0}}82 | |\n| 8\\. | 1908 | 83–114 | 558–586 |\n| 9\\. | 1909 | 115–120 | |\n| 10\\. | 1909 | 121–129 | 587–596 |\n| 11\\. | 1910 | 130–133 | 597–600 |\n| 12\\. | 1912 | 131–139 | 601–612 |\n| 13\\. | 1913 | 140–163 | 613–636 |\n| 14\\. | 1913 | 164–226 | 637–674 |\n| 15\\. | 1913 | 227–229 | 675–680 |", "Between 1906 and 1913, further batches of A\\-I vehicles were delivered; making possible 8\\-car trains, which had become necessary due to rising traffic. Originally there were smoking compartments and third class cars on the U\\-Bahn. Different classes were abandoned in 1927\\. In 1935, multiple units of the 5 and 6 class were withdrawn. 22 multiple units and 26 side cars were destroyed in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). The trains were retired in 1966 in the BVG\\-West and were replaced by A3L66, and 1989 in the BVB\\-Ost.", "### Schöneberg Trains", "", "| Lieferung | Year | BVG | SchönebergNumbers before 1928 |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1\\. | 1910 | 358–369 | 11–{{0}}22 |\n| 2\\. | 1912 | 765–770 | 23–{{0}}29 |", "In 1926 the Schöneberg U\\-Bahn, which had been independent and had used their own vehicles up to that point, was taken over by the main U\\-Bahn network. Because a connection to the rest of the network had been planned from the beginning, the Schöneberg trains had been built to the same specifications as the main network. Some trains went over to the U5 in 1945\\.", "### Stahlwagen Trains", "", "| Order | Year | Motor cars | Trailer cars |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 16\\. | 1924/25 | 230–280 | 681–731 |\n| 17\\. | 1925/26 | 281–292 | 732–743 |\n| 18\\. | 1926 | 1–{{0}}58293–306 | 751–764 |", "One\\-person operation had begun in 1964, resulting in all A\\-I Class trains were phased out from Line AIII and Line BI, followed by AI and BII by 1966\\.", "BVG\\-West had withdrawn the wooden cars by 1966 and the steel cars by 1968\\. The last trains ran on the Line 3 and 4 and replaced by A3L67\\. All the BVG\\-Ost trains, took their time because they did not have technology, and they were in desperate need for replacement \\- the G\\-Zug. Finally, by 5 November 1989, all the trains have been withdrawn. It is the only train that lasts during the East Berlin division.", "" ]
Rigging ------- A sloop\-of\-war was quite different from a civilian or mercantile [sloop](/wiki/Sloop "Sloop"), which was a general term for a single\-masted vessel rigged in a way that would today be called a [gaff cutter](/wiki/Gaff_rig "Gaff rig") (but usually without the square topsails then carried by cutter\-rigged vessels), though some sloops of that type did serve in the 18th century British [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"), particularly on the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes "Great Lakes") of North America. In the first half of the 18th century, most naval sloops were two\-masted vessels, usually carrying a [ketch](/wiki/Ketch "Ketch") or a [snow](/wiki/Snow_%28ship%29 "Snow (ship)") rig. A ketch had main and [mizzen](/wiki/Mizzen "Mizzen") masts but no foremast. A snow had a foremast and a main mast immediately abaft which a small subsidiary mast was fastened on which the spanker was set.{{cite book \|last1\=Underhill \|first1\=Harold A. \|title\=Sailing Ships Rigs and Rigging \|date\=1955 \|publisher\=Brown Son \& Fergusson \|isbn\=978\-0\-85174\-176\-5 \|pages\=6 \|edition\=2nd \|url\=https://www.skipper.co.uk/catalogue/item/sailing\-ship\-rigs\-and\-rigging}} ### Ship sloop The first three\-masted, i.e., "[ship rigged](/wiki/Full-rigged_ship "Full-rigged ship")", sloops appeared during the 1740s, and from the mid\-1750s most new sloops were built with a three\-masted (ship) rig. The third mast afforded the sloop greater mobility and the ability to back sail. ### Brig sloop [upright\=1\.2\|thumb\|Configuration of typical brig\-sloop](/wiki/File:Brig3.png "Brig3.png") In the 1770s, the two\-masted sloop re\-appeared in a new guise as the *[brig](/wiki/Brig "Brig") sloop*, the successor to the former snow sloops. Brig sloops had two masts, while *ship sloops* continued to have three (since a [brig](/wiki/Brig "Brig") is a two\-masted, square\-rigged vessel, and a ship is a square\-rigger with three or more masts, though never more than three in that period). In the Napoleonic period, Britain built huge numbers of brig sloops of the {{sclass\|Cruizer\|brig\-sloop\|4}} (18 guns) and the {{sclass\|Cherokee\|brig\-sloop\|4}} (10 guns). The brig rig was economical of manpower – important given Britain's chronic shortfall in trained seamen relative to the demands of the wartime fleet. When armed with [carronades](/wiki/Carronade "Carronade") (32\-pounders in the *Cruizer* class, 18\-pounders in the *Cherokee* class), they had the highest ratio of firepower to tonnage of any ships in the Royal Navy, albeit within the short range of the carronade. The carronades also used much less manpower than the long guns normally used to arm frigates. Consequently, the *Cruizer* class were often used as cheaper and more economical substitutes for [frigates](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate"), in situations where the frigates' high cruising endurance was not essential. A carronade\-armed brig, however, would be at the mercy of a frigate armed with long guns, so long as the frigate maneuvered to exploit its superiority of range. The other limitation of brig sloops as opposed to post ships and frigates was their relatively restricted stowage for water and provisions, which made them less suitable for long\-range cruising. However, their shallower draught made them excellent raiders against coastal shipping and shore installations. ### Bermuda sloop [thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|1831 painting of a three\-masted Bermuda sloop of the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"), entering a [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies "West Indies") port.](/wiki/File:Royal_Navy_-_Bermuda_Sloop2.jpeg "Royal Navy - Bermuda Sloop2.jpeg") The Royal Navy also made extensive use of the [Bermuda sloop](/wiki/Bermuda_sloop "Bermuda sloop"), both as a [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") against French [privateers](/wiki/Privateers "Privateers"), slavers, and smugglers, and also as its standard *advice* vessels, carrying communications, vital persons and materials, and performing [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") duties for the fleets. Bermuda sloops were found with gaff rig, mixtures of gaff and square rig, or a [Bermuda rig](/wiki/Bermuda_rig "Bermuda rig"). They were built with up to three masts. The single masted ships had huge sails and harnessed tremendous wind energy, which made them demanding to sail and required large, experienced crews. The Royal Navy favoured multi\-masted versions, as it was perennially short of sailors at the end of the 18th century, and its personnel received insufficient training (particularly in the Western Atlantic, priority being given to the continuing wars with France for control of Europe). The longer decks of the multi\-masted vessels also had the advantage of allowing more guns to be carried.
[ "Rigging\n-------", "A sloop\\-of\\-war was quite different from a civilian or mercantile [sloop](/wiki/Sloop \"Sloop\"), which was a general term for a single\\-masted vessel rigged in a way that would today be called a [gaff cutter](/wiki/Gaff_rig \"Gaff rig\") (but usually without the square topsails then carried by cutter\\-rigged vessels), though some sloops of that type did serve in the 18th century British [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"), particularly on the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes \"Great Lakes\") of North America.", "In the first half of the 18th century, most naval sloops were two\\-masted vessels, usually carrying a [ketch](/wiki/Ketch \"Ketch\") or a [snow](/wiki/Snow_%28ship%29 \"Snow (ship)\") rig. A ketch had main and [mizzen](/wiki/Mizzen \"Mizzen\") masts but no foremast. A snow had a foremast and a main mast immediately abaft which a small subsidiary mast was fastened on which the spanker was set.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Underhill \\|first1\\=Harold A. \\|title\\=Sailing Ships Rigs and Rigging \\|date\\=1955 \\|publisher\\=Brown Son \\& Fergusson \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85174\\-176\\-5 \\|pages\\=6 \\|edition\\=2nd \\|url\\=https://www.skipper.co.uk/catalogue/item/sailing\\-ship\\-rigs\\-and\\-rigging}}", "### Ship sloop", "The first three\\-masted, i.e., \"[ship rigged](/wiki/Full-rigged_ship \"Full-rigged ship\")\", sloops appeared during the 1740s, and from the mid\\-1750s most new sloops were built with a three\\-masted (ship) rig. The third mast afforded the sloop greater mobility and the ability to back sail.", "### Brig sloop", "[upright\\=1\\.2\\|thumb\\|Configuration of typical brig\\-sloop](/wiki/File:Brig3.png \"Brig3.png\")", "In the 1770s, the two\\-masted sloop re\\-appeared in a new guise as the *[brig](/wiki/Brig \"Brig\") sloop*, the successor to the former snow sloops. Brig sloops had two masts, while *ship sloops* continued to have three (since a [brig](/wiki/Brig \"Brig\") is a two\\-masted, square\\-rigged vessel, and a ship is a square\\-rigger with three or more masts, though never more than three in that period).", "In the Napoleonic period, Britain built huge numbers of brig sloops of the {{sclass\\|Cruizer\\|brig\\-sloop\\|4}} (18 guns) and the {{sclass\\|Cherokee\\|brig\\-sloop\\|4}} (10 guns). The brig rig was economical of manpower – important given Britain's chronic shortfall in trained seamen relative to the demands of the wartime fleet. When armed with [carronades](/wiki/Carronade \"Carronade\") (32\\-pounders in the *Cruizer* class, 18\\-pounders in the *Cherokee* class), they had the highest ratio of firepower to tonnage of any ships in the Royal Navy, albeit within the short range of the carronade. The carronades also used much less manpower than the long guns normally used to arm frigates. Consequently, the *Cruizer* class were often used as cheaper and more economical substitutes for [frigates](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\"), in situations where the frigates' high cruising endurance was not essential. A carronade\\-armed brig, however, would be at the mercy of a frigate armed with long guns, so long as the frigate maneuvered to exploit its superiority of range. The other limitation of brig sloops as opposed to post ships and frigates was their relatively restricted stowage for water and provisions, which made them less suitable for long\\-range cruising. However, their shallower draught made them excellent raiders against coastal shipping and shore installations.", "### Bermuda sloop", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|1831 painting of a three\\-masted Bermuda sloop of the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"), entering a [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies \"West Indies\") port.](/wiki/File:Royal_Navy_-_Bermuda_Sloop2.jpeg \"Royal Navy - Bermuda Sloop2.jpeg\")\nThe Royal Navy also made extensive use of the [Bermuda sloop](/wiki/Bermuda_sloop \"Bermuda sloop\"), both as a [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") against French [privateers](/wiki/Privateers \"Privateers\"), slavers, and smugglers, and also as its standard *advice* vessels, carrying communications, vital persons and materials, and performing [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") duties for the fleets.", "Bermuda sloops were found with gaff rig, mixtures of gaff and square rig, or a [Bermuda rig](/wiki/Bermuda_rig \"Bermuda rig\"). They were built with up to three masts. The single masted ships had huge sails and harnessed tremendous wind energy, which made them demanding to sail and required large, experienced crews. The Royal Navy favoured multi\\-masted versions, as it was perennially short of sailors at the end of the 18th century, and its personnel received insufficient training (particularly in the Western Atlantic, priority being given to the continuing wars with France for control of Europe). The longer decks of the multi\\-masted vessels also had the advantage of allowing more guns to be carried.", "" ]
History ------- [264px\|right\|thumb\|{{USS\|Portsmouth\|1843\|6}} in 1896\.](/wiki/File:USSPortsmouth%281896%29.jpg "USSPortsmouth(1896).jpg") In the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"), the sloop evolved into an [unrated](/wiki/Rating_system_of_the_Royal_Navy "Rating system of the Royal Navy") vessel with a single gun deck and three masts, two [square rigged](/wiki/Square_rig "Square rig") and the aft\-most [fore\-and\-aft rigged](/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig "Fore-and-aft rig") (corvettes had three masts, all of which were square\-rigged). Steam sloops had a transverse division of their lateral [coal](/wiki/Coal "Coal") bunkers*War\-Ships. A Text\-Book on The Construction, Protection, Stability, Turning, etc., of War Vessels*, E. L. Attwood M.Inst.N.A, Longmans Green and Co., 1910 in order that the lower division could be emptied first, to maintain a level of protection afforded by the coal in the upper bunker division along the waterline. During the War of 1812 sloops of war in the service of the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") performed well against their Royal Navy equivalents. The American ships had the advantage of being ship\-rigged rather than brig\-rigged, a distinction that increased their manoeuvrability. They were also larger and better armed. *Cruizer\-*class brig\-sloops in particular were vulnerable in one\-on\-one engagements with American sloops\-of\-war.Gardiner, Robert (1996\). *The Naval War of 1812*. Caxton pictorial history. {{ISBN\|1\-84067\-360\-5}}. pg 122 ### Decline In the second half of the 19th century, successive generations of naval guns became larger and with the advent of [steam\-powered sloops](/wiki/Steam_sloop "Steam sloop"), both paddle and screw, by the 1880s even the most powerful warships had fewer than a dozen large calibre guns, and were therefore technically sloops. Since the rating system was no longer a reliable indicator of a ship's combat power, it was abolished altogether and with it the classifications of sloops, corvettes and frigates. Instead a classification based on the intended role of the ship became common, such as [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") and [battleship](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship"). ### Revival During the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War"), the sloop rating was revived by the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") for small warships not intended for fleet deployments. Examples include the [Flower classes](/wiki/Anchusa-class_sloop "Anchusa-class sloop") of "convoy sloops", those designed for [convoy](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") escort, and the {{sclass2\|Hunt\|minesweeper (1916\)\|4}} of "minesweeping sloops", those intended for [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeper_%28ship%29 "Minesweeper (ship)") duty. The Royal Navy continued to build vessels rated as sloops during the interwar years. These sloops were small warships intended for colonial "[gunboat diplomacy](/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy "Gunboat diplomacy")" deployments, surveying duties, and acting during wartime as convoy escorts. As they were not intended to deploy with the fleet, sloops had a maximum speed of less than {{convert\|20\|kn\|km/h\|0}}. A number of such sloops, for example the {{sclass\|Grimsby\|sloop\|5}} and {{sclass\|Kingfisher\|sloop\|5}} classes, were built in the interwar years. Fleet minesweepers such as the {{sclass\|Algerine\|minesweeper\|4}} were rated as "minesweeping sloops". The Royal Navy officially dropped the term "sloop" in 1937, although the term remained in widespread and general use. [right\|thumb\|264px\|The {{sclass\|Grimsby\|sloop\|0}} {{HMS\|Wellington\|U65\|6}}. Launched in 1934, the vessel is now berthed on [the Thames](/wiki/River_Thames "River Thames")](/wiki/File:HQS-Wellington-Crossthames.jpg "HQS-Wellington-Crossthames.jpg") ### World War II {{See also\|List of frigates of World War II}} During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), 37 ships of the {{sclass\|Black Swan\|sloop\|4}} were built for convoy escort duties. However, the warship\-standards construction, propulsion and sophisticated armaments of the sloop of that time shared [bottlenecks](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28production%29 "Bottleneck (production)") with destroyers and did not lend themselves to mass production on commercial shipyards, thus the sloop was supplanted by the [corvette](/wiki/Corvette "Corvette"), and later the [frigate](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate"), as the primary escort vessel of the Royal Navy. Built to mercantile standards and with (initially) simple armaments, these vessels, notably the {{sclass2\|Flower\|corvette\|5}} and {{sclass2\|River\|frigate\|5}} classes, were produced in large numbers for the [Battle of the Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic "Battle of the Atlantic"). In 1948 the Royal Navy reclassified its remaining sloops and corvettes as frigates, even though the term sloop had been officially defunct for nine years. ### 2010s The Royal Navy has proposed a concept, known as the "*[Future Black Swan\-class Sloop\-of\-war](/wiki/Future_of_the_Royal_Navy%23Mine_countermeasures_and_Hydrographic_Capability_%28MHC%29 "Future of the Royal Navy#Mine countermeasures and Hydrographic Capability (MHC)")*",[Future Black Swan\-class Sloop\-of\-war: A Group System (MoD Concept Note)](https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/33686/20120503JCN112_Black_SwanU.pdf), gov.uk, Retrieved 2012 as an alternative to the Global Corvette of the [Global Combat Ship](/wiki/Global_Combat_Ship "Global Combat Ship") programme.
[ "History\n-------", "[264px\\|right\\|thumb\\|{{USS\\|Portsmouth\\|1843\\|6}} in 1896\\.](/wiki/File:USSPortsmouth%281896%29.jpg \"USSPortsmouth(1896).jpg\")", "In the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"), the sloop evolved into an [unrated](/wiki/Rating_system_of_the_Royal_Navy \"Rating system of the Royal Navy\") vessel with a single gun deck and three masts, two [square rigged](/wiki/Square_rig \"Square rig\") and the aft\\-most [fore\\-and\\-aft rigged](/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig \"Fore-and-aft rig\") (corvettes had three masts, all of which were square\\-rigged). Steam sloops had a transverse division of their lateral [coal](/wiki/Coal \"Coal\") bunkers*War\\-Ships. A Text\\-Book on The Construction, Protection, Stability, Turning, etc., of War Vessels*, E. L. Attwood M.Inst.N.A, Longmans Green and Co., 1910 in order that the lower division could be emptied first, to maintain a level of protection afforded by the coal in the upper bunker division along the waterline.", "During the War of 1812 sloops of war in the service of the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") performed well against their Royal Navy equivalents. The American ships had the advantage of being ship\\-rigged rather than brig\\-rigged, a distinction that increased their manoeuvrability. They were also larger and better armed. *Cruizer\\-*class brig\\-sloops in particular were vulnerable in one\\-on\\-one engagements with American sloops\\-of\\-war.Gardiner, Robert (1996\\). *The Naval War of 1812*. Caxton pictorial history. {{ISBN\\|1\\-84067\\-360\\-5}}. pg 122", "### Decline", "In the second half of the 19th century, successive generations of naval guns became larger and with the advent of [steam\\-powered sloops](/wiki/Steam_sloop \"Steam sloop\"), both paddle and screw, by the 1880s even the most powerful warships had fewer than a dozen large calibre guns, and were therefore technically sloops. Since the rating system was no longer a reliable indicator of a ship's combat power, it was abolished altogether and with it the classifications of sloops, corvettes and frigates. Instead a classification based on the intended role of the ship became common, such as [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") and [battleship](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\").", "### Revival", "During the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\"), the sloop rating was revived by the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") for small warships not intended for fleet deployments. Examples include the [Flower classes](/wiki/Anchusa-class_sloop \"Anchusa-class sloop\") of \"convoy sloops\", those designed for [convoy](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") escort, and the {{sclass2\\|Hunt\\|minesweeper (1916\\)\\|4}} of \"minesweeping sloops\", those intended for [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeper_%28ship%29 \"Minesweeper (ship)\") duty.", "The Royal Navy continued to build vessels rated as sloops during the interwar years. These sloops were small warships intended for colonial \"[gunboat diplomacy](/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy \"Gunboat diplomacy\")\" deployments, surveying duties, and acting during wartime as convoy escorts. As they were not intended to deploy with the fleet, sloops had a maximum speed of less than {{convert\\|20\\|kn\\|km/h\\|0}}. A number of such sloops, for example the {{sclass\\|Grimsby\\|sloop\\|5}} and {{sclass\\|Kingfisher\\|sloop\\|5}} classes, were built in the interwar years. Fleet minesweepers such as the {{sclass\\|Algerine\\|minesweeper\\|4}} were rated as \"minesweeping sloops\". The Royal Navy officially dropped the term \"sloop\" in 1937, although the term remained in widespread and general use.", "[right\\|thumb\\|264px\\|The {{sclass\\|Grimsby\\|sloop\\|0}} {{HMS\\|Wellington\\|U65\\|6}}. Launched in 1934, the vessel is now berthed on [the Thames](/wiki/River_Thames \"River Thames\")](/wiki/File:HQS-Wellington-Crossthames.jpg \"HQS-Wellington-Crossthames.jpg\")", "### World War II", "{{See also\\|List of frigates of World War II}}\nDuring [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), 37 ships of the {{sclass\\|Black Swan\\|sloop\\|4}} were built for convoy escort duties. However, the warship\\-standards construction, propulsion and sophisticated armaments of the sloop of that time shared [bottlenecks](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28production%29 \"Bottleneck (production)\") with destroyers and did not lend themselves to mass production on commercial shipyards, thus the sloop was supplanted by the [corvette](/wiki/Corvette \"Corvette\"), and later the [frigate](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\"), as the primary escort vessel of the Royal Navy. Built to mercantile standards and with (initially) simple armaments, these vessels, notably the {{sclass2\\|Flower\\|corvette\\|5}} and {{sclass2\\|River\\|frigate\\|5}} classes, were produced in large numbers for the [Battle of the Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic \"Battle of the Atlantic\"). In 1948 the Royal Navy reclassified its remaining sloops and corvettes as frigates, even though the term sloop had been officially defunct for nine years.", "### 2010s", "The Royal Navy has proposed a concept, known as the \"*[Future Black Swan\\-class Sloop\\-of\\-war](/wiki/Future_of_the_Royal_Navy%23Mine_countermeasures_and_Hydrographic_Capability_%28MHC%29 \"Future of the Royal Navy#Mine countermeasures and Hydrographic Capability (MHC)\")*\",[Future Black Swan\\-class Sloop\\-of\\-war: A Group System (MoD Concept Note)](https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/33686/20120503JCN112_Black_SwanU.pdf), gov.uk, Retrieved 2012 as an alternative to the Global Corvette of the [Global Combat Ship](/wiki/Global_Combat_Ship \"Global Combat Ship\") programme.", "" ]
History ------- WindowBlinds started in 1998 when lead developer Neil Banfield teamed up with [Stardock](/wiki/Stardock "Stardock"). Stardock was looking for a developer to create a window skinning application, and Banfield had already created an application that he called "Window Blinds" in 1997\. Previous attempts by Stardock had included "Object Look", a minimal skinning application, and "WindowFX", an application written in [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi_%28programming_language%29 "Delphi (programming language)"). That name would later be reused for [WindowFX](/wiki/WindowFX "WindowFX"), also created by Banfield. For a short time there was also a scaled\-back version of the original Window Blinds called "WBLiteFX", a name which was still present in WindowBlinds [registry settings](/wiki/Windows_registry "Windows registry") as of May 2006\. WindowBlinds (now re\-branded as one word) quickly made its way to a 1\.0 release, driven by the requests of users to add "freeform skinning" (customizable window border shapes), sounds, and animation. Scrollbars, the task bar, the start button, menu items, the menu itself, and other GUI elements were added later.[WindowBlinds 2 Overview](http://www.stardock.com/products/windowblinds/wb2overview.htm) – describes WB 1 and WB 2 features WindowBlinds 2 was a major redesign in [C\+\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B "C++") that added the following features: * The "Basic" (UIS1\+) format, which offered greater program compatibility in exchange for a restricted feature set.[WindowBlinds Skin Formats](http://www.stardock.com/products/windowblinds/skinning/skinformats.html) – UIS1\+ and UIS2 * Compound skins (later known as "subskins") which made it easier to provide alternative versions of a skin. For example, a [Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh "Apple Macintosh") skin could now have two subskins to offer control buttons at the left or right of the window. * User skin recoloring. * [Scripting](/wiki/Scripting_programming_language "Scripting programming language"), though this was not widely used. * [Font](/wiki/Typeface "Typeface") and color sections for specific controls and states. * Support for additional controls. At this time, "BuilderBlinds"—re\-branded as [SkinStudio](/wiki/SkinStudio "SkinStudio") in February 2001—became a popular tool, as it enabled artists to create skins without spending a deal of time learning the intricacies of the UIS format. It also allowed experienced users to avoid trivial errors. WindowBlinds 3 accompanied the release of [Windows XP](/wiki/Windows_XP "Windows XP"), which contained its own skinning system called "visual styles". It was thought that visual styles might deal a blow to commercial skinning systems. This proved not to be the case; in fact, sales of WindowBlinds rose, buoyed by a new set of users who had seen the changes offered by visual styles and wanted more. Even after modifications known as "uxtheme hacks" (named after the file they modified, uxtheme.dll) became available, WindowBlinds remained popular, since it had additional features that visual styles did not. [thumb\|300px\|right\|WindowBlinds skins can be animated; *[ChristmasTime](http://www.wincustomize.com/ViewSkin.aspx?SID=1&SkinID=3702&LibID=1&UID=2172)*, for example, has falling snowflakes.](/wiki/Image:WindowBlinds_ChristmasTime.jpg "WindowBlinds ChristmasTime.jpg") However, the program still contained flaws. WindowBlinds 3 had many new features, but with new features came new bugs, including compatibility problems. Additionally, performance was suboptimal. Interim releases addressed these issues and provided for those areas of the Windows XP user interface that could not initially be skinned. By the time WindowBlinds 4 arrived, there were fewer problems, due in part to an increased focus on stability for [DirectSkin](/wiki/DirectSkin "DirectSkin") clients. In addition, SkinStudio now provided a method to import the Microsoft *msstyles* format. WindowBlinds 4\.6 was released in August 2005,[WindowBlinds 4\.6 released! – An Article by Frogboy](http://www.wincustomize.com/articles.aspx?SID=1&AID=83682) with the addition of mouseover "translucent glow" effects for the titlebar buttons, push buttons and other controls. Windowblinds 4\.6 has now been renamed "WindowBlinds Classic", and is meant for non\-XP Windows versions, which cannot run the new Windowblinds 5\. WindowBlinds 5, released in November 2005, extends translucency through per pixel [alpha blending](/wiki/Alpha_blending "Alpha blending") to the entire window frame, including the borders and taskbar. WindowBlinds 6, released end 2007, adds Windows Vista\-like blur effects on XP (although Microsoft said that such per\-pixel alpha blending with blur is impossible to work on XP {{Citation needed\|date\=April 2009}}), later also Windows Sidebar skinning and more additional features. The configuration GUI was redesigned to a completely horizontal look. WindowBlinds 7, released in late 2009, added native support for Windows 7\. Amongst its new features is the ability to "skin Aero" by using colors and textures. Other new features include a new user interface, and various tweaks. WindowBlinds 8, released in June 2013, added native support for Windows 8 while officially dropping support for Windows XP and Vista. The most prominent change was to its user interface, streamlining its layout while portraying a more minimalistic, Metro\-like feel. In addition, version 8 updated the bundled themes and refined the corresponding preview mode. WindowBlinds 10, released in March 2016, added native support for Windows 10 and some minor new features. Windowblinds 11, released in November 2022, updated the UI to fit the design language of Windows 11, added a Windows 9x styled theme to the collection of default themes and improved support for dark mode and HDR.[WindowBlinds 11 Changelog](https://www.stardock.com/products/windowblinds/history)
[ "History\n-------", "WindowBlinds started in 1998 when lead developer Neil Banfield teamed up with [Stardock](/wiki/Stardock \"Stardock\"). Stardock was looking for a developer to create a window skinning application, and Banfield had already created an application that he called \"Window Blinds\" in 1997\\. Previous attempts by Stardock had included \"Object Look\", a minimal skinning application, and \"WindowFX\", an application written in [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi_%28programming_language%29 \"Delphi (programming language)\"). That name would later be reused for [WindowFX](/wiki/WindowFX \"WindowFX\"), also created by Banfield. For a short time there was also a scaled\\-back version of the original Window Blinds called \"WBLiteFX\", a name which was still present in WindowBlinds [registry settings](/wiki/Windows_registry \"Windows registry\") as of May 2006\\.", "WindowBlinds (now re\\-branded as one word) quickly made its way to a 1\\.0 release, driven by the requests of users to add \"freeform skinning\" (customizable window border shapes), sounds, and animation. Scrollbars, the task bar, the start button, menu items, the menu itself, and other GUI elements were added later.[WindowBlinds 2 Overview](http://www.stardock.com/products/windowblinds/wb2overview.htm) – describes WB 1 and WB 2 features", "WindowBlinds 2 was a major redesign in [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\") that added the following features:\n* The \"Basic\" (UIS1\\+) format, which offered greater program compatibility in exchange for a restricted feature set.[WindowBlinds Skin Formats](http://www.stardock.com/products/windowblinds/skinning/skinformats.html) – UIS1\\+ and UIS2\n* Compound skins (later known as \"subskins\") which made it easier to provide alternative versions of a skin. For example, a [Macintosh](/wiki/Apple_Macintosh \"Apple Macintosh\") skin could now have two subskins to offer control buttons at the left or right of the window.\n* User skin recoloring.\n* [Scripting](/wiki/Scripting_programming_language \"Scripting programming language\"), though this was not widely used.\n* [Font](/wiki/Typeface \"Typeface\") and color sections for specific controls and states.\n* Support for additional controls.", "At this time, \"BuilderBlinds\"—re\\-branded as [SkinStudio](/wiki/SkinStudio \"SkinStudio\") in February 2001—became a popular tool, as it enabled artists to create skins without spending a deal of time learning the intricacies of the UIS format. It also allowed experienced users to avoid trivial errors.", "WindowBlinds 3 accompanied the release of [Windows XP](/wiki/Windows_XP \"Windows XP\"), which contained its own skinning system called \"visual styles\". It was thought that visual styles might deal a blow to commercial skinning systems. This proved not to be the case; in fact, sales of WindowBlinds rose, buoyed by a new set of users who had seen the changes offered by visual styles and wanted more. Even after modifications known as \"uxtheme hacks\" (named after the file they modified, uxtheme.dll) became available, WindowBlinds remained popular, since it had additional features that visual styles did not.", "[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|WindowBlinds skins can be animated; *[ChristmasTime](http://www.wincustomize.com/ViewSkin.aspx?SID=1&SkinID=3702&LibID=1&UID=2172)*, for example, has falling snowflakes.](/wiki/Image:WindowBlinds_ChristmasTime.jpg \"WindowBlinds ChristmasTime.jpg\")", "However, the program still contained flaws. WindowBlinds 3 had many new features, but with new features came new bugs, including compatibility problems. Additionally, performance was suboptimal. Interim releases addressed these issues and provided for those areas of the Windows XP user interface that could not initially be skinned.", "By the time WindowBlinds 4 arrived, there were fewer problems, due in part to an increased focus on stability for [DirectSkin](/wiki/DirectSkin \"DirectSkin\") clients. In addition, SkinStudio now provided a method to import the Microsoft *msstyles* format.", "WindowBlinds 4\\.6 was released in August 2005,[WindowBlinds 4\\.6 released! – An Article by Frogboy](http://www.wincustomize.com/articles.aspx?SID=1&AID=83682) with the addition of mouseover \"translucent glow\" effects for the titlebar buttons, push buttons and other controls. Windowblinds 4\\.6 has now been renamed \"WindowBlinds Classic\", and is meant for non\\-XP Windows versions, which cannot run the new Windowblinds 5\\.", "WindowBlinds 5, released in November 2005, extends translucency through per pixel [alpha blending](/wiki/Alpha_blending \"Alpha blending\") to the entire window frame, including the borders and taskbar.", "WindowBlinds 6, released end 2007, adds Windows Vista\\-like blur effects on XP (although Microsoft said that such per\\-pixel alpha blending with blur is impossible to work on XP {{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2009}}), later also Windows Sidebar skinning and more additional features. The configuration GUI was redesigned to a completely horizontal look.", "WindowBlinds 7, released in late 2009, added native support for Windows 7\\. Amongst its new features is the ability to \"skin Aero\" by using colors and textures. Other new features include a new user interface, and various tweaks.", "WindowBlinds 8, released in June 2013, added native support for Windows 8 while officially dropping support for Windows XP and Vista. The most prominent change was to its user interface, streamlining its layout while portraying a more minimalistic, Metro\\-like feel. In addition, version 8 updated the bundled themes and refined the corresponding preview mode.", "WindowBlinds 10, released in March 2016, added native support for Windows 10 and some minor new features.", "Windowblinds 11, released in November 2022, updated the UI to fit the design language of Windows 11, added a Windows 9x styled theme to the collection of default themes and improved support for dark mode and HDR.[WindowBlinds 11 Changelog](https://www.stardock.com/products/windowblinds/history)", "" ]
Career ------ ### Dance Esteri starting working as a contemporary dancer in 2008 and has performed with various dance companies in Uganda namely Keiga Dance Company, Stepping Stones dance company, Mutumizi dance Company, Guerrilla Dance Company among others. [thumb\|Esteri's solo dance performance](/wiki/File:Esteri_Dance_Week_2014.jpg "Esteri Dance Week 2014.jpg") She has staged performances at various arts platforms namely; Dance Week Uganda, Dance Transmissions Festival (both annual contemporary dance showcases), Bayimba International Festival of the Arts and Umoja International Festival– initially as a student and a teacher for 3 years– to mention a few. Her work is not only restricted to Uganda but she has also been involved in projects in Kenya, Rwanda, Madagascar, South Africa, Tanzania, the United States of America, and Ethiopia. She has performed at [La Mama](/wiki/La_MaMa_Experimental_Theatre_Club "La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club") in New York in 2012, Artwater Village Theatre in 2013 and New Orleans Fringe in 2014\. ### Theatre She has been an actress since 2008 performing in a variety of theatre and film productions in Uganda. Her debut theatre production, Lion and The Jewel where she portrayed Sidi was directed by Kaya Kagimu Mukasa.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/magazine/The\-lion\-\-the\-jewel\-and\-the\-political\-undertones/434746\-1218576\-nbo61uz/index.html\|title\=The lion, the jewel and the political undertones\|access\-date\=2016\-10\-15}} Other theatre projects have included *Maria Kizito*– lead actress as a psychopathic nun– a play by Brown University professor, [Erik Ehn](/wiki/Erik_Ehn "Erik Ehn") about the trial of nuns who facilitated the massacre of Tutsis during the Rwandan genocide. She was the lead actress in *Cooking Oil*, a play by award\-winning playwright Deborah Asiimwe, which was performed in Uganda and the United States of America. Other theatre projects have included a mentally disturbed psychiatrist in the Ugandan production of *The Body of a Woman as a Battlefield* *in the Bosnian War* as well as a frustrated wife in *The Marriage Chronicles*.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/magazine/Playwright\-network\-is\-finally\-back/434746\-2411778\-14tt9jiz/index.html\|title\=Playwright network is finally back\|access\-date\=2016\-10\-15}} In late 2015, Esteri travelled to the Northern part of Uganda with a group of artists to collect stories and hopefully turn these into stage plays that will be presented to audiences around the world. *The Story Circle project*, which was headed by Jerry Stropnicky, a theatre practitioner in the United States gave her great insights into the use of story as a mechanism to help people cope with different aspects of life such as trauma. She has also ventured into directing and worked on a theatre project, *Afroman* *Spice* from Afroman ensemble, an all female theatre ensemble. The project premiered in Kampala in June 2015 and has since been staged at The Market for African Performing Arts (MASA) in Ivory Coast and is booked to show in Rwanda, Tunisia and Niger in 2016\. As a teacher she has facilitated training sessions with other arts projects and her desire to gain more life experience and share what she knows with others in a professional environment drives her to work with people from all walks of life. Her experience has also involved instruction of children in different schools around the city of Kampala. ### Film Esteri got her first acting role in a short film on one of the programs of the [Maisha Film Lab](/wiki/Maisha_Film_Lab "Maisha Film Lab") program– a Uganda\-based non\-profit film training initiative founded by award\-winning director [Mira Nair](/wiki/Mira_Nair "Mira Nair") for emerging East African and South Asian filmmakers. She acted in Judith Adong's Sins of the Parents in 2008 and Master on Duty in 2009 by Joseph Ken Ssebaggala. Her latest film work was on the soon to be released [Walt Disney Pictures](/wiki/Walt_Disney_Pictures "Walt Disney Pictures") production, *[Queen of Katwe](/wiki/Queen_of_Katwe "Queen of Katwe")*, starring Academy Award\-winning actress [Lupita Nyong’o](/wiki/Lupita_Nyong%27o "Lupita Nyong'o") and [David Oyelowo](/wiki/David_Oyelowo "David Oyelowo").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.theinsider.ug/queen\-of\-katwe\-ugandan\-premiere\-set\-for\-october\-1/\#.WAHvKaNh3eR\|title\='Queen of Katwe' Ugandan premiere set for October 1 – theinsider.ug\|access\-date\=2016\-10\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010125114/http://www.theinsider.ug/queen\-of\-katwe\-ugandan\-premiere\-set\-for\-october\-1/\#.WAHvKaNh3eR\|archive\-date\=2016\-10\-10\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.yahoo.com/music/queen\-katwe\-esther\-tebandeke\-working\-224100032\.html\|title\=Queen Of Katwe: Esther Tebandeke On Working With David Oyelowo\|access\-date\=2016\-10\-15\|archive\-date\=19 October 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019000838/https://www.yahoo.com/music/queen\-katwe\-esther\-tebandeke\-working\-224100032\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} Speaking about the film, Esteri describes the impact that Queen of Katwe has had on her in the following words: > "Before the film, I was afraid of my dreams because they were so big. But now I am even more scared—they are bigger."{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.observer.ug/lifestyle/42\-entertainment/47000\-esteri\-tebandeke\-queen\-of\-katwe\-changed\-my\-life\|title\=Esteri Tebandeke: Queen of Katwe changed my life\|last\=Kaggwa\|first\=Andrew\|website\=www.observer.ug\|access\-date\=2016\-10\-15\|archive\-date\=18 October 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018092401/http://www.observer.ug/lifestyle/42\-entertainment/47000\-esteri\-tebandeke\-queen\-of\-katwe\-changed\-my\-life\|url\-status\=dead}} Mira Nair, one of her greatest inspirations in the film industry in a recent article describes her as "a luminous person."{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.news24\.com/SouthAfrica/News/sa\-film\-location\-irks\-ugandans\-20161008\|title\=SA film location irks Ugandans\|newspaper\=News24\|access\-date\=2016\-10\-15}} Quoting Mira Nair's famous maxim: > "If we don't tell our own stories, no one else will." To that end, she is committed to developing stories from her home country, Uganda and the African continent which address themes of local significance but with international appeal. She is exploring the possibilities of developing Ugandan content in collaboration with various creatives in East Africa and beyond. Esteri has had her films as an actress and director shown at numerous festivals like Toronto International film festival, BFI London Film Festival, Luxor African Film Festival, Raindance Film Festival, Uganda Film Festival, Durban International Film Festival, Africa International Film Festival. Esteri was part of the writing team on a web series being developed in collaboration with film students from Uganda, Kenya, Ghana and Germany. This project was shot on location in Accra, Ghana and is currently in post\-production. Little Black Dress, her directorial debut is a short film that was shot on location in Nairobi, Kenya in April 2019\. The film premiered in competition at the 2019 edition of the Africa International Film Festival in Lagos, Nigeria and in competition at the Luxor African Film Festival. As a budding illustrator and cartoonist, Esteri hopes to show the world what it means to be Ugandan in contemporary times.
[ "Career\n------", "### Dance", "Esteri starting working as a contemporary dancer in 2008 and has performed with various dance companies in Uganda namely Keiga Dance Company, Stepping Stones dance company, Mutumizi dance Company, Guerrilla Dance Company among others.\n[thumb\\|Esteri's solo dance performance](/wiki/File:Esteri_Dance_Week_2014.jpg \"Esteri Dance Week 2014.jpg\")\nShe has staged performances at various arts platforms namely; Dance Week Uganda, Dance Transmissions Festival (both annual contemporary dance showcases), Bayimba International Festival of the Arts and Umoja International Festival– initially as a student and a teacher for 3 years– to mention a few. Her work is not only restricted to Uganda but she has also been involved in projects in Kenya, Rwanda, Madagascar, South Africa, Tanzania, the United States of America, and Ethiopia. She has performed at [La Mama](/wiki/La_MaMa_Experimental_Theatre_Club \"La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club\") in New York in 2012, Artwater Village Theatre in 2013 and New Orleans Fringe in 2014\\.", "### Theatre", "She has been an actress since 2008 performing in a variety of theatre and film productions in Uganda. Her debut theatre production, Lion and The Jewel where she portrayed Sidi was directed by Kaya Kagimu Mukasa.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/magazine/The\\-lion\\-\\-the\\-jewel\\-and\\-the\\-political\\-undertones/434746\\-1218576\\-nbo61uz/index.html\\|title\\=The lion, the jewel and the political undertones\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-15}} Other theatre projects have included *Maria Kizito*– lead actress as a psychopathic nun– a play by Brown University professor, [Erik Ehn](/wiki/Erik_Ehn \"Erik Ehn\") about the trial of nuns who facilitated the massacre of Tutsis during the Rwandan genocide. She was the lead actress in *Cooking Oil*, a play by award\\-winning playwright Deborah Asiimwe, which was performed in Uganda and the United States of America. Other theatre projects have included a mentally disturbed psychiatrist in the Ugandan production of *The Body of a Woman as a Battlefield* *in the Bosnian War* as well as a frustrated wife in *The Marriage Chronicles*.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/magazine/Playwright\\-network\\-is\\-finally\\-back/434746\\-2411778\\-14tt9jiz/index.html\\|title\\=Playwright network is finally back\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-15}} In late 2015, Esteri travelled to the Northern part of Uganda with a group of artists to collect stories and hopefully turn these into stage plays that will be presented to audiences around the world. *The Story Circle project*, which was headed by Jerry Stropnicky, a theatre practitioner in the United States gave her great insights into the use of story as a mechanism to help people cope with different aspects of life such as trauma.", "She has also ventured into directing and worked on a theatre project, *Afroman* *Spice* from Afroman ensemble, an all female theatre ensemble. The project premiered in Kampala in June 2015 and has since been staged at The Market for African Performing Arts (MASA) in Ivory Coast and is booked to show in Rwanda, Tunisia and Niger in 2016\\.", "As a teacher she has facilitated training sessions with other arts projects and her desire to gain more life experience and share what she knows with others in a professional environment drives her to work with people from all walks of life. Her experience has also involved instruction of children in different schools around the city of Kampala.", "### Film", "Esteri got her first acting role in a short film on one of the programs of the [Maisha Film Lab](/wiki/Maisha_Film_Lab \"Maisha Film Lab\") program– a Uganda\\-based non\\-profit film training initiative founded by award\\-winning director [Mira Nair](/wiki/Mira_Nair \"Mira Nair\") for emerging East African and South Asian filmmakers. She acted in Judith Adong's Sins of the Parents in 2008 and Master on Duty in 2009 by Joseph Ken Ssebaggala. Her latest film work was on the soon to be released [Walt Disney Pictures](/wiki/Walt_Disney_Pictures \"Walt Disney Pictures\") production, *[Queen of Katwe](/wiki/Queen_of_Katwe \"Queen of Katwe\")*, starring Academy Award\\-winning actress [Lupita Nyong’o](/wiki/Lupita_Nyong%27o \"Lupita Nyong'o\") and [David Oyelowo](/wiki/David_Oyelowo \"David Oyelowo\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.theinsider.ug/queen\\-of\\-katwe\\-ugandan\\-premiere\\-set\\-for\\-october\\-1/\\#.WAHvKaNh3eR\\|title\\='Queen of Katwe' Ugandan premiere set for October 1 – theinsider.ug\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010125114/http://www.theinsider.ug/queen\\-of\\-katwe\\-ugandan\\-premiere\\-set\\-for\\-october\\-1/\\#.WAHvKaNh3eR\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-10\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.yahoo.com/music/queen\\-katwe\\-esther\\-tebandeke\\-working\\-224100032\\.html\\|title\\=Queen Of Katwe: Esther Tebandeke On Working With David Oyelowo\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019000838/https://www.yahoo.com/music/queen\\-katwe\\-esther\\-tebandeke\\-working\\-224100032\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Speaking about the film, Esteri describes the impact that Queen of Katwe has had on her in the following words:\n> \"Before the film, I was afraid of my dreams because they were so big. But now I am even more scared—they are bigger.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.observer.ug/lifestyle/42\\-entertainment/47000\\-esteri\\-tebandeke\\-queen\\-of\\-katwe\\-changed\\-my\\-life\\|title\\=Esteri Tebandeke: Queen of Katwe changed my life\\|last\\=Kaggwa\\|first\\=Andrew\\|website\\=www.observer.ug\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018092401/http://www.observer.ug/lifestyle/42\\-entertainment/47000\\-esteri\\-tebandeke\\-queen\\-of\\-katwe\\-changed\\-my\\-life\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Mira Nair, one of her greatest inspirations in the film industry in a recent article describes her as \"a luminous person.\"{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.news24\\.com/SouthAfrica/News/sa\\-film\\-location\\-irks\\-ugandans\\-20161008\\|title\\=SA film location irks Ugandans\\|newspaper\\=News24\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-15}} Quoting Mira Nair's famous maxim:\n> \"If we don't tell our own stories, no one else will.\"", "To that end, she is committed to developing stories from her home country, Uganda and the African continent which address themes of local significance but with international appeal. She is exploring the possibilities of developing Ugandan content in collaboration with various creatives in East Africa and beyond.", "Esteri has had her films as an actress and director shown at numerous festivals like Toronto International film festival, BFI London Film Festival, Luxor African Film Festival, Raindance Film Festival, Uganda Film Festival, Durban International Film Festival, Africa International Film Festival.", "Esteri was part of the writing team on a web series being developed in collaboration with film students from Uganda, Kenya, Ghana and Germany. This project was shot on location in Accra, Ghana and is currently in post\\-production. Little Black Dress, her directorial debut is a short film that was shot on location in Nairobi, Kenya in April 2019\\. The film premiered in competition at the 2019 edition of the Africa International Film Festival in Lagos, Nigeria and in competition at the Luxor African Film Festival.", "As a budding illustrator and cartoonist, Esteri hopes to show the world what it means to be Ugandan in contemporary times.", "" ]
Geography --------- ### Land The West sits at the geologic crossroads of Cameroon; the soil varies greatly within a relatively small land area. The land along the [Noun River](/wiki/Noun_River_%28Cameroon%29 "Noun River (Cameroon)") and at the [Bamendjing Reservoir](/wiki/Bamendjing_Reservoir "Bamendjing Reservoir"), for example, is a lightly evolved blend of various raw minerals. The province's western half, on the other hand, is a haphazard mixture of raw minerals, [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite"), [ferrallitic](/wiki/Ferrallitic "Ferrallitic") patches of red dirt, and other types. Finally, the soil of the eastern portions away from the reservoir is ferrallitic. Rocks in the area range from the [volcanic](/wiki/Volcanic_rock "Volcanic rock") along the reservoir and Noun to [Precambrian](/wiki/Precambrian "Precambrian") deposits of [crystalline rocks](/wiki/Crystalline_rock "Crystalline rock") such as granite and [gneiss](/wiki/Gneiss "Gneiss") under a cover of [basaltic rock](/wiki/Basaltic_rock "Basaltic rock") in the northwest. [Metamorphic rocks](/wiki/Metamorphic_rock "Metamorphic rock") like gneiss and [mica](/wiki/Mica "Mica") dominate the rest of the territory. The soil throughout is mostly red in color due to high [iron](/wiki/Iron "Iron") content, though that of the northwest is black or brown basalt. The province's soils are the richest and most productive in Cameroon. ### Drainage The West's [mountainous terrain](/wiki/Mountain "Mountain") and active [tectonics](/wiki/Plate_tectonics "Plate tectonics") create many fast\-moving [rivers](/wiki/River "River") with picturesque [falls](/wiki/Waterfall "Waterfall") and isolated [crater lakes](/wiki/Volcanic_crater_lake "Volcanic crater lake"). These rivers follow a [Cameroon regime](/wiki/Cameroon_regime "Cameroon regime"), experiencing a period of high waters during the wet season and a period of low waters in the dry period. The rivers all form part of the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean") basin. The [Mbam River](/wiki/Mbam_River "Mbam River") runs along the border with the Centre and Southeast Provinces. The [Nkam](/wiki/Nkam_River "Nkam River") is the name for the headwaters of the [Wouri River](/wiki/Wouri_River "Wouri River"), which flow from the West's [Bamboutos Mountains](/wiki/Bamboutos_Mountains "Bamboutos Mountains"). The eastern branch through the area rises northwest of [Bangangté](/wiki/Bangangt%C3%A9 "Bangangté"), and the western branch forms the border with the Littoral Province southwest of [Bafang](/wiki/Bafang "Bafang"). These headwaters are subject to seasonal flooding. The Noun River, a [tributary](/wiki/Tributary "Tributary") of the [Sanaga](/wiki/Sanaga_River "Sanaga River"), flows from the Centre Province, around [Bafoussam](/wiki/Bafoussam "Bafoussam"), and to the Bamendjing Reservoir. This man\-made lake is created by a [dam](/wiki/Dam "Dam") on the Noun River, which helps regulate the Sanaga at [Edéa](/wiki/Ed%C3%A9a "Edéa") in the Littoral Province and is thus an important component in Cameroon's supply of [hydroelectric power](/wiki/Hydroelectric_power "Hydroelectric power"). Falls are common, such as the [Balatchi](/wiki/Balatchi_Falls "Balatchi Falls"), [Metché](/wiki/Metch%C3%A9_Falls "Metché Falls"), and [Tsugning Falls](/wiki/Tsugning_Falls "Tsugning Falls"). Most of the West's lakes are crater lakes formed from collapsed [volcanoes](/wiki/Volcano "Volcano"). Such lakes exist at [Balent](/wiki/Balent "Balent"), [Banéfo](/wiki/Ban%C3%A9fo "Banéfo"), [Doupé](/wiki/Doup%C3%A9 "Doupé"), and near [Foumban](/wiki/Foumban "Foumban"). Many of these still have active volcanoes at their bottoms, particularly in the northwest on the [Western High Plateau](/wiki/Western_High_Plateau "Western High Plateau"). One example is [Lake Baleng](/wiki/Lake_Baleng "Lake Baleng"), northeast of Bafoussam, and the twin lakes of [Foumbot](/wiki/Foumbot "Foumbot"). These volcanoes can cause deposits of gas to build up at the lakebed until poisonous gases finally bubble to the surface. Such an eruption at [Lake Monoun](/wiki/Lake_Monoun "Lake Monoun") killed 37 villagers near Foumbot on 15 and 16 August 1984\. File:Lac Baleng2\.jpg\|Lake Baleng File:Fleuve Nkam à partir de Bafang 01\.jpg\|Nkam River File:Monoun.jpg\|Lake Monoun File:Fleuve Mbam'.jpg\|Mbam River File:Chutes d'eau de Metchie.jpg\|Metche falls File:Chute Bangoua30\.jpg\|Bangoua Falls ### Relief The Bamboutos Mountains are the West's primary land feature. Elevations reach as high as 2,000 metres and dip as low as 500 metres in the Noun and Nkam valleys. The highest point is [Mt. Bamboutos](/wiki/Mt._Bamboutos "Mt. Bamboutos"), a dormant volcano west of [Mbouda](/wiki/Mbouda "Mbouda"), at 2,740 metres. These mountains lie along the [Cameroon Fault](/wiki/Cameroon_Fault "Cameroon Fault"), dating from the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous "Cretaceous"), which runs roughly parallel to the border with the Northwest Province and through the capital of Bafoussam. West of the Cameroon Mountains lies the Western High Plateau, with elevations of 1,000\-2,500 metres. South of the fault, the land descends in steps until levelling off at the [South Cameroon Plateau](/wiki/South_Cameroon_Plateau "South Cameroon Plateau"). Here, terrain is gentler, with large hills separated by deep valleys. ### Climate High elevations and moderate to high [humidity](/wiki/Humidity "Humidity") give the West one of Cameroon's more pleasant climates. Temperatures average a cool 22˙, and rainfall is moderate. Except for the southeasternmost portions, the West experiences two major seasons in lieu of the traditional four: the year begins in a long, dry period of little rain, which runs until May, then the rains begin in May or June and last until October or November. Though the transition is gradual, the southeastern reaches of the province are part of the South Cameroon Plateau and thus have four seasons: the long dry season from December to March, the short rainy season from March to June, the short dry season from June to August, and the long rainy season from September to December. The climate is [equatorial](/wiki/Equatorial_climate "Equatorial climate") of the [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon_climate "Cameroon climate") sub\-variety in the northwestern third and equatorial of the [Guinea](/wiki/Guinea_climate "Guinea climate") type in the southeastern two\-thirds. Rainfall, moderated by the mountains, averages 1,000\-2,000 mm per year throughout, though it is highest at the area of the Bamendjing Reservoir. ### Plant and animal life Very little of the West's original flora or fauna survives, since most land has been cleared by human farmers. This is particularly evident on the Western High Plateau, where poor soil and less rainfall have exacerbated the effects of [deforestation](/wiki/Deforestation "Deforestation"), turning the area into grassland. The [Melap Reserve](/wiki/Melap_Reserve "Melap Reserve") (*Réserve de Melap*) near Foumban is one heavily wooded area, but it is more of a [city park](/wiki/City_park "City park") than an actual reserve. East of the Noun River, the terrain is primarily covered in woodland [savanna](/wiki/Savanna "Savanna") of the [Sahel](/wiki/Sahel_savanna "Sahel savanna") type, which forms a transitional zone to the lowly vegetated northern provinces. West of that river, this savanna is of the [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_savanna "Sudan savanna") type, and is interspersed among open, dry forest. A few small patches of [rain forest](/wiki/Rain_forest "Rain forest") persist to the west of the Mbam River in the Noun division. As elevation increases, forests thin out, until they are replaced by [ferns](/wiki/Fern "Fern") and [bamboos](/wiki/Bamboo "Bamboo") at 1,800 metres. Trees throughout shed their leaves during the dry season as protection against brush fires. [thumb\|Bangou market](/wiki/File:Bangou_market.jpg "Bangou market.jpg")
[ "Geography\n---------", "### Land", "The West sits at the geologic crossroads of Cameroon; the soil varies greatly within a relatively small land area. The land along the [Noun River](/wiki/Noun_River_%28Cameroon%29 \"Noun River (Cameroon)\") and at the [Bamendjing Reservoir](/wiki/Bamendjing_Reservoir \"Bamendjing Reservoir\"), for example, is a lightly evolved blend of various raw minerals. The province's western half, on the other hand, is a haphazard mixture of raw minerals, [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\"), [ferrallitic](/wiki/Ferrallitic \"Ferrallitic\") patches of red dirt, and other types. Finally, the soil of the eastern portions away from the reservoir is ferrallitic. Rocks in the area range from the [volcanic](/wiki/Volcanic_rock \"Volcanic rock\") along the reservoir and Noun to [Precambrian](/wiki/Precambrian \"Precambrian\") deposits of [crystalline rocks](/wiki/Crystalline_rock \"Crystalline rock\") such as granite and [gneiss](/wiki/Gneiss \"Gneiss\") under a cover of [basaltic rock](/wiki/Basaltic_rock \"Basaltic rock\") in the northwest. [Metamorphic rocks](/wiki/Metamorphic_rock \"Metamorphic rock\") like gneiss and [mica](/wiki/Mica \"Mica\") dominate the rest of the territory. The soil throughout is mostly red in color due to high [iron](/wiki/Iron \"Iron\") content, though that of the northwest is black or brown basalt. The province's soils are the richest and most productive in Cameroon.", "### Drainage", "The West's [mountainous terrain](/wiki/Mountain \"Mountain\") and active [tectonics](/wiki/Plate_tectonics \"Plate tectonics\") create many fast\\-moving [rivers](/wiki/River \"River\") with picturesque [falls](/wiki/Waterfall \"Waterfall\") and isolated [crater lakes](/wiki/Volcanic_crater_lake \"Volcanic crater lake\"). These rivers follow a [Cameroon regime](/wiki/Cameroon_regime \"Cameroon regime\"), experiencing a period of high waters during the wet season and a period of low waters in the dry period. The rivers all form part of the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\") basin.", "The [Mbam River](/wiki/Mbam_River \"Mbam River\") runs along the border with the Centre and Southeast Provinces. The [Nkam](/wiki/Nkam_River \"Nkam River\") is the name for the headwaters of the [Wouri River](/wiki/Wouri_River \"Wouri River\"), which flow from the West's [Bamboutos Mountains](/wiki/Bamboutos_Mountains \"Bamboutos Mountains\"). The eastern branch through the area rises northwest of [Bangangté](/wiki/Bangangt%C3%A9 \"Bangangté\"), and the western branch forms the border with the Littoral Province southwest of [Bafang](/wiki/Bafang \"Bafang\"). These headwaters are subject to seasonal flooding. The Noun River, a [tributary](/wiki/Tributary \"Tributary\") of the [Sanaga](/wiki/Sanaga_River \"Sanaga River\"), flows from the Centre Province, around [Bafoussam](/wiki/Bafoussam \"Bafoussam\"), and to the Bamendjing Reservoir. This man\\-made lake is created by a [dam](/wiki/Dam \"Dam\") on the Noun River, which helps regulate the Sanaga at [Edéa](/wiki/Ed%C3%A9a \"Edéa\") in the Littoral Province and is thus an important component in Cameroon's supply of [hydroelectric power](/wiki/Hydroelectric_power \"Hydroelectric power\"). Falls are common, such as the [Balatchi](/wiki/Balatchi_Falls \"Balatchi Falls\"), [Metché](/wiki/Metch%C3%A9_Falls \"Metché Falls\"), and [Tsugning Falls](/wiki/Tsugning_Falls \"Tsugning Falls\").", "Most of the West's lakes are crater lakes formed from collapsed [volcanoes](/wiki/Volcano \"Volcano\"). Such lakes exist at [Balent](/wiki/Balent \"Balent\"), [Banéfo](/wiki/Ban%C3%A9fo \"Banéfo\"), [Doupé](/wiki/Doup%C3%A9 \"Doupé\"), and near [Foumban](/wiki/Foumban \"Foumban\"). Many of these still have active volcanoes at their bottoms, particularly in the northwest on the [Western High Plateau](/wiki/Western_High_Plateau \"Western High Plateau\"). One example is [Lake Baleng](/wiki/Lake_Baleng \"Lake Baleng\"), northeast of Bafoussam, and the twin lakes of [Foumbot](/wiki/Foumbot \"Foumbot\"). These volcanoes can cause deposits of gas to build up at the lakebed until poisonous gases finally bubble to the surface. Such an eruption at [Lake Monoun](/wiki/Lake_Monoun \"Lake Monoun\") killed 37 villagers near Foumbot on 15 and 16 August 1984\\.\nFile:Lac Baleng2\\.jpg\\|Lake Baleng\nFile:Fleuve Nkam à partir de Bafang 01\\.jpg\\|Nkam River\nFile:Monoun.jpg\\|Lake Monoun\nFile:Fleuve Mbam'.jpg\\|Mbam River\nFile:Chutes d'eau de Metchie.jpg\\|Metche falls\nFile:Chute Bangoua30\\.jpg\\|Bangoua Falls", "", "### Relief", "The Bamboutos Mountains are the West's primary land feature. Elevations reach as high as 2,000 metres and dip as low as 500 metres in the Noun and Nkam valleys. The highest point is [Mt. Bamboutos](/wiki/Mt._Bamboutos \"Mt. Bamboutos\"), a dormant volcano west of [Mbouda](/wiki/Mbouda \"Mbouda\"), at 2,740 metres. These mountains lie along the [Cameroon Fault](/wiki/Cameroon_Fault \"Cameroon Fault\"), dating from the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\"), which runs roughly parallel to the border with the Northwest Province and through the capital of Bafoussam. West of the Cameroon Mountains lies the Western High Plateau, with elevations of 1,000\\-2,500 metres. South of the fault, the land descends in steps until levelling off at the [South Cameroon Plateau](/wiki/South_Cameroon_Plateau \"South Cameroon Plateau\"). Here, terrain is gentler, with large hills separated by deep valleys.", "### Climate", "High elevations and moderate to high [humidity](/wiki/Humidity \"Humidity\") give the West one of Cameroon's more pleasant climates. Temperatures average a cool 22˙, and rainfall is moderate. Except for the southeasternmost portions, the West experiences two major seasons in lieu of the traditional four: the year begins in a long, dry period of little rain, which runs until May, then the rains begin in May or June and last until October or November. Though the transition is gradual, the southeastern reaches of the province are part of the South Cameroon Plateau and thus have four seasons: the long dry season from December to March, the short rainy season from March to June, the short dry season from June to August, and the long rainy season from September to December.", "The climate is [equatorial](/wiki/Equatorial_climate \"Equatorial climate\") of the [Cameroon](/wiki/Cameroon_climate \"Cameroon climate\") sub\\-variety in the northwestern third and equatorial of the [Guinea](/wiki/Guinea_climate \"Guinea climate\") type in the southeastern two\\-thirds. Rainfall, moderated by the mountains, averages 1,000\\-2,000 mm per year throughout, though it is highest at the area of the Bamendjing Reservoir.", "### Plant and animal life", "Very little of the West's original flora or fauna survives, since most land has been cleared by human farmers. This is particularly evident on the Western High Plateau, where poor soil and less rainfall have exacerbated the effects of [deforestation](/wiki/Deforestation \"Deforestation\"), turning the area into grassland. The [Melap Reserve](/wiki/Melap_Reserve \"Melap Reserve\") (*Réserve de Melap*) near Foumban is one heavily wooded area, but it is more of a [city park](/wiki/City_park \"City park\") than an actual reserve.", "East of the Noun River, the terrain is primarily covered in woodland [savanna](/wiki/Savanna \"Savanna\") of the [Sahel](/wiki/Sahel_savanna \"Sahel savanna\") type, which forms a transitional zone to the lowly vegetated northern provinces. West of that river, this savanna is of the [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan_savanna \"Sudan savanna\") type, and is interspersed among open, dry forest. A few small patches of [rain forest](/wiki/Rain_forest \"Rain forest\") persist to the west of the Mbam River in the Noun division. As elevation increases, forests thin out, until they are replaced by [ferns](/wiki/Fern \"Fern\") and [bamboos](/wiki/Bamboo \"Bamboo\") at 1,800 metres. Trees throughout shed their leaves during the dry season as protection against brush fires.\n[thumb\\|Bangou market](/wiki/File:Bangou_market.jpg \"Bangou market.jpg\")", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{Historical populations\|1976\|1,035,597\|1987\|1,339,791\|2005\|1,720,047\|2015\|1921590\|align\=right\|percentages\=pagr\|footnote\=source:\[http://www.citypopulation.de/Cameroon\-Cities.html Cameroon: Administrative Division population statistics]}} ### Settlement patterns [frame\|Bamileke dwellings, such as this one in Bandjoun, are typically separated by fences.](/wiki/File:West_Province_-_Bamileke_Dwelling.jpg "West Province - Bamileke Dwelling.jpg") The West's population density is high in general, especially in the towns of Bafoussam, [Dschang](/wiki/Dschang "Dschang"), Mbouda, and Bafang. This is due to the pleasant climate and fertile soils. Bafoussam is both the provincial capital and the centre of the Bamileke lands. Populations thin out toward the southern border and in the eastern Bamum\-dominated territories. Settlements are scattered. The region experiences significant out\-migration, particularly when the vast plantations of the Southwest Province hire workers for annual harvests. Permanent emigration is mainly by those who wish to escape the overcrowded conditions and to farm larger pieces of land, and is directed mainly to the Southwest and Littoral Provinces. Bamileke homes are traditionally made of dried earth placed on a bamboo frame and covered by a thatched roof. Farm plots separated by fences surround the typical home. Houses of this type are seldom seen today, however, though barns are still constructed using these methods. The last bastion of traditional architecture are the many [chiefs](/wiki/Tribal_chief "Tribal chief")' compounds that dot the province. These are characterized by their tall, conical roofs, bamboo and clay\-brick walls, and carved poles around the entryway. The typical layout places a central audience chamber in front of other rooms for individuals of progressively lower rank. [thumb\|right\|350px\|Territories of West Province ethnic groups](/wiki/File:West_Province_ethnic_groups.png "West Province ethnic groups.png") ### People Two major tribal groups dominate the West: the [Bamileke](/wiki/Bamileke_people "Bamileke people") and the Bamum. Both of these are considered [semi\-Bantu](/wiki/Semi-Bantu "Semi-Bantu") or [grassfields Bantu](/wiki/Grassfields_Bantu "Grassfields Bantu"). The Bamileke are the more numerous, estimated to number 3 million or more. They are concentrated southeast of the Bamboutos Mountains and west of the Noun River. Their major settlements are at [Bafoussam](/wiki/Bafoussam "Bafoussam"), [Bandjoun](/wiki/Bandjoun "Bandjoun"), [Bafang](/wiki/Bafang "Bafang"), [Bawaju](/wiki/Bawaju "Bawaju"), [Bangangté](/wiki/Bangangt%C3%A9 "Bangangté"), [Dschang](/wiki/Dschang "Dschang"), and [Mbouda](/wiki/Mbouda "Mbouda"). They organise themselves in sub\-groups, each under the rule of a different chief. Examples are the [Fe'fe'](/wiki/Fe%27fe%27_language "Fe'fe' language"), [Ghomala](/wiki/Ghomala%27_language "Ghomala' language"), [Kwa'](/wiki/Kwa_languages "Kwa languages"), [Medumba](/wiki/Medumba_language "Medumba language"), [Mengaka](/wiki/Mengaka_language "Mengaka language"), [Nda'nda'](/wiki/Nda%E2%80%99nda%E2%80%99_language "Nda’nda’ language"), [Ngomba](/wiki/Ngomba_language "Ngomba language"), [Ngombale](/wiki/Ngombale_language "Ngombale language"), [Ngiemboon](/wiki/Ngiemboon_language "Ngiemboon language"), and [Yemba](/wiki/Yemba_language "Yemba language"). Most of these groups speak [a unique language](/wiki/Bamileke_languages "Bamileke languages"), though all are closely related. Most Bamileke are [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), with [Catholics](/wiki/Catholicism "Catholicism") in the majority. The [Bamum people](/wiki/Bamum_people "Bamum people") are the area's other major ethnic group. They are a subgroup of the [Tikar](/wiki/Tikar "Tikar"), though they speak a language called [Bamum](/wiki/Bamum_language "Bamum language"). They are primarily [Islamic](/wiki/Islam "Islam"), and all are ruled by a [sultan](/wiki/Sultan "Sultan") in their tribal capital, Foumban. Other languages spoken in the province include [Bamenyam](/wiki/Bamenyam "Bamenyam"), [Mbo](/wiki/Mbo_language_%28Cameroon%29 "Mbo language (Cameroon)"), and [Tikar](/wiki/Tikar_language "Tikar language"). Most educated inhabitants also speak French.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{Historical populations\\|1976\\|1,035,597\\|1987\\|1,339,791\\|2005\\|1,720,047\\|2015\\|1921590\\|align\\=right\\|percentages\\=pagr\\|footnote\\=source:\\[http://www.citypopulation.de/Cameroon\\-Cities.html Cameroon: Administrative Division population statistics]}}", "### Settlement patterns", "[frame\\|Bamileke dwellings, such as this one in Bandjoun, are typically separated by fences.](/wiki/File:West_Province_-_Bamileke_Dwelling.jpg \"West Province - Bamileke Dwelling.jpg\")", "The West's population density is high in general, especially in the towns of Bafoussam, [Dschang](/wiki/Dschang \"Dschang\"), Mbouda, and Bafang. This is due to the pleasant climate and fertile soils. Bafoussam is both the provincial capital and the centre of the Bamileke lands. Populations thin out toward the southern border and in the eastern Bamum\\-dominated territories. Settlements are scattered.", "The region experiences significant out\\-migration, particularly when the vast plantations of the Southwest Province hire workers for annual harvests. Permanent emigration is mainly by those who wish to escape the overcrowded conditions and to farm larger pieces of land, and is directed mainly to the Southwest and Littoral Provinces.", "Bamileke homes are traditionally made of dried earth placed on a bamboo frame and covered by a thatched roof. Farm plots separated by fences surround the typical home. Houses of this type are seldom seen today, however, though barns are still constructed using these methods. The last bastion of traditional architecture are the many [chiefs](/wiki/Tribal_chief \"Tribal chief\")' compounds that dot the province. These are characterized by their tall, conical roofs, bamboo and clay\\-brick walls, and carved poles around the entryway. The typical layout places a central audience chamber in front of other rooms for individuals of progressively lower rank.", "[thumb\\|right\\|350px\\|Territories of West Province ethnic groups](/wiki/File:West_Province_ethnic_groups.png \"West Province ethnic groups.png\")", "### People", "Two major tribal groups dominate the West: the [Bamileke](/wiki/Bamileke_people \"Bamileke people\") and the Bamum.\nBoth of these are considered [semi\\-Bantu](/wiki/Semi-Bantu \"Semi-Bantu\") or [grassfields Bantu](/wiki/Grassfields_Bantu \"Grassfields Bantu\"). The Bamileke are the more numerous, estimated to number 3 million or more. They are concentrated southeast of the Bamboutos Mountains and west of the Noun River. Their major settlements are at [Bafoussam](/wiki/Bafoussam \"Bafoussam\"), [Bandjoun](/wiki/Bandjoun \"Bandjoun\"), [Bafang](/wiki/Bafang \"Bafang\"), [Bawaju](/wiki/Bawaju \"Bawaju\"), [Bangangté](/wiki/Bangangt%C3%A9 \"Bangangté\"), [Dschang](/wiki/Dschang \"Dschang\"), and [Mbouda](/wiki/Mbouda \"Mbouda\"). They organise themselves in sub\\-groups, each under the rule of a different chief. Examples are the [Fe'fe'](/wiki/Fe%27fe%27_language \"Fe'fe' language\"), [Ghomala](/wiki/Ghomala%27_language \"Ghomala' language\"), [Kwa'](/wiki/Kwa_languages \"Kwa languages\"), [Medumba](/wiki/Medumba_language \"Medumba language\"), [Mengaka](/wiki/Mengaka_language \"Mengaka language\"), [Nda'nda'](/wiki/Nda%E2%80%99nda%E2%80%99_language \"Nda’nda’ language\"), [Ngomba](/wiki/Ngomba_language \"Ngomba language\"), [Ngombale](/wiki/Ngombale_language \"Ngombale language\"), [Ngiemboon](/wiki/Ngiemboon_language \"Ngiemboon language\"), and [Yemba](/wiki/Yemba_language \"Yemba language\"). Most of these groups speak [a unique language](/wiki/Bamileke_languages \"Bamileke languages\"), though all are closely related. Most Bamileke are [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"), with [Catholics](/wiki/Catholicism \"Catholicism\") in the majority.", "The [Bamum people](/wiki/Bamum_people \"Bamum people\") are the area's other major ethnic group. They are a subgroup of the [Tikar](/wiki/Tikar \"Tikar\"), though they speak a language called [Bamum](/wiki/Bamum_language \"Bamum language\"). They are primarily [Islamic](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"), and all are ruled by a [sultan](/wiki/Sultan \"Sultan\") in their tribal capital, Foumban.", "Other languages spoken in the province include [Bamenyam](/wiki/Bamenyam \"Bamenyam\"), [Mbo](/wiki/Mbo_language_%28Cameroon%29 \"Mbo language (Cameroon)\"), and [Tikar](/wiki/Tikar_language \"Tikar language\"). Most educated inhabitants also speak French.", "" ]
Economy ------- The West is one of Cameroon's soundest economic areas due primarily to its agricultural prosperity and the enterprising traditions of the Bamileke people. In areas that do not have a daily market, market days are typically every eighth day (the Bamileke follow an eight\-day [week](/wiki/Week "Week")). ### Agriculture #### Subsistence farming [thumb\|Les Chutes de Tchélépi, Bamougong](/wiki/File:Les_Chutes_de_Tch%C3%A9l%C3%A9pi%2C_Bamougong.jpg "Les Chutes de Tchélépi, Bamougong.jpg") The Bamileke are skilled farmers who exploit virtually every strip of land available.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2012}} Along with the neighbouring Northwest Province, the West supplies most of the food consumed in Cameroon's seven lower provinces. Tools are largely traditional. Farmers plant after the first rains in fields consisting of alternating ridges and furrows. In the past, farmers practiced field rotation, allowing land to lie fallow for two or three years. Due to increasing population density, however, they use the land almost continuously today; the loss in fertility is partially countered through extensive use of fertilisers and manure. Hedges or fences that separate private plots and keep out animals surround farms in the West. These hedges also provide [firewood](/wiki/Wood_fuel%23Firewood "Wood fuel#Firewood") and help prevent from [soil erosion](/wiki/Soil_erosion "Soil erosion"). In the Southeast, farmers sometimes place fields in forest clearings where they use [slash\-and\-burn](/wiki/Slash-and-burn "Slash-and-burn") agriculture. [Maize](/wiki/Maize "Maize") is the major staple, and farmers surround rows of it with [cocoyams](/wiki/Taro "Taro"), [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 "Plantain (cooking)"), [beans](/wiki/Bean "Bean"), [groundnuts](/wiki/Peanut "Peanut"), [melons](/wiki/Melon "Melon"), and [yams](/wiki/Yam_%28vegetable%29 "Yam (vegetable)"). [Potatoes](/wiki/Potato "Potato") are another mainstay, and the West is one of the few places in Cameroon where they grow well due to high elevations in the region. Farmers grow these crops on the hillsides and use the valleys to plant cocoyams, [colocasia](/wiki/Colocasia "Colocasia"), and [raffia palms](/wiki/Raffia_palm "Raffia palm"). In the western Wouri valley, [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice") is also important. #### Plantation agriculture Population pressures prevent entrepreneurs from establishing large [plantations](/wiki/Plantation "Plantation") more prevalently in the West. [Coffee](/wiki/Coffee "Coffee") is the major [cash crop](/wiki/Cash_crop "Cash crop"), with large fields in the regions of Bafoussam, Foumbot, and Dschang and powerful supervision by [Union des Cooperatives de Café Arabica de l'Ouest](/wiki/Union_des_Cooperatives_de_Caf%C3%A9_Arabica_de_l%27Ouest "Union des Cooperatives de Café Arabica de l'Ouest") (UCCAO). [Cocoa](/wiki/Cocoa_bean "Cocoa bean") is also important, particularly in the lowlands. [Tea](/wiki/Tea "Tea") is grown commercially near Dschang. Some rice cultivation takes place under the [Upper Noun Development Company](/wiki/Upper_Noun_Development_Company "Upper Noun Development Company") (UNVDA) in the southeast, largely due to government projects. [Tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco "Tobacco") from Mbouda and Foumbot stays within the province for local consumption, though the [Bastos Company](/wiki/Bastos_Company "Bastos Company") of [Yaoundé](/wiki/Yaound%C3%A9 "Yaoundé") processes some for export. #### Livestock [Livestock](/wiki/Livestock "Livestock") raising was once practiced more widely, but as populations have risen, most land has been converted to crop cultivation (a fact that has raised tensions between herders and farmers). Still, some herders drive [cattle](/wiki/Cattle "Cattle") using [transhumance](/wiki/Transhumance "Transhumance") methods in the northwestern half of the province, and the [Kounden](/wiki/Kounden "Kounden") area is home to some modern [ranching](/wiki/Ranching "Ranching"). Ranchers sell these animals, which account for 10% of Cameroon's beef, mostly in the [Douala](/wiki/Douala "Douala") market. Many farmers raise [sheep](/wiki/Sheep "Sheep") and [goats](/wiki/Goat "Goat") in the southeastern half of the province. Increasingly common these days are [poultry](/wiki/Poultry "Poultry") and [pigs](/wiki/Pig "Pig"), which can live in pens on smaller farms. In fact, the majority of Cameroon's pork comes from the region, and a large government\-run poultry farm operates at Kounden. [Smallholder](/wiki/Smallholding "Smallholding") farmers, especially women, keep [domestic cavies](/wiki/Guinea_pig%23Sub-Saharan_Africa "Guinea pig#Sub-Saharan Africa") in their homesteads that may provide more protein to family nutrition than any other meat source.{{cite journal\|pmid\=9719838\|year\=1998\|last1\=Manjeli\|first1\=Y\|last2\=Tchoumboue\|first2\=J\|last3\=Njwe\|first3\=RM\|last4\=Teguia\|first4\=A\|title\=Guinea\-pig productivity under traditional management\|volume\=30\|issue\=2\|pages\=115–22\|journal\=Tropical Animal Health and Production\|doi\=10\.1023/A:1005099818044\|s2cid\=17847427}}Ngou\-Ngoupayou, J.D., Kouonmenioc, J., Fotso Tagny, J.M., Cicogna, M., Castroville, C., Rigoni, M. and Hardouin, J. 1995\. [Possibilités de développement de l'élevage du cobaye en Afrique subsaharienne: le cas du Cameroun](http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/feedback/war/v6200b/v6200b08.htm). World Animal Review (FAO/AGA) 83(2\): 21–28 The Bamendjing is also the site of traditional [fishing](/wiki/Fishing "Fishing"), and professional fisheries operate at Foumban. [thumb\|left\|275px\|Bamum artisan at work in Foumban](/wiki/File:Bamun_artisan.jpg "Bamun artisan.jpg") ### Industry The West is home to relatively little [industry](/wiki/Industrial_sector "Industrial sector"). The area's few factories are almost all devoted to [food processing](/wiki/Food_processing "Food processing"), with plants in Bafoussam ([beer](/wiki/Beer "Beer"), [instant coffee](/wiki/Instant_coffee "Instant coffee")), Foumbot, Dschang, and [Kékem](/wiki/K%C3%A9kem "Kékem"). The building materials, [pharmaceuticals](/wiki/Pharmaceuticals "Pharmaceuticals"), and [bauxite](/wiki/Bauxite "Bauxite") mining industries also have a presence. Arts and crafts form the heart of the West's production. Particularly renowned are the goods produced by Bamum [cooperatives](/wiki/Cooperative "Cooperative") at Foumban. These include intricately decorated [ceramics](/wiki/Ceramics_%28art%29 "Ceramics (art)") made from Foumban's high\-quality clay, [woodworking](/wiki/Woodworking "Woodworking"), [brass](/wiki/Brass "Brass") and [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") casting, and cotton [textiles](/wiki/Textile "Textile"), often featuring elaborate [embroidery](/wiki/Embroidery "Embroidery"). The Bamileke are also skilled artisans, with their own [cooperative](/wiki/Cooperative "Cooperative") at Bafoussam. ### Transportation With such a small land area and large network of mostly paved roads, the West is one of Cameroon's more accessible provinces. Major routes through the area include National Road 4 to Yaoundé, National Road 5 from [Békoko](/wiki/B%C3%A9koko "Békoko") to Bandjoun, and National Road 6 (dubbed *la Transafricaine*) from [Ekok](/wiki/Ekok "Ekok"), [Mamfe](/wiki/Mamfe "Mamfe") and [Bamenda](/wiki/Bamenda "Bamenda") in the Northwest Province through Mbouda and Foumban to [Banyo](/wiki/Banyo%2C_Cameroon "Banyo, Cameroon") and beyond in the Adamawa. Bafoussam forms an important nexus between the cities of Bamenda, Douala, Yaoundé, and Foumban. Roads often must wind and sharply turn to traverse the region's mountains, and traffic accidents are not uncommon. The region is reachable by air via [domestic airports](/wiki/Domestic_airport "Domestic airport") at Bafoussam and [Koutaba](/wiki/Koutaba "Koutaba") and an [airstrip](/wiki/Airstrip "Airstrip") at Dschang. ### Tourism With its legions of artisans and its lavish sultan's palace, Foumban forms the West's main tourist draw. Visitors also come to experience the region's magnificent scenery and rich traditional culture.
[ "Economy\n-------", "The West is one of Cameroon's soundest economic areas due primarily to its agricultural prosperity and the enterprising traditions of the Bamileke people. In areas that do not have a daily market, market days are typically every eighth day (the Bamileke follow an eight\\-day [week](/wiki/Week \"Week\")).", "### Agriculture", "#### Subsistence farming", "[thumb\\|Les Chutes de Tchélépi, Bamougong](/wiki/File:Les_Chutes_de_Tch%C3%A9l%C3%A9pi%2C_Bamougong.jpg \"Les Chutes de Tchélépi, Bamougong.jpg\")\nThe Bamileke are skilled farmers who exploit virtually every strip of land available.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2012}} Along with the neighbouring Northwest Province, the West supplies most of the food consumed in Cameroon's seven lower provinces. Tools are largely traditional. Farmers plant after the first rains in fields consisting of alternating ridges and furrows. In the past, farmers practiced field rotation, allowing land to lie fallow for two or three years. Due to increasing population density, however, they use the land almost continuously today; the loss in fertility is partially countered through extensive use of fertilisers and manure. Hedges or fences that separate private plots and keep out animals surround farms in the West. These hedges also provide [firewood](/wiki/Wood_fuel%23Firewood \"Wood fuel#Firewood\") and help prevent from [soil erosion](/wiki/Soil_erosion \"Soil erosion\"). In the Southeast, farmers sometimes place fields in forest clearings where they use [slash\\-and\\-burn](/wiki/Slash-and-burn \"Slash-and-burn\") agriculture.", "[Maize](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") is the major staple, and farmers surround rows of it with [cocoyams](/wiki/Taro \"Taro\"), [plantains](/wiki/Plantain_%28cooking%29 \"Plantain (cooking)\"), [beans](/wiki/Bean \"Bean\"), [groundnuts](/wiki/Peanut \"Peanut\"), [melons](/wiki/Melon \"Melon\"), and [yams](/wiki/Yam_%28vegetable%29 \"Yam (vegetable)\"). [Potatoes](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\") are another mainstay, and the West is one of the few places in Cameroon where they grow well due to high elevations in the region. Farmers grow these crops on the hillsides and use the valleys to plant cocoyams, [colocasia](/wiki/Colocasia \"Colocasia\"), and [raffia palms](/wiki/Raffia_palm \"Raffia palm\"). In the western Wouri valley, [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\") is also important.", "#### Plantation agriculture", "Population pressures prevent entrepreneurs from establishing large [plantations](/wiki/Plantation \"Plantation\") more prevalently in the West. [Coffee](/wiki/Coffee \"Coffee\") is the major [cash crop](/wiki/Cash_crop \"Cash crop\"), with large fields in the regions of Bafoussam, Foumbot, and Dschang and powerful supervision by [Union des Cooperatives de Café Arabica de l'Ouest](/wiki/Union_des_Cooperatives_de_Caf%C3%A9_Arabica_de_l%27Ouest \"Union des Cooperatives de Café Arabica de l'Ouest\") (UCCAO). [Cocoa](/wiki/Cocoa_bean \"Cocoa bean\") is also important, particularly in the lowlands. [Tea](/wiki/Tea \"Tea\") is grown commercially near Dschang. Some rice cultivation takes place under the [Upper Noun Development Company](/wiki/Upper_Noun_Development_Company \"Upper Noun Development Company\") (UNVDA) in the southeast, largely due to government projects. [Tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco \"Tobacco\") from Mbouda and Foumbot stays within the province for local consumption, though the [Bastos Company](/wiki/Bastos_Company \"Bastos Company\") of [Yaoundé](/wiki/Yaound%C3%A9 \"Yaoundé\") processes some for export.", "#### Livestock", "[Livestock](/wiki/Livestock \"Livestock\") raising was once practiced more widely, but as populations have risen, most land has been converted to crop cultivation (a fact that has raised tensions between herders and farmers). Still, some herders drive [cattle](/wiki/Cattle \"Cattle\") using [transhumance](/wiki/Transhumance \"Transhumance\") methods in the northwestern half of the province, and the [Kounden](/wiki/Kounden \"Kounden\") area is home to some modern [ranching](/wiki/Ranching \"Ranching\"). Ranchers sell these animals, which account for 10% of Cameroon's beef, mostly in the [Douala](/wiki/Douala \"Douala\") market.", "Many farmers raise [sheep](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\") and [goats](/wiki/Goat \"Goat\") in the southeastern half of the province. Increasingly common these days are [poultry](/wiki/Poultry \"Poultry\") and [pigs](/wiki/Pig \"Pig\"), which can live in pens on smaller farms. In fact, the majority of Cameroon's pork comes from the region, and a large government\\-run poultry farm operates at Kounden. [Smallholder](/wiki/Smallholding \"Smallholding\") farmers, especially women, keep [domestic cavies](/wiki/Guinea_pig%23Sub-Saharan_Africa \"Guinea pig#Sub-Saharan Africa\") in their homesteads that may provide more protein to family nutrition than any other meat source.{{cite journal\\|pmid\\=9719838\\|year\\=1998\\|last1\\=Manjeli\\|first1\\=Y\\|last2\\=Tchoumboue\\|first2\\=J\\|last3\\=Njwe\\|first3\\=RM\\|last4\\=Teguia\\|first4\\=A\\|title\\=Guinea\\-pig productivity under traditional management\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=115–22\\|journal\\=Tropical Animal Health and Production\\|doi\\=10\\.1023/A:1005099818044\\|s2cid\\=17847427}}Ngou\\-Ngoupayou, J.D., Kouonmenioc, J., Fotso Tagny, J.M., Cicogna, M., Castroville, C., Rigoni, M. and Hardouin, J. 1995\\. [Possibilités de développement de l'élevage du cobaye en Afrique subsaharienne: le cas du Cameroun](http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/feedback/war/v6200b/v6200b08.htm). World Animal Review (FAO/AGA) 83(2\\): 21–28", "The Bamendjing is also the site of traditional [fishing](/wiki/Fishing \"Fishing\"), and professional fisheries operate at Foumban.", "[thumb\\|left\\|275px\\|Bamum artisan at work in Foumban](/wiki/File:Bamun_artisan.jpg \"Bamun artisan.jpg\")", "### Industry", "The West is home to relatively little [industry](/wiki/Industrial_sector \"Industrial sector\"). The area's few factories are almost all devoted to [food processing](/wiki/Food_processing \"Food processing\"), with plants in Bafoussam ([beer](/wiki/Beer \"Beer\"), [instant coffee](/wiki/Instant_coffee \"Instant coffee\")), Foumbot, Dschang, and [Kékem](/wiki/K%C3%A9kem \"Kékem\"). The building materials, [pharmaceuticals](/wiki/Pharmaceuticals \"Pharmaceuticals\"), and [bauxite](/wiki/Bauxite \"Bauxite\") mining industries also have a presence.", "Arts and crafts form the heart of the West's production. Particularly renowned are the goods produced by Bamum [cooperatives](/wiki/Cooperative \"Cooperative\") at Foumban. These include intricately decorated [ceramics](/wiki/Ceramics_%28art%29 \"Ceramics (art)\") made from Foumban's high\\-quality clay, [woodworking](/wiki/Woodworking \"Woodworking\"), [brass](/wiki/Brass \"Brass\") and [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") casting, and cotton [textiles](/wiki/Textile \"Textile\"), often featuring elaborate [embroidery](/wiki/Embroidery \"Embroidery\"). The Bamileke are also skilled artisans, with their own [cooperative](/wiki/Cooperative \"Cooperative\") at Bafoussam.", "### Transportation", "With such a small land area and large network of mostly paved roads, the West is one of Cameroon's more accessible provinces. Major routes through the area include National Road 4 to Yaoundé, National Road 5 from [Békoko](/wiki/B%C3%A9koko \"Békoko\") to Bandjoun, and National Road 6 (dubbed *la Transafricaine*) from [Ekok](/wiki/Ekok \"Ekok\"), [Mamfe](/wiki/Mamfe \"Mamfe\") and [Bamenda](/wiki/Bamenda \"Bamenda\") in the Northwest Province through Mbouda and Foumban to [Banyo](/wiki/Banyo%2C_Cameroon \"Banyo, Cameroon\") and beyond in the Adamawa. Bafoussam forms an important nexus between the cities of Bamenda, Douala, Yaoundé, and Foumban. Roads often must wind and sharply turn to traverse the region's mountains, and traffic accidents are not uncommon. The region is reachable by air via [domestic airports](/wiki/Domestic_airport \"Domestic airport\") at Bafoussam and [Koutaba](/wiki/Koutaba \"Koutaba\") and an [airstrip](/wiki/Airstrip \"Airstrip\") at Dschang.", "### Tourism", "With its legions of artisans and its lavish sultan's palace, Foumban forms the West's main tourist draw. Visitors also come to experience the region's magnificent scenery and rich traditional culture.", "" ]
Administration and social conditions ------------------------------------ The West's high population and economic dominance lend it great political importance. However, Cameroon's government and state\-run media, largely run by President [Paul Biya](/wiki/Paul_Biya "Paul Biya")'s numerically inferior Beti\-Pahuin tribal group, are often accused of anti\-Bamileke bias. The Bamileke thus stand to gain a great deal from a more free and transparent government, and the West harbors many sympathisers for the presidential party's main opponents, the [Social Democratic Front](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Front_%28Cameroon%29 "Social Democratic Front (Cameroon)"). ### Government [thumb\|left\|Divisions of West Cameroon](/wiki/File:West_Cameroon_divisions.png "West Cameroon divisions.png") The West consists of eight divisions or [departments](/wiki/Department_%28subnational_entity%29 "Department (subnational entity)") (*departements*), each headed by a [prefect](/wiki/Prefect "Prefect") (*prefet*), or senior divisional officer. The president appoints all of these officers and the provincial [governor](/wiki/Governor "Governor") in Bafoussam. A special urban council presides over Bafoussam, staffed by presidentially appointed counselors who serve under a presidentially appointed delegate. The departments are: 1. [Noun](/wiki/Noun_%28department%29 "Noun (department)") 2. [Ndé](/wiki/Nd%C3%A9 "Ndé") 3. [Haut\-Nkam](/wiki/Haut-Nkam "Haut-Nkam") 4. [Ménoua](/wiki/M%C3%A9noua "Ménoua") 5. [Mifi](/wiki/Mifi_%28department%29 "Mifi (department)") 6. [Bamboutos](/wiki/Bamboutos "Bamboutos") 7. [Hauts\-Plateaux](/wiki/Hauts-Plateaux "Hauts-Plateaux") 8. [Koung\-Khi](/wiki/Koung-Khi "Koung-Khi") The [Noun](/wiki/Noun_%28department%29 "Noun (department)") department, headquartered at [Foumban](/wiki/Foumban "Foumban"), is the largest division geographically and occupies most of the Bamum territories bordering the Adamawa and Centre Provinces. The [Ndé](/wiki/Nd%C3%A9 "Ndé") department is southwest of this with its capital at [Bangangté](/wiki/Bangangt%C3%A9 "Bangangté"). The [Haut\-Nkam](/wiki/Haut-Nkam "Haut-Nkam") (Upper Nkam) department, whose capital is [Bafang](/wiki/Bafang "Bafang"), is further west, and the [Ménoua](/wiki/M%C3%A9noua "Ménoua") department borders it to the northwest with its capital at [Dschang](/wiki/Dschang "Dschang"). The [Mifi](/wiki/Mifi "Mifi") department, with its capital [Bafoussam](/wiki/Bafoussam "Bafoussam"), forms the centre of the region, and it is hemmed in by a handful of smaller divisions: the [Bamboutos](/wiki/Bamboutos "Bamboutos") department, headquartered at [Mbouda](/wiki/Mbouda "Mbouda"), the [Hauts\-Plateaux](/wiki/Hauts-Plateaux "Hauts-Plateaux") (High Plateaus) department, governed from [Baham](/wiki/Baham%2C_Cameroon "Baham, Cameroon"), and the [Koung\-Khi](/wiki/Koung-Khi "Koung-Khi") department, governed from [Bandjoun](/wiki/Bandjoun "Bandjoun"). These latter two divisions were recently formed due to population booms in the area. #### Traditional political organisation Traditional rulers still hold substantial power in the province. A sultan, whose palace and head of government are in Foumban, rules the Bamum. Bamum tradition claims an unbroken line of succession since 1394\. The Bamileke, in contrast, are divided into over 100 groups, each headed by a chief (*fon*, *foyn*, or *fo*). The chiefs are themselves divided into various ranks, with major rulers living in Bandjoun, Bafang, Bangangté, Dschang, and Mbouda. Traditionally, chiefs command divine powers and own all lands by divine mandate. Individual tenants work plots at their chief's behest. These groupings thus form the basis for Bamileke tribal identity. Advisers, often called the “Council of Notables”, in turn serve the chiefs. Below them are various district chiefs who govern individual wards in the village. ### Education With nearly 1,000 schools serving its some 1,000 villages, the West relatively well provisioned educationally. The high population density contributes to [classroom overcrowding](/wiki/Classroom_overcrowding "Classroom overcrowding"), however. Students must often travel to nearby towns in order to pursue higher levels of education, since most villages do not have [secondary schools](/wiki/Secondary_school "Secondary school"). The province is also the location of a bilingual [university at Dschang](/wiki/University_of_Dschang "University of Dschang") as well as the private [Université des Montagnes](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_des_Montagnes "Université des Montagnes") in Bangangté. ### Health Hospitals and health clinics are fairly prevalent in the region. The area's pleasant climate keeps it largely mosquito\-free, so [malaria](/wiki/Malaria "Malaria") is not a problem as in much of the rest of Cameroon. Lack of [sanitation](/wiki/Sanitation "Sanitation") is a serious issue, as this leads to outbreaks of [dysentery](/wiki/Dysentery "Dysentery"), [hepatitis A](/wiki/Hepatitis_A "Hepatitis A"), [typhoid](/wiki/Typhoid "Typhoid"), and other ailments, especially in the more urbanised centres. ### Cultural life The West has a lively traditional culture. The Bamum observe traditional Muslim holy days, such as [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan "Ramadan") and the [Feast of the Ram](/wiki/Feast_of_the_Ram "Feast of the Ram"). They also hold an annual cultural festival called the [Ngouon](/wiki/Ngouon "Ngouon"). Bamileke festivals vary from tribe to tribe, and most are held during the dry season or for special events such as funerals or the birth of twins. Some examples are the [Macabo Festival](/wiki/Macabo_Festival "Macabo Festival") of [Bangoua](/wiki/Bangoua "Bangoua"), the [Medumba Festival](/wiki/Medumba_Festival "Medumba Festival") of Bangangté, and the [Ben Skin Dance](/wiki/Ben_Skin_Dance "Ben Skin Dance"), a dance of female sensuality that has grown increasingly commercialised. A number of museums celebrate the West's history and traditions. Among these are the [Musée du Palais du Sultan Bamun](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Palais_du_Sultan_Bamun "Musée du Palais du Sultan Bamun"), the [Musée des Arts et des Traditions Bamoun](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_et_des_Traditions_Bamoun "Musée des Arts et des Traditions Bamoun"), and the [Musée Sacré Djissé](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Sacr%C3%A9_Djiss%C3%A9 "Musée Sacré Djissé"), all in Foumban. The [Musée de la Chefferie Bandjoun](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_Chefferie_Bandjoun "Musée de la Chefferie Bandjoun") is the region's largest repository of Bamileke artifacts.
[ "Administration and social conditions\n------------------------------------", "The West's high population and economic dominance lend it great political importance. However, Cameroon's government and state\\-run media, largely run by President [Paul Biya](/wiki/Paul_Biya \"Paul Biya\")'s numerically inferior Beti\\-Pahuin tribal group, are often accused of anti\\-Bamileke bias. The Bamileke thus stand to gain a great deal from a more free and transparent government, and the West harbors many sympathisers for the presidential party's main opponents, the [Social Democratic Front](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Front_%28Cameroon%29 \"Social Democratic Front (Cameroon)\").", "### Government", "[thumb\\|left\\|Divisions of West Cameroon](/wiki/File:West_Cameroon_divisions.png \"West Cameroon divisions.png\")\nThe West consists of eight divisions or [departments](/wiki/Department_%28subnational_entity%29 \"Department (subnational entity)\") (*departements*), each headed by a [prefect](/wiki/Prefect \"Prefect\") (*prefet*), or senior divisional officer. The president appoints all of these officers and the provincial [governor](/wiki/Governor \"Governor\") in Bafoussam. A special urban council presides over Bafoussam, staffed by presidentially appointed counselors who serve under a presidentially appointed delegate.", "The departments are:\n1. [Noun](/wiki/Noun_%28department%29 \"Noun (department)\")\n2. [Ndé](/wiki/Nd%C3%A9 \"Ndé\")\n3. [Haut\\-Nkam](/wiki/Haut-Nkam \"Haut-Nkam\")\n4. [Ménoua](/wiki/M%C3%A9noua \"Ménoua\")\n5. [Mifi](/wiki/Mifi_%28department%29 \"Mifi (department)\")\n6. [Bamboutos](/wiki/Bamboutos \"Bamboutos\")\n7. [Hauts\\-Plateaux](/wiki/Hauts-Plateaux \"Hauts-Plateaux\")\n8. [Koung\\-Khi](/wiki/Koung-Khi \"Koung-Khi\")", "The [Noun](/wiki/Noun_%28department%29 \"Noun (department)\") department, headquartered at [Foumban](/wiki/Foumban \"Foumban\"), is the largest division geographically and occupies most of the Bamum territories bordering the Adamawa and Centre Provinces. The [Ndé](/wiki/Nd%C3%A9 \"Ndé\") department is southwest of this with its capital at [Bangangté](/wiki/Bangangt%C3%A9 \"Bangangté\"). The [Haut\\-Nkam](/wiki/Haut-Nkam \"Haut-Nkam\") (Upper Nkam) department, whose capital is [Bafang](/wiki/Bafang \"Bafang\"), is further west, and the [Ménoua](/wiki/M%C3%A9noua \"Ménoua\") department borders it to the northwest with its capital at [Dschang](/wiki/Dschang \"Dschang\"). The [Mifi](/wiki/Mifi \"Mifi\") department, with its capital [Bafoussam](/wiki/Bafoussam \"Bafoussam\"), forms the centre of the region, and it is hemmed in by a handful of smaller divisions: the [Bamboutos](/wiki/Bamboutos \"Bamboutos\") department, headquartered at [Mbouda](/wiki/Mbouda \"Mbouda\"), the [Hauts\\-Plateaux](/wiki/Hauts-Plateaux \"Hauts-Plateaux\") (High Plateaus) department, governed from [Baham](/wiki/Baham%2C_Cameroon \"Baham, Cameroon\"), and the [Koung\\-Khi](/wiki/Koung-Khi \"Koung-Khi\") department, governed from [Bandjoun](/wiki/Bandjoun \"Bandjoun\"). These latter two divisions were recently formed due to population booms in the area.", "#### Traditional political organisation", "Traditional rulers still hold substantial power in the province. A sultan, whose palace and head of government are in Foumban, rules the Bamum. Bamum tradition claims an unbroken line of succession since 1394\\.", "The Bamileke, in contrast, are divided into over 100 groups, each headed by a chief (*fon*, *foyn*, or *fo*). The chiefs are themselves divided into various ranks, with major rulers living in Bandjoun, Bafang, Bangangté, Dschang, and Mbouda. Traditionally, chiefs command divine powers and own all lands by divine mandate. Individual tenants work plots at their chief's behest. These groupings thus form the basis for Bamileke tribal identity. Advisers, often called the “Council of Notables”, in turn serve the chiefs. Below them are various district chiefs who govern individual wards in the village.", "### Education", "With nearly 1,000 schools serving its some 1,000 villages, the West relatively well provisioned educationally. The high population density contributes to [classroom overcrowding](/wiki/Classroom_overcrowding \"Classroom overcrowding\"), however. Students must often travel to nearby towns in order to pursue higher levels of education, since most villages do not have [secondary schools](/wiki/Secondary_school \"Secondary school\"). The province is also the location of a bilingual [university at Dschang](/wiki/University_of_Dschang \"University of Dschang\") as well as the private [Université des Montagnes](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_des_Montagnes \"Université des Montagnes\") in Bangangté.", "### Health", "Hospitals and health clinics are fairly prevalent in the region. The area's pleasant climate keeps it largely mosquito\\-free, so [malaria](/wiki/Malaria \"Malaria\") is not a problem as in much of the rest of Cameroon. Lack of [sanitation](/wiki/Sanitation \"Sanitation\") is a serious issue, as this leads to outbreaks of [dysentery](/wiki/Dysentery \"Dysentery\"), [hepatitis A](/wiki/Hepatitis_A \"Hepatitis A\"), [typhoid](/wiki/Typhoid \"Typhoid\"), and other ailments, especially in the more urbanised centres.", "### Cultural life", "The West has a lively traditional culture. The Bamum observe traditional Muslim holy days, such as [Ramadan](/wiki/Ramadan \"Ramadan\") and the [Feast of the Ram](/wiki/Feast_of_the_Ram \"Feast of the Ram\"). They also hold an annual cultural festival called the [Ngouon](/wiki/Ngouon \"Ngouon\"). Bamileke festivals vary from tribe to tribe, and most are held during the dry season or for special events such as funerals or the birth of twins. Some examples are the [Macabo Festival](/wiki/Macabo_Festival \"Macabo Festival\") of [Bangoua](/wiki/Bangoua \"Bangoua\"), the [Medumba Festival](/wiki/Medumba_Festival \"Medumba Festival\") of Bangangté, and the [Ben Skin Dance](/wiki/Ben_Skin_Dance \"Ben Skin Dance\"), a dance of female sensuality that has grown increasingly commercialised.", "A number of museums celebrate the West's history and traditions. Among these are the [Musée du Palais du Sultan Bamun](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Palais_du_Sultan_Bamun \"Musée du Palais du Sultan Bamun\"), the [Musée des Arts et des Traditions Bamoun](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_et_des_Traditions_Bamoun \"Musée des Arts et des Traditions Bamoun\"), and the [Musée Sacré Djissé](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Sacr%C3%A9_Djiss%C3%A9 \"Musée Sacré Djissé\"), all in Foumban. The [Musée de la Chefferie Bandjoun](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_Chefferie_Bandjoun \"Musée de la Chefferie Bandjoun\") is the region's largest repository of Bamileke artifacts.", "" ]
History ------- ### Early population movements Human beings have inhabited the West since prehistoric times, as evidenced by archaeological finds at [Galima](/wiki/Galima "Galima") and Foumban. Bamileke groups likely entered the area from the [Adamawa Plateau](/wiki/Adamawa_Plateau "Adamawa Plateau") in the 17th century, probably fleeing [Fulbe](/wiki/Fula_people "Fula people") (Fula) slave raids. They originally settled in what is now Bamum territory, but the Bamum forced them across the Noun in a series of wars in the 18th century. Bamileke tradition states that they migrated in three major groups. The first consisted of the Baleng, Bapi, and Bafussam (who founded the settlement at Bafoussam along with the Bamougoum). Next came the Bagam, Bamendu, Bamsoa, Bazu, and Bangu. The final wave consisted of the Bati and Bafangwa. This period also saw the Bamileke assimilation of several older populations. Bamum tradition claims their kingdom was founded when [Ncharé Yen](/wiki/Nchar%C3%A9_Yen "Ncharé Yen") led them to settle at Foumban (Mfom\-Ben) in the 15th century. However, most scholars today place this migration as late as the 19th century, likely the result of population pressures caused by the same Fulbe jihads that had earlier pushed the Bamileke south. The king [Mbwe\-Mbwe](/wiki/Mbwe-Mbwe "Mbwe-Mbwe") extended Bamum holdings from the Mbam to the Noun Rivers, subjugating numerous local rulers in the process. Mbwe\-Mbwe also kept the Fulbe from encroaching further south and west. The Bamum experienced a golden age of sorts under the leadership of Sultan [Ibrahim Njoya](/wiki/Ibrahim_Njoya "Ibrahim Njoya") (r. 1886–1933\). Njoya was a patron of learning, and he converted to [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") under the tutelage of numerous Muslim scholars he had allowed into the kingdom. He developed an [alphabet](/wiki/Alphabet "Alphabet") for the Bamum language (the [Shumon script](/wiki/Shumon_script "Shumon script")), and established schools to teach it. The Islamisation of the Bamum occurred during his reign. The [Bali\-Chamba](/wiki/Bali-Chamba "Bali-Chamba") are the third major group to have pushed through the West Province territory in historical times. They came under the leadership of a warrior chief named [Gawolbe](/wiki/Gawolbe "Gawolbe") and crossed the Noun around 1825\. In 1830, they fought a war with the Bamileke [Bafu\-Fundong](/wiki/Bafu-Fundong "Bafu-Fundong") group near Dschang. Their leader, [Gawolbe II](/wiki/Gawolbe_II "Gawolbe II") died, and the tribe splintered as Gawolbe's seven sons fought for control. Most of these groups migrated further west into what is today the Northwest Province. ### European contacts [thumb\|350px\|left\|Ibrahim Njoya ordered the construction of the Bamum sultan's palace at Foumban.](/wiki/File:Bamun_sultan_palace.jpg "Bamun sultan palace.jpg") ### German administration The area had only indirect contact with European powers (mostly due to slave raids by tribes further south) before the [German](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire") annexation of [the Cameroons](/wiki/Kamerun "Kamerun") in 1884\. The first Europeans to enter the territory were representatives of the [Basel Mission](/wiki/Basel_Mission "Basel Mission") in 1897\. The Germans themselves did not move into the territory until 1899 (though they had signed treaties with Bamileke leaders as early as 1884\). Governor [Jesko Von Puttkamer](/wiki/Jesko_Von_Puttkamer "Jesko Von Puttkamer") established the [Gesellschaft Nordwest\-Kamerun](/wiki/Gesellschaft_Nordwest-Kamerun "Gesellschaft Nordwest-Kamerun") to monopolise trade in the area, and he established the divisional capital at [Dschang](/wiki/Dschang "Dschang") in 1903\. The area's cool temperatures drew many German settlers, and the colonisers established great [coffee plantations](/wiki/Coffee_plantation "Coffee plantation"), which they [forced the natives to work](/wiki/Forced_labour "Forced labour"). Larger plantations were established further south, and many Bamileke were forced or encouraged to move out of their traditional territories to work them. The Germans also set up a [puppet over\-chief](/wiki/Puppet_ruler "Puppet ruler") for all the Bamileke, who had [never before considered themselves a single group](/wiki/Ethnogenesis "Ethnogenesis"). Catholic missionaries reached the grasslands area in 1910\. By 1912, most of the Bamileke had converted to Christianity. [Sultan Njoya](/wiki/Sultan_Njoya "Sultan Njoya") welcomed the first German emissary to the Bamum kingdom in 1902 after hearing of the ruthless treatment given rebellious tribes further to the northwest. He even lent military support for the German campaign against the [Nso](/wiki/Nso_people "Nso people") near Bamenda in 1906\. The Bamum soldiers, eager for revenge for an earlier defeat to the Nso in 1888, committed such [atrocities](/wiki/War_crime "War crime") that the Germans sent them back. Njoya also ordered the building of a [palace at Foumban](/wiki/Palace_at_Foumban "Palace at Foumban") in 1917, which he modeled after that of the German governor. ### French administration Bamileke and Bamum territory fell to the [French](/wiki/France "France") in 1916 after the Germans' defeat in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). The territory became part of the Baré\-Foumban\-Nkongsamba administrative area, and the capital was moved to Foumban. Dschang served as the seat of a French\-run school for the sons of chiefs, which the French used to indoctrinate as well as instruct. The French maintained German plantations and labour sources, and new operations sprung up, such as a [palm](/wiki/Palm_tree "Palm tree") plantation at Dschang. The new colonial overlords made improvements to the region's infrastructure, as well, especially to the road network. The French continued Germany's policy of propping up sympathetic chiefs and deposing recalcitrant ones. They sought some sort of administrative centre amid the Bamileke domains, and in 1926, [Fotso II](/wiki/Fotso_II "Fotso II") of the Bandjoun people offered the site of Bafoussam, neighbouring his domains but not actually part of them. [Mambou](/wiki/Mambou "Mambou"), chief of the area, opposed the colonials, but he was defeated, and the foundations of modern Bafoussam were laid. The Bamum did not escape the French sphere, either, as sultan Ibrahim Njoya was deposed in 1931 due to his pro\-German views. Njoya died in a Yaoundé prison two years later. After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the West was a centre of political pressure and protest against colonial rule. Other groups came into being to combat these (usually with France's blessing), including the [Union Bamiléké](/wiki/Union_Bamil%C3%A9k%C3%A9 "Union Bamiléké") in 1948\. In 1956, France granted self\-rule to its colony, and the West proved one of Cameroon's more politically influential areas due to groups such as [Paysans Independants](/wiki/Paysans_Independants "Paysans Independants") and the [Assemblée Traditionnale Bamoun](/wiki/Assembl%C3%A9e_Traditionnale_Bamoun "Assemblée Traditionnale Bamoun"). The population boomed between 1958 and 1965, a period of high [urbanisation](/wiki/Urbanisation "Urbanisation") in Cameroon. In 1958, [Ahmadou Ahidjo](/wiki/Ahmadou_Ahidjo "Ahmadou Ahidjo") became [prime minister](/wiki/Prime_minister "Prime minister") of French Cameroon with a pro\-independence platform. The powerful [Union des Populations du Cameroun](/wiki/Union_des_Populations_du_Cameroun "Union des Populations du Cameroun") (UPC) party, including many Bamileke, considered him a French puppet and opposed him. On 27 June 1959, several Bamileke areas were struck in what were later labeled [terrorist](/wiki/Terrorism "Terrorism") strikes. Ahidjo declared [martial law](/wiki/Martial_law "Martial law"). His later attitudes toward the Bamileke likely were strongly influenced by their opposition to him.{{cite journal\|last1\=Middleton\|first1\=John\|last2\=Miller\|first2\=Joseph\|date\=2008\|title\=Ahidjo, El Hajj Ahmadou (1924–1989\)\|journal\=New Encyclopedia of Africa\|volume\=1\|pages\=29–30}} ### Post\-independence Under Ahidjo, the current West Province was known as the Administrative Inspectorate of the West. He named Bafoussam the capital and set the province's current boundaries after union of British and French Cameroon in 1972\. Ahidjo's battles with the UPC continued past Cameroon's independence on 1 January 1960\. He outlawed the party's "terrorist" wing on 30 October 1963, leading to more strikes in Bamileke population centres and subsequent military retribution. What support Ahidjo did enjoy among the Bamileke largely came from his pro\-business policies. When the president resigned in 1982, his replacement, Paul Biya, sent his representative, [Moussa Yaya](/wiki/Moussa_Yaya "Moussa Yaya"), to reassure the West's businessmen that he would not prove unfriendly to their interests. Yaya mistrusted Biya, however, and only exacerbated Bamileke reservations. The Bamum, as well, were reluctant to see Cameroon's presidency change from a Muslim to a Christian. Much Bamileke and Bamum resentment for the Biya administration dates to this period. In 2008, the President of the Republic of Cameroon, [Paul Biya](/wiki/Paul_Biya "Paul Biya"), signed decrees abolishing "Provinces" and replacing them with "Regions". Hence, all of the country's ten provinces are now known as Regions.
[ "History\n-------", "### Early population movements", "Human beings have inhabited the West since prehistoric times, as evidenced by archaeological finds at [Galima](/wiki/Galima \"Galima\") and Foumban. Bamileke groups likely entered the area from the [Adamawa Plateau](/wiki/Adamawa_Plateau \"Adamawa Plateau\") in the 17th century, probably fleeing [Fulbe](/wiki/Fula_people \"Fula people\") (Fula) slave raids. They originally settled in what is now Bamum territory, but the Bamum forced them across the Noun in a series of wars in the 18th century. Bamileke tradition states that they migrated in three major groups. The first consisted of the Baleng, Bapi, and Bafussam (who founded the settlement at Bafoussam along with the Bamougoum). Next came the Bagam, Bamendu, Bamsoa, Bazu, and Bangu. The final wave consisted of the Bati and Bafangwa. This period also saw the Bamileke assimilation of several older populations.", "Bamum tradition claims their kingdom was founded when [Ncharé Yen](/wiki/Nchar%C3%A9_Yen \"Ncharé Yen\") led them to settle at Foumban (Mfom\\-Ben) in the 15th century. However, most scholars today place this migration as late as the 19th century, likely the result of population pressures caused by the same Fulbe jihads that had earlier pushed the Bamileke south. The king [Mbwe\\-Mbwe](/wiki/Mbwe-Mbwe \"Mbwe-Mbwe\") extended Bamum holdings from the Mbam to the Noun Rivers, subjugating numerous local rulers in the process. Mbwe\\-Mbwe also kept the Fulbe from encroaching further south and west.", "The Bamum experienced a golden age of sorts under the leadership of Sultan [Ibrahim Njoya](/wiki/Ibrahim_Njoya \"Ibrahim Njoya\") (r. 1886–1933\\). Njoya was a patron of learning, and he converted to [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") under the tutelage of numerous Muslim scholars he had allowed into the kingdom. He developed an [alphabet](/wiki/Alphabet \"Alphabet\") for the Bamum language (the [Shumon script](/wiki/Shumon_script \"Shumon script\")), and established schools to teach it. The Islamisation of the Bamum occurred during his reign.", "The [Bali\\-Chamba](/wiki/Bali-Chamba \"Bali-Chamba\") are the third major group to have pushed through the West Province territory in historical times. They came under the leadership of a warrior chief named [Gawolbe](/wiki/Gawolbe \"Gawolbe\") and crossed the Noun around 1825\\. In 1830, they fought a war with the Bamileke [Bafu\\-Fundong](/wiki/Bafu-Fundong \"Bafu-Fundong\") group near Dschang. Their leader, [Gawolbe II](/wiki/Gawolbe_II \"Gawolbe II\") died, and the tribe splintered as Gawolbe's seven sons fought for control. Most of these groups migrated further west into what is today the Northwest Province.", "### European contacts", "[thumb\\|350px\\|left\\|Ibrahim Njoya ordered the construction of the Bamum sultan's palace at Foumban.](/wiki/File:Bamun_sultan_palace.jpg \"Bamun sultan palace.jpg\")", "### German administration", "The area had only indirect contact with European powers (mostly due to slave raids by tribes further south) before the [German](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\") annexation of [the Cameroons](/wiki/Kamerun \"Kamerun\") in 1884\\. The first Europeans to enter the territory were representatives of the [Basel Mission](/wiki/Basel_Mission \"Basel Mission\") in 1897\\. The Germans themselves did not move into the territory until 1899 (though they had signed treaties with Bamileke leaders as early as 1884\\). Governor [Jesko Von Puttkamer](/wiki/Jesko_Von_Puttkamer \"Jesko Von Puttkamer\") established the [Gesellschaft Nordwest\\-Kamerun](/wiki/Gesellschaft_Nordwest-Kamerun \"Gesellschaft Nordwest-Kamerun\") to monopolise trade in the area, and he established the divisional capital at [Dschang](/wiki/Dschang \"Dschang\") in 1903\\. The area's cool temperatures drew many German settlers, and the colonisers established great [coffee plantations](/wiki/Coffee_plantation \"Coffee plantation\"), which they [forced the natives to work](/wiki/Forced_labour \"Forced labour\"). Larger plantations were established further south, and many Bamileke were forced or encouraged to move out of their traditional territories to work them. The Germans also set up a [puppet over\\-chief](/wiki/Puppet_ruler \"Puppet ruler\") for all the Bamileke, who had [never before considered themselves a single group](/wiki/Ethnogenesis \"Ethnogenesis\"). Catholic missionaries reached the grasslands area in 1910\\. By 1912, most of the Bamileke had converted to Christianity.", "[Sultan Njoya](/wiki/Sultan_Njoya \"Sultan Njoya\") welcomed the first German emissary to the Bamum kingdom in 1902 after hearing of the ruthless treatment given rebellious tribes further to the northwest. He even lent military support for the German campaign against the [Nso](/wiki/Nso_people \"Nso people\") near Bamenda in 1906\\. The Bamum soldiers, eager for revenge for an earlier defeat to the Nso in 1888, committed such [atrocities](/wiki/War_crime \"War crime\") that the Germans sent them back. Njoya also ordered the building of a [palace at Foumban](/wiki/Palace_at_Foumban \"Palace at Foumban\") in 1917, which he modeled after that of the German governor.", "### French administration", "Bamileke and Bamum territory fell to the [French](/wiki/France \"France\") in 1916 after the Germans' defeat in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). The territory became part of the Baré\\-Foumban\\-Nkongsamba administrative area, and the capital was moved to Foumban. Dschang served as the seat of a French\\-run school for the sons of chiefs, which the French used to indoctrinate as well as instruct. The French maintained German plantations and labour sources, and new operations sprung up, such as a [palm](/wiki/Palm_tree \"Palm tree\") plantation at Dschang. The new colonial overlords made improvements to the region's infrastructure, as well, especially to the road network.", "The French continued Germany's policy of propping up sympathetic chiefs and deposing recalcitrant ones. They sought some sort of administrative centre amid the Bamileke domains, and in 1926, [Fotso II](/wiki/Fotso_II \"Fotso II\") of the Bandjoun people offered the site of Bafoussam, neighbouring his domains but not actually part of them. [Mambou](/wiki/Mambou \"Mambou\"), chief of the area, opposed the colonials, but he was defeated, and the foundations of modern Bafoussam were laid. The Bamum did not escape the French sphere, either, as sultan Ibrahim Njoya was deposed in 1931 due to his pro\\-German views. Njoya died in a Yaoundé prison two years later.", "After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the West was a centre of political pressure and protest against colonial rule. Other groups came into being to combat these (usually with France's blessing), including the [Union Bamiléké](/wiki/Union_Bamil%C3%A9k%C3%A9 \"Union Bamiléké\") in 1948\\. In 1956, France granted self\\-rule to its colony, and the West proved one of Cameroon's more politically influential areas due to groups such as [Paysans Independants](/wiki/Paysans_Independants \"Paysans Independants\") and the [Assemblée Traditionnale Bamoun](/wiki/Assembl%C3%A9e_Traditionnale_Bamoun \"Assemblée Traditionnale Bamoun\"). The population boomed between 1958 and 1965, a period of high [urbanisation](/wiki/Urbanisation \"Urbanisation\") in Cameroon.", "In 1958, [Ahmadou Ahidjo](/wiki/Ahmadou_Ahidjo \"Ahmadou Ahidjo\") became [prime minister](/wiki/Prime_minister \"Prime minister\") of French Cameroon with a pro\\-independence platform. The powerful [Union des Populations du Cameroun](/wiki/Union_des_Populations_du_Cameroun \"Union des Populations du Cameroun\") (UPC) party, including many Bamileke, considered him a French puppet and opposed him. On 27 June 1959, several Bamileke areas were struck in what were later labeled [terrorist](/wiki/Terrorism \"Terrorism\") strikes. Ahidjo declared [martial law](/wiki/Martial_law \"Martial law\"). His later attitudes toward the Bamileke likely were strongly influenced by their opposition to him.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Middleton\\|first1\\=John\\|last2\\=Miller\\|first2\\=Joseph\\|date\\=2008\\|title\\=Ahidjo, El Hajj Ahmadou (1924–1989\\)\\|journal\\=New Encyclopedia of Africa\\|volume\\=1\\|pages\\=29–30}}", "### Post\\-independence", "Under Ahidjo, the current West Province was known as the Administrative Inspectorate of the West. He named Bafoussam the capital and set the province's current boundaries after union of British and French Cameroon in 1972\\.", "Ahidjo's battles with the UPC continued past Cameroon's independence on 1 January 1960\\. He outlawed the party's \"terrorist\" wing on 30 October 1963, leading to more strikes in Bamileke population centres and subsequent military retribution.", "What support Ahidjo did enjoy among the Bamileke largely came from his pro\\-business policies. When the president resigned in 1982, his replacement, Paul Biya, sent his representative, [Moussa Yaya](/wiki/Moussa_Yaya \"Moussa Yaya\"), to reassure the West's businessmen that he would not prove unfriendly to their interests. Yaya mistrusted Biya, however, and only exacerbated Bamileke reservations. The Bamum, as well, were reluctant to see Cameroon's presidency change from a Muslim to a Christian. Much Bamileke and Bamum resentment for the Biya administration dates to this period.", "In 2008, the President of the Republic of Cameroon, [Paul Biya](/wiki/Paul_Biya \"Paul Biya\"), signed decrees abolishing \"Provinces\" and replacing them with \"Regions\". Hence, all of the country's ten provinces are now known as Regions.", "" ]
Plot ---- Carter Hayes and Ann Miller are suddenly attacked and beaten by two men. After the men have gone, Hayes calmly tells Ann, "The worst part's over now...." In [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), unmarried couple Drake Goodman and Patty Palmer purchase an expensive 19th\-century Victorian house in the exclusive [Pacific Heights](/wiki/Pacific_Heights%2C_San_Francisco "Pacific Heights, San Francisco") neighborhood. They rent one of the building's two first\-floor apartments to the Watanabes, a kindly Japanese couple. Soon after, Hayes visits to view the remaining vacant unit and immediately expresses a desire to move in. Hayes drives an expensive 1977 [Porsche 911](/wiki/Porsche_911_%28classic%29 "Porsche 911 (classic)") and carries large amounts of cash on his person, but is reluctant to undergo a [credit check](/wiki/Credit_check "Credit check"). He convinces Drake to [waive](/wiki/Waive "Waive") the credit check in exchange for a list of references and an upfront payment of the first six months' rent, to be paid by [wire transfer](/wiki/Wire_transfer "Wire transfer"). Before any of this money is paid, however, Hayes arrives unannounced one morning and shuts himself in the apartment. As the days pass, Hayes' promised wire transfer fails to materialize. From inside the apartment, sounds of loud hammering and drilling are heard at all hours of the day and night; however, the door is seldom answered. When Drake finally attempts to enter Hayes' apartment, he finds that the locks have been changed. Drake attempts to put an end to the constant noise and drive out Hayes by cutting the [electricity and heat](/wiki/Utilities "Utilities") to the apartment, but Hayes summons the police, who side with Hayes and reprimand Drake. Drake and Patty hire a lawyer, Stephanie MacDonald; however, the eviction case is thwarted by Drake's actions. Hayes, safe from [eviction](/wiki/Eviction "Eviction") for the time being, infests the house with [cockroaches](/wiki/Cockroaches "Cockroaches"), which prompts the Watanabes to move out and pushes Drake and Patty further into debt. The heavy stress takes its toll on the couple; Drake drinks heavily and Patty suffers a [miscarriage](/wiki/Miscarriage "Miscarriage"). Hayes visits the couple to offer his condolences, but an infuriated Drake [attacks](/wiki/Assault "Assault") him and is arrested by the police, whom Hayes had already called to the scene in anticipation of an assault. The assault allows Hayes to file a [civil lawsuit](/wiki/Civil_lawsuit "Civil lawsuit") against Drake and, unbeknownst to the couple, assume control of Drake's possessions and identity. Hayes also files a [restraining order](/wiki/Restraining_order "Restraining order"), which forces Drake from the building. Once Drake is gone, Hayes begins stalking and harassing Patty, in an apparent ploy to lure Drake back to the building in violation of the restraining order. The ploy succeeds, as Drake becomes concerned and comes to check on Patty. Hayes confronts Drake and shoots him, then plants a [crowbar](/wiki/Crowbar_%28tool%29 "Crowbar (tool)") at the scene to prevent any [criminal charges](/wiki/Criminal_charges "Criminal charges"). While Drake is in the hospital, the eviction is finally handed down and authorities force entry into Hayes' apartment. By this time however, Hayes has disappeared, and the apartment has been destroyed and stripped bare of all its appliances, light fixtures, wood paneling, and even the toilet. Later, while cleaning out the destroyed apartment, Patty finds an important clue: an old photograph of Hayes as a young boy. Written on the back is the name "James Danforth", which Patty deduces is Hayes' real name. She phones Bennett Fidlow, the Texas attorney whom Danforth had provided as a reference (albeit under his Hayes alias). Fidlow tells her that Danforth has a long history of wrongdoing and has been [disowned](/wiki/Disowned "Disowned") by his family. Patty travels to Danforth's last\-known address, a condominium in [Desert Spring](/wiki/Desert_Spring%2C_California "Desert Spring, California"). There she finds Ann, his girlfriend and previous co\-conspirator who had earlier come looking for him in San Francisco. Ann tells Patty that Carter Hayes is the name of the property's former landlord, and that Danforth [assumed Hayes' identity](/wiki/Identity_theft "Identity theft") and took possession of the condominium after (the genuine) Hayes hired two thugs to carry out the assault shown in the film's opening scene. Ann also shows Patty a postcard from Danforth, written on the letterhead of a hotel in [Century City](/wiki/Century_City "Century City"), which had just arrived the day before. Patty tracks down Danforth at the hotel, where he has checked in under Drake's name. Patty bluffs her way into his suite by posing as his wife, and while rummaging through his personal effects she discovers he is using legal and financial documents in Drake's name. She calls Drake and tells him to cancel all of his credit cards and freeze the couple's joint bank account. She then places an exorbitant order for room service, which leads to Danforth being arrested. Danforth is bailed out of prison by a wealthy widow, Florence Peters, whom he was apparently vetting to be his next victim. Once out on bail, Danforth returns to San Francisco to seek revenge against Patty and Drake. Upstairs, he bludgeons Drake with a golf club, then attacks Patty in the downstairs apartment where she is busy making repairs. A struggle ensues, and a badly wounded Drake makes his way into the crawl space between the basement and the first\-floor apartment. He reaches through a hole in the floor and grabs Danforth by the ankle; Danforth loses his balance and is killed when he falls backward, landing on a water supply line which had been connected to the commode he stole. Some time later, Patty and Drake have put their newly repaired building up for sale and show the property to another couple. The story ends with the couple having a private discussion about making an offer of $825,000\-$850,000, which is $75,000\-$100,000 more than what Drake and Patty had originally paid for it.
[ "Plot\n----", "Carter Hayes and Ann Miller are suddenly attacked and beaten by two men. After the men have gone, Hayes calmly tells Ann, \"The worst part's over now....\"", "In [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), unmarried couple Drake Goodman and Patty Palmer purchase an expensive 19th\\-century Victorian house in the exclusive [Pacific Heights](/wiki/Pacific_Heights%2C_San_Francisco \"Pacific Heights, San Francisco\") neighborhood. They rent one of the building's two first\\-floor apartments to the Watanabes, a kindly Japanese couple. Soon after, Hayes visits to view the remaining vacant unit and immediately expresses a desire to move in. Hayes drives an expensive 1977 [Porsche 911](/wiki/Porsche_911_%28classic%29 \"Porsche 911 (classic)\") and carries large amounts of cash on his person, but is reluctant to undergo a [credit check](/wiki/Credit_check \"Credit check\"). He convinces Drake to [waive](/wiki/Waive \"Waive\") the credit check in exchange for a list of references and an upfront payment of the first six months' rent, to be paid by [wire transfer](/wiki/Wire_transfer \"Wire transfer\").", "Before any of this money is paid, however, Hayes arrives unannounced one morning and shuts himself in the apartment. As the days pass, Hayes' promised wire transfer fails to materialize. From inside the apartment, sounds of loud hammering and drilling are heard at all hours of the day and night; however, the door is seldom answered. When Drake finally attempts to enter Hayes' apartment, he finds that the locks have been changed. Drake attempts to put an end to the constant noise and drive out Hayes by cutting the [electricity and heat](/wiki/Utilities \"Utilities\") to the apartment, but Hayes summons the police, who side with Hayes and reprimand Drake.", "Drake and Patty hire a lawyer, Stephanie MacDonald; however, the eviction case is thwarted by Drake's actions. Hayes, safe from [eviction](/wiki/Eviction \"Eviction\") for the time being, infests the house with [cockroaches](/wiki/Cockroaches \"Cockroaches\"), which prompts the Watanabes to move out and pushes Drake and Patty further into debt. The heavy stress takes its toll on the couple; Drake drinks heavily and Patty suffers a [miscarriage](/wiki/Miscarriage \"Miscarriage\"). Hayes visits the couple to offer his condolences, but an infuriated Drake [attacks](/wiki/Assault \"Assault\") him and is arrested by the police, whom Hayes had already called to the scene in anticipation of an assault.", "The assault allows Hayes to file a [civil lawsuit](/wiki/Civil_lawsuit \"Civil lawsuit\") against Drake and, unbeknownst to the couple, assume control of Drake's possessions and identity. Hayes also files a [restraining order](/wiki/Restraining_order \"Restraining order\"), which forces Drake from the building. Once Drake is gone, Hayes begins stalking and harassing Patty, in an apparent ploy to lure Drake back to the building in violation of the restraining order. The ploy succeeds, as Drake becomes concerned and comes to check on Patty. Hayes confronts Drake and shoots him, then plants a [crowbar](/wiki/Crowbar_%28tool%29 \"Crowbar (tool)\") at the scene to prevent any [criminal charges](/wiki/Criminal_charges \"Criminal charges\").", "While Drake is in the hospital, the eviction is finally handed down and authorities force entry into Hayes' apartment. By this time however, Hayes has disappeared, and the apartment has been destroyed and stripped bare of all its appliances, light fixtures, wood paneling, and even the toilet. Later, while cleaning out the destroyed apartment, Patty finds an important clue: an old photograph of Hayes as a young boy. Written on the back is the name \"James Danforth\", which Patty deduces is Hayes' real name. She phones Bennett Fidlow, the Texas attorney whom Danforth had provided as a reference (albeit under his Hayes alias). Fidlow tells her that Danforth has a long history of wrongdoing and has been [disowned](/wiki/Disowned \"Disowned\") by his family.", "Patty travels to Danforth's last\\-known address, a condominium in [Desert Spring](/wiki/Desert_Spring%2C_California \"Desert Spring, California\"). There she finds Ann, his girlfriend and previous co\\-conspirator who had earlier come looking for him in San Francisco. Ann tells Patty that Carter Hayes is the name of the property's former landlord, and that Danforth [assumed Hayes' identity](/wiki/Identity_theft \"Identity theft\") and took possession of the condominium after (the genuine) Hayes hired two thugs to carry out the assault shown in the film's opening scene. Ann also shows Patty a postcard from Danforth, written on the letterhead of a hotel in [Century City](/wiki/Century_City \"Century City\"), which had just arrived the day before.", "Patty tracks down Danforth at the hotel, where he has checked in under Drake's name. Patty bluffs her way into his suite by posing as his wife, and while rummaging through his personal effects she discovers he is using legal and financial documents in Drake's name. She calls Drake and tells him to cancel all of his credit cards and freeze the couple's joint bank account. She then places an exorbitant order for room service, which leads to Danforth being arrested.", "Danforth is bailed out of prison by a wealthy widow, Florence Peters, whom he was apparently vetting to be his next victim. Once out on bail, Danforth returns to San Francisco to seek revenge against Patty and Drake. Upstairs, he bludgeons Drake with a golf club, then attacks Patty in the downstairs apartment where she is busy making repairs. A struggle ensues, and a badly wounded Drake makes his way into the crawl space between the basement and the first\\-floor apartment. He reaches through a hole in the floor and grabs Danforth by the ankle; Danforth loses his balance and is killed when he falls backward, landing on a water supply line which had been connected to the commode he stole.", "Some time later, Patty and Drake have put their newly repaired building up for sale and show the property to another couple. The story ends with the couple having a private discussion about making an offer of $825,000\\-$850,000, which is $75,000\\-$100,000 more than what Drake and Patty had originally paid for it.", "" ]
Safety ------ ### Health effects [thumb\|right\|The largest exposure humans have to BPA is by mouth from such sources as food packaging, the [epoxy](/wiki/Epoxy "Epoxy") lining of metal food and beverage cans, and [plastic bottles](/wiki/Plastic_bottle "Plastic bottle").](/wiki/File:Import_canned_foods_in_Kobe.jpg "Import canned foods in Kobe.jpg") According to the [European Food Safety Authority](/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority "European Food Safety Authority") "BPA poses no health risk to consumers of any age group (including unborn children, infants and adolescents) at current exposure levels".{{cite web \|publisher\=European Food Safety Authority \|year\=2015 \|title\=Bisphenol A \|url\=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/bisphenol}} But in 2017 the [European Chemicals Agency](/wiki/European_Chemicals_Agency "European Chemicals Agency") concluded that BPA should be listed as a substance of very high concern due to its properties as an [endocrine disruptor](/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor "Endocrine disruptor").{{Cite web\|url\=https://echa.europa.eu/\-/msc\-unanimously\-agrees\-that\-bisphenol\-a\-is\-an\-endocrine\-disruptor\|title\=MSC unanimously agrees that Bisphenol A is an endocrine disruptor – All news – ECHA\|publisher\=Europa (web portal)\|language\=en\-GB\|access\-date\=2017\-06\-19}} In 2012, the United States' [Food and Drug Administration](/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration "Food and Drug Administration") (FDA) banned the use of BPA in [baby bottles](/wiki/Baby_bottle "Baby bottle") intended for children under 12 months. The [Natural Resources Defense Council](/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council "Natural Resources Defense Council") called the move inadequate, saying the FDA needed to ban BPA from all food packaging.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.commondreams.org/headline/2012/07/17\-4\|title\=FDA to Ban BPA from Baby Bottles; Plan Falls Short of Needed Protections: Scientists\|website\=Common Dreams}} The FDA maintains that the agency continues to support the safety of BPA for use in products that hold food.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mirmira P, Evans\-Molina C \| title \= Bisphenol A, obesity, and type 2 diabetes mellitus: genuine concern or unnecessary preoccupation? \| journal \= Translational Research \| volume \= 164 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 13–21 \| date \= July 2014 \| pmid \= 24686036 \| pmc \= 4058392 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.trsl.2014\.03\.003 \| hdl \= 1805/8373 }} The U.S. [Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency "Environmental Protection Agency") (EPA) also holds the position that BPA is not a health concern. In 2011, Andrew Wadge, the chief scientist of the United Kingdom's [Food Standards Agency](/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency "Food Standards Agency"), commented on a 2011 U.S. study on dietary exposure of adult humans to BPA,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Teeguarden JG, Calafat AM, Ye X, Doerge DR, Churchwell MI, Gunawan R, Graham MK \| title \= Twenty\-four\-hour human urine and serum profiles of bisphenol a during high\-dietary exposure \| journal \= Toxicological Sciences \| volume \= 123 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 48–57 \| date \= September 2011 \| pmid \= 21705716 \| doi \= 10\.1093/toxsci/kfr160 \| doi\-access \= free }} saying, "This corroborates other independent studies and adds to the evidence that BPA is rapidly absorbed, detoxified, and eliminated from humans – therefore is not a health concern."{{cite web \|url\=http://blogs.food.gov.uk/science/entry/small\_pond\_same\_big\_issues \|title\=Small pond, same big issues \|publisher\=\[\[Food Standards Agency\|FSA]] \|first\=Andrew \|last\=Wage \|date\=27 July 2011 \|access\-date\=3 August 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910101158/http://blogs.food.gov.uk/science/entry/small\_pond\_same\_big\_issues \|archive\-date\=10 September 2011}} The [Endocrine Society](/wiki/Endocrine_Society "Endocrine Society") said in 2015 that the results of ongoing laboratory research gave grounds for concern about the potential hazards of [endocrine\-disrupting chemicals](/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor "Endocrine disruptor") – including BPA – in the environment, and that on the basis of the [precautionary principle](/wiki/Precautionary_principle "Precautionary principle") these substances should continue to be assessed and tightly regulated.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Gore AC, Chappell VA, Fenton SE, Flaws JA, Nadal A, Prins GS, Toppari J, Zoeller RT \| title \= Executive Summary to EDC\-2: The Endocrine Society's Second Scientific Statement on Endocrine\-Disrupting Chemicals \| journal \= Endocrine Reviews \| volume \= 36 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 593–602 \| date \= December 2015 \| pmid \= 26414233 \| pmc \= 4702495 \| doi \= 10\.1210/er.2015\-1093 }} A 2016 review of the literature said that the potential harms caused by BPA were a topic of scientific debate and that further investigation was a priority because of the association between BPA exposure and adverse human health effects including reproductive and developmental effects and metabolic disease.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Giulivo M, Lopez de Alda M, Capri E, Barceló D \| title \= Human exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds: Their role in reproductive systems, metabolic syndrome and breast cancer. A review \| journal \= Environmental Research \| volume \= 151 \| pages \= 251–264 \| date \= November 2016 \| pmid \= 27504873 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.envres.2016\.07\.011 \| bibcode \= 2016ER....151\..251G }} #### United States expert panel conclusions In 2007, the U.S. federal government invited experts to Chapel Hill, North Carolina to perform a scientific assessment of literature on BPA.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Birnbaum LS \| title \= Applying research to public health questions: timing and the environmentally relevant dose \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 117 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= A478 \| date \= November 2009 \| pmid \= 20049095 \| pmc \= 2801180 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.0901417 }} Thirty\-eight experts in fields involved with bisphenol A gathered in [Chapel Hill, North Carolina](/wiki/Chapel_Hill%2C_North_Carolina "Chapel Hill, North Carolina") to review several hundred studies on BPA, many conducted by members of the group. At the end of the meeting, the group issued the Chapel Hill Consensus Statement,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= vom Saal FS, Akingbemi BT, Belcher SM, Birnbaum LS, Crain DA, Eriksen M, Farabollini F, Guillette LJ, Hauser R, Heindel JJ, Ho SM, Hunt PA, Iguchi T, Jobling S, Kanno J, Keri RA, Knudsen KE, Laufer H, LeBlanc GA, Marcus M, McLachlan JA, Myers JP, Nadal A, Newbold RR, Olea N, Prins GS, Richter CA, Rubin BS, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM, Talsness CE, Vandenbergh JG, Vandenberg LN, Walser\-Kuntz DR, Watson CS, Welshons WV, Wetherill Y, Zoeller RT \| title \= Chapel Hill bisphenol A expert panel consensus statement: integration of mechanisms, effects in animals and potential to impact human health at current levels of exposure \| journal \= Reproductive Toxicology \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 131–8 \| year \= 2007 \| pmid \= 17768031 \| pmc \= 2967230 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.reprotox.2007\.07\.005 \| bibcode \= 2007RepTx..24\..131V \| display\-authors \= 29 \| hdl \= 10481/24820 }} which stated "BPA at concentrations found in the human body is associated with organizational changes in the prostate, breast, testis, mammary glands, body size, brain structure and chemistry, and behavior of laboratory animals." The Chapel Hill Consensus Statement stated that average BPA levels in people were above those that cause harm to many animals in laboratory experiments. It noted that while BPA is not persistent in the environment or in humans, [biomonitoring](/wiki/Biomonitoring "Biomonitoring") surveys indicate that exposure is continuous. This is problematic because acute animal exposure studies are used to estimate daily human exposure to BPA, and no studies that had examined BPA [pharmacokinetics](/wiki/Pharmacokinetics "Pharmacokinetics") in animal models had followed continuous low\-level exposures. The authors added that measurement of BPA levels in serum and other body fluids suggests the possibilities that BPA intake is much higher than accounted for or that BPA can bioaccumulate in some conditions (such as pregnancy). Following the Chapel Hill Statement, the US National Toxicology Program – Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (NTP – CERHR), sponsored another literature assessment. The report, released in 2008, noted that "the possibility that bisphenol A may alter human development cannot be dismissed". Despite this report, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) BPA Task Force (formed in April 2008\), concluded that products containing BPA were safe.BPA (Bisphenol\-A), Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs, Insurance, and Automotive Safety Senate Committee on Commerce, Science \& Transportation Cong. (2008\) (testimony of Norris Alderson, PhD Associate Commissioner for Science). In 2009, the FDA Science Board Subcommittee on Bisphenol A, an external committee assigned to review the FDA's report "concluded that the FDA failed to conduct a rigorous or extensive exposure assessment", leading the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to conduct their own assessment. The United States Federal Interagency Working Group (FIW) included a goal to reduce BPA exposure in the 2 December 2010 release of their 2020 Healthy People national objectives for improving the health of all Americans.{{cite web \|work\=Environmental Health \|title\=EH\-20\.15 Reduce exposure to bisphenol A in the population, as measured by blood and urine concentrations of the substance or its metabolites \|url\=https://www.healthypeople.gov/node/4324/data\_details \|publisher\=Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion }} ### Metabolic disease {{Main\|Obesity}} Numerous animal studies have demonstrated an association between endocrine disrupting chemicals (including BPA) and obesity.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.conseil\-constitutionnel.fr/conseil\-constitutionnel/francais/videos/2015/septembre/affaire\-n\-2015\-480\-qpc.144326\.html \|title\=Affaire n° 2015\-480 QPC \|access\-date\=31 May 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319194113/http://www.conseil\-constitutionnel.fr/conseil\-constitutionnel/francais/videos/2015/septembre/affaire\-n\-2015\-480\-qpc.144326\.html \|archive\-date\=19 March 2017 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bhandari R, Xiao J, Shankar A \| title \= Urinary bisphenol A and obesity in U.S. children \| journal \= American Journal of Epidemiology \| volume \= 177 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 1263–70 \| date \= June 2013 \| pmid \= 23558351 \| pmc \= 3664337 \| doi \= 10\.1093/aje/kws391}} However, the relationship between bisphenol A exposure and obesity in humans is unclear.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Oppeneer SJ, Robien K \| title \= Bisphenol A exposure and associations with obesity among adults: a critical review \| journal \= Public Health Nutrition \| volume \= 18 \| issue \= 10 \| pages \= 1847–63 \| date \= July 2015 \| pmid \= 25311796 \| doi \= 10\.1017/S1368980014002213 \| pmc \= 10271412 \| doi\-access \= free}} Cohort studies have shown there has been an association of prenatal BPA exposure and increased body fat percentage at age 7 and increased BMI by age 9\.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Heindel JJ, Blumberg B, Cave M, Machtinger R, Mantovani A, Mendez MA, Nadal A, Palanza P, Panzica G, Sargis R, Vandenberg LN, Vom Saal F \| title \= Metabolism disrupting chemicals and metabolic disorders \| journal \= Reproductive Toxicology \| volume \= 68 \| pages \= 3–33 \| date \= March 2017 \| pmid \= 27760374 \| pmc \= 5365353 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.reprotox.2016\.10\.001\| bibcode \= 2017RepTx..68\....3H }} Not all studies have shown a positive relationship between BPA exposure and obesity, further studies on the effects of BPA on metabolic diseases need to take diet into consideration to remove any influence it might have on the outcome. Proposed mechanisms for BPA exposure to increase the risk of obesity include BPA\-induced thyroid dysfunction, activation of the [PPAR\-gamma](/wiki/Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor_gamma "Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma") receptor, and disruption of [neural circuits](/wiki/Neural_circuit "Neural circuit") that regulate feeding behavior.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rezg R, El\-Fazaa S, Gharbi N, Mornagui B \| title \= Bisphenol A and human chronic diseases: current evidences, possible mechanisms, and future perspectives \| journal \= Environment International \| volume \= 64 \| pages \= 83–90 \| date \= March 2014 \| pmid \= 24382480 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.envint.2013\.12\.007 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2014EnInt..64\...83R }} BPA works by imitating the natural hormone [17B\-estradiol](/wiki/17_beta_estradiol "17 beta estradiol"). In the past BPA has been considered a weak mimicker of [estrogen](/wiki/Estrogen "Estrogen") but newer evidence indicates that it is a potent mimicker.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Alonso\-Magdalena P, Ropero AB, Soriano S, García\-Arévalo M, Ripoll C, Fuentes E, Quesada I, Nadal Á \| title \= Bisphenol\-A acts as a potent estrogen via non\-classical estrogen triggered pathways \| journal \= Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology \| volume \= 355 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 201–7 \| date \= May 2012 \| pmid \= 22227557 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.mce.2011\.12\.012 \| s2cid \= 2722264 }} When it binds to estrogen receptors it triggers alternative estrogenic effects that begin outside of the nucleus. This different path induced by BPA has been shown to alter glucose and lipid metabolism in animal studies.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Alonso\-Magdalena P, Ropero AB, Soriano S, Quesada I, Nadal A \| title \= Bisphenol\-A: a new diabetogenic factor? \| journal \= Hormones \| volume \= 9 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 118–26 \| year \= 2010 \| pmid \= 20687395 \| url \= http://hormones.gr/preview.php?c\_id\=551 \| doi \= 10\.1007/BF03401277 \| s2cid \= 1086986 }} There are different effects of BPA exposure during different stages of development. During adulthood, BPA exposure modifies insulin sensitivity and insulin release without affecting weight.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Alonso\-Magdalena P, Quesada I, Nadal A \| title \= Endocrine disruptors in the etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus \| journal \= Nature Reviews. Endocrinology \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 346–53 \| date \= June 2011 \| pmid \= 21467970 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nrendo.2011\.56 \| s2cid \= 11924343 }} #### Thyroid function {{Main\|Thyroid}} [thumb\|right\|BPA is a thyroid\-disrupting chemical, that may especially affect pregnant women, neonates and small children.](/wiki/File:Illu_thyroid_parathyroid.jpg "Illu thyroid parathyroid.jpg") A 2007 review concluded that bisphenol\-A has been shown to bind to thyroid hormone receptor and perhaps has selective effects on its functions.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zoeller RT \| title \= Environmental chemicals impacting the thyroid: targets and consequences \| journal \= Thyroid \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 811–7 \| date \= September 2007 \| pmid \= 17956155 \| doi \= 10\.1089/thy.2007\.0107 \| s2cid \= 3455164 }} A 2009 review about environmental chemicals and thyroid function raised concerns about BPA effects on [triiodothyronine](/wiki/Triiodothyronine "Triiodothyronine") and concluded that "available evidence suggests that governing agencies need to regulate the use of thyroid\-disrupting chemicals, particularly as such uses relate exposures of pregnant women, neonates and small children to the agents".{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Boas M, Main KM, Feldt\-Rasmussen U \| title \= Environmental chemicals and thyroid function: an update \| journal \= Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 385–91 \| date \= October 2009 \| pmid \= 19625957 \| doi \= 10\.1097/MED.0b013e3283305af7 \| s2cid \= 12360120 }} A 2009 review summarized BPA adverse effects on thyroid hormone action.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1248/jhs.55\.147 \|title\=Disruption of Thyroid Hormone Function by Environmental Pollutants \|journal\=Journal of Health Science \|volume\=55 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=147–160 \|year\=2009 \|last1\=Kashiwagi \|first1\=Keiko \|last2\=Furuno \|first2\=Nobuaki \|last3\=Kitamura \|first3\=Shigeyuki \|last4\=Ohta \|first4\=Shigeru \|last5\=Sugihara \|first5\=Kazumi \|last6\=Utsumi \|first6\=Kozo \|last7\=Hanada \|first7\=Hideki \|last8\=Taniguchi \|first8\=Kikuyo \|last9\=Suzuki \|first9\=Ken\-Ichi \|last10\=Kashiwagi \|first10\=Akihiko \|doi\-access\=free }} A 2016 case control study found that there was a significant association between urinary BPA levels and increased TSH levels (Thyroid\- stimulating hormone) in a group of adult women.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Andrianou XD, Gängler S, Piciu A, Charisiadis P, Zira C, Aristidou K, Piciu D, Hauser R, Makris KC \| title \= Human Exposures to Bisphenol A, Bisphenol F and Chlorinated Bisphenol A Derivatives and Thyroid Function \| journal \= PLOS ONE \| volume \= 11 \| issue \= 10 \| pages \= e0155237 \| year \= 2016 \| pmid \= 27783680 \| pmc \= 5082639 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pone.0155237 \| bibcode \= 2016PLoSO..1155237A \| doi\-access \= free }} ### Neurological effects Limited epidemiological evidence suggests that exposure to BPA in the uterus and during childhood is associated with poor behavioral outcomes in humans. Exposure may be associated with higher levels of anxiety, depression, hyperactivity, and aggression in children.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ejaredar M, Lee Y, Roberts DJ, Sauve R, Dewey D \| title \= Bisphenol A exposure and children's behavior: A systematic review \| journal \= Journal of Exposure Science \& Environmental Epidemiology \| volume \= 27 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 175–183 \| date \= March 2017 \| pmid \= 26956939 \| doi \= 10\.1038/jes.2016\.8 \| bibcode \= 2017JESEE..27\..175E \| s2cid \= 19197823 }} A panel convened by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) of the U.S. [National Institutes of Health](/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health "National Institutes of Health") determined that there was "some concern" about BPA's effects on fetal and infant brain development and behavior.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/sya\-bpa/ \|title\=Since you asked – Bisphenol A (BPA): Questions and Answers about Bisphenol A \|publisher\=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences \|author1\=John Bucher \|author2\=Mike Shelby \|access\-date\=2 February 2012}} In January 2010, based on the NTP report, the FDA expressed the same level of concern.Staff, FDA. January 2010; Updated March 2013\. [Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application](https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm064437.htm) Accessed 7 May 2013Staff, FDA, DRAFT version 14 August 2008 [Draft Assessment of Bisphenol A for Use in Food Contact Applications](https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/AC/08/briefing/2008-0038b1_01_02_FDA%20BPA%20Draft%20Assessment.pdf) Accessed 7 May 2013 A 2007 literature review concluded that BPA, like other chemicals that mimic estrogen (xenoestrogens), should be considered as a player within the nervous system that can regulate or alter its functions through multiple pathways.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Panzica GC, Viglietti\-Panzica C, Mura E, Quinn MJ, Lavoie E, Palanza P, Ottinger MA \| title \= Effects of xenoestrogens on the differentiation of behaviorally\-relevant neural circuits \| journal \= Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology \| volume \= 28 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 179–200 \| date \= October 2007 \| pmid \= 17868795 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.yfrne.2007\.07\.001 \| s2cid \= 37937428 }} A 2008 review of animal research found that low\-dose BPA maternal exposure can cause long\-term consequences for the neurobehavioral development in mice.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1016/j.envres.2008\.07\.023 \|pmid\=18949834 \|title\=Effects of developmental exposure to bisphenol a on brain and behavior in mice \|journal\=Environmental Research \|volume\=108 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=150–157 \|year\=2008 \|last1\=Palanza \|first1\=Paola \|last2\=Gioiosa \|first2\=Laura \|last3\=Vom Saal \|first3\=Frederick S. \|last4\=Parmigiani \|first4\=Stefano \|bibcode\=2008ER....108\..150P }} [thumb\|right\|A 2008 review of studies concluded that BPA altered [long\-term potentiation](/wiki/Long-term_potentiation "Long-term potentiation") in the [hippocampus](/wiki/Hippocampus "Hippocampus") and even nanomolar (10−9 [mol](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 "Mole (unit)")) dosage could induce significant effects on memory processes.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ogiue\-Ikeda M, Tanabe N, Mukai H, Hojo Y, Murakami G, Tsurugizawa T, Takata N, Kimoto T, Kawato S \| title \= Rapid modulation of synaptic plasticity by estrogens as well as endocrine disrupters in hippocampal neurons \| journal \= Brain Research Reviews \| volume \= 57 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 363–75 \| date \= March 2008 \| pmid \= 17822775 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.brainresrev.2007\.06\.010 \| s2cid \= 18272343 }}](/wiki/File:Gray739-emphasizing-hippocampus.png "Gray739-emphasizing-hippocampus.png") A 2009 review raised concerns about a BPA effect on the [anteroventral periventricular nucleus](/wiki/Anteroventral_periventricular_nucleus "Anteroventral periventricular nucleus").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Gore AC \| title \= Developmental programming and endocrine disruptor effects on reproductive neuroendocrine systems \| journal \= Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 358–74 \| date \= June 2008 \| pmid \= 18394690 \| pmc \= 2702520 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.yfrne.2008\.02\.002 }} #### Disruption of the dopaminergic system {{Main\|Dopaminergic system}} [thumb\|A 2008 review concluded that BPA mimics estrogenic activity and affects various dopaminergic processes to enhance [mesolimbic](/wiki/Mesolimbic "Mesolimbic") dopamine activity resulting in [hyperactivity](/wiki/Hyperactivity "Hyperactivity"), [attention deficits](/wiki/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder"), and a heightened sensitivity to [drugs of abuse](/wiki/Drugs_of_abuse "Drugs of abuse").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jones DC, Miller GW \| title \= The effects of environmental neurotoxicants on the dopaminergic system: A possible role in drug addiction \| journal \= Biochemical Pharmacology \| volume \= 76 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 569–81 \| date \= September 2008 \| pmid \= 18555207 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.bcp.2008\.05\.010 }}](/wiki/File:Dopamine_pathways.svg "Dopamine pathways.svg") A 2008 review of human participants has concluded that BPA mimics estrogenic activity and affects various dopaminergic processes to enhance mesolimbic dopamine activity resulting in hyperactivity, attention deficits, and a heightened sensitivity to drugs of abuse. ### Cancer According to the WHO's INFOSAN, carcinogenicity studies conducted under the U.S. National Toxicology Program have shown increases in [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia "Leukemia") and testicular interstitial cell tumors in male rats. However, according to the note, "these studies have not been considered as convincing evidence of a potential cancer risk because of the doubtful statistical significance of the small differences in incidences from controls."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/publications/fs\_management/No\_05\_Bisphenol\_A\_Nov09\_en.pdf\|title\=BISPHENOL A (BPA) – Current state of knowledge and future actions by WHO and FAO\|date\=27 November 2009\|access\-date\=2 December 2009}} A 2010 review concluded that bisphenol A may increase cancer risk.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Soto AM, Sonnenschein C \| title \= Environmental causes of cancer: endocrine disruptors as carcinogens \| journal \= Nature Reviews. Endocrinology \| volume \= 6 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 363–70 \| date \= July 2010 \| pmid \= 20498677 \| pmc \= 3933258 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nrendo.2010\.87 }} Several studies show evidence that the formation of prostate cancer in men is directly proportional to BPA exposure. Male subject diagnosed with prostate cancer were found to have higher urine concentration of BPA as opposed to the concentrations found in the control group's. This correlation may be due to BPA's ability to induce cell proliferation of the prostate cancer cells.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Tarapore P, Ying J, Ouyang B, Burke B, Bracken B, Ho SM \| title \= Exposure to bisphenol A correlates with early\-onset prostate cancer and promotes centrosome amplification and anchorage\-independent growth in vitro \| journal \= PLOS ONE \| volume \= 9 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= e90332 \| year \= 2014 \| pmid \= 24594937 \| pmc \= 3940879 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pone.0090332 \| bibcode \= 2014PLoSO...990332T \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wetherill YB, Akingbemi BT, Kanno J, McLachlan JA, Nadal A, Sonnenschein C, Watson CS, Zoeller RT, Belcher SM \| title \= In vitro molecular mechanisms of bisphenol A action \| journal \= Reproductive Toxicology \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 178–98 \| year \= 2007 \| pmid \= 17628395 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.reprotox.2007\.05\.010 \| bibcode \= 2007RepTx..24\..178W }} #### Breast cancer {{Further\|Risk factors of breast cancer\#Bisphenol A}} [thumb\|right\|Evidence from animal models is accumulating that perinatal exposure to BPA alters breast development and increases breast cancer risk.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.2533/chimia.2008\.406 \|title\=Endocrine Disruptors and Breast Cancer \|journal\=CHIMIA International Journal for Chemistry \|volume\=62 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=406–409 \|year\=2008 \|last1\=Brisken \|first1\=Cathrin \|url\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/125132 \|doi\-access\=free }}](/wiki/File:Mammo_breast_cancer.jpg "Mammo breast cancer.jpg") Higher susceptibility to breast cancer has been found in many studies of rodents and primates exposed to BPA. However, it is the impact BPA has on breast cancer development in humans is unclear, as it is difficult to quantify an individual's BPA exposure over their lifetime. BPA, which includes a phenolic structure, has shown an association with agonist and antagonistic endocrine receptors that facilitate endocrine disorders such as breast and prostate cancer. Other endocrine disorders include infertility, polycystic ovary syndrome, and precocious puberty.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ma R, Sassoon DA \| title \= PCBs exert an estrogenic effect through repression of the Wnt7a signaling pathway in the female reproductive tract \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 114 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 898–904 \| date \= June 2006 \| pmid \= 16759992 \| pmc \= 1480489 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.8748 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Diamanti\-Kandarakis E, Bourguignon JP, Giudice LC, Hauser R, Prins GS, Soto AM, Zoeller RT, Gore AC \| title \= Endocrine\-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society scientific statement \| journal \= Endocrine Reviews \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 293–342 \| date \= June 2009 \| pmid \= 19502515 \| pmc \= 2726844 \| doi \= 10\.1210/er.2009\-0002 }} More oxidative stress in breast cancer cells were found to be directly proportional to BPA exposure as per the findings in several in vitro studies. Additionally, work related exposure to BPA, and women who are postmenopausal have suggested an increase in breast cancer incidence.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= DeMatteo R, Keith MM, Brophy JT, Wordsworth A, Watterson AE, Beck M, Ford AR, Gilbertson M, Pharityal J, Rootham M, Scott DN \| title \= Chemical exposures of women workers in the plastics industry with particular reference to breast cancer and reproductive hazards \| journal \= New Solutions \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 427–48 \| year \= 2013 \| pmid \= 23207955 \| doi \= 10\.2190/NS.22\.4\.d \| bibcode \= 2013NewSo..22\..427D \| s2cid \= 16486016 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sprague BL, Trentham\-Dietz A, Hedman CJ, Wang J, Hemming JD, Hampton JM, Buist DS, Aiello Bowles EJ, Sisney GS, Burnside ES \| title \= Circulating serum xenoestrogens and mammographic breast density \| journal \= Breast Cancer Research \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= R45 \| date \= May 2013 \| pmid \= 23710608 \| pmc \= 4053153 \| doi \= 10\.1186/bcr3432 \| doi\-access \= free }} ##### Mechanism of action BPA is an endocrine disruptor, meaning BPA has a similar structure to [oestrogen](/wiki/Oestrogen "Oestrogen") (ligand) and can bind to the oestrogen receptor [ERα](/wiki/ER%CE%B1 "ERα") and [ERβ](/wiki/ER%CE%B2 "ERβ") and activate it.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rubin BS \| title \= Bisphenol A: an endocrine disruptor with widespread exposure and multiple effects \| journal \= The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology \| volume \= 127 \| issue \= 1–2 \| pages \= 27–34 \| date \= October 2011 \| pmid \= 21605673 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.jsbmb.2011\.05\.002 \| s2cid \= 25102613 }} Oestrogen is hydrophobic and is able to diffuse through the plasma membrane and into the target cell. Oestradiol binding to the oestrogen receptor releases the heat shock protein from the ligand binding domain of the receptor causing dimerization.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Yaşar P, Ayaz G, User SD, Güpür G, Muyan M \| title \= Molecular mechanism of estrogen\-estrogen receptor signaling \| journal \= Reproductive Medicine and Biology \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 4–20 \| date \= January 2017 \| pmid \= 29259445 \| pmc \= 5715874 \| doi \= 10\.1002/rmb2\.12006 }} The nuclear localisation signal targets the ligand\-receptor complex to the nucleus where it can bind oestrogen response elements within the promoter of target genes on DNA. Subsequently, various cofactors are recruited allowing transcription of genes including those involved in cell proliferation.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zhang Q, Wu S, Liu L, Hou X, Jiang J, Wei X, Hao W \| title \= Effects of bisphenol A on gap junctions in HaCaT cells as mediated by the estrogen receptor pathway \| journal \= Journal of Applied Toxicology \| volume \= 39 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 271–281 \| date \= September 2018 \| pmid \= 30187510 \| doi \= 10\.1002/jat.3717 \| s2cid \= 52161011 }} When BPA is exposed to high temperatures or changes in pH, the ester bond linking BPA monomers is hydrolysed. Free BPA then competes with oestrogen for ERα and ERβ binding sites. When BPA successfully binds the receptor, it interacts with ERE and increases expression of target genes like WNT\-4 and RANKL; two key players in stem cell proliferation and carcinogenesis. BPA was also shown to inactivate [p53](/wiki/P53_upregulated_modulator_of_apoptosis "P53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis") which prevents tumour formation as it triggers apoptosis.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2018}} ### Fertility As of 2022, current evidence shows a possible positive correlation between BPA levels, lower sperm quality, decreased motility and an increase in sperm immaturity.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rochester JR \| title \= Bisphenol A and human health: a review of the literature \| journal \= Reproductive Toxicology \| volume \= 42 \| pages \= 132–55 \| date \= December 2013 \| pmid \= 23994667 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.reprotox.2013\.08\.008 \| bibcode \= 2013RepTx..42\..132R }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Radwan M, Wielgomas B, Dziewirska E, Radwan P, Kałużny P, Klimowska A, Hanke W, Jurewicz J \| title \= Urinary Bisphenol A Levels and Male Fertility \| journal \= American Journal of Men's Health \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 2144–2151 \| date \= November 2018 \| pmid \= 30261816 \| pmc \= 6199454 \| doi \= 10\.1177/1557988318799163 }}{{Cite web \|last\=Carrington \|first\=Damian \|date\=2022\-06\-10 \|title\=Cocktail of chemical pollutants linked to falling sperm quality in research \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/10/cocktail\-of\-chemical\-pollutants\-linked\-to\-falling\-sperm\-quality\-in\-research \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-06 \|website\=The Guardian \|language\=en}} There is tentative evidence to support the idea that BPA exposure has negative effects on human fertility. Few studies have investigated whether recurrent [miscarriage](/wiki/Spontaneous_abortion "Spontaneous abortion") is associated with BPA levels.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Mok\-Lin E, Ehrlich S, Williams PL, Petrozza J, Wright DL, Calafat AM, Ye X, Hauser R \|date\=April 2010 \|title\=Urinary bisphenol A concentrations and ovarian response among women undergoing IVF \|journal\=International Journal of Andrology \|volume\=33 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=385–93 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1365\-2605\.2009\.01014\.x \|pmc\=3089904 \|pmid\=20002217}} Exposure to BPA does not appear to be linked with higher rates of [endometrial hyperplasia](/wiki/Endometrial_hyperplasia "Endometrial hyperplasia"). Exposure to BPA does not appear to be linked with higher rates of endometrial hyperplasia. A 2009 cohort study linked urinary BPA concentration of women undergoing IVF egg retrieval, with an inverse correlation to oocyte release. The study found that for each unit increase in day 3 FSH (IU/L), there was an average decrease of 9% in the number of oocytes retrieved. The positive correlations found in animal studies{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Akingbemi BT, Sottas CM, Koulova AI, Klinefelter GR, Hardy MP \| title \= Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat Leydig cells \| journal \= Endocrinology \| volume \= 145 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 592–603 \| date \= February 2004 \| pmid \= 14605012 \| doi \= 10\.1210/en.2003\-1174 \| doi\-access \= free }} warrants the continued research of BPA for couple fecundity. Ubiquitous in environment through consumer products such as reusable plastics, food and beverage container liners, baby bottles, water resistant clothing. It has been identified as an EDC and found in urine, blood, amniotic fluid, breast milk and cord blood. Comparing blood BPA and phthalate levels between fertile and infertile women between the ages of 20–40, using gas chromatographic\-mass spectrometry to analyze the amount of BPA, phthalate and their metabolites in peripheral venous blood, showed significantly elevated serum BPA level in infertile women, as well as women with PCOS (polycystic ovarian syndrome) and women with endometriosis{{cite journal \| vauthors \= anage G, Pednekar P, Gajbhiye R \| display\-authors \= etal \| year \= 2019 \| title \= Estimation of plasma levels of bisphenol\-A \& phthalates in fertile \& infertile women by gas chromatography\-mass spectrometry \| journal \= Indian Journal of Medical Research \| volume \= 148 \| issue \= 6\| pages \= 734–742 \| doi \= 10\.4103/ijmr.ijmr\_2077\_16 \| pmid \= 30778008 \| pmc \= 6396564 \| s2cid \= 73466089 \| doi\-access \= free }} BPA is shown to have transgenerational effect by targeting ovarian function by changes in the structural integrity of microtubules that constitute meiotic spindles. BPA contaminants pass through amniotic fluid can alter steroidogenesis in fetal development. This will result if oocyte maturation failure as well as fertility{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Peretz J, Craig ZR, Flaws JA \| year \= 2012 \| title \= Bisphenol A inhibits follicle growth and induces atresia in cultured mouse antral follicles independently of the genomic estrogenic pathway \| journal \= Biol Reprod \| volume \= 87 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 1–11 \| doi \= 10\.1095/biolreprod.112\.101899 \| pmid \= 22743301 \| pmc \= 3464906 }} This in turn will result in transgenerational effect and affect the third generation of offspring{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mlynarcikova A, Kolena J, Fickova M, Scsukova S \| year \= 2005 \| title \= Alterations in steroid hormone production by porcine ovarian granulosa cells caused by bisphenol A and bisphenol A dimethaceylate \| journal \= Mol Cell Endocrinol \| volume \= 244 \| issue \= 1–2\| pages \= 57–62 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.mce.2005\.02\.009 \| pmid \= 16225985 \| s2cid \= 12945703 }} #### Sexual function Higher BPA exposure has been associated with increased self\-reporting of decreased male sexual function but few studies examining this relationship have been conducted. ### Asthma Studies in mice have found a link between BPA exposure and asthma; a 2010 study on mice has concluded that [perinatal](/wiki/Pregnancy%23Perinatal_period "Pregnancy#Perinatal period") exposure to 10 μg/mL of BPA in drinking water enhances allergic sensitization and bronchial inflammation and responsiveness in an animal model of [asthma](/wiki/Asthma "Asthma").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id\=new\-study\-links\-bpa\-and\-childhood\-asthma \|title\=New Study Links BPA and Childhood Asthma \|work\=Scientific American \|date\=2013\-03\-01 \|access\-date\=2014\-02\-01}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Midoro\-Horiuti T, Tiwari R, Watson CS, Goldblum RM \| title \= Maternal bisphenol a exposure promotes the development of experimental asthma in mouse pups \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 118 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 273–7 \| date \= February 2010 \| pmid \= 20123615 \| pmc \= 2831929 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.0901259 }} A study published in JAMA Pediatrics has found that prenatal exposure to BPA is also linked to lower lung capacity in some young children. This study had 398 mother\-infant pairs and looked at their urine samples to detect concentrations of BPA. They study found that every 10\-fold increase in BPA was tied to a 55% increase in the odds of wheezing. The higher the concentration of BPA during pregnancy were linked to decrease lung capacity in children under four years old but the link disappeared at age 5\. Associate professor of pediatrics at the [University of Maryland School of Medicine](/wiki/University_of_Maryland_School_of_Medicine "University of Maryland School of Medicine") said, "Exposure during pregnancy, not after, appears to be the critical time for BPA, possibly because it's affecting important pathways that help the lung develop."{{Cite magazine\|url \= http://time.com/3475859/bpa\-lung\-function\-children/\|title \= The Link Between Asthma and This Chemical\|last \= Oaklander\|first \= M\|date \= 7 October 2014\|magazine \= Time\|access\-date \= 20 October 2015}} In 2013, research from scientists at the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health also found a link between the compound and an increased risk for asthma. The research team reported that children with higher levels of BPA at ages 3, 5 and 7 had increased odds of developing asthma when they were between the ages of 5 and 12\. The children in this study had about the same concentration of BPA exposure as the average U.S. child. Dr. Kathleen Donohue, an instructor at Columbia University Medical Center said, "they saw an increased risk of asthma at fairly routine, low doses of BPA."{{cite news\|title\=Widely used chemical linked to childhood asthma\|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/widely\-used\-chemical\-linked\-to\-childhood\-asthma/\|publisher\=CBS News\|access\-date\=2 March 2013}} Kim Harley, who studies environmental chemicals and children's health, commented in the [Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American "Scientific American") journal saying while the study does not show that BPA causes asthma or wheezing, "it's an important study because we don't know a lot right now about how BPA affects immune response and asthma...They measured BPA at different ages, measured asthma and wheeze at multiple points, and still found consistent associations." ### Animal research The first evidence of the [estrogenicity](/wiki/Estrogenicity "Estrogenicity") of bisphenol A came from experiments on rats conducted in the 1930s, but it was not until 1997 that adverse effects of low\-dose exposure on laboratory animals were first reported. Bisphenol A is an [endocrine disruptor](/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor "Endocrine disruptor") that can mimic [estrogen](/wiki/Estrogen "Estrogen") and has been shown to cause negative health effects in animal studies. Bisphenol A closely mimics the structure and function of the hormone [estradiol](/wiki/Estradiol "Estradiol") by binding to and activating the same estrogen receptor as the natural hormone.{{cite book \| author \= Gore AC \| title \= Endocrine\-Disrupting Chemicals: From Basic Research to Clinical Practice \| publisher \= Humana Press \| date \= 8 June 2007 \| series \= Contemporary Endocrinology \| isbn \= 978\-1\-58829\-830\-0 }}{{page needed\|date\=December 2018}}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1351/pac200375112099 \|title\=Critical evaluation of observed adverse effects of endocrine active substances on reproduction and development, the immune system, and the nervous system \|journal\=Pure and Applied Chemistry \|volume\=75 \|issue\=11–12 \|pages\=2099–2123 \|year\=2003 \|last1\=O'Connor \|first1\=J. C. \|last2\=Chapin \|first2\=R. E. \|s2cid\=97899046 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Okada H, Tokunaga T, Liu X, Takayanagi S, Matsushima A, Shimohigashi Y \| title \= Direct evidence revealing structural elements essential for the high binding ability of bisphenol A to human estrogen\-related receptor\-gamma \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 116 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 32–8 \| date \= January 2008 \| pmid \= 18197296 \| pmc \= 2199305 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.10587 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= vom Saal FS, Myers JP \| title \= Bisphenol A and risk of metabolic disorders \| journal \= JAMA \| volume \= 300 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 1353–5 \| date \= September 2008 \| pmid \= 18799451 \| doi \= 10\.1001/jama.300\.11\.1353 }} Early developmental stages appear to be the period of greatest sensitivity to its effects,[Draft Screening Assessment for The Challenge Phenol, 4,4' \-(1\-methylethylidene)bis\- (Bisphenol A)Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number 80\-05\-7\.](http://www.ec.gc.ca/substances/ese/eng/challenge/batch2/batch2_80-05-7.cfm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905045805/http://www.ec.gc.ca/substances/ese/eng/challenge/batch2/batch2\_80\-05\-7\.cfm \|date\=5 September 2012 }} [Health Canada](/wiki/Health_Canada "Health Canada"), 2008\. A study from 2008 concluded that blood levels of bisphenol A in neonatal mice are the same whether it is injected or ingested.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Taylor JA, Welshons WV, Vom Saal FS \| title \= No effect of route of exposure (oral; subcutaneous injection) on plasma bisphenol A throughout 24h after administration in neonatal female mice \| journal \= Reproductive Toxicology \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 169–76 \| date \= February 2008 \| pmid \= 18295446 \| pmc \= 3564515 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.reprotox.2008\.01\.001 \| bibcode \= 2008RepTx..25\..169T }} The current U.S. human exposure limit set by the EPA is 50 μg/kg/day. In a 2010 commentary a group of scientists criticized a study designed to test low dose BPA exposure published in *"Toxicological Sciences"*{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ryan BC, Hotchkiss AK, Crofton KM, Gray LE \| title \= In utero and lactational exposure to bisphenol A, in contrast to ethinyl estradiol, does not alter sexually dimorphic behavior, puberty, fertility, and anatomy of female LE rats \| journal \= Toxicological Sciences \| volume \= 114 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 133–48 \| date \= March 2010 \| pmid \= 19864446 \| doi \= 10\.1093/toxsci/kfp266 \| doi\-access \= free }} and a later editorial by the same journal,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sharpe RM \| title \= Is it time to end concerns over the estrogenic effects of bisphenol A? \| journal \= Toxicological Sciences \| volume \= 114 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1–4 \| date \= March 2010 \| pmid \= 20147444 \| doi \= 10\.1093/toxsci/kfp299 \| doi\-access \= free }} which claimed the rats used in the study were insensitive to estrogen and that had other problems like the use of BPA\-containing polycabonate cages{{cite journal \| vauthors \= vom Saal FS, Akingbemi BT, Belcher SM, Crain DA, Crews D, Guidice LC, Hunt PA, Leranth C, Myers JP, Nadal A, Olea N, Padmanabhan V, Rosenfeld CS, Schneyer A, Schoenfelder G, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM, Stahlhut RW, Swan SH, Vandenberg LN, Wang HS, Watson CS, Welshons WV, Zoeller RT \| title \= Flawed experimental design reveals the need for guidelines requiring appropriate positive controls in endocrine disruption research \| journal \= Toxicological Sciences \| volume \= 115 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 612–3 \| date \= June 2010 \| pmid \= 20164146 \| doi \= 10\.1093/toxsci/kfq048 \| doi\-access \= free }} while the authors disagreed.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Gray LE, Ryan B, Hotchkiss AK, Crofton KM \| title \= Rebuttal of 'Flawed Experimental Design Reveals the Need for Guidelines Requiring Appropriate Positive Controls in Endocrine Disruption Research' by (Vom Saal 2010\) \| journal \= Toxicological Sciences \| volume \= 115 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 614–620 \| date \= June 2010 \| pmid \= 29910598\| doi \= 10\.1093/toxsci/kfq073 \| pmc \= 6002156 }} Different expression of ERR\-γ in different parts of the body may account for variations in bisphenol A effects. For instance, ERR\-γ has been found in high concentration in the [placenta](/wiki/Placenta "Placenta"), explaining reports of high bisphenol accumulation in this tissue. ### Environmental effects In 2010, the [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency "U.S. Environmental Protection Agency") reported that over one million pounds of BPA are released into the environment annually.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Erler C, Novak J \| title \= Bisphenol a exposure: human risk and health policy \| journal \= Journal of Pediatric Nursing \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 400–7 \| date \= October 2010 \| pmid \= 20816563 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.pedn.2009\.05\.006 }} BPA can be released into the environment by both pre\-consumer and post\-consumer leaching. Common routes of introduction from the pre\-consumer perspective into the environment are directly from chemical plastics, coat and staining manufacturers, foundries who use BPA in casting sand, or transport of BPA and BPA\-containing products .{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Corrales J, Kristofco LA, Steele WB, Yates BS, Breed CS, Williams ES, Brooks BW \| title \= Global Assessment of Bisphenol A in the Environment: Review and Analysis of Its Occurrence and Bioaccumulation \| journal \= Dose\-Response \| volume \= 13 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 1559325815598308 \| year \= 2015 \| pmid \= 26674671 \| pmc \= 4674187 \| doi \= 10\.1177/1559325815598308 }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/FR\-2011\-07\-26/2011\-18842/content\-detail.html \|title\=Testing of Bisphenol A, Advance notice of proposed rulemaking (ANPRM)\|website\=Federal Register /Vol. 76, No. 143 / Proposed Rules\|publisher\=Federal Register \|author\=EPA\|date\=26 July 2011 \|access\-date\=8 May 2017}} Post\-consumer BPA waste comes from effluent discharge from municipal wastewater treatment plants, irrigation pipes used in agriculture, ocean\-borne plastic trash, indirect leaching from plastic, paper, and metal waste in landfills, and paper or material recycling companies.{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090820\-plastic\-decomposes\-oceans\-seas.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826095155/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090820\-plastic\-decomposes\-oceans\-seas.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=26 August 2009\|title\=Plastic Breaks Down in Ocean, After All – And Fast\|website\=National Geographic\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-27\|date\=2009\-08\-20}} Despite a rapid soil and water [half\-life](/wiki/Half-life "Half-life") of 4\.5 days, and an air half\-life of less than one day, BPA's ubiquity makes it an important [pollutant](/wiki/Pollutant "Pollutant"). BPA has a low rate of evaporation from water and soil, which presents issues, despite its [biodegradability](/wiki/Biodegradation "Biodegradation") and low concern for bio\-accumulation. BPA has low [volatility](/wiki/Volatility_%28chemistry%29 "Volatility (chemistry)") in the atmosphere and a low [vapor pressure](/wiki/Vapor_pressure "Vapor pressure") between 5\.00 and 5\.32 Pascals. BPA has a high [water solubility](/wiki/Aqueous_solution "Aqueous solution") of about 120 mg/L and most of its reactions in the environment are [aqueous](/wiki/Aqueous_solution "Aqueous solution"). An interesting fact is that BPA dust is flammable if ignited, but it has a minimal explosive concentration in air.{{Cite journal\|last\=Rost\|first\=John M.\|date\=September 2012\|title\=Risk\-Based Green Screen Assessment of Bisphenol A\|url\=https://www1\.maine.gov/dep/safechem/documents/gradient\-risk\-based\-assessment.pdf\|journal\=Gradient Corp\|access\-date\=31 May 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216160016/http://www.maine.gov/dep/safechem/documents/gradient\-risk\-based\-assessment.pdf\|archive\-date\=16 February 2017}} Also, in aqueous solutions, BPA has shown absorption of wavelengths greater than 250 nm. The ubiquitous nature of BPA makes the compound an important pollutant to study as it has been shown to interfere with [nitrogen fixation](/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation "Nitrogen fixation") at the roots of [leguminous](/wiki/Legume "Legume") plants associated with the bacterial symbiont *[Sinorhizobium meliloti](/wiki/Sinorhizobium_meliloti "Sinorhizobium meliloti").*{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Fox JE, Gulledge J, Engelhaupt E, Burow ME, McLachlan JA \| title \= Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen\-fixing rhizobia and host plants \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 104 \| issue \= 24 \| pages \= 10282–7 \| date \= June 2007 \| pmid \= 17548832 \| pmc \= 1885820 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.0611710104 \| bibcode \= 2007PNAS..10410282F \| doi\-access \= free }} A 2013 study also observed changes in plant health due to BPA exposure. The study exposed [soybean](/wiki/Soybean "Soybean") seedlings to various concentrations of BPA and saw changes in root growth, [nitrate](/wiki/Nitrate "Nitrate") production, [ammonium](/wiki/Ammonium "Ammonium") production, and changes in the activities of [nitrate reductase](/wiki/Nitrate_reductase "Nitrate reductase") and [nitrite reductase](/wiki/Nitrite_reductase "Nitrite reductase"). At low doses of BPA, the growth of roots were improved, the amount of nitrate in roots increased, the amount of ammonium in roots decreased, and the nitrate and nitrite reductase activities remained unchanged. However, at considerably higher concentrations of BPA, the opposite effects were seen for all but an increase in nitrate concentration and a decrease in nitrite and nitrate reductase activities.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sun H, Wang L, Zhou Q \| title \= Effects of bisphenol A on growth and nitrogen nutrition of roots of soybean seedlings \| journal \= Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry \| volume \= 32 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 174–80 \| date \= January 2013 \| pmid \= 23109293 \| doi \= 10\.1002/etc.2042 \| doi\-access \= free }} Nitrogen is both a plant nutritional substance, but also the basis of growth and development in plants. Changing concentrations of BPA can be harmful to the ecology of an ecosystem, as well as to humans if the plants are produced to be consumed. The amount of absorbed BPA on sediment was also seen to decrease with increases in temperature, as demonstrated by a study in 2006 with various plants from the [XiangJiang River](/wiki/XiangJiang_River "XiangJiang River") in Central\-South China. In general, as temperature increases, the water solubility of a compound increases. Therefore, the amount of sorbate that enters the solid phase will lower at the [equilibrium point](/wiki/Equilibrium_point "Equilibrium point"). It was also observed that the adsorption process of BPA on sediment is exothermic, the molar formation [enthalpy](/wiki/Enthalpy "Enthalpy"), [ΔH°](/wiki/Enthalpy "Enthalpy"), was negative, the free energy [ΔG°](/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy "Gibbs free energy"), was negative, and the molar [entropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy"), [ΔS°](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy"), was positive. This indicates that the [adsorption](/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") of BPA is driven by enthalpy. The adsorption of BPA has also been observed to decrease with increasing [pH](/wiki/PH "PH").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zeng G, Zhang C, Huang G, Yu J, Wang Q, Li J, Xi B, Liu H \| title \= Adsorption behavior of bisphenol A on sediments in Xiangjiang River, Central\-south China \| journal \= Chemosphere \| volume \= 65 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 1490–9 \| date \= November 2006 \| pmid \= 16737729 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.chemosphere.2006\.04\.013 \| bibcode \= 2006Chmsp..65\.1490Z }} A 2005 study conducted in the United States had found that 91–98% of BPA may be removed from water during treatment at municipal water treatment plants.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.2175/106143005X41573 \|pmid\=15765931 \|title\=An Assessment of Endocrine Disrupting Activity Changes during Wastewater Treatment through the Use of Bioassays and Chemical Measurements \|journal\=Water Environment Research \|volume\=77 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=12–23 \|year\=2005 \|last1\=Drewes \|first1\=Jörg E. \|last2\=Hemming \|first2\=Jocelyn \|last3\=Ladenburger \|first3\=Sarah J. \|last4\=Schauer \|first4\=James \|last5\=Sonzogni \|first5\=William \|bibcode\=2005WaEnR..77\...12D \|s2cid\=12283834 }} A more detailed explanation of aqueous reactions of BPA can be observed in the Degradation of BPA section below. Nevertheless, a 2009 meta\-analysis of BPA in the surface water system showed BPA present in surface water and sediment in the United States and Europe.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Klečka G, Staples C, Clark K, Anderhoeven N, Thomas D, Hentges S \|title\= Exposure analysis of Bisphenol A in surface water systems in North America and Europe\| journal\=Environ. Sci. Technol.\| year\= 2009\|volume\= 43\|issue\= 16\|pages\= 6145–6150\|doi\=10\.1021/es900598e\|pmid\= 19746705\|bibcode \= 2009EnST...43\.6145K }} According to [Environment Canada](/wiki/Environment_Canada "Environment Canada") in 2011, "BPA can currently be found in municipal wastewater. \[…]initial assessment shows that at low levels, bisphenol A can harm fish and organisms over time."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/fact\-fait/bisphenol\-a\-eng.php\|title\=Bisphenol A Fact Sheet\|publisher\=Government of Canada \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423211655/http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/fact\-fait/bisphenol\-a\-eng.php\|archive\-date\=23 April 2011\|access\-date\=1 February 2012}} BPA affects growth, reproduction, and development in aquatic organisms. Among freshwater organisms, fish appear to be the most sensitive species. Evidence of endocrine\-related effects in fish, aquatic invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles has been reported at environmentally relevant exposure levels lower than those required for acute toxicity. There is a widespread variation in reported values for endocrine\-related effects, but many fall in the range of 1μg/L to 1 mg/L. A 2009 review of the biological impacts of [plasticizers](/wiki/Plasticizer "Plasticizer") on wildlife published by the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society "Royal Society") with a focus on aquatic and terrestrial [annelids](/wiki/Annelids "Annelids"), [molluscs](/wiki/Molluscs "Molluscs"), [crustaceans](/wiki/Crustaceans "Crustaceans"), insects, fish and [amphibians](/wiki/Amphibian "Amphibian") concluded that BPA affects reproduction in all studied animal groups, impairs development in crustaceans and amphibians and induces genetic aberrations.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Oehlmann J, Schulte\-Oehlmann U, Kloas W, Jagnytsch O, Lutz I, Kusk KO, Wollenberger L, Santos EM, Paull GC, Van Look KJ, Tyler CR \| title \= A critical analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife \| journal \= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences \| volume \= 364 \| issue \= 1526 \| pages \= 2047–62 \| date \= July 2009 \| pmid \= 19528055 \| pmc \= 2873012 \| doi \= 10\.1098/rstb.2008\.0242}}
[ "Safety\n------", "### Health effects", "[thumb\\|right\\|The largest exposure humans have to BPA is by mouth from such sources as food packaging, the [epoxy](/wiki/Epoxy \"Epoxy\") lining of metal food and beverage cans, and [plastic bottles](/wiki/Plastic_bottle \"Plastic bottle\").](/wiki/File:Import_canned_foods_in_Kobe.jpg \"Import canned foods in Kobe.jpg\")", "According to the [European Food Safety Authority](/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority \"European Food Safety Authority\") \"BPA poses no health risk to consumers of any age group (including unborn children, infants and adolescents) at current exposure levels\".{{cite web \\|publisher\\=European Food Safety Authority \\|year\\=2015 \\|title\\=Bisphenol A \\|url\\=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/bisphenol}} But in 2017 the [European Chemicals Agency](/wiki/European_Chemicals_Agency \"European Chemicals Agency\") concluded that BPA should be listed as a substance of very high concern due to its properties as an [endocrine disruptor](/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor \"Endocrine disruptor\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://echa.europa.eu/\\-/msc\\-unanimously\\-agrees\\-that\\-bisphenol\\-a\\-is\\-an\\-endocrine\\-disruptor\\|title\\=MSC unanimously agrees that Bisphenol A is an endocrine disruptor – All news – ECHA\\|publisher\\=Europa (web portal)\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-19}}", "In 2012, the United States' [Food and Drug Administration](/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration \"Food and Drug Administration\") (FDA) banned the use of BPA in [baby bottles](/wiki/Baby_bottle \"Baby bottle\") intended for children under 12 months. The [Natural Resources Defense Council](/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council \"Natural Resources Defense Council\") called the move inadequate, saying the FDA needed to ban BPA from all food packaging.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.commondreams.org/headline/2012/07/17\\-4\\|title\\=FDA to Ban BPA from Baby Bottles; Plan Falls Short of Needed Protections: Scientists\\|website\\=Common Dreams}} The FDA maintains that the agency continues to support the safety of BPA for use in products that hold food.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mirmira P, Evans\\-Molina C \\| title \\= Bisphenol A, obesity, and type 2 diabetes mellitus: genuine concern or unnecessary preoccupation? \\| journal \\= Translational Research \\| volume \\= 164 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 13–21 \\| date \\= July 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24686036 \\| pmc \\= 4058392 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.trsl.2014\\.03\\.003 \\| hdl \\= 1805/8373 }}", "The U.S. [Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency \"Environmental Protection Agency\") (EPA) also holds the position that BPA is not a health concern. In 2011, Andrew Wadge, the chief scientist of the United Kingdom's [Food Standards Agency](/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency \"Food Standards Agency\"), commented on a 2011 U.S. study on dietary exposure of adult humans to BPA,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Teeguarden JG, Calafat AM, Ye X, Doerge DR, Churchwell MI, Gunawan R, Graham MK \\| title \\= Twenty\\-four\\-hour human urine and serum profiles of bisphenol a during high\\-dietary exposure \\| journal \\= Toxicological Sciences \\| volume \\= 123 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 48–57 \\| date \\= September 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21705716 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/toxsci/kfr160 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} saying, \"This corroborates other independent studies and adds to the evidence that BPA is rapidly absorbed, detoxified, and eliminated from humans – therefore is not a health concern.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://blogs.food.gov.uk/science/entry/small\\_pond\\_same\\_big\\_issues \\|title\\=Small pond, same big issues \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Food Standards Agency\\|FSA]] \\|first\\=Andrew \\|last\\=Wage \\|date\\=27 July 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=3 August 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910101158/http://blogs.food.gov.uk/science/entry/small\\_pond\\_same\\_big\\_issues \\|archive\\-date\\=10 September 2011}}", "The [Endocrine Society](/wiki/Endocrine_Society \"Endocrine Society\") said in 2015 that the results of ongoing laboratory research gave grounds for concern about the potential hazards of [endocrine\\-disrupting chemicals](/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor \"Endocrine disruptor\") – including BPA – in the environment, and that on the basis of the [precautionary principle](/wiki/Precautionary_principle \"Precautionary principle\") these substances should continue to be assessed and tightly regulated.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Gore AC, Chappell VA, Fenton SE, Flaws JA, Nadal A, Prins GS, Toppari J, Zoeller RT \\| title \\= Executive Summary to EDC\\-2: The Endocrine Society's Second Scientific Statement on Endocrine\\-Disrupting Chemicals \\| journal \\= Endocrine Reviews \\| volume \\= 36 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 593–602 \\| date \\= December 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26414233 \\| pmc \\= 4702495 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1210/er.2015\\-1093 }} A 2016 review of the literature said that the potential harms caused by BPA were a topic of scientific debate and that further investigation was a priority because of the association between BPA exposure and adverse human health effects including reproductive and developmental effects and metabolic disease.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Giulivo M, Lopez de Alda M, Capri E, Barceló D \\| title \\= Human exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds: Their role in reproductive systems, metabolic syndrome and breast cancer. A review \\| journal \\= Environmental Research \\| volume \\= 151 \\| pages \\= 251–264 \\| date \\= November 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27504873 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.envres.2016\\.07\\.011 \\| bibcode \\= 2016ER....151\\..251G }}", "#### United States expert panel conclusions", "In 2007, the U.S. federal government invited experts to Chapel Hill, North Carolina to perform a scientific assessment of literature on BPA.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Birnbaum LS \\| title \\= Applying research to public health questions: timing and the environmentally relevant dose \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 117 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= A478 \\| date \\= November 2009 \\| pmid \\= 20049095 \\| pmc \\= 2801180 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.0901417 }} Thirty\\-eight experts in fields involved with bisphenol A gathered in [Chapel Hill, North Carolina](/wiki/Chapel_Hill%2C_North_Carolina \"Chapel Hill, North Carolina\") to review several hundred studies on BPA, many conducted by members of the group. At the end of the meeting, the group issued the Chapel Hill Consensus Statement,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= vom Saal FS, Akingbemi BT, Belcher SM, Birnbaum LS, Crain DA, Eriksen M, Farabollini F, Guillette LJ, Hauser R, Heindel JJ, Ho SM, Hunt PA, Iguchi T, Jobling S, Kanno J, Keri RA, Knudsen KE, Laufer H, LeBlanc GA, Marcus M, McLachlan JA, Myers JP, Nadal A, Newbold RR, Olea N, Prins GS, Richter CA, Rubin BS, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM, Talsness CE, Vandenbergh JG, Vandenberg LN, Walser\\-Kuntz DR, Watson CS, Welshons WV, Wetherill Y, Zoeller RT \\| title \\= Chapel Hill bisphenol A expert panel consensus statement: integration of mechanisms, effects in animals and potential to impact human health at current levels of exposure \\| journal \\= Reproductive Toxicology \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 131–8 \\| year \\= 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17768031 \\| pmc \\= 2967230 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.reprotox.2007\\.07\\.005 \\| bibcode \\= 2007RepTx..24\\..131V \\| display\\-authors \\= 29 \\| hdl \\= 10481/24820 }} which stated \"BPA at concentrations found in the human body is associated with organizational changes in the prostate, breast, testis, mammary glands, body size, brain structure and chemistry, and behavior of laboratory animals.\" The Chapel Hill Consensus Statement stated that average BPA levels in people were above those that cause harm to many animals in laboratory experiments. It noted that while BPA is not persistent in the environment or in humans, [biomonitoring](/wiki/Biomonitoring \"Biomonitoring\") surveys indicate that exposure is continuous. This is problematic because acute animal exposure studies are used to estimate daily human exposure to BPA, and no studies that had examined BPA [pharmacokinetics](/wiki/Pharmacokinetics \"Pharmacokinetics\") in animal models had followed continuous low\\-level exposures. The authors added that measurement of BPA levels in serum and other body fluids suggests the possibilities that BPA intake is much higher than accounted for or that BPA can bioaccumulate in some conditions (such as pregnancy). Following the Chapel Hill Statement, the US National Toxicology Program – Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (NTP – CERHR), sponsored another literature assessment. The report, released in 2008, noted that \"the possibility that bisphenol A may alter human development cannot be dismissed\". Despite this report, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) BPA Task Force (formed in April 2008\\), concluded that products containing BPA were safe.BPA (Bisphenol\\-A), Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs, Insurance, and Automotive Safety Senate Committee on Commerce, Science \\& Transportation Cong. (2008\\) (testimony of Norris Alderson, PhD Associate Commissioner for Science). In 2009, the FDA Science Board Subcommittee on Bisphenol A, an external committee assigned to review the FDA's report \"concluded that the FDA failed to conduct a rigorous or extensive exposure assessment\", leading the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to conduct their own assessment.", "The United States Federal Interagency Working Group (FIW) included a goal to reduce BPA exposure in the 2 December 2010 release of their 2020 Healthy People national objectives for improving the health of all Americans.{{cite web \\|work\\=Environmental Health \\|title\\=EH\\-20\\.15 Reduce exposure to bisphenol A in the population, as measured by blood and urine concentrations of the substance or its metabolites \\|url\\=https://www.healthypeople.gov/node/4324/data\\_details \\|publisher\\=Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion }}", "### Metabolic disease", "{{Main\\|Obesity}}", "Numerous animal studies have demonstrated an association between endocrine disrupting chemicals (including BPA) and obesity.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.conseil\\-constitutionnel.fr/conseil\\-constitutionnel/francais/videos/2015/septembre/affaire\\-n\\-2015\\-480\\-qpc.144326\\.html \\|title\\=Affaire n° 2015\\-480 QPC \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319194113/http://www.conseil\\-constitutionnel.fr/conseil\\-constitutionnel/francais/videos/2015/septembre/affaire\\-n\\-2015\\-480\\-qpc.144326\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2017 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bhandari R, Xiao J, Shankar A \\| title \\= Urinary bisphenol A and obesity in U.S. children \\| journal \\= American Journal of Epidemiology \\| volume \\= 177 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 1263–70 \\| date \\= June 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23558351 \\| pmc \\= 3664337 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/aje/kws391}} However, the relationship between bisphenol A exposure and obesity in humans is unclear.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Oppeneer SJ, Robien K \\| title \\= Bisphenol A exposure and associations with obesity among adults: a critical review \\| journal \\= Public Health Nutrition \\| volume \\= 18 \\| issue \\= 10 \\| pages \\= 1847–63 \\| date \\= July 2015 \\| pmid \\= 25311796 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1017/S1368980014002213 \\| pmc \\= 10271412 \\| doi\\-access \\= free}} Cohort studies have shown there has been an association of prenatal BPA exposure and increased body fat percentage at age 7 and increased BMI by age 9\\.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Heindel JJ, Blumberg B, Cave M, Machtinger R, Mantovani A, Mendez MA, Nadal A, Palanza P, Panzica G, Sargis R, Vandenberg LN, Vom Saal F \\| title \\= Metabolism disrupting chemicals and metabolic disorders \\| journal \\= Reproductive Toxicology \\| volume \\= 68 \\| pages \\= 3–33 \\| date \\= March 2017 \\| pmid \\= 27760374 \\| pmc \\= 5365353 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.reprotox.2016\\.10\\.001\\| bibcode \\= 2017RepTx..68\\....3H }} Not all studies have shown a positive relationship between BPA exposure and obesity, further studies on the effects of BPA on metabolic diseases need to take diet into consideration to remove any influence it might have on the outcome. Proposed mechanisms for BPA exposure to increase the risk of obesity include BPA\\-induced thyroid dysfunction, activation of the [PPAR\\-gamma](/wiki/Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor_gamma \"Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma\") receptor, and disruption of [neural circuits](/wiki/Neural_circuit \"Neural circuit\") that regulate feeding behavior.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rezg R, El\\-Fazaa S, Gharbi N, Mornagui B \\| title \\= Bisphenol A and human chronic diseases: current evidences, possible mechanisms, and future perspectives \\| journal \\= Environment International \\| volume \\= 64 \\| pages \\= 83–90 \\| date \\= March 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24382480 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.envint.2013\\.12\\.007 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2014EnInt..64\\...83R }} BPA works by imitating the natural hormone [17B\\-estradiol](/wiki/17_beta_estradiol \"17 beta estradiol\"). In the past BPA has been considered a weak mimicker of [estrogen](/wiki/Estrogen \"Estrogen\") but newer evidence indicates that it is a potent mimicker.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Alonso\\-Magdalena P, Ropero AB, Soriano S, García\\-Arévalo M, Ripoll C, Fuentes E, Quesada I, Nadal Á \\| title \\= Bisphenol\\-A acts as a potent estrogen via non\\-classical estrogen triggered pathways \\| journal \\= Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 355 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 201–7 \\| date \\= May 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22227557 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.mce.2011\\.12\\.012 \\| s2cid \\= 2722264 }} When it binds to estrogen receptors it triggers alternative estrogenic effects that begin outside of the nucleus. This different path induced by BPA has been shown to alter glucose and lipid metabolism in animal studies.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Alonso\\-Magdalena P, Ropero AB, Soriano S, Quesada I, Nadal A \\| title \\= Bisphenol\\-A: a new diabetogenic factor? \\| journal \\= Hormones \\| volume \\= 9 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 118–26 \\| year \\= 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20687395 \\| url \\= http://hormones.gr/preview.php?c\\_id\\=551 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/BF03401277 \\| s2cid \\= 1086986 }}", "There are different effects of BPA exposure during different stages of development. During adulthood, BPA exposure modifies insulin sensitivity and insulin release without affecting weight.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Alonso\\-Magdalena P, Quesada I, Nadal A \\| title \\= Endocrine disruptors in the etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus \\| journal \\= Nature Reviews. Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 346–53 \\| date \\= June 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21467970 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nrendo.2011\\.56 \\| s2cid \\= 11924343 }}", "#### Thyroid function", "{{Main\\|Thyroid}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|BPA is a thyroid\\-disrupting chemical, that may especially affect pregnant women, neonates and small children.](/wiki/File:Illu_thyroid_parathyroid.jpg \"Illu thyroid parathyroid.jpg\")\nA 2007 review concluded that bisphenol\\-A has been shown to bind to thyroid hormone receptor and perhaps has selective effects on its functions.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zoeller RT \\| title \\= Environmental chemicals impacting the thyroid: targets and consequences \\| journal \\= Thyroid \\| volume \\= 17 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 811–7 \\| date \\= September 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17956155 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1089/thy.2007\\.0107 \\| s2cid \\= 3455164 }}", "A 2009 review about environmental chemicals and thyroid function raised concerns about BPA effects on [triiodothyronine](/wiki/Triiodothyronine \"Triiodothyronine\") and concluded that \"available evidence suggests that governing agencies need to regulate the use of thyroid\\-disrupting chemicals, particularly as such uses relate exposures of pregnant women, neonates and small children to the agents\".{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Boas M, Main KM, Feldt\\-Rasmussen U \\| title \\= Environmental chemicals and thyroid function: an update \\| journal \\= Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 385–91 \\| date \\= October 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19625957 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1097/MED.0b013e3283305af7 \\| s2cid \\= 12360120 }}", "A 2009 review summarized BPA adverse effects on thyroid hormone action.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1248/jhs.55\\.147 \\|title\\=Disruption of Thyroid Hormone Function by Environmental Pollutants \\|journal\\=Journal of Health Science \\|volume\\=55 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=147–160 \\|year\\=2009 \\|last1\\=Kashiwagi \\|first1\\=Keiko \\|last2\\=Furuno \\|first2\\=Nobuaki \\|last3\\=Kitamura \\|first3\\=Shigeyuki \\|last4\\=Ohta \\|first4\\=Shigeru \\|last5\\=Sugihara \\|first5\\=Kazumi \\|last6\\=Utsumi \\|first6\\=Kozo \\|last7\\=Hanada \\|first7\\=Hideki \\|last8\\=Taniguchi \\|first8\\=Kikuyo \\|last9\\=Suzuki \\|first9\\=Ken\\-Ichi \\|last10\\=Kashiwagi \\|first10\\=Akihiko \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "A 2016 case control study found that there was a significant association between urinary BPA levels and increased TSH levels (Thyroid\\- stimulating hormone) in a group of adult women.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Andrianou XD, Gängler S, Piciu A, Charisiadis P, Zira C, Aristidou K, Piciu D, Hauser R, Makris KC \\| title \\= Human Exposures to Bisphenol A, Bisphenol F and Chlorinated Bisphenol A Derivatives and Thyroid Function \\| journal \\= PLOS ONE \\| volume \\= 11 \\| issue \\= 10 \\| pages \\= e0155237 \\| year \\= 2016 \\| pmid \\= 27783680 \\| pmc \\= 5082639 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pone.0155237 \\| bibcode \\= 2016PLoSO..1155237A \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "### Neurological effects", "Limited epidemiological evidence suggests that exposure to BPA in the uterus and during childhood is associated with poor behavioral outcomes in humans. Exposure may be associated with higher levels of anxiety, depression, hyperactivity, and aggression in children.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ejaredar M, Lee Y, Roberts DJ, Sauve R, Dewey D \\| title \\= Bisphenol A exposure and children's behavior: A systematic review \\| journal \\= Journal of Exposure Science \\& Environmental Epidemiology \\| volume \\= 27 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 175–183 \\| date \\= March 2017 \\| pmid \\= 26956939 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/jes.2016\\.8 \\| bibcode \\= 2017JESEE..27\\..175E \\| s2cid \\= 19197823 }} A panel convened by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) of the U.S. [National Institutes of Health](/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health \"National Institutes of Health\") determined that there was \"some concern\" about BPA's effects on fetal and infant brain development and behavior.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/sya\\-bpa/ \\|title\\=Since you asked – Bisphenol A (BPA): Questions and Answers about Bisphenol A \\|publisher\\=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences \\|author1\\=John Bucher \\|author2\\=Mike Shelby \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2012}} In January 2010, based on the NTP report, the FDA expressed the same level of concern.Staff, FDA. January 2010; Updated March 2013\\. [Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application](https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm064437.htm) Accessed 7 May 2013Staff, FDA, DRAFT version 14 August 2008 [Draft Assessment of Bisphenol A for Use in Food Contact Applications](https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/AC/08/briefing/2008-0038b1_01_02_FDA%20BPA%20Draft%20Assessment.pdf) Accessed 7 May 2013", "A 2007 literature review concluded that BPA, like other chemicals that mimic estrogen (xenoestrogens), should be considered as a player within the nervous system that can regulate or alter its functions through multiple pathways.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Panzica GC, Viglietti\\-Panzica C, Mura E, Quinn MJ, Lavoie E, Palanza P, Ottinger MA \\| title \\= Effects of xenoestrogens on the differentiation of behaviorally\\-relevant neural circuits \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology \\| volume \\= 28 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 179–200 \\| date \\= October 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17868795 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.yfrne.2007\\.07\\.001 \\| s2cid \\= 37937428 }} A 2008 review of animal research found that low\\-dose BPA maternal exposure can cause long\\-term consequences for the neurobehavioral development in mice.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.envres.2008\\.07\\.023 \\|pmid\\=18949834 \\|title\\=Effects of developmental exposure to bisphenol a on brain and behavior in mice \\|journal\\=Environmental Research \\|volume\\=108 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=150–157 \\|year\\=2008 \\|last1\\=Palanza \\|first1\\=Paola \\|last2\\=Gioiosa \\|first2\\=Laura \\|last3\\=Vom Saal \\|first3\\=Frederick S. \\|last4\\=Parmigiani \\|first4\\=Stefano \\|bibcode\\=2008ER....108\\..150P }}\n[thumb\\|right\\|A 2008 review of studies concluded that BPA altered [long\\-term potentiation](/wiki/Long-term_potentiation \"Long-term potentiation\") in the [hippocampus](/wiki/Hippocampus \"Hippocampus\") and even nanomolar (10−9 [mol](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 \"Mole (unit)\")) dosage could induce significant effects on memory processes.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ogiue\\-Ikeda M, Tanabe N, Mukai H, Hojo Y, Murakami G, Tsurugizawa T, Takata N, Kimoto T, Kawato S \\| title \\= Rapid modulation of synaptic plasticity by estrogens as well as endocrine disrupters in hippocampal neurons \\| journal \\= Brain Research Reviews \\| volume \\= 57 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 363–75 \\| date \\= March 2008 \\| pmid \\= 17822775 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.brainresrev.2007\\.06\\.010 \\| s2cid \\= 18272343 }}](/wiki/File:Gray739-emphasizing-hippocampus.png \"Gray739-emphasizing-hippocampus.png\")\nA 2009 review raised concerns about a BPA effect on the [anteroventral periventricular nucleus](/wiki/Anteroventral_periventricular_nucleus \"Anteroventral periventricular nucleus\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Gore AC \\| title \\= Developmental programming and endocrine disruptor effects on reproductive neuroendocrine systems \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 358–74 \\| date \\= June 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18394690 \\| pmc \\= 2702520 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.yfrne.2008\\.02\\.002 }}", "#### Disruption of the dopaminergic system", "{{Main\\|Dopaminergic system}}\n[thumb\\|A 2008 review concluded that BPA mimics estrogenic activity and affects various dopaminergic processes to enhance [mesolimbic](/wiki/Mesolimbic \"Mesolimbic\") dopamine activity resulting in [hyperactivity](/wiki/Hyperactivity \"Hyperactivity\"), [attention deficits](/wiki/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder \"Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder\"), and a heightened sensitivity to [drugs of abuse](/wiki/Drugs_of_abuse \"Drugs of abuse\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jones DC, Miller GW \\| title \\= The effects of environmental neurotoxicants on the dopaminergic system: A possible role in drug addiction \\| journal \\= Biochemical Pharmacology \\| volume \\= 76 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 569–81 \\| date \\= September 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18555207 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.bcp.2008\\.05\\.010 }}](/wiki/File:Dopamine_pathways.svg \"Dopamine pathways.svg\")", "A 2008 review of human participants has concluded that BPA mimics estrogenic activity and affects various dopaminergic processes to enhance mesolimbic dopamine activity resulting in hyperactivity, attention deficits, and a heightened sensitivity to drugs of abuse.", "### Cancer", "According to the WHO's INFOSAN, carcinogenicity studies conducted under the U.S. National Toxicology Program have shown increases in [leukemia](/wiki/Leukemia \"Leukemia\") and testicular interstitial cell tumors in male rats. However, according to the note, \"these studies have not been considered as convincing evidence of a potential cancer risk because of the doubtful statistical significance of the small differences in incidences from controls.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/publications/fs\\_management/No\\_05\\_Bisphenol\\_A\\_Nov09\\_en.pdf\\|title\\=BISPHENOL A (BPA) – Current state of knowledge and future actions by WHO and FAO\\|date\\=27 November 2009\\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2009}}", "A 2010 review concluded that bisphenol A may increase cancer risk.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Soto AM, Sonnenschein C \\| title \\= Environmental causes of cancer: endocrine disruptors as carcinogens \\| journal \\= Nature Reviews. Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 6 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 363–70 \\| date \\= July 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20498677 \\| pmc \\= 3933258 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nrendo.2010\\.87 }}\nSeveral studies show evidence that the formation of prostate cancer in men is directly proportional to BPA exposure. Male subject diagnosed with prostate cancer were found to have higher urine concentration of BPA as opposed to the concentrations found in the control group's. This correlation may be due to BPA's ability to induce cell proliferation of the prostate cancer cells.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Tarapore P, Ying J, Ouyang B, Burke B, Bracken B, Ho SM \\| title \\= Exposure to bisphenol A correlates with early\\-onset prostate cancer and promotes centrosome amplification and anchorage\\-independent growth in vitro \\| journal \\= PLOS ONE \\| volume \\= 9 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= e90332 \\| year \\= 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24594937 \\| pmc \\= 3940879 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pone.0090332 \\| bibcode \\= 2014PLoSO...990332T \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wetherill YB, Akingbemi BT, Kanno J, McLachlan JA, Nadal A, Sonnenschein C, Watson CS, Zoeller RT, Belcher SM \\| title \\= In vitro molecular mechanisms of bisphenol A action \\| journal \\= Reproductive Toxicology \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 178–98 \\| year \\= 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17628395 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.reprotox.2007\\.05\\.010 \\| bibcode \\= 2007RepTx..24\\..178W }}", "#### Breast cancer", "{{Further\\|Risk factors of breast cancer\\#Bisphenol A}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Evidence from animal models is accumulating that perinatal exposure to BPA alters breast development and increases breast cancer risk.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.2533/chimia.2008\\.406 \\|title\\=Endocrine Disruptors and Breast Cancer \\|journal\\=CHIMIA International Journal for Chemistry \\|volume\\=62 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=406–409 \\|year\\=2008 \\|last1\\=Brisken \\|first1\\=Cathrin \\|url\\=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/125132 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}](/wiki/File:Mammo_breast_cancer.jpg \"Mammo breast cancer.jpg\")\nHigher susceptibility to breast cancer has been found in many studies of rodents and primates exposed to BPA. However, it is the impact BPA has on breast cancer development in humans is unclear, as it is difficult to quantify an individual's BPA exposure over their lifetime. BPA, which includes a phenolic structure, has shown an association with agonist and antagonistic endocrine receptors that facilitate endocrine disorders such as breast and prostate cancer. Other endocrine disorders include infertility, polycystic ovary syndrome, and precocious puberty.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ma R, Sassoon DA \\| title \\= PCBs exert an estrogenic effect through repression of the Wnt7a signaling pathway in the female reproductive tract \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 114 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 898–904 \\| date \\= June 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16759992 \\| pmc \\= 1480489 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.8748 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Diamanti\\-Kandarakis E, Bourguignon JP, Giudice LC, Hauser R, Prins GS, Soto AM, Zoeller RT, Gore AC \\| title \\= Endocrine\\-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society scientific statement \\| journal \\= Endocrine Reviews \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 293–342 \\| date \\= June 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19502515 \\| pmc \\= 2726844 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1210/er.2009\\-0002 }}", "More oxidative stress in breast cancer cells were found to be directly proportional to BPA exposure as per the findings in several in vitro studies. Additionally, work related exposure to BPA, and women who are postmenopausal have suggested an increase in breast cancer incidence.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= DeMatteo R, Keith MM, Brophy JT, Wordsworth A, Watterson AE, Beck M, Ford AR, Gilbertson M, Pharityal J, Rootham M, Scott DN \\| title \\= Chemical exposures of women workers in the plastics industry with particular reference to breast cancer and reproductive hazards \\| journal \\= New Solutions \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 427–48 \\| year \\= 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23207955 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2190/NS.22\\.4\\.d \\| bibcode \\= 2013NewSo..22\\..427D \\| s2cid \\= 16486016 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sprague BL, Trentham\\-Dietz A, Hedman CJ, Wang J, Hemming JD, Hampton JM, Buist DS, Aiello Bowles EJ, Sisney GS, Burnside ES \\| title \\= Circulating serum xenoestrogens and mammographic breast density \\| journal \\= Breast Cancer Research \\| volume \\= 15 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= R45 \\| date \\= May 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23710608 \\| pmc \\= 4053153 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1186/bcr3432 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "##### Mechanism of action", "BPA is an endocrine disruptor, meaning BPA has a similar structure to [oestrogen](/wiki/Oestrogen \"Oestrogen\") (ligand) and can bind to the oestrogen receptor [ERα](/wiki/ER%CE%B1 \"ERα\") and [ERβ](/wiki/ER%CE%B2 \"ERβ\") and activate it.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rubin BS \\| title \\= Bisphenol A: an endocrine disruptor with widespread exposure and multiple effects \\| journal \\= The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology \\| volume \\= 127 \\| issue \\= 1–2 \\| pages \\= 27–34 \\| date \\= October 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21605673 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.jsbmb.2011\\.05\\.002 \\| s2cid \\= 25102613 }}", "Oestrogen is hydrophobic and is able to diffuse through the plasma membrane and into the target cell. Oestradiol binding to the oestrogen receptor releases the heat shock protein from the ligand binding domain of the receptor causing dimerization.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Yaşar P, Ayaz G, User SD, Güpür G, Muyan M \\| title \\= Molecular mechanism of estrogen\\-estrogen receptor signaling \\| journal \\= Reproductive Medicine and Biology \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 4–20 \\| date \\= January 2017 \\| pmid \\= 29259445 \\| pmc \\= 5715874 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/rmb2\\.12006 }} The nuclear localisation signal targets the ligand\\-receptor complex to the nucleus where it can bind oestrogen response elements within the promoter of target genes on DNA. Subsequently, various cofactors are recruited allowing transcription of genes including those involved in cell proliferation.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zhang Q, Wu S, Liu L, Hou X, Jiang J, Wei X, Hao W \\| title \\= Effects of bisphenol A on gap junctions in HaCaT cells as mediated by the estrogen receptor pathway \\| journal \\= Journal of Applied Toxicology \\| volume \\= 39 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 271–281 \\| date \\= September 2018 \\| pmid \\= 30187510 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/jat.3717 \\| s2cid \\= 52161011 }}", "When BPA is exposed to high temperatures or changes in pH, the ester bond linking BPA monomers is hydrolysed. Free BPA then competes with oestrogen for ERα and ERβ binding sites. When BPA successfully binds the receptor, it interacts with ERE and increases expression of target genes like WNT\\-4 and RANKL; two key players in stem cell proliferation and carcinogenesis. BPA was also shown to inactivate [p53](/wiki/P53_upregulated_modulator_of_apoptosis \"P53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis\") which prevents tumour formation as it triggers apoptosis.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2018}}", "### Fertility", "As of 2022, current evidence shows a possible positive correlation between BPA levels, lower sperm quality, decreased motility and an increase in sperm immaturity.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rochester JR \\| title \\= Bisphenol A and human health: a review of the literature \\| journal \\= Reproductive Toxicology \\| volume \\= 42 \\| pages \\= 132–55 \\| date \\= December 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23994667 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.reprotox.2013\\.08\\.008 \\| bibcode \\= 2013RepTx..42\\..132R }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Radwan M, Wielgomas B, Dziewirska E, Radwan P, Kałużny P, Klimowska A, Hanke W, Jurewicz J \\| title \\= Urinary Bisphenol A Levels and Male Fertility \\| journal \\= American Journal of Men's Health \\| volume \\= 12 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 2144–2151 \\| date \\= November 2018 \\| pmid \\= 30261816 \\| pmc \\= 6199454 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1177/1557988318799163 }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Carrington \\|first\\=Damian \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-10 \\|title\\=Cocktail of chemical pollutants linked to falling sperm quality in research \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/10/cocktail\\-of\\-chemical\\-pollutants\\-linked\\-to\\-falling\\-sperm\\-quality\\-in\\-research \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-06 \\|website\\=The Guardian \\|language\\=en}} There is tentative evidence to support the idea that BPA exposure has negative effects on human fertility. Few studies have investigated whether recurrent [miscarriage](/wiki/Spontaneous_abortion \"Spontaneous abortion\") is associated with BPA levels.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Mok\\-Lin E, Ehrlich S, Williams PL, Petrozza J, Wright DL, Calafat AM, Ye X, Hauser R \\|date\\=April 2010 \\|title\\=Urinary bisphenol A concentrations and ovarian response among women undergoing IVF \\|journal\\=International Journal of Andrology \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=385–93 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1365\\-2605\\.2009\\.01014\\.x \\|pmc\\=3089904 \\|pmid\\=20002217}} Exposure to BPA does not appear to be linked with higher rates of [endometrial hyperplasia](/wiki/Endometrial_hyperplasia \"Endometrial hyperplasia\"). Exposure to BPA does not appear to be linked with higher rates of endometrial hyperplasia. A 2009 cohort study linked urinary BPA concentration of women undergoing IVF egg retrieval, with an inverse correlation to oocyte release. The study found that for each unit increase in day 3 FSH (IU/L), there was an average decrease of 9% in the number of oocytes retrieved. The positive correlations found in animal studies{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Akingbemi BT, Sottas CM, Koulova AI, Klinefelter GR, Hardy MP \\| title \\= Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat Leydig cells \\| journal \\= Endocrinology \\| volume \\= 145 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 592–603 \\| date \\= February 2004 \\| pmid \\= 14605012 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1210/en.2003\\-1174 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} warrants the continued research of BPA for couple fecundity.", "Ubiquitous in environment through consumer products such as reusable plastics, food and beverage container liners, baby bottles, water resistant clothing. It has been identified as an EDC and found in urine, blood, amniotic fluid, breast milk and cord blood. Comparing blood BPA and phthalate levels between fertile and infertile women between the ages of 20–40, using gas chromatographic\\-mass spectrometry to analyze the amount of BPA, phthalate and their metabolites in peripheral venous blood, showed significantly elevated serum BPA level in infertile women, as well as women with PCOS (polycystic ovarian syndrome) and women with endometriosis{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= anage G, Pednekar P, Gajbhiye R \\| display\\-authors \\= etal \\| year \\= 2019 \\| title \\= Estimation of plasma levels of bisphenol\\-A \\& phthalates in fertile \\& infertile women by gas chromatography\\-mass spectrometry \\| journal \\= Indian Journal of Medical Research \\| volume \\= 148 \\| issue \\= 6\\| pages \\= 734–742 \\| doi \\= 10\\.4103/ijmr.ijmr\\_2077\\_16 \\| pmid \\= 30778008 \\| pmc \\= 6396564 \\| s2cid \\= 73466089 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "BPA is shown to have transgenerational effect by targeting ovarian function by changes in the structural integrity of microtubules that constitute meiotic spindles. BPA contaminants pass through amniotic fluid can alter steroidogenesis in fetal development. This will result if oocyte maturation failure as well as fertility{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Peretz J, Craig ZR, Flaws JA \\| year \\= 2012 \\| title \\= Bisphenol A inhibits follicle growth and induces atresia in cultured mouse antral follicles independently of the genomic estrogenic pathway \\| journal \\= Biol Reprod \\| volume \\= 87 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 1–11 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1095/biolreprod.112\\.101899 \\| pmid \\= 22743301 \\| pmc \\= 3464906 }} This in turn will result in transgenerational effect and affect the third generation of offspring{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mlynarcikova A, Kolena J, Fickova M, Scsukova S \\| year \\= 2005 \\| title \\= Alterations in steroid hormone production by porcine ovarian granulosa cells caused by bisphenol A and bisphenol A dimethaceylate \\| journal \\= Mol Cell Endocrinol \\| volume \\= 244 \\| issue \\= 1–2\\| pages \\= 57–62 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.mce.2005\\.02\\.009 \\| pmid \\= 16225985 \\| s2cid \\= 12945703 }}", "#### Sexual function", "Higher BPA exposure has been associated with increased self\\-reporting of decreased male sexual function but few studies examining this relationship have been conducted.", "### Asthma", "Studies in mice have found a link between BPA exposure and asthma; a 2010 study on mice has concluded that [perinatal](/wiki/Pregnancy%23Perinatal_period \"Pregnancy#Perinatal period\") exposure to 10 μg/mL of BPA in drinking water enhances allergic sensitization and bronchial inflammation and responsiveness in an animal model of [asthma](/wiki/Asthma \"Asthma\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id\\=new\\-study\\-links\\-bpa\\-and\\-childhood\\-asthma \\|title\\=New Study Links BPA and Childhood Asthma \\|work\\=Scientific American \\|date\\=2013\\-03\\-01 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-01}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Midoro\\-Horiuti T, Tiwari R, Watson CS, Goldblum RM \\| title \\= Maternal bisphenol a exposure promotes the development of experimental asthma in mouse pups \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 118 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 273–7 \\| date \\= February 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20123615 \\| pmc \\= 2831929 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.0901259 }} A study published in JAMA Pediatrics has found that prenatal exposure to BPA is also linked to lower lung capacity in some young children. This study had 398 mother\\-infant pairs and looked at their urine samples to detect concentrations of BPA. They study found that every 10\\-fold increase in BPA was tied to a 55% increase in the odds of wheezing. The higher the concentration of BPA during pregnancy were linked to decrease lung capacity in children under four years old but the link disappeared at age 5\\. Associate professor of pediatrics at the [University of Maryland School of Medicine](/wiki/University_of_Maryland_School_of_Medicine \"University of Maryland School of Medicine\") said, \"Exposure during pregnancy, not after, appears to be the critical time for BPA, possibly because it's affecting important pathways that help the lung develop.\"{{Cite magazine\\|url \\= http://time.com/3475859/bpa\\-lung\\-function\\-children/\\|title \\= The Link Between Asthma and This Chemical\\|last \\= Oaklander\\|first \\= M\\|date \\= 7 October 2014\\|magazine \\= Time\\|access\\-date \\= 20 October 2015}}", "In 2013, research from scientists at the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health also found a link between the compound and an increased risk for asthma. The research team reported that children with higher levels of BPA at ages 3, 5 and 7 had increased odds of developing asthma when they were between the ages of 5 and 12\\. The children in this study had about the same concentration of BPA exposure as the average U.S. child. Dr. Kathleen Donohue, an instructor at Columbia University Medical Center said, \"they saw an increased risk of asthma at fairly routine, low doses of BPA.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Widely used chemical linked to childhood asthma\\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/widely\\-used\\-chemical\\-linked\\-to\\-childhood\\-asthma/\\|publisher\\=CBS News\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2013}} Kim Harley, who studies environmental chemicals and children's health, commented in the [Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American \"Scientific American\") journal saying while the study does not show that BPA causes asthma or wheezing, \"it's an important study because we don't know a lot right now about how BPA affects immune response and asthma...They measured BPA at different ages, measured asthma and wheeze at multiple points, and still found consistent associations.\"", "### Animal research", "The first evidence of the [estrogenicity](/wiki/Estrogenicity \"Estrogenicity\") of bisphenol A came from experiments on rats conducted in the 1930s, but it was not until 1997 that adverse effects of low\\-dose exposure on laboratory animals were first reported.\nBisphenol A is an [endocrine disruptor](/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor \"Endocrine disruptor\") that can mimic [estrogen](/wiki/Estrogen \"Estrogen\") and has been shown to cause negative health effects in animal studies. Bisphenol A closely mimics the structure and function of the hormone [estradiol](/wiki/Estradiol \"Estradiol\") by binding to and activating the same estrogen receptor as the natural hormone.{{cite book \\| author \\= Gore AC \\| title \\= Endocrine\\-Disrupting Chemicals: From Basic Research to Clinical Practice \\| publisher \\= Humana Press \\| date \\= 8 June 2007 \\| series \\= Contemporary Endocrinology \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-58829\\-830\\-0 }}{{page needed\\|date\\=December 2018}}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1351/pac200375112099 \\|title\\=Critical evaluation of observed adverse effects of endocrine active substances on reproduction and development, the immune system, and the nervous system \\|journal\\=Pure and Applied Chemistry \\|volume\\=75 \\|issue\\=11–12 \\|pages\\=2099–2123 \\|year\\=2003 \\|last1\\=O'Connor \\|first1\\=J. C. \\|last2\\=Chapin \\|first2\\=R. E. \\|s2cid\\=97899046 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Okada H, Tokunaga T, Liu X, Takayanagi S, Matsushima A, Shimohigashi Y \\| title \\= Direct evidence revealing structural elements essential for the high binding ability of bisphenol A to human estrogen\\-related receptor\\-gamma \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 116 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 32–8 \\| date \\= January 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18197296 \\| pmc \\= 2199305 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.10587 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= vom Saal FS, Myers JP \\| title \\= Bisphenol A and risk of metabolic disorders \\| journal \\= JAMA \\| volume \\= 300 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 1353–5 \\| date \\= September 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18799451 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1001/jama.300\\.11\\.1353 }} Early developmental stages appear to be the period of greatest sensitivity to its effects,[Draft Screening Assessment for The Challenge Phenol, 4,4' \\-(1\\-methylethylidene)bis\\- (Bisphenol A)Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number 80\\-05\\-7\\.](http://www.ec.gc.ca/substances/ese/eng/challenge/batch2/batch2_80-05-7.cfm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905045805/http://www.ec.gc.ca/substances/ese/eng/challenge/batch2/batch2\\_80\\-05\\-7\\.cfm \\|date\\=5 September 2012 }} [Health Canada](/wiki/Health_Canada \"Health Canada\"), 2008\\.", "A study from 2008 concluded that blood levels of bisphenol A in neonatal mice are the same whether it is injected or ingested.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Taylor JA, Welshons WV, Vom Saal FS \\| title \\= No effect of route of exposure (oral; subcutaneous injection) on plasma bisphenol A throughout 24h after administration in neonatal female mice \\| journal \\= Reproductive Toxicology \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 169–76 \\| date \\= February 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18295446 \\| pmc \\= 3564515 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.reprotox.2008\\.01\\.001 \\| bibcode \\= 2008RepTx..25\\..169T }}\nThe current U.S. human exposure limit set by the EPA is 50 μg/kg/day.\nIn a 2010 commentary a group of scientists criticized a study designed to test low dose BPA exposure published in *\"Toxicological Sciences\"*{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ryan BC, Hotchkiss AK, Crofton KM, Gray LE \\| title \\= In utero and lactational exposure to bisphenol A, in contrast to ethinyl estradiol, does not alter sexually dimorphic behavior, puberty, fertility, and anatomy of female LE rats \\| journal \\= Toxicological Sciences \\| volume \\= 114 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 133–48 \\| date \\= March 2010 \\| pmid \\= 19864446 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/toxsci/kfp266 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} and a later editorial by the same journal,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sharpe RM \\| title \\= Is it time to end concerns over the estrogenic effects of bisphenol A? \\| journal \\= Toxicological Sciences \\| volume \\= 114 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1–4 \\| date \\= March 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20147444 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/toxsci/kfp299 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} which claimed the rats used in the study were insensitive to estrogen and that had other problems like the use of BPA\\-containing polycabonate cages{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= vom Saal FS, Akingbemi BT, Belcher SM, Crain DA, Crews D, Guidice LC, Hunt PA, Leranth C, Myers JP, Nadal A, Olea N, Padmanabhan V, Rosenfeld CS, Schneyer A, Schoenfelder G, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM, Stahlhut RW, Swan SH, Vandenberg LN, Wang HS, Watson CS, Welshons WV, Zoeller RT \\| title \\= Flawed experimental design reveals the need for guidelines requiring appropriate positive controls in endocrine disruption research \\| journal \\= Toxicological Sciences \\| volume \\= 115 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 612–3 \\| date \\= June 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20164146 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/toxsci/kfq048 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} while the authors disagreed.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Gray LE, Ryan B, Hotchkiss AK, Crofton KM \\| title \\= Rebuttal of 'Flawed Experimental Design Reveals the Need for Guidelines Requiring Appropriate Positive Controls in Endocrine Disruption Research' by (Vom Saal 2010\\) \\| journal \\= Toxicological Sciences \\| volume \\= 115 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 614–620 \\| date \\= June 2010 \\| pmid \\= 29910598\\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/toxsci/kfq073 \\| pmc \\= 6002156 }}", "Different expression of ERR\\-γ in different parts of the body may account for variations in bisphenol A effects. For instance, ERR\\-γ has been found in high concentration in the [placenta](/wiki/Placenta \"Placenta\"), explaining reports of high bisphenol accumulation in this tissue.", "### Environmental effects", "In 2010, the [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency \"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\") reported that over one million pounds of BPA are released into the environment annually.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Erler C, Novak J \\| title \\= Bisphenol a exposure: human risk and health policy \\| journal \\= Journal of Pediatric Nursing \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 400–7 \\| date \\= October 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20816563 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.pedn.2009\\.05\\.006 }} BPA can be released into the environment by both pre\\-consumer and post\\-consumer leaching. Common routes of introduction from the pre\\-consumer perspective into the environment are directly from chemical plastics, coat and staining manufacturers, foundries who use BPA in casting sand, or transport of BPA and BPA\\-containing products .{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Corrales J, Kristofco LA, Steele WB, Yates BS, Breed CS, Williams ES, Brooks BW \\| title \\= Global Assessment of Bisphenol A in the Environment: Review and Analysis of Its Occurrence and Bioaccumulation \\| journal \\= Dose\\-Response \\| volume \\= 13 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 1559325815598308 \\| year \\= 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26674671 \\| pmc \\= 4674187 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1177/1559325815598308 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/FR\\-2011\\-07\\-26/2011\\-18842/content\\-detail.html \\|title\\=Testing of Bisphenol A, Advance notice of proposed rulemaking (ANPRM)\\|website\\=Federal Register /Vol. 76, No. 143 / Proposed Rules\\|publisher\\=Federal Register \\|author\\=EPA\\|date\\=26 July 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2017}} Post\\-consumer BPA waste comes from effluent discharge from municipal wastewater treatment plants, irrigation pipes used in agriculture, ocean\\-borne plastic trash, indirect leaching from plastic, paper, and metal waste in landfills, and paper or material recycling companies.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090820\\-plastic\\-decomposes\\-oceans\\-seas.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826095155/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090820\\-plastic\\-decomposes\\-oceans\\-seas.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=26 August 2009\\|title\\=Plastic Breaks Down in Ocean, After All – And Fast\\|website\\=National Geographic\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-27\\|date\\=2009\\-08\\-20}} Despite a rapid soil and water [half\\-life](/wiki/Half-life \"Half-life\") of 4\\.5 days, and an air half\\-life of less than one day, BPA's ubiquity makes it an important [pollutant](/wiki/Pollutant \"Pollutant\"). BPA has a low rate of evaporation from water and soil, which presents issues, despite its [biodegradability](/wiki/Biodegradation \"Biodegradation\") and low concern for bio\\-accumulation. BPA has low [volatility](/wiki/Volatility_%28chemistry%29 \"Volatility (chemistry)\") in the atmosphere and a low [vapor pressure](/wiki/Vapor_pressure \"Vapor pressure\") between 5\\.00 and 5\\.32 Pascals. BPA has a high [water solubility](/wiki/Aqueous_solution \"Aqueous solution\") of about 120 mg/L and most of its reactions in the environment are [aqueous](/wiki/Aqueous_solution \"Aqueous solution\"). An interesting fact is that BPA dust is flammable if ignited, but it has a minimal explosive concentration in air.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Rost\\|first\\=John M.\\|date\\=September 2012\\|title\\=Risk\\-Based Green Screen Assessment of Bisphenol A\\|url\\=https://www1\\.maine.gov/dep/safechem/documents/gradient\\-risk\\-based\\-assessment.pdf\\|journal\\=Gradient Corp\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216160016/http://www.maine.gov/dep/safechem/documents/gradient\\-risk\\-based\\-assessment.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=16 February 2017}} Also, in aqueous solutions, BPA has shown absorption of wavelengths greater than 250 nm.", "The ubiquitous nature of BPA makes the compound an important pollutant to study as it has been shown to interfere with [nitrogen fixation](/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation \"Nitrogen fixation\") at the roots of [leguminous](/wiki/Legume \"Legume\") plants associated with the bacterial symbiont *[Sinorhizobium meliloti](/wiki/Sinorhizobium_meliloti \"Sinorhizobium meliloti\").*{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Fox JE, Gulledge J, Engelhaupt E, Burow ME, McLachlan JA \\| title \\= Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen\\-fixing rhizobia and host plants \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 104 \\| issue \\= 24 \\| pages \\= 10282–7 \\| date \\= June 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17548832 \\| pmc \\= 1885820 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.0611710104 \\| bibcode \\= 2007PNAS..10410282F \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} A 2013 study also observed changes in plant health due to BPA exposure. The study exposed [soybean](/wiki/Soybean \"Soybean\") seedlings to various concentrations of BPA and saw changes in root growth, [nitrate](/wiki/Nitrate \"Nitrate\") production, [ammonium](/wiki/Ammonium \"Ammonium\") production, and changes in the activities of [nitrate reductase](/wiki/Nitrate_reductase \"Nitrate reductase\") and [nitrite reductase](/wiki/Nitrite_reductase \"Nitrite reductase\"). At low doses of BPA, the growth of roots were improved, the amount of nitrate in roots increased, the amount of ammonium in roots decreased, and the nitrate and nitrite reductase activities remained unchanged. However, at considerably higher concentrations of BPA, the opposite effects were seen for all but an increase in nitrate concentration and a decrease in nitrite and nitrate reductase activities.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sun H, Wang L, Zhou Q \\| title \\= Effects of bisphenol A on growth and nitrogen nutrition of roots of soybean seedlings \\| journal \\= Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry \\| volume \\= 32 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 174–80 \\| date \\= January 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23109293 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/etc.2042 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Nitrogen is both a plant nutritional substance, but also the basis of growth and development in plants. Changing concentrations of BPA can be harmful to the ecology of an ecosystem, as well as to humans if the plants are produced to be consumed.", "The amount of absorbed BPA on sediment was also seen to decrease with increases in temperature, as demonstrated by a study in 2006 with various plants from the [XiangJiang River](/wiki/XiangJiang_River \"XiangJiang River\") in Central\\-South China. In general, as temperature increases, the water solubility of a compound increases. Therefore, the amount of sorbate that enters the solid phase will lower at the [equilibrium point](/wiki/Equilibrium_point \"Equilibrium point\"). It was also observed that the adsorption process of BPA on sediment is exothermic, the molar formation [enthalpy](/wiki/Enthalpy \"Enthalpy\"), [ΔH°](/wiki/Enthalpy \"Enthalpy\"), was negative, the free energy [ΔG°](/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy \"Gibbs free energy\"), was negative, and the molar [entropy](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\"), [ΔS°](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\"), was positive. This indicates that the [adsorption](/wiki/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") of BPA is driven by enthalpy. The adsorption of BPA has also been observed to decrease with increasing [pH](/wiki/PH \"PH\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zeng G, Zhang C, Huang G, Yu J, Wang Q, Li J, Xi B, Liu H \\| title \\= Adsorption behavior of bisphenol A on sediments in Xiangjiang River, Central\\-south China \\| journal \\= Chemosphere \\| volume \\= 65 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 1490–9 \\| date \\= November 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16737729 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.chemosphere.2006\\.04\\.013 \\| bibcode \\= 2006Chmsp..65\\.1490Z }}", "A 2005 study conducted in the United States had found that 91–98% of BPA may be removed from water during treatment at municipal water treatment plants.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.2175/106143005X41573 \\|pmid\\=15765931 \\|title\\=An Assessment of Endocrine Disrupting Activity Changes during Wastewater Treatment through the Use of Bioassays and Chemical Measurements \\|journal\\=Water Environment Research \\|volume\\=77 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=12–23 \\|year\\=2005 \\|last1\\=Drewes \\|first1\\=Jörg E. \\|last2\\=Hemming \\|first2\\=Jocelyn \\|last3\\=Ladenburger \\|first3\\=Sarah J. \\|last4\\=Schauer \\|first4\\=James \\|last5\\=Sonzogni \\|first5\\=William \\|bibcode\\=2005WaEnR..77\\...12D \\|s2cid\\=12283834 }} A more detailed explanation of aqueous reactions of BPA can be observed in the Degradation of BPA section below. Nevertheless, a 2009 meta\\-analysis of BPA in the surface water system showed BPA present in surface water and sediment in the United States and Europe.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Klečka G, Staples C, Clark K, Anderhoeven N, Thomas D, Hentges S \\|title\\= Exposure analysis of Bisphenol A in surface water systems in North America and Europe\\| journal\\=Environ. Sci. Technol.\\| year\\= 2009\\|volume\\= 43\\|issue\\= 16\\|pages\\= 6145–6150\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/es900598e\\|pmid\\= 19746705\\|bibcode \\= 2009EnST...43\\.6145K }} According to [Environment Canada](/wiki/Environment_Canada \"Environment Canada\") in 2011, \"BPA can currently be found in municipal wastewater. \\[…]initial assessment shows that at low levels, bisphenol A can harm fish and organisms over time.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/fact\\-fait/bisphenol\\-a\\-eng.php\\|title\\=Bisphenol A Fact Sheet\\|publisher\\=Government of Canada \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423211655/http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/fact\\-fait/bisphenol\\-a\\-eng.php\\|archive\\-date\\=23 April 2011\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2012}}", "BPA affects growth, reproduction, and development in aquatic organisms. Among freshwater organisms, fish appear to be the most sensitive species. Evidence of endocrine\\-related effects in fish, aquatic invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles has been reported at environmentally relevant exposure levels lower than those required for acute toxicity. There is a widespread variation in reported values for endocrine\\-related effects, but many fall in the range of 1μg/L to 1 mg/L.", "A 2009 review of the biological impacts of [plasticizers](/wiki/Plasticizer \"Plasticizer\") on wildlife published by the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society \"Royal Society\") with a focus on aquatic and terrestrial [annelids](/wiki/Annelids \"Annelids\"), [molluscs](/wiki/Molluscs \"Molluscs\"), [crustaceans](/wiki/Crustaceans \"Crustaceans\"), insects, fish and [amphibians](/wiki/Amphibian \"Amphibian\") concluded that BPA affects reproduction in all studied animal groups, impairs development in crustaceans and amphibians and induces genetic aberrations.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Oehlmann J, Schulte\\-Oehlmann U, Kloas W, Jagnytsch O, Lutz I, Kusk KO, Wollenberger L, Santos EM, Paull GC, Van Look KJ, Tyler CR \\| title \\= A critical analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife \\| journal \\= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences \\| volume \\= 364 \\| issue \\= 1526 \\| pages \\= 2047–62 \\| date \\= July 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19528055 \\| pmc \\= 2873012 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1098/rstb.2008\\.0242}}", "" ]
Positions of national and international bodies ---------------------------------------------- ### World Health Organization In November 2009, the [WHO](/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") announced to organize an expert consultation in 2010 to assess low\-dose BPA exposure health effects, focusing on the nervous and behavioral system and exposure to young children. The 2010 WHO expert panel recommended no new regulations limiting or banning the use of bisphenol\-A, stating that "initiation of public health measures would be premature."Brown, Eryn. ["Jury still out on BPA, World Health Organization says"](https://www.latimes.com/health/la-xpm-2010-nov-11-la-heb-who-bpa-20101111-story.html), *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, 11 November 2010\. Retrieved 7 February 2011\.["Toxicological and Health Aspects of Bisphenol\-A"](https://web.archive.org/web/20141106085246/http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/bisphenol-a/en/). World Health Organization. 2011\. ### United States In 2013, the FDA posted on its web site: "Is BPA safe? Yes. Based on FDA's ongoing safety review of scientific evidence, the available information continues to support the safety of BPA for the approved uses in food containers and packaging. People are exposed to low levels of BPA because, like many packaging components, very small amounts of BPA may migrate from the [food packaging](/wiki/Food_packaging "Food packaging") into foods or beverages."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm355155\.htm \|title\=Questions \& Answers on Bisphenol A (BPA) Use in Food Contact Applications \|publisher\=Fda.gov \|date\=2013\-06\-04 \|access\-date\=2014\-02\-01}} FDA issued a statement on the basis of three previous reviews by a group of assembled Agency experts in 2014 in its "Final report for the review of literature and data on BPA" that said in part, "The results of these new toxicity data and studies do not affect the dose\-effect level and the existing NOAEL (5 mg/kg bw/day; oral exposure)."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/UCM424011\.pdf \|title\=Final Report for the Review of Literature and Data on BPA \|publisher\=Fda.gov \|date\=2014\-06\-06}} ### Australia and New Zealand In 2009 the Australia and New Zealand Food Safety Authority ([Food Standards Australia New Zealand](/wiki/Food_Standards_Australia_New_Zealand "Food Standards Australia New Zealand")) did not see any health risk with bisphenol A [baby bottles](/wiki/Baby_bottle "Baby bottle") if the manufacturer's instructions were followed, as levels of exposure were very low and would not pose a significant health risk. It added that "the move by overseas manufacturers to stop using BPA in baby bottles is a voluntary action and not the result of a specific action by regulators."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/newsroom/factsheets/factsheets2009/bisphenolabpaandfood4218\.cfm \|title\=Bisphenol A (BPA) and food packaging \|publisher\=Food Standards Australia New Zealand \|date\=May 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100109102336/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/educationalmaterial/factsheets/factsheets2009/bisphenolabpaandfood4218\.cfm \|archive\-date\=9 January 2010 \|access\-date\=1 February 2012}} In 2008 it had suggested the use of glass baby bottles if parents had concerns.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals\-nutrients\-additives\-and\-toxins/bisphenol\-a.htm \|title\=Babies' bottles and bisphenol A \|date\=May 2008 \|publisher\=\[\[New Zealand Food Safety Authority]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726062453/http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals\-nutrients\-additives\-and\-toxins/bisphenol\-a.htm \|archive\-date\=26 July 2010 \|access\-date\=1 February 2012}} In 2012 the Australian Government introduced a voluntary phase out of BPA use in polycarbonate baby bottles.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumerinformation/bisphenolabpa/ \|title\=Bisphenol A (BPA) \|publisher\=Food Standards Australia New Zealand \|date\=April 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110093633/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumerinformation/bisphenolabpa/ \|archive\-date\=10 November 2012}} ### Canada In April 2008, [Health Canada](/wiki/Health_Canada "Health Canada") concluded that, while adverse health effects were not expected, the margin of safety was too small for formula\-fed infants{{cite news \|last\= Morrissey \|first\=Susan R. \|title\=Banning Bisphenol A in Baby Bottles: Canada moves toward restricting the chemical; Congress proposes similar legislation \|work\=Chemical and Engineering News \|date\=23 April 2008 \|url\=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/86/i17/8617news4\.html}} and proposed classifying the chemical as "'toxic' to human health and the environment."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/challenge\-defi/batch\-lot\-2/bisphenol\-a/index\-eng.php \|title\=Bisphenol A \|website\=Health Canada \|access\-date\=2 February 2012\|date\=2006\-10\-27 }} The Canadian Minister of Health announced Canada's intent to ban the import, sale, and advertisement of polycarbonate baby bottles containing bisphenol A due to safety concerns, and investigate ways to reduce BPA contamination of baby formula packaged in metal cans. Subsequent news reports from April 2008 showed many retailers removing polycarbonate drinking products from their shelves.{{usurped\|1\=\[https://archive.today/20080418164757/http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Politics/2008/04/15/5293466\-cp.html Canoe.ca]}}, Politics: Bisphenol A water\-bottle removal expanding among Canadian retailers. On 18 October 2008, Health Canada noted that "bisphenol A exposure to newborns and infants is below levels that cause effects" and that the "general public need not be concerned".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hc\-sc.gc.ca/ahc\-asc/media/nr\-cp/\_2008/2008\_167\-eng.php \|title\=Government of Canada Protects Families With Bisphenol A Regulations \|publisher\=Health Canada \|date\=17 October 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226005022/http://www.hc\-sc.gc.ca/ahc\-asc/media/nr\-cp/\_2008/2008\_167\-eng.php \|archive\-date\=26 February 2010 \|access\-date\=1 February 2012}} In 2010, Canada's department of the environment declared BPA to be a "toxic substance" and added it to schedule 1 of the [Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999](/wiki/Canadian_Environmental_Protection_Act%2C_1999 "Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp\-pr/p2/2010/2010\-10\-13/html/sor\-dors194\-eng.html\|title\=Order Adding a Toxic Substance to Schedule 1 to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999\|website\=\[\[Canada Gazette]]\|date\=23 September 2010\|access\-date\=2 February 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204063111/http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp\-pr/p2/2010/2010\-10\-13/html/sor\-dors194\-eng.html\|archive\-date\=4 February 2012}} ### European Union The 2008 European Union Risk Assessment Report on {{nowrap\|bisphenol A}}, published by the European Commission and [European Food Safety Authority](/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority "European Food Safety Authority") (EFSA), concluded that {{nowrap\|bisphenol A}}\-based products, such as [polycarbonate](/wiki/Polycarbonate "Polycarbonate") plastic and [epoxy](/wiki/Epoxy "Epoxy") resins, are safe for consumers and the environment when used as intended.[Rapporteur](/wiki/Rapporteur "Rapporteur"): United Kingdom. (2008\). [JRC.it Updated European Risk Assessment Report: 4,4'\-ISOPROPYLIDENEDIPHENOL (BISPHENOL\-A)](http://ecb.jrc.it/documents/Existing-Chemicals/RISK_ASSESSMENT/ADDENDUM/bisphenola_add_325.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215111728/http://ecb.jrc.it/documents/Existing\-Chemicals/RISK\_ASSESSMENT/ADDENDUM/bisphenola\_add\_325\.pdf \|date\=15 February 2010 }} FINAL APPROVED VERSION AWAITING FOR PUBLICATION. [EFSA, Press release](http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/080723) By October 2008, after the [Lang Study](/wiki/%23Lang_study_and_heart_disease "#Lang study and heart disease") was published, the EFSA issued a statement concluding that the study provided no grounds to revise the current Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) level for BPA of {{nowrap\|0\.05 mg/kg}} bodyweight.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/corporate\_publications/files/factsheetbpa150121\.pdf\|title\=Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) level for BPA}} On 22 December 2009, the EU Environment ministers released a statement expressing concerns over recent studies showing adverse effects of exposure to [endocrine disruptors](/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor "Endocrine disruptor").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/NewsWord/en/envir/112043\.doc\|title\=Council conclusions on combination effects of chemicals\|date\=22 December 2009\|publisher\=Council of The European Union\|access\-date\=30 December 2009\|location\=Brussels\|archive\-date\=15 February 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215151214/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/NewsWord/en/envir/112043\.doc}} In September 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded after a "comprehensive evaluation of recent toxicity data \[…] that no new study could be identified, which would call for a revision of the current TDI".{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.2903/j.efsa.2010\.1829 \|title\=Scientific Opinion on Bisphenol A: Evaluation of a study investigating its neurodevelopmental toxicity, review of recent scientific literature on its toxicity and advice on the Danish risk assessment of Bisphenol A \|journal\=EFSA Journal \|volume\=8 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=1829 \|year\=2010 \|doi\-access\=free }} The Panel noted that some studies conducted on developing animals have suggested BPA\-related effects of possible toxicological relevance, in particular biochemical changes in brain, immune\-modulatory effects and enhanced susceptibility to breast tumours but considered that those studies had several shortcomings so the relevance of these findings for human health could not be assessed. On 25 November 2010, the [European Union executive commission](/wiki/European_Commission%23Executive_power "European Commission#Executive power") said it planned to ban the manufacturing by {{nowrap\|1 March 2011}} and ban the marketing and market placement of [polycarbonate](/wiki/Polycarbonate "Polycarbonate") [baby bottles](/wiki/Baby_bottle "Baby bottle") containing the organic compound {{nowrap\|bisphenol A}} by {{nowrap\|1 June 2011}}, according to [John Dalli](/wiki/John_Dalli "John Dalli"), [commissioner](/wiki/European_Commissioner "European Commissioner") in charge of health and consumer policy. This was backed by a majority of EU governments.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-eu\-health\-plastic\-idUSTRE6AO3MS20101125 \|title\=EU to ban Bisphenol A in baby bottles in 2011 \|work\=Reuters \|date\=25 November 2010 \|access\-date\=2 February 2012}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.physorg.com/news/2010\-11\-europe\-baby\-bottles\-bisphenol\-a.html \|title\=Europe bans baby bottles with Bisphenol\-A \|publisher\=PhysOrg.com \|date\=25 November 2010 \|access\-date\=2 February 2012}} The ban was called an over\-reaction by Richard Sharpe, of the [Medical Research Council](/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_%28UK%29 "Medical Research Council (UK)")'s Human Reproductive Sciences Unit, who said to be unaware of any convincing evidence justifying the measure and criticized it as being done on political, rather than scientific grounds.{{cite news \|title\=EU bans bisphenol A chemical from babies' bottles \|url\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-11843820 \|work\=BBC News \|date\=25 November 2010\|quote\=I do not know of any convincing evidence that bisphenol A exposure, in the amounts used in polycarbonate bottles, can cause any harm to babies, as not only are the amounts so minuscule but they are rapidly broken down in the gut and liver. }} In January 2011 use of {{nowrap\|bisphenol A}} in [baby bottles](/wiki/Baby_bottle "Baby bottle") was forbidden in all EU\-countries. After reviewing more recent research, in 2012 EFSA made a decision to re\-evaluate the human risks associated with exposure to BPA. They completed a draft assessment of consumer exposure to BPA in July 2013 and at that time asked for public input from all stakeholders to assist in forming a final report, which is expected to be completed in 2014\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/bisphenol\|title\=Bisphenol A\|website\=European Food Safety Authority\|date\=December 2023 }} In January 2014, EFSA presented a second part of the draft opinion which discussed the human health risks posed by BPA. The draft opinion was accompanied by an eight\-week public consultation and also included adverse effects on the liver and kidney as related to BPA. From this it was recommended that the current TDI to be revised.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/bisphenol\|title \= EFSA Topic: Bisphenol A\|date \= 24 October 2014\|access\-date \= 27 October 2014\|website \= European Safety Authority}} In January 2015 EFSA indicated that the TDI was reduced from 50 to 4 μg/kg body weight/day – a recommendation, as national legislatures make the laws.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/bisphenol\-a\-eu\-lebensmittelamt\-senkt\-grenzwert\-fuer\-a\-1014139\.html\|title\=Umstrittene Chemikalie: EU\-Behörde senkt Grenzwert für Bisphenol A \|work\=Der Spiegel \|language\=German \|date\=21 January 2015 \|access\-date\=21 January 2015}} The EU Commission issued a new regulation regarding the use of {{nowrap\|bisphenol A}} in thermal paper on 12 December 2016\. According to this new regulation, thermal paper containing {{nowrap\|bisphenol A}} cannot be placed on the EU market after 2 January 2020\. This regulation came into effect on 2 January 2017 but there is a transition period of three years.{{Cite web\|url\=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/2235/oj/eng\|title\=EUR\-Lex – 32016R2235 – EN – EUR\-Lex}} On 12 January 2017, BPA was added to the candidate list of [substances of very high concern](/wiki/Substance_of_very_high_concern "Substance of very high concern") (SVHC).{{cite news\|title\=Four new substances of very high concern added to the Candidate List\|publisher\=\[\[European Chemicals Agency]]\|date\=12 January 2017\|url\=https://echa.europa.eu/\-/four\-new\-substances\-of\-very\-high\-concern\-added\-to\-the\-candidate\-list}} Candidate SVHC listing is a first step towards restricting the importing and use of a chemical in the EU. If the European Chemical Agency assigns SVHC status, the presence of BPA in a product at a concentration above 0\.1% must be disclosed to a purchaser (with different rules for consumer and business purchasers). In February 2016, France had announced that it intended to propose BPA as a candidate SVHC by 8 August 2016\. #### Denmark In May 2009, the Danish parliament passed a resolution to ban the use of BPA in baby bottles, which had not been enacted by April 2010\. In March 2010, a temporary ban was declared by the Health Minister.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Politik/2010/03/26/113304\.htm \|title\=Danmark forbyder giftigt stof i sutteflasker \|language\=Danish \|publisher\=DR \|date\=26 March 2010 \|access\-date\=31 January 2012}} #### Belgium In March 2010, senator [Philippe Mahoux](/wiki/Philippe_Mahoux "Philippe Mahoux") proposed legislation to ban BPA in [food contact plastics](/wiki/Food_contact_materials "Food contact materials").{{cite web \|url\=http://nieuws.be.msn.com/buitenland/artikel.aspx?cp\-documentid\=152421106 \|title\=Negen op tien zuigflessen zijn gevaarlijk \|language\=Dutch \|publisher\=Microsoft \|date\=3 May 2010 \|access\-date\=31 January 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318072634/http://nieuws.be.msn.com/buitenland/artikel.aspx?cp\-documentid\=152421106 \|archive\-date\=18 March 2012 }} In May 2011, senators [Dominique Tilmans](/wiki/Dominique_Tilmans "Dominique Tilmans") and [Jacques Brotchi](/wiki/Jacques_Brotchi "Jacques Brotchi") proposed legislation to ban BPA from thermal paper.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.tssbelgium.be/printversion/senate.5\.1037\.1\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=31 May 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304132917/http://www.tssbelgium.be/printversion/senate.5\.1037\.1\.pdf \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 }} #### France On 5 February 2010, the French Food Safety Agency (AFSSA) questioned the previous assessments of the health risks of BPA, especially in regard to behavioral effects observed in rat pups following exposure in utero and during the first months of life.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.afssa.fr/PM9100B6I0\.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720203557/http://www.afssa.fr/PM9100B6I0\.htm\|archive\-date\=20 July 2011\|title\=Bisphenol A: AFSSA recommends the development of new assessment methods\|date\=5 February 2010\|access\-date\=8 February 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.anses.fr/en/content/opinion\-french\-food\-safety\-agency\-critical\-analysis\-results\-study\-toxicity\-bisphenol \|title\=Opinion of the French Food Safety Agency on the critical analysis of the results of a study of the toxicity of bisphenol A on the development of the nervous system together with other recently\-published data on its toxic effects\|date\=29 January 2010\|publisher\=French Food Safety Agency\|access\-date\=8 February 2010 }} In April 2010, the AFFSA suggested the adoption of better labels for food products containing BPA.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.lefigaro.fr/flash\-actu/2010/04/27/97001\-20100427FILWWW00356\-afssa\-informations\-sur\-le\-bisphenol\-a.php \|title\=Afssa: informations sur le Bisphénol A \|date\=27 April 2010 \|work\=Le Figaro \|language\=french \|access\-date\=7 May 2010}} On 24 March 2010, the French Senate unanimously approved a proposition of law to ban BPA from baby bottles.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2010/03/24/les\-senateurs\-votent\-la\-suspension\-de\-la\-commercialisation\-des\-biberons\-au\-bisphenol\-a\_1324041\_3244\.html\|title\=Les sénateurs votent la suspension de la commercialisation des biberons au Bisphenol A\|date\=24 March 2010\|work\=Le Monde \|language\=French \|access\-date\=24 March 2010}} The National Assembly (Lower House) approved the text on 23 June 2010, which has been applicable law since 2 July 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte\=JORFTEXT000022414734\&dateTexte\= \|title\=Détail d'un texte \|language\=fr \|publisher\=Legifrance.gouv.fr \|access\-date\=23 October 2011}} On 12 October 2011, the French National Assembly voted a law forbidding the use of Bisphenol A in products aimed at less than 3\-year\-old children for 2013, and 2014 for all food containers.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.liberation.fr/depeches/01012365279\-bisphenol\-a\-l\-assemblee\-vote\-l\-interdiction\-dans\-les\-contenants\-alimentaires \|title\=L'Assemblée unanime interdit les contenants alimentaires avec du bisphénol A – Libération \|website\=Libération \|language\=French \|access\-date\=23 October 2011}} On 9 October 2012, the French Senate adopted unanimously the law proposition to suspend manufacture, import, export and marketing of all food containers that include bisphenol A for 2015\. The ban of bisphenol A in 2013 for food products designed for children less than 3\-years\-old was maintained.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.senat.fr/les\_actus\_en\_detail/article/bisphenol\-a.html \|title\=Le Sénat a adopté une proposition de loi visant au retrait des conditionnements alimentaires en bisphénol A – Sénat \|website\=Sénat \|language\=French \|access\-date\=31 October 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216032933/http://www.senat.fr/les\_actus\_en\_detail/article/bisphenol\-a.html \|archive\-date\=16 December 2012}} #### Germany On 19 September 2008, the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung, BfR) stated that there was no reason to change the current risk assessment for bisphenol A on the basis of the Lang Study.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/216/neue\_studien\_zu\_bisphenol\_a\_stellen\_die\_bisherige\_risikobewertung\_nicht\_in\_frage.pdf \|title\=Neue Studien zu Bisphenol A stellen die bisherige Risikobewertung nicht in Frage \|website\=Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung \|language\=German \|date\=19 September 2008 \|access\-date\=2 February 2012}} In October 2009, the German environmental organization [Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland](/wiki/Bund_f%C3%BCr_Umwelt_und_Naturschutz_Deutschland "Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland") requested a ban on BPA for children's products, especially [pacifiers](/wiki/Pacifiers "Pacifiers"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bund.net/nc/bundnet/presse/pressemitteilungen/detail/zurueck/pressemitteilungen/artikel/schnuller\-geben\-hormonell\-wirksames\-bisphenol\-a\-ab\-bund\-fordert\-verbot\-der\-chemikalie\-fuer\-babyarti \|title\=Schnuller geben hormonell wirksames Bisphenol A ab. BUND fordert Verbot der Chemikalie für Babyartikel \|language\=German \|access\-date\=15 October 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019095325/http://www.bund.net/nc/bundnet/presse/pressemitteilungen/detail/zurueck/pressemitteilungen/artikel/schnuller\-geben\-hormonell\-wirksames\-bisphenol\-a\-ab\-bund\-fordert\-verbot\-der\-chemikalie\-fuer\-babyarti \|archive\-date\=19 October 2009 }} and products that make contact with food.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.derwesten.de/nachrichten/wp/2009/10/1/news\-135346902/detail.html \|title\=Chemikalie in Schnullern entdeckt \|date\=1 October 2009 \|language\=German \|access\-date\=2 October 2009 \|archive\-date\=4 October 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091004074121/http://www.derwesten.de/nachrichten/wp/2009/10/1/news\-135346902/detail.html \|url\-status\=dead }} In response, some manufacturers voluntarily removed the problematic pacifiers from the market.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.medizinauskunft.de/artikel/aktuell/2009/04\_11\_bisphenol\_a.php \|date\=4 November 2009 \|language\=German \|title\=Bisphenol\-A: Kehrtwende \|website\=MedizinAuskunft \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719060727/http://www.medizinauskunft.de/artikel/aktuell/2009/04\_11\_bisphenol\_a.php \|archive\-date\=19 July 2011 \|access\-date\=1 February 2012}} #### Netherlands On 3 March 2016, the {{Interlanguage link\|Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority\|nl\|Nederlandse Voedsel\- en Warenautoriteit}} (NVWA) issued cautionary recommendations to the Minister of [Health, Welfare, and Sport](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health%2C_Welfare_and_Sport_%28Netherlands%29 "Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport (Netherlands)") and the Secretary for [Economic Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Economic_Affairs_%28Netherlands%29 "Ministry of Economic Affairs (Netherlands)"), on the public intake of BPA, especially for vulnerable groups such as women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, and those with developing immune systems such as children below the age of 10\. This was done in response to recent published research, and conclusions reached by the [European Food Safety Authority](/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority "European Food Safety Authority"). It also called for the concentration of BPA in drinking water to be lowered below 0\.2 μg/L, in line with the maximum tolerable intake they recommend.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nvwa.nl/documenten/risicobeoordeling/non\-food\-producten/archief/2016m/advies\-over\-bisfenol\-a\-bpa\|access\-date\=12 March 2017\|date\=3 March 2016\|publisher\=Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority\|language\=nl\|title\=Advies van de directeur bureau Risicobeoordeling \& onderzoeksprogrammering – Advies over bisfenol A (BPA)\|trans\-title\=Advice of the Director of the Office for Risk Assessment \& Research Programs – Opinion on Bisphenol A (BPA)\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313125856/https://www.nvwa.nl/documenten/risicobeoordeling/non\-food\-producten/archief/2016m/advies\-over\-bisfenol\-a\-bpa\|archive\-date\=13 March 2017}} #### Switzerland In February 2009, the Swiss Federal Office for Public Health, based on reports of other health agencies, stated that the intake of bisphenol A from food represents no risk to the consumer, including newborns and infants. However, in the same statement, it advised for proper use of polycarbonate baby bottles and listed alternatives.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bag.admin.ch/themen/lebensmittel/04861/06170/index.html?lang\=de \|title\=Bisphenol A \|publisher\=Bundesamt für Gesundheit \|access\-date\=1 February 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314014902/http://www.bag.admin.ch/themen/lebensmittel/04861/06170/index.html?lang\=de \|archive\-date\=14 March 2012 }} #### Sweden By 26 May 1995, the Swedish Chemicals Agency asked for a BPA ban in baby bottles, but the Swedish Food Safety Authority prefers to await the expected European Food Safety Authority's updated review. The Minister of Environment said to wait for the EFSA review but not for too long.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dagenshandel.se/dh/DagensH.nsf/0/CEEB5E81FEE99BDFC1257720002F04A9 \|title\=Minister kör över Livsmedelsverket \|language\=Swedish \|publisher\=Dagens Handel \|date\=11 May 2010 \|access\-date\=1 February 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314201553/http://www.dagenshandel.se/dh/DagensH.nsf/0/CEEB5E81FEE99BDFC1257720002F04A9 \|archive\-date\=14 March 2012 }}[BioNut researcher on ban of bisphenol A (BPA)](http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=25844&a=100803&l=en&newsdep=25844) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930040711/http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d\=25844\&a\=100803\&l\=en\&newsdep\=25844 \|archive\-date\=30 September 2011 \|date\=30 September 2011\|access\-date 13 May 2010\.}}{{failed verification\|date\=December 2018}} From March 2011 it is prohibited to manufacture babybottles containing bisphenol A and from July 2011 they can not be bought in stores. On 12 April 2012, the Swedish government announced that Sweden will ban BPA in cans containing food for children under the age of three.{{cite web\|title\=Sweden acts on endocrine disruptor Bisphenol A\|url\=http://www.chemsec.org/news/news\-2012/915\-sweden\-acts\-on\-endocrine\-disruptor\-bisphenol\-a\|publisher\=\[\[ChemSec]]\|access\-date\=16 April 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313101239/http://www.chemsec.org/news/news\-2012/915\-sweden\-acts\-on\-endocrine\-disruptor\-bisphenol\-a\|archive\-date\=13 March 2014}} Since January 2, 2020, BPA has been banned in thermal receipts as a consequence of the EU wide ban.{{cite web \|title\=Förbud mot bisfenol A i kvitton och biljetter \|url\=https://www.kemi.se/arkiv/nyhetsarkiv/nyheter/2016\-12\-19\-forbud\-mot\-bisfenol\-a\-i\-kvitton\-och\-biljetter \|website\=KEMI \|publisher\=Kemikalieinspektionen \|access\-date\=17 August 2021 \|language\=Swedish \|date\=2016\-12\-19}} Since September 1, 2016, it is prohibited to use BPA when relining water pipes with [CIPP](/wiki/Cured-in-place_pipe "Cured-in-place pipe"). #### United Kingdom In December 2009, responding to a letter from a group of seven scientists that urged the UK Government to "adopt a standpoint consistent with the approach taken by other Governments who have ended the use of BPA in food contact products marketed at children",{{cite news \| last \= Smith \| first \= Rebecca \| title \= Ban chemical linked to cancer in baby bottles: campaigners \| work\=The Daily Telegraph \| date \= 1 December 2009 \|access\-date\=16 February 2010 \| url \= http://www.nomorebpa.org.uk/news/US\_Acts\_On\_BPA\_And\_Baby%20\_Bottles.php}} the UK Food Standards Agency reaffirmed, in January 2009, its view that "exposure of UK consumers to BPA from all sources, including [food contact materials](/wiki/Food_contact_materials "Food contact materials"), was well below levels considered harmful".{{cite web \| url\=http://www.nomorebpa.org.uk/news/US\_Acts\_On\_BPA\_And\_Baby%20\_Bottles.php \| title\=US Acts on BPA and Baby Bottles while UK Food Standards Agency dismisses concerns \| date\=18 January 2009 \| publisher\=Breast Cancer UK \|access\-date\=16 February 2010}} #### Turkey As of 10 June 2011, Turkey banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and other PC items produced for babies.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2011/06/20110610\-8\.htm \|title\=Başbakanlık Mevzuatı Geliştirme ve Yayın Genel Müdürlüğü \|publisher\=Resmigazete.gov.tr \|access\-date\=23 October 2011\|language\=Turkish}} ### Japan Between 1998 and 2003, the canning industry voluntarily replaced its BPA\-containing epoxy resin can liners with BPA\-free polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in many of its products. For other products, it switched to a different epoxy lining that yielded much less migration of BPA into food than the previously used resin.{{clarify\|date\=March 2014}} In addition, polycarbonate tableware for school lunches was replaced by BPA\-free plastics.
[ "Positions of national and international bodies\n----------------------------------------------", "### World Health Organization", "In November 2009, the [WHO](/wiki/World_Health_Organization \"World Health Organization\") announced to organize an expert consultation in 2010 to assess low\\-dose BPA exposure health effects, focusing on the nervous and behavioral system and exposure to young children. The 2010 WHO expert panel recommended no new regulations limiting or banning the use of bisphenol\\-A, stating that \"initiation of public health measures would be premature.\"Brown, Eryn. [\"Jury still out on BPA, World Health Organization says\"](https://www.latimes.com/health/la-xpm-2010-nov-11-la-heb-who-bpa-20101111-story.html), *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, 11 November 2010\\. Retrieved 7 February 2011\\.[\"Toxicological and Health Aspects of Bisphenol\\-A\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20141106085246/http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/bisphenol-a/en/). World Health Organization. 2011\\.", "### United States", "In 2013, the FDA posted on its web site: \"Is BPA safe? Yes. Based on FDA's ongoing safety review of scientific evidence, the available information continues to support the safety of BPA for the approved uses in food containers and packaging. People are exposed to low levels of BPA because, like many packaging components, very small amounts of BPA may migrate from the [food packaging](/wiki/Food_packaging \"Food packaging\") into foods or beverages.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm355155\\.htm \\|title\\=Questions \\& Answers on Bisphenol A (BPA) Use in Food Contact Applications \\|publisher\\=Fda.gov \\|date\\=2013\\-06\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-01}} FDA issued a statement on the basis of three previous reviews by a group of assembled Agency experts in 2014 in its \"Final report for the review of literature and data on BPA\" that said in part, \"The results of these new toxicity data and studies do not affect the dose\\-effect level and the existing NOAEL (5 mg/kg bw/day; oral exposure).\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/UCM424011\\.pdf \\|title\\=Final Report for the Review of Literature and Data on BPA \\|publisher\\=Fda.gov \\|date\\=2014\\-06\\-06}}", "### Australia and New Zealand", "In 2009 the Australia and New Zealand Food Safety Authority ([Food Standards Australia New Zealand](/wiki/Food_Standards_Australia_New_Zealand \"Food Standards Australia New Zealand\")) did not see any health risk with bisphenol A [baby bottles](/wiki/Baby_bottle \"Baby bottle\") if the manufacturer's instructions were followed, as levels of exposure were very low and would not pose a significant health risk. It added that \"the move by overseas manufacturers to stop using BPA in baby bottles is a voluntary action and not the result of a specific action by regulators.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/newsroom/factsheets/factsheets2009/bisphenolabpaandfood4218\\.cfm \\|title\\=Bisphenol A (BPA) and food packaging \\|publisher\\=Food Standards Australia New Zealand \\|date\\=May 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100109102336/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/educationalmaterial/factsheets/factsheets2009/bisphenolabpaandfood4218\\.cfm \\|archive\\-date\\=9 January 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2012}} In 2008 it had suggested the use of glass baby bottles if parents had concerns.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals\\-nutrients\\-additives\\-and\\-toxins/bisphenol\\-a.htm \\|title\\=Babies' bottles and bisphenol A \\|date\\=May 2008 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New Zealand Food Safety Authority]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726062453/http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals\\-nutrients\\-additives\\-and\\-toxins/bisphenol\\-a.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=26 July 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2012}}", "In 2012 the Australian Government introduced a voluntary phase out of BPA use in polycarbonate baby bottles.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumerinformation/bisphenolabpa/ \\|title\\=Bisphenol A (BPA) \\|publisher\\=Food Standards Australia New Zealand \\|date\\=April 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110093633/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumerinformation/bisphenolabpa/ \\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2012}}", "### Canada", "In April 2008, [Health Canada](/wiki/Health_Canada \"Health Canada\") concluded that, while adverse health effects were not expected, the margin of safety was too small for formula\\-fed infants{{cite news \\|last\\= Morrissey \\|first\\=Susan R. \\|title\\=Banning Bisphenol A in Baby Bottles: Canada moves toward restricting the chemical; Congress proposes similar legislation \\|work\\=Chemical and Engineering News \\|date\\=23 April 2008 \\|url\\=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/86/i17/8617news4\\.html}} and proposed classifying the chemical as \"'toxic' to human health and the environment.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/challenge\\-defi/batch\\-lot\\-2/bisphenol\\-a/index\\-eng.php \\|title\\=Bisphenol A \\|website\\=Health Canada \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2012\\|date\\=2006\\-10\\-27 }} The Canadian Minister of Health announced Canada's intent to ban the import, sale, and advertisement of polycarbonate baby bottles containing bisphenol A due to safety concerns, and investigate ways to reduce BPA contamination of baby formula packaged in metal cans. Subsequent news reports from April 2008 showed many retailers removing polycarbonate drinking products from their shelves.{{usurped\\|1\\=\\[https://archive.today/20080418164757/http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Politics/2008/04/15/5293466\\-cp.html Canoe.ca]}}, Politics: Bisphenol A water\\-bottle removal expanding among Canadian retailers.\nOn 18 October 2008, Health Canada noted that \"bisphenol A exposure to newborns and infants is below levels that cause effects\" and that the \"general public need not be concerned\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hc\\-sc.gc.ca/ahc\\-asc/media/nr\\-cp/\\_2008/2008\\_167\\-eng.php \\|title\\=Government of Canada Protects Families With Bisphenol A Regulations \\|publisher\\=Health Canada \\|date\\=17 October 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226005022/http://www.hc\\-sc.gc.ca/ahc\\-asc/media/nr\\-cp/\\_2008/2008\\_167\\-eng.php \\|archive\\-date\\=26 February 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2012}}", "In 2010, Canada's department of the environment declared BPA to be a \"toxic substance\" and added it to schedule 1 of the [Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999](/wiki/Canadian_Environmental_Protection_Act%2C_1999 \"Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp\\-pr/p2/2010/2010\\-10\\-13/html/sor\\-dors194\\-eng.html\\|title\\=Order Adding a Toxic Substance to Schedule 1 to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999\\|website\\=\\[\\[Canada Gazette]]\\|date\\=23 September 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204063111/http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp\\-pr/p2/2010/2010\\-10\\-13/html/sor\\-dors194\\-eng.html\\|archive\\-date\\=4 February 2012}}", "### European Union", "The 2008 European Union Risk Assessment Report on {{nowrap\\|bisphenol A}}, published by the European Commission and [European Food Safety Authority](/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority \"European Food Safety Authority\") (EFSA), concluded that {{nowrap\\|bisphenol A}}\\-based products, such as [polycarbonate](/wiki/Polycarbonate \"Polycarbonate\") plastic and [epoxy](/wiki/Epoxy \"Epoxy\") resins, are safe for consumers and the environment when used as intended.[Rapporteur](/wiki/Rapporteur \"Rapporteur\"): United Kingdom. (2008\\). [JRC.it Updated European Risk Assessment Report: 4,4'\\-ISOPROPYLIDENEDIPHENOL (BISPHENOL\\-A)](http://ecb.jrc.it/documents/Existing-Chemicals/RISK_ASSESSMENT/ADDENDUM/bisphenola_add_325.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215111728/http://ecb.jrc.it/documents/Existing\\-Chemicals/RISK\\_ASSESSMENT/ADDENDUM/bisphenola\\_add\\_325\\.pdf \\|date\\=15 February 2010 }} FINAL APPROVED VERSION AWAITING FOR PUBLICATION. [EFSA, Press release](http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/080723) By October 2008, after the [Lang Study](/wiki/%23Lang_study_and_heart_disease \"#Lang study and heart disease\") was published, the EFSA issued a statement concluding that the study provided no grounds to revise the current Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) level for BPA of {{nowrap\\|0\\.05 mg/kg}} bodyweight.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/corporate\\_publications/files/factsheetbpa150121\\.pdf\\|title\\=Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) level for BPA}}", "On 22 December 2009, the EU Environment ministers released a statement expressing concerns over recent studies showing adverse effects of exposure to [endocrine disruptors](/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor \"Endocrine disruptor\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/NewsWord/en/envir/112043\\.doc\\|title\\=Council conclusions on combination effects of chemicals\\|date\\=22 December 2009\\|publisher\\=Council of The European Union\\|access\\-date\\=30 December 2009\\|location\\=Brussels\\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215151214/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/NewsWord/en/envir/112043\\.doc}}", "In September 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded after a \"comprehensive evaluation of recent toxicity data \\[…] that no new study could be identified, which would call for a revision of the current TDI\".{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.2903/j.efsa.2010\\.1829 \\|title\\=Scientific Opinion on Bisphenol A: Evaluation of a study investigating its neurodevelopmental toxicity, review of recent scientific literature on its toxicity and advice on the Danish risk assessment of Bisphenol A \\|journal\\=EFSA Journal \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=1829 \\|year\\=2010 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} The Panel noted that some studies conducted on developing animals have suggested BPA\\-related effects of possible toxicological relevance, in particular biochemical changes in brain, immune\\-modulatory effects and enhanced susceptibility to breast tumours but considered that those studies had several shortcomings so the relevance of these findings for human health could not be assessed.", "On 25 November 2010, the [European Union executive commission](/wiki/European_Commission%23Executive_power \"European Commission#Executive power\") said it planned to ban the manufacturing by {{nowrap\\|1 March 2011}} and ban the marketing and market placement of [polycarbonate](/wiki/Polycarbonate \"Polycarbonate\") [baby bottles](/wiki/Baby_bottle \"Baby bottle\") containing the organic compound {{nowrap\\|bisphenol A}} by {{nowrap\\|1 June 2011}}, according to [John Dalli](/wiki/John_Dalli \"John Dalli\"), [commissioner](/wiki/European_Commissioner \"European Commissioner\") in charge of health and consumer policy. This was backed by a majority of EU governments.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-eu\\-health\\-plastic\\-idUSTRE6AO3MS20101125 \\|title\\=EU to ban Bisphenol A in baby bottles in 2011 \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=25 November 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2012}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.physorg.com/news/2010\\-11\\-europe\\-baby\\-bottles\\-bisphenol\\-a.html \\|title\\=Europe bans baby bottles with Bisphenol\\-A \\|publisher\\=PhysOrg.com \\|date\\=25 November 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2012}} The ban was called an over\\-reaction by Richard Sharpe, of the [Medical Research Council](/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_%28UK%29 \"Medical Research Council (UK)\")'s Human Reproductive Sciences Unit, who said to be unaware of any convincing evidence justifying the measure and criticized it as being done on political, rather than scientific grounds.{{cite news \\|title\\=EU bans bisphenol A chemical from babies' bottles \\|url\\= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-11843820 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=25 November 2010\\|quote\\=I do not know of any convincing evidence that bisphenol A exposure, in the amounts used in polycarbonate bottles, can cause any harm to babies, as not only are the amounts so minuscule but they are rapidly broken down in the gut and liver. }}", "In January 2011 use of {{nowrap\\|bisphenol A}} in [baby bottles](/wiki/Baby_bottle \"Baby bottle\") was forbidden in all EU\\-countries.", "After reviewing more recent research, in 2012 EFSA made a decision to re\\-evaluate the human risks associated with exposure to BPA. They completed a draft assessment of consumer exposure to BPA in July 2013 and at that time asked for public input from all stakeholders to assist in forming a final report, which is expected to be completed in 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/bisphenol\\|title\\=Bisphenol A\\|website\\=European Food Safety Authority\\|date\\=December 2023 }}", "In January 2014, EFSA presented a second part of the draft opinion which discussed the human health risks posed by BPA. The draft opinion was accompanied by an eight\\-week public consultation and also included adverse effects on the liver and kidney as related to BPA. From this it was recommended that the current TDI to be revised.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/bisphenol\\|title \\= EFSA Topic: Bisphenol A\\|date \\= 24 October 2014\\|access\\-date \\= 27 October 2014\\|website \\= European Safety Authority}} In January 2015 EFSA indicated that the TDI was reduced from 50 to 4 μg/kg body weight/day – a recommendation, as national legislatures make the laws.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/bisphenol\\-a\\-eu\\-lebensmittelamt\\-senkt\\-grenzwert\\-fuer\\-a\\-1014139\\.html\\|title\\=Umstrittene Chemikalie: EU\\-Behörde senkt Grenzwert für Bisphenol A \\|work\\=Der Spiegel \\|language\\=German \\|date\\=21 January 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2015}}", "The EU Commission issued a new regulation regarding the use of {{nowrap\\|bisphenol A}} in thermal paper on 12 December 2016\\. According to this new regulation, thermal paper containing {{nowrap\\|bisphenol A}} cannot be placed on the EU market after 2 January 2020\\. This regulation came into effect on 2 January 2017 but there is a transition period of three years.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/2235/oj/eng\\|title\\=EUR\\-Lex – 32016R2235 – EN – EUR\\-Lex}}", "On 12 January 2017, BPA was added to the candidate list of [substances of very high concern](/wiki/Substance_of_very_high_concern \"Substance of very high concern\") (SVHC).{{cite news\\|title\\=Four new substances of very high concern added to the Candidate List\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[European Chemicals Agency]]\\|date\\=12 January 2017\\|url\\=https://echa.europa.eu/\\-/four\\-new\\-substances\\-of\\-very\\-high\\-concern\\-added\\-to\\-the\\-candidate\\-list}} Candidate SVHC listing is a first step towards restricting the importing and use of a chemical in the EU. If the European Chemical Agency assigns SVHC status, the presence of BPA in a product at a concentration above 0\\.1% must be disclosed to a purchaser (with different rules for consumer and business purchasers). In February 2016, France had announced that it intended to propose BPA as a candidate SVHC by 8 August 2016\\.", "#### Denmark", "In May 2009, the Danish parliament passed a resolution to ban the use of BPA in baby bottles, which had not been enacted by April 2010\\. In March 2010, a temporary ban was declared by the Health Minister.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Politik/2010/03/26/113304\\.htm \\|title\\=Danmark forbyder giftigt stof i sutteflasker \\|language\\=Danish \\|publisher\\=DR \\|date\\=26 March 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=31 January 2012}}", "#### Belgium", "In March 2010, senator [Philippe Mahoux](/wiki/Philippe_Mahoux \"Philippe Mahoux\") proposed legislation to ban BPA in [food contact plastics](/wiki/Food_contact_materials \"Food contact materials\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://nieuws.be.msn.com/buitenland/artikel.aspx?cp\\-documentid\\=152421106 \\|title\\=Negen op tien zuigflessen zijn gevaarlijk \\|language\\=Dutch \\|publisher\\=Microsoft \\|date\\=3 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=31 January 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318072634/http://nieuws.be.msn.com/buitenland/artikel.aspx?cp\\-documentid\\=152421106 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2012 }} In May 2011, senators [Dominique Tilmans](/wiki/Dominique_Tilmans \"Dominique Tilmans\") and [Jacques Brotchi](/wiki/Jacques_Brotchi \"Jacques Brotchi\") proposed legislation to ban BPA from thermal paper.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tssbelgium.be/printversion/senate.5\\.1037\\.1\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304132917/http://www.tssbelgium.be/printversion/senate.5\\.1037\\.1\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 }}", "#### France", "On 5 February 2010, the French Food Safety Agency (AFSSA) questioned the previous assessments of the health risks of BPA, especially in regard to behavioral effects observed in rat pups following exposure in utero and during the first months of life.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.afssa.fr/PM9100B6I0\\.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720203557/http://www.afssa.fr/PM9100B6I0\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=20 July 2011\\|title\\=Bisphenol A: AFSSA recommends the development of new assessment methods\\|date\\=5 February 2010\\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.anses.fr/en/content/opinion\\-french\\-food\\-safety\\-agency\\-critical\\-analysis\\-results\\-study\\-toxicity\\-bisphenol \\|title\\=Opinion of the French Food Safety Agency on the critical analysis of the results of a study of the toxicity of bisphenol A on the development of the nervous system together with other recently\\-published data on its toxic effects\\|date\\=29 January 2010\\|publisher\\=French Food Safety Agency\\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2010 }} In April 2010, the AFFSA suggested the adoption of better labels for food products containing BPA.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.lefigaro.fr/flash\\-actu/2010/04/27/97001\\-20100427FILWWW00356\\-afssa\\-informations\\-sur\\-le\\-bisphenol\\-a.php \\|title\\=Afssa: informations sur le Bisphénol A \\|date\\=27 April 2010 \\|work\\=Le Figaro \\|language\\=french \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2010}}", "On 24 March 2010, the French Senate unanimously approved a proposition of law to ban BPA from baby bottles.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2010/03/24/les\\-senateurs\\-votent\\-la\\-suspension\\-de\\-la\\-commercialisation\\-des\\-biberons\\-au\\-bisphenol\\-a\\_1324041\\_3244\\.html\\|title\\=Les sénateurs votent la suspension de la commercialisation des biberons au Bisphenol A\\|date\\=24 March 2010\\|work\\=Le Monde \\|language\\=French \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2010}} The National Assembly (Lower House) approved the text on 23 June 2010, which has been applicable law since 2 July 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte\\=JORFTEXT000022414734\\&dateTexte\\= \\|title\\=Détail d'un texte \\|language\\=fr \\|publisher\\=Legifrance.gouv.fr \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2011}} On 12 October 2011, the French National Assembly voted a law forbidding the use of Bisphenol A in products aimed at less than 3\\-year\\-old children for 2013, and 2014 for all food containers.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.liberation.fr/depeches/01012365279\\-bisphenol\\-a\\-l\\-assemblee\\-vote\\-l\\-interdiction\\-dans\\-les\\-contenants\\-alimentaires \\|title\\=L'Assemblée unanime interdit les contenants alimentaires avec du bisphénol A – Libération \\|website\\=Libération \\|language\\=French \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2011}}", "On 9 October 2012, the French Senate adopted unanimously the law proposition to suspend manufacture, import, export and marketing of all food containers that include bisphenol A for 2015\\. The ban of bisphenol A in 2013 for food products designed for children less than 3\\-years\\-old was maintained.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.senat.fr/les\\_actus\\_en\\_detail/article/bisphenol\\-a.html \\|title\\=Le Sénat a adopté une proposition de loi visant au retrait des conditionnements alimentaires en bisphénol A – Sénat \\|website\\=Sénat \\|language\\=French \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216032933/http://www.senat.fr/les\\_actus\\_en\\_detail/article/bisphenol\\-a.html \\|archive\\-date\\=16 December 2012}}", "#### Germany", "On 19 September 2008, the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung, BfR) stated that there was no reason to change the current risk assessment for bisphenol A on the basis of the Lang Study.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/216/neue\\_studien\\_zu\\_bisphenol\\_a\\_stellen\\_die\\_bisherige\\_risikobewertung\\_nicht\\_in\\_frage.pdf \\|title\\=Neue Studien zu Bisphenol A stellen die bisherige Risikobewertung nicht in Frage \\|website\\=Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung \\|language\\=German \\|date\\=19 September 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2012}}", "In October 2009, the German environmental organization [Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland](/wiki/Bund_f%C3%BCr_Umwelt_und_Naturschutz_Deutschland \"Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland\") requested a ban on BPA for children's products, especially [pacifiers](/wiki/Pacifiers \"Pacifiers\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bund.net/nc/bundnet/presse/pressemitteilungen/detail/zurueck/pressemitteilungen/artikel/schnuller\\-geben\\-hormonell\\-wirksames\\-bisphenol\\-a\\-ab\\-bund\\-fordert\\-verbot\\-der\\-chemikalie\\-fuer\\-babyarti \\|title\\=Schnuller geben hormonell wirksames Bisphenol A ab. BUND fordert Verbot der Chemikalie für Babyartikel \\|language\\=German \\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019095325/http://www.bund.net/nc/bundnet/presse/pressemitteilungen/detail/zurueck/pressemitteilungen/artikel/schnuller\\-geben\\-hormonell\\-wirksames\\-bisphenol\\-a\\-ab\\-bund\\-fordert\\-verbot\\-der\\-chemikalie\\-fuer\\-babyarti \\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2009 }} and products that make contact with food.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.derwesten.de/nachrichten/wp/2009/10/1/news\\-135346902/detail.html \\|title\\=Chemikalie in Schnullern entdeckt \\|date\\=1 October 2009 \\|language\\=German \\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 October 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091004074121/http://www.derwesten.de/nachrichten/wp/2009/10/1/news\\-135346902/detail.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In response, some manufacturers voluntarily removed the problematic pacifiers from the market.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.medizinauskunft.de/artikel/aktuell/2009/04\\_11\\_bisphenol\\_a.php \\|date\\=4 November 2009 \\|language\\=German \\|title\\=Bisphenol\\-A: Kehrtwende \\|website\\=MedizinAuskunft \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719060727/http://www.medizinauskunft.de/artikel/aktuell/2009/04\\_11\\_bisphenol\\_a.php \\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2012}}", "#### Netherlands", "On 3 March 2016, the {{Interlanguage link\\|Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority\\|nl\\|Nederlandse Voedsel\\- en Warenautoriteit}} (NVWA) issued cautionary recommendations to the Minister of [Health, Welfare, and Sport](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health%2C_Welfare_and_Sport_%28Netherlands%29 \"Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport (Netherlands)\") and the Secretary for [Economic Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Economic_Affairs_%28Netherlands%29 \"Ministry of Economic Affairs (Netherlands)\"), on the public intake of BPA, especially for vulnerable groups such as women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, and those with developing immune systems such as children below the age of 10\\. This was done in response to recent published research, and conclusions reached by the [European Food Safety Authority](/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority \"European Food Safety Authority\"). It also called for the concentration of BPA in drinking water to be lowered below 0\\.2 μg/L, in line with the maximum tolerable intake they recommend.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nvwa.nl/documenten/risicobeoordeling/non\\-food\\-producten/archief/2016m/advies\\-over\\-bisfenol\\-a\\-bpa\\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2017\\|date\\=3 March 2016\\|publisher\\=Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority\\|language\\=nl\\|title\\=Advies van de directeur bureau Risicobeoordeling \\& onderzoeksprogrammering – Advies over bisfenol A (BPA)\\|trans\\-title\\=Advice of the Director of the Office for Risk Assessment \\& Research Programs – Opinion on Bisphenol A (BPA)\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313125856/https://www.nvwa.nl/documenten/risicobeoordeling/non\\-food\\-producten/archief/2016m/advies\\-over\\-bisfenol\\-a\\-bpa\\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2017}}", "#### Switzerland", "In February 2009, the Swiss Federal Office for Public Health, based on reports of other health agencies, stated that the intake of bisphenol A from food represents no risk to the consumer, including newborns and infants. However, in the same statement, it advised for proper use of polycarbonate baby bottles and listed alternatives.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bag.admin.ch/themen/lebensmittel/04861/06170/index.html?lang\\=de \\|title\\=Bisphenol A \\|publisher\\=Bundesamt für Gesundheit \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314014902/http://www.bag.admin.ch/themen/lebensmittel/04861/06170/index.html?lang\\=de \\|archive\\-date\\=14 March 2012 }}", "#### Sweden", "By 26 May 1995, the Swedish Chemicals Agency asked for a BPA ban in baby bottles, but the Swedish Food Safety Authority prefers to await the expected European Food Safety Authority's updated review. The Minister of Environment said to wait for the EFSA review but not for too long.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dagenshandel.se/dh/DagensH.nsf/0/CEEB5E81FEE99BDFC1257720002F04A9 \\|title\\=Minister kör över Livsmedelsverket \\|language\\=Swedish \\|publisher\\=Dagens Handel \\|date\\=11 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314201553/http://www.dagenshandel.se/dh/DagensH.nsf/0/CEEB5E81FEE99BDFC1257720002F04A9 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 March 2012 }}[BioNut researcher on ban of bisphenol A (BPA)](http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=25844&a=100803&l=en&newsdep=25844) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930040711/http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d\\=25844\\&a\\=100803\\&l\\=en\\&newsdep\\=25844 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2011 \\|date\\=30 September 2011\\|access\\-date 13 May 2010\\.}}{{failed verification\\|date\\=December 2018}}\nFrom March 2011 it is prohibited to manufacture babybottles containing bisphenol A and from July 2011 they can not be bought in stores. On 12 April 2012, the Swedish government announced that Sweden will ban BPA in cans containing food for children under the age of three.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sweden acts on endocrine disruptor Bisphenol A\\|url\\=http://www.chemsec.org/news/news\\-2012/915\\-sweden\\-acts\\-on\\-endocrine\\-disruptor\\-bisphenol\\-a\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ChemSec]]\\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313101239/http://www.chemsec.org/news/news\\-2012/915\\-sweden\\-acts\\-on\\-endocrine\\-disruptor\\-bisphenol\\-a\\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2014}}", "Since January 2, 2020, BPA has been banned in thermal receipts as a consequence of the EU wide ban.{{cite web \\|title\\=Förbud mot bisfenol A i kvitton och biljetter \\|url\\=https://www.kemi.se/arkiv/nyhetsarkiv/nyheter/2016\\-12\\-19\\-forbud\\-mot\\-bisfenol\\-a\\-i\\-kvitton\\-och\\-biljetter \\|website\\=KEMI \\|publisher\\=Kemikalieinspektionen \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2021 \\|language\\=Swedish \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-19}}", "Since September 1, 2016, it is prohibited to use BPA when relining water pipes with [CIPP](/wiki/Cured-in-place_pipe \"Cured-in-place pipe\").", "#### United Kingdom", "In December 2009, responding to a letter from a group of seven scientists that urged the UK Government to \"adopt a standpoint consistent with the approach taken by other Governments who have ended the use of BPA in food contact products marketed at children\",{{cite news \\| last \\= Smith \\| first \\= Rebecca \\| title \\= Ban chemical linked to cancer in baby bottles: campaigners \\| work\\=The Daily Telegraph \\| date \\= 1 December 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2010 \\| url \\= http://www.nomorebpa.org.uk/news/US\\_Acts\\_On\\_BPA\\_And\\_Baby%20\\_Bottles.php}} the UK Food Standards Agency reaffirmed, in January 2009, its view that \"exposure of UK consumers to BPA from all sources, including [food contact materials](/wiki/Food_contact_materials \"Food contact materials\"), was well below levels considered harmful\".{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.nomorebpa.org.uk/news/US\\_Acts\\_On\\_BPA\\_And\\_Baby%20\\_Bottles.php \\| title\\=US Acts on BPA and Baby Bottles while UK Food Standards Agency dismisses concerns \\| date\\=18 January 2009 \\| publisher\\=Breast Cancer UK \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2010}}", "#### Turkey", "As of 10 June 2011, Turkey banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and other PC items produced for babies.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2011/06/20110610\\-8\\.htm \\|title\\=Başbakanlık Mevzuatı Geliştirme ve Yayın Genel Müdürlüğü \\|publisher\\=Resmigazete.gov.tr \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2011\\|language\\=Turkish}}", "### Japan", "Between 1998 and 2003, the canning industry voluntarily replaced its BPA\\-containing epoxy resin can liners with BPA\\-free polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in many of its products. For other products, it switched to a different epoxy lining that yielded much less migration of BPA into food than the previously used resin.{{clarify\\|date\\=March 2014}} In addition, polycarbonate tableware for school lunches was replaced by BPA\\-free plastics.", "" ]
Human exposure sources ---------------------- The major human exposure route to BPA is diet, including ingestion of contaminated food and water.Cichna\-Markl, M. Methods (2012\). It is especially likely to leach from plastics when they are cleaned with harsh detergents or when they contain acidic or high\-temperature liquids. BPA is used to form epoxy resin coating of water pipes; in older buildings, such resin coatings are used to avoid replacement of deteriorating pipes.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.aceduraflo.com/fixmypipes.html\|title\=Pipeline relining\|access\-date\=18 October 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018203918/http://aceduraflo.com/fixmypipes.html\|archive\-date\=18 October 2010}} In the workplace, while handling and manufacturing products which contain BPA, inhalation and dermal exposures are the most probable routes.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Tsai WT \| title \= Human health risk on environmental exposure to Bisphenol\-A: a review \| journal \= Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C \| volume \= 24 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 225–55 \| year \= 2006 \| pmid \= 17114111 \| doi \= 10\.1080/10590500600936482 \| bibcode \= 2006JESHC..24\..225T \| s2cid \= 23070922 }} There are many uses of BPA for which related potential exposures have not been fully assessed including digital media, electrical and electronic equipment, automobiles, sports safety equipment, electrical laminates for printed circuit boards, composites, paints, and adhesives.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bisphenol\-a.org/about/faq.html\#b\|title\=What Is BPA? – Bisphenol A (BPA) FAQs – Frequently Asked Questions\|website\=bisphenol\-a.org\|access\-date\=31 May 2018\|archive\-date\=2 June 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602130935/http://www.bisphenol\-a.org/about/faq.html\#b\|url\-status\=dead}} In addition to being present in many products that people use on a daily basis, BPA has the ability to bioaccumulate, especially in water bodies. In one review, it was seen that although BPA is biodegradable, it is still detected after wastewater treatment in many waterways at concentrations of approximately 1 ug/L. This study also looked at other pathways where BPA could potentially bioaccumulate and found "low\-moderate potential...in microorganisms, algae, invertebrates, and fish in the environment" suggesting that some environmental exposures are less likely. In November 2009, the *[Consumer Reports](/wiki/Consumer_Reports "Consumer Reports")* magazine published an analysis of BPA content in some canned foods and beverages, where in specific cases the content of a single can of food could exceed the FDA "Cumulative Exposure Daily Intake" limit.{{cite web\|url\=https://edition.cnn.com/2016/06/29/health/canned\-foods\-bpa\-risk/index.html \|title\=Significant bisphenol A levels found in canned food\|date\=4 November 2009\|access\-date\=4 November 2009}} The [CDC](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") had found bisphenol A in the urine of 95% of adults sampled in 1988–1994{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Calafat AM, Kuklenyik Z, Reidy JA, Caudill SP, Ekong J, Needham LL \| title \= Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and 4\-nonylphenol in a human reference population \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 113 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 391–5 \| date \= April 2005 \| pmid \= 15811827 \| pmc \= 1278476 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.7534}} and in 93% of children and adults tested in 2003–04\.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong LY, Reidy JA, Needham LL \| title \= Exposure of the U.S. population to bisphenol A and 4\-tertiary\-octylphenol: 2003–2004 \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 116 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 39–44 \| date \= January 2008 \| pmid \= 18197297 \| pmc \= 2199288 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.10753}} The USEPA [Reference dose](/wiki/Reference_dose "Reference dose") (RfD) for BPA is 50 μg/kg/day which is not enforceable but is the recommended safe level of exposure. The most sensitive animal studies show effects at much lower doses,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0356\.htm \|title\=Integrated Risk Information System: Bisphenol A. (CASRN 80\-05\-7\): Oral RfD Assessment: Bisphenol A \|website\=\[\[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] \|year\=1988 \|access\-date\=2 February 2012}}{{cite news \| last\=Mittelstaedt \| first\=Martin \| title\='Inherently toxic' chemical faces its future \| date\=7 April 2007 \| url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070406\.wbisphenolA0407/BNStory/National/ \| access\-date\=7 April 2007 \| work\=The Globe and Mail \| location\=Toronto }}{{Dead link\|date\=June 2022 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} and several studies of children, who tend to have the highest levels, have found levels over the EPA's suggested safe limit figure.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lakind JS, Naiman DQ \| title \= Daily intake of bisphenol A and potential sources of exposure: 2005–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey \| journal \= Journal of Exposure Science \& Environmental Epidemiology \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 272–9 \| year \= 2010 \| pmid \= 20237498 \| pmc \= 3079892 \| doi \= 10\.1038/jes.2010\.9}} A 2009 [Health Canada](/wiki/Health_Canada "Health Canada") study found that the majority of canned [soft drinks](/wiki/Soft_drink "Soft drink") it tested had low, but measurable levels of bisphenol A.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.hc\-sc.gc.ca/fn\-an/securit/packag\-emball/bpa/bpa\_survey\-enquete\-can\-eng.php\|title\=Survey of Bisphenol A in Canned Drink Products\|last\=Health Canada\|access\-date\=13 March 2009\|date\=2009\-03\-03}} A study conducted by the University of Texas School of Public Health in 2010 found BPA in 63 of 105 samples of fresh and canned foods, including fresh turkey sold in plastic packaging and canned infant formula.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Schecter A, Malik N, Haffner D, Smith S, Harris TR, Paepke O, Birnbaum L \| title \= Bisphenol A (BPA) in U.S. food \| journal \= Environmental Science \& Technology \| volume \= 44 \| issue \= 24 \| pages \= 9425–30 \| date \= December 2010 \| pmid \= 21038926 \| doi \= 10\.1021/es102785d \| bibcode \= 2010EnST...44\.9425S}} A 2011 study published in *Environmental Health Perspectives*, "Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2\-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention," selected 20 participants based on their self\-reported use of canned and packaged foods to study BPA. Participants ate their usual diets, followed by three days of consuming foods that were not canned or packaged. The study's findings include: 1\) evidence of BPA in participants' urine decreased by 50% to 70% during the period of eating fresh foods; and 2\) participants' reports of their food practices suggested that consumption of canned foods and beverages and restaurant meals were the most likely sources of exposure to BPA in their usual diets. The researchers note that, even beyond these 20 participants, BPA exposure is widespread, with detectable levels in urine samples in more than an estimated 90% of the U.S. population.{{cite web\|url \= http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/health/food\-packaging\-diet\-bpa\-chemical/ \|title \= Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2\-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention\|publisher \= Journalist's Resource.org \|date \= 2011\-04\-25}} Another U.S. study found that consumption of soda, school lunches, and meals prepared outside the home were statistically significantly associated with higher urinary BPA. A 2011 experiment by researchers at the [Harvard School of Public Health](/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Public_Health "Harvard School of Public Health") indicated that BPA used in the lining of food cans is absorbed by the food and then ingested by consumers. Of 75 participants, half ate a lunch of canned vegetable soup for five days, followed by five days of fresh soup, while the other half did the same experiment in reverse order. "The analysis revealed that when participants ate the canned soup, they experienced more than a 1,000 percent increase in their urinary concentrations of BPA, compared to when they dined on fresh soup."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health/new\-health/paul\-taylor/bpa\-being\-absorbed\-from\-canned\-food\-study/article2248262/\|title\="BPA being absorbed from canned food" at theglobeandmail.com \|location\=Canada \|work\=The Globe and Mail \|first\=Paul\|last\=Taylor\|date\=24 November 2011}} A 2009 study found that drinking from polycarbonate bottles increased urinary bisphenol A levels by two\-thirds, from 1\.2 μg/g creatinine to 2 μg/g creatinine.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Carwile JL, Luu HT, Bassett LS, Driscoll DA, Yuan C, Chang JY, Ye X, Calafat AM, Michels KB \| title \= Polycarbonate bottle use and urinary bisphenol A concentrations \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 117 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 1368–72 \| date \= September 2009 \| pmid \= 19750099 \| pmc \= 2737011 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.0900604}} Consumer groups recommend that people wishing to lower their exposure to bisphenol A avoid [canned food](/wiki/Canned_food "Canned food") and [polycarbonate](/wiki/Polycarbonate "Polycarbonate") plastic containers (which shares [resin identification code](/wiki/Resin_identification_code "Resin identification code") 7 with many other plastics) unless the packaging indicates the plastic is bisphenol A\-free.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.htm?programID\=08\-P13\-00038\&segmentID\=4 \|title\=War of the Sciences \|website\=Living on Earth \|author\=Ashley Ahearn \|date\=19 September 2008 \|access\-date\=2 February 2012}} To avoid the possibility of BPA leaching into food or drink, the National Toxicology Panel recommends avoiding [microwaving](/wiki/Microwave_oven "Microwave oven") food in plastic containers, putting plastics in the [dishwasher](/wiki/Dishwasher "Dishwasher"), or using harsh detergents.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=94680753 \|title\=FDA Weighs Safety of Bisphenol A \|newspaper\=NPR.org \|publisher\=NPR \|access\-date\=23 October 2011}} Besides diet, exposure can also occur through air and through skin absorption.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A, Henley WE, Depledge M, Wallace RB, Melzer D \| title \= Association of urinary bisphenol A concentration with medical disorders and laboratory abnormalities in adults \| journal \= JAMA \| volume \= 300 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 1303–10 \| date \= September 2008 \| pmid \= 18799442 \| doi \= 10\.1001/jama.300\.11\.1303 \| doi\-access \= free\| hdl \= 10871/37692 \| hdl\-access \= free }} Free BPA is found in high concentration in [thermal paper](/wiki/Thermal_paper "Thermal paper") and [carbonless copy paper](/wiki/Carbonless_copy_paper "Carbonless copy paper"), which would be expected to be more available for exposure than BPA bound into resin or plastic.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Fukazawa H, Hoshino K, Shiozawa T, Matsushita H, Terao Y \| title \= Identification and quantification of chlorinated bisphenol A in wastewater from wastepaper recycling plants \| journal \= Chemosphere \| volume \= 44 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 973–9 \| date \= August 2001 \| pmid \= 11513431 \| doi \= 10\.1016/S0045\-6535(00\)00507\-5 \| bibcode \= 2001Chmsp..44\..973F }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48084/title/Concerned\_about\_BPA\_Check\_your\_receipts\|title\=Concerned About BPA: Check Your Receipts\|last\=Raloff\|first\=Janet\|date\=7 October 2009\|publisher\=Society for Science and the Public\|access\-date\=7 October 2009}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Gehring M, Tennhardt L, Vogel D, Weltin D, Bilitewski B \| title \= Bisphenol A Contamination of Wastepaper, Cellulose and Recycled Paper Products \| journal \= Transactions on Ecology and the Environment \| year \= 2004 \| volume \= 78 \| pages \= 294–300 \| url \= http://rcswww.urz.tu\-dresden.de/\~gehring/deutsch/dt/vortr/040929ge.pdf \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20101226093659/http://rcswww.urz.tu\-dresden.de/\~gehring/deutsch/dt/vortr/040929ge.pdf \| archive\-date \= 26 December 2010}} {{lay source \|template\=cite web \|author\=Martin Gehring \|author2\=Lars Tennhardt \|author3\=Dirk Vogel \|author4\=Lars Tennhardt \|author5\=Dirk Vogel \|author6\=Diethelm Weltin \|author7\=Bernd Bilitewski \|author8\=Bernd Bilitewski \|title\=Recycled Paper Distinctly Contributes to the Bisphenol A, Nonylphenol Ethoxylate, and Nonylphenol Load of Municipal Wastewater \|website\=Dresden University of Technology \|url\=http://rcswww.urz.tu\-dresden.de/\~gehring/deutsch/dt/poster/030331g2\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719100629/http://rcswww.urz.tu\-dresden.de/\~gehring/deutsch/dt/poster/030331g2\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-19}}* {{cite journal \| vauthors \= Babu S, Uppu SN, Martin B, Agu OA, Uppu RM \| title \= Unusually high levels of bisphenol A (BPA) in thermal paper cash register receipts (CRs): development and application of a robust LC\-UV method to quantify BPA in CRs \| journal \= Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 410–6 \| year \= 2015 \| pmid \= 26024012 \| doi \= 10\.3109/15376516\.2015\.1045661 \| s2cid \= 20335285 }} Popular uses of thermal paper include receipts, event and cinema tickets, labels, and airline tickets. A Swiss study found that 11 of 13 thermal printing papers contained {{nowrap\|8 – 17 g/kg}} {{nowrap\|bisphenol A}} (BPA). Upon dry finger contact with a thermal paper receipt, roughly {{nowrap\|1 μg}} BPA ({{nowrap\|0\.2 – 6 μg}}) was transferred to the forefinger and the middle finger. For wet or greasy fingers approximately {{nowrap\|10 times}} more was transferred. Extraction of BPA from the fingers was possible up to {{nowrap\|2 hours}} after exposure.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Biedermann S, Tschudin P, Grob K \| title \= Transfer of bisphenol A from thermal printer paper to the skin \| journal \= Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry \| volume \= 398 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 571–6 \| date \= September 2010 \| pmid \= 20623271 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s00216\-010\-3936\-9 \| s2cid \= 7412010 }} Further, it has been demonstrated that thermal receipts placed in contact with [paper currency](/wiki/Paper_currency "Paper currency") in a wallet for 24 hours cause a dramatic increase in the concentration of BPA in paper currency, making paper money a secondary source of exposure.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Liao C, Kannan K \| title \= High levels of bisphenol A in paper currencies from several countries, and implications for dermal exposure \| journal \= Environmental Science \& Technology \| volume \= 45 \| issue \= 16 \| pages \= 6761–8 \| date \= August 2011 \| pmid \= 21744851 \| doi \= 10\.1021/es200977t \| bibcode \= 2011EnST...45\.6761L }} Another study has identified BPA in all of the waste paper samples analysed (newspapers, magazines, office paper, etc.), indicating direct results of contamination through paper recycling.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Pivnenko K, Pedersen GA, Eriksson E, Astrup TF \| title \= Bisphenol A and its structural analogues in household waste paper \| journal \= Waste Management \| volume \= 44 \| pages \= 39–47 \| date \= October 2015 \| pmid \= 26194879 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.wasman.2015\.07\.017 \| bibcode \= 2015WaMan..44\...39P \| s2cid \= 217938141 \| url \= https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/118749778/PostPrint\_Davidsen\_JoH\_1\_.pdf \| type \= Submitted manuscript }} Free BPA can readily be transferred to skin, and residues on hands can be ingested. Bodily intake through dermal absorption (99% of which comes from handling receipts) has been shown for the general population to be 0\.219 ng/kg bw/day (occupationally exposed persons absorb higher amounts at 16\.3 ng/kg bw/day){{cite journal \| vauthors \= Liao C, Kannan K \| title \= Widespread occurrence of bisphenol A in paper and paper products: implications for human exposure \| journal \= Environmental Science \& Technology \| volume \= 45 \| issue \= 21 \| pages \= 9372–9 \| date \= November 2011 \| pmid \= 21939283 \| doi \= 10\.1021/es202507f \| bibcode \= 2011EnST...45\.9372L }} whereas aggregate intake (food/beverage/environment) for adults is estimated at 0\.36–0\.43 μg/kg bw/day (estimated intake for occupationally exposed adults is 0\.043–100 μg/kg bw/day). A study from 2011 found that Americans of all age groups had twice as much BPA in their bodies as Canadians; the reasons for the disparity were unknown, as there was no evidence to suggest higher amounts of BPA in U.S. foods, or that consumer products available in the U.S. containing BPA were BPA\-free in Canada. According to another study it may have been due to differences in how and when the surveys were done,{{cite news\| url\=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2011/03/us\-bpa\-twice\-canadas\-level/1 \| work\=USA Today \| title\=Study: Americans have twice as much BPA as Canadians \| date\=3 March 2011}} because "although comparisons of measured concentrations can be made across populations, this must be done with caution owing to differences in sampling, in the analytical methods used and in the sensitivity of the assays."{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Vandenberg LN \| title \= Exposure to bisphenol A in Canada: invoking the precautionary principle \| journal \= CMAJ \| volume \= 183 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 1265–70 \| date \= August 2011 \| pmid \= 21343266 \| pmc \= 3153515 \| doi \= 10\.1503/cmaj.101408 }} Comparing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) from four time periods between 2003 and 2012, urinary BPA data the median daily intake for the overall population is approximately 25 ng/kg/day and below current health based guidelines. Additionally, daily intake of BPA in the United States has decreased significantly compared to the intakes measured in 2003–2004\.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= LaKind JS, Naiman DQ \| title \= Temporal trends in bisphenol A exposure in the United States from 2003–2012 and factors associated with BPA exposure: Spot samples and urine dilution complicate data interpretation \| journal \= Environmental Research \| volume \= 142 \| pages \= 84–95 \| date \= October 2015 \| pmid \= 26121292 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.envres.2015\.06\.013 \| bibcode \= 2015ER....142\...84L \| doi\-access \= free }} Public attention and governmental action during this time period may have decreased the exposure to BPA somewhat but these studies did not include children under the age of six. According to the Endocrine Society, age of exposure is an important factor in determining the extent to which endocrine disrupting chemicals will have an effect, and the effects on developing fetuses or infants is quite different than an adult.{{Cite web\|url \= https://www.endocrine.org/endocrine\-press/scientific\-statements\|title \= Endocrine\-Disrupting Chemicals: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement. Endocrine Reviews\|year \= 2009\|last \= Diamanti\-Kandarakis\|first \= E\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170711070755/https://www.endocrine.org/endocrine\-press/scientific\-statements\|archive\-date \= 11 July 2017}} ### Fetal and early\-childhood exposures A 2009 study found higher urinary concentrations in young children than in adults under typical exposure scenarios.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Edginton AN, Ritter L \| title \= Predicting plasma concentrations of bisphenol A in children younger than 2 years of age after typical feeding schedules, using a physiologically based toxicokinetic model \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 117 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 645–52 \| date \= April 2009 \| pmid \= 19440506 \| pmc \= 2679611 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.0800073 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Beronius A, Rudén C, Håkansson H, Hanberg A \| title \= Risk to all or none? A comparative analysis of controversies in the health risk assessment of Bisphenol A \| journal \= Reproductive Toxicology \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 132–46 \| date \= April 2010 \| pmid \= 19931376 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.reprotox.2009\.11\.007 }} In adults, BPA is eliminated from the body through a detoxification process in the liver. In infants and children, this pathway is not fully developed so they have a decreased ability to clear BPA from their systems. Several recent studies of children have found levels that exceed the EPAs suggested safe limit figure. Infants fed with liquid formula are among the most exposed, and those fed formula from polycarbonate bottles can consume up to 13 micrograms of bisphenol A per kg of body weight per day (μg/kg/day; see table below).{{cite web \| title \= European Food Safety Authority Opinion \| url \=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/86 \| format \= Abstract \|access\-date \=28 February 2007\| date \=26 July 2004 }} In the U.S. and Canada, BPA has been found in infant liquid formula in concentrations varying from 0\.48 to 11 ng/g.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ackerman LK, Noonan GO, Heiserman WM, Roach JA, Limm W, Begley TH \| title \= Determination of bisphenol A in U.S. infant formulas: updated methods and concentrations \| journal \= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \| volume \= 58 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 2307–13 \| date \= February 2010 \| pmid \= 20102208 \| doi \= 10\.1021/jf903959u }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Cao XL, Dufresne G, Belisle S, Clement G, Falicki M, Beraldin F, Rulibikiye A \| title \= Levels of bisphenol A in canned liquid infant formula products in Canada and dietary intake estimates \| journal \= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \| volume \= 56 \| issue \= 17 \| pages \= 7919–24 \| date \= September 2008 \| pmid \= 18702469 \| doi \= 10\.1021/jf8008712 }} BPA has been rarely found in infant powder formula (only 1 of 14\). The [U.S. Department of Health \& Human Services](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Health_%26_Human_Services "U.S. Department of Health & Human Services") (HHS) states that "the benefit of a stable source of good nutrition from infant formula and food outweighs the potential risk of BPA exposure".{{cite web \| title \= Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents \| url\=https://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/\|publisher\=\[\[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]]\|access\-date\=25 March 2011}} BPA is present in human breast milk, having been found by several studies in 62–75% of breast milk samples.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zimmers SM, Browne EP, O'Keefe PW, Anderton DL, Kramer L, Reckhow DA, Arcaro KF \| title \= Determination of free Bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in breast milk of U.S. women using a sensitive LC/MS/MS method \| journal \= Chemosphere \| volume \= 104 \| pages \= 237–43 \| date \= June 2014 \| pmid \= 24507723 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.chemosphere.2013\.12\.085 \| bibcode \= 2014Chmsp.104\..237Z \| s2cid \= 7009419 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mendonca K, Hauser R, Calafat AM, Arbuckle TE, Duty SM \| title \= Bisphenol A concentrations in maternal breast milk and infant urine \| journal \= International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health \| volume \= 87 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 13–20 \| date \= January 2014 \| pmid \= 23212895 \| pmc \= 4381877 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s00420\-012\-0834\-9 \| bibcode \= 2014IAOEH..87\...13M }} This is presumably due to the mothers being exposed to BPA since it is not naturally produced by the body. Children may be more susceptible to BPA exposure than adults (see health effects). {{citation needed\|date\=March 2014}} A 2010 study of people in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany has suggested polycarbonate (PC) baby bottles as the most prominent role of exposure for infants, and canned food for adults and teenagers.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= von Goetz N, Wormuth M, Scheringer M, Hungerbühler K \| title \= Bisphenol a: how the most relevant exposure sources contribute to total consumer exposure \| journal \= Risk Analysis \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 473–87 \| date \= March 2010 \| pmid \= 20136739 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1539\-6924\.2009\.01345\.x \| bibcode \= 2010RiskA..30\..473V \| s2cid \= 10494116 }} In the United States, the growing concern over BPA exposure in infants in recent years has led the manufacturers of plastic baby bottles to stop using BPA in their bottles. The FDA banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and sippy cups (July 2012\) as well as the use of epoxy resins in infant formula packaging.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm064437\.htm\|title \= Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application \|date\=January 2015 \|access\-date\=25 October 2015 \|publisher\=U.S. Food and Drug Administration}} However, babies may still be exposed if they are fed with old or hand\-me\-down bottles bought before the companies stopped using BPA. One often overlooked source of exposure occurs when a pregnant woman is exposed, thereby exposing the fetus. Animal studies have shown that BPA can be found in both the placenta and the amniotic fluid of pregnant mice.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zalko D, Soto AM, Dolo L, Dorio C, Rathahao E, Debrauwer L, Faure R, Cravedi JP \| title \= Biotransformations of bisphenol A in a mammalian model: answers and new questions raised by low\-dose metabolic fate studies in pregnant CD1 mice \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 111 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 309–19 \| date \= March 2003 \| pmid \= 12611660 \| pmc \= 1241388 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.5603}} Since BPA was also "detected in the urine and serum of pregnant women and the serum, plasma, and placenta of newborn infants" a study to examine the externalizing behaviors associated with prenatal exposure to BPA was performed which suggests that exposures earlier in development have more of an effect on the behavior outcomes and that female children (2\-years\-old) are impacted more than males.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Braun JM, Yolton K, Dietrich KN, Hornung R, Ye X, Calafat AM, Lanphear BP \| title \= Prenatal bisphenol A exposure and early childhood behavior \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 117 \| issue \= 12 \| pages \= 1945–52 \| date \= December 2009 \| pmid \= 20049216 \| pmc \= 2799471 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.0900979}} A study of 244 mothers indicated that exposure to BPA before birth could affect the behavior of girls at age 3\. Girls whose mother's urine contained high levels of BPA during pregnancy scored worse on tests of anxiety and hyperactivity. Although these girls still scored within a normal range, for every 10\-fold increase in the BPA of the mother, the girls scored at least six points lower on the tests. Boys did not seem to be affected by their mother's BPA levels during pregnancy.{{cite magazine\| url\=http://healthland.time.com/2011/10/24/bpa\-exposure\-in\-pregnancy\-may\-affect\-behavior\-in\-girls/ \| magazine\=Time \| title\=BPA Exposure in Pregnancy May Affect Behavior in Girls – TIME.com \| date\=24 October 2011}} After the baby is born, maternal exposure can continue to affect the infant through transfer of BPA to the infant via breast milk.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sun Y, Irie M, Kishikawa N, Wada M, Kuroda N, Nakashima K \| title \= Determination of bisphenol A in human breast milk by HPLC with column\-switching and fluorescence detection \| journal \= Biomedical Chromatography \| volume \= 18 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 501–7 \| date \= October 2004 \| pmid \= 15386523 \| doi \= 10\.1002/bmc.345}} {{open access}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ye X, Kuklenyik Z, Needham LL, Calafat AM \| title \= Measuring environmental phenols and chlorinated organic chemicals in breast milk using automated on\-line column\-switching\-high performance liquid chromatography\-isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry \| journal \= Journal of Chromatography B \| volume \= 831 \| issue \= 1–2 \| pages \= 110–5 \| date \= February 2006 \| pmid \= 16377264 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.jchromb.2005\.11\.050 \| url \= https://zenodo.org/record/1259095 }} Because of these exposures that can occur both during and after pregnancy, mothers wishing to limit their child's exposure to BPA should attempt to limit their own exposures during that time period. While the majority of exposures have been shown to come through the diet, accidental ingestion can also be considered a source of exposure. One study conducted in Japan tested plastic baby books to look for possible leaching into saliva when babies chew on them.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sajiki J, Yanagibori R, Kobayashi Y \| title \= Study of experiment on leaching of bisphenol A from infant books to artificial saliva \| journal \= Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Hygiene)\| volume \= 65 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 467–70 \| date \= May 2010 \| pmid \= 20508389 \| doi \= 10\.1265/jjh.65\.467 \| doi\-access \= free }} While the results of this study have yet to be replicated, it gives reason to question whether exposure can also occur in infants through ingestion by chewing on certain books or toys. | Population | Estimated daily bisphenol A intake (μg/kg body weight/day).Table adapted from the National Toxicology Program Expert Panel Report. | | --- | --- | | Infant (0–6 months)formula\-fed (lower number assumes weight of 4\.5 kg and intake of 700 ml/day with maximum concentration of BPA detected in U.S. canned formula; higher number assumes weight of 6\.1 kg and intake of 1060 ml/day from powdered formula in cans with epoxy linings and using polycarbonate bottles) | {{center\|1–11}} | | Infant (0–6 months)breast\-fed (lower number assumes weight of 6\.1 kg and intake of 1060 ml/day with maximum concentration of BPA detected in Japanese breast milk samples; higher number assumes weight of 4\.5 kg and intake of 700 ml/day with maximum concentration of free BPA detected in U.S. breast milk samples) | {{center\|0\.2–1 }} | | Infant (6–12 months) | {{center\|1\.65–13}} | | Child (1\.5–6 years) | {{center\|0\.043–14\.7}} | | Adult (general population) | {{center\|0\.008–1\.5}} | | Adult (occupational) | {{center\|0\.043–100}} |
[ "Human exposure sources\n----------------------", "The major human exposure route to BPA is diet, including ingestion of contaminated food and water.Cichna\\-Markl, M. Methods (2012\\).", "It is especially likely to leach from plastics when they are cleaned with harsh detergents or when they contain acidic or high\\-temperature liquids. BPA is used to form epoxy resin coating of water pipes; in older buildings, such resin coatings are used to avoid replacement of deteriorating pipes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aceduraflo.com/fixmypipes.html\\|title\\=Pipeline relining\\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018203918/http://aceduraflo.com/fixmypipes.html\\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2010}} In the workplace, while handling and manufacturing products which contain BPA, inhalation and dermal exposures are the most probable routes.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Tsai WT \\| title \\= Human health risk on environmental exposure to Bisphenol\\-A: a review \\| journal \\= Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C \\| volume \\= 24 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 225–55 \\| year \\= 2006 \\| pmid \\= 17114111 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/10590500600936482 \\| bibcode \\= 2006JESHC..24\\..225T \\| s2cid \\= 23070922 }} There are many uses of BPA for which related potential exposures have not been fully assessed including digital media, electrical and electronic equipment, automobiles, sports safety equipment, electrical laminates for printed circuit boards, composites, paints, and adhesives.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bisphenol\\-a.org/about/faq.html\\#b\\|title\\=What Is BPA? – Bisphenol A (BPA) FAQs – Frequently Asked Questions\\|website\\=bisphenol\\-a.org\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602130935/http://www.bisphenol\\-a.org/about/faq.html\\#b\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In addition to being present in many products that people use on a daily basis, BPA has the ability to bioaccumulate, especially in water bodies. In one review, it was seen that although BPA is biodegradable, it is still detected after wastewater treatment in many waterways at concentrations of approximately 1 ug/L. This study also looked at other pathways where BPA could potentially bioaccumulate and found \"low\\-moderate potential...in microorganisms, algae, invertebrates, and fish in the environment\" suggesting that some environmental exposures are less likely.", "In November 2009, the *[Consumer Reports](/wiki/Consumer_Reports \"Consumer Reports\")* magazine published an analysis of BPA content in some canned foods and beverages, where in specific cases the content of a single can of food could exceed the FDA \"Cumulative Exposure Daily Intake\" limit.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://edition.cnn.com/2016/06/29/health/canned\\-foods\\-bpa\\-risk/index.html \\|title\\=Significant bisphenol A levels found in canned food\\|date\\=4 November 2009\\|access\\-date\\=4 November 2009}}", "The [CDC](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention \"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\") had found bisphenol A in the urine of 95% of adults sampled in 1988–1994{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Calafat AM, Kuklenyik Z, Reidy JA, Caudill SP, Ekong J, Needham LL \\| title \\= Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and 4\\-nonylphenol in a human reference population \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 113 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 391–5 \\| date \\= April 2005 \\| pmid \\= 15811827 \\| pmc \\= 1278476 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.7534}} and in 93% of children and adults tested in 2003–04\\.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong LY, Reidy JA, Needham LL \\| title \\= Exposure of the U.S. population to bisphenol A and 4\\-tertiary\\-octylphenol: 2003–2004 \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 116 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 39–44 \\| date \\= January 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18197297 \\| pmc \\= 2199288 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.10753}} The USEPA [Reference dose](/wiki/Reference_dose \"Reference dose\") (RfD) for BPA is 50 μg/kg/day which is not enforceable but is the recommended safe level of exposure. The most sensitive animal studies show effects at much lower doses,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0356\\.htm \\|title\\=Integrated Risk Information System: Bisphenol A. (CASRN 80\\-05\\-7\\): Oral RfD Assessment: Bisphenol A \\|website\\=\\[\\[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] \\|year\\=1988 \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2012}}{{cite news \\| last\\=Mittelstaedt \\| first\\=Martin \\| title\\='Inherently toxic' chemical faces its future \\| date\\=7 April 2007 \\| url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070406\\.wbisphenolA0407/BNStory/National/ \\| access\\-date\\=7 April 2007 \\| work\\=The Globe and Mail \\| location\\=Toronto }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=June 2022 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} and several studies of children, who tend to have the highest levels, have found levels over the EPA's suggested safe limit figure.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lakind JS, Naiman DQ \\| title \\= Daily intake of bisphenol A and potential sources of exposure: 2005–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey \\| journal \\= Journal of Exposure Science \\& Environmental Epidemiology \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 272–9 \\| year \\= 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20237498 \\| pmc \\= 3079892 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/jes.2010\\.9}}", "A 2009 [Health Canada](/wiki/Health_Canada \"Health Canada\") study found that the majority of canned [soft drinks](/wiki/Soft_drink \"Soft drink\") it tested had low, but measurable levels of bisphenol A.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.hc\\-sc.gc.ca/fn\\-an/securit/packag\\-emball/bpa/bpa\\_survey\\-enquete\\-can\\-eng.php\\|title\\=Survey of Bisphenol A in Canned Drink Products\\|last\\=Health Canada\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2009\\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-03}} A study conducted by the University of Texas School of Public Health in 2010 found BPA in 63 of 105 samples of fresh and canned foods, including fresh turkey sold in plastic packaging and canned infant formula.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Schecter A, Malik N, Haffner D, Smith S, Harris TR, Paepke O, Birnbaum L \\| title \\= Bisphenol A (BPA) in U.S. food \\| journal \\= Environmental Science \\& Technology \\| volume \\= 44 \\| issue \\= 24 \\| pages \\= 9425–30 \\| date \\= December 2010 \\| pmid \\= 21038926 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/es102785d \\| bibcode \\= 2010EnST...44\\.9425S}} A 2011 study published in *Environmental Health Perspectives*, \"Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2\\-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention,\" selected 20 participants based on their self\\-reported use of canned and packaged foods to study BPA. Participants ate their usual diets, followed by three days of consuming foods that were not canned or packaged. The study's findings include: 1\\) evidence of BPA in participants' urine decreased by 50% to 70% during the period of eating fresh foods; and 2\\) participants' reports of their food practices suggested that consumption of canned foods and beverages and restaurant meals were the most likely sources of exposure to BPA in their usual diets. The researchers note that, even beyond these 20 participants, BPA exposure is widespread, with detectable levels in urine samples in more than an estimated 90% of the U.S. population.{{cite web\\|url \\= http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/health/food\\-packaging\\-diet\\-bpa\\-chemical/ \\|title \\= Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2\\-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention\\|publisher \\= Journalist's Resource.org \\|date \\= 2011\\-04\\-25}} Another U.S. study found that consumption of soda, school lunches, and meals prepared outside the home were statistically significantly associated with higher urinary BPA.", "A 2011 experiment by researchers at the [Harvard School of Public Health](/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Public_Health \"Harvard School of Public Health\") indicated that BPA used in the lining of food cans is absorbed by the food and then ingested by consumers. Of 75 participants, half ate a lunch of canned vegetable soup for five days, followed by five days of fresh soup, while the other half did the same experiment in reverse order. \"The analysis revealed that when participants ate the canned soup, they experienced more than a 1,000 percent increase in their urinary concentrations of BPA, compared to when they dined on fresh soup.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health/new\\-health/paul\\-taylor/bpa\\-being\\-absorbed\\-from\\-canned\\-food\\-study/article2248262/\\|title\\=\"BPA being absorbed from canned food\" at theglobeandmail.com \\|location\\=Canada \\|work\\=The Globe and Mail \\|first\\=Paul\\|last\\=Taylor\\|date\\=24 November 2011}}\nA 2009 study found that drinking from polycarbonate bottles increased urinary bisphenol A levels by two\\-thirds, from 1\\.2 μg/g creatinine to 2 μg/g creatinine.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Carwile JL, Luu HT, Bassett LS, Driscoll DA, Yuan C, Chang JY, Ye X, Calafat AM, Michels KB \\| title \\= Polycarbonate bottle use and urinary bisphenol A concentrations \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 117 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 1368–72 \\| date \\= September 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19750099 \\| pmc \\= 2737011 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.0900604}} Consumer groups recommend that people wishing to lower their exposure to bisphenol A avoid [canned food](/wiki/Canned_food \"Canned food\") and [polycarbonate](/wiki/Polycarbonate \"Polycarbonate\") plastic containers (which shares [resin identification code](/wiki/Resin_identification_code \"Resin identification code\") 7 with many other plastics) unless the packaging indicates the plastic is bisphenol A\\-free.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.htm?programID\\=08\\-P13\\-00038\\&segmentID\\=4 \\|title\\=War of the Sciences \\|website\\=Living on Earth \\|author\\=Ashley Ahearn \\|date\\=19 September 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2012}} To avoid the possibility of BPA leaching into food or drink, the National Toxicology Panel recommends avoiding [microwaving](/wiki/Microwave_oven \"Microwave oven\") food in plastic containers, putting plastics in the [dishwasher](/wiki/Dishwasher \"Dishwasher\"), or using harsh detergents.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=94680753 \\|title\\=FDA Weighs Safety of Bisphenol A \\|newspaper\\=NPR.org \\|publisher\\=NPR \\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2011}}", "Besides diet, exposure can also occur through air and through skin absorption.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A, Henley WE, Depledge M, Wallace RB, Melzer D \\| title \\= Association of urinary bisphenol A concentration with medical disorders and laboratory abnormalities in adults \\| journal \\= JAMA \\| volume \\= 300 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 1303–10 \\| date \\= September 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18799442 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1001/jama.300\\.11\\.1303 \\| doi\\-access \\= free\\| hdl \\= 10871/37692 \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }} Free BPA is found in high concentration in [thermal paper](/wiki/Thermal_paper \"Thermal paper\") and [carbonless copy paper](/wiki/Carbonless_copy_paper \"Carbonless copy paper\"), which would be expected to be more available for exposure than BPA bound into resin or plastic.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Fukazawa H, Hoshino K, Shiozawa T, Matsushita H, Terao Y \\| title \\= Identification and quantification of chlorinated bisphenol A in wastewater from wastepaper recycling plants \\| journal \\= Chemosphere \\| volume \\= 44 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 973–9 \\| date \\= August 2001 \\| pmid \\= 11513431 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/S0045\\-6535(00\\)00507\\-5 \\| bibcode \\= 2001Chmsp..44\\..973F }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48084/title/Concerned\\_about\\_BPA\\_Check\\_your\\_receipts\\|title\\=Concerned About BPA: Check Your Receipts\\|last\\=Raloff\\|first\\=Janet\\|date\\=7 October 2009\\|publisher\\=Society for Science and the Public\\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2009}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Gehring M, Tennhardt L, Vogel D, Weltin D, Bilitewski B \\| title \\= Bisphenol A Contamination of Wastepaper, Cellulose and Recycled Paper Products \\| journal \\= Transactions on Ecology and the Environment \\| year \\= 2004 \\| volume \\= 78 \\| pages \\= 294–300 \\| url \\= http://rcswww.urz.tu\\-dresden.de/\\~gehring/deutsch/dt/vortr/040929ge.pdf \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101226093659/http://rcswww.urz.tu\\-dresden.de/\\~gehring/deutsch/dt/vortr/040929ge.pdf \\| archive\\-date \\= 26 December 2010}}\n{{lay source \\|template\\=cite web \\|author\\=Martin Gehring \\|author2\\=Lars Tennhardt \\|author3\\=Dirk Vogel \\|author4\\=Lars Tennhardt \\|author5\\=Dirk Vogel \\|author6\\=Diethelm Weltin \\|author7\\=Bernd Bilitewski \\|author8\\=Bernd Bilitewski \\|title\\=Recycled Paper Distinctly Contributes to the Bisphenol A, Nonylphenol Ethoxylate, and Nonylphenol Load of Municipal Wastewater \\|website\\=Dresden University of Technology \\|url\\=http://rcswww.urz.tu\\-dresden.de/\\~gehring/deutsch/dt/poster/030331g2\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719100629/http://rcswww.urz.tu\\-dresden.de/\\~gehring/deutsch/dt/poster/030331g2\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-19}}* {{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Babu S, Uppu SN, Martin B, Agu OA, Uppu RM \\| title \\= Unusually high levels of bisphenol A (BPA) in thermal paper cash register receipts (CRs): development and application of a robust LC\\-UV method to quantify BPA in CRs \\| journal \\= Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 410–6 \\| year \\= 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26024012 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3109/15376516\\.2015\\.1045661 \\| s2cid \\= 20335285 }} Popular uses of thermal paper include receipts, event and cinema tickets, labels, and airline tickets. A Swiss study found that 11 of 13 thermal printing papers contained {{nowrap\\|8 – 17 g/kg}} {{nowrap\\|bisphenol A}} (BPA). Upon dry finger contact with a thermal paper receipt, roughly {{nowrap\\|1 μg}} BPA ({{nowrap\\|0\\.2 – 6 μg}}) was transferred to the forefinger and the middle finger. For wet or greasy fingers approximately {{nowrap\\|10 times}} more was transferred. Extraction of BPA from the fingers was possible up to {{nowrap\\|2 hours}} after exposure.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Biedermann S, Tschudin P, Grob K \\| title \\= Transfer of bisphenol A from thermal printer paper to the skin \\| journal \\= Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry \\| volume \\= 398 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 571–6 \\| date \\= September 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20623271 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s00216\\-010\\-3936\\-9 \\| s2cid \\= 7412010 }} Further, it has been demonstrated that thermal receipts placed in contact with [paper currency](/wiki/Paper_currency \"Paper currency\") in a wallet for 24 hours cause a dramatic increase in the concentration of BPA in paper currency, making paper money a secondary source of exposure.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Liao C, Kannan K \\| title \\= High levels of bisphenol A in paper currencies from several countries, and implications for dermal exposure \\| journal \\= Environmental Science \\& Technology \\| volume \\= 45 \\| issue \\= 16 \\| pages \\= 6761–8 \\| date \\= August 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21744851 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/es200977t \\| bibcode \\= 2011EnST...45\\.6761L }} Another study has identified BPA in all of the waste paper samples analysed (newspapers, magazines, office paper, etc.), indicating direct results of contamination through paper recycling.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Pivnenko K, Pedersen GA, Eriksson E, Astrup TF \\| title \\= Bisphenol A and its structural analogues in household waste paper \\| journal \\= Waste Management \\| volume \\= 44 \\| pages \\= 39–47 \\| date \\= October 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26194879 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.wasman.2015\\.07\\.017 \\| bibcode \\= 2015WaMan..44\\...39P \\| s2cid \\= 217938141 \\| url \\= https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/118749778/PostPrint\\_Davidsen\\_JoH\\_1\\_.pdf \\| type \\= Submitted manuscript }} Free BPA can readily be transferred to skin, and residues on hands can be ingested. Bodily intake through dermal absorption (99% of which comes from handling receipts) has been shown for the general population to be 0\\.219 ng/kg bw/day (occupationally exposed persons absorb higher amounts at 16\\.3 ng/kg bw/day){{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Liao C, Kannan K \\| title \\= Widespread occurrence of bisphenol A in paper and paper products: implications for human exposure \\| journal \\= Environmental Science \\& Technology \\| volume \\= 45 \\| issue \\= 21 \\| pages \\= 9372–9 \\| date \\= November 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21939283 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/es202507f \\| bibcode \\= 2011EnST...45\\.9372L }} whereas aggregate intake (food/beverage/environment) for adults is estimated at 0\\.36–0\\.43 μg/kg bw/day (estimated intake for occupationally exposed adults is 0\\.043–100 μg/kg bw/day).", "A study from 2011 found that Americans of all age groups had twice as much BPA in their bodies as Canadians; the reasons for the disparity were unknown, as there was no evidence to suggest higher amounts of BPA in U.S. foods, or that consumer products available in the U.S. containing BPA were BPA\\-free in Canada. According to another study it may have been due to differences in how and when the surveys were done,{{cite news\\| url\\=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2011/03/us\\-bpa\\-twice\\-canadas\\-level/1 \\| work\\=USA Today \\| title\\=Study: Americans have twice as much BPA as Canadians \\| date\\=3 March 2011}} because \"although comparisons of measured concentrations can be made across populations, this must be done with caution owing to differences in sampling, in the analytical methods used and in the sensitivity of the assays.\"{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Vandenberg LN \\| title \\= Exposure to bisphenol A in Canada: invoking the precautionary principle \\| journal \\= CMAJ \\| volume \\= 183 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 1265–70 \\| date \\= August 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21343266 \\| pmc \\= 3153515 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1503/cmaj.101408 }}", "Comparing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) from four time periods between 2003 and 2012, urinary BPA data the median daily intake for the overall population is approximately 25 ng/kg/day and below current health based guidelines. Additionally, daily intake of BPA in the United States has decreased significantly compared to the intakes measured in 2003–2004\\.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= LaKind JS, Naiman DQ \\| title \\= Temporal trends in bisphenol A exposure in the United States from 2003–2012 and factors associated with BPA exposure: Spot samples and urine dilution complicate data interpretation \\| journal \\= Environmental Research \\| volume \\= 142 \\| pages \\= 84–95 \\| date \\= October 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26121292 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.envres.2015\\.06\\.013 \\| bibcode \\= 2015ER....142\\...84L \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Public attention and governmental action during this time period may have decreased the exposure to BPA somewhat but these studies did not include children under the age of six. According to the Endocrine Society, age of exposure is an important factor in determining the extent to which endocrine disrupting chemicals will have an effect, and the effects on developing fetuses or infants is quite different than an adult.{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://www.endocrine.org/endocrine\\-press/scientific\\-statements\\|title \\= Endocrine\\-Disrupting Chemicals: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement. Endocrine Reviews\\|year \\= 2009\\|last \\= Diamanti\\-Kandarakis\\|first \\= E\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170711070755/https://www.endocrine.org/endocrine\\-press/scientific\\-statements\\|archive\\-date \\= 11 July 2017}}", "### Fetal and early\\-childhood exposures", "A 2009 study found higher urinary concentrations in young children than in adults under typical exposure scenarios.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Edginton AN, Ritter L \\| title \\= Predicting plasma concentrations of bisphenol A in children younger than 2 years of age after typical feeding schedules, using a physiologically based toxicokinetic model \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 117 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 645–52 \\| date \\= April 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19440506 \\| pmc \\= 2679611 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.0800073 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Beronius A, Rudén C, Håkansson H, Hanberg A \\| title \\= Risk to all or none? A comparative analysis of controversies in the health risk assessment of Bisphenol A \\| journal \\= Reproductive Toxicology \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 132–46 \\| date \\= April 2010 \\| pmid \\= 19931376 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.reprotox.2009\\.11\\.007 }} In adults, BPA is eliminated from the body through a detoxification process in the liver. In infants and children, this pathway is not fully developed so they have a decreased ability to clear BPA from their systems. Several recent studies of children have found levels that exceed the EPAs suggested safe limit figure.", "Infants fed with liquid formula are among the most exposed, and those fed formula from polycarbonate bottles can consume up to 13 micrograms of bisphenol A per kg of body weight per day (μg/kg/day; see table below).{{cite web \\| title \\= European Food Safety Authority Opinion \\| url \\=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/86 \\| format \\= Abstract \\|access\\-date \\=28 February 2007\\| date \\=26 July 2004 }} In the U.S. and Canada, BPA has been found in infant liquid formula in concentrations varying from 0\\.48 to 11 ng/g.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ackerman LK, Noonan GO, Heiserman WM, Roach JA, Limm W, Begley TH \\| title \\= Determination of bisphenol A in U.S. infant formulas: updated methods and concentrations \\| journal \\= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \\| volume \\= 58 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 2307–13 \\| date \\= February 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20102208 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/jf903959u }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Cao XL, Dufresne G, Belisle S, Clement G, Falicki M, Beraldin F, Rulibikiye A \\| title \\= Levels of bisphenol A in canned liquid infant formula products in Canada and dietary intake estimates \\| journal \\= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \\| volume \\= 56 \\| issue \\= 17 \\| pages \\= 7919–24 \\| date \\= September 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18702469 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/jf8008712 }} BPA has been rarely found in infant powder formula (only 1 of 14\\). The [U.S. Department of Health \\& Human Services](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Health_%26_Human_Services \"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services\") (HHS) states that \"the benefit of a stable source of good nutrition from infant formula and food outweighs the potential risk of BPA exposure\".{{cite web \\| title \\= Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents \\| url\\=https://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]]\\|access\\-date\\=25 March 2011}} BPA is present in human breast milk, having been found by several studies in 62–75% of breast milk samples.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zimmers SM, Browne EP, O'Keefe PW, Anderton DL, Kramer L, Reckhow DA, Arcaro KF \\| title \\= Determination of free Bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in breast milk of U.S. women using a sensitive LC/MS/MS method \\| journal \\= Chemosphere \\| volume \\= 104 \\| pages \\= 237–43 \\| date \\= June 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24507723 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.chemosphere.2013\\.12\\.085 \\| bibcode \\= 2014Chmsp.104\\..237Z \\| s2cid \\= 7009419 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mendonca K, Hauser R, Calafat AM, Arbuckle TE, Duty SM \\| title \\= Bisphenol A concentrations in maternal breast milk and infant urine \\| journal \\= International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health \\| volume \\= 87 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 13–20 \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pmid \\= 23212895 \\| pmc \\= 4381877 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s00420\\-012\\-0834\\-9 \\| bibcode \\= 2014IAOEH..87\\...13M }} This is presumably due to the mothers being exposed to BPA since it is not naturally produced by the body.", "Children may be more susceptible to BPA exposure than adults (see health effects). {{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2014}}\nA 2010 study of people in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany has suggested polycarbonate (PC) baby bottles as the most prominent role of exposure for infants, and canned food for adults and teenagers.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= von Goetz N, Wormuth M, Scheringer M, Hungerbühler K \\| title \\= Bisphenol a: how the most relevant exposure sources contribute to total consumer exposure \\| journal \\= Risk Analysis \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 473–87 \\| date \\= March 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20136739 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1539\\-6924\\.2009\\.01345\\.x \\| bibcode \\= 2010RiskA..30\\..473V \\| s2cid \\= 10494116 }} In the United States, the growing concern over BPA exposure in infants in recent years has led the manufacturers of plastic baby bottles to stop using BPA in their bottles. The FDA banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and sippy cups (July 2012\\) as well as the use of epoxy resins in infant formula packaging.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm064437\\.htm\\|title \\= Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application \\|date\\=January 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2015 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Food and Drug Administration}} However, babies may still be exposed if they are fed with old or hand\\-me\\-down bottles bought before the companies stopped using BPA.", "One often overlooked source of exposure occurs when a pregnant woman is exposed, thereby exposing the fetus. Animal studies have shown that BPA can be found in both the placenta and the amniotic fluid of pregnant mice.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zalko D, Soto AM, Dolo L, Dorio C, Rathahao E, Debrauwer L, Faure R, Cravedi JP \\| title \\= Biotransformations of bisphenol A in a mammalian model: answers and new questions raised by low\\-dose metabolic fate studies in pregnant CD1 mice \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 111 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 309–19 \\| date \\= March 2003 \\| pmid \\= 12611660 \\| pmc \\= 1241388 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.5603}} Since BPA was also \"detected in the urine and serum of pregnant women and the serum, plasma, and placenta of newborn infants\" a study to examine the externalizing behaviors associated with prenatal exposure to BPA was performed which suggests that exposures earlier in development have more of an effect on the behavior outcomes and that female children (2\\-years\\-old) are impacted more than males.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Braun JM, Yolton K, Dietrich KN, Hornung R, Ye X, Calafat AM, Lanphear BP \\| title \\= Prenatal bisphenol A exposure and early childhood behavior \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 117 \\| issue \\= 12 \\| pages \\= 1945–52 \\| date \\= December 2009 \\| pmid \\= 20049216 \\| pmc \\= 2799471 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.0900979}} A study of 244 mothers indicated that exposure to BPA before birth could affect the behavior of girls at age 3\\. Girls whose mother's urine contained high levels of BPA during pregnancy scored worse on tests of anxiety and hyperactivity. Although these girls still scored within a normal range, for every 10\\-fold increase in the BPA of the mother, the girls scored at least six points lower on the tests. Boys did not seem to be affected by their mother's BPA levels during pregnancy.{{cite magazine\\| url\\=http://healthland.time.com/2011/10/24/bpa\\-exposure\\-in\\-pregnancy\\-may\\-affect\\-behavior\\-in\\-girls/ \\| magazine\\=Time \\| title\\=BPA Exposure in Pregnancy May Affect Behavior in Girls – TIME.com \\| date\\=24 October 2011}} After the baby is born, maternal exposure can continue to affect the infant through transfer of BPA to the infant via breast milk.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sun Y, Irie M, Kishikawa N, Wada M, Kuroda N, Nakashima K \\| title \\= Determination of bisphenol A in human breast milk by HPLC with column\\-switching and fluorescence detection \\| journal \\= Biomedical Chromatography \\| volume \\= 18 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 501–7 \\| date \\= October 2004 \\| pmid \\= 15386523 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/bmc.345}} {{open access}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ye X, Kuklenyik Z, Needham LL, Calafat AM \\| title \\= Measuring environmental phenols and chlorinated organic chemicals in breast milk using automated on\\-line column\\-switching\\-high performance liquid chromatography\\-isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry \\| journal \\= Journal of Chromatography B \\| volume \\= 831 \\| issue \\= 1–2 \\| pages \\= 110–5 \\| date \\= February 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16377264 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.jchromb.2005\\.11\\.050 \\| url \\= https://zenodo.org/record/1259095 }} Because of these exposures that can occur both during and after pregnancy, mothers wishing to limit their child's exposure to BPA should attempt to limit their own exposures during that time period.", "While the majority of exposures have been shown to come through the diet, accidental ingestion can also be considered a source of exposure. One study conducted in Japan tested plastic baby books to look for possible leaching into saliva when babies chew on them.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sajiki J, Yanagibori R, Kobayashi Y \\| title \\= Study of experiment on leaching of bisphenol A from infant books to artificial saliva \\| journal \\= Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Hygiene)\\| volume \\= 65 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 467–70 \\| date \\= May 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20508389 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1265/jjh.65\\.467 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} While the results of this study have yet to be replicated, it gives reason to question whether exposure can also occur in infants through ingestion by chewing on certain books or toys.", "", "| Population | Estimated daily bisphenol A intake (μg/kg body weight/day).Table adapted from the National Toxicology Program Expert Panel Report. |\n| --- | --- |\n| Infant (0–6 months)formula\\-fed (lower number assumes weight of 4\\.5 kg and intake of 700 ml/day with maximum concentration of BPA detected in U.S. canned formula; higher number assumes weight of 6\\.1 kg and intake of 1060 ml/day from powdered formula in cans with epoxy linings and using polycarbonate bottles) | {{center\\|1–11}} |\n| Infant (0–6 months)breast\\-fed (lower number assumes weight of 6\\.1 kg and intake of 1060 ml/day with maximum concentration of BPA detected in Japanese breast milk samples; higher number assumes weight of 4\\.5 kg and intake of 700 ml/day with maximum concentration of free BPA detected in U.S. breast milk samples) | {{center\\|0\\.2–1 }} |\n| Infant (6–12 months) | {{center\\|1\\.65–13}} |\n| Child (1\\.5–6 years) | {{center\\|0\\.043–14\\.7}} |\n| Adult (general population) | {{center\\|0\\.008–1\\.5}} |\n| Adult (occupational) | {{center\\|0\\.043–100}} |", "" ]
### Fetal and early\-childhood exposures A 2009 study found higher urinary concentrations in young children than in adults under typical exposure scenarios.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Edginton AN, Ritter L \| title \= Predicting plasma concentrations of bisphenol A in children younger than 2 years of age after typical feeding schedules, using a physiologically based toxicokinetic model \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 117 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 645–52 \| date \= April 2009 \| pmid \= 19440506 \| pmc \= 2679611 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.0800073 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Beronius A, Rudén C, Håkansson H, Hanberg A \| title \= Risk to all or none? A comparative analysis of controversies in the health risk assessment of Bisphenol A \| journal \= Reproductive Toxicology \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 132–46 \| date \= April 2010 \| pmid \= 19931376 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.reprotox.2009\.11\.007 }} In adults, BPA is eliminated from the body through a detoxification process in the liver. In infants and children, this pathway is not fully developed so they have a decreased ability to clear BPA from their systems. Several recent studies of children have found levels that exceed the EPAs suggested safe limit figure. Infants fed with liquid formula are among the most exposed, and those fed formula from polycarbonate bottles can consume up to 13 micrograms of bisphenol A per kg of body weight per day (μg/kg/day; see table below).{{cite web \| title \= European Food Safety Authority Opinion \| url \=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/86 \| format \= Abstract \|access\-date \=28 February 2007\| date \=26 July 2004 }} In the U.S. and Canada, BPA has been found in infant liquid formula in concentrations varying from 0\.48 to 11 ng/g.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ackerman LK, Noonan GO, Heiserman WM, Roach JA, Limm W, Begley TH \| title \= Determination of bisphenol A in U.S. infant formulas: updated methods and concentrations \| journal \= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \| volume \= 58 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 2307–13 \| date \= February 2010 \| pmid \= 20102208 \| doi \= 10\.1021/jf903959u }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Cao XL, Dufresne G, Belisle S, Clement G, Falicki M, Beraldin F, Rulibikiye A \| title \= Levels of bisphenol A in canned liquid infant formula products in Canada and dietary intake estimates \| journal \= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \| volume \= 56 \| issue \= 17 \| pages \= 7919–24 \| date \= September 2008 \| pmid \= 18702469 \| doi \= 10\.1021/jf8008712 }} BPA has been rarely found in infant powder formula (only 1 of 14\). The [U.S. Department of Health \& Human Services](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Health_%26_Human_Services "U.S. Department of Health & Human Services") (HHS) states that "the benefit of a stable source of good nutrition from infant formula and food outweighs the potential risk of BPA exposure".{{cite web \| title \= Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents \| url\=https://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/\|publisher\=\[\[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]]\|access\-date\=25 March 2011}} BPA is present in human breast milk, having been found by several studies in 62–75% of breast milk samples.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zimmers SM, Browne EP, O'Keefe PW, Anderton DL, Kramer L, Reckhow DA, Arcaro KF \| title \= Determination of free Bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in breast milk of U.S. women using a sensitive LC/MS/MS method \| journal \= Chemosphere \| volume \= 104 \| pages \= 237–43 \| date \= June 2014 \| pmid \= 24507723 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.chemosphere.2013\.12\.085 \| bibcode \= 2014Chmsp.104\..237Z \| s2cid \= 7009419 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mendonca K, Hauser R, Calafat AM, Arbuckle TE, Duty SM \| title \= Bisphenol A concentrations in maternal breast milk and infant urine \| journal \= International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health \| volume \= 87 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 13–20 \| date \= January 2014 \| pmid \= 23212895 \| pmc \= 4381877 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s00420\-012\-0834\-9 \| bibcode \= 2014IAOEH..87\...13M }} This is presumably due to the mothers being exposed to BPA since it is not naturally produced by the body. Children may be more susceptible to BPA exposure than adults (see health effects). {{citation needed\|date\=March 2014}} A 2010 study of people in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany has suggested polycarbonate (PC) baby bottles as the most prominent role of exposure for infants, and canned food for adults and teenagers.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= von Goetz N, Wormuth M, Scheringer M, Hungerbühler K \| title \= Bisphenol a: how the most relevant exposure sources contribute to total consumer exposure \| journal \= Risk Analysis \| volume \= 30 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 473–87 \| date \= March 2010 \| pmid \= 20136739 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1539\-6924\.2009\.01345\.x \| bibcode \= 2010RiskA..30\..473V \| s2cid \= 10494116 }} In the United States, the growing concern over BPA exposure in infants in recent years has led the manufacturers of plastic baby bottles to stop using BPA in their bottles. The FDA banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and sippy cups (July 2012\) as well as the use of epoxy resins in infant formula packaging.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm064437\.htm\|title \= Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application \|date\=January 2015 \|access\-date\=25 October 2015 \|publisher\=U.S. Food and Drug Administration}} However, babies may still be exposed if they are fed with old or hand\-me\-down bottles bought before the companies stopped using BPA. One often overlooked source of exposure occurs when a pregnant woman is exposed, thereby exposing the fetus. Animal studies have shown that BPA can be found in both the placenta and the amniotic fluid of pregnant mice.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zalko D, Soto AM, Dolo L, Dorio C, Rathahao E, Debrauwer L, Faure R, Cravedi JP \| title \= Biotransformations of bisphenol A in a mammalian model: answers and new questions raised by low\-dose metabolic fate studies in pregnant CD1 mice \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 111 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 309–19 \| date \= March 2003 \| pmid \= 12611660 \| pmc \= 1241388 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.5603}} Since BPA was also "detected in the urine and serum of pregnant women and the serum, plasma, and placenta of newborn infants" a study to examine the externalizing behaviors associated with prenatal exposure to BPA was performed which suggests that exposures earlier in development have more of an effect on the behavior outcomes and that female children (2\-years\-old) are impacted more than males.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Braun JM, Yolton K, Dietrich KN, Hornung R, Ye X, Calafat AM, Lanphear BP \| title \= Prenatal bisphenol A exposure and early childhood behavior \| journal \= Environmental Health Perspectives \| volume \= 117 \| issue \= 12 \| pages \= 1945–52 \| date \= December 2009 \| pmid \= 20049216 \| pmc \= 2799471 \| doi \= 10\.1289/ehp.0900979}} A study of 244 mothers indicated that exposure to BPA before birth could affect the behavior of girls at age 3\. Girls whose mother's urine contained high levels of BPA during pregnancy scored worse on tests of anxiety and hyperactivity. Although these girls still scored within a normal range, for every 10\-fold increase in the BPA of the mother, the girls scored at least six points lower on the tests. Boys did not seem to be affected by their mother's BPA levels during pregnancy.{{cite magazine\| url\=http://healthland.time.com/2011/10/24/bpa\-exposure\-in\-pregnancy\-may\-affect\-behavior\-in\-girls/ \| magazine\=Time \| title\=BPA Exposure in Pregnancy May Affect Behavior in Girls – TIME.com \| date\=24 October 2011}} After the baby is born, maternal exposure can continue to affect the infant through transfer of BPA to the infant via breast milk.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sun Y, Irie M, Kishikawa N, Wada M, Kuroda N, Nakashima K \| title \= Determination of bisphenol A in human breast milk by HPLC with column\-switching and fluorescence detection \| journal \= Biomedical Chromatography \| volume \= 18 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 501–7 \| date \= October 2004 \| pmid \= 15386523 \| doi \= 10\.1002/bmc.345}} {{open access}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ye X, Kuklenyik Z, Needham LL, Calafat AM \| title \= Measuring environmental phenols and chlorinated organic chemicals in breast milk using automated on\-line column\-switching\-high performance liquid chromatography\-isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry \| journal \= Journal of Chromatography B \| volume \= 831 \| issue \= 1–2 \| pages \= 110–5 \| date \= February 2006 \| pmid \= 16377264 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.jchromb.2005\.11\.050 \| url \= https://zenodo.org/record/1259095 }} Because of these exposures that can occur both during and after pregnancy, mothers wishing to limit their child's exposure to BPA should attempt to limit their own exposures during that time period. While the majority of exposures have been shown to come through the diet, accidental ingestion can also be considered a source of exposure. One study conducted in Japan tested plastic baby books to look for possible leaching into saliva when babies chew on them.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sajiki J, Yanagibori R, Kobayashi Y \| title \= Study of experiment on leaching of bisphenol A from infant books to artificial saliva \| journal \= Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Hygiene)\| volume \= 65 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 467–70 \| date \= May 2010 \| pmid \= 20508389 \| doi \= 10\.1265/jjh.65\.467 \| doi\-access \= free }} While the results of this study have yet to be replicated, it gives reason to question whether exposure can also occur in infants through ingestion by chewing on certain books or toys. | Population | Estimated daily bisphenol A intake (μg/kg body weight/day).Table adapted from the National Toxicology Program Expert Panel Report. | | --- | --- | | Infant (0–6 months)formula\-fed (lower number assumes weight of 4\.5 kg and intake of 700 ml/day with maximum concentration of BPA detected in U.S. canned formula; higher number assumes weight of 6\.1 kg and intake of 1060 ml/day from powdered formula in cans with epoxy linings and using polycarbonate bottles) | {{center\|1–11}} | | Infant (0–6 months)breast\-fed (lower number assumes weight of 6\.1 kg and intake of 1060 ml/day with maximum concentration of BPA detected in Japanese breast milk samples; higher number assumes weight of 4\.5 kg and intake of 700 ml/day with maximum concentration of free BPA detected in U.S. breast milk samples) | {{center\|0\.2–1 }} | | Infant (6–12 months) | {{center\|1\.65–13}} | | Child (1\.5–6 years) | {{center\|0\.043–14\.7}} | | Adult (general population) | {{center\|0\.008–1\.5}} | | Adult (occupational) | {{center\|0\.043–100}} |
[ "### Fetal and early\\-childhood exposures", "A 2009 study found higher urinary concentrations in young children than in adults under typical exposure scenarios.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Edginton AN, Ritter L \\| title \\= Predicting plasma concentrations of bisphenol A in children younger than 2 years of age after typical feeding schedules, using a physiologically based toxicokinetic model \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 117 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 645–52 \\| date \\= April 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19440506 \\| pmc \\= 2679611 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.0800073 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Beronius A, Rudén C, Håkansson H, Hanberg A \\| title \\= Risk to all or none? A comparative analysis of controversies in the health risk assessment of Bisphenol A \\| journal \\= Reproductive Toxicology \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 132–46 \\| date \\= April 2010 \\| pmid \\= 19931376 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.reprotox.2009\\.11\\.007 }} In adults, BPA is eliminated from the body through a detoxification process in the liver. In infants and children, this pathway is not fully developed so they have a decreased ability to clear BPA from their systems. Several recent studies of children have found levels that exceed the EPAs suggested safe limit figure.", "Infants fed with liquid formula are among the most exposed, and those fed formula from polycarbonate bottles can consume up to 13 micrograms of bisphenol A per kg of body weight per day (μg/kg/day; see table below).{{cite web \\| title \\= European Food Safety Authority Opinion \\| url \\=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/86 \\| format \\= Abstract \\|access\\-date \\=28 February 2007\\| date \\=26 July 2004 }} In the U.S. and Canada, BPA has been found in infant liquid formula in concentrations varying from 0\\.48 to 11 ng/g.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ackerman LK, Noonan GO, Heiserman WM, Roach JA, Limm W, Begley TH \\| title \\= Determination of bisphenol A in U.S. infant formulas: updated methods and concentrations \\| journal \\= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \\| volume \\= 58 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 2307–13 \\| date \\= February 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20102208 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/jf903959u }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Cao XL, Dufresne G, Belisle S, Clement G, Falicki M, Beraldin F, Rulibikiye A \\| title \\= Levels of bisphenol A in canned liquid infant formula products in Canada and dietary intake estimates \\| journal \\= Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \\| volume \\= 56 \\| issue \\= 17 \\| pages \\= 7919–24 \\| date \\= September 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18702469 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/jf8008712 }} BPA has been rarely found in infant powder formula (only 1 of 14\\). The [U.S. Department of Health \\& Human Services](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Health_%26_Human_Services \"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services\") (HHS) states that \"the benefit of a stable source of good nutrition from infant formula and food outweighs the potential risk of BPA exposure\".{{cite web \\| title \\= Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents \\| url\\=https://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]]\\|access\\-date\\=25 March 2011}} BPA is present in human breast milk, having been found by several studies in 62–75% of breast milk samples.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zimmers SM, Browne EP, O'Keefe PW, Anderton DL, Kramer L, Reckhow DA, Arcaro KF \\| title \\= Determination of free Bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in breast milk of U.S. women using a sensitive LC/MS/MS method \\| journal \\= Chemosphere \\| volume \\= 104 \\| pages \\= 237–43 \\| date \\= June 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24507723 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.chemosphere.2013\\.12\\.085 \\| bibcode \\= 2014Chmsp.104\\..237Z \\| s2cid \\= 7009419 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mendonca K, Hauser R, Calafat AM, Arbuckle TE, Duty SM \\| title \\= Bisphenol A concentrations in maternal breast milk and infant urine \\| journal \\= International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health \\| volume \\= 87 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 13–20 \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pmid \\= 23212895 \\| pmc \\= 4381877 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s00420\\-012\\-0834\\-9 \\| bibcode \\= 2014IAOEH..87\\...13M }} This is presumably due to the mothers being exposed to BPA since it is not naturally produced by the body.", "Children may be more susceptible to BPA exposure than adults (see health effects). {{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2014}}\nA 2010 study of people in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany has suggested polycarbonate (PC) baby bottles as the most prominent role of exposure for infants, and canned food for adults and teenagers.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= von Goetz N, Wormuth M, Scheringer M, Hungerbühler K \\| title \\= Bisphenol a: how the most relevant exposure sources contribute to total consumer exposure \\| journal \\= Risk Analysis \\| volume \\= 30 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 473–87 \\| date \\= March 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20136739 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1539\\-6924\\.2009\\.01345\\.x \\| bibcode \\= 2010RiskA..30\\..473V \\| s2cid \\= 10494116 }} In the United States, the growing concern over BPA exposure in infants in recent years has led the manufacturers of plastic baby bottles to stop using BPA in their bottles. The FDA banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and sippy cups (July 2012\\) as well as the use of epoxy resins in infant formula packaging.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm064437\\.htm\\|title \\= Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application \\|date\\=January 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2015 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Food and Drug Administration}} However, babies may still be exposed if they are fed with old or hand\\-me\\-down bottles bought before the companies stopped using BPA.", "One often overlooked source of exposure occurs when a pregnant woman is exposed, thereby exposing the fetus. Animal studies have shown that BPA can be found in both the placenta and the amniotic fluid of pregnant mice.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zalko D, Soto AM, Dolo L, Dorio C, Rathahao E, Debrauwer L, Faure R, Cravedi JP \\| title \\= Biotransformations of bisphenol A in a mammalian model: answers and new questions raised by low\\-dose metabolic fate studies in pregnant CD1 mice \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 111 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 309–19 \\| date \\= March 2003 \\| pmid \\= 12611660 \\| pmc \\= 1241388 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.5603}} Since BPA was also \"detected in the urine and serum of pregnant women and the serum, plasma, and placenta of newborn infants\" a study to examine the externalizing behaviors associated with prenatal exposure to BPA was performed which suggests that exposures earlier in development have more of an effect on the behavior outcomes and that female children (2\\-years\\-old) are impacted more than males.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Braun JM, Yolton K, Dietrich KN, Hornung R, Ye X, Calafat AM, Lanphear BP \\| title \\= Prenatal bisphenol A exposure and early childhood behavior \\| journal \\= Environmental Health Perspectives \\| volume \\= 117 \\| issue \\= 12 \\| pages \\= 1945–52 \\| date \\= December 2009 \\| pmid \\= 20049216 \\| pmc \\= 2799471 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1289/ehp.0900979}} A study of 244 mothers indicated that exposure to BPA before birth could affect the behavior of girls at age 3\\. Girls whose mother's urine contained high levels of BPA during pregnancy scored worse on tests of anxiety and hyperactivity. Although these girls still scored within a normal range, for every 10\\-fold increase in the BPA of the mother, the girls scored at least six points lower on the tests. Boys did not seem to be affected by their mother's BPA levels during pregnancy.{{cite magazine\\| url\\=http://healthland.time.com/2011/10/24/bpa\\-exposure\\-in\\-pregnancy\\-may\\-affect\\-behavior\\-in\\-girls/ \\| magazine\\=Time \\| title\\=BPA Exposure in Pregnancy May Affect Behavior in Girls – TIME.com \\| date\\=24 October 2011}} After the baby is born, maternal exposure can continue to affect the infant through transfer of BPA to the infant via breast milk.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sun Y, Irie M, Kishikawa N, Wada M, Kuroda N, Nakashima K \\| title \\= Determination of bisphenol A in human breast milk by HPLC with column\\-switching and fluorescence detection \\| journal \\= Biomedical Chromatography \\| volume \\= 18 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 501–7 \\| date \\= October 2004 \\| pmid \\= 15386523 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/bmc.345}} {{open access}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ye X, Kuklenyik Z, Needham LL, Calafat AM \\| title \\= Measuring environmental phenols and chlorinated organic chemicals in breast milk using automated on\\-line column\\-switching\\-high performance liquid chromatography\\-isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry \\| journal \\= Journal of Chromatography B \\| volume \\= 831 \\| issue \\= 1–2 \\| pages \\= 110–5 \\| date \\= February 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16377264 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.jchromb.2005\\.11\\.050 \\| url \\= https://zenodo.org/record/1259095 }} Because of these exposures that can occur both during and after pregnancy, mothers wishing to limit their child's exposure to BPA should attempt to limit their own exposures during that time period.", "While the majority of exposures have been shown to come through the diet, accidental ingestion can also be considered a source of exposure. One study conducted in Japan tested plastic baby books to look for possible leaching into saliva when babies chew on them.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sajiki J, Yanagibori R, Kobayashi Y \\| title \\= Study of experiment on leaching of bisphenol A from infant books to artificial saliva \\| journal \\= Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Hygiene)\\| volume \\= 65 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 467–70 \\| date \\= May 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20508389 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1265/jjh.65\\.467 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} While the results of this study have yet to be replicated, it gives reason to question whether exposure can also occur in infants through ingestion by chewing on certain books or toys.", "", "| Population | Estimated daily bisphenol A intake (μg/kg body weight/day).Table adapted from the National Toxicology Program Expert Panel Report. |\n| --- | --- |\n| Infant (0–6 months)formula\\-fed (lower number assumes weight of 4\\.5 kg and intake of 700 ml/day with maximum concentration of BPA detected in U.S. canned formula; higher number assumes weight of 6\\.1 kg and intake of 1060 ml/day from powdered formula in cans with epoxy linings and using polycarbonate bottles) | {{center\\|1–11}} |\n| Infant (0–6 months)breast\\-fed (lower number assumes weight of 6\\.1 kg and intake of 1060 ml/day with maximum concentration of BPA detected in Japanese breast milk samples; higher number assumes weight of 4\\.5 kg and intake of 700 ml/day with maximum concentration of free BPA detected in U.S. breast milk samples) | {{center\\|0\\.2–1 }} |\n| Infant (6–12 months) | {{center\\|1\\.65–13}} |\n| Child (1\\.5–6 years) | {{center\\|0\\.043–14\\.7}} |\n| Adult (general population) | {{center\\|0\\.008–1\\.5}} |\n| Adult (occupational) | {{center\\|0\\.043–100}} |", "" ]
Plot ---- College students Nick, his younger sister Erin and their engaged friends Vicky and Josh attend a beach party while on vacation before returning to their cabin along with Tera, a girl Nick picked up at the party. After Vicky, Josh and Erin have gone to sleep, they are attacked by a masked assailant, Edgar, who incapacitates Vicky and Josh with tranquillizer darts. Nick, who has been locked outside, sees Edgar attack Erin and manages to free Tera before being shot with tranquillizer himself. Tera flees to the group's boat but is caught by Edgar. Nick, Erin and Vicky wake to find themselves chained up in a feed lot barn. Josh has been separated and is chained and gagged separately between the stalls. The barn's owner and Edgar's boss, Wayne, tells them that they are now his property and that he has to [break](/wiki/Horse_training "Horse training") them, like horses. Josh repeatedly swears at Wayne, so Wayne and Edgar cut out his tongue before warning the others that he will do much worse if necessary. Edgar takes Vicky away and rapes her, with Wayne's permission. Another prisoner, Kathy, who has been at the barn longer and seems deranged, tells Erin he will do the same to her. Kathy repeatedly sings a macabre nursery rhyme, aggravating the others. Nick is chained up overnight in the "shed" to try to break his spirit, where he sees Tera's body wrapped in plastic. After Nick is returned to his stall, a car arrives. The newcomer, Amell, views the prisoners and agrees to buy Vicky, disappointing Wayne who had hoped he would take at least three. Vicky is shut in a box and carried away: Wayne tells the others that she will be sold on as a [sex slave](/wiki/Sexual_slavery "Sexual slavery"). When Josh continues to incoherently protest, Wayne fatally shoots him in the head. A couple stop their car at the farm to ask for directions and their daughter wanders into the barn. When she tells her parents what she saw, Edgar immediately kills them with a knife, then hunts down the girl with a shotgun. Concerned that the girl has passed something to Nick, Edgar drags him out of his stall, but Nick is able to free himself and kills Edgar with a crowbar. He then ambushes Wayne, suffering a knife wound in the process, and locks him in one of the stalls before releasing Erin and Kathy. As they drive away in Edgar's truck, Kathy insists they take a left turn, and they see lit buildings ahead. Nick goes to investigate, telling the two women to stay behind, but Kathy goes after him, looking for cigarettes. While she is trying to persuade Kathy to return to hiding, Erin is attacked and killed by Wayne. It is revealed that Kathy is in fact Wayne's wife and accomplice. Nick finds a young woman, Liz, locked in a box, and then realizes Kathy's deception. He hides in the box himself and shoots Kathy when she comes to check on "Liz". Nick gives Liz Kathy's gun, then goes looking for Erin, but is shot with buckshot by Wayne. Liz arrives to hold Wayne at gunpoint, but is unable to pull the trigger; however, her distraction enables Nick to injure and then kill Wayne with a circular saw. A badly wounded Nick tells Liz that everything will be alright. However, Kathy reappears and shoots them both. In a final scene, Kathy is shown buying another remote barn from a real estate agent. A group of [college students](/wiki/College_student "College student") fight to regain their freedom after being [kidnapped](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping") by a trader.{{cite web\|url\=http://attackedbygorillas.com/2009/08/30/movie\-review\-live\-animals/\|title\=Attacked By Gorillas\|author\=\|date\=\|publisher\=\|accessdate\=1 August 2018}}[Horrorreview.com](http://www.horrorreview.com/2009/liveanimals2009.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712220154/http://www.horrorreview.com/2009/liveanimals2009\.html \|date\=2011\-07\-12 }}
[ "Plot\n----", "College students Nick, his younger sister Erin and their engaged friends Vicky and Josh attend a beach party while on vacation before returning to their cabin along with Tera, a girl Nick picked up at the party. After Vicky, Josh and Erin have gone to sleep, they are attacked by a masked assailant, Edgar, who incapacitates Vicky and Josh with tranquillizer darts. Nick, who has been locked outside, sees Edgar attack Erin and manages to free Tera before being shot with tranquillizer himself. Tera flees to the group's boat but is caught by Edgar.", "Nick, Erin and Vicky wake to find themselves chained up in a feed lot barn. Josh has been separated and is chained and gagged separately between the stalls. The barn's owner and Edgar's boss, Wayne, tells them that they are now his property and that he has to [break](/wiki/Horse_training \"Horse training\") them, like horses. Josh repeatedly swears at Wayne, so Wayne and Edgar cut out his tongue before warning the others that he will do much worse if necessary.", "Edgar takes Vicky away and rapes her, with Wayne's permission. Another prisoner, Kathy, who has been at the barn longer and seems deranged, tells Erin he will do the same to her. Kathy repeatedly sings a macabre nursery rhyme, aggravating the others. Nick is chained up overnight in the \"shed\" to try to break his spirit, where he sees Tera's body wrapped in plastic. After Nick is returned to his stall, a car arrives. The newcomer, Amell, views the prisoners and agrees to buy Vicky, disappointing Wayne who had hoped he would take at least three. Vicky is shut in a box and carried away: Wayne tells the others that she will be sold on as a [sex slave](/wiki/Sexual_slavery \"Sexual slavery\"). When Josh continues to incoherently protest, Wayne fatally shoots him in the head.", "A couple stop their car at the farm to ask for directions and their daughter wanders into the barn. When she tells her parents what she saw, Edgar immediately kills them with a knife, then hunts down the girl with a shotgun. Concerned that the girl has passed something to Nick, Edgar drags him out of his stall, but Nick is able to free himself and kills Edgar with a crowbar. He then ambushes Wayne, suffering a knife wound in the process, and locks him in one of the stalls before releasing Erin and Kathy.", "As they drive away in Edgar's truck, Kathy insists they take a left turn, and they see lit buildings ahead. Nick goes to investigate, telling the two women to stay behind, but Kathy goes after him, looking for cigarettes. While she is trying to persuade Kathy to return to hiding, Erin is attacked and killed by Wayne. It is revealed that Kathy is in fact Wayne's wife and accomplice. Nick finds a young woman, Liz, locked in a box, and then realizes Kathy's deception. He hides in the box himself and shoots Kathy when she comes to check on \"Liz\". Nick gives Liz Kathy's gun, then goes looking for Erin, but is shot with buckshot by Wayne. Liz arrives to hold Wayne at gunpoint, but is unable to pull the trigger; however, her distraction enables Nick to injure and then kill Wayne with a circular saw.", "A badly wounded Nick tells Liz that everything will be alright. However, Kathy reappears and shoots them both. In a final scene, Kathy is shown buying another remote barn from a real estate agent.", "A group of [college students](/wiki/College_student \"College student\") fight to regain their freedom after being [kidnapped](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\") by a trader.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://attackedbygorillas.com/2009/08/30/movie\\-review\\-live\\-animals/\\|title\\=Attacked By Gorillas\\|author\\=\\|date\\=\\|publisher\\=\\|accessdate\\=1 August 2018}}[Horrorreview.com](http://www.horrorreview.com/2009/liveanimals2009.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712220154/http://www.horrorreview.com/2009/liveanimals2009\\.html \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-12 }}", "" ]
Awards and organisations ------------------------ In 2007, Izamoje was honoured by the [University of Lagos](/wiki/University_of_Lagos "University of Lagos") Alumni Association for his contributions to Nigerian society through sports journalism. {{citation needed\|date\=May 2013}} Izamoje won the NYSC Merit Award for Kano State in 1985, the Sportswriter of the Year award (1995\) from the Sports Writers Association of Nigeria (SWAN), the NUJ/UAC award for excellence in journalism in 1988, the Lagos Football Referees Society award for excellence in journalism in 2002, the Success Digest Male Entrepreneur of the Year award in 2002, the 21st Century award for achievement in pioneering sports radio in Nigeria (2003\), the TeloComm Humanity award for service to the disabled in 2003 through 2006, the International Foundation for Excellence award for contribution to mankind and nation building (2003\), and the Sports Writer of the Year award from Sporting Champion in 2004\. He was an [Olympic Torch](/wiki/Olympic_Torch "Olympic Torch") bearer in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") in June 2004, when the Olympic Torch made its first visit to Africa since the inception of the modern Olympics. In April, 2005 he was named an alumni exhibition and seminar attendee by the American [National Association of Broadcasters](/wiki/National_Association_of_Broadcasters "National Association of Broadcasters"), [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley "Las Vegas Valley"). Izamoje is a recipient of the 2005 Excellence Award of the national body of the Sportswriters Association of Nigeria (SWAN). {{citation needed\|date\=May 2013}} Izamoje was media committee member, LOC of Nigeria '99 World Youth Championship; Marketing Committee member, LOC of Africa Cup of Nations 2000; a member of the pro\-league review committee in 2000; a member of the Task force for Super Eagles preparation for the 2000 Nations Cup; a member of the [All\-Africa Games](/wiki/All-Africa_Games "All-Africa Games") logo selection committee in 2001; Chairman of the Nigerian Football Summit planning committee in 2002; and a member of the Event Analysis team, Abuja 2003\. Widely travelled, he was the only African journalist that covered the historic [Marvin Hagler](/wiki/Marvin_Hagler "Marvin Hagler")/[Sugar Ray Leonard](/wiki/Sugar_Ray_Leonard "Sugar Ray Leonard") bout in Las Vegas in 1987, and with his wife the only Africans that attended the global Sports Radio Conference, [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") in 2002\. He was between 1999 and 2002 a regular attendee of the global Football Expo held yearly in [Cannes](/wiki/Cannes "Cannes"). He has covered the [Nations cup](/wiki/IRB_Nations_Cup "IRB Nations Cup"), [World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup "FIFA World Cup"), [Commonwealth Games](/wiki/Commonwealth_Games "Commonwealth Games") and the [Wimbledon](/wiki/The_Championships%2C_Wimbledon "The Championships, Wimbledon") tennis championships. Izamoje was a member of the 12\-man Presidential Committee charged by the then Nigerian leader, President [Umaru Yar'Adua](/wiki/Umaru_Yar%27Adua "Umaru Yar'Adua"), to ensure Nigeria's qualification for and participation in the South Africa 2010 World Cup. Dr. Izamoje is a fellow of four top professional bodies, namely the Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON), the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR), the National Institute of Sports, Nigeria (NIS), and the Nigerian Chartered Institute of Administrators and Researchers (CFIAR).{{Reflist\|refs\=Business School lausanne graduation brochure 2012 NIPR fellowship inductees 2023 Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria register 2023 National Institute of Sports graduation brochure 2023}}CFIAR membership magazine 2013 He is a member of the Institute of Directors (IOD), Nigerian and International Sportswriters Associations (SWAN and AIPS), Independent Broadcasters Association of Nigeria (IBAN) and the [Broadcasting Organisation of Nigeria](/wiki/Broadcasting_Organisation_of_Nigeria "Broadcasting Organisation of Nigeria") (BON) amongst others. Brila FM is an affiliate of the [Voice of America](/wiki/Voice_of_America "Voice of America") (VOA). In 2012, Izamoje was awarded a Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) degree by the [Business School Lausanne](/wiki/Business_School_Lausanne "Business School Lausanne") (BSL), Lausanne, [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") for academic work on Changing Work Values and Labour Mobility in Small \& Medium Organizations in [Lagos](/wiki/Lagos "Lagos"), Nigeria. He has an honorary D.Sc. degree from the [Salem University, Lokoja](/wiki/Salem_University%2C_Lokoja "Salem University, Lokoja") in Nigeria, the reason he is jocularly called ‘Double Dr’ .
[ "Awards and organisations\n------------------------", "In 2007, Izamoje was honoured by the [University of Lagos](/wiki/University_of_Lagos \"University of Lagos\") Alumni Association for his contributions to Nigerian society through sports journalism. {{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2013}}", "Izamoje won the NYSC Merit Award for Kano State in 1985, the Sportswriter of the Year award (1995\\) from the Sports Writers Association of Nigeria (SWAN), the NUJ/UAC award for excellence in journalism in 1988, the Lagos Football Referees Society award for excellence in journalism in 2002, the Success Digest Male Entrepreneur of the Year award in 2002, the 21st Century award for achievement in pioneering sports radio in Nigeria (2003\\), the TeloComm Humanity award for service to the disabled in 2003 through 2006, the International Foundation for Excellence award for contribution to mankind and nation building (2003\\), and the Sports Writer of the Year award from Sporting Champion in 2004\\. He was an [Olympic Torch](/wiki/Olympic_Torch \"Olympic Torch\") bearer in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") in June 2004, when the Olympic Torch made its first visit to Africa since the inception of the modern Olympics. In April, 2005 he was named an alumni exhibition and seminar attendee by the American [National Association of Broadcasters](/wiki/National_Association_of_Broadcasters \"National Association of Broadcasters\"), [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley \"Las Vegas Valley\").", "Izamoje is a recipient of the 2005 Excellence Award of the national body of the Sportswriters Association of Nigeria (SWAN). {{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2013}}", "Izamoje was media committee member, LOC of Nigeria '99 World Youth Championship; Marketing Committee member, LOC of Africa Cup of Nations 2000; a member of the pro\\-league review committee in 2000; a member of the Task force for Super Eagles preparation for the 2000 Nations Cup; a member of the [All\\-Africa Games](/wiki/All-Africa_Games \"All-Africa Games\") logo selection committee in 2001; Chairman of the Nigerian Football Summit planning committee in 2002; and a member of the Event Analysis team, Abuja 2003\\.", "Widely travelled, he was the only African journalist that covered the historic [Marvin Hagler](/wiki/Marvin_Hagler \"Marvin Hagler\")/[Sugar Ray Leonard](/wiki/Sugar_Ray_Leonard \"Sugar Ray Leonard\") bout in Las Vegas in 1987, and with his wife the only Africans that attended the global Sports Radio Conference, [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") in 2002\\. He was between 1999 and 2002 a regular attendee of the global Football Expo held yearly in [Cannes](/wiki/Cannes \"Cannes\").", "He has covered the [Nations cup](/wiki/IRB_Nations_Cup \"IRB Nations Cup\"), [World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup \"FIFA World Cup\"), [Commonwealth Games](/wiki/Commonwealth_Games \"Commonwealth Games\") and the [Wimbledon](/wiki/The_Championships%2C_Wimbledon \"The Championships, Wimbledon\") tennis championships. Izamoje was a member of the 12\\-man Presidential Committee charged by the then Nigerian leader, President [Umaru Yar'Adua](/wiki/Umaru_Yar%27Adua \"Umaru Yar'Adua\"), to ensure Nigeria's qualification for and participation in the South Africa 2010 World Cup.", "Dr. Izamoje is a fellow of four top professional bodies, namely the Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON), the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR), the National Institute of Sports, Nigeria (NIS), and the Nigerian Chartered Institute of Administrators and Researchers (CFIAR).{{Reflist\\|refs\\=Business School lausanne graduation brochure 2012\nNIPR fellowship inductees 2023\nAdvertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria register 2023\nNational Institute of Sports graduation brochure 2023}}CFIAR membership magazine 2013 He is a member of the Institute of Directors (IOD), Nigerian and International Sportswriters Associations (SWAN and AIPS), Independent Broadcasters Association of Nigeria (IBAN) and the [Broadcasting Organisation of Nigeria](/wiki/Broadcasting_Organisation_of_Nigeria \"Broadcasting Organisation of Nigeria\") (BON) amongst others. Brila FM is an affiliate of the [Voice of America](/wiki/Voice_of_America \"Voice of America\") (VOA).", "In 2012, Izamoje was awarded a Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) degree by the [Business School Lausanne](/wiki/Business_School_Lausanne \"Business School Lausanne\") (BSL), Lausanne, [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") for academic work on Changing Work Values and Labour Mobility in Small \\& Medium Organizations in [Lagos](/wiki/Lagos \"Lagos\"), Nigeria. He has an honorary D.Sc. degree from the [Salem University, Lokoja](/wiki/Salem_University%2C_Lokoja \"Salem University, Lokoja\") in Nigeria, the reason he is jocularly called ‘Double Dr’ .", "" ]
History ------- Edgar Streifthau of [Middletown, Ohio](/wiki/Middletown%2C_Ohio "Middletown, Ohio"), opened LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park on May 8, 1922\. Streifthau purchased a plot of land that formerly housed an ice manufacturing facility in the tiny village of LeSourdsville, and construction began in 1921\. Streifthau and his business partner, Bill Rothfuss, built a bathhouse, a restaurant, dance hall and a bridge crossing the abandoned [Miami\-Erie Canal](/wiki/Miami-Erie_Canal "Miami-Erie Canal") that passed through the property. They also constructed a concrete bottom in the man\-made lake for swimming. Streifthau constructed the first of several "vacation" cabins surrounding the lake and platforms for camping tents. Streifthau's brother, Ernest, joined as a partner as Bill Rothfuss focused on his career at nearby [ARMCO Steel](/wiki/ARMCO_Steel "ARMCO Steel") (later known as AK Steel). ### 1930s Despite the onset of [The Great Depression](/wiki/The_Great_Depression "The Great Depression"), Streifthau continued to expand the park's offerings. He expanded the bathhouse, installed a new parking lot, built the park's first office building, and imported over 1,000 tons of white sand for the beach. Admission prices, food prices and employee wages were cut. Just before the park was to open for the 1934 season, an accidental fire destroyed the bathhouse. Streifthau was desperate to rebuild a new bathhouse before the park opened in May. He went to the Middletown Lumber Company and solicited the assistance of a personable and talented draftsman, Don Dazey. On May 30, the park opened with a new bathhouse. Dazey convinced Streifthau that dances could be successful without the fighting and melee that plagued the park in earlier years. Dazey constructed *Stardust Gardens* next door to the bathhouse. Bands such as [Ray McKinley](/wiki/Ray_McKinley "Ray McKinley"), [Glenn Miller](/wiki/Glenn_Miller "Glenn Miller"), the [Dorsey Brothers](/wiki/Dorsey_Brothers "Dorsey Brothers") and [Stan Kenton](/wiki/Stan_Kenton "Stan Kenton") graced the rich, maple wood floor to the delight of thousands of customers. Dazey also solicited area companies to hold their [picnics](/wiki/Picnic "Picnic") at the park and began an important tradition that continued until the park closed. Streifthau also added two [toboggan](/wiki/Toboggan "Toboggan") [water slides](/wiki/Water_slide "Water slide"), a waterwheel, seven diving boards, and a {{convert\|20\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} high platform for diving. In 1939, Streifthau purchased a 1927 John Miller wooden coaster from [Moxahalia Amusement Park](/wiki/Moxahalia_Amusement_Park "Moxahalia Amusement Park") in [Zanesville, Ohio](/wiki/Zanesville%2C_Ohio "Zanesville, Ohio") for $35,000\. The coaster was rebuilt and named "The Cyclone." ### 1940s The 1940s represented an important decade for LeSourdsville Lake. The park became the "Miami Valley's Chosen Playground" and became the hottest entertainment spot during the summer months. In 1941, the park added *The Whip* and a [Ferris wheel](/wiki/Ferris_wheel "Ferris wheel") to its thrill ride line\-up.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2014}} Bands appearing in the Stardust Gardens Ballroom included [Eddie Kadle](/wiki/Eddie_Kadle "Eddie Kadle"), [Earl Holderman](/wiki/Earl_Holderman "Earl Holderman"), [Gene Roberts](/wiki/Gene_Roberts_%28musician%29 "Gene Roberts (musician)"), Mary Marshall, [Little Joe Hart](/wiki/Little_Joe_Hart "Little Joe Hart"), [Eugene Jelesnick](/wiki/Eugene_Jelesnick "Eugene Jelesnick"), [Billy Snyder](/wiki/Billy_Snyder "Billy Snyder"), [Tommy Flynn](/wiki/Tommy_Flynn "Tommy Flynn"), [Billy Yates](/wiki/Billy_Yates_%28singer%29 "Billy Yates (singer)"), [Jimmy Scriber](/wiki/Jimmy_Scriber "Jimmy Scriber") and [Emerson Gill](/wiki/Emerson_Gill "Emerson Gill"). The following summer, [Carl Taylor](/wiki/Carl_Taylor_%28musician%29 "Carl Taylor (musician)"), [Lloyd Labrie](/wiki/Lloyd_Labrie "Lloyd Labrie") and [Michael Mehas](/wiki/Michael_Mehas "Michael Mehas") joined the Stardust Gardens headliners. Streifthau also built a new front entrance and added a section of new midway near the entrance to The Cyclone. After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), LeSourdsville Lake continued to grow and prosper. In 1947, two stream\-lined trains were added to The Cyclone and a kiddie racing car ride was installed. On July 4, the park celebrated its largest one\-day turnout in its history when 30,168 came through the front gate. Big bands popular in 1947 included, [Barney Rapp](/wiki/Barney_Rapp "Barney Rapp"), [Jimmy Miller](/wiki/Jimmy_Miller "Jimmy Miller"), [Ches Walker](/wiki/Ches_Walker "Ches Walker"), [Les Shepard](/wiki/Les_Shepard "Les Shepard"), [Harold Greenanyer](/wiki/Harold_Greenanyer "Harold Greenanyer"), [Del Mason](/wiki/Del_Mason "Del Mason"), [Whitey Howard](/wiki/Whitey_Howard "Whitey Howard"), Karl Taylor and [Johnny Doom](/wiki/Johnny_Doom "Johnny Doom"). Major improvements were visible as LeSourdsville Lake opened its 1949 season. New rides for 1949 included a [Rock\-O\-Plane](/wiki/Rock-O-Plane "Rock-O-Plane"). A state\-of\-the\-art masonry building was constructed next to The Cyclone entrance. New rides and attractions included the Fun Parade, and a [penny arcade](/wiki/Penny_arcade "Penny arcade"). Big bands making appearances included [Sammy Leeds](/wiki/Sammy_Leeds "Sammy Leeds"), [Whitey Howard](/wiki/Whitey_Howard "Whitey Howard"), [Tommy Robbins](/wiki/Tommy_Robbins "Tommy Robbins"), [Al Cassidy](/wiki/Al_Cassidy "Al Cassidy"), Karl Taylor, [Leo Pieper](/wiki/Leo_Pieper "Leo Pieper"), [Skitch Henderson](/wiki/Skitch_Henderson "Skitch Henderson"), [Jimmy James](/wiki/Jimmy_James_%28bandleader%29 "Jimmy James (bandleader)") and [Earl Holderman](/wiki/Earl_Holderman "Earl Holderman"). ### 1950s The 1950s ushered in some changes for LeSourdsville Lake as the park's image began to decline from its peak the previous decade. Big bands that once graced the Stardust Gardens Ballroom throughout the week were now featured on weekends only. Streifthau renovated the bathhouse to accommodate the large number of swimmers the park serviced each year. The brick addition to the bathhouse also "provided a fire resistive baring at an amusement park. New rides for 1951 included a [Tilt\-A\-Whirl](/wiki/Tilt-A-Whirl "Tilt-A-Whirl"). By 1954, Streifthau was manufacturing his own line of turnpike cars in a partnership with [Oxford, Ohio](/wiki/Oxford%2C_Ohio "Oxford, Ohio") resident [Frank Dodd](/wiki/Frank_S._Dodd "Frank S. Dodd"). *Kiddieland* saw five new rides added, including a new steel coaster called the Jack Rabbit. In 1956, the Turnpike ride was built next to the Screechin' Eagle (formerly The Cyclone) roller coaster. Streifthau and Dazey realized that more had to be done to modernize LeSourdsville Lake. [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland") opened in 1955 to such rave reviews from the public that they expected other parks to become just as modern and clean. At [Cedar Point](/wiki/Cedar_Point "Cedar Point"), a multimillion\-dollar renovation was under way by 1957 in an attempt to become the "[Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland") of the Midwest." Streifthau decided to take out a loan and initiate a multi\-year improvement plan. In 1957, a stone tower and fountain were constructed at the main entrance. Streifthau was ready to enter 1959 with a new vision. However, Dazey died in June 1959 of cancer. A local bank required Streifthau to immediately pay off the outstanding loan and he was forced to sell. He still owned 20 acres of land adjoining the park and he created a new, smaller theme park called Fantasy Farm.{{cite news \|title\=A look back at LeSourdsville Lake / Americana Amusement Park \|url\=https://www.daytondailynews.com/news/local/look\-back\-lesourdsville\-lake\-americana\-amusement\-park/MadXY9CsDkNy1q7BDCzK8L/ \|access\-date\=19 July 2021 \|work\=Dayton Daily News \|language\=English \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305075012/https://www.daytondailynews.com/news/local/look\-back\-lesourdsville\-lake\-americana\-amusement\-park/MadXY9CsDkNy1q7BDCzK8L/ \|archive\-date\=March 5, 2021 \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|title\=Memories of Fantasy Farm \|url\=https://www.daytonlocal.com/blog/history/memories\-of\-fantasy\-farm.asp \|website\=www.daytonlocal.com \|access\-date\=19 July 2021}}{{cite book \|last1\=Fowler \|first1\=Scott E. \|title\=Fantasy Farm Amusement Park \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing \|location\=Charleston, South Carolina \|isbn\=978\-1467111881 \|pages\=96 \|url\=https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Products/9781467111881}} ### 1960s The 1960s ushered in a prosperity for the 40\-year\-old park. Former Cedar Point concessionaires Howard Berni and Frank Murru were successful in their purchase of the park for $550,000\. They took over in 1961 and quickly continued the renovation effort that stopped prematurely when Dazey died. The [WING](/wiki/WING "WING") radio *Lesourdsville Lake WING FLING* featured on air personalities, Lou Swanson, Rod Williams, Jim Smith and a famous sign off by Gene By Golly Barry.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/sJfwjVX6lro){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20160610025258/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJfwjVX6lro){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=sJfwjVX6lro\| title \= HISTORY LeSOURDSVILLE LAKE OHIO (Cyber River Multi Media) \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} A [Wild Mouse](/wiki/Wild_Mouse "Wild Mouse") roller coaster was the newest ride to greet visitors for the 1961 season. In addition, an 18\-hole [miniature golf](/wiki/Miniature_golf "Miniature golf") course and a new Arcade building were built at the end of the midway next to the Screechin' Eagle roller coaster. The park also featured a native [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") ornamental garden with hand carved [Tiki](/wiki/Tiki "Tiki") and live palm trees. Unfortunately, the year was plagued by abnormal amount of rain which affected attendance. At the end of the season, the area's first "pay one price plan" was established. For $1\.65 for adults and 75 cents for children customers could ride all day. In 1964, Middletown resident William "Bill" Barr became a partner in the park and contributed his creative ideas and endless energy to help make LeSourdsville Lake the favorite park for hundreds of thousands of patrons. Between 1962 and 1969, a number of attractions were added to the LeSourdsville Lake line\-up, including a NAD train (called the Iron Horse), a remodeled [Haunted House](/wiki/Haunted_House "Haunted House"), a [Trabant](/wiki/Wipeout_%28ride%29 "Wipeout (ride)"){{cite book \|last1\=Fowler \|first1\=Scott E. \|title\=Images of America: LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park \|date\=May 2011 \|publisher\=Arcadia Publishing \|isbn\=978\-0\-7385\-8314\-3 \|page\=75 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=A9\-kavTknYsC\&dq\=Trabant%20%22LeSourdsville%20Lake%20Amusement%20Park%22%201969\&pg\=PA75 \|access\-date\=16 September 2023 \|language\=en \|quote\=The Trabant was added in 1969 and quickly became a favorite. It was installed between the Iron Horse train ride and the lake and provided guests with something to do while waiting for the train.}} and a new theme area called *Tombstone Territory*. The big band names of [Jack Huntlemen](/wiki/Jack_Huntlemen "Jack Huntlemen"), [Sammy Kaye](/wiki/Sammy_Kaye "Sammy Kaye"), [Buddy Rogers](/wiki/Charles_Rogers_%28actor%29 "Charles Rogers (actor)") and [Bobby Grayson](/wiki/Bobby_Grayson "Bobby Grayson") were slowly replaced by regular appearances by [WLW](/wiki/WLW "WLW")'s [Bob Braun](/wiki/Bob_Braun "Bob Braun"), [The Cool Ghoul](/wiki/The_Cool_Ghoul "The Cool Ghoul") from [WXIX](/wiki/WXIX "WXIX"), [WKRC](/wiki/WKRC_%28AM%29 "WKRC (AM)")'s [Glenn "Skipper" Ryle](/wiki/Glenn_Ryle "Glenn Ryle") and a host of television stars, movie celebrities and music acts. ### 1970s By the mid\-1970s, LeSourdsville Lake was drawing about 600,000 patrons annually. The opening of [Kings Island](/wiki/Kings_Island "Kings Island") amusement park just a few miles away in nearby [Mason, Ohio](/wiki/Mason%2C_Ohio "Mason, Ohio") in 1972 didn't dampen the spirits of Howard Berni. "We wish them luck," said Howard in an interview in the [Cincinnati Enquirer](/wiki/Cincinnati_Enquirer "Cincinnati Enquirer"). "The first year we may feel a pinch because the local people will be curious, but we don't anticipate it will be to the point where it will bother our business. On the other hand, if Kings Island brings in the tourist, we will benefit from the overflow. We aren't going to fade away. They have the worries, not us." In 1972 a new *Calypso* ride was installed, and named simply *The Calypso*. In 1975, Bill Barr retired to [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), and park veteran William "Bill" Robinson took over some of duties left by Barr. Bill's knack for producing interesting promotions enabled the park to enjoy large crowds. Some of the more novel promotions developed by Bill included the 1976 designation as the country's only "Official" Bicentennial Amusement Park, the [Coca\-Cola](/wiki/Coca-Cola "Coca-Cola")/[WSAI](/wiki/WSAI "WSAI") Radio Rock, Roll n' Remember concerts, and the [Jell\-O](/wiki/Jell-O "Jell-O") Jump, where contestants jumped into a huge barrel of gelatin to find the winning key to a new car. During the late 1970s, the park presented brief (15 minute) musical shows every day on the midway stage that advertised various park attractions. The shows featured the "Krazy Kritters" (people in whimsical animal costumes) and consisted of a pre\-recorded narration that a “master of ceremonies” critter pretended to speak into a microphone. At particular points in the presentation, the tape machine was programmed to pause after the M.C. critter suggested that the band play a song. The band (also in costumes), whose characters were called Do, Rey, Me, and Fa would play a song. During the summers of 1977 and 1978, the band was a local Rock band called *Septer*. In 1978, the name of the park was changed to *Americana Amusement Park \- the Great American Amusement Park*. Along with a name change came a $3\.5 million, three\-year renovation plan to help keep the park a viable alternative to Kings Island. New attractions included a 1200\-seat tent featuring performances of the [Hanneford Family Circus](/wiki/Hanneford_Family_Circus "Hanneford Family Circus"), a seven character animated band called the *Bear Country Jubilee*,{{cite web \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qh4DAAAAMBAJ\&q\=cincinnati\+parks\&pg\=PA70 \| title\=Amusing Cincinnati \| work\=Cincinnati Magazine Jul 1983 \| date\=Jul 1983 \| accessdate\=2013\-05\-08 \| author\=Pender, Linda \| pages\=70}} and the [Coca\-Cola](/wiki/Coca-Cola "Coca-Cola") Great American Thrill Show theater. ### 1980s The recession in the early 1980s began affecting attendance at the park. As a result, gate admission was reduced from $6\.95 to $5\.50 in 1982\. New attractions that year included a transformation of the Hanneford Circus tent into a platform for Bumper Buggys, a soft\-core version of bumper cars. At the end of the 1982 Bill Robinson left the park and was replaced by industry veteran Lenny Gottstein. In May 1983, Food Services Director Frank Silvani died after a lengthy battle with cancer. The highlight of the decade was the addition of the Raging Thunder [Log Flume](/wiki/Log_Flume "Log Flume") in 1984\. The attraction represented the largest investment in the park's 77\-year history and helped boost the annual attendance over 500,000\. The flume, designed by Ron Berni and built by [Barr Engineering of Minnesota](/wiki/Barr_Engineering_of_Minnesota "Barr Engineering of Minnesota"), was located in a former bird sanctuary in the old Tombstone Territory section of the park. The area was renamed Logger's Run after the flume was added. In 1985, the park auctioned off the horses from its 1924 PTC \#71 [carousel](/wiki/Carousel "Carousel"). Although some fans were disappointed about the sale, the carousel burned to the ground in an accidental fire in 1988\. Over $500,000 in damages were reported, including the loss of the park's 1925 Dodgem ride. In 1987, the Galleon swinging ship was installed in Logger's Run. At the end of the season, park vice president Guy Sutton left to take a position with an industry consulting firm. After the carousel fire, the park purchased a used Galaxi{{Cite web\|url\=https://rcdb.com/323\.htm\|title\=Serpent \- LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park (Middletown, Ohio, USA)\|website\=rcdb.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-10}} roller coaster from [Nobles Funland Amusement Park](/wiki/Nobles_Funland_Amusement_Park "Nobles Funland Amusement Park") in [Paducah, Kentucky](/wiki/Paducah%2C_Kentucky "Paducah, Kentucky"), called *The Serpent*. Attendance at the park was maintained at 500,000\. ### 1990s On January 8, 1990, an electrical fire broke out in the Bathhouse and Stardust Gardens Ballroom. The result was over $5 million in losses, including a first aid office, arcade, games building, locker rooms and food concessions. Ride parts and cars from the [Rock\-O\-Plane](/wiki/Rock-O-Plane "Rock-O-Plane"), [Flying Scooters](/wiki/Flying_Scooters "Flying Scooters"), Bumper Buggy and two kiddie rides were destroyed. The park quickly enlisted the assistance of local labor unions to rebuild the area in time for the April opening with payment to come later in the summer. By May, a new 300\-seat indoor/outdoor food court, an arcade, a Dodgem' ride and a refurbished Flying Scooter ride reopened on the site of the fire. Meanwhile, the park began experiencing problems with its insurance company regarding its multimillion\-dollar claim. To make matters worse, Ron Berni, a longtime fixture at the park and son of owner Howard Berni, had been offered a position at [Kentucky Kingdom](/wiki/Kentucky_Kingdom "Kentucky Kingdom") in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky "Louisville, Kentucky"). He reluctantly accepted the offer with the backing of his father. The hiring of local students and senior citizens was always a challenge because of the keen competition of other attractions in the area. To help alleviate that problem, the park entered into an agreement with a Mexican college to hire Mexican students for the summer. The plan quickly fell apart and the park experienced a lot of negative media coverage regarding claims by the students of poor living conditions in their dorms and illegal working conditions. The local unions, who normally booked their picnics at the park, suddenly canceled their lucrative picnic outings due to the allegations and the park began a deep decline in attendance and revenue. By the end of season, attendance reached an all\-time low of just under 200,000\. The park then learned that its insurance company would only pay $3 million in claims, leaving the park to pick up the remaining $2 million in expenses. In December, the park was forced to file for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11_bankruptcy "Chapter 11 bankruptcy"). By Spring 1991, the park was purchased and reopened by [Leisure International](/wiki/Leisure_International "Leisure International"), a group of former park management. Joe Faggionato, Guy Sutton, Lenny Gottstein and Don Robison took over the park and began the long, hard effort of erasing the previous year's nightmare from customers, including the local unions. In July, Guy Sutton left the park to become the Operations Director at [Clemonton Lake](/wiki/Clemonton_Lake "Clemonton Lake") in [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey"). The trio built a petting zoo and opened a new restaurant for the 1992\. Their efforts enabled the park to build the attendance back up to just over 330,000\. In 1993, the animated *Bear Country Jubilee* show was sold to the [Jungle Jim's International Market](/wiki/Jungle_Jim%27s_International_Market "Jungle Jim's International Market") in [Fairfield, Ohio](/wiki/Fairfield%2C_Ohio "Fairfield, Ohio"). No new attractions were added during the year, however, attendance increased to 412,500\. During the 1994 and 1995 seasons, Leisure International spent an additional $6 million to upgrade landscaping and infrastructure throughout the park. By 1995, Faggionato, Gottstein and Robison realized that a bigger company with more capital would be needed to continue upgrading the park so Americana was put up for sale. In 1996, [Park River Corporation](/wiki/Park_River_Corporation "Park River Corporation"), owners of [Coney Island of Cincinnati](/wiki/Coney_Island%2C_Cincinnati%2C_Ohio "Coney Island, Cincinnati, Ohio") in [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio "Cincinnati, Ohio"), purchased Americana for an estimated $3 million. Between 1996 and 1998, over $1 million was spent on upgrading the Screechin' Eagle roller coaster, developing a new paint scheme of magenta and teal, introducing a new merchandising line in the gift shop consisting of unique Americana emblazoned clothing, and adding a variety of rides, including a [carousel](/wiki/Carousel "Carousel"), [Ferris wheel](/wiki/Ferris_wheel "Ferris wheel"), and the Tempest. In 1997, Park River owner Ronald Walker died unexpectedly and family members expressed concern about the future of the park. The park was quietly listed for sale in 1998\. In December 1999, informational letters regarding the 2000 Family Funpacks (similar to season passes) were distributed across the area. In a shocking announcement on January 6, 2000, Park River announced the closing of the park for the 2000 season. ### 2000s On May 24, 2000 Hamilton businessman Jerry Couch purchased the park from Park River Corporation. He said he would change the park's name to "Couch's Americana Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake" out of respect for the park's 77\-year\-old history. "The job market is tight and I've missed the window of opportunity to hire kids who are getting out of school," he said in a Cincinnati Enquirer interview. "But, we'll be ready, possibly in July." Initial plans called for a year\-round facility with [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween "Halloween") and [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") activities, construction of a [campground](/wiki/Campground "Campground"), the opening of *Couch's Campers Superstore* on the property and new food services. In April 2002, former carnival owners, the Pugh Family, established the LeSourdsville Group and was hired to manage the park for the 2002 season. The name of the park was changed to "The Great American Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake." Over $3 million in improvements were made including the addition of 10 new rides leased by the Pugh group. They included a fun house, a swinging pirate ship, a kids bumper car ride, the Zipper, the Music Express and the Tip\-Top [Teacups](/wiki/Teacups "Teacups") Ride. The adult bumper car ride was removed due to mechanical problems. In addition, a $150,000 ride safety inspection system was installed to improve preventive maintenance. When the park opened to the public on June 5, the name of the park was changed once again to "LeSourdsville Lake." A park spokesperson stated that the name change was done because "that's how people remember it." The park operated Thursdays through Sundays. "Saturdays and Sundays have been packed to the point that our parking lot was just about full, which we would estimate to be 8,000 to 10,000 people," said park Marketing Director Mike Mefford. After experiencing a successful summer, the park unexpectedly closed a week prior than planned and announced that it was looking for a new management company to operate the park for 2003\. Plans for the upcoming "LeScaresville Lake \- a Halloween fright event" was cancelled. The Pugh management team filed for bankruptcy and failed to pay some of the park employees wages due to them. Rides brought in earlier in the year were repossessed after the season ended due to non\-payment by the Pugh management group. Rides included the Music Express, the Zipper, the Western Express Train, the Tip Top, the Mini Indy and a fun house. All of the rides were portable and not installed as permanent rides. On January 24, 2003, Couch's LeSourdsville Lake RV Super Center held its grand opening at the park. The park's old dormitory used during the 1990 season, was remodeled and made a part of the new store and showroom. "With the opening of the ....Super Center, we are one step closer to fulfilling our ultimate goal of establishing an RV and amusement park combination." said Couch in a Middletown Journal interview. In April, local media began questioning the status of the park for 2003\. After several days passed, the Middletown Journal reported that the park may open for the 2003 season. "There's definitely a possibility that we could open this year. I'm not saying that will happen," said a publicist with Expo Management \& Ad Agency in Cincinnati, which was hired to handle marketing for Couch's camper company. A press release stated that several options are being considered for the park, including 1\) updating the rides and creating a "more competitive" atmosphere, 2\) running the park as is with a new management team and 3\) selling the park. Couch filed a lawsuit against the Pugh management group for non\-payment of bills and rental fees totaling more than $100,000\. The courts dismissed the lawsuit because the management group had filed for bankruptcy. In February 2004, former [Peony Park](/wiki/Peony_Park "Peony Park") enthusiasts, Carl Jennings announced that he was seeking to purchase the park. A deal could not be reached with Couch. On May 17, 2006, it was announced that most of the rides would be sold and that the park would not open as a traditional amusement park in the future.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} In 2009, the park's steel roller coaster, **The Serpent**, received a second life, as it opened in May 2009 under the same name at [Kokomo's Family Fun Center](/wiki/Kokomo%27s_Family_Fun_Center "Kokomo's Family Fun Center") in [Saginaw, Michigan](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan "Saginaw, Michigan"). The park was featured on the [History Channel](/wiki/History_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 "History (U.S. TV channel)")'s *[Life After People: The Series](/wiki/Life_After_People:The_Series "The Series")*. The show explored how weathering was eating away at the park and how it will be unrecognizable in 20 years without human maintenance. One of the closed rides, the Screechin' Eagle, was featured in *Life After People: The Series* and collapsed after 20 years after disappearance of humans. ### 2010–present In late August 2011, The Screechin' Eagle roller coaster, which stood for over 70 years, was demolished without any public announcement. Couch expressed fear that something "terrible" would happen with the trespassers that regularly visited the park. Parts of the track and trains were sent to the [National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives](/wiki/National_Roller_Coaster_Museum_and_Archives "National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives") in [Plainview, Texas](/wiki/Plainview%2C_Texas "Plainview, Texas"). In early 2015, Jerry Couch retired and closed his Monroe RV Showroom. Buildings and parts of rides in the Americana portion of the park as well as the Fantasy Farm park were left abandoned. In 2017, it was announced that Butler Tech, a county\-wide [vocational school](/wiki/Vocational_school "Vocational school"), purchased 36 acres of the former park for $2\.7 million to develop a new campus. (primarily the park's parking lot and the Fantasy Farm Amusement Park property). Couch also donated the land that the park sat on to [Monroe, Ohio](/wiki/Monroe%2C_Ohio "Monroe, Ohio"), for development of a city park and regional bicycle trail. The funding of the community park project, undertaken by the city, was covered by a 0\.5\-percent earned income tax increase.{{cite news \|last1\=Richter \|first1\=Ed \|last2\=Writer \|first2\=Staff \|title\=Americana Amusement Park property: Here are the plans for new park in Monroe \|url\=https://www.journal\-news.com/news/americana\-amusement\-park\-property\-here\-are\-the\-plans\-for\-new\-park\-monroe/XC4agslmljtYZDDUz8UKDI/ \|access\-date\=19 July 2021 \|work\=journal\-news \|language\=English}}{{cite news \|title\=Peek inside the abandoned Americana Amusement Park at Lesourdsville Lake \|url\=https://www.fox19\.com/story/38418765/peek\-inside\-the\-abandoned\-americana\-amusement\-park\-at\-lesourdsville\-lake/ \|access\-date\=19 July 2021 \|work\=www.fox19\.com \|language\=en}} In mid 2018, all of the parks remaining structures, except for the sky rides station, the former park administrative building, the arches at the main entrance and entrance to the former food court, a large cinder block storage building, and 7 of the former picnic pavilions, were demolished.{{cite web \|title\=Demolition nears at former Americana amusement park \|url\=https://www.journal\-news.com/news/demolition\-nears\-former\-americana\-amusement\-park/laiORjP3iPMDLNayAyLFZL/ \|website\=Journal\-News \|accessdate\=September 1, 2020 \|language\=English}} The construction of Monroe Bicentennial Commons, the public park replacing LeSourdsville Lake, began in April 2021\.{{cite web \|title\=Bicentennial Commons Park Master Plan \|url\=http://monroeohio.org/DocumentCenter/View/493/Monroe\-Bicentennial\-Commons\-Master\-Plan \|website\=City of Monroe, Ohio \|access\-date\=19 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=19 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719143932/http://monroeohio.org/DocumentCenter/View/493/Monroe\-Bicentennial\-Commons\-Master\-Plan \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|title\=Monroe Bicentennial Commons \|url\=https://www.monroeohio.org/Facilities/Facility/Details/Monroe\-Bicentennial\-Commons\-13 \|website\=City of Monroe, OH \|access\-date\=19 July 2021 \|language\=en}}{{cite news \|last1\=McCrabb \|first1\=Rick \|title\=Monroe officials concerned as cost of Americana Amusement Park transformation continues rising \|url\=https://www.journal\-news.com/news/monroe\-officials\-concerned\-as\-cost\-of\-americana\-amusement\-park\-transformation\-continues\-rising/2B2O4PPGHND7VJI6EVGXLP5JTU/ \|access\-date\=19 July 2021 \|work\=journal\-news \|language\=English}}
[ "History\n-------", "Edgar Streifthau of [Middletown, Ohio](/wiki/Middletown%2C_Ohio \"Middletown, Ohio\"), opened LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park on May 8, 1922\\. Streifthau purchased a plot of land that formerly housed an ice manufacturing facility in the tiny village of LeSourdsville, and construction began in 1921\\. Streifthau and his business partner, Bill Rothfuss, built a bathhouse, a restaurant, dance hall and a bridge crossing the abandoned [Miami\\-Erie Canal](/wiki/Miami-Erie_Canal \"Miami-Erie Canal\") that passed through the property. They also constructed a concrete bottom in the man\\-made lake for swimming. Streifthau constructed the first of several \"vacation\" cabins surrounding the lake and platforms for camping tents. Streifthau's brother, Ernest, joined as a partner as Bill Rothfuss focused on his career at nearby [ARMCO Steel](/wiki/ARMCO_Steel \"ARMCO Steel\") (later known as AK Steel).", "### 1930s", "Despite the onset of [The Great Depression](/wiki/The_Great_Depression \"The Great Depression\"), Streifthau continued to expand the park's offerings. He expanded the bathhouse, installed a new parking lot, built the park's first office building, and imported over 1,000 tons of white sand for the beach. Admission prices, food prices and employee wages were cut. Just before the park was to open for the 1934 season, an accidental fire destroyed the bathhouse. Streifthau was desperate to rebuild a new bathhouse before the park opened in May. He went to the Middletown Lumber Company and solicited the assistance of a personable and talented draftsman, Don Dazey. On May 30, the park opened with a new bathhouse.", "Dazey convinced Streifthau that dances could be successful without the fighting and melee that plagued the park in earlier years. Dazey constructed *Stardust Gardens* next door to the bathhouse. Bands such as [Ray McKinley](/wiki/Ray_McKinley \"Ray McKinley\"), [Glenn Miller](/wiki/Glenn_Miller \"Glenn Miller\"), the [Dorsey Brothers](/wiki/Dorsey_Brothers \"Dorsey Brothers\") and [Stan Kenton](/wiki/Stan_Kenton \"Stan Kenton\") graced the rich, maple wood floor to the delight of thousands of customers.", "Dazey also solicited area companies to hold their [picnics](/wiki/Picnic \"Picnic\") at the park and began an important tradition that continued until the park closed. Streifthau also added two [toboggan](/wiki/Toboggan \"Toboggan\") [water slides](/wiki/Water_slide \"Water slide\"), a waterwheel, seven diving boards, and a {{convert\\|20\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} high platform for diving. In 1939, Streifthau purchased a 1927 John Miller wooden coaster from [Moxahalia Amusement Park](/wiki/Moxahalia_Amusement_Park \"Moxahalia Amusement Park\") in [Zanesville, Ohio](/wiki/Zanesville%2C_Ohio \"Zanesville, Ohio\") for $35,000\\. The coaster was rebuilt and named \"The Cyclone.\"", "### 1940s", "The 1940s represented an important decade for LeSourdsville Lake. The park became the \"Miami Valley's Chosen Playground\" and became the hottest entertainment spot during the summer months.", "In 1941, the park added *The Whip* and a [Ferris wheel](/wiki/Ferris_wheel \"Ferris wheel\") to its thrill ride line\\-up.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2014}} Bands appearing in the Stardust Gardens Ballroom included [Eddie Kadle](/wiki/Eddie_Kadle \"Eddie Kadle\"), [Earl Holderman](/wiki/Earl_Holderman \"Earl Holderman\"), [Gene Roberts](/wiki/Gene_Roberts_%28musician%29 \"Gene Roberts (musician)\"), Mary Marshall, [Little Joe Hart](/wiki/Little_Joe_Hart \"Little Joe Hart\"), [Eugene Jelesnick](/wiki/Eugene_Jelesnick \"Eugene Jelesnick\"), [Billy Snyder](/wiki/Billy_Snyder \"Billy Snyder\"), [Tommy Flynn](/wiki/Tommy_Flynn \"Tommy Flynn\"), [Billy Yates](/wiki/Billy_Yates_%28singer%29 \"Billy Yates (singer)\"), [Jimmy Scriber](/wiki/Jimmy_Scriber \"Jimmy Scriber\") and [Emerson Gill](/wiki/Emerson_Gill \"Emerson Gill\"). The following summer, [Carl Taylor](/wiki/Carl_Taylor_%28musician%29 \"Carl Taylor (musician)\"), [Lloyd Labrie](/wiki/Lloyd_Labrie \"Lloyd Labrie\") and [Michael Mehas](/wiki/Michael_Mehas \"Michael Mehas\") joined the Stardust Gardens headliners. Streifthau also built a new front entrance and added a section of new midway near the entrance to The Cyclone.", "After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), LeSourdsville Lake continued to grow and prosper. In 1947, two stream\\-lined trains were added to The Cyclone and a kiddie racing car ride was installed. On July 4, the park celebrated its largest one\\-day turnout in its history when 30,168 came through the front gate. Big bands popular in 1947 included, [Barney Rapp](/wiki/Barney_Rapp \"Barney Rapp\"), [Jimmy Miller](/wiki/Jimmy_Miller \"Jimmy Miller\"), [Ches Walker](/wiki/Ches_Walker \"Ches Walker\"), [Les Shepard](/wiki/Les_Shepard \"Les Shepard\"), [Harold Greenanyer](/wiki/Harold_Greenanyer \"Harold Greenanyer\"), [Del Mason](/wiki/Del_Mason \"Del Mason\"), [Whitey Howard](/wiki/Whitey_Howard \"Whitey Howard\"), Karl Taylor and [Johnny Doom](/wiki/Johnny_Doom \"Johnny Doom\").", "Major improvements were visible as LeSourdsville Lake opened its 1949 season. New rides for 1949 included a [Rock\\-O\\-Plane](/wiki/Rock-O-Plane \"Rock-O-Plane\"). A state\\-of\\-the\\-art masonry building was constructed next to The Cyclone entrance. New rides and attractions included the Fun Parade, and a [penny arcade](/wiki/Penny_arcade \"Penny arcade\"). Big bands making appearances included [Sammy Leeds](/wiki/Sammy_Leeds \"Sammy Leeds\"), [Whitey Howard](/wiki/Whitey_Howard \"Whitey Howard\"), [Tommy Robbins](/wiki/Tommy_Robbins \"Tommy Robbins\"), [Al Cassidy](/wiki/Al_Cassidy \"Al Cassidy\"), Karl Taylor, [Leo Pieper](/wiki/Leo_Pieper \"Leo Pieper\"), [Skitch Henderson](/wiki/Skitch_Henderson \"Skitch Henderson\"), [Jimmy James](/wiki/Jimmy_James_%28bandleader%29 \"Jimmy James (bandleader)\") and [Earl Holderman](/wiki/Earl_Holderman \"Earl Holderman\").", "### 1950s", "The 1950s ushered in some changes for LeSourdsville Lake as the park's image began to decline from its peak the previous decade. Big bands that once graced the Stardust Gardens Ballroom throughout the week were now featured on weekends only. Streifthau renovated the bathhouse to accommodate the large number of swimmers the park serviced each year. The brick addition to the bathhouse also \"provided a fire resistive baring at an amusement park.", "New rides for 1951 included a [Tilt\\-A\\-Whirl](/wiki/Tilt-A-Whirl \"Tilt-A-Whirl\"). By 1954, Streifthau was manufacturing his own line of turnpike cars in a partnership with [Oxford, Ohio](/wiki/Oxford%2C_Ohio \"Oxford, Ohio\") resident [Frank Dodd](/wiki/Frank_S._Dodd \"Frank S. Dodd\"). *Kiddieland* saw five new rides added, including a new steel coaster called the Jack Rabbit. In 1956, the Turnpike ride was built next to the Screechin' Eagle (formerly The Cyclone) roller coaster.", "Streifthau and Dazey realized that more had to be done to modernize LeSourdsville Lake. [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland \"Disneyland\") opened in 1955 to such rave reviews from the public that they expected other parks to become just as modern and clean. At [Cedar Point](/wiki/Cedar_Point \"Cedar Point\"), a multimillion\\-dollar renovation was under way by 1957 in an attempt to become the \"[Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland \"Disneyland\") of the Midwest.\" Streifthau decided to take out a loan and initiate a multi\\-year improvement plan.", "In 1957, a stone tower and fountain were constructed at the main entrance. Streifthau was ready to enter 1959 with a new vision. However, Dazey died in June 1959 of cancer. A local bank required Streifthau to immediately pay off the outstanding loan and he was forced to sell. He still owned 20 acres of land adjoining the park and he created a new, smaller theme park called Fantasy Farm.{{cite news \\|title\\=A look back at LeSourdsville Lake / Americana Amusement Park \\|url\\=https://www.daytondailynews.com/news/local/look\\-back\\-lesourdsville\\-lake\\-americana\\-amusement\\-park/MadXY9CsDkNy1q7BDCzK8L/ \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2021 \\|work\\=Dayton Daily News \\|language\\=English \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305075012/https://www.daytondailynews.com/news/local/look\\-back\\-lesourdsville\\-lake\\-americana\\-amusement\\-park/MadXY9CsDkNy1q7BDCzK8L/ \\|archive\\-date\\=March 5, 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Memories of Fantasy Farm \\|url\\=https://www.daytonlocal.com/blog/history/memories\\-of\\-fantasy\\-farm.asp \\|website\\=www.daytonlocal.com \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2021}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Fowler \\|first1\\=Scott E. \\|title\\=Fantasy Farm Amusement Park \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing \\|location\\=Charleston, South Carolina \\|isbn\\=978\\-1467111881 \\|pages\\=96 \\|url\\=https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Products/9781467111881}}", "### 1960s", "The 1960s ushered in a prosperity for the 40\\-year\\-old park. Former Cedar Point concessionaires Howard Berni and Frank Murru were successful in their purchase of the park for $550,000\\. They took over in 1961 and quickly continued the renovation effort that stopped prematurely when Dazey died.\nThe [WING](/wiki/WING \"WING\") radio *Lesourdsville Lake WING FLING* featured on air personalities, Lou Swanson, Rod Williams, Jim Smith and a famous sign off by Gene By Golly Barry.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/sJfwjVX6lro){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20160610025258/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJfwjVX6lro){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=sJfwjVX6lro\\| title \\= HISTORY LeSOURDSVILLE LAKE OHIO (Cyber River Multi Media) \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}", "A [Wild Mouse](/wiki/Wild_Mouse \"Wild Mouse\") roller coaster was the newest ride to greet visitors for the 1961 season. In addition, an 18\\-hole [miniature golf](/wiki/Miniature_golf \"Miniature golf\") course and a new Arcade building were built at the end of the midway next to the Screechin' Eagle roller coaster. The park also featured a native [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") ornamental garden with hand carved [Tiki](/wiki/Tiki \"Tiki\") and live palm trees. Unfortunately, the year was plagued by abnormal amount of rain which affected attendance. At the end of the season, the area's first \"pay one price plan\" was established. For $1\\.65 for adults and 75 cents for children customers could ride all day.", "In 1964, Middletown resident William \"Bill\" Barr became a partner in the park and contributed his creative ideas and endless energy to help make LeSourdsville Lake the favorite park for hundreds of thousands of patrons. Between 1962 and 1969, a number of attractions were added to the LeSourdsville Lake line\\-up, including a NAD train (called the Iron Horse), a remodeled [Haunted House](/wiki/Haunted_House \"Haunted House\"), a [Trabant](/wiki/Wipeout_%28ride%29 \"Wipeout (ride)\"){{cite book \\|last1\\=Fowler \\|first1\\=Scott E. \\|title\\=Images of America: LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park \\|date\\=May 2011 \\|publisher\\=Arcadia Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7385\\-8314\\-3 \\|page\\=75 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A9\\-kavTknYsC\\&dq\\=Trabant%20%22LeSourdsville%20Lake%20Amusement%20Park%22%201969\\&pg\\=PA75 \\|access\\-date\\=16 September 2023 \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=The Trabant was added in 1969 and quickly became a favorite. It was installed between the Iron Horse train ride and the lake and provided guests with something to do while waiting for the train.}} and a new theme area called *Tombstone Territory*. The big band names of [Jack Huntlemen](/wiki/Jack_Huntlemen \"Jack Huntlemen\"), [Sammy Kaye](/wiki/Sammy_Kaye \"Sammy Kaye\"), [Buddy Rogers](/wiki/Charles_Rogers_%28actor%29 \"Charles Rogers (actor)\") and [Bobby Grayson](/wiki/Bobby_Grayson \"Bobby Grayson\") were slowly replaced by regular appearances by [WLW](/wiki/WLW \"WLW\")'s [Bob Braun](/wiki/Bob_Braun \"Bob Braun\"), [The Cool Ghoul](/wiki/The_Cool_Ghoul \"The Cool Ghoul\") from [WXIX](/wiki/WXIX \"WXIX\"), [WKRC](/wiki/WKRC_%28AM%29 \"WKRC (AM)\")'s [Glenn \"Skipper\" Ryle](/wiki/Glenn_Ryle \"Glenn Ryle\") and a host of television stars, movie celebrities and music acts.", "### 1970s", "By the mid\\-1970s, LeSourdsville Lake was drawing about 600,000 patrons annually. The opening of [Kings Island](/wiki/Kings_Island \"Kings Island\") amusement park just a few miles away in nearby [Mason, Ohio](/wiki/Mason%2C_Ohio \"Mason, Ohio\") in 1972 didn't dampen the spirits of Howard Berni. \"We wish them luck,\" said Howard in an interview in the [Cincinnati Enquirer](/wiki/Cincinnati_Enquirer \"Cincinnati Enquirer\"). \"The first year we may feel a pinch because the local people will be curious, but we don't anticipate it will be to the point where it will bother our business. On the other hand, if Kings Island brings in the tourist, we will benefit from the overflow. We aren't going to fade away. They have the worries, not us.\"", "In 1972 a new *Calypso* ride was installed, and named simply *The Calypso*. In 1975, Bill Barr retired to [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), and park veteran William \"Bill\" Robinson took over some of duties left by Barr. Bill's knack for producing interesting promotions enabled the park to enjoy large crowds. Some of the more novel promotions developed by Bill included the 1976 designation as the country's only \"Official\" Bicentennial Amusement Park, the [Coca\\-Cola](/wiki/Coca-Cola \"Coca-Cola\")/[WSAI](/wiki/WSAI \"WSAI\") Radio Rock, Roll n' Remember concerts, and the [Jell\\-O](/wiki/Jell-O \"Jell-O\") Jump, where contestants jumped into a huge barrel of gelatin to find the winning key to a new car.", "During the late 1970s, the park presented brief (15 minute) musical shows every day on the midway stage that advertised various park attractions. The shows featured the \"Krazy Kritters\" (people in whimsical animal costumes) and consisted of a pre\\-recorded narration that a “master of ceremonies” critter pretended to speak into a microphone. At particular points in the presentation, the tape machine was programmed to pause after the M.C. critter suggested that the band play a song. The band (also in costumes), whose characters were called Do, Rey, Me, and Fa would play a song. During the summers of 1977 and 1978, the band was a local Rock band called *Septer*.", "In 1978, the name of the park was changed to *Americana Amusement Park \\- the Great American Amusement Park*. Along with a name change came a $3\\.5 million, three\\-year renovation plan to help keep the park a viable alternative to Kings Island. New attractions included a 1200\\-seat tent featuring performances of the [Hanneford Family Circus](/wiki/Hanneford_Family_Circus \"Hanneford Family Circus\"), a seven character animated band called the *Bear Country Jubilee*,{{cite web \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qh4DAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=cincinnati\\+parks\\&pg\\=PA70 \\| title\\=Amusing Cincinnati \\| work\\=Cincinnati Magazine Jul 1983 \\| date\\=Jul 1983 \\| accessdate\\=2013\\-05\\-08 \\| author\\=Pender, Linda \\| pages\\=70}} and the [Coca\\-Cola](/wiki/Coca-Cola \"Coca-Cola\") Great American Thrill Show theater.", "### 1980s", "The recession in the early 1980s began affecting attendance at the park. As a result, gate admission was reduced from $6\\.95 to $5\\.50 in 1982\\. New attractions that year included a transformation of the Hanneford Circus tent into a platform for Bumper Buggys, a soft\\-core version of bumper cars.", "At the end of the 1982 Bill Robinson left the park and was replaced by industry veteran Lenny Gottstein. In May 1983, Food Services Director Frank Silvani died after a lengthy battle with cancer.", "The highlight of the decade was the addition of the Raging Thunder [Log Flume](/wiki/Log_Flume \"Log Flume\") in 1984\\. The attraction represented the largest investment in the park's 77\\-year history and helped boost the annual attendance over 500,000\\. The flume, designed by Ron Berni and built by [Barr Engineering of Minnesota](/wiki/Barr_Engineering_of_Minnesota \"Barr Engineering of Minnesota\"), was located in a former bird sanctuary in the old Tombstone Territory section of the park. The area was renamed Logger's Run after the flume was added.", "In 1985, the park auctioned off the horses from its 1924 PTC \\#71 [carousel](/wiki/Carousel \"Carousel\"). Although some fans were disappointed about the sale, the carousel burned to the ground in an accidental fire in 1988\\. Over $500,000 in damages were reported, including the loss of the park's 1925 Dodgem ride.", "In 1987, the Galleon swinging ship was installed in Logger's Run. At the end of the season, park vice president Guy Sutton left to take a position with an industry consulting firm.", "After the carousel fire, the park purchased a used Galaxi{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://rcdb.com/323\\.htm\\|title\\=Serpent \\- LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park (Middletown, Ohio, USA)\\|website\\=rcdb.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-10}} roller coaster from [Nobles Funland Amusement Park](/wiki/Nobles_Funland_Amusement_Park \"Nobles Funland Amusement Park\") in [Paducah, Kentucky](/wiki/Paducah%2C_Kentucky \"Paducah, Kentucky\"), called *The Serpent*. Attendance at the park was maintained at 500,000\\.", "### 1990s", "On January 8, 1990, an electrical fire broke out in the Bathhouse and Stardust Gardens Ballroom. The result was over $5 million in losses, including a first aid office, arcade, games building, locker rooms and food concessions. Ride parts and cars from the [Rock\\-O\\-Plane](/wiki/Rock-O-Plane \"Rock-O-Plane\"), [Flying Scooters](/wiki/Flying_Scooters \"Flying Scooters\"), Bumper Buggy and two kiddie rides were destroyed. The park quickly enlisted the assistance of local labor unions to rebuild the area in time for the April opening with payment to come later in the summer. By May, a new 300\\-seat indoor/outdoor food court, an arcade, a Dodgem' ride and a refurbished Flying Scooter ride reopened on the site of the fire. Meanwhile, the park began experiencing problems with its insurance company regarding its multimillion\\-dollar claim. To make matters worse, Ron Berni, a longtime fixture at the park and son of owner Howard Berni, had been offered a position at [Kentucky Kingdom](/wiki/Kentucky_Kingdom \"Kentucky Kingdom\") in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky \"Louisville, Kentucky\"). He reluctantly accepted the offer with the backing of his father.", "The hiring of local students and senior citizens was always a challenge because of the keen competition of other attractions in the area. To help alleviate that problem, the park entered into an agreement with a Mexican college to hire Mexican students for the summer. The plan quickly fell apart and the park experienced a lot of negative media coverage regarding claims by the students of poor living conditions in their dorms and illegal working conditions. The local unions, who normally booked their picnics at the park, suddenly canceled their lucrative picnic outings due to the allegations and the park began a deep decline in attendance and revenue. By the end of season, attendance reached an all\\-time low of just under 200,000\\. The park then learned that its insurance company would only pay $3 million in claims, leaving the park to pick up the remaining $2 million in expenses. In December, the park was forced to file for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11_bankruptcy \"Chapter 11 bankruptcy\").", "By Spring 1991, the park was purchased and reopened by [Leisure International](/wiki/Leisure_International \"Leisure International\"), a group of former park management. Joe Faggionato, Guy Sutton, Lenny Gottstein and Don Robison took over the park and began the long, hard effort of erasing the previous year's nightmare from customers, including the local unions. In July, Guy Sutton left the park to become the Operations Director at [Clemonton Lake](/wiki/Clemonton_Lake \"Clemonton Lake\") in [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\").", "The trio built a petting zoo and opened a new restaurant for the 1992\\. Their efforts enabled the park to build the attendance back up to just over 330,000\\. In 1993, the animated *Bear Country Jubilee* show was sold to the [Jungle Jim's International Market](/wiki/Jungle_Jim%27s_International_Market \"Jungle Jim's International Market\") in [Fairfield, Ohio](/wiki/Fairfield%2C_Ohio \"Fairfield, Ohio\"). No new attractions were added during the year, however, attendance increased to 412,500\\. During the 1994 and 1995 seasons, Leisure International spent an additional $6 million to upgrade landscaping and infrastructure throughout the park. By 1995, Faggionato, Gottstein and Robison realized that a bigger company with more capital would be needed to continue upgrading the park so Americana was put up for sale.", "In 1996, [Park River Corporation](/wiki/Park_River_Corporation \"Park River Corporation\"), owners of [Coney Island of Cincinnati](/wiki/Coney_Island%2C_Cincinnati%2C_Ohio \"Coney Island, Cincinnati, Ohio\") in [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio \"Cincinnati, Ohio\"), purchased Americana for an estimated $3 million. Between 1996 and 1998, over $1 million was spent on upgrading the Screechin' Eagle roller coaster, developing a new paint scheme of magenta and teal, introducing a new merchandising line in the gift shop consisting of unique Americana emblazoned clothing, and adding a variety of rides, including a [carousel](/wiki/Carousel \"Carousel\"), [Ferris wheel](/wiki/Ferris_wheel \"Ferris wheel\"), and the Tempest. In 1997, Park River owner Ronald Walker died unexpectedly and family members expressed concern about the future of the park. The park was quietly listed for sale in 1998\\.", "In December 1999, informational letters regarding the 2000 Family Funpacks (similar to season passes) were distributed across the area. In a shocking announcement on January 6, 2000, Park River announced the closing of the park for the 2000 season.", "### 2000s", "On May 24, 2000 Hamilton businessman Jerry Couch purchased the park from Park River Corporation. He said he would change the park's name to \"Couch's Americana Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake\" out of respect for the park's 77\\-year\\-old history. \"The job market is tight and I've missed the window of opportunity to hire kids who are getting out of school,\" he said in a Cincinnati Enquirer interview. \"But, we'll be ready, possibly in July.\"", "Initial plans called for a year\\-round facility with [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween \"Halloween\") and [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") activities, construction of a [campground](/wiki/Campground \"Campground\"), the opening of *Couch's Campers Superstore* on the property and new food services.", "In April 2002, former carnival owners, the Pugh Family, established the LeSourdsville Group and was hired to manage the park for the 2002 season. The name of the park was changed to \"The Great American Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake.\"", "Over $3 million in improvements were made including the addition of 10 new rides leased by the Pugh group. They included a fun house, a swinging pirate ship, a kids bumper car ride, the Zipper, the Music Express and the Tip\\-Top [Teacups](/wiki/Teacups \"Teacups\") Ride. The adult bumper car ride was removed due to mechanical problems. In addition, a $150,000 ride safety inspection system was installed to improve preventive maintenance.", "When the park opened to the public on June 5, the name of the park was changed once again to \"LeSourdsville Lake.\" A park spokesperson stated that the name change was done because \"that's how people remember it.\"", "The park operated Thursdays through Sundays. \"Saturdays and Sundays have been packed to the point that our parking lot was just about full, which we would estimate to be 8,000 to 10,000 people,\" said park Marketing Director Mike Mefford.", "After experiencing a successful summer, the park unexpectedly closed a week prior than planned and announced that it was looking for a new management company to operate the park for 2003\\. Plans for the upcoming \"LeScaresville Lake \\- a Halloween fright event\" was cancelled. The Pugh management team filed for bankruptcy and failed to pay some of the park employees wages due to them.", "Rides brought in earlier in the year were repossessed after the season ended due to non\\-payment by the Pugh management group. Rides included the Music Express, the Zipper, the Western Express Train, the Tip Top, the Mini Indy and a fun house. All of the rides were portable and not installed as permanent rides.", "On January 24, 2003, Couch's LeSourdsville Lake RV Super Center held its grand opening at the park. The park's old dormitory used during the 1990 season, was remodeled and made a part of the new store and showroom. \"With the opening of the ....Super Center, we are one step closer to fulfilling our ultimate goal of establishing an RV and amusement park combination.\" said Couch in a Middletown Journal interview.", "In April, local media began questioning the status of the park for 2003\\. After several days passed, the Middletown Journal reported that the park may open for the 2003 season. \"There's definitely a possibility that we could open this year. I'm not saying that will happen,\" said a publicist with Expo Management \\& Ad Agency in Cincinnati, which was hired to handle marketing for Couch's camper company.", "A press release stated that several options are being considered for the park, including 1\\) updating the rides and creating a \"more competitive\" atmosphere, 2\\) running the park as is with a new management team and 3\\) selling the park.", "Couch filed a lawsuit against the Pugh management group for non\\-payment of bills and rental fees totaling more than $100,000\\. The courts dismissed the lawsuit because the management group had filed for bankruptcy.", "In February 2004, former [Peony Park](/wiki/Peony_Park \"Peony Park\") enthusiasts, Carl Jennings announced that he was seeking to purchase the park. A deal could not be reached with Couch.", "On May 17, 2006, it was announced that most of the rides would be sold and that the park would not open as a traditional amusement park in the future.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}}", "In 2009, the park's steel roller coaster, **The Serpent**, received a second life, as it opened in May 2009 under the same name at [Kokomo's Family Fun Center](/wiki/Kokomo%27s_Family_Fun_Center \"Kokomo's Family Fun Center\") in [Saginaw, Michigan](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan \"Saginaw, Michigan\").", "The park was featured on the [History Channel](/wiki/History_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 \"History (U.S. TV channel)\")'s *[Life After People: The Series](/wiki/Life_After_People:The_Series \"The Series\")*. The show explored how weathering was eating away at the park and how it will be unrecognizable in 20 years without human maintenance. One of the closed rides, the Screechin' Eagle, was featured in *Life After People: The Series* and collapsed after 20 years after disappearance of humans.", "### 2010–present", "In late August 2011, The Screechin' Eagle roller coaster, which stood for over 70 years, was demolished without any public announcement. Couch expressed fear that something \"terrible\" would happen with the trespassers that regularly visited the park. Parts of the track and trains were sent to the [National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives](/wiki/National_Roller_Coaster_Museum_and_Archives \"National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives\") in [Plainview, Texas](/wiki/Plainview%2C_Texas \"Plainview, Texas\").", "In early 2015, Jerry Couch retired and closed his Monroe RV Showroom. Buildings and parts of rides in the Americana portion of the park as well as the Fantasy Farm park were left abandoned.", "In 2017, it was announced that Butler Tech, a county\\-wide [vocational school](/wiki/Vocational_school \"Vocational school\"), purchased 36 acres of the former park for $2\\.7 million to develop a new campus. (primarily the park's parking lot and the Fantasy Farm Amusement Park property). Couch also donated the land that the park sat on to [Monroe, Ohio](/wiki/Monroe%2C_Ohio \"Monroe, Ohio\"), for development of a city park and regional bicycle trail. The funding of the community park project, undertaken by the city, was covered by a 0\\.5\\-percent earned income tax increase.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Richter \\|first1\\=Ed \\|last2\\=Writer \\|first2\\=Staff \\|title\\=Americana Amusement Park property: Here are the plans for new park in Monroe \\|url\\=https://www.journal\\-news.com/news/americana\\-amusement\\-park\\-property\\-here\\-are\\-the\\-plans\\-for\\-new\\-park\\-monroe/XC4agslmljtYZDDUz8UKDI/ \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2021 \\|work\\=journal\\-news \\|language\\=English}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Peek inside the abandoned Americana Amusement Park at Lesourdsville Lake \\|url\\=https://www.fox19\\.com/story/38418765/peek\\-inside\\-the\\-abandoned\\-americana\\-amusement\\-park\\-at\\-lesourdsville\\-lake/ \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2021 \\|work\\=www.fox19\\.com \\|language\\=en}}", "In mid 2018, all of the parks remaining structures, except for the sky rides station, the former park administrative building, the arches at the main entrance and entrance to the former food court, a large cinder block storage building, and 7 of the former picnic pavilions, were demolished.{{cite web \\|title\\=Demolition nears at former Americana amusement park \\|url\\=https://www.journal\\-news.com/news/demolition\\-nears\\-former\\-americana\\-amusement\\-park/laiORjP3iPMDLNayAyLFZL/ \\|website\\=Journal\\-News \\|accessdate\\=September 1, 2020 \\|language\\=English}} The construction of Monroe Bicentennial Commons, the public park replacing LeSourdsville Lake, began in April 2021\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Bicentennial Commons Park Master Plan \\|url\\=http://monroeohio.org/DocumentCenter/View/493/Monroe\\-Bicentennial\\-Commons\\-Master\\-Plan \\|website\\=City of Monroe, Ohio \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719143932/http://monroeohio.org/DocumentCenter/View/493/Monroe\\-Bicentennial\\-Commons\\-Master\\-Plan \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|title\\=Monroe Bicentennial Commons \\|url\\=https://www.monroeohio.org/Facilities/Facility/Details/Monroe\\-Bicentennial\\-Commons\\-13 \\|website\\=City of Monroe, OH \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2021 \\|language\\=en}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=McCrabb \\|first1\\=Rick \\|title\\=Monroe officials concerned as cost of Americana Amusement Park transformation continues rising \\|url\\=https://www.journal\\-news.com/news/monroe\\-officials\\-concerned\\-as\\-cost\\-of\\-americana\\-amusement\\-park\\-transformation\\-continues\\-rising/2B2O4PPGHND7VJI6EVGXLP5JTU/ \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2021 \\|work\\=journal\\-news \\|language\\=English}}", "" ]
### 1980s The recession in the early 1980s began affecting attendance at the park. As a result, gate admission was reduced from $6\.95 to $5\.50 in 1982\. New attractions that year included a transformation of the Hanneford Circus tent into a platform for Bumper Buggys, a soft\-core version of bumper cars. At the end of the 1982 Bill Robinson left the park and was replaced by industry veteran Lenny Gottstein. In May 1983, Food Services Director Frank Silvani died after a lengthy battle with cancer. The highlight of the decade was the addition of the Raging Thunder [Log Flume](/wiki/Log_Flume "Log Flume") in 1984\. The attraction represented the largest investment in the park's 77\-year history and helped boost the annual attendance over 500,000\. The flume, designed by Ron Berni and built by [Barr Engineering of Minnesota](/wiki/Barr_Engineering_of_Minnesota "Barr Engineering of Minnesota"), was located in a former bird sanctuary in the old Tombstone Territory section of the park. The area was renamed Logger's Run after the flume was added. In 1985, the park auctioned off the horses from its 1924 PTC \#71 [carousel](/wiki/Carousel "Carousel"). Although some fans were disappointed about the sale, the carousel burned to the ground in an accidental fire in 1988\. Over $500,000 in damages were reported, including the loss of the park's 1925 Dodgem ride. In 1987, the Galleon swinging ship was installed in Logger's Run. At the end of the season, park vice president Guy Sutton left to take a position with an industry consulting firm. After the carousel fire, the park purchased a used Galaxi{{Cite web\|url\=https://rcdb.com/323\.htm\|title\=Serpent \- LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park (Middletown, Ohio, USA)\|website\=rcdb.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-10}} roller coaster from [Nobles Funland Amusement Park](/wiki/Nobles_Funland_Amusement_Park "Nobles Funland Amusement Park") in [Paducah, Kentucky](/wiki/Paducah%2C_Kentucky "Paducah, Kentucky"), called *The Serpent*. Attendance at the park was maintained at 500,000\.
[ "### 1980s", "The recession in the early 1980s began affecting attendance at the park. As a result, gate admission was reduced from $6\\.95 to $5\\.50 in 1982\\. New attractions that year included a transformation of the Hanneford Circus tent into a platform for Bumper Buggys, a soft\\-core version of bumper cars.", "At the end of the 1982 Bill Robinson left the park and was replaced by industry veteran Lenny Gottstein. In May 1983, Food Services Director Frank Silvani died after a lengthy battle with cancer.", "The highlight of the decade was the addition of the Raging Thunder [Log Flume](/wiki/Log_Flume \"Log Flume\") in 1984\\. The attraction represented the largest investment in the park's 77\\-year history and helped boost the annual attendance over 500,000\\. The flume, designed by Ron Berni and built by [Barr Engineering of Minnesota](/wiki/Barr_Engineering_of_Minnesota \"Barr Engineering of Minnesota\"), was located in a former bird sanctuary in the old Tombstone Territory section of the park. The area was renamed Logger's Run after the flume was added.", "In 1985, the park auctioned off the horses from its 1924 PTC \\#71 [carousel](/wiki/Carousel \"Carousel\"). Although some fans were disappointed about the sale, the carousel burned to the ground in an accidental fire in 1988\\. Over $500,000 in damages were reported, including the loss of the park's 1925 Dodgem ride.", "In 1987, the Galleon swinging ship was installed in Logger's Run. At the end of the season, park vice president Guy Sutton left to take a position with an industry consulting firm.", "After the carousel fire, the park purchased a used Galaxi{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://rcdb.com/323\\.htm\\|title\\=Serpent \\- LeSourdsville Lake Amusement Park (Middletown, Ohio, USA)\\|website\\=rcdb.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-10}} roller coaster from [Nobles Funland Amusement Park](/wiki/Nobles_Funland_Amusement_Park \"Nobles Funland Amusement Park\") in [Paducah, Kentucky](/wiki/Paducah%2C_Kentucky \"Paducah, Kentucky\"), called *The Serpent*. Attendance at the park was maintained at 500,000\\.", "" ]
### 1990s On January 8, 1990, an electrical fire broke out in the Bathhouse and Stardust Gardens Ballroom. The result was over $5 million in losses, including a first aid office, arcade, games building, locker rooms and food concessions. Ride parts and cars from the [Rock\-O\-Plane](/wiki/Rock-O-Plane "Rock-O-Plane"), [Flying Scooters](/wiki/Flying_Scooters "Flying Scooters"), Bumper Buggy and two kiddie rides were destroyed. The park quickly enlisted the assistance of local labor unions to rebuild the area in time for the April opening with payment to come later in the summer. By May, a new 300\-seat indoor/outdoor food court, an arcade, a Dodgem' ride and a refurbished Flying Scooter ride reopened on the site of the fire. Meanwhile, the park began experiencing problems with its insurance company regarding its multimillion\-dollar claim. To make matters worse, Ron Berni, a longtime fixture at the park and son of owner Howard Berni, had been offered a position at [Kentucky Kingdom](/wiki/Kentucky_Kingdom "Kentucky Kingdom") in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky "Louisville, Kentucky"). He reluctantly accepted the offer with the backing of his father. The hiring of local students and senior citizens was always a challenge because of the keen competition of other attractions in the area. To help alleviate that problem, the park entered into an agreement with a Mexican college to hire Mexican students for the summer. The plan quickly fell apart and the park experienced a lot of negative media coverage regarding claims by the students of poor living conditions in their dorms and illegal working conditions. The local unions, who normally booked their picnics at the park, suddenly canceled their lucrative picnic outings due to the allegations and the park began a deep decline in attendance and revenue. By the end of season, attendance reached an all\-time low of just under 200,000\. The park then learned that its insurance company would only pay $3 million in claims, leaving the park to pick up the remaining $2 million in expenses. In December, the park was forced to file for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11_bankruptcy "Chapter 11 bankruptcy"). By Spring 1991, the park was purchased and reopened by [Leisure International](/wiki/Leisure_International "Leisure International"), a group of former park management. Joe Faggionato, Guy Sutton, Lenny Gottstein and Don Robison took over the park and began the long, hard effort of erasing the previous year's nightmare from customers, including the local unions. In July, Guy Sutton left the park to become the Operations Director at [Clemonton Lake](/wiki/Clemonton_Lake "Clemonton Lake") in [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey"). The trio built a petting zoo and opened a new restaurant for the 1992\. Their efforts enabled the park to build the attendance back up to just over 330,000\. In 1993, the animated *Bear Country Jubilee* show was sold to the [Jungle Jim's International Market](/wiki/Jungle_Jim%27s_International_Market "Jungle Jim's International Market") in [Fairfield, Ohio](/wiki/Fairfield%2C_Ohio "Fairfield, Ohio"). No new attractions were added during the year, however, attendance increased to 412,500\. During the 1994 and 1995 seasons, Leisure International spent an additional $6 million to upgrade landscaping and infrastructure throughout the park. By 1995, Faggionato, Gottstein and Robison realized that a bigger company with more capital would be needed to continue upgrading the park so Americana was put up for sale. In 1996, [Park River Corporation](/wiki/Park_River_Corporation "Park River Corporation"), owners of [Coney Island of Cincinnati](/wiki/Coney_Island%2C_Cincinnati%2C_Ohio "Coney Island, Cincinnati, Ohio") in [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio "Cincinnati, Ohio"), purchased Americana for an estimated $3 million. Between 1996 and 1998, over $1 million was spent on upgrading the Screechin' Eagle roller coaster, developing a new paint scheme of magenta and teal, introducing a new merchandising line in the gift shop consisting of unique Americana emblazoned clothing, and adding a variety of rides, including a [carousel](/wiki/Carousel "Carousel"), [Ferris wheel](/wiki/Ferris_wheel "Ferris wheel"), and the Tempest. In 1997, Park River owner Ronald Walker died unexpectedly and family members expressed concern about the future of the park. The park was quietly listed for sale in 1998\. In December 1999, informational letters regarding the 2000 Family Funpacks (similar to season passes) were distributed across the area. In a shocking announcement on January 6, 2000, Park River announced the closing of the park for the 2000 season.
[ "### 1990s", "On January 8, 1990, an electrical fire broke out in the Bathhouse and Stardust Gardens Ballroom. The result was over $5 million in losses, including a first aid office, arcade, games building, locker rooms and food concessions. Ride parts and cars from the [Rock\\-O\\-Plane](/wiki/Rock-O-Plane \"Rock-O-Plane\"), [Flying Scooters](/wiki/Flying_Scooters \"Flying Scooters\"), Bumper Buggy and two kiddie rides were destroyed. The park quickly enlisted the assistance of local labor unions to rebuild the area in time for the April opening with payment to come later in the summer. By May, a new 300\\-seat indoor/outdoor food court, an arcade, a Dodgem' ride and a refurbished Flying Scooter ride reopened on the site of the fire. Meanwhile, the park began experiencing problems with its insurance company regarding its multimillion\\-dollar claim. To make matters worse, Ron Berni, a longtime fixture at the park and son of owner Howard Berni, had been offered a position at [Kentucky Kingdom](/wiki/Kentucky_Kingdom \"Kentucky Kingdom\") in [Louisville, Kentucky](/wiki/Louisville%2C_Kentucky \"Louisville, Kentucky\"). He reluctantly accepted the offer with the backing of his father.", "The hiring of local students and senior citizens was always a challenge because of the keen competition of other attractions in the area. To help alleviate that problem, the park entered into an agreement with a Mexican college to hire Mexican students for the summer. The plan quickly fell apart and the park experienced a lot of negative media coverage regarding claims by the students of poor living conditions in their dorms and illegal working conditions. The local unions, who normally booked their picnics at the park, suddenly canceled their lucrative picnic outings due to the allegations and the park began a deep decline in attendance and revenue. By the end of season, attendance reached an all\\-time low of just under 200,000\\. The park then learned that its insurance company would only pay $3 million in claims, leaving the park to pick up the remaining $2 million in expenses. In December, the park was forced to file for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11_bankruptcy \"Chapter 11 bankruptcy\").", "By Spring 1991, the park was purchased and reopened by [Leisure International](/wiki/Leisure_International \"Leisure International\"), a group of former park management. Joe Faggionato, Guy Sutton, Lenny Gottstein and Don Robison took over the park and began the long, hard effort of erasing the previous year's nightmare from customers, including the local unions. In July, Guy Sutton left the park to become the Operations Director at [Clemonton Lake](/wiki/Clemonton_Lake \"Clemonton Lake\") in [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\").", "The trio built a petting zoo and opened a new restaurant for the 1992\\. Their efforts enabled the park to build the attendance back up to just over 330,000\\. In 1993, the animated *Bear Country Jubilee* show was sold to the [Jungle Jim's International Market](/wiki/Jungle_Jim%27s_International_Market \"Jungle Jim's International Market\") in [Fairfield, Ohio](/wiki/Fairfield%2C_Ohio \"Fairfield, Ohio\"). No new attractions were added during the year, however, attendance increased to 412,500\\. During the 1994 and 1995 seasons, Leisure International spent an additional $6 million to upgrade landscaping and infrastructure throughout the park. By 1995, Faggionato, Gottstein and Robison realized that a bigger company with more capital would be needed to continue upgrading the park so Americana was put up for sale.", "In 1996, [Park River Corporation](/wiki/Park_River_Corporation \"Park River Corporation\"), owners of [Coney Island of Cincinnati](/wiki/Coney_Island%2C_Cincinnati%2C_Ohio \"Coney Island, Cincinnati, Ohio\") in [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio \"Cincinnati, Ohio\"), purchased Americana for an estimated $3 million. Between 1996 and 1998, over $1 million was spent on upgrading the Screechin' Eagle roller coaster, developing a new paint scheme of magenta and teal, introducing a new merchandising line in the gift shop consisting of unique Americana emblazoned clothing, and adding a variety of rides, including a [carousel](/wiki/Carousel \"Carousel\"), [Ferris wheel](/wiki/Ferris_wheel \"Ferris wheel\"), and the Tempest. In 1997, Park River owner Ronald Walker died unexpectedly and family members expressed concern about the future of the park. The park was quietly listed for sale in 1998\\.", "In December 1999, informational letters regarding the 2000 Family Funpacks (similar to season passes) were distributed across the area. In a shocking announcement on January 6, 2000, Park River announced the closing of the park for the 2000 season.", "" ]
### 2000s On May 24, 2000 Hamilton businessman Jerry Couch purchased the park from Park River Corporation. He said he would change the park's name to "Couch's Americana Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake" out of respect for the park's 77\-year\-old history. "The job market is tight and I've missed the window of opportunity to hire kids who are getting out of school," he said in a Cincinnati Enquirer interview. "But, we'll be ready, possibly in July." Initial plans called for a year\-round facility with [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween "Halloween") and [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") activities, construction of a [campground](/wiki/Campground "Campground"), the opening of *Couch's Campers Superstore* on the property and new food services. In April 2002, former carnival owners, the Pugh Family, established the LeSourdsville Group and was hired to manage the park for the 2002 season. The name of the park was changed to "The Great American Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake." Over $3 million in improvements were made including the addition of 10 new rides leased by the Pugh group. They included a fun house, a swinging pirate ship, a kids bumper car ride, the Zipper, the Music Express and the Tip\-Top [Teacups](/wiki/Teacups "Teacups") Ride. The adult bumper car ride was removed due to mechanical problems. In addition, a $150,000 ride safety inspection system was installed to improve preventive maintenance. When the park opened to the public on June 5, the name of the park was changed once again to "LeSourdsville Lake." A park spokesperson stated that the name change was done because "that's how people remember it." The park operated Thursdays through Sundays. "Saturdays and Sundays have been packed to the point that our parking lot was just about full, which we would estimate to be 8,000 to 10,000 people," said park Marketing Director Mike Mefford. After experiencing a successful summer, the park unexpectedly closed a week prior than planned and announced that it was looking for a new management company to operate the park for 2003\. Plans for the upcoming "LeScaresville Lake \- a Halloween fright event" was cancelled. The Pugh management team filed for bankruptcy and failed to pay some of the park employees wages due to them. Rides brought in earlier in the year were repossessed after the season ended due to non\-payment by the Pugh management group. Rides included the Music Express, the Zipper, the Western Express Train, the Tip Top, the Mini Indy and a fun house. All of the rides were portable and not installed as permanent rides. On January 24, 2003, Couch's LeSourdsville Lake RV Super Center held its grand opening at the park. The park's old dormitory used during the 1990 season, was remodeled and made a part of the new store and showroom. "With the opening of the ....Super Center, we are one step closer to fulfilling our ultimate goal of establishing an RV and amusement park combination." said Couch in a Middletown Journal interview. In April, local media began questioning the status of the park for 2003\. After several days passed, the Middletown Journal reported that the park may open for the 2003 season. "There's definitely a possibility that we could open this year. I'm not saying that will happen," said a publicist with Expo Management \& Ad Agency in Cincinnati, which was hired to handle marketing for Couch's camper company. A press release stated that several options are being considered for the park, including 1\) updating the rides and creating a "more competitive" atmosphere, 2\) running the park as is with a new management team and 3\) selling the park. Couch filed a lawsuit against the Pugh management group for non\-payment of bills and rental fees totaling more than $100,000\. The courts dismissed the lawsuit because the management group had filed for bankruptcy. In February 2004, former [Peony Park](/wiki/Peony_Park "Peony Park") enthusiasts, Carl Jennings announced that he was seeking to purchase the park. A deal could not be reached with Couch. On May 17, 2006, it was announced that most of the rides would be sold and that the park would not open as a traditional amusement park in the future.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} In 2009, the park's steel roller coaster, **The Serpent**, received a second life, as it opened in May 2009 under the same name at [Kokomo's Family Fun Center](/wiki/Kokomo%27s_Family_Fun_Center "Kokomo's Family Fun Center") in [Saginaw, Michigan](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan "Saginaw, Michigan"). The park was featured on the [History Channel](/wiki/History_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 "History (U.S. TV channel)")'s *[Life After People: The Series](/wiki/Life_After_People:The_Series "The Series")*. The show explored how weathering was eating away at the park and how it will be unrecognizable in 20 years without human maintenance. One of the closed rides, the Screechin' Eagle, was featured in *Life After People: The Series* and collapsed after 20 years after disappearance of humans.
[ "### 2000s", "On May 24, 2000 Hamilton businessman Jerry Couch purchased the park from Park River Corporation. He said he would change the park's name to \"Couch's Americana Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake\" out of respect for the park's 77\\-year\\-old history. \"The job market is tight and I've missed the window of opportunity to hire kids who are getting out of school,\" he said in a Cincinnati Enquirer interview. \"But, we'll be ready, possibly in July.\"", "Initial plans called for a year\\-round facility with [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween \"Halloween\") and [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") activities, construction of a [campground](/wiki/Campground \"Campground\"), the opening of *Couch's Campers Superstore* on the property and new food services.", "In April 2002, former carnival owners, the Pugh Family, established the LeSourdsville Group and was hired to manage the park for the 2002 season. The name of the park was changed to \"The Great American Amusement Park at LeSourdsville Lake.\"", "Over $3 million in improvements were made including the addition of 10 new rides leased by the Pugh group. They included a fun house, a swinging pirate ship, a kids bumper car ride, the Zipper, the Music Express and the Tip\\-Top [Teacups](/wiki/Teacups \"Teacups\") Ride. The adult bumper car ride was removed due to mechanical problems. In addition, a $150,000 ride safety inspection system was installed to improve preventive maintenance.", "When the park opened to the public on June 5, the name of the park was changed once again to \"LeSourdsville Lake.\" A park spokesperson stated that the name change was done because \"that's how people remember it.\"", "The park operated Thursdays through Sundays. \"Saturdays and Sundays have been packed to the point that our parking lot was just about full, which we would estimate to be 8,000 to 10,000 people,\" said park Marketing Director Mike Mefford.", "After experiencing a successful summer, the park unexpectedly closed a week prior than planned and announced that it was looking for a new management company to operate the park for 2003\\. Plans for the upcoming \"LeScaresville Lake \\- a Halloween fright event\" was cancelled. The Pugh management team filed for bankruptcy and failed to pay some of the park employees wages due to them.", "Rides brought in earlier in the year were repossessed after the season ended due to non\\-payment by the Pugh management group. Rides included the Music Express, the Zipper, the Western Express Train, the Tip Top, the Mini Indy and a fun house. All of the rides were portable and not installed as permanent rides.", "On January 24, 2003, Couch's LeSourdsville Lake RV Super Center held its grand opening at the park. The park's old dormitory used during the 1990 season, was remodeled and made a part of the new store and showroom. \"With the opening of the ....Super Center, we are one step closer to fulfilling our ultimate goal of establishing an RV and amusement park combination.\" said Couch in a Middletown Journal interview.", "In April, local media began questioning the status of the park for 2003\\. After several days passed, the Middletown Journal reported that the park may open for the 2003 season. \"There's definitely a possibility that we could open this year. I'm not saying that will happen,\" said a publicist with Expo Management \\& Ad Agency in Cincinnati, which was hired to handle marketing for Couch's camper company.", "A press release stated that several options are being considered for the park, including 1\\) updating the rides and creating a \"more competitive\" atmosphere, 2\\) running the park as is with a new management team and 3\\) selling the park.", "Couch filed a lawsuit against the Pugh management group for non\\-payment of bills and rental fees totaling more than $100,000\\. The courts dismissed the lawsuit because the management group had filed for bankruptcy.", "In February 2004, former [Peony Park](/wiki/Peony_Park \"Peony Park\") enthusiasts, Carl Jennings announced that he was seeking to purchase the park. A deal could not be reached with Couch.", "On May 17, 2006, it was announced that most of the rides would be sold and that the park would not open as a traditional amusement park in the future.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}}", "In 2009, the park's steel roller coaster, **The Serpent**, received a second life, as it opened in May 2009 under the same name at [Kokomo's Family Fun Center](/wiki/Kokomo%27s_Family_Fun_Center \"Kokomo's Family Fun Center\") in [Saginaw, Michigan](/wiki/Saginaw%2C_Michigan \"Saginaw, Michigan\").", "The park was featured on the [History Channel](/wiki/History_%28U.S._TV_channel%29 \"History (U.S. TV channel)\")'s *[Life After People: The Series](/wiki/Life_After_People:The_Series \"The Series\")*. The show explored how weathering was eating away at the park and how it will be unrecognizable in 20 years without human maintenance. One of the closed rides, the Screechin' Eagle, was featured in *Life After People: The Series* and collapsed after 20 years after disappearance of humans.", "" ]
History ------- Leaf Hound came together in 1970\. They signed a contract with management agency Lynton Maitland, who arranged an album deal with [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") and one day of studio recording time. *Growers of Mushroom* was recorded in one 11\-hour session at [Spot Studios](/wiki/Mayfair_Studios "Mayfair Studios") in Mayfair, London.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.psychedelicbabymag.com/2011/04/leaf\-hound\-my\-interview\-with\-peter.html \|title\=Leaf Hound interview with Peter French \|first\=Klemen \|last\=Breznikar \|author\-link\=Klemen Breznikar \|date\=19 April 2011 \|website\=\[\[It's Psychedelic Baby! Magazine]] \|access\-date\=22 December 2022}} All but one of the tracks were composed by members of the band. Most of the material was written by vocalist Pete French and lead guitarist Mick Halls, who were cousins. According to French, late in the recording session they realised that they had run out of songs and time was limited, so he and Halls composed "With a Minute to Go" on the spot. According to an interview with French in 2019, the impromptu composition was "Sawdust Caesar".{{cite web \|url\= https://thevinylpress.com/leaf\-hound\-growers\-of\-mushroom\-famous\-obscurity\-interview\-with\-peter\-french%EF%BB%BF/ \|title\=Leaf Hound – Growers of Mushroom; Famous Obscurity; Interview with Peter French \|first\=Bill \|last\=Hart \|date\=19 February 2019 \|work\=The Vinyl Press \|publisher\= \|access\-date\=18 December 2022}} Another telling has it that "With a Minute to Go" and "Sawdust Caesar" had their titles mistakenly swapped on the record, and were left that way.{{cite web \|first\=Steve \|last\=Pilkington \|date\=21 July 2022 \|title\=Leaf Hound – Growers of Mushroom / Unleashed (Repertoire) \|url\= https://www.velvetthunder.co.uk/leaf\-hound\-growers\-of\-mushroom\-unleashed\-repertoire/ \|website\=Velvet Thunder \|access\-date\=21 December 2021}} The title track "Growers of Mushroom" was named after a story from the *[Pan Book of Horror Stories](/wiki/Pan_Book_of_Horror_Stories "Pan Book of Horror Stories")*, about a woman slowly poisoning her husband with toadstools,{{cite magazine \|title\=Leaf Hound: ''Growers Of Mushroom'' \|first\=Colin \|last\=Harper \|date\=May 2006 \|newspaper\=\[\[Mojo (magazine)\|Mojo]] \|via\=\[\[Rock's Backpages]]}} although the lyrics were more about having a hallucination. The song not composed by the band was "Drowned My Life in Fear", written by Peter Ross. Following the recording session, Halls told French that they did not need rhythm guitarist Derek Brooks any more, as Halls could do all the guitar playing, so they asked him to leave the band. Bass guitarist Stuart Brooks, his brother, soon left as well, and was replaced by Ron Thomas. The album was first released in Germany by Decca's licensee [Telefunken](/wiki/Telefunken "Telefunken") in 1970 as the self\-titled *Leaf Hound*, comprising just seven tracks, omitting "Freelance Fiend" and "Growers of Mushroom". They also released a single of "Drowned My Life in Fear" with a B\-side of "It's Gonna Get Better", a non\-album song recorded earlier, with [Madeline Bell](/wiki/Madeline_Bell "Madeline Bell") as backing singer. The band (with Thomas, not the Brooks brothers) did a short tour of Germany and on return to the UK were told by their agency that the album was no longer going to be released there. Disheartened, the band broke up. Nearly a year later, in October 1971, Decca did release *Growers of Mushroom*, but with the group already disbanded and not able to promote it, there was little interest from record buyers.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.thesoundmachine.uk.com/545\-2/ \|title\=Leaf Hound – Growers Of Mushroom (Decca SKL\-R 5094\) 1971 \|first\=Mike \|last\=Warth \|date\= \|publisher\=The Sound Machine \|access\-date\=22 December 2022}} Decca themselves knew nothing of the band, even mistakenly thinking they were American. The album cover was created by an artist who, according to French, portrayed the band as "hippie druggies", having only the title of the album to work from. French said the band members were not drug users – "We were quite naive. The most we had was half a pint of lager!" The album was released on CD in Germany by [Walhalla Records](/wiki/Walhalla_Records "Walhalla Records") with "It's Gonna Get Better" as a bonus track. It was re\-released by [See For Miles Records](/wiki/See_For_Miles_Records "See For Miles Records") in 1994 with two bonus tracks, "It's Gonna Get Better" and "Hipshaker". Akarma Records re\-released the vinyl version in 2003 with the one bonus track "It's Gonna Get Better." The band reformed in 2004 and the album was re\-released on CD a third time in 2005 by [Repertoire Records](/wiki/Repertoire_Records "Repertoire Records") featuring the two bonus tracks on the See For Miles release as well as a third bonus track, "Too Many Rock 'n' Roll Times", a new recording that later also appeared on *Unleashed* (2007\). The Decca release is very rare and much sought after by collectors. A copy sold for £11,000 in 2021\. It was voted the number one most collectible rock album in *Q* magazine.
[ "History\n-------", "Leaf Hound came together in 1970\\. They signed a contract with management agency Lynton Maitland, who arranged an album deal with [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") and one day of studio recording time. *Growers of Mushroom* was recorded in one 11\\-hour session at [Spot Studios](/wiki/Mayfair_Studios \"Mayfair Studios\") in Mayfair, London.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.psychedelicbabymag.com/2011/04/leaf\\-hound\\-my\\-interview\\-with\\-peter.html \\|title\\=Leaf Hound interview with Peter French \\|first\\=Klemen \\|last\\=Breznikar \\|author\\-link\\=Klemen Breznikar \\|date\\=19 April 2011 \\|website\\=\\[\\[It's Psychedelic Baby! Magazine]] \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2022}}", "All but one of the tracks were composed by members of the band. Most of the material was written by vocalist Pete French and lead guitarist Mick Halls, who were cousins. According to French, late in the recording session they realised that they had run out of songs and time was limited, so he and Halls composed \"With a Minute to Go\" on the spot. According to an interview with French in 2019, the impromptu composition was \"Sawdust Caesar\".{{cite web \\|url\\= https://thevinylpress.com/leaf\\-hound\\-growers\\-of\\-mushroom\\-famous\\-obscurity\\-interview\\-with\\-peter\\-french%EF%BB%BF/ \\|title\\=Leaf Hound – Growers of Mushroom; Famous Obscurity; Interview with Peter French \\|first\\=Bill \\|last\\=Hart \\|date\\=19 February 2019 \\|work\\=The Vinyl Press \\|publisher\\= \\|access\\-date\\=18 December 2022}} Another telling has it that \"With a Minute to Go\" and \"Sawdust Caesar\" had their titles mistakenly swapped on the record, and were left that way.{{cite web \\|first\\=Steve \\|last\\=Pilkington \\|date\\=21 July 2022 \\|title\\=Leaf Hound – Growers of Mushroom / Unleashed (Repertoire) \\|url\\= https://www.velvetthunder.co.uk/leaf\\-hound\\-growers\\-of\\-mushroom\\-unleashed\\-repertoire/ \\|website\\=Velvet Thunder \\|access\\-date\\=21 December 2021}} The title track \"Growers of Mushroom\" was named after a story from the *[Pan Book of Horror Stories](/wiki/Pan_Book_of_Horror_Stories \"Pan Book of Horror Stories\")*, about a woman slowly poisoning her husband with toadstools,{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Leaf Hound: ''Growers Of Mushroom'' \\|first\\=Colin \\|last\\=Harper \\|date\\=May 2006 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Mojo (magazine)\\|Mojo]] \\|via\\=\\[\\[Rock's Backpages]]}} although the lyrics were more about having a hallucination. The song not composed by the band was \"Drowned My Life in Fear\", written by Peter Ross.", "Following the recording session, Halls told French that they did not need rhythm guitarist Derek Brooks any more, as Halls could do all the guitar playing, so they asked him to leave the band. Bass guitarist Stuart Brooks, his brother, soon left as well, and was replaced by Ron Thomas.", "The album was first released in Germany by Decca's licensee [Telefunken](/wiki/Telefunken \"Telefunken\") in 1970 as the self\\-titled *Leaf Hound*, comprising just seven tracks, omitting \"Freelance Fiend\" and \"Growers of Mushroom\". They also released a single of \"Drowned My Life in Fear\" with a B\\-side of \"It's Gonna Get Better\", a non\\-album song recorded earlier, with [Madeline Bell](/wiki/Madeline_Bell \"Madeline Bell\") as backing singer. The band (with Thomas, not the Brooks brothers) did a short tour of Germany and on return to the UK were told by their agency that the album was no longer going to be released there. Disheartened, the band broke up.", "Nearly a year later, in October 1971, Decca did release *Growers of Mushroom*, but with the group already disbanded and not able to promote it, there was little interest from record buyers.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.thesoundmachine.uk.com/545\\-2/ \\|title\\=Leaf Hound – Growers Of Mushroom (Decca SKL\\-R 5094\\) 1971 \\|first\\=Mike \\|last\\=Warth \\|date\\= \\|publisher\\=The Sound Machine \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2022}} Decca themselves knew nothing of the band, even mistakenly thinking they were American. The album cover was created by an artist who, according to French, portrayed the band as \"hippie druggies\", having only the title of the album to work from. French said the band members were not drug users – \"We were quite naive. The most we had was half a pint of lager!\"", "The album was released on CD in Germany by [Walhalla Records](/wiki/Walhalla_Records \"Walhalla Records\") with \"It's Gonna Get Better\" as a bonus track. It was re\\-released by [See For Miles Records](/wiki/See_For_Miles_Records \"See For Miles Records\") in 1994 with two bonus tracks, \"It's Gonna Get Better\" and \"Hipshaker\". Akarma Records re\\-released the vinyl version in 2003 with the one bonus track \"It's Gonna Get Better.\" The band reformed in 2004 and the album was re\\-released on CD a third time in 2005 by [Repertoire Records](/wiki/Repertoire_Records \"Repertoire Records\") featuring the two bonus tracks on the See For Miles release as well as a third bonus track, \"Too Many Rock 'n' Roll Times\", a new recording that later also appeared on *Unleashed* (2007\\).", "The Decca release is very rare and much sought after by collectors. A copy sold for £11,000 in 2021\\. It was voted the number one most collectible rock album in *Q* magazine.", "" ]
Slate industry in Wales ----------------------- {{main article\|Slate industry in Wales}} ### Background Slate has been quarried in north Wales for almost two millennia with the [Segontium](/wiki/Segontium "Segontium") Roman fort at Caernarfon being roofed by local slate in the late second century. Export of slate has been carried out for several centuries, which was recently confirmed by the discovery in the [Menai Strait](/wiki/Menai_Strait "Menai Strait") of the wreck of a 16th\-century wooden ship carrying finished slates. Large\-scale commercial [slate mining](/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales "Slate industry in Wales") in North Wales began with the opening of the Cae Braich y Cafn quarry, later to become the [Penrhyn Quarry](/wiki/Penrhyn_Quarry "Penrhyn Quarry") near [Bethesda](/wiki/Bethesda%2C_Wales "Bethesda, Wales") in the Ogwen Valley in 1782\. Welsh output was far ahead of other areas and by 1882, 92% of Britain's production was from Wales (451,000 t): the quarries at Penrhyn and [Dinorwic](/wiki/Dinorwic_Quarry "Dinorwic Quarry") produced half of this between them. The men worked the slate in partnerships of four, six or eight and these were known as "Bargain Gangs". "Bargains" were let by the "Bargain Letter" when a price for a certain area of rock was agreed. Adjustments were made according to the quality of the slate and the proportion of "bad" rock. The first Monday of every month was "Bargain Letting Day" when these agreements were made between men and management. Half the partners worked the quarry face and the others were in the dressing sheds producing the finished slates. In the Glyndyfrdwy mines at Moel Fferna each bargain worked a horizontal stretch of 10 by 15 yards. Duchesses, Marchionesses, Countesses, Viscountesses, Ladies, Small Ladies, Doubles and Randoms were all sizes of slates produced. Rubblers helped to keep the chambers free from waste: one ton of saleable slate could produce up to 30 tons of waste. It is the mountainous heaps of this very same waste that is perhaps the first thing to strike someone visiting the old regions nowadays. The men had to pay for their ropes and chains, for tools and for services such as sharpening and repairing. Subs (advances) were paid every week, everything being settled up on the "Day of the Big Pay". If conditions had not been good, the men could end up owing the management money. At Moel Fferna a team could produce up to 35 tons of finished slate a week. In 1877 they received about 7 shillings a ton for this. After paying wages for the manager, clerks and 'trammers' the company could make a clear profit of twice this amount. This system was not finally abolished until after the Second World War. ### Working methods Early workings tended to be in surface pits, but as the work progressed downwards, it became necessary to work underground. This was often accompanied by the driving of one or more adits to gain direct access to a Level. In some rare instances, such as Moel Fferna, there is no trace of surface workings and the workings were entirely underground. Chambers were usually driven from the bottom, by means of a "roofing shaft" which was then continued across the width of the chamber: the chamber would then be worked downwards. Slate was freed from the rockface by blasting in shot holes hammered (and later drilled) into the rock. Slate mines were usually worked in chambers which followed the slate vein, connected via a series of horizontal "Floors" (or "Levels"). The chambers varied in size between mines and were divided by "pillars" or walls which supported the roof. The floors were connected by underground "Inclines" which used wedge\-shaped trolleys to move trucks between levels. In some mines, where slate was worked away below the main haulage floor, the route was maintained through the construction of a wooden bridge across the chamber, often supported from chains attached to the roof above. These bridges could be as much as 100 feet/30 m above the floor below. Large slab of rock were removed from the chamber, typically on [railway wagons](/wiki/Slate_waggon "Slate waggon"), and taken to the mill. The slabs were first sawn to the required size, then split to specific thicknesses \- this was done by hand for many centuries using a chisel held at a specific angle to achieve a clean split while maintaining the material's integrity. Finally, the corners of each piece were bevelled to allow water to flow over the slate once in place on the roof. A final inspection and sorting took place before they were packaged for transport. The process of slate quarrying generates vast amounts of waste rock \- often more than 90% of the rock mined was discarded.{{Cite web \|title\=Slate waste \|url\=http://www.penmorfa.com/Conwy/waste.html \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-07 \|website\=www.penmorfa.com}} No chemical processes awerere used in the production, and the waste was disposed at dumps. ### Significant mines In North [Gwynedd](/wiki/Gwynedd "Gwynedd"), the large slate producing quarries were usually confined to open\-cast workings, sometimes with an [adit](/wiki/Adit "Adit") to gain access to the bottom of the pit: * [Penrhyn Quarry](/wiki/Penrhyn_Quarry "Penrhyn Quarry"), [Bethesda](/wiki/Bethesda%2C_Wales "Bethesda, Wales"). The largest slate producing quarry in the world. Bought by [Alfred McAlpine plc](/wiki/Alfred_McAlpine_plc "Alfred McAlpine plc") in 1964\. * [Dinorwic Quarry](/wiki/Dinorwic_Quarry "Dinorwic Quarry"), [Llanberis](/wiki/Llanberis "Llanberis"). * [Cilgwyn quarry](/wiki/Cilgwyn_quarry "Cilgwyn quarry"), [Nantlle Valley](/wiki/Nantlle_Valley "Nantlle Valley"). Dating from the 12th century it is thought to be the oldest in Wales.Lindsay p. 314 In the [Blaenau Ffestiniog](/wiki/Blaenau_Ffestiniog "Blaenau Ffestiniog") area, most of the workings were underground as the slate veins are steeply angled and open cast workings would require the removal of a massive amount of rock to gain access to the slate. The larger mines in the Ffestiniog area include: * [Llechwedd quarry](/wiki/Llechwedd_quarry "Llechwedd quarry") – now open to the public as a "tourist mine". * Manod – used by the [National Gallery, London](/wiki/National_Gallery%2C_London "National Gallery, London") to store artworks in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") * [Maenofferen](/wiki/Maenofferen_Quarry "Maenofferen Quarry") * [Oakeley](/wiki/Oakeley_Quarry "Oakeley Quarry") – now partially untopped as an opencast working by [Alfred McAlpine plc](/wiki/Alfred_McAlpine_plc "Alfred McAlpine plc") * [Cwmorthin](/wiki/Cwmorthin_Quarry "Cwmorthin Quarry") * [Rhosydd](/wiki/Rhosydd_Quarry "Rhosydd Quarry") * [Croesor](/wiki/Croesor_Quarry "Croesor Quarry") There were also a number of slate mines in the [Llangollen](/wiki/Llangollen "Llangollen") area which produced a much darker "black" slate: * Berwyn * [Deeside and Moel Fferna](/wiki/Deeside_and_Moel_Fferna_quarries "Deeside and Moel Fferna quarries") * Penarth Another cluster of mines were found in mid Wales centered on [Corris](/wiki/Corris "Corris"). These all worked a pair of slate veins that ran across the Cambrian mountain range from [Tywyn](/wiki/Tywyn "Tywyn") in the west through Corris and [Aberllefenni](/wiki/Aberllefenni "Aberllefenni") in the Dulas Valley to the mines around [Dinas Mawddwy](/wiki/Dinas_Mawddwy "Dinas Mawddwy") in the east. Slate was also mined in [Pembrokeshire](/wiki/Pembrokeshire "Pembrokeshire") in places like [Maenclochog](/wiki/Maenclochog "Maenclochog"). ### Remains Most underground slate mines in north Wales were closed by the 1960s although some open\-cast quarries have remained open, including the [Penrhyn Quarry](/wiki/Penrhyn_Quarry "Penrhyn Quarry") and the untopping work at [Oakeley](/wiki/Oakeley_quarry "Oakeley quarry") in [Blaenau Ffestiniog](/wiki/Blaenau_Ffestiniog "Blaenau Ffestiniog"). Work also continues at [Berwyn](http://www.berwynslate.com/) near [Llangollen](/wiki/Llangollen "Llangollen"). The final large\-scale underground working to close was [Maenofferen Quarry](/wiki/Maenofferen_Quarry "Maenofferen Quarry") (which is owned by the Llechwedd tourist mine) in 1999 although opencast quarrying continues at this location. Many of the mines are now in a state of considerable decay and those that are accessible should not be entered as they are on private property and contain many hidden dangers. Historical and adventurous underground tours are provided at several mines including [Rhiwbach](/wiki/Rhiwbach_quarry "Rhiwbach quarry") (by [Go Below](https://www.go-below.co.uk/)),{{citation needed\|date\=September 2020}} [Llechwedd](/wiki/Llechwedd_quarry "Llechwedd quarry") ([Zip World](https://www.zipworld.co.uk/) and [Llechwedd/Quarry Tours Ltd](https://llechwedd.co.uk/)){{cite web \|title\=Zip World Slate Caverns \|url\=https://www.google.co.uk/maps/place/@53\.005043,\-3\.9419847,17z/data\=!4m5!3m4!1s0x48650d16884bd3eb:0xd1d6137556786837!8m2!3d53\.005043!4d\-3\.9397962 \|website\=Google Maps \|accessdate\=26 September 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=Llechwedd \|url\=https://llechwedd.co.uk \|publisher\=Quarry Tours Ltd \|accessdate\=26 September 2020}} and [Cwmorthin](/wiki/Cwmorthin_quarry "Cwmorthin quarry") (Go Below).{{cite web \|title\=Hero Extreme Caving Trip \|url\=https://www.go\-below.co.uk/hero\-xtreme.asp \|website\=Go Below \|publisher\=Go Below Underground Adventures Ltd. \|accessdate\=26 September 2020}} The lower levels of many mines are now flooded and collapses are commonplace; for example, the hillside above the [Rhosydd](/wiki/Rhosydd_quarry "Rhosydd quarry") workings has many pits where the roofs of the chambers below have collapsed.
[ "Slate industry in Wales\n-----------------------", "{{main article\\|Slate industry in Wales}}", "### Background", "Slate has been quarried in north Wales for almost two millennia with the [Segontium](/wiki/Segontium \"Segontium\") Roman fort at Caernarfon being roofed by local slate in the late second century. Export of slate has been carried out for several centuries, which was recently confirmed by the discovery in the [Menai Strait](/wiki/Menai_Strait \"Menai Strait\") of the wreck of a 16th\\-century wooden ship carrying finished slates.", "Large\\-scale commercial [slate mining](/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales \"Slate industry in Wales\") in North Wales began with the opening of the Cae Braich y Cafn quarry, later to become the [Penrhyn Quarry](/wiki/Penrhyn_Quarry \"Penrhyn Quarry\") near [Bethesda](/wiki/Bethesda%2C_Wales \"Bethesda, Wales\") in the Ogwen Valley in 1782\\. Welsh output was far ahead of other areas and by 1882, 92% of Britain's production was from Wales (451,000 t): the quarries at Penrhyn and [Dinorwic](/wiki/Dinorwic_Quarry \"Dinorwic Quarry\") produced half of this between them.", "The men worked the slate in partnerships of four, six or eight and these were known as \"Bargain Gangs\". \"Bargains\" were let by the \"Bargain Letter\" when a price for a certain area of rock was agreed. Adjustments were made according to the quality of the slate and the proportion of \"bad\" rock. The first Monday of every month was \"Bargain Letting Day\" when these agreements were made between men and management. Half the partners worked the quarry face and the others were in the dressing sheds producing the finished slates. In the Glyndyfrdwy mines at Moel Fferna each bargain worked a horizontal stretch of 10 by 15 yards. Duchesses, Marchionesses, Countesses, Viscountesses, Ladies, Small Ladies, Doubles and Randoms were all sizes of slates produced.", "Rubblers helped to keep the chambers free from waste: one ton of saleable slate could produce up to 30 tons of waste. It is the mountainous heaps of this very same waste that is perhaps the first thing to strike someone visiting the old regions nowadays. The men had to pay for their ropes and chains, for tools and for services such as sharpening and repairing. Subs (advances) were paid every week, everything being settled up on the \"Day of the Big Pay\". If conditions had not been good, the men could end up owing the management money. At Moel Fferna a team could produce up to 35 tons of finished slate a week. In 1877 they received about 7 shillings a ton for this. After paying wages for the manager, clerks and 'trammers' the company could make a clear profit of twice this amount. This system was not finally abolished until after the Second World War.", "### Working methods", "Early workings tended to be in surface pits, but as the work progressed downwards, it became necessary to work underground. This was often accompanied by the driving of one or more adits to gain direct access to a Level. In some rare instances, such as Moel Fferna, there is no trace of surface workings and the workings were entirely underground.", "Chambers were usually driven from the bottom, by means of a \"roofing shaft\" which was then continued across the width of the chamber: the chamber would then be worked downwards. Slate was freed from the rockface by blasting in shot holes hammered (and later drilled) into the rock.", "Slate mines were usually worked in chambers which followed the slate vein, connected via a series of horizontal \"Floors\" (or \"Levels\"). The chambers varied in size between mines and were divided by \"pillars\" or walls which supported the roof. The floors were connected by underground \"Inclines\" which used wedge\\-shaped trolleys to move trucks between levels.", "In some mines, where slate was worked away below the main haulage floor, the route was maintained through the construction of a wooden bridge across the chamber, often supported from chains attached to the roof above. These bridges could be as much as 100 feet/30 m above the floor below.", "Large slab of rock were removed from the chamber, typically on [railway wagons](/wiki/Slate_waggon \"Slate waggon\"), and taken to the mill. The slabs were first sawn to the required size, then split to specific thicknesses \\- this was done by hand for many centuries using a chisel held at a specific angle to achieve a clean split while maintaining the material's integrity. Finally, the corners of each piece were bevelled to allow water to flow over the slate once in place on the roof. A final inspection and sorting took place before they were packaged for transport.", "The process of slate quarrying generates vast amounts of waste rock \\- often more than 90% of the rock mined was discarded.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Slate waste \\|url\\=http://www.penmorfa.com/Conwy/waste.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-07 \\|website\\=www.penmorfa.com}} No chemical processes awerere used in the production, and the waste was disposed at dumps.", "### Significant mines", "In North [Gwynedd](/wiki/Gwynedd \"Gwynedd\"), the large slate producing quarries were usually confined to open\\-cast workings, sometimes with an [adit](/wiki/Adit \"Adit\") to gain access to the bottom of the pit:\n* [Penrhyn Quarry](/wiki/Penrhyn_Quarry \"Penrhyn Quarry\"), [Bethesda](/wiki/Bethesda%2C_Wales \"Bethesda, Wales\"). The largest slate producing quarry in the world. Bought by [Alfred McAlpine plc](/wiki/Alfred_McAlpine_plc \"Alfred McAlpine plc\") in 1964\\.\n* [Dinorwic Quarry](/wiki/Dinorwic_Quarry \"Dinorwic Quarry\"), [Llanberis](/wiki/Llanberis \"Llanberis\").\n* [Cilgwyn quarry](/wiki/Cilgwyn_quarry \"Cilgwyn quarry\"), [Nantlle Valley](/wiki/Nantlle_Valley \"Nantlle Valley\"). Dating from the 12th century it is thought to be the oldest in Wales.Lindsay p. 314", "In the [Blaenau Ffestiniog](/wiki/Blaenau_Ffestiniog \"Blaenau Ffestiniog\") area, most of the workings were underground as the slate veins are steeply angled and open cast workings would require the removal of a massive amount of rock to gain access to the slate. The larger mines in the Ffestiniog area include:\n* [Llechwedd quarry](/wiki/Llechwedd_quarry \"Llechwedd quarry\") – now open to the public as a \"tourist mine\".\n* Manod – used by the [National Gallery, London](/wiki/National_Gallery%2C_London \"National Gallery, London\") to store artworks in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\")\n* [Maenofferen](/wiki/Maenofferen_Quarry \"Maenofferen Quarry\")\n* [Oakeley](/wiki/Oakeley_Quarry \"Oakeley Quarry\") – now partially untopped as an opencast working by [Alfred McAlpine plc](/wiki/Alfred_McAlpine_plc \"Alfred McAlpine plc\")\n* [Cwmorthin](/wiki/Cwmorthin_Quarry \"Cwmorthin Quarry\")\n* [Rhosydd](/wiki/Rhosydd_Quarry \"Rhosydd Quarry\")\n* [Croesor](/wiki/Croesor_Quarry \"Croesor Quarry\")", "There were also a number of slate mines in the [Llangollen](/wiki/Llangollen \"Llangollen\") area which produced a much darker \"black\" slate:\n* Berwyn\n* [Deeside and Moel Fferna](/wiki/Deeside_and_Moel_Fferna_quarries \"Deeside and Moel Fferna quarries\")\n* Penarth", "Another cluster of mines were found in mid Wales centered on [Corris](/wiki/Corris \"Corris\"). These all worked a pair of slate veins that ran across the Cambrian mountain range from [Tywyn](/wiki/Tywyn \"Tywyn\") in the west through Corris and [Aberllefenni](/wiki/Aberllefenni \"Aberllefenni\") in the Dulas Valley to the mines around [Dinas Mawddwy](/wiki/Dinas_Mawddwy \"Dinas Mawddwy\") in the east. Slate was also mined in [Pembrokeshire](/wiki/Pembrokeshire \"Pembrokeshire\") in places like [Maenclochog](/wiki/Maenclochog \"Maenclochog\").", "### Remains", "Most underground slate mines in north Wales were closed by the 1960s although some open\\-cast quarries have remained open, including the [Penrhyn Quarry](/wiki/Penrhyn_Quarry \"Penrhyn Quarry\") and the untopping work at [Oakeley](/wiki/Oakeley_quarry \"Oakeley quarry\") in [Blaenau Ffestiniog](/wiki/Blaenau_Ffestiniog \"Blaenau Ffestiniog\"). Work also continues at [Berwyn](http://www.berwynslate.com/) near [Llangollen](/wiki/Llangollen \"Llangollen\"). The final large\\-scale underground working to close was [Maenofferen Quarry](/wiki/Maenofferen_Quarry \"Maenofferen Quarry\") (which is owned by the Llechwedd tourist mine) in 1999 although opencast quarrying continues at this location.", "Many of the mines are now in a state of considerable decay and those that are accessible should not be entered as they are on private property and contain many hidden dangers.", "Historical and adventurous underground tours are provided at several mines including [Rhiwbach](/wiki/Rhiwbach_quarry \"Rhiwbach quarry\") (by [Go Below](https://www.go-below.co.uk/)),{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2020}} [Llechwedd](/wiki/Llechwedd_quarry \"Llechwedd quarry\") ([Zip World](https://www.zipworld.co.uk/) and [Llechwedd/Quarry Tours Ltd](https://llechwedd.co.uk/)){{cite web \\|title\\=Zip World Slate Caverns \\|url\\=https://www.google.co.uk/maps/place/@53\\.005043,\\-3\\.9419847,17z/data\\=!4m5!3m4!1s0x48650d16884bd3eb:0xd1d6137556786837!8m2!3d53\\.005043!4d\\-3\\.9397962 \\|website\\=Google Maps \\|accessdate\\=26 September 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Llechwedd \\|url\\=https://llechwedd.co.uk \\|publisher\\=Quarry Tours Ltd \\|accessdate\\=26 September 2020}} and [Cwmorthin](/wiki/Cwmorthin_quarry \"Cwmorthin quarry\") (Go Below).{{cite web \\|title\\=Hero Extreme Caving Trip \\|url\\=https://www.go\\-below.co.uk/hero\\-xtreme.asp \\|website\\=Go Below \\|publisher\\=Go Below Underground Adventures Ltd. \\|accessdate\\=26 September 2020}}", "The lower levels of many mines are now flooded and collapses are commonplace; for example, the hillside above the [Rhosydd](/wiki/Rhosydd_quarry \"Rhosydd quarry\") workings has many pits where the roofs of the chambers below have collapsed.", "" ]
### Working methods Early workings tended to be in surface pits, but as the work progressed downwards, it became necessary to work underground. This was often accompanied by the driving of one or more adits to gain direct access to a Level. In some rare instances, such as Moel Fferna, there is no trace of surface workings and the workings were entirely underground. Chambers were usually driven from the bottom, by means of a "roofing shaft" which was then continued across the width of the chamber: the chamber would then be worked downwards. Slate was freed from the rockface by blasting in shot holes hammered (and later drilled) into the rock. Slate mines were usually worked in chambers which followed the slate vein, connected via a series of horizontal "Floors" (or "Levels"). The chambers varied in size between mines and were divided by "pillars" or walls which supported the roof. The floors were connected by underground "Inclines" which used wedge\-shaped trolleys to move trucks between levels. In some mines, where slate was worked away below the main haulage floor, the route was maintained through the construction of a wooden bridge across the chamber, often supported from chains attached to the roof above. These bridges could be as much as 100 feet/30 m above the floor below. Large slab of rock were removed from the chamber, typically on [railway wagons](/wiki/Slate_waggon "Slate waggon"), and taken to the mill. The slabs were first sawn to the required size, then split to specific thicknesses \- this was done by hand for many centuries using a chisel held at a specific angle to achieve a clean split while maintaining the material's integrity. Finally, the corners of each piece were bevelled to allow water to flow over the slate once in place on the roof. A final inspection and sorting took place before they were packaged for transport. The process of slate quarrying generates vast amounts of waste rock \- often more than 90% of the rock mined was discarded.{{Cite web \|title\=Slate waste \|url\=http://www.penmorfa.com/Conwy/waste.html \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-07 \|website\=www.penmorfa.com}} No chemical processes awerere used in the production, and the waste was disposed at dumps.
[ "### Working methods", "Early workings tended to be in surface pits, but as the work progressed downwards, it became necessary to work underground. This was often accompanied by the driving of one or more adits to gain direct access to a Level. In some rare instances, such as Moel Fferna, there is no trace of surface workings and the workings were entirely underground.", "Chambers were usually driven from the bottom, by means of a \"roofing shaft\" which was then continued across the width of the chamber: the chamber would then be worked downwards. Slate was freed from the rockface by blasting in shot holes hammered (and later drilled) into the rock.", "Slate mines were usually worked in chambers which followed the slate vein, connected via a series of horizontal \"Floors\" (or \"Levels\"). The chambers varied in size between mines and were divided by \"pillars\" or walls which supported the roof. The floors were connected by underground \"Inclines\" which used wedge\\-shaped trolleys to move trucks between levels.", "In some mines, where slate was worked away below the main haulage floor, the route was maintained through the construction of a wooden bridge across the chamber, often supported from chains attached to the roof above. These bridges could be as much as 100 feet/30 m above the floor below.", "Large slab of rock were removed from the chamber, typically on [railway wagons](/wiki/Slate_waggon \"Slate waggon\"), and taken to the mill. The slabs were first sawn to the required size, then split to specific thicknesses \\- this was done by hand for many centuries using a chisel held at a specific angle to achieve a clean split while maintaining the material's integrity. Finally, the corners of each piece were bevelled to allow water to flow over the slate once in place on the roof. A final inspection and sorting took place before they were packaged for transport.", "The process of slate quarrying generates vast amounts of waste rock \\- often more than 90% of the rock mined was discarded.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Slate waste \\|url\\=http://www.penmorfa.com/Conwy/waste.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-07 \\|website\\=www.penmorfa.com}} No chemical processes awerere used in the production, and the waste was disposed at dumps.", "" ]
Biography --------- Atkins was born in [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry"), the son of [Edith](/wiki/Edith_Atkins "Edith Atkins") and Roland (Ron) Atkins. His mother was a prolific breaker of long\-distance cycling records in the 1950s. John Atkins began cycling on the cleared areas and bomb sites that followed intensive bombing of [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry") in the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). He started racing at 17\. He won his first national cyclo\-cross championship in 1961 when he was 19\. He was in a group of four and passed them by taking a longer route to the right around bushes where the others had ridden to the left.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.ridecov.co.uk/johnresults.htm\| title\=Coventry \- John's Results\| publisher\=Ride Coventry\| accessdate\=2008\-09\-15}} It gave him a few seconds' lead that he held to the finish. He won again in 1962 but was handicapped until 1966 by a stomach ulcer. He dominated cyclo\-cross in Britain for the next 10 years. He came fifth in the 1968 world championship, then turned professional for a sausage\-maker, Marsh \& Baxter. A year later he moved to [Carlton Cycles](/wiki/Carlton_Cycles "Carlton Cycles") for five years. He rode for Viscount\-Shimano from 1975 to 1978 and then for [Harry Quinn](/wiki/Harry_Quinn "Harry Quinn") Cycles. He retired in 1979\. Atkins founded John Atkins Cycles in [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry "Coventry"), now known as Coventry Cycle Centre.{{cite web\|url\=http://johnatkinscoventry.co.uk/NET2/\|title\=Coventry Cycle Centre\|access\-date\=25 October 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804080026/http://johnatkinscoventry.co.uk/NET2/\|archive\-date\=4 August 2009\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://johnatkinscoventry.co.uk/NET2/\|title\=John Atkins Cycles\|access\-date\=25 October 2008\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804080026/http://johnatkinscoventry.co.uk/NET2/\|archive\-date\=4 August 2009\|url\-status\=dead}} After retiring from professional cycling, Atkins ran a cycle and toy shop in [Pwllheli](/wiki/Pwllheli "Pwllheli") on the [Llŷn Peninsula](/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula "Llŷn Peninsula").
[ "Biography\n---------", "Atkins was born in [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\"), the son of [Edith](/wiki/Edith_Atkins \"Edith Atkins\") and Roland (Ron) Atkins. His mother was a prolific breaker of long\\-distance cycling records in the 1950s.", "John Atkins began cycling on the cleared areas and bomb sites that followed intensive bombing of [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\") in the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). He started racing at 17\\.", "He won his first national cyclo\\-cross championship in 1961 when he was 19\\. He was in a group of four and passed them by taking a longer route to the right around bushes where the others had ridden to the left.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.ridecov.co.uk/johnresults.htm\\| title\\=Coventry \\- John's Results\\| publisher\\=Ride Coventry\\| accessdate\\=2008\\-09\\-15}} It gave him a few seconds' lead that he held to the finish.", "He won again in 1962 but was handicapped until 1966 by a stomach ulcer. He dominated cyclo\\-cross in Britain for the next 10 years.", "He came fifth in the 1968 world championship, then turned professional for a sausage\\-maker, Marsh \\& Baxter. A year later he moved to [Carlton Cycles](/wiki/Carlton_Cycles \"Carlton Cycles\") for five years. \nHe rode for Viscount\\-Shimano from 1975 to 1978 and then for [Harry Quinn](/wiki/Harry_Quinn \"Harry Quinn\") Cycles. He retired in 1979\\.", "Atkins founded John Atkins Cycles in [Coventry](/wiki/Coventry \"Coventry\"), now known as Coventry Cycle Centre.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://johnatkinscoventry.co.uk/NET2/\\|title\\=Coventry Cycle Centre\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804080026/http://johnatkinscoventry.co.uk/NET2/\\|archive\\-date\\=4 August 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://johnatkinscoventry.co.uk/NET2/\\|title\\=John Atkins Cycles\\|access\\-date\\=25 October 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804080026/http://johnatkinscoventry.co.uk/NET2/\\|archive\\-date\\=4 August 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} After retiring from professional cycling, Atkins ran a cycle and toy shop in [Pwllheli](/wiki/Pwllheli \"Pwllheli\") on the [Llŷn Peninsula](/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula \"Llŷn Peninsula\").", "" ]
History ------- On 20 September 1795, Holy Roman Emperor [Francis II](/wiki/Francis_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor") appointed his younger brother [Archduke Joseph of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Joseph_of_Austria_%28Palatine_of_Hungary%29 "Archduke Joseph of Austria (Palatine of Hungary)") as governor of Hungary. A year later, the [Diet of Hungary](/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary "Diet of Hungary") elected him as [Palatine of Hungary](/wiki/Palatine_of_Hungary "Palatine of Hungary") in Pressburg ([Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava "Bratislava")). As a result, he became the first member of the Hungarian or Palatinal branch of the [House of Habsburg\-Lorraine](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg-Lorraine "House of Habsburg-Lorraine"). Between 1819 and 1827, Palatine Joseph built a summer residence in [Alcsút](/wiki/Alcs%C3%BAt "Alcsút") according to the plans of the well\-known architect [Mihály Pollack](/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_Pollack "Mihály Pollack") (1773–1855\) in a [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture") style. The foundation stone for this building was laid on 13 June 1820\. Construction work was completed in 1826\. However, as it took a full year to furnish the palace, the family was only able to move into their country home in 1827\. Archduke Joseph also had the adjoining farm buildings built and set up a model farm here. Palatine Joseph's son, Archduke [Joseph Karl](/wiki/Archduke_Joseph_Karl_of_Austria "Archduke Joseph Karl of Austria"), carried out further extensive conversion and expansion work in the 1870s. He had new wings added, created a courtyard and rebuilt the rear facade of the palace in an [eclectic](/wiki/Eclecticism "Eclecticism") style. At the end of the Palace’s right\-wing, stables were constructed in the neoclassical style. When [János Simor](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Simor "János Simor"), the Hungarian prelate and [Archbishop of Esztergom](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Esztergom "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Esztergom"), paid a visit to the palace, he liked these stables so much that he suggested that these stables would also be suitable for a chapel. inspired by these words, Archduke Joseph Karl converted them into a chapel. Architect Ferenc Storno was involved for the reconstruction. The construction took place in 1879 and 1880\. Cardinal János Simor consecrated the new chapel in [neo\-Romanesque](/wiki/Romanesque_Revival_architecture "Romanesque Revival architecture") style on 27 November 1880\. After that, the archive of the Hungarian Habsburgs and a library were realized in the last two large rooms at the end of the right wing. The last renovation work took place at the start of the 20th century. At that time, the farm was completed as a closed unit. The house was regularly used by the family as a summer residence between 1827 and 1944\. Each of the residents, starting with Palatine Joseph, as well as his successors, left their mark on the house. Over the decades, the palace has housed a valuable picture gallery, numerous works of art and furniture from a wide variety of epochs. Archduchess [Clothilde](/wiki/Princess_Clotilde_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha "Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha") died at the palace in 1927\. The Alcsút palace and estate remained property of the Habsburg family until the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"). In 1944, the family was forced to leave the castle. First, the children went to Germany in October 1944\. The last owner, Archduke [Joseph Francis](/wiki/Archduke_Joseph_Francis_of_Austria "Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria") and his wife, stayed the longest, leaving the palace on 19 December 1944, shortly before the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") invaded. On 23 December 1944, the house was occupied by the Red Army. After that, the locals plundered the palace and the valuable inventory was completely lost. After the Russian occupation of Hungary in 1945, the palace became a Red Army command post. During this time, the main house caught fire and burned out completely, with the valuable family archive also being burned. With the knowledge of the then communist authorities, the local residents stole the usable building material from the ruins in the second half of the 1940s. In February 1951, the entire palace ruin was demolished, with the exception of the main facade, which is still visible today. Only the entrance (portico) decorated with columns has survived from the palace remains. The palace chapel is a separate building and was also badly damaged. Restoration work only started thirty years later, but it was carried out unprofessionally. A lot of what could have been saved was lost as a result.
[ "History\n-------", "On 20 September 1795, Holy Roman Emperor [Francis II](/wiki/Francis_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor\") appointed his younger brother [Archduke Joseph of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Joseph_of_Austria_%28Palatine_of_Hungary%29 \"Archduke Joseph of Austria (Palatine of Hungary)\") as governor of Hungary. A year later, the [Diet of Hungary](/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary \"Diet of Hungary\") elected him as [Palatine of Hungary](/wiki/Palatine_of_Hungary \"Palatine of Hungary\") in Pressburg ([Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava \"Bratislava\")). As a result, he became the first member of the Hungarian or Palatinal branch of the [House of Habsburg\\-Lorraine](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg-Lorraine \"House of Habsburg-Lorraine\").", "Between 1819 and 1827, Palatine Joseph built a summer residence in [Alcsút](/wiki/Alcs%C3%BAt \"Alcsút\") according to the plans of the well\\-known architect [Mihály Pollack](/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_Pollack \"Mihály Pollack\") (1773–1855\\) in a [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\") style. The foundation stone for this building was laid on 13 June 1820\\. Construction work was completed in 1826\\. However, as it took a full year to furnish the palace, the family was only able to move into their country home in 1827\\. Archduke Joseph also had the adjoining farm buildings built and set up a model farm here.", "Palatine Joseph's son, Archduke [Joseph Karl](/wiki/Archduke_Joseph_Karl_of_Austria \"Archduke Joseph Karl of Austria\"), carried out further extensive conversion and expansion work in the 1870s. He had new wings added, created a courtyard and rebuilt the rear facade of the palace in an [eclectic](/wiki/Eclecticism \"Eclecticism\") style.", "At the end of the Palace’s right\\-wing, stables were constructed in the neoclassical style. When [János Simor](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Simor \"János Simor\"), the Hungarian prelate and [Archbishop of Esztergom](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Esztergom \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Esztergom\"), paid a visit to the palace, he liked these stables so much that he suggested that these stables would also be suitable for a chapel. inspired by these words, Archduke Joseph Karl converted them into a chapel. Architect Ferenc Storno was involved for the reconstruction. The construction took place in 1879 and 1880\\. Cardinal János Simor consecrated the new chapel in [neo\\-Romanesque](/wiki/Romanesque_Revival_architecture \"Romanesque Revival architecture\") style on 27 November 1880\\. After that, the archive of the Hungarian Habsburgs and a library were realized in the last two large rooms at the end of the right wing.", "The last renovation work took place at the start of the 20th century. At that time, the farm was completed as a closed unit.\nThe house was regularly used by the family as a summer residence between 1827 and 1944\\. Each of the residents, starting with Palatine Joseph, as well as his successors, left their mark on the house. Over the decades, the palace has housed a valuable picture gallery, numerous works of art and furniture from a wide variety of epochs.", "Archduchess [Clothilde](/wiki/Princess_Clotilde_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha \"Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\") died at the palace in 1927\\.", "The Alcsút palace and estate remained property of the Habsburg family until the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"). In 1944, the family was forced to leave the castle. First, the children went to Germany in October 1944\\. The last owner, Archduke [Joseph Francis](/wiki/Archduke_Joseph_Francis_of_Austria \"Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria\") and his wife, stayed the longest, leaving the palace on 19 December 1944, shortly before the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") invaded. On 23 December 1944, the house was occupied by the Red Army. After that, the locals plundered the palace and the valuable inventory was completely lost.", "After the Russian occupation of Hungary in 1945, the palace became a Red Army command post. During this time, the main house caught fire and burned out completely, with the valuable family archive also being burned. With the knowledge of the then communist authorities, the local residents stole the usable building material from the ruins in the second half of the 1940s.", "In February 1951, the entire palace ruin was demolished, with the exception of the main facade, which is still visible today. Only the entrance (portico) decorated with columns has survived from the palace remains. The palace chapel is a separate building and was also badly damaged. Restoration work only started thirty years later, but it was carried out unprofessionally. A lot of what could have been saved was lost as a result.", "" ]
Storylines ---------- ### 1983–1988 Terry arrives on the Street in 1983, having supposedly finished a stint in the [Parachute Regiment](/wiki/Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)"). Initially, he was a cocky but well\-meaning character. When Terry breaks into [Alf Roberts](/wiki/Alf_Roberts "Alf Roberts")' ([Bryan Mosley](/wiki/Bryan_Mosley "Bryan Mosley")) corner shop, whilst drunk, he confessed remorsefully to his crime. In 1985, next\-door neighbour Andrea Clayton becomes pregnant with Terry's child and had a son ([Paul Duckworth](/wiki/Paul_Duckworth "Paul Duckworth")); the Clayton family left the Street without Terry ever having any contact with the child. Terry leaves again in 1987, running off with a married woman, the wife of an old army friend, but returns briefly the following year, alone and strapped for cash. He pawns his watch to [Alec Gilroy](/wiki/Alec_Gilroy "Alec Gilroy") ([Roy Barraclough](/wiki/Roy_Barraclough "Roy Barraclough")) and argues with [Don Brennan](/wiki/Don_Brennan_%28Coronation_Street%29 "Don Brennan (Coronation Street)") ([Geoffrey Hinsliff](/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinsliff "Geoffrey Hinsliff")) for refusing to pay a fare in his taxi. ### 1992–1993 Terry returns five years later with a pregnant girlfriend, [Lisa Horton](/wiki/Lisa_Horton "Lisa Horton") ([Caroline Milmoe](/wiki/Caroline_Milmoe "Caroline Milmoe")). Several months after his return, he is arrested for GBH and Lisa tells [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Duckworth "Jack Duckworth") ([Bill Tarmey](/wiki/Bill_Tarmey "Bill Tarmey")) and [Vera](/wiki/Vera_Duckworth "Vera Duckworth") ([Liz Dawn](/wiki/Liz_Dawn "Liz Dawn")) that Terry is in prison. He is released in order to marry Lisa, but uses the ceremony as an opportunity to escape briefly and is recaptured several days later. Terry has further three years added to his sentence. In September that year, Lisa gives birth to a son, whom she names [Tommy](/wiki/Tommy_Duckworth "Tommy Duckworth") (Darryl Edwards). The following year, Lisa is knocked down and killed by a car outside the Rovers Return after leaving Terry for [Des Barnes](/wiki/Des_Barnes "Des Barnes") ([Philip Middlemiss](/wiki/Philip_Middlemiss "Philip Middlemiss")). Jack and Vera attempt to care for Tommy but struggle with full custody. Terry is paroled in December 1993, serving half his sentence for good behaviour and promptly surrenders custody of Tommy to Lisa's parents for £2,000 a year, stressing that Jack and Vera are unable to look after Tommy properly. Having effectively sold Tommy to the Hortons in Blackpool, he leaves after his father disowns him. ### 1996\-1997 Terry returns again in June 1996 and has a one\-night stand with [Tricia Armstrong](/wiki/Tricia_Armstrong "Tricia Armstrong") ([Tracy Brabin](/wiki/Tracy_Brabin "Tracy Brabin")), who falls pregnant. He brings Tommy to visit Jack and Vera after the Hortons do not pay him the money that they had agreed. Terry sees a chance for some easy cash when he learns his parents are the new owners of [The Rovers Return](/wiki/The_Rovers_Return "The Rovers Return") and plays the model son, but his plans to make a quick buck were scuppered when the pub was absorbing most of its profits, leaving Jack and Vera with little spare. Terry obtains £10,000 in exchange for a contract giving the Hortons full custody of Tommy until he turns eighteen years old. Subsequently, Vera is devastated that Terry has sold his son again and orders his photograph to be thrown in the bin. Vera then writes him out of her will, leaving everything to Tommy while Jack completely disavows their son's existence. Terry resurfaces in April 1997, much to his parents' anger. However, Tricia is elated, despite Terry being unable to remember her name. Tricia, after initially, thinking Terry was going to settle down with her and son Brad after his return, realises he was not a good father figure for Brad, and left the Street with her new boyfriend, Ray Thorpe ([Chris Walker](/wiki/Chris_Walker_%28actor%29 "Chris Walker (actor)")). Terry, meanwhile, tries cheating Jack and Vera again of their takings earned from the Rovers when Jack gives him some money in an envelope to deposit into the bank. Terry, intending to take the money and leave, discovers the envelope contains only plain pieces of paper. He returns the Rovers, enraged that there was no money in the envelope. Jack reveals he knew Terry would run off with the money and set a trap for him. Feeling disgraced, Terry leaves once again. ### 1999–2002 Terry reappears in August 1999 and buys his mother Vera a posh car. The car is revealed as being a death trap when it is involved in a car crash which indirectly resulted in the death of Judy Mallett the following month. On Christmas Day, Terry interrupts a Christmas dinner and is punched by Judy's husband Gary for causing Judy's death. Jack then tells his son how much misery he had brought down on Gary, and told him to never return to Coronation Street again. Alone with Terry, Vera finally stands up to her son, telling him he is evil and she slaps him. Terry resented [Tyrone Dobbs](/wiki/Tyrone_Dobbs "Tyrone Dobbs") ([Alan Halsall](/wiki/Alan_Halsall "Alan Halsall")) when he moved in and became a son to Jack and Vera. In November 2000, when his son Paul needed a kidney transplant, Terry returned and offered to be a donor for a price. But once he received the money he does a runner, leaving his mother Vera to donate instead. Reading a letter penned to him by Vera in case the worst should happen, she admitted to Jack a fling early in their marriage which cast doubt on Terry's paternity. Jack admits to Curly that he knew of the affair, but also had no doubt in his mind that Terry was his son as he reminded Jack too much of himself. The operation saves Paul's life, Vera nearly dies when she had an allergic reaction. Terry, in a rare show of heart, returns to the hospital to make sure his mother was okay before disappearing once again. Jack and Vera hear Terry once again when he is imprisoned again in October 2001\. He claims, he has been framed for an attempted murder by a policeman who wanted revenge because Terry had been having an affair with his wife. This is revealed to be true, and Jack helps him, despite his better instincts. Terry is released from prison in January 2002 when he is proven innocent. He subsequently makes peace with Jack and Vera. Terry eventually sets up home with a girlfriend called Nadine in [Sheffield](/wiki/Sheffield "Sheffield"), and had a job selling double glazing. He later moves to [Wolverhampton](/wiki/Wolverhampton "Wolverhampton") and began selling mobile phones. ### 2008 Terry returns to attend Vera's funeral. While Terry is ostensibly there for the funeral, he immediately causes discord when he fails to recognise Paul (now [Tom Hudson](/wiki/Tom_Hudson_%28English_actor%29 "Tom Hudson (English actor)")), and it soon becomes clear that he is there to make sure that Jack does not want to move in with him. After persuading him not to sell to Tyrone and [Molly Dobbs](/wiki/Molly_Dobbs "Molly Dobbs") ([Vicky Binns](/wiki/Vicky_Binns "Vicky Binns")), and telling Paul he probably will not see him again until after Jack's death, he says goodbye to his father and leaves. However, when Jack dies in 2010, Terry makes an excuse that it is "too far" to attend the funeral much to the anger of Tyrone, who informed him of his father's death. ### 2012 In April 2012, Terry returns to Coronation Street to open a lap\-dancing club. Terry is unaware that Tommy now is living on the street and when he meets him he does not recognise him. Terry asks Tommy to move his van and when he refuses, Terry punches him. Tyrone then tells him who Tommy is. Terry states that he is not interested in getting to know his son and leaves. Local builder [Owen Armstrong](/wiki/Owen_Armstrong "Owen Armstrong") ([Ian Puleston\-Davies](/wiki/Ian_Puleston-Davies "Ian Puleston-Davies")) demands a part\-payment upfront putting Terry under pressure until he learns that Tommy has recently come into a large inheritance from his recently deceased maternal grandfather, [Jeff](/wiki/List_of_Coronation_Street_characters_%281992%29%23Jeff_Horton "List of Coronation Street characters (1992)#Jeff Horton") ([Dicken Ashworth](/wiki/Dicken_Ashworth "Dicken Ashworth")). Terry claims that he wants to build a relationship with Tommy and sets about destroying his friendship with Tyrone. During a row with Tommy's girlfriend [Tina McIntyre](/wiki/Tina_McIntyre "Tina McIntyre") ([Michelle Keegan](/wiki/Michelle_Keegan "Michelle Keegan")), Terry pushes her to the ground and she suffers severe head injuries and falls into a coma. Terry tells Tommy that loan shark [Rick Neelan](/wiki/Rick_Neelan "Rick Neelan") ([Greg Wood](/wiki/Greg_Wood_%28actor%29 "Greg Wood (actor)")) attacked Tina as Terry owes Rick money. When Tina regains consciousness she tells Tommy it was Terry who attacked her. Tommy disowns Terry and Terry gets in his car and drives away, taking Tommy's money which he had stolen away with him.
[ "Storylines\n----------", "### 1983–1988", "Terry arrives on the Street in 1983, having supposedly finished a stint in the [Parachute Regiment](/wiki/Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)\"). Initially, he was a cocky but well\\-meaning character. When Terry breaks into [Alf Roberts](/wiki/Alf_Roberts \"Alf Roberts\")' ([Bryan Mosley](/wiki/Bryan_Mosley \"Bryan Mosley\")) corner shop, whilst drunk, he confessed remorsefully to his crime.", "In 1985, next\\-door neighbour Andrea Clayton becomes pregnant with Terry's child and had a son ([Paul Duckworth](/wiki/Paul_Duckworth \"Paul Duckworth\")); the Clayton family left the Street without Terry ever having any contact with the child. Terry leaves again in 1987, running off with a married woman, the wife of an old army friend, but returns briefly the following year, alone and strapped for cash. He pawns his watch to [Alec Gilroy](/wiki/Alec_Gilroy \"Alec Gilroy\") ([Roy Barraclough](/wiki/Roy_Barraclough \"Roy Barraclough\")) and argues with [Don Brennan](/wiki/Don_Brennan_%28Coronation_Street%29 \"Don Brennan (Coronation Street)\") ([Geoffrey Hinsliff](/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinsliff \"Geoffrey Hinsliff\")) for refusing to pay a fare in his taxi.", "### 1992–1993", "Terry returns five years later with a pregnant girlfriend, [Lisa Horton](/wiki/Lisa_Horton \"Lisa Horton\") ([Caroline Milmoe](/wiki/Caroline_Milmoe \"Caroline Milmoe\")). Several months after his return, he is arrested for GBH and Lisa tells [Jack](/wiki/Jack_Duckworth \"Jack Duckworth\") ([Bill Tarmey](/wiki/Bill_Tarmey \"Bill Tarmey\")) and [Vera](/wiki/Vera_Duckworth \"Vera Duckworth\") ([Liz Dawn](/wiki/Liz_Dawn \"Liz Dawn\")) that Terry is in prison. He is released in order to marry Lisa, but uses the ceremony as an opportunity to escape briefly and is recaptured several days later. Terry has further three years added to his sentence. In September that year, Lisa gives birth to a son, whom she names [Tommy](/wiki/Tommy_Duckworth \"Tommy Duckworth\") (Darryl Edwards). The following year,\nLisa is knocked down and killed by a car outside the Rovers Return after leaving Terry for [Des Barnes](/wiki/Des_Barnes \"Des Barnes\") ([Philip Middlemiss](/wiki/Philip_Middlemiss \"Philip Middlemiss\")). Jack and Vera attempt to care for Tommy but struggle with full custody.", "Terry is paroled in December 1993, serving half his sentence for good behaviour and promptly surrenders custody of Tommy to Lisa's parents for £2,000 a year, stressing that Jack and Vera are unable to look after Tommy properly. Having effectively sold Tommy to the Hortons in Blackpool, he leaves after his father disowns him.", "### 1996\\-1997", "Terry returns again in June 1996 and has a one\\-night stand with [Tricia Armstrong](/wiki/Tricia_Armstrong \"Tricia Armstrong\") ([Tracy Brabin](/wiki/Tracy_Brabin \"Tracy Brabin\")), who falls pregnant. He brings Tommy to visit Jack and Vera after the Hortons do not pay him the money that they had agreed. Terry sees a chance for some easy cash when he learns his parents are the new owners of [The Rovers Return](/wiki/The_Rovers_Return \"The Rovers Return\") and plays the model son, but his plans to make a quick buck were scuppered when the pub was absorbing most of its profits, leaving Jack and Vera with little spare. Terry obtains £10,000 in exchange for a contract giving the Hortons full custody of Tommy until he turns eighteen years old. Subsequently, Vera is devastated that Terry has sold his son again and orders his photograph to be thrown in the bin. Vera then writes him out of her will, leaving everything to Tommy while Jack completely disavows their son's existence.", "Terry resurfaces in April 1997, much to his parents' anger. However, Tricia is elated, despite Terry being unable to remember her name. Tricia, after initially, thinking Terry was going to settle down with her and son Brad after his return, realises he was not a good father figure for Brad, and left the Street with her new boyfriend, Ray Thorpe ([Chris Walker](/wiki/Chris_Walker_%28actor%29 \"Chris Walker (actor)\")). Terry, meanwhile, tries cheating Jack and Vera again of their takings earned from the Rovers when Jack gives him some money in an envelope to deposit into the bank. Terry, intending to take the money and leave, discovers the envelope contains only plain pieces of paper. He returns the Rovers, enraged that there was no money in the envelope. Jack reveals he knew Terry would run off with the money and set a trap for him. Feeling disgraced, Terry leaves once again.", "### 1999–2002", "Terry reappears in August 1999 and buys his mother Vera a posh car. The car is revealed as being a death trap when it is involved in a car crash which indirectly resulted in the death of Judy Mallett the following month. On Christmas Day, Terry interrupts a Christmas dinner and is punched by Judy's husband Gary for causing Judy's death. Jack then tells his son how much misery he had brought down on Gary, and told him to never return to Coronation Street again. Alone with Terry, Vera finally stands up to her son, telling him he is evil and she slaps him. Terry resented [Tyrone Dobbs](/wiki/Tyrone_Dobbs \"Tyrone Dobbs\") ([Alan Halsall](/wiki/Alan_Halsall \"Alan Halsall\")) when he moved in and became a son to Jack and Vera. In November 2000, when his son Paul needed a kidney transplant, Terry returned and offered to be a donor for a price. But once he received the money he does a runner, leaving his mother Vera to donate instead. Reading a letter penned to him by Vera in case the worst should happen, she admitted to Jack a fling early in their marriage which cast doubt on Terry's paternity. Jack admits to Curly that he knew of the affair, but also had no doubt in his mind that Terry was his son as he reminded Jack too much of himself. The operation saves Paul's life, Vera nearly dies when she had an allergic reaction. Terry, in a rare show of heart, returns to the hospital to make sure his mother was okay before disappearing once again. Jack and Vera hear Terry once again when he is imprisoned again in October 2001\\. He claims, he has been framed for an attempted murder by a policeman who wanted revenge because Terry had been having an affair with his wife. This is revealed to be true, and Jack helps him, despite his better instincts. Terry is released from prison in January 2002 when he is proven innocent. He subsequently makes peace with Jack and Vera. Terry eventually sets up home with a girlfriend called Nadine in [Sheffield](/wiki/Sheffield \"Sheffield\"), and had a job selling double glazing. He later moves to [Wolverhampton](/wiki/Wolverhampton \"Wolverhampton\") and began selling mobile phones.", "### 2008", "Terry returns to attend Vera's funeral. While Terry is ostensibly there for the funeral, he immediately causes discord when he fails to recognise Paul (now [Tom Hudson](/wiki/Tom_Hudson_%28English_actor%29 \"Tom Hudson (English actor)\")), and it soon becomes clear that he is there to make sure that Jack does not want to move in with him. After persuading him not to sell to Tyrone and [Molly Dobbs](/wiki/Molly_Dobbs \"Molly Dobbs\") ([Vicky Binns](/wiki/Vicky_Binns \"Vicky Binns\")), and telling Paul he probably will not see him again until after Jack's death, he says goodbye to his father and leaves. However, when Jack dies in 2010, Terry makes an excuse that it is \"too far\" to attend the funeral much to the anger of Tyrone, who informed him of his father's death.", "### 2012", "In April 2012, Terry returns to Coronation Street to open a lap\\-dancing club. Terry is unaware that Tommy now is living on the street and when he meets him he does not recognise him. Terry asks Tommy to move his van and when he refuses, Terry punches him. Tyrone then tells him who Tommy is. Terry states that he is not interested in getting to know his son and leaves. Local builder [Owen Armstrong](/wiki/Owen_Armstrong \"Owen Armstrong\") ([Ian Puleston\\-Davies](/wiki/Ian_Puleston-Davies \"Ian Puleston-Davies\")) demands a part\\-payment upfront putting Terry under pressure until he learns that Tommy has recently come into a large inheritance from his recently deceased maternal grandfather, [Jeff](/wiki/List_of_Coronation_Street_characters_%281992%29%23Jeff_Horton \"List of Coronation Street characters (1992)#Jeff Horton\") ([Dicken Ashworth](/wiki/Dicken_Ashworth \"Dicken Ashworth\")). Terry claims that he wants to build a relationship with Tommy and sets about destroying his friendship with Tyrone. During a row with Tommy's girlfriend [Tina McIntyre](/wiki/Tina_McIntyre \"Tina McIntyre\") ([Michelle Keegan](/wiki/Michelle_Keegan \"Michelle Keegan\")), Terry pushes her to the ground and she suffers severe head injuries and falls into a coma. Terry tells Tommy that loan shark [Rick Neelan](/wiki/Rick_Neelan \"Rick Neelan\") ([Greg Wood](/wiki/Greg_Wood_%28actor%29 \"Greg Wood (actor)\")) attacked Tina as Terry owes Rick money. When Tina regains consciousness she tells Tommy it was Terry who attacked her. Tommy disowns Terry and Terry gets in his car and drives away, taking Tommy's money which he had stolen away with him.", "" ]
Description ----------- The church plan is with one [nave](/wiki/Nave "Nave") and a [barrel vault](/wiki/Barrel_vault "Barrel vault") with simple [pillars](/wiki/Pillars "Pillars"), four side altars, and is embellished by a sober [stucco](/wiki/Stucco "Stucco") decoration. ### The convent of saint Francis of Paola In 1567 [Sister](/wiki/Sister "Sister") Margherita Montesa, together with four sisters, moved here from the [convent of Santissimo Salvatore](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Saviour_%28Alcamo%29 "Church of the Holy Saviour (Alcamo)") and became the first [abbess](/wiki/Abbess "Abbess"). Owing to the 1866 Laws, the [nunnery](/wiki/Nunnery "Nunnery") had to leave the western wing of the building to a Technica School, later to a lower [Vocational School](/wiki/Vocational_School "Vocational School") and then to an [elementary school](/wiki/Elementary_school "Elementary school");Cataldo, Carlo (2001\). La conchiglia di S.Giacomo p.226\. Alcamo: Campo. today these [premises](/wiki/Premises "Premises") are used by some associations. The nuns, faithful to the [charisma](/wiki/Charisma "Charisma") "ora et labora", live by praying and working; during the day they devote themselves to look after the [kitchen garden](/wiki/Kitchen_garden "Kitchen garden") and other works in the "convent workshops"{{cite web \|url\=http://www.icmontessori.it/fai\-la\-chiesa\-san\-francesco\-di\-paola\-badia\-nuova/ \|title\=Fai: La chiesa San Francesco di Paola (Badia Nuova) – I.C. MONTESSORI Alcamo \|website\=Icmontessori.it \|date\=2015\-01\-06 \|access\-date\=2016\-08\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819011256/http://www.icmontessori.it/fai\-la\-chiesa\-san\-francesco\-di\-paola\-badia\-nuova/ \|archive\-date\=2016\-08\-19 \|url\-status\=dead }} such as: * [sewing](/wiki/Sewing "Sewing") * [knitting](/wiki/Knitting "Knitting") * [embroideries](/wiki/Embroideries "Embroideries") * holy objects repairing * preparation of the famous sweets [candied](/wiki/Candied "Candied") with [pumpkin](/wiki/Pumpkin "Pumpkin") and figs on holidays * small [wreaths](/wiki/Wreaths "Wreaths") with petals [enamelled](/wiki/Enamel_paint "Enamel paint") with [starch](/wiki/Starch "Starch"). * wine from their own [vineyards](/wiki/Vineyards "Vineyards"). Many years ago the nuns attended [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)") behind their high grids, today every morning they are inside the church to hear Mass. Besides they are daily engaged with the [Liturgy of the Hours](/wiki/Liturgy_of_the_Hours "Liturgy of the Hours") and [Lectio Divina](/wiki/Lectio_Divina "Lectio Divina"), which believers can take part in on request.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vaticanoweb.com/monasteri/sicilia/monastero\_di\_san\_francesco\_di\_paola\_badia\_nuova.asp \|title\=Monastero Di San Francesco Di Paola Badia Nuova \| Turismo Religioso \|website\=Vaticanoweb.com \|access\-date\=2016\-08\-08}} ### Works Inside the Church there are some 18th\-century paintings and statues: * [Saint Benedict](/wiki/Saint_Benedict "Saint Benedict") from [Norcia](/wiki/Norcia "Norcia") (on the first left altar): a wonderful [canvas](/wiki/Canvas "Canvas") by [Pietro Novelli](/wiki/Pietro_Novelli "Pietro Novelli") with the [Holy Trinity](/wiki/Holy_Trinity "Holy Trinity") on the top, some Angels below it, and Saint Benedict in the middle while giving the rules of the [Benedictine Order](/wiki/Benedictine_Order "Benedictine Order"). [Saint Placido](/wiki/Saint_Placidus "Saint Placidus") is the gentleman on the left with a cane, next to him the [Knights](/wiki/Knights "Knights") of Alcantara, and the Benedictine nuns on the right; below, on the left border, there is a [self\-portrait](/wiki/Self-portrait "Self-portrait") of Pietro Novelli (kneeling and with a large mantle) with a beard and a mustache. * the wooden [Crucifix](/wiki/Crucifix "Crucifix") (second left altar): assigned to fra Benedetto Valenza from Trapani (1700\), at his feet, there are two statues made by [Giacomo Serpotta](/wiki/Giacomo_Serpotta "Giacomo Serpotta"): [Mary Magdalen](/wiki/Mary_Magdalen "Mary Magdalen") and [Our Lady of Sorrows](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows "Our Lady of Sorrows") * Saint [San Francis of Paola](/wiki/Francis_of_Paola "Francis of Paola"), a painting made by [Andrea Carrera](/wiki/Andrea_Carrera "Andrea Carrera") in 1652 (first right altar). * Our Lady with Angels (Madonna degli Angeli) painted by [Giuseppe Sirena](/wiki/Giuseppe_Sirena "Giuseppe Sirena") (1500\), second right altar. * [Saint Gregory the Great](/wiki/Saint_Gregory_the_Great "Saint Gregory the Great"), above the left portal * [Cunigunde of Luxembourg](/wiki/Cunigunde_of_Luxembourg "Cunigunde of Luxembourg"), above the right portal Dipinto nella Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\|Saint Benedict giving the Rule. Dipinto ad Alcamo 07\.jpg\|Painting of Saint Francis of Paola Crocifisso nella Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\|The Crucifix Statua nella Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\|Statue of Saint Benedict Dipinto di Santa Cunegonda nella Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\|Painting with saint Cunigunde Besides them, the [high altar](/wiki/High_altar "High altar") is embellished by two wonderful [antependiums](/wiki/Antependium "Antependium"), embroidered with golden and silver threads by the [Benedictine](/wiki/Benedictine "Benedictine") nuns in 1800\. In the nunnery there are also: a wooden statue of saint [Martha](/wiki/Martha_of_Bethany "Martha of Bethany") dating back to the 17th century, a painting of [Our Lady of Miracles](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Miracles "Our Lady of Miracles") by [Giuseppe Renda](/wiki/Giuseppe_Renda "Giuseppe Renda"), and a wonderful wooden [tabernacle](/wiki/Tabernacle "Tabernacle").Carlo Cataldo, Guida storico\-artistica dei Beni Culturali di Alcamo\-calatafimi\-Castellammare del Golfo\-salemi\-Vita, Alcamo, Sarograf, 1982\. ### Statues by Serpotta In the Church there are eight beautiful and elegant [stucco](/wiki/Stucco "Stucco") statues, called [allegorical](/wiki/Allegorical "Allegorical"), realized in 1724 by [Giacomo Serpotta](/wiki/Giacomo_Serpotta "Giacomo Serpotta") in the last period of his activity. They are among the artist's most important masterpieces and are very close to [Bernini](/wiki/Bernini "Bernini")'s work for their expressive energy. Six statues are located along the walls, on half\-height protruding [brackets](/wiki/Brackets "Brackets"), while two of them, [Our lady of Sorrows](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows "Our Lady of Sorrows") and [Mary Magdalen](/wiki/Mary_Magdalen "Mary Magdalen"), adorn the chapel of the [Crucifix](/wiki/Crucifix "Crucifix") and are placed on the two sides of the [Cross](/wiki/Cross "Cross"), forming a type of [theatrical](/wiki/Theatrical "Theatrical") scene of extraordinary drama. This is one of the characteristics of Serpotta, also visible in many other masterpieces made by him. The statues are the following: * Peace: represented by a man with a draped suit, leaning on a cane with his right hand, while keeping an olive branch, symbol of peace, with his left hand. * Fortitude: depicted by a woman with an [armor](/wiki/Armor "Armor"), [helmet](/wiki/Helmet "Helmet"), [spear](/wiki/Spear "Spear") and a shield kept with the left hand; a very fine statue. * Meekness: with a full dress and a [diadem](/wiki/Diadem "Diadem") on her head, keeping a lamb, symbol of innocence, with her right hand. * Purity is represented by a noblewoman, with a richly draped dress, with a beautiful [dove](/wiki/Dove "Dove") (symbol of purity) on her right hand. * [Saint Peter](/wiki/Saint_Peter "Saint Peter") is depicted with the [Holy Bible](/wiki/Holy_Bible "Holy Bible") and the keys in his left hand; the right one points out to heaven. * [Saint Paul](/wiki/Saint_Paul "Saint Paul"), instead, is represented in the traditional way with a sword in the right hand and the [Holy Bible](/wiki/Holy_Bible "Holy Bible") in the left one. For Saint Paul, the Word of God is alive, effective, and sharper than any other [edged weapon](/wiki/Edged_weapon "Edged weapon"). * [Mary Magdalen](/wiki/Mary_Magdalen "Mary Magdalen") (in the chapel of the Crucifix, second left altar): in a large mantle, her right hand raised towards the right eye wiping her tears. * [Our Lady of Sorrows](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows "Our Lady of Sorrows"): in a large mantle too, tightening a strip of it with her right hand. The left hand is close to her chest, her head slightly bent down, her eyes in tears, and the mouth sobbing. Fortezza di Giacomo Serpotta \- Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\|Fortitude Mansuetudine di Giacomo Serpotta, Alcamo.jpg\|Meekness Pace di Giacomo Serpotta \- Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\|Peace Purezza di Giacomo Serpotta, Alcamo.jpg\|Purity San Paolo di Giacomo Serpotta \- Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\|Saint Paul San Pietro di Giacomo Serpotta, Alcamo.jpg\|Saint Peter These stuccoes, of great [artistic](/wiki/Artistic "Artistic") interest, have an unconsumed [patina](/wiki/Patina "Patina") which has disappeared in many others, that is the {{ill\|allustratura\|it}} which gives makes them look like wonderful [alabasters](/wiki/Alabaster "Alabaster").{{cite web\|url\=https://siciliaisoladaamare.wordpress.com/alcamo\-tra\-arte\-e\-cultura\-di\-maurizio\-bambina/ \|title\=\* ALCAMO, TRA ARTE E CULTURA di Maurizio Bambina \| Sicilia l'Isola da amare \|website\=Siciliaisoladaamare.wordpress.com \|access\-date\=2016\-08\-08}}
[ "Description\n-----------", "The church plan is with one [nave](/wiki/Nave \"Nave\") and a [barrel vault](/wiki/Barrel_vault \"Barrel vault\") with simple [pillars](/wiki/Pillars \"Pillars\"), four side altars, and is embellished by a sober [stucco](/wiki/Stucco \"Stucco\") decoration.", "### The convent of saint Francis of Paola", "In 1567 [Sister](/wiki/Sister \"Sister\") Margherita Montesa, together with four sisters, moved here from the [convent of Santissimo Salvatore](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Saviour_%28Alcamo%29 \"Church of the Holy Saviour (Alcamo)\") and became the first [abbess](/wiki/Abbess \"Abbess\"). Owing to the 1866 Laws, the [nunnery](/wiki/Nunnery \"Nunnery\") had to leave the western wing of the building to a Technica School, later to a lower [Vocational School](/wiki/Vocational_School \"Vocational School\") and then to an [elementary school](/wiki/Elementary_school \"Elementary school\");Cataldo, Carlo (2001\\). La conchiglia di S.Giacomo p.226\\. Alcamo: Campo. today these [premises](/wiki/Premises \"Premises\") are used by some associations.", "The nuns, faithful to the [charisma](/wiki/Charisma \"Charisma\") \"ora et labora\", live by praying and working; during the day they devote themselves to look after the [kitchen garden](/wiki/Kitchen_garden \"Kitchen garden\") and other works in the \"convent workshops\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.icmontessori.it/fai\\-la\\-chiesa\\-san\\-francesco\\-di\\-paola\\-badia\\-nuova/ \\|title\\=Fai: La chiesa San Francesco di Paola (Badia Nuova) – I.C. MONTESSORI Alcamo \\|website\\=Icmontessori.it \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819011256/http://www.icmontessori.it/fai\\-la\\-chiesa\\-san\\-francesco\\-di\\-paola\\-badia\\-nuova/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-19 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} such as:\n* [sewing](/wiki/Sewing \"Sewing\")\n* [knitting](/wiki/Knitting \"Knitting\")\n* [embroideries](/wiki/Embroideries \"Embroideries\")\n* holy objects repairing\n* preparation of the famous sweets [candied](/wiki/Candied \"Candied\") with [pumpkin](/wiki/Pumpkin \"Pumpkin\") and figs on holidays\n* small [wreaths](/wiki/Wreaths \"Wreaths\") with petals [enamelled](/wiki/Enamel_paint \"Enamel paint\") with [starch](/wiki/Starch \"Starch\").\n* wine from their own [vineyards](/wiki/Vineyards \"Vineyards\").\nMany years ago the nuns attended [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\") behind their high grids, today every morning they are inside the church to hear Mass.\nBesides they are daily engaged with the [Liturgy of the Hours](/wiki/Liturgy_of_the_Hours \"Liturgy of the Hours\") and [Lectio Divina](/wiki/Lectio_Divina \"Lectio Divina\"), which believers can take part in on request.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vaticanoweb.com/monasteri/sicilia/monastero\\_di\\_san\\_francesco\\_di\\_paola\\_badia\\_nuova.asp \\|title\\=Monastero Di San Francesco Di Paola Badia Nuova \\| Turismo Religioso \\|website\\=Vaticanoweb.com \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-08}}", "### Works", "Inside the Church there are some 18th\\-century paintings and statues:\n* [Saint Benedict](/wiki/Saint_Benedict \"Saint Benedict\") from [Norcia](/wiki/Norcia \"Norcia\") (on the first left altar): a wonderful [canvas](/wiki/Canvas \"Canvas\") by [Pietro Novelli](/wiki/Pietro_Novelli \"Pietro Novelli\") with the [Holy Trinity](/wiki/Holy_Trinity \"Holy Trinity\") on the top, some Angels below it, and Saint Benedict in the middle while giving the rules of the [Benedictine Order](/wiki/Benedictine_Order \"Benedictine Order\"). [Saint Placido](/wiki/Saint_Placidus \"Saint Placidus\") is the gentleman on the left with a cane, next to him the [Knights](/wiki/Knights \"Knights\") of Alcantara, and the Benedictine nuns on the right; below, on the left border, there is a [self\\-portrait](/wiki/Self-portrait \"Self-portrait\") of Pietro Novelli (kneeling and with a large mantle) with a beard and a mustache.\n* the wooden [Crucifix](/wiki/Crucifix \"Crucifix\") (second left altar): assigned to fra Benedetto Valenza from Trapani (1700\\), at his feet, there are two statues made by [Giacomo Serpotta](/wiki/Giacomo_Serpotta \"Giacomo Serpotta\"): [Mary Magdalen](/wiki/Mary_Magdalen \"Mary Magdalen\") and [Our Lady of Sorrows](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows \"Our Lady of Sorrows\")\n* Saint [San Francis of Paola](/wiki/Francis_of_Paola \"Francis of Paola\"), a painting made by [Andrea Carrera](/wiki/Andrea_Carrera \"Andrea Carrera\") in 1652 (first right altar).\n* Our Lady with Angels (Madonna degli Angeli) painted by [Giuseppe Sirena](/wiki/Giuseppe_Sirena \"Giuseppe Sirena\") (1500\\), second right altar.\n* [Saint Gregory the Great](/wiki/Saint_Gregory_the_Great \"Saint Gregory the Great\"), above the left portal\n* [Cunigunde of Luxembourg](/wiki/Cunigunde_of_Luxembourg \"Cunigunde of Luxembourg\"), above the right portal", "Dipinto nella Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\\|Saint Benedict giving the Rule.\nDipinto ad Alcamo 07\\.jpg\\|Painting of Saint Francis of Paola\nCrocifisso nella Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\\|The Crucifix\nStatua nella Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\\|Statue of Saint Benedict\nDipinto di Santa Cunegonda nella Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\\|Painting with saint Cunigunde", "Besides them, the [high altar](/wiki/High_altar \"High altar\") is embellished by two wonderful [antependiums](/wiki/Antependium \"Antependium\"), embroidered with golden and silver threads by the [Benedictine](/wiki/Benedictine \"Benedictine\") nuns in 1800\\. In the nunnery there are also: a wooden statue of saint [Martha](/wiki/Martha_of_Bethany \"Martha of Bethany\") dating back to the 17th century, a painting of [Our Lady of Miracles](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Miracles \"Our Lady of Miracles\") by [Giuseppe Renda](/wiki/Giuseppe_Renda \"Giuseppe Renda\"), and a wonderful wooden [tabernacle](/wiki/Tabernacle \"Tabernacle\").Carlo Cataldo, Guida storico\\-artistica dei Beni Culturali di Alcamo\\-calatafimi\\-Castellammare del Golfo\\-salemi\\-Vita, Alcamo, Sarograf, 1982\\.", "### Statues by Serpotta", "In the Church there are eight beautiful and elegant [stucco](/wiki/Stucco \"Stucco\") statues, called [allegorical](/wiki/Allegorical \"Allegorical\"), realized in 1724 by [Giacomo Serpotta](/wiki/Giacomo_Serpotta \"Giacomo Serpotta\") in the last period of his activity.\nThey are among the artist's most important masterpieces and are very close to [Bernini](/wiki/Bernini \"Bernini\")'s work for their expressive energy. Six statues are located along the walls, on half\\-height protruding [brackets](/wiki/Brackets \"Brackets\"), while two of them, [Our lady of Sorrows](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows \"Our Lady of Sorrows\") and [Mary Magdalen](/wiki/Mary_Magdalen \"Mary Magdalen\"), adorn the chapel of the [Crucifix](/wiki/Crucifix \"Crucifix\") and are placed on the two sides of the [Cross](/wiki/Cross \"Cross\"), forming a type of [theatrical](/wiki/Theatrical \"Theatrical\") scene of extraordinary drama.\nThis is one of the characteristics of Serpotta, also visible in many other masterpieces made by him.", "The statues are the following:\n* Peace: represented by a man with a draped suit, leaning on a cane with his right hand, while keeping an olive branch, symbol of peace, with his left hand.\n* Fortitude: depicted by a woman with an [armor](/wiki/Armor \"Armor\"), [helmet](/wiki/Helmet \"Helmet\"), [spear](/wiki/Spear \"Spear\") and a shield kept with the left hand; a very fine statue.\n* Meekness: with a full dress and a [diadem](/wiki/Diadem \"Diadem\") on her head, keeping a lamb, symbol of innocence, with her right hand.\n* Purity is represented by a noblewoman, with a richly draped dress, with a beautiful [dove](/wiki/Dove \"Dove\") (symbol of purity) on her right hand.\n* [Saint Peter](/wiki/Saint_Peter \"Saint Peter\") is depicted with the [Holy Bible](/wiki/Holy_Bible \"Holy Bible\") and the keys in his left hand; the right one points out to heaven.\n* [Saint Paul](/wiki/Saint_Paul \"Saint Paul\"), instead, is represented in the traditional way with a sword in the right hand and the [Holy Bible](/wiki/Holy_Bible \"Holy Bible\") in the left one. For Saint Paul, the Word of God is alive, effective, and sharper than any other [edged weapon](/wiki/Edged_weapon \"Edged weapon\").\n* [Mary Magdalen](/wiki/Mary_Magdalen \"Mary Magdalen\") (in the chapel of the Crucifix, second left altar): in a large mantle, her right hand raised towards the right eye wiping her tears.\n* [Our Lady of Sorrows](/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows \"Our Lady of Sorrows\"): in a large mantle too, tightening a strip of it with her right hand. The left hand is close to her chest, her head slightly bent down, her eyes in tears, and the mouth sobbing.", "Fortezza di Giacomo Serpotta \\- Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\\|Fortitude\nMansuetudine di Giacomo Serpotta, Alcamo.jpg\\|Meekness\nPace di Giacomo Serpotta \\- Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\\|Peace\nPurezza di Giacomo Serpotta, Alcamo.jpg\\|Purity\nSan Paolo di Giacomo Serpotta \\- Badia Nuova di Alcamo.jpg\\|Saint Paul\nSan Pietro di Giacomo Serpotta, Alcamo.jpg\\|Saint Peter", "These stuccoes, of great [artistic](/wiki/Artistic \"Artistic\") interest, have an unconsumed [patina](/wiki/Patina \"Patina\") which has disappeared in many others, that is the {{ill\\|allustratura\\|it}} which gives makes them look like wonderful [alabasters](/wiki/Alabaster \"Alabaster\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://siciliaisoladaamare.wordpress.com/alcamo\\-tra\\-arte\\-e\\-cultura\\-di\\-maurizio\\-bambina/ \\|title\\=\\* ALCAMO, TRA ARTE E CULTURA di Maurizio Bambina \\| Sicilia l'Isola da amare \\|website\\=Siciliaisoladaamare.wordpress.com \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-08}}", "" ]
Professional background ----------------------- Before coming to HRSA, Duke served as deputy assistant secretary for administration in another HHS operating division, the [Administration for Children and Families](/wiki/Administration_for_Children_and_Families "Administration for Children and Families") (ACF) <http://www.acf.hhs.gov/>. In that post, she was in charge of grants policy, financial management, internal and state systems, human resources and administrative functions. Duke also has more than 12 years of experience as both acting assistant secretary and principal deputy in HHS' Office of the Assistant Secretary for Management and Budget (OASMB) – currently called the Office of Resources and Technology, which includes HHS' chief financial officer, management control officer and chief information officer. She oversaw major organizational changes carried out within the framework of the Department's Continuous Improvement Program, reinvention efforts to streamline HHS personnel, and an initiative focusing on regional restructuring. In the mid\-1990s, she led the Department in implementing the Congressional mandate to separate the Social Security Administration <http://www.ssa.gov/> from HHS –an effort that saw no personnel grievances filed. In 2003, Duke was elected as a fellow of the [National Academy of Public Administration.](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Public_Administration_%28United_States%29 "National Academy of Public Administration (United States)"){{Cite web \|last\=Incorporated \|first\=Prime \|title\=National Academy of Public Administration \|url\=https://napawash.org/fellow/10606 \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-07 \|website\=National Academy of Public Administration \|language\=en}} In 2006, Duke received a [Presidential Rank Award](/wiki/Presidential_Rank_Awards "Presidential Rank Awards") of Distinguished Executive, the most prestigious award offered by a U.S. President to Federal senior executives and professionals. She was one of only six 2006 award recipients from the Department of Health and Human Services. Duke entered Federal service at the [Office of Personnel Management](/wiki/Office_of_Personnel_Management "Office of Personnel Management") (OPM), where she rose to the rank of deputy assistant director and director of policy and systems in OPM's Office of Training and Development from 1984\-86\. From 1978\-84, she was director of the Government Affairs Institute in OPM's [Office of Executive and Management Development](/wiki/Office_of_Executive_and_Management_Development "Office of Executive and Management Development"). The institute trains Federal executives in such responsibilities as testifying before Congress, developing budgets and managing large bureaucracies. Before joining the government, Duke was a professor of political science and spent two years as a research writer for [Congressional Quarterly](/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly "Congressional Quarterly"), a Washington, D.C.\-based publication that covers Capitol Hill and Federal agencies. In 2009 Duke joined the faculty of the [University of Maryland School of Public Policy](/wiki/University_of_Maryland_School_of_Public_Policy "University of Maryland School of Public Policy") where she is currently the Florence Brody Family Foundation Public Policy Forum Professor.{{Cite web\|title\=Elizabeth M. 'Betty' Duke\|url\=https://spp.umd.edu/our\-community/faculty\-staff/elizabeth\-m\-betty\-duke\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-16\|website\=UMD School of Public Policy\|language\=en}}
[ "Professional background\n-----------------------", "Before coming to HRSA, Duke served as deputy assistant secretary for administration in another HHS operating division, the [Administration for Children and Families](/wiki/Administration_for_Children_and_Families \"Administration for Children and Families\") (ACF) <http://www.acf.hhs.gov/>. In that post, she was in charge of grants policy, financial management, internal and state systems, human resources and administrative functions.", "Duke also has more than 12 years of experience as both acting assistant secretary and principal deputy in HHS' Office of the Assistant Secretary for Management and Budget (OASMB) – currently called the Office of Resources and Technology, which includes HHS' chief financial officer, management control officer and chief information officer.", "She oversaw major organizational changes carried out within the framework of the Department's Continuous Improvement Program, reinvention efforts to streamline HHS personnel, and an initiative focusing on regional restructuring. In the mid\\-1990s, she led the Department in implementing the Congressional mandate to separate the Social Security Administration <http://www.ssa.gov/> from HHS –an effort that saw no personnel grievances filed.", "In 2003, Duke was elected as a fellow of the [National Academy of Public Administration.](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Public_Administration_%28United_States%29 \"National Academy of Public Administration (United States)\"){{Cite web \\|last\\=Incorporated \\|first\\=Prime \\|title\\=National Academy of Public Administration \\|url\\=https://napawash.org/fellow/10606 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-07 \\|website\\=National Academy of Public Administration \\|language\\=en}}", "In 2006, Duke received a [Presidential Rank Award](/wiki/Presidential_Rank_Awards \"Presidential Rank Awards\") of Distinguished Executive, the most prestigious award offered by a U.S. President to Federal senior executives and professionals. She was one of only six 2006 award recipients from the Department of Health and Human Services.", "Duke entered Federal service at the [Office of Personnel Management](/wiki/Office_of_Personnel_Management \"Office of Personnel Management\") (OPM), where she rose to the rank of deputy assistant director and director of policy and systems in OPM's Office of Training and Development from 1984\\-86\\. From 1978\\-84, she was director of the Government Affairs Institute in OPM's [Office of Executive and Management Development](/wiki/Office_of_Executive_and_Management_Development \"Office of Executive and Management Development\"). The institute trains Federal executives in such responsibilities as testifying before Congress, developing budgets and managing large bureaucracies. Before joining the government, Duke was a professor of political science and spent two years as a research writer for [Congressional Quarterly](/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly \"Congressional Quarterly\"), a Washington, D.C.\\-based publication that covers Capitol Hill and Federal agencies.", "In 2009 Duke joined the faculty of the [University of Maryland School of Public Policy](/wiki/University_of_Maryland_School_of_Public_Policy \"University of Maryland School of Public Policy\") where she is currently the Florence Brody Family Foundation Public Policy Forum Professor.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Elizabeth M. 'Betty' Duke\\|url\\=https://spp.umd.edu/our\\-community/faculty\\-staff/elizabeth\\-m\\-betty\\-duke\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-16\\|website\\=UMD School of Public Policy\\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
Managerial and coaching career ------------------------------ ### Sligo Rovers He became player\-manager of [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland "League of Ireland") club [Sligo Rovers](/wiki/Sligo_Rovers_F.C. "Sligo Rovers F.C.") in 1994,{{cite news \|title\= Irish Times\|url\=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/archive/1994/0903/Pg019\.html\#Ar01905:32A8583688722828A92C08C333193D34495434493B34D95534D93D36795436793B36E95530E9FE321A183229FE34BA18 }} and in his first season led them to the semi\-final of the 1995 [FAI Cup](/wiki/FAI_Cup "FAI Cup"). He also managed them in the Cup Winners' Cup against [Club Brugge](/wiki/Club_Brugge_K.V. "Club Brugge K.V."). ### Wimbledon In 1995, he returned to Wimbledon and became the reserve team manager, winning the [Football Combination](/wiki/Football_Combination "Football Combination") in his first season in charge. After two years in charge of the reserves, he stepped up to be first team coach under [Joe Kinnear](/wiki/Joe_Kinnear "Joe Kinnear"). ### Wycombe Wanderers He became manager at [Wycombe Wanderers](/wiki/Wycombe_Wanderers_F.C. "Wycombe Wanderers F.C.") in February 1999, and with only 18 games left he rescued the team from imminent relegation. In 2001, he guided the club (then in the [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division")) to its greatest moment, reaching the FA Cup semi\-finals, where they played Liverpool; Wycombe lost 2–1, having held Liverpool to 0–0 for most of the match. After finishing 12th in 2002 and 11th in 2003, the upward progress came to an end with the collapse of the OnDigital TV deal and the subsequent loss of both revenue and players. After a poor start to the [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_in_English_football "2003–04 in English football") season, Sanchez was sacked by the club on 30 September 2003\.{{cite news \|title\=Wycombe sack Sanchez \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/w/wycombe\_wanderers/3153772\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=30 September 2003 \|access\-date\=7 May 2010}} ### Northern Ireland national team Sanchez was appointed manager of [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team "Northern Ireland national football team") in January 2004\.{{cite news \|title\=Sanchez is shock choice \|first\=Jim \|last\=Stokes \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/northern\_ireland/3416079\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=21 January 2004 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} At that point the side was ranked 124th in the world, had a 1,298\-minute\-long goal drought, and had not won a game for nearly three years. Northern Ireland improved markedly under Sanchez. By the time he left, Northern Ireland were top of their [Euro 2008 qualification group](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2008_qualifying_Group_F "UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group F") and reached an all\-time high position of 27th in the world.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/16106860\|title\=Ex\-boss Lawrie Sanchez set for Northern Ireland job interview\|date\=9 December 2011\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|access\-date\=12 May 2019}} Notable results during his tenure included a 1–0 victory against [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team") in a [World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup "FIFA World Cup") qualifying match,{{cite news \|title\=Northern Ireland 1–0 England \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/4212920\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=7 September 2005 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} a 1–1 draw against [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal_national_football_team "Portugal national football team"),{{cite news \|title\=N Ireland 1–1 Portugal \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/4431164\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=15 November 2005 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} who went on to reach the [2006 World Cup](/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup "2006 FIFA World Cup") semi\-finals,{{cite news \|title\=Portugal 0–1 France \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world\_cup\_2006/4991632\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=5 July 2006 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} a 2–1 win over [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden_men%27s_national_football_team "Sweden men's national football team"),{{cite news \|title\=N Ireland 2–1 Sweden \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/6504857\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=28 March 2007 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} and a 3–2 win against eventual Euro 2008 winners [Spain](/wiki/Spain_national_football_team "Spain national football team") in a [Euro 2008 qualifying](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2008_qualifying "UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying") match, with striker [David Healy](/wiki/David_Healy_%28footballer%29 "David Healy (footballer)") scoring a [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick").{{cite news \|title\=Northern Ireland 3–2 Spain \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/5321964\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=6 September 2006 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} A book about his achievements with Northern Ireland was published in November 2007\.{{cite news \|title\=Six months on, Lawrie's ready to lift the lid on 'Norn Iron' \|url\=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/local\-national/article3110283\.ece \|work\=Belfast Telegraph\|date\=30 October 2007 \|access\-date\=30 October 2007}} ### Fulham While still manager of Northern Ireland, Sanchez was named as caretaker manager of [Fulham](/wiki/Fulham_F.C. "Fulham F.C.") following the sacking of [Chris Coleman](/wiki/Chris_Coleman_%28footballer%29 "Chris Coleman (footballer)") in April 2007\.{{cite news \|title\=Coleman out as Sánchez takes over \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6543541\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=10 April 2007 \|access\-date\=11 April 2007}} Having achieved his 32\-day task of maintaining Fulham's Premier League position, with a record of one win, one draw and three defeats, he was given the manager's job on a longer contract, having first to resign from his position with Northern Ireland.{{cite news \|title\=Sánchez quits NI for Fulham job \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6646959\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=11 May 2007 \|access\-date\=11 May 2007}} Sanchez signed four Northern Ireland players, [David Healy](/wiki/David_Healy_%28footballer%29 "David Healy (footballer)") from [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. "Leeds United F.C."),{{cite news \|title\=Striker Healy agrees Fulham move \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6897948\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=13 July 2007 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} [Steven Davis](/wiki/Steven_Davis "Steven Davis") and [Aaron Hughes](/wiki/Aaron_Hughes "Aaron Hughes"), both from [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. "Aston Villa F.C."),{{cite news \|title\=Fulham complete £4m Davis swoop \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6270420\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=5 July 2007 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}}{{cite news \|title\=NI skipper Hughes in Fulham move \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6246724\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=27 June 2007 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} and [Chris Baird](/wiki/Chris_Baird "Chris Baird") from [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. "Southampton F.C.").{{cite news \|title\=Fulham complete capture of Baird \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6278052\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=12 July 2007 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} He was sacked in December 2007,{{cite news \|title\=Manager Sanchez sacked by Fulham \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/7155545\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=21 December 2007 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} after a home defeat to Newcastle.{{cite news \|title\=Fulham 0–1 Newcastle \|first\=Jonathan \|last\=Stevenson \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\_prem/7134134\.stm \|work\=BBC Sport \|publisher\=British Broadcasting Corporation \|date\=15 December 2007 \|access\-date\=5 May 2012}} This defeat pushed Fulham into the relegation places. ### Barnet With four matches of the 2010–11 season remaining, Sanchez joined [Barnet](/wiki/Barnet_F.C. "Barnet F.C.") as football consultant, to assist caretaker\-manager [Giuliano Grazioli](/wiki/Giuliano_Grazioli "Giuliano Grazioli"),{{cite news \|title\=Barnet take Lawrie Sanchez on in consultant role \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/b/barnet/9461616\.stm \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=18 April 2011 \|access\-date\=22 November 2013}} in their ultimately successful battle against relegation from the Football League.{{cite news \|title\=Barnet 1 – 0 Port Vale \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/13247294 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=7 May 2011 \|access\-date\=22 November 2013}} On 13 May 2011, Barnet appointed Sanchez as manager of the club, with Grazioli as his assistant.{{cite news \|title\=Lawrie Sanchez appointed as Barnet boss \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/13396826 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=13 May 2011 \|access\-date\=22 November 2013}} In the 2011–12 season, the club struggled to stay in the League despite reaching the Area Final of the Johnstone Paint Trophy before losing to Swindon Town.{{cite news \|title\=Swindon 1–0 Barnet (2–1\) \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/16805578 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=7 February 2012 \|access\-date\=22 November 2013}} Sanchez was sacked by Barnet on 16 April 2012 with 3 games of the season to go and was replaced by [Martin Allen](/wiki/Martin_Allen "Martin Allen").{{cite news \|title\=Martin Allen replaces Lawrie Sanchez as Barnet manager \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17732932 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=16 April 2012 \|access\-date\=22 November 2013}} ### Apollon Smyrnis {{Quote box \|width\=25% \|align\=right \|quote\="You cannot allow this to happen on live tv." \|source\=– Lawrie Sanchez questioning the integrity of the \[\[Superleague Greece]] on live television in March 2014 after an Apollon goal was disallowed during the club's 3–2 win away at \[\[Panthrakikos F.C.\|Panthrakikos]].{{cite news \|title\=The outbreak of Sanchez \|url\=http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x1kp7pt\_%CF%84%CE%BF\-%CE%BE%CE%AD%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B1\-%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85\-%CF%83%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%82\_sport?start\=2 \|publisher\=\[\[Dailymotion]] \|date\=30 March 2014 \|access\-date\=3 May 2014}}}} On 17 November 2013, Sanchez was appointed head coach of [Superleague Greece](/wiki/Superleague_Greece "Superleague Greece") side [Apollon Smyrni](/wiki/Apollon_Smyrni_F.C. "Apollon Smyrni F.C.").{{cite news \|title\=Announcement \|url\=http://www.fcapollon.gr/news/genika\-nea/35/@1473\.aspx?returnpage\=%2fcms%2f1\-Home\-Page.aspx%3flang%3dgr%26page%3d1 \|language\= el \|publisher\=Apollon Smyrni Official Website \|date\=17 November 2013 \|access\-date\=22 November 2013}} He met the players for the first time on 18 November 2013 whilst also giving the club's official website his first interview as Apollon Smyrni head coach.{{cite news \|title\=The first statement of Lawrie Sanchez and his acquaintance with the players \|url\=http://www.fcapollon.gr/news/genika\-nea/35/@1476\.aspx?returnpage\=%2fcms%2f1\-Home\-Page.aspx%3flang%3dgr%26page%3d1 \|language\= el \|publisher\=Apollon Smyrni Official Website \|date\=18 November 2013 \|access\-date\=22 November 2013}} During his time at Apollon, Sanchez has raised his doubts over the integrity of the [Superleague Greece](/wiki/Superleague_Greece "Superleague Greece").{{cite news \|title\= Press Conference: Olympiakos – Apollon Smyrna \|url\=http://www.fcapollon.gr/news/news/ola\-ta\-nea/35/@2020\.aspx?returnpage\=%2fCms%2fPages.aspx%3fpageid%3d2101%26categoryid%3d35%26REWRURL%3d1%26%3d%26page%3d2 \|language\= el, en \|publisher\=Apollon Smyrni Official Website/\[\[Vimeo]] \|date\=13 April 2014 \|access\-date\=3 May 2014}} On 30 March, he voiced his discontent on live television during the club's 3–2 win away to [Panthrakikos](/wiki/Panthrakikos_F.C. "Panthrakikos F.C."). On 13 April 2014, Sanchez and Apollon were relegated from the [Superleague Greece](/wiki/Superleague_Greece "Superleague Greece") into the [Greek Football League](/wiki/Football_League_%28Greece%29 "Football League (Greece)") following a 1–0 defeat away to champions [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_F.C. "Olympiacos F.C."). Apollon finished seventeenth with 36 points, two points off safety in fifteenth.{{cite news \|title\=Defeat and relegation for Apollo \|url\=http://www.fcapollon.gr/news/news/ola\-ta\-nea/35/@2027\.aspx?returnpage\=%2fCms%2fPages.aspx%3fpageid%3d2101%26categoryid%3d35%26REWRURL%3d1%26%3d%26page%3d2 \|publisher\=Apollon Smyrni Official Website \|date\=13 April 2014 \|access\-date\=3 May 2014}} Sanchez declined to sign a new contract for Apollon and left the club. This departure was much to the chagrin of the Apollon fans to whom he, in typical Sanchez fashion, had become a much loved cult figure and leader.{{cite web\|title\=Apollonistis\|date\=21 April 2014 \|url\=http://www.apollonistis.com/archives/1823}} Sanchez wrote a parting letter to the Apollon fans explaining his thoughts and made it clear that he was very unhappy with the legitimacy of the [Superleague Greece](/wiki/Superleague_Greece "Superleague Greece"), his parting words were: "In the Magic Kingdom that is SuperLeague even a Magician can only have so many powers".{{cite web\|title\=Planet Apollon\|url\=http://planetapollon.gr/?p\=10632\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714163945/http://planetapollon.gr/?p\=10632\|archive\-date\=14 July 2014}}
[ "Managerial and coaching career\n------------------------------", "### Sligo Rovers", "He became player\\-manager of [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland \"League of Ireland\") club [Sligo Rovers](/wiki/Sligo_Rovers_F.C. \"Sligo Rovers F.C.\") in 1994,{{cite news \\|title\\= Irish Times\\|url\\=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/archive/1994/0903/Pg019\\.html\\#Ar01905:32A8583688722828A92C08C333193D34495434493B34D95534D93D36795436793B36E95530E9FE321A183229FE34BA18 }} and in his first season led them to the semi\\-final of the 1995 [FAI Cup](/wiki/FAI_Cup \"FAI Cup\"). He also managed them in the Cup Winners' Cup against [Club Brugge](/wiki/Club_Brugge_K.V. \"Club Brugge K.V.\").", "### Wimbledon", "In 1995, he returned to Wimbledon and became the reserve team manager, winning the [Football Combination](/wiki/Football_Combination \"Football Combination\") in his first season in charge. After two years in charge of the reserves, he stepped up to be first team coach under [Joe Kinnear](/wiki/Joe_Kinnear \"Joe Kinnear\").", "### Wycombe Wanderers", "He became manager at [Wycombe Wanderers](/wiki/Wycombe_Wanderers_F.C. \"Wycombe Wanderers F.C.\") in February 1999, and with only 18 games left he rescued the team from imminent relegation. In 2001, he guided the club (then in the [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\")) to its greatest moment, reaching the FA Cup semi\\-finals, where they played Liverpool; Wycombe lost 2–1, having held Liverpool to 0–0 for most of the match.", "After finishing 12th in 2002 and 11th in 2003, the upward progress came to an end with the collapse of the OnDigital TV deal and the subsequent loss of both revenue and players. After a poor start to the [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_in_English_football \"2003–04 in English football\") season, Sanchez was sacked by the club on 30 September 2003\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Wycombe sack Sanchez \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/w/wycombe\\_wanderers/3153772\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=30 September 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2010}}", "### Northern Ireland national team", "Sanchez was appointed manager of [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team \"Northern Ireland national football team\") in January 2004\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Sanchez is shock choice \\|first\\=Jim \\|last\\=Stokes \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/northern\\_ireland/3416079\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=21 January 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} At that point the side was ranked 124th in the world, had a 1,298\\-minute\\-long goal drought, and had not won a game for nearly three years. Northern Ireland improved markedly under Sanchez. By the time he left, Northern Ireland were top of their [Euro 2008 qualification group](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2008_qualifying_Group_F \"UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group F\") and reached an all\\-time high position of 27th in the world.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/16106860\\|title\\=Ex\\-boss Lawrie Sanchez set for Northern Ireland job interview\\|date\\=9 December 2011\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2019}}", "Notable results during his tenure included a 1–0 victory against [England](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\") in a [World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup \"FIFA World Cup\") qualifying match,{{cite news \\|title\\=Northern Ireland 1–0 England \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/4212920\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=7 September 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} a 1–1 draw against [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal_national_football_team \"Portugal national football team\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=N Ireland 1–1 Portugal \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/4431164\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=15 November 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} who went on to reach the [2006 World Cup](/wiki/2006_FIFA_World_Cup \"2006 FIFA World Cup\") semi\\-finals,{{cite news \\|title\\=Portugal 0–1 France \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world\\_cup\\_2006/4991632\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=5 July 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} a 2–1 win over [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden_men%27s_national_football_team \"Sweden men's national football team\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=N Ireland 2–1 Sweden \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/6504857\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=28 March 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} and a 3–2 win against eventual Euro 2008 winners [Spain](/wiki/Spain_national_football_team \"Spain national football team\") in a [Euro 2008 qualifying](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2008_qualifying \"UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying\") match, with striker [David Healy](/wiki/David_Healy_%28footballer%29 \"David Healy (footballer)\") scoring a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Northern Ireland 3–2 Spain \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/internationals/5321964\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=6 September 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} A book about his achievements with Northern Ireland was published in November 2007\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Six months on, Lawrie's ready to lift the lid on 'Norn Iron' \\|url\\=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/local\\-national/article3110283\\.ece \\|work\\=Belfast Telegraph\\|date\\=30 October 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2007}}", "### Fulham", "While still manager of Northern Ireland, Sanchez was named as caretaker manager of [Fulham](/wiki/Fulham_F.C. \"Fulham F.C.\") following the sacking of [Chris Coleman](/wiki/Chris_Coleman_%28footballer%29 \"Chris Coleman (footballer)\") in April 2007\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Coleman out as Sánchez takes over \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6543541\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=10 April 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2007}} Having achieved his 32\\-day task of maintaining Fulham's Premier League position, with a record of one win, one draw and three defeats, he was given the manager's job on a longer contract, having first to resign from his position with Northern Ireland.{{cite news \\|title\\=Sánchez quits NI for Fulham job \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6646959\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=11 May 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=11 May 2007}}", "Sanchez signed four Northern Ireland players, [David Healy](/wiki/David_Healy_%28footballer%29 \"David Healy (footballer)\") from [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. \"Leeds United F.C.\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=Striker Healy agrees Fulham move \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6897948\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=13 July 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} [Steven Davis](/wiki/Steven_Davis \"Steven Davis\") and [Aaron Hughes](/wiki/Aaron_Hughes \"Aaron Hughes\"), both from [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. \"Aston Villa F.C.\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=Fulham complete £4m Davis swoop \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6270420\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=5 July 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}}{{cite news \\|title\\=NI skipper Hughes in Fulham move \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6246724\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=27 June 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} and [Chris Baird](/wiki/Chris_Baird \"Chris Baird\") from [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. \"Southampton F.C.\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Fulham complete capture of Baird \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/6278052\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=12 July 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}}", "He was sacked in December 2007,{{cite news \\|title\\=Manager Sanchez sacked by Fulham \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/f/fulham/7155545\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=21 December 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} after a home defeat to Newcastle.{{cite news \\|title\\=Fulham 0–1 Newcastle \\|first\\=Jonathan \\|last\\=Stevenson \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng\\_prem/7134134\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|publisher\\=British Broadcasting Corporation \\|date\\=15 December 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2012}} This defeat pushed Fulham into the relegation places.", "### Barnet", "With four matches of the 2010–11 season remaining, Sanchez joined [Barnet](/wiki/Barnet_F.C. \"Barnet F.C.\") as football consultant, to assist caretaker\\-manager [Giuliano Grazioli](/wiki/Giuliano_Grazioli \"Giuliano Grazioli\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=Barnet take Lawrie Sanchez on in consultant role \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/b/barnet/9461616\\.stm \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=18 April 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2013}} in their ultimately successful battle against relegation from the Football League.{{cite news \\|title\\=Barnet 1 – 0 Port Vale \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/13247294 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=7 May 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2013}} On 13 May 2011, Barnet appointed Sanchez as manager of the club, with Grazioli as his assistant.{{cite news \\|title\\=Lawrie Sanchez appointed as Barnet boss \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/13396826 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=13 May 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2013}} In the 2011–12 season, the club struggled to stay in the League despite reaching the Area Final of the Johnstone Paint Trophy before losing to Swindon Town.{{cite news \\|title\\=Swindon 1–0 Barnet (2–1\\) \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/16805578 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=7 February 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2013}} Sanchez was sacked by Barnet on 16 April 2012 with 3 games of the season to go and was replaced by [Martin Allen](/wiki/Martin_Allen \"Martin Allen\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Martin Allen replaces Lawrie Sanchez as Barnet manager \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17732932 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=16 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2013}}", "### Apollon Smyrnis", "{{Quote box\n\\|width\\=25%\n\\|align\\=right\n\\|quote\\=\"You cannot allow this to happen on live tv.\"\n\\|source\\=– Lawrie Sanchez questioning the integrity of the \\[\\[Superleague Greece]] on live television in March 2014 after an Apollon goal was disallowed during the club's 3–2 win away at \\[\\[Panthrakikos F.C.\\|Panthrakikos]].{{cite news \\|title\\=The outbreak of Sanchez \\|url\\=http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x1kp7pt\\_%CF%84%CE%BF\\-%CE%BE%CE%AD%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B1\\-%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85\\-%CF%83%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%82\\_sport?start\\=2 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Dailymotion]] \\|date\\=30 March 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2014}}}}", "On 17 November 2013, Sanchez was appointed head coach of [Superleague Greece](/wiki/Superleague_Greece \"Superleague Greece\") side [Apollon Smyrni](/wiki/Apollon_Smyrni_F.C. \"Apollon Smyrni F.C.\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Announcement \\|url\\=http://www.fcapollon.gr/news/genika\\-nea/35/@1473\\.aspx?returnpage\\=%2fcms%2f1\\-Home\\-Page.aspx%3flang%3dgr%26page%3d1 \\|language\\= el \\|publisher\\=Apollon Smyrni Official Website \\|date\\=17 November 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2013}} He met the players for the first time on 18 November 2013 whilst also giving the club's official website his first interview as Apollon Smyrni head coach.{{cite news \\|title\\=The first statement of Lawrie Sanchez and his acquaintance with the players \\|url\\=http://www.fcapollon.gr/news/genika\\-nea/35/@1476\\.aspx?returnpage\\=%2fcms%2f1\\-Home\\-Page.aspx%3flang%3dgr%26page%3d1 \\|language\\= el \\|publisher\\=Apollon Smyrni Official Website \\|date\\=18 November 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2013}} During his time at Apollon, Sanchez has raised his doubts over the integrity of the [Superleague Greece](/wiki/Superleague_Greece \"Superleague Greece\").{{cite news \\|title\\= Press Conference: Olympiakos – Apollon Smyrna \\|url\\=http://www.fcapollon.gr/news/news/ola\\-ta\\-nea/35/@2020\\.aspx?returnpage\\=%2fCms%2fPages.aspx%3fpageid%3d2101%26categoryid%3d35%26REWRURL%3d1%26%3d%26page%3d2 \\|language\\= el, en \\|publisher\\=Apollon Smyrni Official Website/\\[\\[Vimeo]] \\|date\\=13 April 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2014}} On 30 March, he voiced his discontent on live television during the club's 3–2 win away to [Panthrakikos](/wiki/Panthrakikos_F.C. \"Panthrakikos F.C.\").", "On 13 April 2014, Sanchez and Apollon were relegated from the [Superleague Greece](/wiki/Superleague_Greece \"Superleague Greece\") into the [Greek Football League](/wiki/Football_League_%28Greece%29 \"Football League (Greece)\") following a 1–0 defeat away to champions [Olympiacos](/wiki/Olympiacos_F.C. \"Olympiacos F.C.\"). Apollon finished seventeenth with 36 points, two points off safety in fifteenth.{{cite news \\|title\\=Defeat and relegation for Apollo \\|url\\=http://www.fcapollon.gr/news/news/ola\\-ta\\-nea/35/@2027\\.aspx?returnpage\\=%2fCms%2fPages.aspx%3fpageid%3d2101%26categoryid%3d35%26REWRURL%3d1%26%3d%26page%3d2 \\|publisher\\=Apollon Smyrni Official Website \\|date\\=13 April 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2014}}", "Sanchez declined to sign a new contract for Apollon and left the club. This departure was much to the chagrin of the Apollon fans to whom he, in typical Sanchez fashion, had become a much loved cult figure and leader.{{cite web\\|title\\=Apollonistis\\|date\\=21 April 2014 \\|url\\=http://www.apollonistis.com/archives/1823}} Sanchez wrote a parting letter to the Apollon fans explaining his thoughts and made it clear that he was very unhappy with the legitimacy of the [Superleague Greece](/wiki/Superleague_Greece \"Superleague Greece\"), his parting words were: \"In the Magic Kingdom that is SuperLeague even a Magician can only have so many powers\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Planet Apollon\\|url\\=http://planetapollon.gr/?p\\=10632\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714163945/http://planetapollon.gr/?p\\=10632\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2014}}", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|A Holdsworth bicycle made in the early 1970s](/wiki/File:Holdsworth_Bicycle.jpg "Holdsworth Bicycle.jpg") Sandy Holdsworth took over Ashlone Cycle Works at 132 Lower Richmond Road, [Putney](/wiki/Putney "Putney"), southwest [London](/wiki/London "London") in 1927\.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.ebykr.com/holdsworth\-british\-reliability\-personified/\| title\=Holdsworth: British Reliability, Personified\| publisher\=Ebykr}} Holdsworth continued to work during the day in his [life insurance](/wiki/Life_insurance "Life insurance") business, and appointed his wife's brother, Owen Bryars, as manager. The shop mechanic, Jack Capeling, made the first Holdsworth frames there around the end of the 1920s, using a shed behind the building. The company expanded by the end of 1930, it had further premises at 121 Lennard Rd, [Beckenham](/wiki/Beckenham "Beckenham"), [Kent](/wiki/Kent "Kent"); 185 Markhouse Road, [Walthamstow](/wiki/Walthamstow "Walthamstow"); and 5 Thesiger Road, [Penge](/wiki/Penge "Penge"). Holdsworth's wife, Margaret, came from a family in the clothing business. The clothing background appears relevant because Holdsworth began advertising cycling garments and shoes under the brand name Worthy. The company was better regarded for clothes than for frames until the arrival in 1938 of an established frame\-builder, Bill Hurlow. Hurlow arrived at the time of an internal dispute, which led the manager, Owen Bryars, to open a rival shop across the road, and another in Beckenham, south London. The original company formed a subsidiary, Holdsworthy Factoring, which built W.F. Holdsworth bicycles and wholesaled British\-made parts and those it began importing from the continent. ### Mass market Holdsworth bought the business and brands of [Freddie Grubb](/wiki/Freddie_Grubb "Freddie Grubb") in 1952 from the Grubb family who were still running the cycle business of Freddie Grubb after his demise. After the business of [Claud Butler](/wiki/Claud_Butler "Claud Butler") had gone [bankrupt](/wiki/Bankrupt "Bankrupt"), Holdsworth also bought the rights to this brand in 1958\. In 1963 the company bought the Macleans brand.{{cite web\|url\=https://classicrendezvous.com/country\-of\-origin/the\-british\-isles/holdsworth/\|title\=Holdworth\|publisher\=ClassicRendezvous.com\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-04}} By the time Sandy Holdsworth died on 28 August 1961, the company had grown too large to build the individual frames that racing cyclists were demanding. The division of operation was made clearer when Owen Bryars died in 1958, with the company acquiring his shops which had sold mass\-produced Holdsworth bikes, whilst the individual orders were handled by frame\-builder Reg Collard at 132 Lower Richmond Road \& the Holdsworth own custom builders of 753 P(Fran)Bingham\-Crosby in 1978 to 1980's at the (Shed) workshop Crampton Rd. ### Marketing Holdsworth became a national name in British cycling through both its catalogue, "Aids to Happy Cycling", later renamed "Bike Rider's Aids", and through its professional team. In 1953 Holdsworth had appointed a former sailor, Roy Thame, who had worked at a cycle shop in [Hemel Hempstead](/wiki/Hemel_Hempstead "Hemel Hempstead"), [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire "Hertfordshire"), where he lived. Working for the company for more than 50 years, Thame established and managed the dominant professional cycling team that the company co\-sponsored with [Campagnolo](/wiki/Campagnolo "Campagnolo") accessories of [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), a brand that Holdsworth had the rights to distribute in the UK. The team's riders included [Colin Lewis](/wiki/Colin_Lewis "Colin Lewis"), who twice rode in the [Tour de France](/wiki/Tour_de_France "Tour de France"), [Tour of Britain](/wiki/Tour_of_Britain "Tour of Britain") winner [Les West](/wiki/Les_West_%28cyclist%29 "Les West (cyclist)") and British National Champion [Gary Crewe](/wiki/Gary_Crewe "Gary Crewe"). Thame also managed the Great Britain teams in world championships, served on [British Cycling Federation](/wiki/British_Cycling "British Cycling") committees nationally and acted as [commissaire](/wiki/Commissaire_%28cycling%29 "Commissaire (cycling)"), or chief referee, on domestic multi\-day races such as the Tour of the West. ### Reynolds tubing 531\-753 Master builders ``` Reg Collard, Roberts(family), Bill Hurlow, Philip Frances Bingham/Crosby 1978-81 ``` ### Present After the death of Mrs Margaret Holdsworth in the 1970s, the company was split in two. The wholesale and mass\-production side of the business called the **Holdsworth Company**, which owned the rights to all of the brands, stayed in the Holdsworth family. A change in cycling tastes from road to [mountain bikes](/wiki/Mountain_bike "Mountain bike"), general foreign competition through cheap imports from [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and a sequence of management difficulties led to it being sold to rival bicycle manufacturer [Elswick Hopper](/wiki/Elswick_Hopper "Elswick Hopper") plc in the mid\-1980s. The residual brands of this side of the company are today part of the [Falcon Cycles](/wiki/Falcon_Cycles "Falcon Cycles") division of [Tandem Group](/wiki/Tandem_Group "Tandem Group") plc. A new Holdsworth Professional road bike was announced in January 2011, using the famous orange and blue colour scheme. Roy Thame inherited two\-thirds of the company, effectively inheriting the specialist retail division of the company known as **W.F. Holdsworth** with a shop at 132 Lower Richmond Road, Putney. After a period selling just low to mid\-range mountain and hybrid bikes, it tried to resurrect some of the Holdsworth heritage by selling road bikes, including some top\-end frames (e.g. De Rosa) and reintroduced some Holdsworth branded road bikes and clothing. Roy Thame died aged 85 in 2006\. As of December 2013 the shop has closed and is being converted into flats. The Holdsworth Brand was purchased by [Planet X Bikes](/wiki/Planet_X_%28bike%29 "Planet X (bike)") and at L'Eroica Britannia in 2015 a new Heritage range of Holdsworth bikes was launched. {{cite web\|title\=Sneak peek: Holdsworth to launch steel Heritage range\|url\=http://road.cc/content/news/120789\-sneak\-peek\-holdsworth\-launch\-steel\-heritage\-range}} developed by Jamie Burrow and Lorenzo Altissimo. In 2016 Holdsworth worked with master frame builder Mark Reilley and [Reynolds](/wiki/Reynolds_Technology "Reynolds Technology") to bring the Reynolds 753 tubing back into production creating a rare opportunity to purchase this tube set.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|A Holdsworth bicycle made in the early 1970s](/wiki/File:Holdsworth_Bicycle.jpg \"Holdsworth Bicycle.jpg\")\nSandy Holdsworth took over Ashlone Cycle Works at 132 Lower Richmond Road, [Putney](/wiki/Putney \"Putney\"), southwest [London](/wiki/London \"London\") in 1927\\.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.ebykr.com/holdsworth\\-british\\-reliability\\-personified/\\| title\\=Holdsworth: British Reliability, Personified\\| publisher\\=Ebykr}} Holdsworth continued to work during the day in his [life insurance](/wiki/Life_insurance \"Life insurance\") business, and appointed his wife's brother, Owen Bryars, as manager.", "The shop mechanic, Jack Capeling, made the first Holdsworth frames there around the end of the 1920s, using a shed behind the building. The company expanded by the end of 1930, it had further premises at 121 Lennard Rd, [Beckenham](/wiki/Beckenham \"Beckenham\"), [Kent](/wiki/Kent \"Kent\"); 185 Markhouse Road, [Walthamstow](/wiki/Walthamstow \"Walthamstow\"); and 5 Thesiger Road, [Penge](/wiki/Penge \"Penge\").", "Holdsworth's wife, Margaret, came from a family in the clothing business. The clothing background appears relevant because Holdsworth began advertising cycling garments and shoes under the brand name Worthy. The company was better regarded for clothes than for frames until the arrival in 1938 of an established frame\\-builder, Bill Hurlow.", "Hurlow arrived at the time of an internal dispute, which led the manager, Owen Bryars, to open a rival shop across the road, and another in Beckenham, south London.", "The original company formed a subsidiary, Holdsworthy Factoring, which built W.F. Holdsworth bicycles and wholesaled British\\-made parts and those it began importing from the continent.", "### Mass market", "Holdsworth bought the business and brands of [Freddie Grubb](/wiki/Freddie_Grubb \"Freddie Grubb\") in 1952 from the Grubb family who were still running the cycle business of Freddie Grubb after his demise. After the business of [Claud Butler](/wiki/Claud_Butler \"Claud Butler\") had gone [bankrupt](/wiki/Bankrupt \"Bankrupt\"), Holdsworth also bought the rights to this brand in 1958\\. In 1963 the company bought the Macleans brand.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://classicrendezvous.com/country\\-of\\-origin/the\\-british\\-isles/holdsworth/\\|title\\=Holdworth\\|publisher\\=ClassicRendezvous.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-04}}", "By the time Sandy Holdsworth died on 28 August 1961, the company had grown too large to build the individual frames that racing cyclists were demanding. The division of operation was made clearer when Owen Bryars died in 1958, with the company acquiring his shops which had sold mass\\-produced Holdsworth bikes, whilst the individual orders were handled by frame\\-builder Reg Collard at 132 Lower Richmond Road \\& the Holdsworth own custom builders of 753 P(Fran)Bingham\\-Crosby in 1978 to 1980's at the (Shed) workshop Crampton Rd.", "### Marketing", "Holdsworth became a national name in British cycling through both its catalogue, \"Aids to Happy Cycling\", later renamed \"Bike Rider's Aids\", and through its professional team.", "In 1953 Holdsworth had appointed a former sailor, Roy Thame, who had worked at a cycle shop in [Hemel Hempstead](/wiki/Hemel_Hempstead \"Hemel Hempstead\"), [Hertfordshire](/wiki/Hertfordshire \"Hertfordshire\"), where he lived. Working for the company for more than 50 years, Thame established and managed the dominant professional cycling team that the company co\\-sponsored with [Campagnolo](/wiki/Campagnolo \"Campagnolo\") accessories of [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), a brand that Holdsworth had the rights to distribute in the UK. The team's riders included [Colin Lewis](/wiki/Colin_Lewis \"Colin Lewis\"), who twice rode in the [Tour de France](/wiki/Tour_de_France \"Tour de France\"), [Tour of Britain](/wiki/Tour_of_Britain \"Tour of Britain\") winner [Les West](/wiki/Les_West_%28cyclist%29 \"Les West (cyclist)\") and British National Champion [Gary Crewe](/wiki/Gary_Crewe \"Gary Crewe\").", "Thame also managed the Great Britain teams in world championships, served on [British Cycling Federation](/wiki/British_Cycling \"British Cycling\") committees nationally and acted as [commissaire](/wiki/Commissaire_%28cycling%29 \"Commissaire (cycling)\"), or chief referee, on domestic multi\\-day races such as the Tour of the West.", "### Reynolds tubing", "531\\-753 Master builders", "```\nReg Collard, Roberts(family), Bill Hurlow, Philip Frances Bingham/Crosby 1978-81", "```", "### Present", "After the death of Mrs Margaret Holdsworth in the 1970s, the company was split in two.", "The wholesale and mass\\-production side of the business called the **Holdsworth Company**, which owned the rights to all of the brands, stayed in the Holdsworth family. A change in cycling tastes from road to [mountain bikes](/wiki/Mountain_bike \"Mountain bike\"), general foreign competition through cheap imports from [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and a sequence of management difficulties led to it being sold to rival bicycle manufacturer [Elswick Hopper](/wiki/Elswick_Hopper \"Elswick Hopper\") plc in the mid\\-1980s. The residual brands of this side of the company are today part of the [Falcon Cycles](/wiki/Falcon_Cycles \"Falcon Cycles\") division of [Tandem Group](/wiki/Tandem_Group \"Tandem Group\") plc. A new Holdsworth Professional road bike was announced in January 2011, using the famous orange and blue colour scheme.", "Roy Thame inherited two\\-thirds of the company, effectively inheriting the specialist retail division of the company known as **W.F. Holdsworth** with a shop at 132 Lower Richmond Road, Putney. After a period selling just low to mid\\-range mountain and hybrid bikes, it tried to resurrect some of the Holdsworth heritage by selling road bikes, including some top\\-end frames (e.g. De Rosa) and reintroduced some Holdsworth branded road bikes and clothing. Roy Thame died aged 85 in 2006\\.", "As of December 2013 the shop has closed and is being converted into flats. The Holdsworth Brand was purchased by [Planet X Bikes](/wiki/Planet_X_%28bike%29 \"Planet X (bike)\") and at L'Eroica Britannia in 2015 a new Heritage range of Holdsworth bikes was launched. {{cite web\\|title\\=Sneak peek: Holdsworth to launch steel Heritage range\\|url\\=http://road.cc/content/news/120789\\-sneak\\-peek\\-holdsworth\\-launch\\-steel\\-heritage\\-range}} developed by Jamie Burrow and Lorenzo Altissimo.", "In 2016 Holdsworth worked with master frame builder Mark Reilley and [Reynolds](/wiki/Reynolds_Technology \"Reynolds Technology\") to bring the Reynolds 753 tubing back into production creating a rare opportunity to purchase this tube set.", "" ]
Murders ------- ### Suzanne and Colin Jacobs According to investigators, Lucas committed his first murders on May 4, 1979, with his victims being 31\-year\-old Suzanne Camille Jacobs and her 3\-year\-old son, Colin, who resided in [Normal Heights](/wiki/Normal_Heights%2C_San_Diego "Normal Heights, San Diego"). On the day of the murder, Suzanne's husband Michael woke up in the morning and went to work, leaving the house at 6:00 AM. Margaret Harris, a neighbor of the family who lived across the street from the Jacobs household, later stated that after Michael left, between 8:00 and 9:00 AM, a dark maroon colored sports car with a black top pulled up to the house. Between approximately 11:00 and 11:30 AM, Harris made a telephone call to Suzanne Jacobs to invite her to go bicycling, which went unanswered.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1989\-01\-05\-me\-105\-story.html\|title\=Prosecution Tries to Put Lucas in Killer's Shoes at the Scene of Slayings\|author\=Jenifer Warren\|work\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=January 5, 1989\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20230919045855/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1989\-01\-05\-me\-105\-story.html\|archivedate\=September 19, 2023}} At approximately the same time, Michael called her workplace, but also received no response. At 12:30 AM, a courier named Louis Hoeniger showed up at the Jacobs' home to deliver a dinette set that they had ordered the previous day. Without waiting for them to answer, he left the package on the porch and left. At about 5:00 PM, Michael Jacobs returned home, and upon entering the house, he discovered the body of his son. Shocked, he ran to the Harrises' house, and after explaining what he had seen, they returned to the Jacobs home, where they found Suzanne's body in the bedroom. After arriving on the scene, police officers found a significant amount of blood in the bathroom and in the hallway. While inspecting the bathroom, officers noticed that the mat had been folded, and that there was a torn piece of paper. There were two things handwritten inside, one saying "Love Insurance" and the other "280–1700". During the investigation, police determined that the killer had slit Colin's throat in the bathroom, but that the boy did not lose consciousness immediately \- he managed to make it to the hallway, where he collapsed on the floor and died. Suzanne, on the other hand, was likely killed in the bedroom, due to the amount of broken furniture and other signs of a struggle. Coroners noted that she fiercely resisted her attacker, as they found large strands of blonde hair in both of her hands, which she likely pulled out of from the killer's hair. Suzanne had been stabbed twice in the back and once in the [abdomen](/wiki/Abdomen "Abdomen"), damaging her [liver](/wiki/Liver "Liver"), but was left fully clothed and did not seem to be sexually assaulted. She was killed when the killer slit her throat, leaving splotches of blood on the adjacent furniture, floor, sheets and even the door. While examining the crime scene, law enforcement officers found several bloody footprints on the floor with the distinctive tread of men's shoes with a distinctive sole belonging to the [Vibram](/wiki/Vibram "Vibram") brand. All the footprints were the same size and had the same pattern, leading investigators to conclude that the killer likely acted alone. According to forensic pathologist David Katsuyama, the perpetrator slit the victims' throats with such force that he left gaping wounds that exposed their spines. In Katsuyama's opinion, the wounds were inflicted with a medium\-length knife with a sharp, relatively stiff blade. On May 11, 1979, laboratory technician Pat Stewart took several photographs of the torn piece of paper and applied [ninhydrin](/wiki/Ninhydrin "Ninhydrin"), a chemical used to detect partial fingerprints. Three days later, the San Diego Police Department fingerprint examiner Leigh Emmerson examined a partial fingerprint on this piece of paper and found five or six identifiable dots, which he felt were insufficient to determine who the print belonged to, but could be used to eliminate potential suspects. ### Gayle Garcia On December 8, 1981, the body of 29\-year\-old realtor Gayle Roberta Garcia was found in a vacant property in Spring Valley, having evidently been killed by having her throat cut. On that day, she had driven to the property intent on showing it to at least three potential renters, one of whom was never identified. The similarity of her murder led some to believe that she was killed by the same man who had killed the Jacobses and the latter victims. ### Assault on Jodie Santiago On the evening of June 8, 1984, Lucas, according to investigators, assaulted 34\-year\-old Jodie Santiago Robertson, a visitor from [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)"), who was visiting friends in [El Cajon](/wiki/El_Cajon%2C_California "El Cajon, California").{{Cite news \|date\=December 17, 1984 \|title\=San Diego police hold throat\-slashing suspect \|work\=\[\[Billings Gazette]] \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-billings\-gazette\-sk\-david\-lucas/84388119/ \|via\=Newspapers.com}} That evening, Santiago left a restaurant sometime between 10:30 and 11:00 PM and walked to her vehicle in the parking lot in order to return to her brother's apartment. At that time, Lucas, whom Santiago would later positively identify as her attacker, approached her from behind, put a knife to her throat and began threatening to kill her. Lucas took her to his dark maroon colored sports car and then drove to his house, where he dragged her to the bedroom, tied her hands behind her back and placed her on the bed. Lucas then raped the woman and began strangling her until she lost consciousness. After untying the victim, Lucas placed her in his car and then dumped her in some bushes on the side of a road about a kilometer away from his house. Before driving away, Lucas slit her throat. The woman's half\-naked body was discovered the following morning by two local women who immediately called the police, after which Santiago was taken to a nearby hospital for treatment, thanks to which she survived. The extent of the injuries left permanent damage to Santiago's vocal cords, vertebral bones, and left jugular vein, as well as sustaining a severe skull fracture, pieces of skin from her head being [scalped](/wiki/Scalping "Scalping") and deep cuts to the fingers of her right hands which went through her [tendons](/wiki/Tendon "Tendon"). Santiago had to undergo several surgeries and was eventually released 18 days later, after which she gave a statement to police, describing her attacker and the exterior of his car. In her testimony, Santiago stated that her attacker drove a car that resembled a [Datsun 280ZX](/wiki/Nissan_Fairlady_Z_%28S130%29 "Nissan Fairlady Z (S130)") with a manual transmission, which had a license plate consisting of three numbers and three letters. She also claimed that the assailant lived in a house that had a semi\-circular driveway in front of it. ### Rhonda Strang and Amber Fisher On August 3, investigators claimed that Lucas again committed a double murder, with his victims being 24\-year\-old Rhonda Strang and 3\-year\-old Amber Fisher, whom Rhonda had been babysitting at her home in [Lakeside](/wiki/Lakeside%2C_California "Lakeside, California"). At the time of her death, Rhonda was married to Robert Strang, a drug addict who was a regular user of drugs such as [marijuana](/wiki/Cannabis_%28drug%29 "Cannabis (drug)"), [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine "Cocaine") and [methamphetamine](/wiki/Methamphetamine "Methamphetamine"). Relatives and acquaintances of the family repeatedly witnessed numerous arguments between the couple after Robert began selling drugs in their house. Lucas' friend and co\-worker, Richard Adler, was Rhonda's brother and introduced him to the pair. Lucas was known to have visited the Strangs on numerous occasions to purchase drugs, as several friends and acquaintances of Robert had seen him. According to her family members, Rhonda was constantly depressed and stressed, as she feared what her husband's clients could possibly do \- because of this, she kept the doors and windows locked at all times and took steps to verify the identity of anybody who wanted to enter. According to her relatives, shortly before her death, Rhonda had considered divorcing Robert and kept a diary of his financial dealings with both consumers and suppliers. Robert was eventually apprehended and interrogated but claimed that he was at his workplace when the murders occurred. It was later confirmed by his foreman, William Ralls, who stated that he paid special attention to Strang, as he had a reputation for leaving the worksite without proper authorization \- as a result, Robert was dismissed as a suspect and released. After this, investigators considered that Rhonda and Fisher were likely killed by one of Robert's clients or drug suppliers. Detective Dale Kitts said that in the summer of 1984, Rhonda began cooperating with him about her husband's drug business, offering information about his supplier. According to Kitts, Rhonda secretly monitored Robert's activities by keeping her diary, phone records, a list of known drug dealers, customers, and financial transactions. In the weeks before the murders, she repeatedly expressed the belief that she was being watched and was going to be killed because she knew too much. After the murders, authorities searched Strang's house but did not find the diary or any other records naming people involved in Robert's drug business. ### Anne Swanke According to investigators, Lucas committed his last murder on November 19, killing 22\-year\-old Anne Catherine Swanke. On that evening, Swanke was visiting her boyfriend, Gregory Oberle, near the [San Diego State University](/wiki/San_Diego_State_University "San Diego State University") campus. Before Swanke left Oberle's apartment between 12:30 and 1:00 AM on November 20, she had mentioned to him that her [Dodge Colt](/wiki/Dodge_Colt "Dodge Colt") had run out of gas. Later that night, her vehicle stalled midway to her home, whereupon she walked to a gas station near [La Mesa](/wiki/La_Mesa%2C_California "La Mesa, California"), purchased gasoline, and successfully walked back to her car before disappearing. The car was found abandoned in the early morning hours of the following day by police officer Charles Drake. When he approached the car, he found that the driver's door was unlocked and that Swanke's wallet was on one of the car seats. Drake examined the car further, finding the car keys, a flashlight, and a gas tank cap on the driver's side trunk lid of the car. The gas tank itself was open, and the gasoline canister was lying on the ground. Swanke's body was found four days later in a remote, rocky area approximately two miles away from Lucas' home in Spring Valley.{{Cite news \|title\=Jury Selection Begins in Trial of David Lucas, Accused of Killing 6 \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1988\-08\-23\-me\-924\-story.html \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20230919045841/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1988\-08\-23\-me\-924\-story.html \|archive\-date\=September 19, 2023}} She was naked below her waist, had her throat cut, and a silver [lanyard](/wiki/Lanyard "Lanyard") chain used to tether dogs was found around her neck. The top of her clothes had been cut open, exposing her upper torso.
[ "Murders\n-------", "### Suzanne and Colin Jacobs", "According to investigators, Lucas committed his first murders on May 4, 1979, with his victims being 31\\-year\\-old Suzanne Camille Jacobs and her 3\\-year\\-old son, Colin, who resided in [Normal Heights](/wiki/Normal_Heights%2C_San_Diego \"Normal Heights, San Diego\"). On the day of the murder, Suzanne's husband Michael woke up in the morning and went to work, leaving the house at 6:00 AM. Margaret Harris, a neighbor of the family who lived across the street from the Jacobs household, later stated that after Michael left, between 8:00 and 9:00 AM, a dark maroon colored sports car with a black top pulled up to the house. Between approximately 11:00 and 11:30 AM, Harris made a telephone call to Suzanne Jacobs to invite her to go bicycling, which went unanswered.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1989\\-01\\-05\\-me\\-105\\-story.html\\|title\\=Prosecution Tries to Put Lucas in Killer's Shoes at the Scene of Slayings\\|author\\=Jenifer Warren\\|work\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=January 5, 1989\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20230919045855/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1989\\-01\\-05\\-me\\-105\\-story.html\\|archivedate\\=September 19, 2023}} At approximately the same time, Michael called her workplace, but also received no response. At 12:30 AM, a courier named Louis Hoeniger showed up at the Jacobs' home to deliver a dinette set that they had ordered the previous day. Without waiting for them to answer, he left the package on the porch and left.", "At about 5:00 PM, Michael Jacobs returned home, and upon entering the house, he discovered the body of his son. Shocked, he ran to the Harrises' house, and after explaining what he had seen, they returned to the Jacobs home, where they found Suzanne's body in the bedroom. After arriving on the scene, police officers found a significant amount of blood in the bathroom and in the hallway. While inspecting the bathroom, officers noticed that the mat had been folded, and that there was a torn piece of paper. There were two things handwritten inside, one saying \"Love Insurance\" and the other \"280–1700\".", "During the investigation, police determined that the killer had slit Colin's throat in the bathroom, but that the boy did not lose consciousness immediately \\- he managed to make it to the hallway, where he collapsed on the floor and died. Suzanne, on the other hand, was likely killed in the bedroom, due to the amount of broken furniture and other signs of a struggle. Coroners noted that she fiercely resisted her attacker, as they found large strands of blonde hair in both of her hands, which she likely pulled out of from the killer's hair. Suzanne had been stabbed twice in the back and once in the [abdomen](/wiki/Abdomen \"Abdomen\"), damaging her [liver](/wiki/Liver \"Liver\"), but was left fully clothed and did not seem to be sexually assaulted. She was killed when the killer slit her throat, leaving splotches of blood on the adjacent furniture, floor, sheets and even the door. While examining the crime scene, law enforcement officers found several bloody footprints on the floor with the distinctive tread of men's shoes with a distinctive sole belonging to the [Vibram](/wiki/Vibram \"Vibram\") brand. All the footprints were the same size and had the same pattern, leading investigators to conclude that the killer likely acted alone.", "According to forensic pathologist David Katsuyama, the perpetrator slit the victims' throats with such force that he left gaping wounds that exposed their spines. In Katsuyama's opinion, the wounds were inflicted with a medium\\-length knife with a sharp, relatively stiff blade. On May 11, 1979, laboratory technician Pat Stewart took several photographs of the torn piece of paper and applied [ninhydrin](/wiki/Ninhydrin \"Ninhydrin\"), a chemical used to detect partial fingerprints. Three days later, the San Diego Police Department fingerprint examiner Leigh Emmerson examined a partial fingerprint on this piece of paper and found five or six identifiable dots, which he felt were insufficient to determine who the print belonged to, but could be used to eliminate potential suspects.", "### Gayle Garcia", "On December 8, 1981, the body of 29\\-year\\-old realtor Gayle Roberta Garcia was found in a vacant property in Spring Valley, having evidently been killed by having her throat cut. On that day, she had driven to the property intent on showing it to at least three potential renters, one of whom was never identified.", "The similarity of her murder led some to believe that she was killed by the same man who had killed the Jacobses and the latter victims.", "### Assault on Jodie Santiago", "On the evening of June 8, 1984, Lucas, according to investigators, assaulted 34\\-year\\-old Jodie Santiago Robertson, a visitor from [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"), who was visiting friends in [El Cajon](/wiki/El_Cajon%2C_California \"El Cajon, California\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=December 17, 1984 \\|title\\=San Diego police hold throat\\-slashing suspect \\|work\\=\\[\\[Billings Gazette]] \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-billings\\-gazette\\-sk\\-david\\-lucas/84388119/ \\|via\\=Newspapers.com}} That evening, Santiago left a restaurant sometime between 10:30 and 11:00 PM and walked to her vehicle in the parking lot in order to return to her brother's apartment. At that time, Lucas, whom Santiago would later positively identify as her attacker, approached her from behind, put a knife to her throat and began threatening to kill her. Lucas took her to his dark maroon colored sports car and then drove to his house, where he dragged her to the bedroom, tied her hands behind her back and placed her on the bed.", "Lucas then raped the woman and began strangling her until she lost consciousness. After untying the victim, Lucas placed her in his car and then dumped her in some bushes on the side of a road about a kilometer away from his house. Before driving away, Lucas slit her throat. The woman's half\\-naked body was discovered the following morning by two local women who immediately called the police, after which Santiago was taken to a nearby hospital for treatment, thanks to which she survived.", "The extent of the injuries left permanent damage to Santiago's vocal cords, vertebral bones, and left jugular vein, as well as sustaining a severe skull fracture, pieces of skin from her head being [scalped](/wiki/Scalping \"Scalping\") and deep cuts to the fingers of her right hands which went through her [tendons](/wiki/Tendon \"Tendon\"). Santiago had to undergo several surgeries and was eventually released 18 days later, after which she gave a statement to police, describing her attacker and the exterior of his car. In her testimony, Santiago stated that her attacker drove a car that resembled a [Datsun 280ZX](/wiki/Nissan_Fairlady_Z_%28S130%29 \"Nissan Fairlady Z (S130)\") with a manual transmission, which had a license plate consisting of three numbers and three letters. She also claimed that the assailant lived in a house that had a semi\\-circular driveway in front of it.", "### Rhonda Strang and Amber Fisher", "On August 3, investigators claimed that Lucas again committed a double murder, with his victims being 24\\-year\\-old Rhonda Strang and 3\\-year\\-old Amber Fisher, whom Rhonda had been babysitting at her home in [Lakeside](/wiki/Lakeside%2C_California \"Lakeside, California\"). At the time of her death, Rhonda was married to Robert Strang, a drug addict who was a regular user of drugs such as [marijuana](/wiki/Cannabis_%28drug%29 \"Cannabis (drug)\"), [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine \"Cocaine\") and [methamphetamine](/wiki/Methamphetamine \"Methamphetamine\"). Relatives and acquaintances of the family repeatedly witnessed numerous arguments between the couple after Robert began selling drugs in their house. Lucas' friend and co\\-worker, Richard Adler, was Rhonda's brother and introduced him to the pair. Lucas was known to have visited the Strangs on numerous occasions to purchase drugs, as several friends and acquaintances of Robert had seen him. According to her family members, Rhonda was constantly depressed and stressed, as she feared what her husband's clients could possibly do \\- because of this, she kept the doors and windows locked at all times and took steps to verify the identity of anybody who wanted to enter. According to her relatives, shortly before her death, Rhonda had considered divorcing Robert and kept a diary of his financial dealings with both consumers and suppliers.", "Robert was eventually apprehended and interrogated but claimed that he was at his workplace when the murders occurred. It was later confirmed by his foreman, William Ralls, who stated that he paid special attention to Strang, as he had a reputation for leaving the worksite without proper authorization \\- as a result, Robert was dismissed as a suspect and released. After this, investigators considered that Rhonda and Fisher were likely killed by one of Robert's clients or drug suppliers. Detective Dale Kitts said that in the summer of 1984, Rhonda began cooperating with him about her husband's drug business, offering information about his supplier. According to Kitts, Rhonda secretly monitored Robert's activities by keeping her diary, phone records, a list of known drug dealers, customers, and financial transactions. In the weeks before the murders, she repeatedly expressed the belief that she was being watched and was going to be killed because she knew too much. After the murders, authorities searched Strang's house but did not find the diary or any other records naming people involved in Robert's drug business.", "### Anne Swanke", "According to investigators, Lucas committed his last murder on November 19, killing 22\\-year\\-old Anne Catherine Swanke. On that evening, Swanke was visiting her boyfriend, Gregory Oberle, near the [San Diego State University](/wiki/San_Diego_State_University \"San Diego State University\") campus. Before Swanke left Oberle's apartment between 12:30 and 1:00 AM on November 20, she had mentioned to him that her [Dodge Colt](/wiki/Dodge_Colt \"Dodge Colt\") had run out of gas.", "Later that night, her vehicle stalled midway to her home, whereupon she walked to a gas station near [La Mesa](/wiki/La_Mesa%2C_California \"La Mesa, California\"), purchased gasoline, and successfully walked back to her car before disappearing. The car was found abandoned in the early morning hours of the following day by police officer Charles Drake. When he approached the car, he found that the driver's door was unlocked and that Swanke's wallet was on one of the car seats. Drake examined the car further, finding the car keys, a flashlight, and a gas tank cap on the driver's side trunk lid of the car. The gas tank itself was open, and the gasoline canister was lying on the ground.", "Swanke's body was found four days later in a remote, rocky area approximately two miles away from Lucas' home in Spring Valley.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Jury Selection Begins in Trial of David Lucas, Accused of Killing 6 \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1988\\-08\\-23\\-me\\-924\\-story.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20230919045841/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1988\\-08\\-23\\-me\\-924\\-story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2023}} She was naked below her waist, had her throat cut, and a silver [lanyard](/wiki/Lanyard \"Lanyard\") chain used to tether dogs was found around her neck. The top of her clothes had been cut open, exposing her upper torso.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- Alice Salomon was the third of eight children, and the second daughter, of Albert and Anna Salomon. Like many girls from affluent families in this period, she was denied further education, despite her ambition to become a teacher. This ended in 1893 when she was 21, and she recorded in her autobiography that this was "when her life began". In 1900 she joined the *Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine* ("Federation of German Women's Associations" – BDF hereinafter). In due course she was elected deputy chairperson, and kept this role until 1920\. (The Chairperson was [Gertrud Bäumer](/wiki/Gertrud_B%C3%A4umer "Gertrud Bäumer")). The organisation supported destitute, abandoned, or single mothers and aimed to prevent their children being neglected. From 1902 to 1906 she studied economics at the [Friedrich Wilhelm University](/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin "Humboldt University of Berlin") in Berlin, though she had no relevant qualification. Her publications were sufficient for university entrance. She earned her doctorate in 1908 with a dissertation entitled *Die Ursachen der ungleichen Entlohnung von Männer\- und Frauenarbeit* (loosely, "Causes of Pay Inequality Between Men and Women"). Also in this year she founded a [Soziale Frauenschule](/wiki/Soziale_Frauenschule "Soziale Frauenschule") ("Social Women's School") in Berlin, which was renamed "Alice Salomon School" in 1932 and is now called *Alice\-Salomon\-Fachhochschule für Sozialarbeit und Sozialpädagogik Berlin* ("Alice Salomon College of Further Education for Social Work and Social Sciences of Berlin").[100 Jahrfeier](http://www.stadtteilzeitung-schoeneberg.de/2008/oktober/1htm) In 1909 she became secretary of the *Internationalen Frauenbund* (International Council of Women). She converted from [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") to the [Lutheran Church](/wiki/Lutheran_Church "Lutheran Church") in 1914\. In 1917 she was made chairperson of the *Konferenz sozialer Frauenschulen Deutschlands* ("Conference of German Women's Social Schools") that she herself had founded; by 1919 sixteen schools belonged to it. In 1920 she resigned from the BDF from fear of [antisemitic](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany%231815%E2%80%931918 "History of the Jews in Germany#1815–1918") propaganda. Five years later, she founded the *Deutsche Akademie für soziale und pädagogische Frauenarbeit* ("German Academy for Women's Social and Educational Work") which was directed by [Hilde Lion](/wiki/Hilde_Lion "Hilde Lion"). Speakers at this institution included [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein "Albert Einstein"), [Carl Gustav Jung](/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung "Carl Gustav Jung"), [Helene Weber](/wiki/Helene_Weber "Helene Weber") and others of similar eminence. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, this organisation published thirteen monographs on the social and economic conditions faced by the poor in Germany. For Alice Salomon's 60th birthday, she received an honorary doctorate from Berlin University and the Silver State Medal from the Prussian State Ministry. ### Treatment by the Nazis [thumb\|Document of her deprivation of German citizenship from 25 January 1939](/wiki/File:Alice_Salomon%2C_deprivation_of_german_citizenship.jpg "Alice Salomon, deprivation of german citizenship.jpg") In 1933 when they acceded to power, the [Nazi](/wiki/Nazi "Nazi") party [stripped her of all her offices](/wiki/Anti-Jewish_legislation_in_prewar_Nazi_Germany "Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany") and six years later, when she was 65, she faced interrogation by the [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo "Gestapo"). The Nazis objected to Salomon's Jewish origins, her Christian humanist ideas, her pacifism and international reputation. She was expelled from Germany, where she had been running a relief committee for Jewish emigrants. She went to New York, her German citizenship and her two doctorates having been taken from her. In 1944 she became an American citizen. A year later, she was honorary President of the International Women's Federation and the International Association of Schools of Social Work. She died in New York on 30 August 1948\.{{cite book\|first\=Joachim\|last\=Schlör\|title\=Das Ich der Stadt: Debatten über Judentum und Urbanität, 1822\-1938\|location\=Göttingen\|publisher\=Vandenhoeck \& Ruprecht\|year\=2005\|page\=359\|isbn\=978\-3\-52556\-990\-0\|language\=DE}}
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "Alice Salomon was the third of eight children, and the second daughter, of Albert and Anna Salomon. Like many girls from affluent families in this period, she was denied further education, despite her ambition to become a teacher. This ended in 1893 when she was 21, and she recorded in her autobiography that this was \"when her life began\".", "In 1900 she joined the *Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine* (\"Federation of German Women's Associations\" – BDF hereinafter). In due course she was elected deputy chairperson, and kept this role until 1920\\. (The Chairperson was [Gertrud Bäumer](/wiki/Gertrud_B%C3%A4umer \"Gertrud Bäumer\")). The organisation supported destitute, abandoned, or single mothers and aimed to prevent their children being neglected.", "From 1902 to 1906 she studied economics at the [Friedrich Wilhelm University](/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin \"Humboldt University of Berlin\") in Berlin, though she had no relevant qualification. Her publications were sufficient for university entrance. She earned her doctorate in 1908 with a dissertation entitled *Die Ursachen der ungleichen Entlohnung von Männer\\- und Frauenarbeit* (loosely, \"Causes of Pay Inequality Between Men and Women\"). Also in this year she founded a [Soziale Frauenschule](/wiki/Soziale_Frauenschule \"Soziale Frauenschule\") (\"Social Women's School\") in Berlin, which was renamed \"Alice Salomon School\" in 1932 and is now called *Alice\\-Salomon\\-Fachhochschule für Sozialarbeit und Sozialpädagogik Berlin* (\"Alice Salomon College of Further Education for Social Work and Social Sciences of Berlin\").[100 Jahrfeier](http://www.stadtteilzeitung-schoeneberg.de/2008/oktober/1htm)", "In 1909 she became secretary of the *Internationalen Frauenbund* (International Council of Women). She converted from [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\") to the [Lutheran Church](/wiki/Lutheran_Church \"Lutheran Church\") in 1914\\. In 1917 she was made chairperson of the *Konferenz sozialer Frauenschulen Deutschlands* (\"Conference of German Women's Social Schools\") that she herself had founded; by 1919 sixteen schools belonged to it.", "In 1920 she resigned from the BDF from fear of [antisemitic](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany%231815%E2%80%931918 \"History of the Jews in Germany#1815–1918\") propaganda. Five years later, she founded the *Deutsche Akademie für soziale und pädagogische Frauenarbeit* (\"German Academy for Women's Social and Educational Work\") which was directed by [Hilde Lion](/wiki/Hilde_Lion \"Hilde Lion\"). Speakers at this institution included [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein \"Albert Einstein\"), [Carl Gustav Jung](/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung \"Carl Gustav Jung\"), [Helene Weber](/wiki/Helene_Weber \"Helene Weber\") and others of similar eminence.", "In the late 1920s and early 1930s, this organisation published thirteen monographs on the social and economic conditions faced by the poor in Germany. For Alice Salomon's 60th birthday, she received an honorary doctorate from Berlin University and the Silver State Medal from the Prussian State Ministry.", "### Treatment by the Nazis", "[thumb\\|Document of her deprivation of German citizenship from 25 January 1939](/wiki/File:Alice_Salomon%2C_deprivation_of_german_citizenship.jpg \"Alice Salomon, deprivation of german citizenship.jpg\")", "In 1933 when they acceded to power, the [Nazi](/wiki/Nazi \"Nazi\") party [stripped her of all her offices](/wiki/Anti-Jewish_legislation_in_prewar_Nazi_Germany \"Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany\") and six years later, when she was 65, she faced interrogation by the [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo \"Gestapo\"). The Nazis objected to Salomon's Jewish origins, her Christian humanist ideas, her pacifism and international reputation. She was expelled from Germany, where she had been running a relief committee for Jewish emigrants.", "She went to New York, her German citizenship and her two doctorates having been taken from her. In 1944 she became an American citizen. A year later, she was honorary President of the International Women's Federation and the International Association of Schools of Social Work.", "She died in New York on 30 August 1948\\.{{cite book\\|first\\=Joachim\\|last\\=Schlör\\|title\\=Das Ich der Stadt: Debatten über Judentum und Urbanität, 1822\\-1938\\|location\\=Göttingen\\|publisher\\=Vandenhoeck \\& Ruprecht\\|year\\=2005\\|page\\=359\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-52556\\-990\\-0\\|language\\=DE}}", "" ]
Club career ----------- ### Early career {{Quote box \| width\=27% \| align\=left \| quote\="I really loved football! Dad told me that when matches were shown on TV, I froze and there was no way to distract me! I was only three years old."\|source\=—Server Djeparov.{{cite web \|title\=История дважды лучшего футболиста Азии \|url\=https://prosports.kz/news/287100 \|website\=prosports.kz\|date\=3 August 2018 }}}} He began his football career with [Navbahor Namangan](/wiki/Navbahor_Namangan "Navbahor Namangan") in 1997 at the age of 15\. ### Navbahor Namangan He started his professional career with [Navbahor Namangan](/wiki/Navbahor_Namangan "Navbahor Namangan") in 2000, scoring 7 goals in 46 matches. ### Pakhtakor In 2002, he was transferred to [Pakhtakor Tashkent](/wiki/Pakhtakor_Tashkent "Pakhtakor Tashkent"), where he scored 34 goals in 96 matches. From 2002 to 2007 he won six [Uzbek League](/wiki/Uzbek_League "Uzbek League") championships and six [Uzbek Cups](/wiki/Uzbek_Cup "Uzbek Cup"). ### Bunyodkor In 2008, he was transferred to [Bunyodkor](/wiki/FC_Bunyodkor "FC Bunyodkor"). Djeparov scored 19 goals for the team in his first season, which made him the top goalscorer of the club and the [2008 Uzbek League](/wiki/2008_Uzbek_League "2008 Uzbek League"). His team won its first ever *Uzbek League* title that year. For his instrumental role in *Bunyodkor* and the [Uzbekistan national football team](/wiki/Uzbekistan_national_football_team "Uzbekistan national football team"), he was awarded the [Asian Footballer of the Year](/wiki/Asian_Footballer_of_the_Year "Asian Footballer of the Year"). As a part of an agreement with the [Asian Football Confederation](/wiki/Asian_Football_Confederation "Asian Football Confederation"), Djeparov was offered to a month in trial with [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") giants [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. "Chelsea F.C.").{{cite web \|title\=Chelsea mise sur le Ballon d'Or ouzbek ! \|date\=27 November 2008 \|url\=http://www.footmercato.net/premier\-league/transferts/chelsea\-mise\-sur\-le\-ballon\-d\-or\-ouzbek\_27813 \|language\=fr}} However, [Bunyodkor](/wiki/FC_Bunyodkor "FC Bunyodkor")'s matches in the [Uzbek League](/wiki/Uzbek_League "Uzbek League") championship and the [Asian Champions League](/wiki/Asian_Champions_League "Asian Champions League") meant that he was unable to attend. Anyway, this season is often described as the best season of his career. ### FC Seoul In July 2010, Djeparov was loaned out to [FC Seoul](/wiki/FC_Seoul "FC Seoul") of the [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 "K League 1") until the end of season on his own request.{{cite web \|last1\=(UzDaily.com) \|first1\=Uzbekistan Daily \|title\=Djeparov moves to FC Seoul \|url\=https://www.uzdaily.com/articles\-id\-10924\.htm \|language\=en}} He scored his [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 "K League 1") debut goal in a 2–0 victory against Incheon United on October 2, 2010\. He posted 1 goal and 7 assists in 16 matches in the [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 "K League 1") that season, playing an instrumental role in [Seoul](/wiki/FC_Seoul "FC Seoul")'s first K League win in 10 years. On February 8, 2011, [Seoul](/wiki/FC_Seoul "FC Seoul") announced that they had made the move permanent for an undisclosed fee rumored to be about US$850,000, and signed a 3\-year contract with Djeparov. ### Al Shabab After playing 15 games in [Seoul](/wiki/FC_Seoul "FC Seoul"), he was transferred to [Al Shabab FC](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 "Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)") of the [Saudi Premier League](/wiki/Saudi_Premier_League "Saudi Premier League"). The deal was announced at July 9, 2011\.{{cite web \|title\=Official: Former AFC Player of the Year Server Djeparov leaves FC Seoul to join Al Shabab {{!}} Goal.com \|url\=https://www.goal.com/en/news/14/asia/2011/07/10/2568413/official\-former\-afc\-player\-of\-the\-year\-server\-djeparov\-leaves\-fc\- \|language\=en}} He was unremarkable on the pitch, and was rumored to be unhappy with his limited playing opportunities and [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia")'s weather. ### Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma / Seongnam FC [thumb\|100px\|Djeparov playing for [Ulsan Hyundai FC](/wiki/Ulsan_Hyundai_FC "Ulsan Hyundai FC")](/wiki/File:Server_Djeparov.jpg "Server Djeparov.jpg") In February 2013 he made a move to [Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma](/wiki/Seongnam_Ilhwa_Chunma "Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma") of the [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 "K League 1").{{cite web \|script\-title\=ko:'명불허전' 제파로프, 성남 합류 이틀만에 적응\|publisher\=joynews.inews24\.com\|url\=http://joynews.inews24\.com/php/news\_view.php?g\_serial\=725462\&g\_menu\=702210\|language\=ko \|date\=2013\-02\-21}} In January 2014 [Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma](/wiki/Seongnam_Ilhwa_Chunma "Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma") was purchased from the [Tongil Group](/wiki/Tongil_Group "Tongil Group") by [Seongnam City Government](/wiki/Seongnam "Seongnam"). [Seongnam City Government](/wiki/Seongnam "Seongnam") made major changes to the club, which included renaming it [Seongnam FC](/wiki/Seongnam_FC "Seongnam FC"). As [Ivan Vuković](/wiki/Ivan_Vukovi%C4%87 "Ivan Vuković"), the previous owner of the number 10 jersey, decided to change his number to 32, Djeparov decided to take his number. ### Esteghlal On 15 January 2017, Djeparov completed his move to [Esteghlal](/wiki/Esteghlal_F.C. "Esteghlal F.C.").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tarafdari.com/کاربران/مطلب/625039/سرور\-جپاروف\-به\-استقلال\-پیوست\|script\-title\=fa:جپاروف، رسما استقلالی شد\|trans\-title\=Djeparov is officially an Esteghlal player\|publisher\=Tarafdari\|language\=fa\|date\=15 January 2017\|access\-date\=7 October 2017}} He signed an internal one\-and\-a\-half\-year contract worth $500,000 including bonuses,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/625005/مبلغ\-قرارداد\-جپاروف؛\-500\-هزار\-دلار\-برای\-یک\-فصل\-و\-نیم\|script\-title\=fa:مبلغ قرارداد جپاروف؛ 500 هزار دلار برای یک فصل و نیم\|publisher\=Tarafdari\|language\=fa \|date\=15 January 2017 }} however his internal contract could not be registered with Esteghlal due to a [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA "FIFA") imposed transfer ban.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/630113/به\-دلیل\-بدهی\-های\-استقلال؛\-کارت\-بازی\-آندو\-و\-جپاروف\-همچنان\-صادر\-نشده\-است\|script\-title\=fa:ه دلیل بدهی های استقلال؛ کارت بازی آندو و جپاروف همچنان صادر نشده است\|publisher\=Tarafdari\|language\=fa \|date\=23 January 2017 }} Later he joined [Sepahan](/wiki/Sepahan_F.C. "Sepahan F.C.") on loan until the end of the season.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/636930/فوری\-سرور\-جپاروف\-به\-سپاهان\-پیوست\|script\-title\=fa:فوری: سرور جپاروف به سپاهان پیوست\|trans\-title\=Breaking: Djeparov joined Sepahan\|publisher\=Tarafdari\|language\=fa \|date\=2 February 2017 }}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/636942/جپاروف\-پایان\-فصل\-به\-استقلال\-بر\-می%E2%80%8C\-گردد\|script\-title\=fa:جپاروف پایان فصل به استقلال بر می‌ گردد\|publisher\=Tarafdari\|language\=fa}} #### Sepahan (loan) Djeparov made his debut for Sepahan in a 3–0 defeat against [Machine Sazi](/wiki/Machine_Sazi_F.C. "Machine Sazi F.C.") on 9 February 2017\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.varzesh3\.com/news/1394403\|script\-title\=fa:سپاهان 0 \- ماشین‌سازی 3؛ سیلی از انتهای جدول!\|trans\-title\= Sepahan 0 \- Machine Sazi 0; slap from the bottom of table\|language\=fa}} On 5 March, he scored his first goal for Sepahan against [city rivals](/wiki/Naqsh-e_jahan_derby "Naqsh-e jahan derby") [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. "Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C.").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/656179/سپاهان\-2\-1\-ذوب\-آهن؛\-با\-فتح\-دربی،\-ناکامی\-های\-ویسی\-به\-پایان\-رسید\|script\-title\=fa:سپاهان 2\-1 ذوب آهن؛ با فتح دربی، ناکامی های ویسی به پایان رسید\|publisher\=Tarafdari\|language\=fa \|date\=5 March 2017 }} After his loan at Sepahan expired it was originally reported that Djeparov would not return to Esteghlal, however after negotiations between the player and the club, Djeparov announced he will return to Esteghlal. #### Return to Esteghlal [thumb\|200px\|left\|Djeparov with [Mame Thiam](/wiki/Mame_Thiam "Mame Thiam") in 2018\.](/wiki/File:MameBaba_Thiam-Server_Djeparov.jpg "MameBaba Thiam-Server Djeparov.jpg") On 28 June 2017, he made his debut for Esteghlal in the 1–0 defeat against [Sanat Naft Abadan](/wiki/Sanat_Naft_Abadan_F.C. "Sanat Naft Abadan F.C.") entering as a substitute for [Hassan Beyt Saeed](/wiki/Hassan_Beyt_Saeed "Hassan Beyt Saeed").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.varzesh3\.com/news/1430184\|script\-title\=fa:صنعت نفت 1 \- استقلال 0؛ افتتاحیه تلخ برای آبی‌ها \|trans\-title\=Sanat Naft 1 – Esteghlal 0; Bad start for the blues\|language\=fa}} On 11 August, he scored his first goal for Esteghlal in the 1–0 win against [Tractor Sazi](/wiki/Tractor_Sazi_F.C. "Tractor Sazi F.C."), a screamer which was 30 yards away from the goal.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.varzesh3\.com/news/1453378/استقلال\-1\-تراکتور\-0؛\-همه\-طلسم%E2%80%8Cها\-با\-هم\-شکست\|script\-title\=fa:استقلال 1 \- تراکتور 0؛ همه طلسم‌ها با هم شکست\|date\= 11 August 2017\|language\=fa}} [Uzbekistan Football Federation](/wiki/Uzbekistan_Football_Federation "Uzbekistan Football Federation") praised his goal on their official [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram "Instagram") later.[Сервер Жепаровнинг ягона голи Теҳроннинг “Истиқлол” жамоасига “Тракторсози” устидан ғалабани таъминлади](https://www.instagram.com/p/BXriFXunlob/){{cite web\|url\=http://www.varzesh3\.com/news/1453517/گل\-چپاروف؛\-سوژه\-اینستاگرام\-فدراسیون\-ازبکستان\|script\-title\=fa:گل چپاروف؛ سوژه اینستاگرام فدراسیون ازبکستان \|trans\-title\= Djeparov's goal was the subject of Uzbekistan Football Federation's Instagram\|language\=fa}} On 6 December, he scored his first brace for the club in a 3–0 victory against his previous club [Sepahan](/wiki/Sepahan_F.C. "Sepahan F.C.").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/858892/استقلال\-3\-0\-سپاهان؛\-در\-روز\-سوپر\-گل\-ها،\-طلسم\-های\-استقلال\-شکسته\-شد\|script\-title\=fa:استقلال 3\-0 سپاهان؛ در روز سوپر گل ها، طلسم های استقلال شکسته شد\|date\= 6 December 2017\|access\-date\=6 December 2017\|language\=fa}} His first goal at the [Hazfi Cup](/wiki/Hazfi_Cup "Hazfi Cup") wascame in a 3–0 win against [Iranjavan](/wiki/F.C._Iranjavan_Bushehr "F.C. Iranjavan Bushehr") on 20 December 2017\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.varzesh3\.com/news/1482155\|script\-title\=fa:استقلال 3 \- ایران‌جوان صفر؛ بزن بریم آسیا\|date\= 20 December 2017\|access\-date\=20 December 2017\|language\=fa}} He also played in the final of [the competition](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Hazfi_Cup "2017–18 Hazfi Cup"), won 1–0 against [Khooneh be Khooneh](/wiki/F.C._Khooneh_be_Khooneh "F.C. Khooneh be Khooneh").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.varzesh3\.com/news/1521638/گزارش\-بازی\-استقلال\-و\-خونه\-به\-خونه\-فینال\-جام\-حذفی\-تاریخ\-1397\-2\-13\|title\=استقلال 1\- خونه به خونه 0؛ هفتمین تاج‌گذاری\|date\=3 May 2018\|access\-date\=2 August 2018\|publisher\=Varzesh3}} On 31 December 2017, Djeparov was ranked the 20th best player of Asia by Football Tribe's website.{{cite news\|url\=https://football\-tribe.com/asia/2017/12/31/football\-tribe\-awards\-top\-30\-players\-in\-asia\-part3/\|title\=Football Tribe Awards: Top 30 Players in Asia (20\-11\)\|date\=30 December 2017\|access\-date\=31 December 2017}} He was also named as the [Persian Gulf Pro League's top assister of the year](/wiki/Iran_football_award_winners%23Top_assister_of_the_year "Iran football award winners#Top assister of the year") at the end of the season.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.varzesh3\.com/news/1540462\|script\-title\=fa:بهترین پاسور سال ایران: سرور جپارف\|date\= 23 July 2018\|access\-date\=27 July 2018\|language\=fa}} On 26 July 2018 Esteghlal chairman Amirhossein Fathi announced that Djeparov will leave the club after the parties could not agree on the terms to renew his contract.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.varzesh3\.com/news/1541160/حضور\-جپاروف\-در\-استقلال\-منتفي\-شد\|script\-title\=fa:حضور جپاروف در استقلال منتفی شد\|date\= 26 July 2018\|access\-date\=29 July 2018\|language\=fa}} ### FC Zhetysu On 26 July 2018, Djeparov joined Kazakh side [Zhetysu](/wiki/FC_Zhetysu "FC Zhetysu") until the end of season.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.gazeta.uz/uz/2018/07/26/jeparov/\|title\=Сервер Жепаров фаолиятини Қозоғистон чемпионатида давом эттиради\|date\=2018\-07\-26\|language\=uz\-UZ}} He made his debut in the League on 16 September in an away match with [FC Tobol](/wiki/FC_Tobol "FC Tobol") and scored equalized with a penalty 2–2, he played 290 minute. ### Metallurg Bekabad Djeparov joined [Metallurg Bekabad](/wiki/PFK_Metallurg_Bekabad "PFK Metallurg Bekabad") in January 2019\.{{cite web \|script\-title\=ru:Легенда из КПЛ будет выступать в Узбекистане \- Футбол \|url\=https://www.sports.kz/news/legenda\-iz\-kpl\-budet\-vyistupat\-v\-uzbekistane \|language\=ru}}
[ "Club career\n-----------", "### Early career", "{{Quote box \\| width\\=27% \\| align\\=left \\| quote\\=\"I really loved football! Dad told me that when matches were shown on TV, I froze and there was no way to distract me! I was only three years old.\"\\|source\\=—Server Djeparov.{{cite web \\|title\\=История дважды лучшего футболиста Азии \\|url\\=https://prosports.kz/news/287100 \\|website\\=prosports.kz\\|date\\=3 August 2018 }}}} He began his football career with [Navbahor Namangan](/wiki/Navbahor_Namangan \"Navbahor Namangan\") in 1997 at the age of 15\\.", "### Navbahor Namangan", "He started his professional career with [Navbahor Namangan](/wiki/Navbahor_Namangan \"Navbahor Namangan\") in 2000, scoring 7 goals in 46 matches.", "### Pakhtakor", "In 2002, he was transferred to [Pakhtakor Tashkent](/wiki/Pakhtakor_Tashkent \"Pakhtakor Tashkent\"), where he scored 34 goals in 96 matches. From 2002 to 2007 he won six [Uzbek League](/wiki/Uzbek_League \"Uzbek League\") championships and six [Uzbek Cups](/wiki/Uzbek_Cup \"Uzbek Cup\").", "### Bunyodkor", "In 2008, he was transferred to [Bunyodkor](/wiki/FC_Bunyodkor \"FC Bunyodkor\"). Djeparov scored 19 goals for the team in his first season, which made him the top goalscorer of the club and the [2008 Uzbek League](/wiki/2008_Uzbek_League \"2008 Uzbek League\"). His team won its first ever *Uzbek League* title that year. For his instrumental role in *Bunyodkor* and the [Uzbekistan national football team](/wiki/Uzbekistan_national_football_team \"Uzbekistan national football team\"), he was awarded the [Asian Footballer of the Year](/wiki/Asian_Footballer_of_the_Year \"Asian Footballer of the Year\"). As a part of an agreement with the [Asian Football Confederation](/wiki/Asian_Football_Confederation \"Asian Football Confederation\"), Djeparov was offered to a month in trial with [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") giants [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. \"Chelsea F.C.\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Chelsea mise sur le Ballon d'Or ouzbek ! \\|date\\=27 November 2008 \\|url\\=http://www.footmercato.net/premier\\-league/transferts/chelsea\\-mise\\-sur\\-le\\-ballon\\-d\\-or\\-ouzbek\\_27813 \\|language\\=fr}} However, [Bunyodkor](/wiki/FC_Bunyodkor \"FC Bunyodkor\")'s matches in the [Uzbek League](/wiki/Uzbek_League \"Uzbek League\") championship and the [Asian Champions League](/wiki/Asian_Champions_League \"Asian Champions League\") meant that he was unable to attend. Anyway, this season is often described as the best season of his career.", "### FC Seoul", "In July 2010, Djeparov was loaned out to [FC Seoul](/wiki/FC_Seoul \"FC Seoul\") of the [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 \"K League 1\") until the end of season on his own request.{{cite web \\|last1\\=(UzDaily.com) \\|first1\\=Uzbekistan Daily \\|title\\=Djeparov moves to FC Seoul \\|url\\=https://www.uzdaily.com/articles\\-id\\-10924\\.htm \\|language\\=en}} He scored his [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 \"K League 1\") debut goal in a 2–0 victory against Incheon United on October 2, 2010\\. He posted 1 goal and 7 assists in 16 matches in the [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 \"K League 1\") that season, playing an instrumental role in [Seoul](/wiki/FC_Seoul \"FC Seoul\")'s first K League win in 10 years. On February 8, 2011, [Seoul](/wiki/FC_Seoul \"FC Seoul\") announced that they had made the move permanent for an undisclosed fee rumored to be about US$850,000, and signed a 3\\-year contract with Djeparov.", "### Al Shabab", "After playing 15 games in [Seoul](/wiki/FC_Seoul \"FC Seoul\"), he was transferred to [Al Shabab FC](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 \"Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)\") of the [Saudi Premier League](/wiki/Saudi_Premier_League \"Saudi Premier League\"). The deal was announced at July 9, 2011\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Official: Former AFC Player of the Year Server Djeparov leaves FC Seoul to join Al Shabab {{!}} Goal.com \\|url\\=https://www.goal.com/en/news/14/asia/2011/07/10/2568413/official\\-former\\-afc\\-player\\-of\\-the\\-year\\-server\\-djeparov\\-leaves\\-fc\\- \\|language\\=en}} He was unremarkable on the pitch, and was rumored to be unhappy with his limited playing opportunities and [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\")'s weather.", "### Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma / Seongnam FC", "[thumb\\|100px\\|Djeparov playing for [Ulsan Hyundai FC](/wiki/Ulsan_Hyundai_FC \"Ulsan Hyundai FC\")](/wiki/File:Server_Djeparov.jpg \"Server Djeparov.jpg\")\nIn February 2013 he made a move to [Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma](/wiki/Seongnam_Ilhwa_Chunma \"Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma\") of the [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 \"K League 1\").{{cite web \\|script\\-title\\=ko:'명불허전' 제파로프, 성남 합류 이틀만에 적응\\|publisher\\=joynews.inews24\\.com\\|url\\=http://joynews.inews24\\.com/php/news\\_view.php?g\\_serial\\=725462\\&g\\_menu\\=702210\\|language\\=ko \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-21}}", "In January 2014 [Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma](/wiki/Seongnam_Ilhwa_Chunma \"Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma\") was purchased from the [Tongil Group](/wiki/Tongil_Group \"Tongil Group\") by [Seongnam City Government](/wiki/Seongnam \"Seongnam\"). [Seongnam City Government](/wiki/Seongnam \"Seongnam\") made major changes to the club, which included renaming it [Seongnam FC](/wiki/Seongnam_FC \"Seongnam FC\"). As [Ivan Vuković](/wiki/Ivan_Vukovi%C4%87 \"Ivan Vuković\"), the previous owner of the number 10 jersey, decided to change his number to 32, Djeparov decided to take his number.", "### Esteghlal", "On 15 January 2017, Djeparov completed his move to [Esteghlal](/wiki/Esteghlal_F.C. \"Esteghlal F.C.\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tarafdari.com/کاربران/مطلب/625039/سرور\\-جپاروف\\-به\\-استقلال\\-پیوست\\|script\\-title\\=fa:جپاروف، رسما استقلالی شد\\|trans\\-title\\=Djeparov is officially an Esteghlal player\\|publisher\\=Tarafdari\\|language\\=fa\\|date\\=15 January 2017\\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2017}} He signed an internal one\\-and\\-a\\-half\\-year contract worth $500,000 including bonuses,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/625005/مبلغ\\-قرارداد\\-جپاروف؛\\-500\\-هزار\\-دلار\\-برای\\-یک\\-فصل\\-و\\-نیم\\|script\\-title\\=fa:مبلغ قرارداد جپاروف؛ 500 هزار دلار برای یک فصل و نیم\\|publisher\\=Tarafdari\\|language\\=fa \\|date\\=15 January 2017 }} however his internal contract could not be registered with Esteghlal due to a [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA \"FIFA\") imposed transfer ban.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/630113/به\\-دلیل\\-بدهی\\-های\\-استقلال؛\\-کارت\\-بازی\\-آندو\\-و\\-جپاروف\\-همچنان\\-صادر\\-نشده\\-است\\|script\\-title\\=fa:ه دلیل بدهی های استقلال؛ کارت بازی آندو و جپاروف همچنان صادر نشده است\\|publisher\\=Tarafdari\\|language\\=fa \\|date\\=23 January 2017 }} Later he joined [Sepahan](/wiki/Sepahan_F.C. \"Sepahan F.C.\") on loan until the end of the season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/636930/فوری\\-سرور\\-جپاروف\\-به\\-سپاهان\\-پیوست\\|script\\-title\\=fa:فوری: سرور جپاروف به سپاهان پیوست\\|trans\\-title\\=Breaking: Djeparov joined Sepahan\\|publisher\\=Tarafdari\\|language\\=fa \\|date\\=2 February 2017 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/636942/جپاروف\\-پایان\\-فصل\\-به\\-استقلال\\-بر\\-می%E2%80%8C\\-گردد\\|script\\-title\\=fa:جپاروف پایان فصل به استقلال بر می‌ گردد\\|publisher\\=Tarafdari\\|language\\=fa}}", "#### Sepahan (loan)", "Djeparov made his debut for Sepahan in a 3–0 defeat against [Machine Sazi](/wiki/Machine_Sazi_F.C. \"Machine Sazi F.C.\") on 9 February 2017\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.varzesh3\\.com/news/1394403\\|script\\-title\\=fa:سپاهان 0 \\- ماشین‌سازی 3؛ سیلی از انتهای جدول!\\|trans\\-title\\= Sepahan 0 \\- Machine Sazi 0; slap from the bottom of table\\|language\\=fa}} On 5 March, he scored his first goal for Sepahan against [city rivals](/wiki/Naqsh-e_jahan_derby \"Naqsh-e jahan derby\") [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. \"Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C.\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/656179/سپاهان\\-2\\-1\\-ذوب\\-آهن؛\\-با\\-فتح\\-دربی،\\-ناکامی\\-های\\-ویسی\\-به\\-پایان\\-رسید\\|script\\-title\\=fa:سپاهان 2\\-1 ذوب آهن؛ با فتح دربی، ناکامی های ویسی به پایان رسید\\|publisher\\=Tarafdari\\|language\\=fa \\|date\\=5 March 2017 }} After his loan at Sepahan expired it was originally reported that Djeparov would not return to Esteghlal, however after negotiations between the player and the club, Djeparov announced he will return to Esteghlal.", "#### Return to Esteghlal", "[thumb\\|200px\\|left\\|Djeparov with [Mame Thiam](/wiki/Mame_Thiam \"Mame Thiam\") in 2018\\.](/wiki/File:MameBaba_Thiam-Server_Djeparov.jpg \"MameBaba Thiam-Server Djeparov.jpg\")\nOn 28 June 2017, he made his debut for Esteghlal in the 1–0 defeat against [Sanat Naft Abadan](/wiki/Sanat_Naft_Abadan_F.C. \"Sanat Naft Abadan F.C.\") entering as a substitute for [Hassan Beyt Saeed](/wiki/Hassan_Beyt_Saeed \"Hassan Beyt Saeed\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.varzesh3\\.com/news/1430184\\|script\\-title\\=fa:صنعت نفت 1 \\- استقلال 0؛ افتتاحیه تلخ برای آبی‌ها \\|trans\\-title\\=Sanat Naft 1 – Esteghlal 0; Bad start for the blues\\|language\\=fa}} On 11 August, he scored his first goal for Esteghlal in the 1–0 win against [Tractor Sazi](/wiki/Tractor_Sazi_F.C. \"Tractor Sazi F.C.\"), a screamer which was 30 yards away from the goal.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.varzesh3\\.com/news/1453378/استقلال\\-1\\-تراکتور\\-0؛\\-همه\\-طلسم%E2%80%8Cها\\-با\\-هم\\-شکست\\|script\\-title\\=fa:استقلال 1 \\- تراکتور 0؛ همه طلسم‌ها با هم شکست\\|date\\= 11 August 2017\\|language\\=fa}} [Uzbekistan Football Federation](/wiki/Uzbekistan_Football_Federation \"Uzbekistan Football Federation\") praised his goal on their official [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram \"Instagram\") later.[Сервер Жепаровнинг ягона голи Теҳроннинг “Истиқлол” жамоасига “Тракторсози” устидан ғалабани таъминлади](https://www.instagram.com/p/BXriFXunlob/){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.varzesh3\\.com/news/1453517/گل\\-چپاروف؛\\-سوژه\\-اینستاگرام\\-فدراسیون\\-ازبکستان\\|script\\-title\\=fa:گل چپاروف؛ سوژه اینستاگرام فدراسیون ازبکستان \\|trans\\-title\\= Djeparov's goal was the subject of Uzbekistan Football Federation's Instagram\\|language\\=fa}} On 6 December, he scored his first brace for the club in a 3–0 victory against his previous club [Sepahan](/wiki/Sepahan_F.C. \"Sepahan F.C.\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tarafdari.com/خبر/858892/استقلال\\-3\\-0\\-سپاهان؛\\-در\\-روز\\-سوپر\\-گل\\-ها،\\-طلسم\\-های\\-استقلال\\-شکسته\\-شد\\|script\\-title\\=fa:استقلال 3\\-0 سپاهان؛ در روز سوپر گل ها، طلسم های استقلال شکسته شد\\|date\\= 6 December 2017\\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2017\\|language\\=fa}} His first goal at the [Hazfi Cup](/wiki/Hazfi_Cup \"Hazfi Cup\") wascame in a 3–0 win against [Iranjavan](/wiki/F.C._Iranjavan_Bushehr \"F.C. Iranjavan Bushehr\") on 20 December 2017\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.varzesh3\\.com/news/1482155\\|script\\-title\\=fa:استقلال 3 \\- ایران‌جوان صفر؛ بزن بریم آسیا\\|date\\= 20 December 2017\\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2017\\|language\\=fa}} He also played in the final of [the competition](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Hazfi_Cup \"2017–18 Hazfi Cup\"), won 1–0 against [Khooneh be Khooneh](/wiki/F.C._Khooneh_be_Khooneh \"F.C. Khooneh be Khooneh\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.varzesh3\\.com/news/1521638/گزارش\\-بازی\\-استقلال\\-و\\-خونه\\-به\\-خونه\\-فینال\\-جام\\-حذفی\\-تاریخ\\-1397\\-2\\-13\\|title\\=استقلال 1\\- خونه به خونه 0؛ هفتمین تاج‌گذاری\\|date\\=3 May 2018\\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2018\\|publisher\\=Varzesh3}}", "On 31 December 2017, Djeparov was ranked the 20th best player of Asia by Football Tribe's website.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://football\\-tribe.com/asia/2017/12/31/football\\-tribe\\-awards\\-top\\-30\\-players\\-in\\-asia\\-part3/\\|title\\=Football Tribe Awards: Top 30 Players in Asia (20\\-11\\)\\|date\\=30 December 2017\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2017}} He was also named as the [Persian Gulf Pro League's top assister of the year](/wiki/Iran_football_award_winners%23Top_assister_of_the_year \"Iran football award winners#Top assister of the year\") at the end of the season.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.varzesh3\\.com/news/1540462\\|script\\-title\\=fa:بهترین پاسور سال ایران: سرور جپارف\\|date\\= 23 July 2018\\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2018\\|language\\=fa}}", "On 26 July 2018 Esteghlal chairman Amirhossein Fathi announced that Djeparov will leave the club after the parties could not agree on the terms to renew his contract.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.varzesh3\\.com/news/1541160/حضور\\-جپاروف\\-در\\-استقلال\\-منتفي\\-شد\\|script\\-title\\=fa:حضور جپاروف در استقلال منتفی شد\\|date\\= 26 July 2018\\|access\\-date\\=29 July 2018\\|language\\=fa}}", "### FC Zhetysu", "On 26 July 2018, Djeparov joined Kazakh side [Zhetysu](/wiki/FC_Zhetysu \"FC Zhetysu\") until the end of season.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.gazeta.uz/uz/2018/07/26/jeparov/\\|title\\=Сервер Жепаров фаолиятини Қозоғистон чемпионатида давом эттиради\\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-26\\|language\\=uz\\-UZ}} He made his debut in the League on 16 September in an away match with [FC Tobol](/wiki/FC_Tobol \"FC Tobol\") and scored equalized with a penalty 2–2, he played 290 minute.", "### Metallurg Bekabad", "Djeparov joined [Metallurg Bekabad](/wiki/PFK_Metallurg_Bekabad \"PFK Metallurg Bekabad\") in January 2019\\.{{cite web \\|script\\-title\\=ru:Легенда из КПЛ будет выступать в Узбекистане \\- Футбол \\|url\\=https://www.sports.kz/news/legenda\\-iz\\-kpl\\-budet\\-vyistupat\\-v\\-uzbekistane \\|language\\=ru}}", "" ]
Ecology and behaviour --------------------- Clear oxygen\-rich water is preferred by the spined loach, be it slowly flowing brooks, rivers or still water. They are found near flat and sandy or stony areas, frequently in large numbers. The spined loach is often kept as an ornamental fish in [aquaria](/wiki/Aquarium "Aquarium"). During the day, they bury themselves in the bed of the body of water, leaving only the head and tail exposed. At night, when the loach is most active, sand on the riverbed is consumed, and with it small animals and other organic material. Sand, stripped of nutrients, is ejected through the [gills](/wiki/Gills "Gills"). This process must continue all night for the fish to get enough [calories](/wiki/Calorie "Calorie") to survive. Spined loaches possess the ability of intestinal breathing. This stop\-gap measure sustains the spined loach when the water around it is [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen")\-poor. At the water's surface swallowed air brings oxygen into the [intestine](/wiki/Intestine "Intestine"). The expended air is expelled through the [anus](/wiki/Anus "Anus"). The spawning season is from April to June. The females produce between 300 and 1,500 [eggs](/wiki/Roe "Roe") close to the ground: on stones, roots or plants. The eggs are then [fertilized](/wiki/Fertilize "Fertilize") by the males. The [larvae](/wiki/Larva "Larva") hatch in 4 to 6 days. The spined loach's lifespan is between 3 and 5 years, with the maximum reached in [captivity](/wiki/Captivity_%28animal%29 "Captivity (animal)") being 10 years.
[ "Ecology and behaviour\n---------------------", "Clear oxygen\\-rich water is preferred by the spined loach, be it slowly flowing brooks, rivers or still water. They are found near flat and sandy or stony areas, frequently in large numbers. The spined loach is often kept as an ornamental fish in [aquaria](/wiki/Aquarium \"Aquarium\").", "During the day, they bury themselves in the bed of the body of water, leaving only the head and tail exposed. At night, when the loach is most active, sand on the riverbed is consumed, and with it small animals and other organic material. Sand, stripped of nutrients, is ejected through the [gills](/wiki/Gills \"Gills\"). This process must continue all night for the fish to get enough [calories](/wiki/Calorie \"Calorie\") to survive.", "Spined loaches possess the ability of intestinal breathing. This stop\\-gap measure sustains the spined loach when the water around it is [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\")\\-poor. At the water's surface swallowed air brings oxygen into the [intestine](/wiki/Intestine \"Intestine\"). The expended air is expelled through the [anus](/wiki/Anus \"Anus\").", "The spawning season is from April to June. The females produce between 300 and 1,500 [eggs](/wiki/Roe \"Roe\") close to the ground: on stones, roots or plants. The eggs are then [fertilized](/wiki/Fertilize \"Fertilize\") by the males. The [larvae](/wiki/Larva \"Larva\") hatch in 4 to 6 days.", "The spined loach's lifespan is between 3 and 5 years, with the maximum reached in [captivity](/wiki/Captivity_%28animal%29 \"Captivity (animal)\") being 10 years.", "" ]
Research contributions ---------------------- ### Studies of the SCN\-\-the circadian pacemaker In the early 1980s, Takahashi and Menaker studied the bird [pineal gland](/wiki/Pineal_gland "Pineal gland") culture system *in vitro* to understand circadian oscillations, and they demonstrated that the [suprachiasmatic nucleus](/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus "Suprachiasmatic nucleus") (SCN) of the [hypothalamus](/wiki/Hypothalamus "Hypothalamus"),{{cite journal\|last1\=Takahashi \|first1\=J. S. \|last2\=Hamm \|first2\=H. \|last3\=Menaker \|first3\=M. \|year\=1980 \|journal\=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. \|volume\=77 \|pages\=2319–2322 \|title\=Circadian rhythms of melatonin release from individual superfused chicken pineal glands in vitro\|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.77\.4\.2319\|pmid\=6929552\|issue\=4\|pmc\=348706\|bibcode\=1980PNAS...77\.2319T \|doi\-access\=free }} which had been identified as the control center for circadian rhythms in mammals, played the same role in birds.{{cite journal\|last1\=Takahashi \|first1\=J. S. \|title\=Role of the suprachiasmatic nuclei in the circadian system of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus \|last2\=Menaker \|first2\=M. \|year\=1982 \|journal\=Journal of Neuroscience \|volume\=2 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=718–726\|doi\=10\.1523/JNEUROSCI.02\-06\-00815\.1982 \|pmid\=7086486 \|pmc\=6564352 }} The authors also collaborated with DeCoursey and used hamsters to demonstrate that the photoreceptor system responsible for entrainment of circadian rhythms is different from that of the visual system.{{cite journal\|last1\=Takahashi \|first1\=J. S. \|last2\=DeCoursey \|first2\=P. J. \|last3\=Bauman \|first3\=L. \|last4\=Menaker \|first4\=M. \|year\=1984 \|journal\=Nature \|issue\= 5955\|pages\=186–188 \|title\=Spectral sensitivity of a novel photoreceptive system mediating entrainment of mammalian circadian rhythms \|pmid\=6700721 \|volume\=308\|doi\=10\.1038/308186a0\|bibcode\=1984Natur.308\..186T \|s2cid\=4321911 }} In 2010 Takahashi, Buhr, and Yoo examined the potential of temperature fluctuations to entrain biological oscillators. The finding that the master circadian pacemaker, a robust oscillator which is typically only entrained by environmental light/dark cycles, was also capable of entraining to temperature fluctuations when isolated *in vitro* indicates that temperature resetting is a fundamental property of all mammalian clocks and likely works through a highly conserved mechanism in all mammalian cells. This also suggests that body temperature rhythms, as controlled by the SCN in [homeothermic](/wiki/Homeothermic "Homeothermic") mammals, is a potential mechanism through which the master clock may synchronize circadian oscillators within tissues throughout the body.{{cite journal\|last1\=Buhr\|first1\=ED\|last2\=Yoo\|first2\=SH\|last3\=Takahashi\|first3\=JS\|title\=Temperature as a universal resetting cue for mammalian circadian oscillators\|journal\=Science\|date\=October 2010\|volume\=330\|pages\=379–85\|doi\=10\.1126/science.1195262\|issue\=6002\|pmid\= 20947768\|pmc\=3625727\|bibcode\=2010Sci...330\..379B}} ### Studies of circadian properties of mammalian clock genes Takahashi's research has led to many developments in understanding how the [circadian clock](/wiki/Circadian_clock "Circadian clock") of mammals affects physiology and relationships with the environment. In 1993, Takahashi and [Michael Greenberg](/wiki/Michael_E._Greenberg "Michael E. Greenberg") studied the mechanisms of mammalian [suprachiasmatic](/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus "Suprachiasmatic nucleus") nuclei entrainment to environmental light cycles. They explored the relationship between phosphorylated cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein ([CREB](/wiki/CREB "CREB")) and *[c\-fos](/wiki/C-fos "C-fos")* transcription, a protein previously indicated as a component of the photic entrainment pathway.{{cite journal\|last1\=Kornhauser \|first1\=J.M. \|last2\=Nelson \|first2\=D.E. \|last3\=Mayo \|first3\=K.E. \|last4\=Takahashi \|first4\=J.S. \|year\=1990 \|journal\=Neuron \|volume\=5 \|pages\=127–134 \|title\=Photic and circadian regulation of c\-fos gene expression in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus\|doi\=10\.1016/0896\-6273(90\)90303\-W\|pmid\=2116813\|issue\=2\|s2cid\=43543601 }} Using [immunoprecipitation](/wiki/Immunoprecipitation "Immunoprecipitation"), Takahashi and Greenberg were able to show that light induced CREB phosphorylation occurs only during the subjective night.{{cite journal\|last1\=Ginty \|first1\=D.D \|last2\=Kornhauser \|first2\=J.M. \|last3\=Thompson \|first3\=M.A. \|last4\=Bading \|first4\=H. \|last5\=Mayo \|first5\=K.E. \|last6\=Takahashi \|first6\=J.S. \|last7\=Greenberg \|first7\=M.E. \|year\=1993 \|journal\=Science \|volume\=260 \|pages\=238–241 \|title\=Regulation of CREB Phosphorylation in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus by Light and a Circadian Clock\|doi\=10\.1126/science.8097062\|pmid\=8097062\|issue\=5105\|bibcode\=1993Sci...260\..238G }} Given that CREB has been shown to regulate *c\-fos* transcription in [PC12](/wiki/PC12_cells "PC12 cells") pheochromocytoma cells,{{cite journal\|last1\=Sheng \|first1\=M. \|last2\=Thompson \|first2\=M.A. \|last3\=Greenberg \|first3\=M.E. \|year\=1991 \|journal\=Science \|volume\=252 \|pages\=1427–1430 \|title\=CREB: a Ca(2\+)\-regulated transcription factor phosphorylated by calmodulin\-dependent kinases\|doi\=10\.1126/science.1646483\|pmid\=1646483\|issue\=5011\|bibcode\=1991Sci...252\.1427S }} Takahashi and Greenberg were able to conclude that phosphorylation of CREB in the SCN may play an important role in mammalian photic entrainment. After the *in vitro* research on the pineal gland culture system used to understand circadian oscillations, the limitations of the cell culture system were evident and Takahashi switched methods to begin using [forward genetics](/wiki/Forward_genetics "Forward genetics") and [positional cloning](/wiki/Positional_cloning "Positional cloning")—tools which required no advanced knowledge of the underlying mechanism—to understand the genetic and molecular bases of circadian rhythms.{{cite web \|url\=http://nrc88\.nas.edu/pnas\_search/memberDetails.aspx?ctID\=20004791 \|title\=PNAS Member Editor \- Joseph Takahashi \|publisher\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|access\-date\=2009\-04\-28 \|archive\-date\=2021\-04\-28 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428013255/https://nrc88\.nas.edu/pnas%5Fsearch/memberDetails.aspx?ctID\=20004791 \|url\-status\=dead }} Using mutated mouse strains, Takahashi and his colleagues isolated strains with abnormal period length and discovered the *clock* gene in 1994\.{{cite journal\|last1\=Vitaterna \|first1\=M.H. \|first2\=D.P. \|last2\=King \|first3\=A.M. \|last3\=Chang \|first4\=J.M. \|last4\=Kornhauser \|first5\=P.L. \|last5\=Lowrey \|first6\=J.D. \|last6\=McDonald \|first7\=W.F. \|last7\=Dove \|first8\=L.H. \|last8\=Pinto \|first9\=F.W. \|last9\=Turek \|last10\= Takahashi\|first10\=J.S.\|year\=1994\|title\=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior \|journal\=Science \|issue\= 5159\|pages\=719–725 \|pmid\=8171325 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.8171325 \|volume\=264 \|pmc\=3839659\|bibcode\=1994Sci...264\..719H }} They cloned the mammalian circadian *clock* gene in 1997\.{{cite journal\|first1\=David \|last1\=King \|first2\=Yaliang \|last2\=Zhao \|first3\=Ashvin \|last3\=Sangoram \|first4\=Lisa \|last4\=Wilsbacher \|first5\=Monuru \|last5\=Tanaka \|first6\=Marina \|last6\=Antoch \|first7\=Thomas \|last7\=Steeves \|first10\=Phillip \|last10\=Lowrey \|first11\=Fred \|last11\=Turek \|title\=Positional Cloning of the Mouse Circadian ''Clock'' Gene \|journal\=Cell \|volume\=89 \|pages\=641–653 \|year\=1997\|doi\=10\.1016/S0092\-8674(00\)80245\-7\|pmid\=9160755\|last8\=Vitaterna\|last9\=Kornhauser\|last12\=Takahashi \|first12\=J.S.\|issue\=4\|pmc\=3815553 }} In 2000, Takahashi made what he calls one of his most significant contributions to the field, which was the cloning of the mutant *tau* gene identified in 1988 by Menaker and [Martin Ralph](/wiki/Martin_R._Ralph "Martin R. Ralph"). Since its discovery in 1988, the *tau* gene had been studied thoroughly, however, due to limited genomic resources in hamsters, the organism in which it was discovered, a problem existed preventing further study. Through the use of a genetically directed representational difference analysis (GDRDA), the fragments of DNA that differed between the mutant and wild type hamsters. With this information, Takahashi then used positional syntenic cloning to identify [synteny](/wiki/Synteny "Synteny") with the human genome. This revealed that the gene is closely related to the gene *[doubletime](/wiki/Doubletime_%28gene%29 "Doubletime (gene)") (dbt)* in *[Drosophila](/wiki/Drosophila "Drosophila")*, and *casein kinase 1 epsilon (CKIe)* in humans, both of which interact with and regulate *[PER](/wiki/Period_%28gene%29 "Period (gene)")* levels.{{cite web\|title\=Joseph S. Takahashi, Ph.D.\|url\=http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/clocks/takahashi.html\|publisher\=hhmi\|access\-date\=14 April 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007210621/http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/clocks/takahashi.html\|archive\-date\=7 October 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} ### Non\-circadian phenotypes of the *clock* mutant mouse Since identifying the *clock* mutant in 1994, Takahashi has continued his research on this mutation and has applied it to studying clinical disorders, such as irregular sleep [homeostasis](/wiki/Homeostasis "Homeostasis") and obesity.{{cite journal\|title\=The Circadian ''Clock'' Mutation Alters Sleep Homeostasis in the Mouse \|date\=November 2000 \|volume\=20 \|issue\=21 \|pages\=8138–8143 \|doi\= 10\.1523/JNEUROSCI.20\-21\-08138\.2000\|first1\=Erik \|last1\=Naylor \|first2\=Bernard M. \|last2\=Bergmann \|first3\=Kristyn \|last3\=Krauski \|first4\=Phyllis C. \|last4\=Zee \|first5\=Joseph D. \|last5\=Takahashi \|first6\=Martha Hotz \|last6\=Vitaterna \|first7\=Fred W. \|last7\=Turek \| authorlink7\=Fred W. Turek \| journal\=The Journal of Neuroscience \|pmid\=11050136\|pmc\=6772726 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal\|last1\=Turek \|first1\=F.W. \|last2\=Joshu \|first2\=C. \|last3\=Kohsaka \|first3\=A. \|last4\=Lin \|first4\=E \|last5\=Ivanova \|first5\=G. \|last6\=McDearmon \|first6\=E. \|last7\=Laposky \|first7\=A. \|last8\=Losee\-Olsen \|first8\=S. \|last9\=Easton \|first9\=A. \|year\=2005 \|journal\=Science \|volume\=308 \|pages\=1043–1045 \|title\= Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in Circadian ''Clock'' Mutant Mice\|doi\=10\.1126/science.1108750\|pmid\=15845877\|issue\=5724 \|pmc\=3764501\| display\-authors \= 8\|bibcode\=2005Sci...308\.1043T }} In 2000, he and his colleagues at Northwestern recognized that *clock* mutant mice slept 1 to 2 hours less per night than wild type mice. Additionally, because these mice lack the circadian system that regulates consolidated sleep at a certain time of day, sleep in *clock* mutants is spread out throughout the day in both light\-dark cycles and in complete darkness. This mutation results in less [REM](/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep "Rapid eye movement sleep") sleep and more time spent in earlier sleep phases. In 2005, he collaborated with Joseph Bass and reported the effects of mutations in the *clock* gene on the metabolism and physiology of mice. Their experiments compared weight gain in *Clock* mutant mice to that of control mice and showed that mutant mice were more likely to gain weight. Such a discovery influenced them to pursue exploration of the *clock* gene's role in appetite and energy. In *Clock* mutant mice, they reported depressed levels of [orexin](/wiki/Orexin "Orexin"), a neuropeptide involved in regulation of eating. This result provides further evidence that the *clock* gene has a profound impact on metabolic processes in mice. It has since been discovered that metabolism itself plays a role in regulating the clock. In 2009, Joseph Bass in collaboration with Takahashi's group discovered that [nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase](/wiki/Nicotinamide_phosphoribosyltransferase "Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase") (NAMPT) mediated synthesis of metabolic coenzyme [nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide](/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide "Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide") (NAD\+), which both oscillate on a daily cycle, may play an important role in regulating circadian activity.{{cite journal\|last\=Ramsey\|first\=Kathryn Moynihan \|author2\=Jun Yoshino \|author3\=Cynthia S. Brace \|author4\=Dana Abrassart \|author5\=Yumiko Kobayashi \|author6\=Biliana Marcheva \|author7\=Hee\-Kyung Hong \|author8\=Jason L. Chong \|author9\=Ethan D. Buhr \|author10\=Choogon Lee \|author11\=Joseph S. Takahashi \|author12\=Shin\-ichiro Imai \|author13\=Joseph Bass \|title\=Circadian Clock Feedback Cycle Through NAMPT\-Mediated NAD\+ Biosynthesis\|journal\=Science\|date\=May 2009\|volume\=324\|pages\=651–654\|doi\=10\.1126/science.1171641\|pmid\=19299583\|pmc\=2738420\|issue\=5927\|bibcode\=2009Sci...324\..651R }} By measuring the oscillations of NAMPT and NAD\+ levels in the livers of both wild\-type and mutant mice they determined that oscillations in NAMPT regulated NAD\+ which in turn regulated the deacetylase SIRT1\. ### Continued mutagenesis studies Using mutagenesis screens (forward genetics) found both the *clock* mutant mouse and the tau mutant hamster. Takahashi's lab has continued use of this method in order to lead to discoveries of the role of the circadian clock in vision, learning, memory, stress, and addiction, among other behavioral properties. In 2007, Takahashi and his colleagues at Northwestern ran a [forward mutagenesis screen](/wiki/ENU "ENU") in mice looking for variations in circadian oscillations and subsequently identified a mutant which they named *overtime* (*Ovtm*).{{cite journal \|author1\=Siepka, S. \|author2\=Yoo, 2\. \|author3\=Park, J. \|author4\=Song, W. \|author5\=Kumar, V. \|author6\=Hu, Y. \|author7\=Lee, C. \|author8\=Takahashi, J.S. \| title\= Circadian Mutant ''Overtime'' Reveals F\-box Protein FBXL3 Regulation of ''Cryptochrome'' and ''Period'' Gene Expression \| journal \= Cell \|volume \= 129 \| issue \= 5 \|pages \= 1011–1023 \|year \= 2007 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cell.2007\.04\.030 \| pmid\= 17462724\|pmc\=3762874 }} Using [positional cloning](/wiki/Positional_cloning "Positional cloning"), [genetic complementation](/wiki/Genetic_complementation "Genetic complementation"), and [in\-situ hybridization](/wiki/In-situ_hybridization "In-situ hybridization") Takahashi and colleagues discovered that *Ovtm* was a [point mutation](/wiki/Point_mutation "Point mutation") that caused a loss of function in [FBXL3](/wiki/FBXL3 "FBXL3") – an [F\-box protein](/wiki/F-box_protein "F-box protein") – and was expressed throughout the brain and in the [SCN](/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus "Suprachiasmatic nucleus"). Assaying expression of known circadian clock genes in the *Ovtm* mutants, they observed a marked decrease in [PER1](/wiki/PER1 "PER1") and [PER2](/wiki/PER2 "PER2") protein and mRNA levels in the brain and a significant decrease in *cry2* mRNA levels only. Takahashi and his colleagues proposed that FBXL3 is a target site for protein degradation on the CRY2 protein, which would explain relatively normal CRY2 protein levels. [Negative feedback](/wiki/Negative_feedback "Negative feedback") by other elements of the circadian clock could then lead to the roughly 26\-hour free\-running period observed in *Ovtm* mice.
[ "Research contributions\n----------------------", "### Studies of the SCN\\-\\-the circadian pacemaker", "In the early 1980s, Takahashi and Menaker studied the bird [pineal gland](/wiki/Pineal_gland \"Pineal gland\") culture system *in vitro* to understand circadian oscillations, and they demonstrated that the [suprachiasmatic nucleus](/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus \"Suprachiasmatic nucleus\") (SCN) of the [hypothalamus](/wiki/Hypothalamus \"Hypothalamus\"),{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Takahashi \\|first1\\=J. S. \\|last2\\=Hamm \\|first2\\=H. \\|last3\\=Menaker \\|first3\\=M. \\|year\\=1980 \\|journal\\=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. \\|volume\\=77 \\|pages\\=2319–2322 \\|title\\=Circadian rhythms of melatonin release from individual superfused chicken pineal glands in vitro\\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.77\\.4\\.2319\\|pmid\\=6929552\\|issue\\=4\\|pmc\\=348706\\|bibcode\\=1980PNAS...77\\.2319T \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} which had been identified as the control center for circadian rhythms in mammals, played the same role in birds.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Takahashi \\|first1\\=J. S. \\|title\\=Role of the suprachiasmatic nuclei in the circadian system of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus \\|last2\\=Menaker \\|first2\\=M. \\|year\\=1982 \\|journal\\=Journal of Neuroscience \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=718–726\\|doi\\=10\\.1523/JNEUROSCI.02\\-06\\-00815\\.1982 \\|pmid\\=7086486 \\|pmc\\=6564352 }} The authors also collaborated with DeCoursey and used hamsters to demonstrate that the photoreceptor system responsible for entrainment of circadian rhythms is different from that of the visual system.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Takahashi \\|first1\\=J. S. \\|last2\\=DeCoursey \\|first2\\=P. J. \\|last3\\=Bauman \\|first3\\=L. \\|last4\\=Menaker \\|first4\\=M. \\|year\\=1984 \\|journal\\=Nature \\|issue\\= 5955\\|pages\\=186–188 \\|title\\=Spectral sensitivity of a novel photoreceptive system mediating entrainment of mammalian circadian rhythms \\|pmid\\=6700721 \\|volume\\=308\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/308186a0\\|bibcode\\=1984Natur.308\\..186T \\|s2cid\\=4321911 }}", "In 2010 Takahashi, Buhr, and Yoo examined the potential of temperature fluctuations to entrain biological oscillators. The finding that the master circadian pacemaker, a robust oscillator which is typically only entrained by environmental light/dark cycles, was also capable of entraining to temperature fluctuations when isolated *in vitro* indicates that temperature resetting is a fundamental property of all mammalian clocks and likely works through a highly conserved mechanism in all mammalian cells. This also suggests that body temperature rhythms, as controlled by the SCN in [homeothermic](/wiki/Homeothermic \"Homeothermic\") mammals, is a potential mechanism through which the master clock may synchronize circadian oscillators within tissues throughout the body.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Buhr\\|first1\\=ED\\|last2\\=Yoo\\|first2\\=SH\\|last3\\=Takahashi\\|first3\\=JS\\|title\\=Temperature as a universal resetting cue for mammalian circadian oscillators\\|journal\\=Science\\|date\\=October 2010\\|volume\\=330\\|pages\\=379–85\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.1195262\\|issue\\=6002\\|pmid\\= 20947768\\|pmc\\=3625727\\|bibcode\\=2010Sci...330\\..379B}}", "### Studies of circadian properties of mammalian clock genes", "Takahashi's research has led to many developments in understanding how the [circadian clock](/wiki/Circadian_clock \"Circadian clock\") of mammals affects physiology and relationships with the environment. In 1993, Takahashi and [Michael Greenberg](/wiki/Michael_E._Greenberg \"Michael E. Greenberg\") studied the mechanisms of mammalian [suprachiasmatic](/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus \"Suprachiasmatic nucleus\") nuclei entrainment to environmental light cycles. They explored the relationship between phosphorylated cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein ([CREB](/wiki/CREB \"CREB\")) and *[c\\-fos](/wiki/C-fos \"C-fos\")* transcription, a protein previously indicated as a component of the photic entrainment pathway.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Kornhauser \\|first1\\=J.M. \\|last2\\=Nelson \\|first2\\=D.E. \\|last3\\=Mayo \\|first3\\=K.E. \\|last4\\=Takahashi \\|first4\\=J.S. \\|year\\=1990 \\|journal\\=Neuron \\|volume\\=5 \\|pages\\=127–134 \\|title\\=Photic and circadian regulation of c\\-fos gene expression in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0896\\-6273(90\\)90303\\-W\\|pmid\\=2116813\\|issue\\=2\\|s2cid\\=43543601 }} Using [immunoprecipitation](/wiki/Immunoprecipitation \"Immunoprecipitation\"), Takahashi and Greenberg were able to show that light induced CREB phosphorylation occurs only during the subjective night.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Ginty \\|first1\\=D.D \\|last2\\=Kornhauser \\|first2\\=J.M. \\|last3\\=Thompson \\|first3\\=M.A. \\|last4\\=Bading \\|first4\\=H. \\|last5\\=Mayo \\|first5\\=K.E. \\|last6\\=Takahashi \\|first6\\=J.S. \\|last7\\=Greenberg \\|first7\\=M.E. \\|year\\=1993 \\|journal\\=Science \\|volume\\=260 \\|pages\\=238–241 \\|title\\=Regulation of CREB Phosphorylation in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus by Light and a Circadian Clock\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.8097062\\|pmid\\=8097062\\|issue\\=5105\\|bibcode\\=1993Sci...260\\..238G }} Given that CREB has been shown to regulate *c\\-fos* transcription in [PC12](/wiki/PC12_cells \"PC12 cells\") pheochromocytoma cells,{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Sheng \\|first1\\=M. \\|last2\\=Thompson \\|first2\\=M.A. \\|last3\\=Greenberg \\|first3\\=M.E. \\|year\\=1991 \\|journal\\=Science \\|volume\\=252 \\|pages\\=1427–1430 \\|title\\=CREB: a Ca(2\\+)\\-regulated transcription factor phosphorylated by calmodulin\\-dependent kinases\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.1646483\\|pmid\\=1646483\\|issue\\=5011\\|bibcode\\=1991Sci...252\\.1427S }} Takahashi and Greenberg were able to conclude that phosphorylation of CREB in the SCN may play an important role in mammalian photic entrainment.", "After the *in vitro* research on the pineal gland culture system used to understand circadian oscillations, the limitations of the cell culture system were evident and Takahashi switched methods to begin using [forward genetics](/wiki/Forward_genetics \"Forward genetics\") and [positional cloning](/wiki/Positional_cloning \"Positional cloning\")—tools which required no advanced knowledge of the underlying mechanism—to understand the genetic and molecular bases of circadian rhythms.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://nrc88\\.nas.edu/pnas\\_search/memberDetails.aspx?ctID\\=20004791 \\|title\\=PNAS Member Editor \\- Joseph Takahashi \\|publisher\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-04\\-28 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-28 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428013255/https://nrc88\\.nas.edu/pnas%5Fsearch/memberDetails.aspx?ctID\\=20004791 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Using mutated mouse strains, Takahashi and his colleagues isolated strains with abnormal period length and discovered the *clock* gene in 1994\\.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Vitaterna \\|first1\\=M.H. \\|first2\\=D.P. \\|last2\\=King \\|first3\\=A.M. \\|last3\\=Chang \\|first4\\=J.M. \\|last4\\=Kornhauser \\|first5\\=P.L. \\|last5\\=Lowrey \\|first6\\=J.D. \\|last6\\=McDonald \\|first7\\=W.F. \\|last7\\=Dove \\|first8\\=L.H. \\|last8\\=Pinto \\|first9\\=F.W. \\|last9\\=Turek \\|last10\\= Takahashi\\|first10\\=J.S.\\|year\\=1994\\|title\\=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior \\|journal\\=Science \\|issue\\= 5159\\|pages\\=719–725 \\|pmid\\=8171325 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.8171325 \\|volume\\=264 \\|pmc\\=3839659\\|bibcode\\=1994Sci...264\\..719H }} They cloned the mammalian circadian *clock* gene in 1997\\.{{cite journal\\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=King \\|first2\\=Yaliang \\|last2\\=Zhao \\|first3\\=Ashvin \\|last3\\=Sangoram \\|first4\\=Lisa \\|last4\\=Wilsbacher \\|first5\\=Monuru \\|last5\\=Tanaka \\|first6\\=Marina \\|last6\\=Antoch \\|first7\\=Thomas \\|last7\\=Steeves \\|first10\\=Phillip \\|last10\\=Lowrey \\|first11\\=Fred \\|last11\\=Turek \\|title\\=Positional Cloning of the Mouse Circadian ''Clock'' Gene \\|journal\\=Cell \\|volume\\=89 \\|pages\\=641–653 \\|year\\=1997\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0092\\-8674(00\\)80245\\-7\\|pmid\\=9160755\\|last8\\=Vitaterna\\|last9\\=Kornhauser\\|last12\\=Takahashi \\|first12\\=J.S.\\|issue\\=4\\|pmc\\=3815553 }}", "In 2000, Takahashi made what he calls one of his most significant contributions to the field, which was the cloning of the mutant *tau* gene identified in 1988 by Menaker and [Martin Ralph](/wiki/Martin_R._Ralph \"Martin R. Ralph\"). Since its discovery in 1988, the *tau* gene had been studied thoroughly, however, due to limited genomic resources in hamsters, the organism in which it was discovered, a problem existed preventing further study. Through the use of a genetically directed representational difference analysis (GDRDA), the fragments of DNA that differed between the mutant and wild type hamsters. With this information, Takahashi then used positional syntenic cloning to identify [synteny](/wiki/Synteny \"Synteny\") with the human genome. This revealed that the gene is closely related to the gene *[doubletime](/wiki/Doubletime_%28gene%29 \"Doubletime (gene)\") (dbt)* in *[Drosophila](/wiki/Drosophila \"Drosophila\")*, and *casein kinase 1 epsilon (CKIe)* in humans, both of which interact with and regulate *[PER](/wiki/Period_%28gene%29 \"Period (gene)\")* levels.{{cite web\\|title\\=Joseph S. Takahashi, Ph.D.\\|url\\=http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/clocks/takahashi.html\\|publisher\\=hhmi\\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007210621/http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/clocks/takahashi.html\\|archive\\-date\\=7 October 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Non\\-circadian phenotypes of the *clock* mutant mouse", "Since identifying the *clock* mutant in 1994, Takahashi has continued his research on this mutation and has applied it to studying clinical disorders, such as irregular sleep [homeostasis](/wiki/Homeostasis \"Homeostasis\") and obesity.{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Circadian ''Clock'' Mutation Alters Sleep Homeostasis in the Mouse \\|date\\=November 2000 \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=21 \\|pages\\=8138–8143 \\|doi\\= 10\\.1523/JNEUROSCI.20\\-21\\-08138\\.2000\\|first1\\=Erik \\|last1\\=Naylor \\|first2\\=Bernard M. \\|last2\\=Bergmann \\|first3\\=Kristyn \\|last3\\=Krauski \\|first4\\=Phyllis C. \\|last4\\=Zee \\|first5\\=Joseph D. \\|last5\\=Takahashi \\|first6\\=Martha Hotz \\|last6\\=Vitaterna \\|first7\\=Fred W. \\|last7\\=Turek \\| authorlink7\\=Fred W. Turek \\| journal\\=The Journal of Neuroscience \\|pmid\\=11050136\\|pmc\\=6772726 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Turek \\|first1\\=F.W. \\|last2\\=Joshu \\|first2\\=C. \\|last3\\=Kohsaka \\|first3\\=A. \\|last4\\=Lin \\|first4\\=E \\|last5\\=Ivanova \\|first5\\=G. \\|last6\\=McDearmon \\|first6\\=E. \\|last7\\=Laposky \\|first7\\=A. \\|last8\\=Losee\\-Olsen \\|first8\\=S. \\|last9\\=Easton \\|first9\\=A. \\|year\\=2005 \\|journal\\=Science \\|volume\\=308 \\|pages\\=1043–1045 \\|title\\= Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in Circadian ''Clock'' Mutant Mice\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.1108750\\|pmid\\=15845877\\|issue\\=5724 \\|pmc\\=3764501\\| display\\-authors \\= 8\\|bibcode\\=2005Sci...308\\.1043T }}", "In 2000, he and his colleagues at Northwestern recognized that *clock* mutant mice slept 1 to 2 hours less per night than wild type mice. Additionally, because these mice lack the circadian system that regulates consolidated sleep at a certain time of day, sleep in *clock* mutants is spread out throughout the day in both light\\-dark cycles and in complete darkness. This mutation results in less [REM](/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep \"Rapid eye movement sleep\") sleep and more time spent in earlier sleep phases.", "In 2005, he collaborated with Joseph Bass and reported the effects of mutations in the *clock* gene on the metabolism and physiology of mice. Their experiments compared weight gain in *Clock* mutant mice to that of control mice and showed that mutant mice were more likely to gain weight. Such a discovery influenced them to pursue exploration of the *clock* gene's role in appetite and energy. In *Clock* mutant mice, they reported depressed levels of [orexin](/wiki/Orexin \"Orexin\"), a neuropeptide involved in regulation of eating. This result provides further evidence that the *clock* gene has a profound impact on metabolic processes in mice.", "It has since been discovered that metabolism itself plays a role in regulating the clock. In 2009, Joseph Bass in collaboration with Takahashi's group discovered that [nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase](/wiki/Nicotinamide_phosphoribosyltransferase \"Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase\") (NAMPT) mediated synthesis of metabolic coenzyme [nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide](/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide \"Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide\") (NAD\\+), which both oscillate on a daily cycle, may play an important role in regulating circadian activity.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Ramsey\\|first\\=Kathryn Moynihan \\|author2\\=Jun Yoshino \\|author3\\=Cynthia S. Brace \\|author4\\=Dana Abrassart \\|author5\\=Yumiko Kobayashi \\|author6\\=Biliana Marcheva \\|author7\\=Hee\\-Kyung Hong \\|author8\\=Jason L. Chong \\|author9\\=Ethan D. Buhr \\|author10\\=Choogon Lee \\|author11\\=Joseph S. Takahashi \\|author12\\=Shin\\-ichiro Imai \\|author13\\=Joseph Bass \\|title\\=Circadian Clock Feedback Cycle Through NAMPT\\-Mediated NAD\\+ Biosynthesis\\|journal\\=Science\\|date\\=May 2009\\|volume\\=324\\|pages\\=651–654\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.1171641\\|pmid\\=19299583\\|pmc\\=2738420\\|issue\\=5927\\|bibcode\\=2009Sci...324\\..651R }} By measuring the oscillations of NAMPT and NAD\\+ levels in the livers of both wild\\-type and mutant mice they determined that oscillations in NAMPT regulated NAD\\+ which in turn regulated the deacetylase SIRT1\\.", "### Continued mutagenesis studies", "Using mutagenesis screens (forward genetics) found both the *clock* mutant mouse and the tau mutant hamster. Takahashi's lab has continued use of this method in order to lead to discoveries of the role of the circadian clock in vision, learning, memory, stress, and addiction, among other behavioral properties.", "In 2007, Takahashi and his colleagues at Northwestern ran a [forward mutagenesis screen](/wiki/ENU \"ENU\") in mice looking for variations in circadian oscillations and subsequently identified a mutant which they named *overtime* (*Ovtm*).{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Siepka, S. \\|author2\\=Yoo, 2\\. \\|author3\\=Park, J. \\|author4\\=Song, W. \\|author5\\=Kumar, V. \\|author6\\=Hu, Y. \\|author7\\=Lee, C. \\|author8\\=Takahashi, J.S. \\| title\\= Circadian Mutant ''Overtime'' Reveals F\\-box Protein FBXL3 Regulation of ''Cryptochrome'' and ''Period'' Gene Expression \\| journal \\= Cell \\|volume \\= 129 \\| issue \\= 5 \\|pages \\= 1011–1023 \\|year \\= 2007 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cell.2007\\.04\\.030 \\| pmid\\= 17462724\\|pmc\\=3762874 }} Using [positional cloning](/wiki/Positional_cloning \"Positional cloning\"), [genetic complementation](/wiki/Genetic_complementation \"Genetic complementation\"), and [in\\-situ hybridization](/wiki/In-situ_hybridization \"In-situ hybridization\") Takahashi and colleagues discovered that *Ovtm* was a [point mutation](/wiki/Point_mutation \"Point mutation\") that caused a loss of function in [FBXL3](/wiki/FBXL3 \"FBXL3\") – an [F\\-box protein](/wiki/F-box_protein \"F-box protein\") – and was expressed throughout the brain and in the [SCN](/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus \"Suprachiasmatic nucleus\"). Assaying expression of known circadian clock genes in the *Ovtm* mutants, they observed a marked decrease in [PER1](/wiki/PER1 \"PER1\") and [PER2](/wiki/PER2 \"PER2\") protein and mRNA levels in the brain and a significant decrease in *cry2* mRNA levels only. Takahashi and his colleagues proposed that FBXL3 is a target site for protein degradation on the CRY2 protein, which would explain relatively normal CRY2 protein levels. [Negative feedback](/wiki/Negative_feedback \"Negative feedback\") by other elements of the circadian clock could then lead to the roughly 26\\-hour free\\-running period observed in *Ovtm* mice.", "" ]
History ------- ### Aboriginal history The site of modern\-day Leadville lies on the traditional lands of [Wiradjuri](/wiki/Wiradjuri "Wiradjuri") people, close to the lands of neighbouring [Kamilaroi](/wiki/Gamilaraay "Gamilaraay") people that lie to the north and east.{{Cite web\|last\=Brayshaw\|first\=Helen\|date\=1987\|title\=ABORIGINES OF THE HUNTER VALLEY \- A Study of Colonial Records\|url\=https://downloads.newcastle.edu.au/library/cultural%20collections/pdf/brayshaw1987\.pdf\|publisher\=SCONE \& UPPER HUNTER HISTORICAL SOCIETY\|location\=SCONE, N.S.W.}}{{Cite web \|last\=Studies \|first\=Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander \|date\=2022\-11\-10 \|title\=Map of Indigenous Australia \|url\=https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/map\-indigenous\-australia \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-04 \|website\=aiatsis.gov.au \|language\=en}} Early government surveyors were directed to use local language words for place names whenever possible{{Cite web\|title\=Indigenous and Minority Placenames Australian and International Perspectives \- ANU\|url\=https://press\-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p286811/html/ch12\.xhtml?referer\=\&page\=15\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-14\|website\=press\-files.anu.edu.au\|language\=en}} and place names of surrounding settlements such as Dunedoo, Coolah, Goolma, Gulgong and Mudgee are settler interpretations of [Wiradjuri language](/wiki/Wiradjuri_language "Wiradjuri language") words. That tends to confirm that it is Wiradjuri country. ### Mining town The origins of the town are associated with the nearby silver\-lead ore deposits; the former Mount Stewart, Extended, Mount Scott, Grosvenor and Latimer Mines are nearby.{{Cite web\|title\=Leadville, Warrumbungle Shire, State of New South Wales, Australia\|url\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\-2160457\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18\|website\=www.mindat.org}} An Aboriginal man, Tommy Governor—the father of [Jimmy Governor](/wiki/Jimmy_Governor "Jimmy Governor")—found some interesting rocks, near what would become Mount Stewart, and showed these to Mr. George Stewart. The rocks were [lead carbonate](/wiki/Lead_carbonate "Lead carbonate") and assays showed the presence of silver. Governor was later to complain that he had not received what he thought was fair compensation for his discovery. Mining commenced at Mount Stewart in 1888\. For the first few years, the miners used nearby [Denison Town](/wiki/Denison_Town%2C_New_South_Wales "Denison Town, New South Wales") for supplies and services.{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-08\-05\|title\=MINING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.\|pages\=3\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article13874034\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14}}{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-08\-27\|title\=Mining in New South Wales.\|pages\=502\|work\=Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1871 \- 1912\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162189895\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14}} [thumb\|244x244px\|Tommy Governor, discoverer of the silver\-lead deposit.In](/wiki/File:Tommy_Governor_%28Sydney_Mail_Sat_27_Aug_1892%2C_Page_481%29.jpg "Tommy Governor (Sydney Mail Sat 27 Aug 1892, Page 481).jpg") 1891, [Free Trader](/wiki/Free_Trade_Party "Free Trade Party") politician, gold\-mining entrepreneur, and director of the Mount Stewart Lead and Silver Mining Company, [Charles Lancelot Garland](/wiki/Charles_Garland_%28Australian_politician%29 "Charles Garland (Australian politician)"), retired as the member for [Carcoar](/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Carcoar "Electoral district of Carcoar") and bought {{convert\|80\|acres\|disp\=flip}}, at what is now Leadville, immediately to the east of the Mount Stewart mine site. He subdivided the land into 250 town allotments. The new 'private town' of Leadville took its name from another silver\-lead mining town, [Leadville, Colorado](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado "Leadville, Colorado"). Private ownership of the town was the reason that Leadville was a 'town', while nearby Dunedoo and Coolah were officially only 'villages'. The streets of the new town were named after directors of the Mount Stewart mine—Clarke, Garland, Cox, Channon, Stewart, Plumb—and others—Denham, Davis (a mine manager), and Robinson.The growth of Leadville caused [Denison Town](/wiki/Denison_Town%2C_New_South_Wales "Denison Town, New South Wales") to fade away, as business migrated to the new town;{{Cite book\|last\=Leadville Reunion Committee\|title\=A Brief History of Leadville 1888 to 1987\|date\=28 March 1987\|location\=Copy held by National Library of Australia}} One of those to move was storekeeper, William Latimer.{{Cite news\|date\=1913\-07\-10\|title\=Local Brevities\|pages\=30\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157725650\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}}{{Cite news\|date\=1896\-07\-10\|title\=FIRE AT MUDGEE.\|pages\=29\|work\=Albury Banner and Wodonga Express (NSW : 1871 \- 1938\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article99433720\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}} Mining at Leadville occurred in three distinct phases, 1888 to 1894, 1913 to 1935, and 1950 to 1952\. Beginning in 1888, silver and lead ore was mined. In 1889, the Mount Steward mine shaft had reached a depth of {{convert\|255\|ft\|disp\=flip}} and was driving east and west from the {{convert\|250\|ft\|disp\=flip}} level. In 1890, the Mount Stewart Mining Lead and Silver Mining Company was floated.{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-08\-27\|title\=LEADVILLE—THE MOUNT STEWART SILVER MINE.\|pages\=484\|work\=Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1871 \- 1912\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162190022\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14}} For fourteen months, from early 1892, there was also a smelter at Leadville, which produced 1,539 tons of lead and {{convert\|292093\|ozt\|kg\|0\|disp\=flip}} of silver, from 15,000 tons of ore. The smelter had an 80\-ton "water jacket furnace" (a cold\-blast furnace), with {{convert\|25\|hp\|disp\=flip}} steam\-driven blast engine, and a {{convert\|50\|ft\|disp\=flip}} high brick chimney. The furnace used coke—brought from Newcastle to Mudgee by rail and then carted from there to Leadville, an expensive proposition—supplemented by locally burned charcoal. The fortunate accidental discovery of a deposit of limestone, within the mine itself, provided a local source of limestone for flux used in the furnace. The initial success of the Mount Stewart Mine prompted others to explore and take up leases in the area.{{Cite news\|date\=1891\-10\-03\|title\=THE MINER.\|pages\=24\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71257986\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}} A second mine, the Mount Steward Extended Mine—just north of the original Mount Stewart Mine and close to its smelter—was sunk in 1892 and a company floated to fund it; Garland was also a director of this company.{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-05\-30\|title\=Advertising \- PROSPECTUS OF THE MOUNT STEWART EXTENDED SILVER\-MINING CO., NO LIABILITY\|pages\=2\|work\=Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1883 \- 1930\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article236167881\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}} The Dynevor Silver and Gold Mining Co. was floated in Melbourne in 1891, and began to mine a deposit of sulphide ores approximately one kilometre/mile away from the Mount Stuart Mine.{{Cite news\|date\=1891\-02\-07\|title\=Miscellaneous.\|pages\=40\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71248886\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1891\-10\-03\|title\=THE MINER.\|pages\=24\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71257986\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1893\-04\-10\|title\=MINING INTELLIGENCE.\|pages\=9\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article13904119\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}} Storekeeper William Latimer's freehold paddock also became a mine.{{Cite web\|title\=Latimer Mine, Leadville, Bligh Co., New South Wales, Australia\|url\=https://www.mindat.org/loc\-203236\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18\|website\=www.mindat.org}} Three miles from Leadville, yet another company sank a shaft, the Mount Scott Mine, which seems never to have gone into production.{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-09\-17\|title\=\[BY TELEGRAPH.]\|pages\=13\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article13879437\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1907\-11\-20\|title\=THE FARMER.\|pages\=35\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71598737\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1906\-01\-18\|title\=Mt. Scott Silver Lead Mining Company.\|pages\=3\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157620041\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1910\-04\-20\|title\=MT. SCOTT SILVER\-LEAD MINING COMPANY, LIMITED (IN LIQUIDATION).\|pages\=2244\|work\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \- 2001\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article227420377\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite web\|title\=Mount Scott Mine, Leadville, Bligh Co., New South Wales, Australia\|url\=https://www.mindat.org/loc\-28494\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18\|website\=www.mindat.org}} Mining activity peaked in 1893, and with it the town's population—growing from 26 in 1891 to around 1000{{Cite news \|date\=1893\-03\-03 \|title\=Leadville. \|pages\=2 \|work\=Katoomba Times \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article194114839 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-04}}—before the silver price crashed in a [worldwide financial panic](/wiki/Panic_of_1893%23Silver "Panic of 1893#Silver"). By 1894, complicating the problem of the silver price, the carbonate ores at the Mount Stewart Mine were becoming exhausted, as miners reached the sulphide zone, consisting mainly of [iron pyrites](/wiki/Iron_pyrites "Iron pyrites") and [zinc sulphide](/wiki/Zinc_sulfide "Zinc sulfide"). Mining ceased around the end of 1894,{{Cite news\|date\=1895\-01\-12\|title\=Intercolonial Mining News New South Wales.\|pages\=17\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71224467\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} and also effectively ended land sales in the town, leaving Garland with many unsold town allotments.{{Cite news\|date\=1960\-05\-27\|title\=SHIRE OF COOLAH—SALE OF LAND FOR OVERDUE RATES\|pages\=1637\|work\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \- 2001\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article219906318\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}} [thumb\|220x220px\|Charles Lancelot Garland, founder of Leadville, politician, and mining entrepreneur, c.1899\.](/wiki/File:Charles_Lancelot_Garland_%2C_c._1899_%28Sydney_Mail%2C_17_Jun_1899_%2C_p1410%29.jpg "Charles Lancelot Garland , c. 1899 (Sydney Mail, 17 Jun 1899 , p1410).jpg") After silver\-lead mining ended, some ethnic\-Chinese shearers and [station hands](/wiki/Station_hand "Station hand") settled in the town, which had been vacated by the miners.{{Cite news\|date\=1936\-06\-25\|title\=STORY OF LEADVILLE\|pages\=17\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162108693\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1894\-12\-15\|title\=Turning the Tables.\|pages\=2\|work\=Bathurst Post (NSW : 1881 \- 1922\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article112729693\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} There was an ethnic\-Chinese presence in the town for some years.{{Cite news\|date\=1923\-06\-28\|title\=PASSING OF RESPECTED CHINESE STOREKEEPER.\|pages\=6\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155631311\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-16}}{{Cite news\|date\=1899\-08\-25\|title\=Coolah — Chinese Marriage — Concert — Polo Tournament.\|pages\=15\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article156355318\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-16}} Charles Garland bought the Mount Stewart Mine from the liquidator in 1898{{Cite news\|date\=1898\-06\-25\|title\=Sale of a Mine.\|pages\=25\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71287712\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14}} and was joined in the venture by James Channon, a Sydney manufacturer and mine owner.{{Cite news\|date\=1920\-12\-10\|title\=LEFT £99,172 \- A Sydney Manufacturer \- LATE JAMES CHANNON\|pages\=8\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article222655387\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} [Pyrite](/wiki/Pyrite "Pyrite") (iron pyrites) was used to make [sulphuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid"), providing a potential market. In 1913, a trial shipment of 100 tons of pyrite was sold.{{Cite news\|date\=1913\-06\-27\|title\=LEADVILLE.\|pages\=15\|work\=Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1883 \- 1930\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article240045847\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Garland was soon advocating—despite his earlier political stance in favour of [free trade](/wiki/Free_trade "Free trade")—the imposition of a duty on imported iron pyrites, claiming his mine would be a local source.{{Cite news\|date\=1914\-07\-11\|title\=INTERSTATE COMMISSION.\|pages\=22\|work\=Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 \- 1957\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article10795559\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1914\-07\-11\|title\=THE TARIFF.\|pages\=9\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article15522055\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Prior to 1920, the closest railway connection was at Craboon, on the [Gwabegar railway line](/wiki/Gwabegar_railway_line "Gwabegar railway line"). In 1913, the construction of a branch line from Craboon to Coolah—passing through Leadville and servicing the mines there—was already under active consideration. Garland advocated the new line, as a means to lower the cost of Leadville iron pyrites to [superphosphate](/wiki/Monocalcium_phosphate "Monocalcium phosphate") fertiliser manufacturers.{{Cite news\|date\=1913\-01\-31\|title\=DEVELOPING THE MINES.\|pages\=1\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article228705785\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite web\|title\=New Railways. \- Public Works Inquiries. \- Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\) \- 6 Feb 1913\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157714950\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15\|website\=Trove\|language\=en}} An act to build the line was passed in December 1915;{{Cite web\|last\=Parliament of New South Wales\|date\=21 December 1915\|title\=CRABOON TO COOLAH RAILWAY ACT. \- Act No. 50 1915\.\|url\=https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/pdf/asmade/act\-1915\-50}} it opened in March 1920\. In 1916, iron pyrites was shipped to the Wallaroo\-Mount Lyall Superphosphate Works, and in 1920 to the [Cockle Creek Smelter](/wiki/Cockle_Creek_Smelter "Cockle Creek Smelter"), over the new railway line. Around this time, in 1919, the population of Leadville and its surrounding area was still 772\.{{Cite news \|date\=1919\-03\-06 \|title\=Population of Mudgee police District. \|pages\=19 \|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157143655 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-04}} However, misfortune followed; Channon died in December 1920 and, on 14 October 1921, many buildings in the town and at the mine were damaged by a violent storm.{{Cite news\|date\=1921\-10\-17\|title\=Terrific Storm.\|pages\=12\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155489714\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Garland lost his earlier enthusiasm for operating the mine, and with it the support of the town.{{Cite news\|date\=1923\-08\-27\|title\=LEADVILLE GROWS AGGRESSIVE.\|pages\=10\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155626209\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} In late 1926, the "Leadville Mines"—consisting of the Mount Stewart, Grosvenor, and Extended Mines— were on the market, "For the purposes of winding up a partnership", presumably the partnership of Garland and Channon's heirs.{{Cite news\|date\=1926\-11\-18\|title\=UP FOR SALE\|pages\=14\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155941573\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Garland had lost interest in reopening the mine, by 1929, further angering the people of the town whose future prosperity depended upon it.{{Cite news\|date\=1929\-09\-03\|title\=IDLE MINE\|pages\=16\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article223508243\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Garland died in 1930\.{{Cite news\|date\=1930\-01\-09\|title\=OBITUARY. MR. C. L. GARLAND.\|pages\=12\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article16616533\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} In 1932 the Mount Stewart Syndicate reopened the mine and began shipping iron pyrites to Australian Fertilisers Limited at [Port Kembla](/wiki/Port_Kembla%2C_New_South_Wales "Port Kembla, New South Wales") but, in 1935, the mining ceased.{{Cite news\|date\=1932\-02\-09\|title\=MT. STEWART TO REOPEN\|pages\=2\|work\=Barrier Miner (Broken Hill, NSW : 1888 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article46640877\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} In 1934–1935, there had been a bitter [demarcation dispute](/wiki/Demarcation_dispute "Demarcation dispute") between the [Miners Federation](/wiki/Miners_Federation_of_Australia "Miners Federation of Australia") and the [Australian Workers Union](/wiki/Australian_Workers%27_Union "Australian Workers' Union"), at Leadville,{{Cite news\|date\=1934\-05\-04\|title\=NON\-MEMBER IS BARRED\|pages\=7\|work\=Labor Daily (Sydney, NSW : 1924 \- 1938\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article237467234\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1935\-06\-20\|title\=LEADVILLE.\|pages\=4\|work\=Queensland Times (Ipswich, Qld. : 1909 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article117426488\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1935\-07\-01\|title\=MINING UNIONS\|pages\=6\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162515776\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} and, in April 1935, there was suspected sabotage at the mine.{{Cite news\|date\=1935\-04\-11\|title\=BOILER BLOWS UP \- At Leadville Mine \- EXPLOSIVE SUSPECTED \- Work At A Standstill\|pages\=7\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162092972\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} The dispute may have been a factor in bringing about the mine's closure. However, it was another industrial dispute—at distant Port Kembla—that was held responsible for the cessation of iron pyrites mining at Leadville and putting 50 men out of work. Imminent reopening was anticipated—for some years—but did not occur.{{Cite news\|date\=1936\-04\-09\|title\=LEADVILLE MINE When Will It Reopen?\|pages\=8\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162104049\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1938\-07\-07\|title\=LEADVILLE MINE\|pages\=8\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162504407\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1941\-09\-11\|title\=Dunedoo District News MAY BE WORKING AGAIN Leadville Mines\|pages\=20\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157106446\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} In 1951, the Leadville Mining Company, produced a small amount of ore and concentrate and, in 1952, Mr R.H. Spence attempted to recover silver from the [mine tailings](/wiki/Mine_tailings "Mine tailings") using the [cyanide process](/wiki/Cyanide_process "Cyanide process"), unsuccessfully. That was the last mineral production at Leadville. After the First World War, two locations near Leadville, 'Pine Ridge' and 'Lawson Park', became [soldier\-settlement](/wiki/Soldier_settlement_%28Australia%29 "Soldier settlement (Australia)") areas. Consequently, a number of returned servicemen settled in the area. Leadville became a soldier\-settler town, during the inter\-war years, as mining declined. In 1935, Leadville had a population of 250 (the district 600\), a public school, post office, two hotels, two churches, bakery, butcher, billiard hall, fruiterer, newsagent, stock and station agent, a commercial store, a brand new community hall,{{Cite news\|date\=1935\-04\-11\|title\=LEADVILLE'S NEW HALL\|pages\=8\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162093189\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} and a passenger train from Sydney, every day except Saturday. Around 1960, the town experienced a serious decline, as businesses and services drifted away to Dunedoo. In 1960 and 1965, town allotments—including many still owned by Charles Garland's estate—were sold to recover unpaid [rates](/wiki/Rates_%28tax%29%23Australia "Rates (tax)#Australia").{{Cite news\|date\=1965\-09\-03\|title\=COOLAH SHIRE COUNCIL—SALE OF LAND FOR OVERDUE RATES\|pages\=2878\|work\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \- 2001\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article220296074\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}} The school—opened in 1892—closed in 1972\.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|title\=Leadville\|url\=https://nswgovschoolhistory.cese.nsw.gov.au/schoolHistory?schoolId\=4631\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-19\|website\=nswgovschoolhistory.cese.nsw.gov.au}} The post office—opened in 1891—closed in 1991\.{{Cite web \|title\=View Post Office Details \- Leadville NSW \|url\=http://www.phoenixauctions.com.au/cgi\-bin/wsPhoenix.sh/viewpodet.w?cdpo\=13237 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-04 \|website\=www.phoenixauctions.com.au}} Leadville railway station opened in 1920 and closed in 1975\. It was located just to the north of the town. The Coolah branch railway last carried trains in 1982\.{{Cite web\|title\=Coolah Branch\|url\=https://www.nswrail.net/lines/show.php?name\=NSW:coolah\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-13\|website\=www.nswrail.net}}{{Cite web\|title\=Leadville Station\|url\=https://www.nswrail.net/locations/show.php?name\=NSW:Leadville\&line\=NSW:coolah:0\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-13\|website\=www.nswrail.net}} For a time, a railway from Leadville to [Merriwa](/wiki/Merriwa%2C_New_South_Wales "Merriwa, New South Wales") was proposed as an alternative to the [Sandy Hollow to Maryvale railway](/wiki/Sandy_Hollow%E2%80%93Gulgong_railway_line "Sandy Hollow–Gulgong railway line"); in the end neither line would be completed.{{Cite news\|date\=1936\-05\-01\|title\=Fight Over New Railway\|pages\=19\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article231324705\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1936\-09\-25\|title\=Battle Of Rail Routes\|pages\=18\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article230023019\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} The town's most famous son was [Major\-General Sir Ivan Dougherty](/wiki/Ivan_Dougherty "Ivan Dougherty") (1907\-1998\). The continuation of Garland St, after it crosses the town's boundary, is named Sir Ivan Dougherty Drive in his honour.
[ "History\n-------", "### Aboriginal history", "The site of modern\\-day Leadville lies on the traditional lands of [Wiradjuri](/wiki/Wiradjuri \"Wiradjuri\") people, close to the lands of neighbouring [Kamilaroi](/wiki/Gamilaraay \"Gamilaraay\") people that lie to the north and east.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Brayshaw\\|first\\=Helen\\|date\\=1987\\|title\\=ABORIGINES OF THE HUNTER VALLEY \\- A Study of Colonial Records\\|url\\=https://downloads.newcastle.edu.au/library/cultural%20collections/pdf/brayshaw1987\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=SCONE \\& UPPER HUNTER HISTORICAL SOCIETY\\|location\\=SCONE, N.S.W.}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Studies \\|first\\=Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-10 \\|title\\=Map of Indigenous Australia \\|url\\=https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/map\\-indigenous\\-australia \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-04 \\|website\\=aiatsis.gov.au \\|language\\=en}} Early government surveyors were directed to use local language words for place names whenever possible{{Cite web\\|title\\=Indigenous and Minority Placenames Australian and International Perspectives \\- ANU\\|url\\=https://press\\-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p286811/html/ch12\\.xhtml?referer\\=\\&page\\=15\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-14\\|website\\=press\\-files.anu.edu.au\\|language\\=en}} and place names of surrounding settlements such as Dunedoo, Coolah, Goolma, Gulgong and Mudgee are settler interpretations of [Wiradjuri language](/wiki/Wiradjuri_language \"Wiradjuri language\") words. That tends to confirm that it is Wiradjuri country.", "### Mining town", "The origins of the town are associated with the nearby silver\\-lead ore deposits; the former Mount Stewart, Extended, Mount Scott, Grosvenor and Latimer Mines are nearby.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Leadville, Warrumbungle Shire, State of New South Wales, Australia\\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\\-2160457\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18\\|website\\=www.mindat.org}}", "An Aboriginal man, Tommy Governor—the father of [Jimmy Governor](/wiki/Jimmy_Governor \"Jimmy Governor\")—found some interesting rocks, near what would become Mount Stewart, and showed these to Mr. George Stewart. The rocks were [lead carbonate](/wiki/Lead_carbonate \"Lead carbonate\") and assays showed the presence of silver. Governor was later to complain that he had not received what he thought was fair compensation for his discovery.", "Mining commenced at Mount Stewart in 1888\\. For the first few years, the miners used nearby [Denison Town](/wiki/Denison_Town%2C_New_South_Wales \"Denison Town, New South Wales\") for supplies and services.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-08\\-05\\|title\\=MINING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.\\|pages\\=3\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article13874034\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-08\\-27\\|title\\=Mining in New South Wales.\\|pages\\=502\\|work\\=Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1871 \\- 1912\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162189895\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14}} [thumb\\|244x244px\\|Tommy Governor, discoverer of the silver\\-lead deposit.In](/wiki/File:Tommy_Governor_%28Sydney_Mail_Sat_27_Aug_1892%2C_Page_481%29.jpg \"Tommy Governor (Sydney Mail Sat 27 Aug 1892, Page 481).jpg\") 1891, [Free Trader](/wiki/Free_Trade_Party \"Free Trade Party\") politician, gold\\-mining entrepreneur, and director of the Mount Stewart Lead and Silver Mining Company, [Charles Lancelot Garland](/wiki/Charles_Garland_%28Australian_politician%29 \"Charles Garland (Australian politician)\"), retired as the member for [Carcoar](/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Carcoar \"Electoral district of Carcoar\") and bought {{convert\\|80\\|acres\\|disp\\=flip}}, at what is now Leadville, immediately to the east of the Mount Stewart mine site. He subdivided the land into 250 town allotments. The new 'private town' of Leadville took its name from another silver\\-lead mining town, [Leadville, Colorado](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado \"Leadville, Colorado\"). Private ownership of the town was the reason that Leadville was a 'town', while nearby Dunedoo and Coolah were officially only 'villages'. The streets of the new town were named after directors of the Mount Stewart mine—Clarke, Garland, Cox, Channon, Stewart, Plumb—and others—Denham, Davis (a mine manager), and Robinson.The growth of Leadville caused [Denison Town](/wiki/Denison_Town%2C_New_South_Wales \"Denison Town, New South Wales\") to fade away, as business migrated to the new town;{{Cite book\\|last\\=Leadville Reunion Committee\\|title\\=A Brief History of Leadville 1888 to 1987\\|date\\=28 March 1987\\|location\\=Copy held by National Library of Australia}} One of those to move was storekeeper, William Latimer.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1913\\-07\\-10\\|title\\=Local Brevities\\|pages\\=30\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157725650\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1896\\-07\\-10\\|title\\=FIRE AT MUDGEE.\\|pages\\=29\\|work\\=Albury Banner and Wodonga Express (NSW : 1871 \\- 1938\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article99433720\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}}", "Mining at Leadville occurred in three distinct phases, 1888 to 1894, 1913 to 1935, and 1950 to 1952\\.", "Beginning in 1888, silver and lead ore was mined. In 1889, the Mount Steward mine shaft had reached a depth of {{convert\\|255\\|ft\\|disp\\=flip}} and was driving east and west from the {{convert\\|250\\|ft\\|disp\\=flip}} level. In 1890, the Mount Stewart Mining Lead and Silver Mining Company was floated.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-08\\-27\\|title\\=LEADVILLE—THE MOUNT STEWART SILVER MINE.\\|pages\\=484\\|work\\=Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1871 \\- 1912\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162190022\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14}} For fourteen months, from early 1892, there was also a smelter at Leadville, which produced 1,539 tons of lead and {{convert\\|292093\\|ozt\\|kg\\|0\\|disp\\=flip}} of silver, from 15,000 tons of ore. The smelter had an 80\\-ton \"water jacket furnace\" (a cold\\-blast furnace), with {{convert\\|25\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} steam\\-driven blast engine, and a {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|disp\\=flip}} high brick chimney. The furnace used coke—brought from Newcastle to Mudgee by rail and then carted from there to Leadville, an expensive proposition—supplemented by locally burned charcoal. The fortunate accidental discovery of a deposit of limestone, within the mine itself, provided a local source of limestone for flux used in the furnace.", "The initial success of the Mount Stewart Mine prompted others to explore and take up leases in the area.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1891\\-10\\-03\\|title\\=THE MINER.\\|pages\\=24\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71257986\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}} A second mine, the Mount Steward Extended Mine—just north of the original Mount Stewart Mine and close to its smelter—was sunk in 1892 and a company floated to fund it; Garland was also a director of this company.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-05\\-30\\|title\\=Advertising \\- PROSPECTUS OF THE MOUNT STEWART EXTENDED SILVER\\-MINING CO., NO LIABILITY\\|pages\\=2\\|work\\=Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1883 \\- 1930\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article236167881\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}} The Dynevor Silver and Gold Mining Co. was floated in Melbourne in 1891, and began to mine a deposit of sulphide ores approximately one kilometre/mile away from the Mount Stuart Mine.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1891\\-02\\-07\\|title\\=Miscellaneous.\\|pages\\=40\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71248886\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1891\\-10\\-03\\|title\\=THE MINER.\\|pages\\=24\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71257986\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1893\\-04\\-10\\|title\\=MINING INTELLIGENCE.\\|pages\\=9\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article13904119\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}} Storekeeper William Latimer's freehold paddock also became a mine.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Latimer Mine, Leadville, Bligh Co., New South Wales, Australia\\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/loc\\-203236\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18\\|website\\=www.mindat.org}} Three miles from Leadville, yet another company sank a shaft, the Mount Scott Mine, which seems never to have gone into production.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-09\\-17\\|title\\=\\[BY TELEGRAPH.]\\|pages\\=13\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article13879437\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1907\\-11\\-20\\|title\\=THE FARMER.\\|pages\\=35\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71598737\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1906\\-01\\-18\\|title\\=Mt. Scott Silver Lead Mining Company.\\|pages\\=3\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157620041\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1910\\-04\\-20\\|title\\=MT. SCOTT SILVER\\-LEAD MINING COMPANY, LIMITED (IN LIQUIDATION).\\|pages\\=2244\\|work\\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \\- 2001\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article227420377\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Mount Scott Mine, Leadville, Bligh Co., New South Wales, Australia\\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/loc\\-28494\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18\\|website\\=www.mindat.org}}", "Mining activity peaked in 1893, and with it the town's population—growing from 26 in 1891 to around 1000{{Cite news \\|date\\=1893\\-03\\-03 \\|title\\=Leadville. \\|pages\\=2 \\|work\\=Katoomba Times \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article194114839 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-04}}—before the silver price crashed in a [worldwide financial panic](/wiki/Panic_of_1893%23Silver \"Panic of 1893#Silver\"). By 1894, complicating the problem of the silver price, the carbonate ores at the Mount Stewart Mine were becoming exhausted, as miners reached the sulphide zone, consisting mainly of [iron pyrites](/wiki/Iron_pyrites \"Iron pyrites\") and [zinc sulphide](/wiki/Zinc_sulfide \"Zinc sulfide\"). Mining ceased around the end of 1894,{{Cite news\\|date\\=1895\\-01\\-12\\|title\\=Intercolonial Mining News New South Wales.\\|pages\\=17\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71224467\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} and also effectively ended land sales in the town, leaving Garland with many unsold town allotments.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1960\\-05\\-27\\|title\\=SHIRE OF COOLAH—SALE OF LAND FOR OVERDUE RATES\\|pages\\=1637\\|work\\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \\- 2001\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article219906318\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}}\n[thumb\\|220x220px\\|Charles Lancelot Garland, founder of Leadville, politician, and mining entrepreneur, c.1899\\.](/wiki/File:Charles_Lancelot_Garland_%2C_c._1899_%28Sydney_Mail%2C_17_Jun_1899_%2C_p1410%29.jpg \"Charles Lancelot Garland , c. 1899 (Sydney Mail, 17 Jun 1899 , p1410).jpg\")\nAfter silver\\-lead mining ended, some ethnic\\-Chinese shearers and [station hands](/wiki/Station_hand \"Station hand\") settled in the town, which had been vacated by the miners.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1936\\-06\\-25\\|title\\=STORY OF LEADVILLE\\|pages\\=17\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162108693\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1894\\-12\\-15\\|title\\=Turning the Tables.\\|pages\\=2\\|work\\=Bathurst Post (NSW : 1881 \\- 1922\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article112729693\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} There was an ethnic\\-Chinese presence in the town for some years.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1923\\-06\\-28\\|title\\=PASSING OF RESPECTED CHINESE STOREKEEPER.\\|pages\\=6\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155631311\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-16}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1899\\-08\\-25\\|title\\=Coolah — Chinese Marriage — Concert — Polo Tournament.\\|pages\\=15\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article156355318\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-16}}", "Charles Garland bought the Mount Stewart Mine from the liquidator in 1898{{Cite news\\|date\\=1898\\-06\\-25\\|title\\=Sale of a Mine.\\|pages\\=25\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71287712\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14}} and was joined in the venture by James Channon, a Sydney manufacturer and mine owner.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1920\\-12\\-10\\|title\\=LEFT £99,172 \\- A Sydney Manufacturer \\- LATE JAMES CHANNON\\|pages\\=8\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article222655387\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} [Pyrite](/wiki/Pyrite \"Pyrite\") (iron pyrites) was used to make [sulphuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid \"Sulfuric acid\"), providing a potential market. In 1913, a trial shipment of 100 tons of pyrite was sold.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1913\\-06\\-27\\|title\\=LEADVILLE.\\|pages\\=15\\|work\\=Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1883 \\- 1930\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article240045847\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} Garland was soon advocating—despite his earlier political stance in favour of [free trade](/wiki/Free_trade \"Free trade\")—the imposition of a duty on imported iron pyrites, claiming his mine would be a local source.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1914\\-07\\-11\\|title\\=INTERSTATE COMMISSION.\\|pages\\=22\\|work\\=Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 \\- 1957\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article10795559\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1914\\-07\\-11\\|title\\=THE TARIFF.\\|pages\\=9\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article15522055\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "Prior to 1920, the closest railway connection was at Craboon, on the [Gwabegar railway line](/wiki/Gwabegar_railway_line \"Gwabegar railway line\"). In 1913, the construction of a branch line from Craboon to Coolah—passing through Leadville and servicing the mines there—was already under active consideration. Garland advocated the new line, as a means to lower the cost of Leadville iron pyrites to [superphosphate](/wiki/Monocalcium_phosphate \"Monocalcium phosphate\") fertiliser manufacturers.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1913\\-01\\-31\\|title\\=DEVELOPING THE MINES.\\|pages\\=1\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article228705785\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=New Railways. \\- Public Works Inquiries. \\- Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\) \\- 6 Feb 1913\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157714950\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Trove\\|language\\=en}} An act to build the line was passed in December 1915;{{Cite web\\|last\\=Parliament of New South Wales\\|date\\=21 December 1915\\|title\\=CRABOON TO COOLAH RAILWAY ACT. \\- Act No. 50 1915\\.\\|url\\=https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/pdf/asmade/act\\-1915\\-50}} it opened in March 1920\\.", "In 1916, iron pyrites was shipped to the Wallaroo\\-Mount Lyall Superphosphate Works, and in 1920 to the [Cockle Creek Smelter](/wiki/Cockle_Creek_Smelter \"Cockle Creek Smelter\"), over the new railway line. Around this time, in 1919, the population of Leadville and its surrounding area was still 772\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=1919\\-03\\-06 \\|title\\=Population of Mudgee police District. \\|pages\\=19 \\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157143655 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-04}} However, misfortune followed; Channon died in December 1920 and, on 14 October 1921, many buildings in the town and at the mine were damaged by a violent storm.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1921\\-10\\-17\\|title\\=Terrific Storm.\\|pages\\=12\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155489714\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} Garland lost his earlier enthusiasm for operating the mine, and with it the support of the town.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1923\\-08\\-27\\|title\\=LEADVILLE GROWS AGGRESSIVE.\\|pages\\=10\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155626209\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "In late 1926, the \"Leadville Mines\"—consisting of the Mount Stewart, Grosvenor, and Extended Mines— were on the market, \"For the purposes of winding up a partnership\", presumably the partnership of Garland and Channon's heirs.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1926\\-11\\-18\\|title\\=UP FOR SALE\\|pages\\=14\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155941573\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} Garland had lost interest in reopening the mine, by 1929, further angering the people of the town whose future prosperity depended upon it.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1929\\-09\\-03\\|title\\=IDLE MINE\\|pages\\=16\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article223508243\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} Garland died in 1930\\.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1930\\-01\\-09\\|title\\=OBITUARY. MR. C. L. GARLAND.\\|pages\\=12\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article16616533\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "In 1932 the Mount Stewart Syndicate reopened the mine and began shipping iron pyrites to Australian Fertilisers Limited at [Port Kembla](/wiki/Port_Kembla%2C_New_South_Wales \"Port Kembla, New South Wales\") but, in 1935, the mining ceased.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1932\\-02\\-09\\|title\\=MT. STEWART TO REOPEN\\|pages\\=2\\|work\\=Barrier Miner (Broken Hill, NSW : 1888 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article46640877\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} In 1934–1935, there had been a bitter [demarcation dispute](/wiki/Demarcation_dispute \"Demarcation dispute\") between the [Miners Federation](/wiki/Miners_Federation_of_Australia \"Miners Federation of Australia\") and the [Australian Workers Union](/wiki/Australian_Workers%27_Union \"Australian Workers' Union\"), at Leadville,{{Cite news\\|date\\=1934\\-05\\-04\\|title\\=NON\\-MEMBER IS BARRED\\|pages\\=7\\|work\\=Labor Daily (Sydney, NSW : 1924 \\- 1938\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article237467234\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1935\\-06\\-20\\|title\\=LEADVILLE.\\|pages\\=4\\|work\\=Queensland Times (Ipswich, Qld. : 1909 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article117426488\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1935\\-07\\-01\\|title\\=MINING UNIONS\\|pages\\=6\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162515776\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} and, in April 1935, there was suspected sabotage at the mine.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1935\\-04\\-11\\|title\\=BOILER BLOWS UP \\- At Leadville Mine \\- EXPLOSIVE SUSPECTED \\- Work At A Standstill\\|pages\\=7\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162092972\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} The dispute may have been a factor in bringing about the mine's closure. However, it was another industrial dispute—at distant Port Kembla—that was held responsible for the cessation of iron pyrites mining at Leadville and putting 50 men out of work. Imminent reopening was anticipated—for some years—but did not occur.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1936\\-04\\-09\\|title\\=LEADVILLE MINE When Will It Reopen?\\|pages\\=8\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162104049\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1938\\-07\\-07\\|title\\=LEADVILLE MINE\\|pages\\=8\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162504407\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1941\\-09\\-11\\|title\\=Dunedoo District News MAY BE WORKING AGAIN Leadville Mines\\|pages\\=20\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157106446\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "In 1951, the Leadville Mining Company, produced a small amount of ore and concentrate and, in 1952, Mr R.H. Spence attempted to recover silver from the [mine tailings](/wiki/Mine_tailings \"Mine tailings\") using the [cyanide process](/wiki/Cyanide_process \"Cyanide process\"), unsuccessfully. That was the last mineral production at Leadville.", "After the First World War, two locations near Leadville, 'Pine Ridge' and 'Lawson Park', became [soldier\\-settlement](/wiki/Soldier_settlement_%28Australia%29 \"Soldier settlement (Australia)\") areas. Consequently, a number of returned servicemen settled in the area. Leadville became a soldier\\-settler town, during the inter\\-war years, as mining declined.", "In 1935, Leadville had a population of 250 (the district 600\\), a public school, post office, two hotels, two churches, bakery, butcher, billiard hall, fruiterer, newsagent, stock and station agent, a commercial store, a brand new community hall,{{Cite news\\|date\\=1935\\-04\\-11\\|title\\=LEADVILLE'S NEW HALL\\|pages\\=8\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162093189\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} and a passenger train from Sydney, every day except Saturday.", "Around 1960, the town experienced a serious decline, as businesses and services drifted away to Dunedoo. In 1960 and 1965, town allotments—including many still owned by Charles Garland's estate—were sold to recover unpaid [rates](/wiki/Rates_%28tax%29%23Australia \"Rates (tax)#Australia\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=1965\\-09\\-03\\|title\\=COOLAH SHIRE COUNCIL—SALE OF LAND FOR OVERDUE RATES\\|pages\\=2878\\|work\\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \\- 2001\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article220296074\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}} The school—opened in 1892—closed in 1972\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|title\\=Leadville\\|url\\=https://nswgovschoolhistory.cese.nsw.gov.au/schoolHistory?schoolId\\=4631\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-19\\|website\\=nswgovschoolhistory.cese.nsw.gov.au}} The post office—opened in 1891—closed in 1991\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=View Post Office Details \\- Leadville NSW \\|url\\=http://www.phoenixauctions.com.au/cgi\\-bin/wsPhoenix.sh/viewpodet.w?cdpo\\=13237 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-04 \\|website\\=www.phoenixauctions.com.au}}", "Leadville railway station opened in 1920 and closed in 1975\\. It was located just to the north of the town. The Coolah branch railway last carried trains in 1982\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Coolah Branch\\|url\\=https://www.nswrail.net/lines/show.php?name\\=NSW:coolah\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-13\\|website\\=www.nswrail.net}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Leadville Station\\|url\\=https://www.nswrail.net/locations/show.php?name\\=NSW:Leadville\\&line\\=NSW:coolah:0\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-13\\|website\\=www.nswrail.net}} For a time, a railway from Leadville to [Merriwa](/wiki/Merriwa%2C_New_South_Wales \"Merriwa, New South Wales\") was proposed as an alternative to the [Sandy Hollow to Maryvale railway](/wiki/Sandy_Hollow%E2%80%93Gulgong_railway_line \"Sandy Hollow–Gulgong railway line\"); in the end neither line would be completed.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1936\\-05\\-01\\|title\\=Fight Over New Railway\\|pages\\=19\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article231324705\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1936\\-09\\-25\\|title\\=Battle Of Rail Routes\\|pages\\=18\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article230023019\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "The town's most famous son was [Major\\-General Sir Ivan Dougherty](/wiki/Ivan_Dougherty \"Ivan Dougherty\") (1907\\-1998\\). The continuation of Garland St, after it crosses the town's boundary, is named Sir Ivan Dougherty Drive in his honour.", "" ]
### Mining town The origins of the town are associated with the nearby silver\-lead ore deposits; the former Mount Stewart, Extended, Mount Scott, Grosvenor and Latimer Mines are nearby.{{Cite web\|title\=Leadville, Warrumbungle Shire, State of New South Wales, Australia\|url\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\-2160457\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18\|website\=www.mindat.org}} An Aboriginal man, Tommy Governor—the father of [Jimmy Governor](/wiki/Jimmy_Governor "Jimmy Governor")—found some interesting rocks, near what would become Mount Stewart, and showed these to Mr. George Stewart. The rocks were [lead carbonate](/wiki/Lead_carbonate "Lead carbonate") and assays showed the presence of silver. Governor was later to complain that he had not received what he thought was fair compensation for his discovery. Mining commenced at Mount Stewart in 1888\. For the first few years, the miners used nearby [Denison Town](/wiki/Denison_Town%2C_New_South_Wales "Denison Town, New South Wales") for supplies and services.{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-08\-05\|title\=MINING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.\|pages\=3\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article13874034\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14}}{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-08\-27\|title\=Mining in New South Wales.\|pages\=502\|work\=Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1871 \- 1912\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162189895\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14}} [thumb\|244x244px\|Tommy Governor, discoverer of the silver\-lead deposit.In](/wiki/File:Tommy_Governor_%28Sydney_Mail_Sat_27_Aug_1892%2C_Page_481%29.jpg "Tommy Governor (Sydney Mail Sat 27 Aug 1892, Page 481).jpg") 1891, [Free Trader](/wiki/Free_Trade_Party "Free Trade Party") politician, gold\-mining entrepreneur, and director of the Mount Stewart Lead and Silver Mining Company, [Charles Lancelot Garland](/wiki/Charles_Garland_%28Australian_politician%29 "Charles Garland (Australian politician)"), retired as the member for [Carcoar](/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Carcoar "Electoral district of Carcoar") and bought {{convert\|80\|acres\|disp\=flip}}, at what is now Leadville, immediately to the east of the Mount Stewart mine site. He subdivided the land into 250 town allotments. The new 'private town' of Leadville took its name from another silver\-lead mining town, [Leadville, Colorado](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado "Leadville, Colorado"). Private ownership of the town was the reason that Leadville was a 'town', while nearby Dunedoo and Coolah were officially only 'villages'. The streets of the new town were named after directors of the Mount Stewart mine—Clarke, Garland, Cox, Channon, Stewart, Plumb—and others—Denham, Davis (a mine manager), and Robinson.The growth of Leadville caused [Denison Town](/wiki/Denison_Town%2C_New_South_Wales "Denison Town, New South Wales") to fade away, as business migrated to the new town;{{Cite book\|last\=Leadville Reunion Committee\|title\=A Brief History of Leadville 1888 to 1987\|date\=28 March 1987\|location\=Copy held by National Library of Australia}} One of those to move was storekeeper, William Latimer.{{Cite news\|date\=1913\-07\-10\|title\=Local Brevities\|pages\=30\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157725650\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}}{{Cite news\|date\=1896\-07\-10\|title\=FIRE AT MUDGEE.\|pages\=29\|work\=Albury Banner and Wodonga Express (NSW : 1871 \- 1938\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article99433720\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}} Mining at Leadville occurred in three distinct phases, 1888 to 1894, 1913 to 1935, and 1950 to 1952\. Beginning in 1888, silver and lead ore was mined. In 1889, the Mount Steward mine shaft had reached a depth of {{convert\|255\|ft\|disp\=flip}} and was driving east and west from the {{convert\|250\|ft\|disp\=flip}} level. In 1890, the Mount Stewart Mining Lead and Silver Mining Company was floated.{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-08\-27\|title\=LEADVILLE—THE MOUNT STEWART SILVER MINE.\|pages\=484\|work\=Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1871 \- 1912\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162190022\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14}} For fourteen months, from early 1892, there was also a smelter at Leadville, which produced 1,539 tons of lead and {{convert\|292093\|ozt\|kg\|0\|disp\=flip}} of silver, from 15,000 tons of ore. The smelter had an 80\-ton "water jacket furnace" (a cold\-blast furnace), with {{convert\|25\|hp\|disp\=flip}} steam\-driven blast engine, and a {{convert\|50\|ft\|disp\=flip}} high brick chimney. The furnace used coke—brought from Newcastle to Mudgee by rail and then carted from there to Leadville, an expensive proposition—supplemented by locally burned charcoal. The fortunate accidental discovery of a deposit of limestone, within the mine itself, provided a local source of limestone for flux used in the furnace. The initial success of the Mount Stewart Mine prompted others to explore and take up leases in the area.{{Cite news\|date\=1891\-10\-03\|title\=THE MINER.\|pages\=24\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71257986\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}} A second mine, the Mount Steward Extended Mine—just north of the original Mount Stewart Mine and close to its smelter—was sunk in 1892 and a company floated to fund it; Garland was also a director of this company.{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-05\-30\|title\=Advertising \- PROSPECTUS OF THE MOUNT STEWART EXTENDED SILVER\-MINING CO., NO LIABILITY\|pages\=2\|work\=Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1883 \- 1930\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article236167881\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}} The Dynevor Silver and Gold Mining Co. was floated in Melbourne in 1891, and began to mine a deposit of sulphide ores approximately one kilometre/mile away from the Mount Stuart Mine.{{Cite news\|date\=1891\-02\-07\|title\=Miscellaneous.\|pages\=40\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71248886\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1891\-10\-03\|title\=THE MINER.\|pages\=24\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71257986\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1893\-04\-10\|title\=MINING INTELLIGENCE.\|pages\=9\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article13904119\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}} Storekeeper William Latimer's freehold paddock also became a mine.{{Cite web\|title\=Latimer Mine, Leadville, Bligh Co., New South Wales, Australia\|url\=https://www.mindat.org/loc\-203236\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18\|website\=www.mindat.org}} Three miles from Leadville, yet another company sank a shaft, the Mount Scott Mine, which seems never to have gone into production.{{Cite news\|date\=1892\-09\-17\|title\=\[BY TELEGRAPH.]\|pages\=13\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article13879437\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1907\-11\-20\|title\=THE FARMER.\|pages\=35\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71598737\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1906\-01\-18\|title\=Mt. Scott Silver Lead Mining Company.\|pages\=3\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157620041\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite news\|date\=1910\-04\-20\|title\=MT. SCOTT SILVER\-LEAD MINING COMPANY, LIMITED (IN LIQUIDATION).\|pages\=2244\|work\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \- 2001\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article227420377\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-17}}{{Cite web\|title\=Mount Scott Mine, Leadville, Bligh Co., New South Wales, Australia\|url\=https://www.mindat.org/loc\-28494\.html\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18\|website\=www.mindat.org}} Mining activity peaked in 1893, and with it the town's population—growing from 26 in 1891 to around 1000{{Cite news \|date\=1893\-03\-03 \|title\=Leadville. \|pages\=2 \|work\=Katoomba Times \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article194114839 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-04}}—before the silver price crashed in a [worldwide financial panic](/wiki/Panic_of_1893%23Silver "Panic of 1893#Silver"). By 1894, complicating the problem of the silver price, the carbonate ores at the Mount Stewart Mine were becoming exhausted, as miners reached the sulphide zone, consisting mainly of [iron pyrites](/wiki/Iron_pyrites "Iron pyrites") and [zinc sulphide](/wiki/Zinc_sulfide "Zinc sulfide"). Mining ceased around the end of 1894,{{Cite news\|date\=1895\-01\-12\|title\=Intercolonial Mining News New South Wales.\|pages\=17\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71224467\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} and also effectively ended land sales in the town, leaving Garland with many unsold town allotments.{{Cite news\|date\=1960\-05\-27\|title\=SHIRE OF COOLAH—SALE OF LAND FOR OVERDUE RATES\|pages\=1637\|work\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \- 2001\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article219906318\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}} [thumb\|220x220px\|Charles Lancelot Garland, founder of Leadville, politician, and mining entrepreneur, c.1899\.](/wiki/File:Charles_Lancelot_Garland_%2C_c._1899_%28Sydney_Mail%2C_17_Jun_1899_%2C_p1410%29.jpg "Charles Lancelot Garland , c. 1899 (Sydney Mail, 17 Jun 1899 , p1410).jpg") After silver\-lead mining ended, some ethnic\-Chinese shearers and [station hands](/wiki/Station_hand "Station hand") settled in the town, which had been vacated by the miners.{{Cite news\|date\=1936\-06\-25\|title\=STORY OF LEADVILLE\|pages\=17\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162108693\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1894\-12\-15\|title\=Turning the Tables.\|pages\=2\|work\=Bathurst Post (NSW : 1881 \- 1922\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article112729693\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} There was an ethnic\-Chinese presence in the town for some years.{{Cite news\|date\=1923\-06\-28\|title\=PASSING OF RESPECTED CHINESE STOREKEEPER.\|pages\=6\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155631311\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-16}}{{Cite news\|date\=1899\-08\-25\|title\=Coolah — Chinese Marriage — Concert — Polo Tournament.\|pages\=15\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article156355318\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-16}} Charles Garland bought the Mount Stewart Mine from the liquidator in 1898{{Cite news\|date\=1898\-06\-25\|title\=Sale of a Mine.\|pages\=25\|work\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \- 1907\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article71287712\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-14}} and was joined in the venture by James Channon, a Sydney manufacturer and mine owner.{{Cite news\|date\=1920\-12\-10\|title\=LEFT £99,172 \- A Sydney Manufacturer \- LATE JAMES CHANNON\|pages\=8\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article222655387\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} [Pyrite](/wiki/Pyrite "Pyrite") (iron pyrites) was used to make [sulphuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid"), providing a potential market. In 1913, a trial shipment of 100 tons of pyrite was sold.{{Cite news\|date\=1913\-06\-27\|title\=LEADVILLE.\|pages\=15\|work\=Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1883 \- 1930\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article240045847\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Garland was soon advocating—despite his earlier political stance in favour of [free trade](/wiki/Free_trade "Free trade")—the imposition of a duty on imported iron pyrites, claiming his mine would be a local source.{{Cite news\|date\=1914\-07\-11\|title\=INTERSTATE COMMISSION.\|pages\=22\|work\=Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 \- 1957\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article10795559\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1914\-07\-11\|title\=THE TARIFF.\|pages\=9\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article15522055\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Prior to 1920, the closest railway connection was at Craboon, on the [Gwabegar railway line](/wiki/Gwabegar_railway_line "Gwabegar railway line"). In 1913, the construction of a branch line from Craboon to Coolah—passing through Leadville and servicing the mines there—was already under active consideration. Garland advocated the new line, as a means to lower the cost of Leadville iron pyrites to [superphosphate](/wiki/Monocalcium_phosphate "Monocalcium phosphate") fertiliser manufacturers.{{Cite news\|date\=1913\-01\-31\|title\=DEVELOPING THE MINES.\|pages\=1\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article228705785\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite web\|title\=New Railways. \- Public Works Inquiries. \- Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\) \- 6 Feb 1913\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157714950\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15\|website\=Trove\|language\=en}} An act to build the line was passed in December 1915;{{Cite web\|last\=Parliament of New South Wales\|date\=21 December 1915\|title\=CRABOON TO COOLAH RAILWAY ACT. \- Act No. 50 1915\.\|url\=https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/pdf/asmade/act\-1915\-50}} it opened in March 1920\. In 1916, iron pyrites was shipped to the Wallaroo\-Mount Lyall Superphosphate Works, and in 1920 to the [Cockle Creek Smelter](/wiki/Cockle_Creek_Smelter "Cockle Creek Smelter"), over the new railway line. Around this time, in 1919, the population of Leadville and its surrounding area was still 772\.{{Cite news \|date\=1919\-03\-06 \|title\=Population of Mudgee police District. \|pages\=19 \|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157143655 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-04}} However, misfortune followed; Channon died in December 1920 and, on 14 October 1921, many buildings in the town and at the mine were damaged by a violent storm.{{Cite news\|date\=1921\-10\-17\|title\=Terrific Storm.\|pages\=12\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155489714\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Garland lost his earlier enthusiasm for operating the mine, and with it the support of the town.{{Cite news\|date\=1923\-08\-27\|title\=LEADVILLE GROWS AGGRESSIVE.\|pages\=10\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155626209\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} In late 1926, the "Leadville Mines"—consisting of the Mount Stewart, Grosvenor, and Extended Mines— were on the market, "For the purposes of winding up a partnership", presumably the partnership of Garland and Channon's heirs.{{Cite news\|date\=1926\-11\-18\|title\=UP FOR SALE\|pages\=14\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155941573\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Garland had lost interest in reopening the mine, by 1929, further angering the people of the town whose future prosperity depended upon it.{{Cite news\|date\=1929\-09\-03\|title\=IDLE MINE\|pages\=16\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article223508243\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} Garland died in 1930\.{{Cite news\|date\=1930\-01\-09\|title\=OBITUARY. MR. C. L. GARLAND.\|pages\=12\|work\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article16616533\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} In 1932 the Mount Stewart Syndicate reopened the mine and began shipping iron pyrites to Australian Fertilisers Limited at [Port Kembla](/wiki/Port_Kembla%2C_New_South_Wales "Port Kembla, New South Wales") but, in 1935, the mining ceased.{{Cite news\|date\=1932\-02\-09\|title\=MT. STEWART TO REOPEN\|pages\=2\|work\=Barrier Miner (Broken Hill, NSW : 1888 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article46640877\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} In 1934–1935, there had been a bitter [demarcation dispute](/wiki/Demarcation_dispute "Demarcation dispute") between the [Miners Federation](/wiki/Miners_Federation_of_Australia "Miners Federation of Australia") and the [Australian Workers Union](/wiki/Australian_Workers%27_Union "Australian Workers' Union"), at Leadville,{{Cite news\|date\=1934\-05\-04\|title\=NON\-MEMBER IS BARRED\|pages\=7\|work\=Labor Daily (Sydney, NSW : 1924 \- 1938\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article237467234\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1935\-06\-20\|title\=LEADVILLE.\|pages\=4\|work\=Queensland Times (Ipswich, Qld. : 1909 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article117426488\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1935\-07\-01\|title\=MINING UNIONS\|pages\=6\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162515776\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} and, in April 1935, there was suspected sabotage at the mine.{{Cite news\|date\=1935\-04\-11\|title\=BOILER BLOWS UP \- At Leadville Mine \- EXPLOSIVE SUSPECTED \- Work At A Standstill\|pages\=7\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162092972\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} The dispute may have been a factor in bringing about the mine's closure. However, it was another industrial dispute—at distant Port Kembla—that was held responsible for the cessation of iron pyrites mining at Leadville and putting 50 men out of work. Imminent reopening was anticipated—for some years—but did not occur.{{Cite news\|date\=1936\-04\-09\|title\=LEADVILLE MINE When Will It Reopen?\|pages\=8\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162104049\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1938\-07\-07\|title\=LEADVILLE MINE\|pages\=8\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162504407\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1941\-09\-11\|title\=Dunedoo District News MAY BE WORKING AGAIN Leadville Mines\|pages\=20\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article157106446\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} In 1951, the Leadville Mining Company, produced a small amount of ore and concentrate and, in 1952, Mr R.H. Spence attempted to recover silver from the [mine tailings](/wiki/Mine_tailings "Mine tailings") using the [cyanide process](/wiki/Cyanide_process "Cyanide process"), unsuccessfully. That was the last mineral production at Leadville. After the First World War, two locations near Leadville, 'Pine Ridge' and 'Lawson Park', became [soldier\-settlement](/wiki/Soldier_settlement_%28Australia%29 "Soldier settlement (Australia)") areas. Consequently, a number of returned servicemen settled in the area. Leadville became a soldier\-settler town, during the inter\-war years, as mining declined. In 1935, Leadville had a population of 250 (the district 600\), a public school, post office, two hotels, two churches, bakery, butcher, billiard hall, fruiterer, newsagent, stock and station agent, a commercial store, a brand new community hall,{{Cite news\|date\=1935\-04\-11\|title\=LEADVILLE'S NEW HALL\|pages\=8\|work\=Mudgee Guardian and North\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article162093189\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} and a passenger train from Sydney, every day except Saturday. Around 1960, the town experienced a serious decline, as businesses and services drifted away to Dunedoo. In 1960 and 1965, town allotments—including many still owned by Charles Garland's estate—were sold to recover unpaid [rates](/wiki/Rates_%28tax%29%23Australia "Rates (tax)#Australia").{{Cite news\|date\=1965\-09\-03\|title\=COOLAH SHIRE COUNCIL—SALE OF LAND FOR OVERDUE RATES\|pages\=2878\|work\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \- 2001\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article220296074\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-18}} The school—opened in 1892—closed in 1972\.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|title\=Leadville\|url\=https://nswgovschoolhistory.cese.nsw.gov.au/schoolHistory?schoolId\=4631\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-19\|website\=nswgovschoolhistory.cese.nsw.gov.au}} The post office—opened in 1891—closed in 1991\.{{Cite web \|title\=View Post Office Details \- Leadville NSW \|url\=http://www.phoenixauctions.com.au/cgi\-bin/wsPhoenix.sh/viewpodet.w?cdpo\=13237 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-04 \|website\=www.phoenixauctions.com.au}} Leadville railway station opened in 1920 and closed in 1975\. It was located just to the north of the town. The Coolah branch railway last carried trains in 1982\.{{Cite web\|title\=Coolah Branch\|url\=https://www.nswrail.net/lines/show.php?name\=NSW:coolah\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-13\|website\=www.nswrail.net}}{{Cite web\|title\=Leadville Station\|url\=https://www.nswrail.net/locations/show.php?name\=NSW:Leadville\&line\=NSW:coolah:0\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-13\|website\=www.nswrail.net}} For a time, a railway from Leadville to [Merriwa](/wiki/Merriwa%2C_New_South_Wales "Merriwa, New South Wales") was proposed as an alternative to the [Sandy Hollow to Maryvale railway](/wiki/Sandy_Hollow%E2%80%93Gulgong_railway_line "Sandy Hollow–Gulgong railway line"); in the end neither line would be completed.{{Cite news\|date\=1936\-05\-01\|title\=Fight Over New Railway\|pages\=19\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article231324705\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}}{{Cite news\|date\=1936\-09\-25\|title\=Battle Of Rail Routes\|pages\=18\|work\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \- 1954\)\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article230023019\|access\-date\=2020\-09\-15}} The town's most famous son was [Major\-General Sir Ivan Dougherty](/wiki/Ivan_Dougherty "Ivan Dougherty") (1907\-1998\). The continuation of Garland St, after it crosses the town's boundary, is named Sir Ivan Dougherty Drive in his honour.
[ "### Mining town", "The origins of the town are associated with the nearby silver\\-lead ore deposits; the former Mount Stewart, Extended, Mount Scott, Grosvenor and Latimer Mines are nearby.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Leadville, Warrumbungle Shire, State of New South Wales, Australia\\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\\-2160457\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18\\|website\\=www.mindat.org}}", "An Aboriginal man, Tommy Governor—the father of [Jimmy Governor](/wiki/Jimmy_Governor \"Jimmy Governor\")—found some interesting rocks, near what would become Mount Stewart, and showed these to Mr. George Stewart. The rocks were [lead carbonate](/wiki/Lead_carbonate \"Lead carbonate\") and assays showed the presence of silver. Governor was later to complain that he had not received what he thought was fair compensation for his discovery.", "Mining commenced at Mount Stewart in 1888\\. For the first few years, the miners used nearby [Denison Town](/wiki/Denison_Town%2C_New_South_Wales \"Denison Town, New South Wales\") for supplies and services.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-08\\-05\\|title\\=MINING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.\\|pages\\=3\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article13874034\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-08\\-27\\|title\\=Mining in New South Wales.\\|pages\\=502\\|work\\=Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1871 \\- 1912\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162189895\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14}} [thumb\\|244x244px\\|Tommy Governor, discoverer of the silver\\-lead deposit.In](/wiki/File:Tommy_Governor_%28Sydney_Mail_Sat_27_Aug_1892%2C_Page_481%29.jpg \"Tommy Governor (Sydney Mail Sat 27 Aug 1892, Page 481).jpg\") 1891, [Free Trader](/wiki/Free_Trade_Party \"Free Trade Party\") politician, gold\\-mining entrepreneur, and director of the Mount Stewart Lead and Silver Mining Company, [Charles Lancelot Garland](/wiki/Charles_Garland_%28Australian_politician%29 \"Charles Garland (Australian politician)\"), retired as the member for [Carcoar](/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Carcoar \"Electoral district of Carcoar\") and bought {{convert\\|80\\|acres\\|disp\\=flip}}, at what is now Leadville, immediately to the east of the Mount Stewart mine site. He subdivided the land into 250 town allotments. The new 'private town' of Leadville took its name from another silver\\-lead mining town, [Leadville, Colorado](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado \"Leadville, Colorado\"). Private ownership of the town was the reason that Leadville was a 'town', while nearby Dunedoo and Coolah were officially only 'villages'. The streets of the new town were named after directors of the Mount Stewart mine—Clarke, Garland, Cox, Channon, Stewart, Plumb—and others—Denham, Davis (a mine manager), and Robinson.The growth of Leadville caused [Denison Town](/wiki/Denison_Town%2C_New_South_Wales \"Denison Town, New South Wales\") to fade away, as business migrated to the new town;{{Cite book\\|last\\=Leadville Reunion Committee\\|title\\=A Brief History of Leadville 1888 to 1987\\|date\\=28 March 1987\\|location\\=Copy held by National Library of Australia}} One of those to move was storekeeper, William Latimer.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1913\\-07\\-10\\|title\\=Local Brevities\\|pages\\=30\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157725650\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1896\\-07\\-10\\|title\\=FIRE AT MUDGEE.\\|pages\\=29\\|work\\=Albury Banner and Wodonga Express (NSW : 1871 \\- 1938\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article99433720\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}}", "Mining at Leadville occurred in three distinct phases, 1888 to 1894, 1913 to 1935, and 1950 to 1952\\.", "Beginning in 1888, silver and lead ore was mined. In 1889, the Mount Steward mine shaft had reached a depth of {{convert\\|255\\|ft\\|disp\\=flip}} and was driving east and west from the {{convert\\|250\\|ft\\|disp\\=flip}} level. In 1890, the Mount Stewart Mining Lead and Silver Mining Company was floated.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-08\\-27\\|title\\=LEADVILLE—THE MOUNT STEWART SILVER MINE.\\|pages\\=484\\|work\\=Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser (NSW : 1871 \\- 1912\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162190022\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14}} For fourteen months, from early 1892, there was also a smelter at Leadville, which produced 1,539 tons of lead and {{convert\\|292093\\|ozt\\|kg\\|0\\|disp\\=flip}} of silver, from 15,000 tons of ore. The smelter had an 80\\-ton \"water jacket furnace\" (a cold\\-blast furnace), with {{convert\\|25\\|hp\\|disp\\=flip}} steam\\-driven blast engine, and a {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|disp\\=flip}} high brick chimney. The furnace used coke—brought from Newcastle to Mudgee by rail and then carted from there to Leadville, an expensive proposition—supplemented by locally burned charcoal. The fortunate accidental discovery of a deposit of limestone, within the mine itself, provided a local source of limestone for flux used in the furnace.", "The initial success of the Mount Stewart Mine prompted others to explore and take up leases in the area.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1891\\-10\\-03\\|title\\=THE MINER.\\|pages\\=24\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71257986\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}} A second mine, the Mount Steward Extended Mine—just north of the original Mount Stewart Mine and close to its smelter—was sunk in 1892 and a company floated to fund it; Garland was also a director of this company.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-05\\-30\\|title\\=Advertising \\- PROSPECTUS OF THE MOUNT STEWART EXTENDED SILVER\\-MINING CO., NO LIABILITY\\|pages\\=2\\|work\\=Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1883 \\- 1930\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article236167881\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}} The Dynevor Silver and Gold Mining Co. was floated in Melbourne in 1891, and began to mine a deposit of sulphide ores approximately one kilometre/mile away from the Mount Stuart Mine.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1891\\-02\\-07\\|title\\=Miscellaneous.\\|pages\\=40\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71248886\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1891\\-10\\-03\\|title\\=THE MINER.\\|pages\\=24\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71257986\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1893\\-04\\-10\\|title\\=MINING INTELLIGENCE.\\|pages\\=9\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article13904119\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}} Storekeeper William Latimer's freehold paddock also became a mine.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Latimer Mine, Leadville, Bligh Co., New South Wales, Australia\\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/loc\\-203236\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18\\|website\\=www.mindat.org}} Three miles from Leadville, yet another company sank a shaft, the Mount Scott Mine, which seems never to have gone into production.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1892\\-09\\-17\\|title\\=\\[BY TELEGRAPH.]\\|pages\\=13\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article13879437\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1907\\-11\\-20\\|title\\=THE FARMER.\\|pages\\=35\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71598737\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1906\\-01\\-18\\|title\\=Mt. Scott Silver Lead Mining Company.\\|pages\\=3\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157620041\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1910\\-04\\-20\\|title\\=MT. SCOTT SILVER\\-LEAD MINING COMPANY, LIMITED (IN LIQUIDATION).\\|pages\\=2244\\|work\\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \\- 2001\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article227420377\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-17}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Mount Scott Mine, Leadville, Bligh Co., New South Wales, Australia\\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/loc\\-28494\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18\\|website\\=www.mindat.org}}", "Mining activity peaked in 1893, and with it the town's population—growing from 26 in 1891 to around 1000{{Cite news \\|date\\=1893\\-03\\-03 \\|title\\=Leadville. \\|pages\\=2 \\|work\\=Katoomba Times \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article194114839 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-04}}—before the silver price crashed in a [worldwide financial panic](/wiki/Panic_of_1893%23Silver \"Panic of 1893#Silver\"). By 1894, complicating the problem of the silver price, the carbonate ores at the Mount Stewart Mine were becoming exhausted, as miners reached the sulphide zone, consisting mainly of [iron pyrites](/wiki/Iron_pyrites \"Iron pyrites\") and [zinc sulphide](/wiki/Zinc_sulfide \"Zinc sulfide\"). Mining ceased around the end of 1894,{{Cite news\\|date\\=1895\\-01\\-12\\|title\\=Intercolonial Mining News New South Wales.\\|pages\\=17\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71224467\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} and also effectively ended land sales in the town, leaving Garland with many unsold town allotments.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1960\\-05\\-27\\|title\\=SHIRE OF COOLAH—SALE OF LAND FOR OVERDUE RATES\\|pages\\=1637\\|work\\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \\- 2001\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article219906318\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}}\n[thumb\\|220x220px\\|Charles Lancelot Garland, founder of Leadville, politician, and mining entrepreneur, c.1899\\.](/wiki/File:Charles_Lancelot_Garland_%2C_c._1899_%28Sydney_Mail%2C_17_Jun_1899_%2C_p1410%29.jpg \"Charles Lancelot Garland , c. 1899 (Sydney Mail, 17 Jun 1899 , p1410).jpg\")\nAfter silver\\-lead mining ended, some ethnic\\-Chinese shearers and [station hands](/wiki/Station_hand \"Station hand\") settled in the town, which had been vacated by the miners.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1936\\-06\\-25\\|title\\=STORY OF LEADVILLE\\|pages\\=17\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162108693\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1894\\-12\\-15\\|title\\=Turning the Tables.\\|pages\\=2\\|work\\=Bathurst Post (NSW : 1881 \\- 1922\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article112729693\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} There was an ethnic\\-Chinese presence in the town for some years.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1923\\-06\\-28\\|title\\=PASSING OF RESPECTED CHINESE STOREKEEPER.\\|pages\\=6\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155631311\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-16}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1899\\-08\\-25\\|title\\=Coolah — Chinese Marriage — Concert — Polo Tournament.\\|pages\\=15\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article156355318\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-16}}", "Charles Garland bought the Mount Stewart Mine from the liquidator in 1898{{Cite news\\|date\\=1898\\-06\\-25\\|title\\=Sale of a Mine.\\|pages\\=25\\|work\\=Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW : 1870 \\- 1907\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article71287712\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-14}} and was joined in the venture by James Channon, a Sydney manufacturer and mine owner.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1920\\-12\\-10\\|title\\=LEFT £99,172 \\- A Sydney Manufacturer \\- LATE JAMES CHANNON\\|pages\\=8\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article222655387\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} [Pyrite](/wiki/Pyrite \"Pyrite\") (iron pyrites) was used to make [sulphuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid \"Sulfuric acid\"), providing a potential market. In 1913, a trial shipment of 100 tons of pyrite was sold.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1913\\-06\\-27\\|title\\=LEADVILLE.\\|pages\\=15\\|work\\=Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1883 \\- 1930\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article240045847\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} Garland was soon advocating—despite his earlier political stance in favour of [free trade](/wiki/Free_trade \"Free trade\")—the imposition of a duty on imported iron pyrites, claiming his mine would be a local source.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1914\\-07\\-11\\|title\\=INTERSTATE COMMISSION.\\|pages\\=22\\|work\\=Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 \\- 1957\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article10795559\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1914\\-07\\-11\\|title\\=THE TARIFF.\\|pages\\=9\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article15522055\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "Prior to 1920, the closest railway connection was at Craboon, on the [Gwabegar railway line](/wiki/Gwabegar_railway_line \"Gwabegar railway line\"). In 1913, the construction of a branch line from Craboon to Coolah—passing through Leadville and servicing the mines there—was already under active consideration. Garland advocated the new line, as a means to lower the cost of Leadville iron pyrites to [superphosphate](/wiki/Monocalcium_phosphate \"Monocalcium phosphate\") fertiliser manufacturers.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1913\\-01\\-31\\|title\\=DEVELOPING THE MINES.\\|pages\\=1\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article228705785\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=New Railways. \\- Public Works Inquiries. \\- Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\) \\- 6 Feb 1913\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157714950\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15\\|website\\=Trove\\|language\\=en}} An act to build the line was passed in December 1915;{{Cite web\\|last\\=Parliament of New South Wales\\|date\\=21 December 1915\\|title\\=CRABOON TO COOLAH RAILWAY ACT. \\- Act No. 50 1915\\.\\|url\\=https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/pdf/asmade/act\\-1915\\-50}} it opened in March 1920\\.", "In 1916, iron pyrites was shipped to the Wallaroo\\-Mount Lyall Superphosphate Works, and in 1920 to the [Cockle Creek Smelter](/wiki/Cockle_Creek_Smelter \"Cockle Creek Smelter\"), over the new railway line. Around this time, in 1919, the population of Leadville and its surrounding area was still 772\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=1919\\-03\\-06 \\|title\\=Population of Mudgee police District. \\|pages\\=19 \\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157143655 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-04}} However, misfortune followed; Channon died in December 1920 and, on 14 October 1921, many buildings in the town and at the mine were damaged by a violent storm.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1921\\-10\\-17\\|title\\=Terrific Storm.\\|pages\\=12\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155489714\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} Garland lost his earlier enthusiasm for operating the mine, and with it the support of the town.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1923\\-08\\-27\\|title\\=LEADVILLE GROWS AGGRESSIVE.\\|pages\\=10\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155626209\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "In late 1926, the \"Leadville Mines\"—consisting of the Mount Stewart, Grosvenor, and Extended Mines— were on the market, \"For the purposes of winding up a partnership\", presumably the partnership of Garland and Channon's heirs.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1926\\-11\\-18\\|title\\=UP FOR SALE\\|pages\\=14\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155941573\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} Garland had lost interest in reopening the mine, by 1929, further angering the people of the town whose future prosperity depended upon it.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1929\\-09\\-03\\|title\\=IDLE MINE\\|pages\\=16\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article223508243\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} Garland died in 1930\\.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1930\\-01\\-09\\|title\\=OBITUARY. MR. C. L. GARLAND.\\|pages\\=12\\|work\\=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article16616533\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "In 1932 the Mount Stewart Syndicate reopened the mine and began shipping iron pyrites to Australian Fertilisers Limited at [Port Kembla](/wiki/Port_Kembla%2C_New_South_Wales \"Port Kembla, New South Wales\") but, in 1935, the mining ceased.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1932\\-02\\-09\\|title\\=MT. STEWART TO REOPEN\\|pages\\=2\\|work\\=Barrier Miner (Broken Hill, NSW : 1888 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article46640877\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} In 1934–1935, there had been a bitter [demarcation dispute](/wiki/Demarcation_dispute \"Demarcation dispute\") between the [Miners Federation](/wiki/Miners_Federation_of_Australia \"Miners Federation of Australia\") and the [Australian Workers Union](/wiki/Australian_Workers%27_Union \"Australian Workers' Union\"), at Leadville,{{Cite news\\|date\\=1934\\-05\\-04\\|title\\=NON\\-MEMBER IS BARRED\\|pages\\=7\\|work\\=Labor Daily (Sydney, NSW : 1924 \\- 1938\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article237467234\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1935\\-06\\-20\\|title\\=LEADVILLE.\\|pages\\=4\\|work\\=Queensland Times (Ipswich, Qld. : 1909 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article117426488\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1935\\-07\\-01\\|title\\=MINING UNIONS\\|pages\\=6\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162515776\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} and, in April 1935, there was suspected sabotage at the mine.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1935\\-04\\-11\\|title\\=BOILER BLOWS UP \\- At Leadville Mine \\- EXPLOSIVE SUSPECTED \\- Work At A Standstill\\|pages\\=7\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162092972\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} The dispute may have been a factor in bringing about the mine's closure. However, it was another industrial dispute—at distant Port Kembla—that was held responsible for the cessation of iron pyrites mining at Leadville and putting 50 men out of work. Imminent reopening was anticipated—for some years—but did not occur.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1936\\-04\\-09\\|title\\=LEADVILLE MINE When Will It Reopen?\\|pages\\=8\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162104049\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1938\\-07\\-07\\|title\\=LEADVILLE MINE\\|pages\\=8\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162504407\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1941\\-09\\-11\\|title\\=Dunedoo District News MAY BE WORKING AGAIN Leadville Mines\\|pages\\=20\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article157106446\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "In 1951, the Leadville Mining Company, produced a small amount of ore and concentrate and, in 1952, Mr R.H. Spence attempted to recover silver from the [mine tailings](/wiki/Mine_tailings \"Mine tailings\") using the [cyanide process](/wiki/Cyanide_process \"Cyanide process\"), unsuccessfully. That was the last mineral production at Leadville.", "After the First World War, two locations near Leadville, 'Pine Ridge' and 'Lawson Park', became [soldier\\-settlement](/wiki/Soldier_settlement_%28Australia%29 \"Soldier settlement (Australia)\") areas. Consequently, a number of returned servicemen settled in the area. Leadville became a soldier\\-settler town, during the inter\\-war years, as mining declined.", "In 1935, Leadville had a population of 250 (the district 600\\), a public school, post office, two hotels, two churches, bakery, butcher, billiard hall, fruiterer, newsagent, stock and station agent, a commercial store, a brand new community hall,{{Cite news\\|date\\=1935\\-04\\-11\\|title\\=LEADVILLE'S NEW HALL\\|pages\\=8\\|work\\=Mudgee Guardian and North\\-Western Representative (NSW : 1890 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article162093189\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}} and a passenger train from Sydney, every day except Saturday.", "Around 1960, the town experienced a serious decline, as businesses and services drifted away to Dunedoo. In 1960 and 1965, town allotments—including many still owned by Charles Garland's estate—were sold to recover unpaid [rates](/wiki/Rates_%28tax%29%23Australia \"Rates (tax)#Australia\").{{Cite news\\|date\\=1965\\-09\\-03\\|title\\=COOLAH SHIRE COUNCIL—SALE OF LAND FOR OVERDUE RATES\\|pages\\=2878\\|work\\=Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales (Sydney, NSW : 1901 \\- 2001\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article220296074\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-18}} The school—opened in 1892—closed in 1972\\.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|title\\=Leadville\\|url\\=https://nswgovschoolhistory.cese.nsw.gov.au/schoolHistory?schoolId\\=4631\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-19\\|website\\=nswgovschoolhistory.cese.nsw.gov.au}} The post office—opened in 1891—closed in 1991\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=View Post Office Details \\- Leadville NSW \\|url\\=http://www.phoenixauctions.com.au/cgi\\-bin/wsPhoenix.sh/viewpodet.w?cdpo\\=13237 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-04 \\|website\\=www.phoenixauctions.com.au}}", "Leadville railway station opened in 1920 and closed in 1975\\. It was located just to the north of the town. The Coolah branch railway last carried trains in 1982\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Coolah Branch\\|url\\=https://www.nswrail.net/lines/show.php?name\\=NSW:coolah\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-13\\|website\\=www.nswrail.net}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Leadville Station\\|url\\=https://www.nswrail.net/locations/show.php?name\\=NSW:Leadville\\&line\\=NSW:coolah:0\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-13\\|website\\=www.nswrail.net}} For a time, a railway from Leadville to [Merriwa](/wiki/Merriwa%2C_New_South_Wales \"Merriwa, New South Wales\") was proposed as an alternative to the [Sandy Hollow to Maryvale railway](/wiki/Sandy_Hollow%E2%80%93Gulgong_railway_line \"Sandy Hollow–Gulgong railway line\"); in the end neither line would be completed.{{Cite news\\|date\\=1936\\-05\\-01\\|title\\=Fight Over New Railway\\|pages\\=19\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article231324705\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}{{Cite news\\|date\\=1936\\-09\\-25\\|title\\=Battle Of Rail Routes\\|pages\\=18\\|work\\=Sun (Sydney, NSW : 1910 \\- 1954\\)\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article230023019\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-15}}", "The town's most famous son was [Major\\-General Sir Ivan Dougherty](/wiki/Ivan_Dougherty \"Ivan Dougherty\") (1907\\-1998\\). The continuation of Garland St, after it crosses the town's boundary, is named Sir Ivan Dougherty Drive in his honour.", "" ]
Modern use and symbolism ------------------------ [thumb\|Capitoline she\-wolf in Eden Park, Cincinnati, Ohio\|left\|alt\=Capitoline she\-wolf \- Eden Park, Cincinnati \- DSC03903\.JPG](/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_-_Eden_Park%2C_Cincinnati_-_DSC03903.JPG "Capitoline she-wolf - Eden Park, Cincinnati - DSC03903.JPG") [thumb\|Capitoline Wolf at [Siena Duomo](/wiki/Siena_Duomo "Siena Duomo"). According to a legend [Siena](/wiki/Siena "Siena") was founded by [Senius and Aschius](/wiki/Senius_and_Aschius "Senius and Aschius"), two sons of Remus. When they fled [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"), they took the statue of the She\-wolf to Siena, which became the symbol of the town.](/wiki/File:Sienese_She-Wolf_at_Siena_Duomo.jpg "Sienese She-Wolf at Siena Duomo.jpg") The governments of Italy and the mayors of Rome donated [copies of the statue to various places](/wiki/List_of_Capitoline_Wolf_statues "List of Capitoline Wolf statues") around the world. [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini") continued this practice and especially favoured the image.{{cite news\|last1\=Laskow\|first1\=Sarah\|title\=Neither Rome, GA, Nor Rome, NY, Could Handle a Statue with Wolf Teats\|url\=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/neither\-rome\-ga\-nor\-rome\-ny\-could\-handle\-a\-statue\-with\-wolf\-teats\|access\-date\=5 January 2018\|work\=Atlas Obscura\|date\=16 October 2015\|language\=en}} To encourage [American](/wiki/United_States "United States") goodwill, he sent several copies of the Capitoline Wolf to U.S. cities. In 1929 he sent [one replica](/wiki/Capitoline_Wolf_Statue%2C_Cincinnati "Capitoline Wolf Statue, Cincinnati") for a [Sons of Italy](/wiki/Sons_of_Italy "Sons of Italy") national convention in [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio "Cincinnati, Ohio"). It was switched for another one in 1931, which still stands in [Eden Park, Cincinnati](/wiki/Eden_Park%2C_Cincinnati "Eden Park, Cincinnati").{{cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=dW\-52BWC4LoC\&q\=%22guilford\+school%22\+AND\+cincinnati\&pg\=PA280 \| title\=Cincinnati, a Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors \| date\=1943 \| access\-date\=2013\-05\-04 \| author\=Federal Writers' Project \| author\-link\=Federal Writers' Project \| pages\=280\| publisher\=Best Books on \| isbn\=9781623760519 }} Another replica was given to the city of [Rome, Georgia](/wiki/Rome%2C_Georgia "Rome, Georgia"), the same year. A third copy went to [Rome, New York](/wiki/Rome%2C_New_York "Rome, New York"), in 1956 by Alfonso Felici, a veteran of World War II. Another ended up at North\-Eastern Normal University, China, where ancient Greek and Roman history is studied.Günther, Sven; Zhang, Hongxia (2023\). "Mussolinis ‚Drittes Rom‘ in globaler Perspektive. Anmerkungen zu einer Kopie der Kapitolinischen Wölfin in Changchun, China" \[Mussolini's 'Third Rome' in a global perspective. Notes on a copy of the Capitoline Wolf in Changchun, China]. *Gymnasium* **130**, 6, pp. 547–562\. The Capitoline Wolf was used on both the [emblem](/wiki/Emblem "Emblem") and the [poster](/wiki/Poster "Poster") for the [1960 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1960_Summer_Olympics "1960 Summer Olympics") in Rome. The Roman football club [A.S. Roma](/wiki/A.S._Roma "A.S. Roma") uses it in its emblem as well. It was used as the logo for [Artie Ripp's](/wiki/Artie_Ripp "Artie Ripp") record label [Family Productions](/wiki/Artie_Ripp%23Family_Productions "Artie Ripp#Family Productions"), which in 1971 released [Billy Joel's](/wiki/Billy_Joel "Billy Joel") first album as a solo artist, *[Cold Spring Harbor](/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_%28album%29 "Cold Spring Harbor (album)")*. Due to contractual obligations, it continued to appear on numerous Joel albums even after he was subsequently signed to [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records").{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/billy\-joel\-is\-angry\-19800904\|date\=September 4, 1980\|access\-date\=June 11, 2018\|magazine\=Rolling Stone\|last1\=White\|first1\=Timothy\|title\=Billy Joel Is Angry\|archive\-date\=June 12, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141036/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/billy\-joel\-is\-angry\-19800904\|url\-status\=dead}} The programme of conservation undertaken in the 1990s resulted in an exhibition devoted to the *Lupa Capitolina* and her iconography.[Capitoline Museums: Exhibition "The Capitoline She\-Wolf", June–October 2000](http://www.museicapitolini.org/en/eventi/mostre_lupa.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516045944/http://www.museicapitolini.org/en/eventi/mostre\_lupa.htm \|date\=16 May 2006 }} [Anthony Mann](/wiki/Anthony_Mann "Anthony Mann")'s 1964 epic film *[The Fall of the Roman Empire](/wiki/The_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire_%28film%29 "The Fall of the Roman Empire (film)")* prominently features an enlarged replica prop of the Capitoline Wolf as a republican symbol at the back of the Senate House, where, historically, the altar and statue of [Victory](/wiki/Victoria_%28mythology%29 "Victoria (mythology)") would have stood.Allen M. Ward, "History, Ancient and Modern, in *The Fall of the Roman Empire*", in Martin M. Winkler (ed.), *The Fall of the Roman Empire* (Chichester: Wiley\-Blackwell, 2009\), pp. 51–88 \[87–88]. The 1976 TV series *[I, Claudius](/wiki/I%2C_Claudius_%28TV_series%29 "I, Claudius (TV series)")* also features the statue in its depiction of the interior of the Senate House. In the 2009 film *[Agora](/wiki/Agora_%28film%29 "Agora (film)")*, set in 5th\-century [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"), the Capitoline Wolf—complete with the del Pollaiolo twins—can be seen in the prefect's palace. This is visible in the scene before [Hypatia](/wiki/Hypatia "Hypatia")'s capture, directly behind her character. In Rick Riordan's *[The Son of Neptune](/wiki/The_Son_of_Neptune "The Son of Neptune")*, Lupa is the wolf that trains all demigods who wish to enter Camp Jupiter. She trains [Percy Jackson](/wiki/Percy_Jackson "Percy Jackson") and is mentioned that she trained [Jason Grace](/wiki/Jason_Grace "Jason Grace") also. It is also possible that she trained [Frank Zhang](/wiki/Frank_Zhang "Frank Zhang"), [Hazel Levesque](/wiki/Hazel_Levesque "Hazel Levesque"), and [Reyna Avila Ramirez\-Arellano](/wiki/Reyna_Avila_Ramirez-Arellano "Reyna Avila Ramirez-Arellano"). Although she is stern and tough, she still has a soft side. In the first episode of the American television programme *[The Addams Family](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%281964_TV_series%29 "The Addams Family (1964 TV series)")*, a mirror\-image sculpture of the Capitoline Wolf is on display in the Addams's living room. It can be seen standing atop a table, just to the right of the main staircase. The [Boston Latin School](/wiki/Boston_Latin_School "Boston Latin School") uses an image on the cover of their agenda book as well as being the official school emblem. The Capitoline Wolf is used in Romania and Moldova as a symbol of the Latin origin of its inhabitants and in some major cities there are replicas of the original statue given as a gift from Italy at the beginning of the 20th century. The Capitoline Wolf is reimagined in *[Look at Me (new Capitoline Wolf)](/wiki/Look_at_Me_%28new_Capitoline_Wolf%29 "Look at Me (new Capitoline Wolf)")*, a 2011 [installation](/wiki/Installation_art "Installation art") by [Polish](/wiki/Poland "Poland") artist [Paweł Wocial](/wiki/Pawe%C5%82_Wocial "Paweł Wocial").{{citation needed\|date\=October 2016}}
[ "Modern use and symbolism\n------------------------", "[thumb\\|Capitoline she\\-wolf in Eden Park, Cincinnati, Ohio\\|left\\|alt\\=Capitoline she\\-wolf \\- Eden Park, Cincinnati \\- DSC03903\\.JPG](/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_-_Eden_Park%2C_Cincinnati_-_DSC03903.JPG \"Capitoline she-wolf - Eden Park, Cincinnati - DSC03903.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Capitoline Wolf at [Siena Duomo](/wiki/Siena_Duomo \"Siena Duomo\"). According to a legend [Siena](/wiki/Siena \"Siena\") was founded by [Senius and Aschius](/wiki/Senius_and_Aschius \"Senius and Aschius\"), two sons of Remus. When they fled [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), they took the statue of the She\\-wolf to Siena, which became the symbol of the town.](/wiki/File:Sienese_She-Wolf_at_Siena_Duomo.jpg \"Sienese She-Wolf at Siena Duomo.jpg\")\nThe governments of Italy and the mayors of Rome donated [copies of the statue to various places](/wiki/List_of_Capitoline_Wolf_statues \"List of Capitoline Wolf statues\") around the world. [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\") continued this practice and especially favoured the image.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Laskow\\|first1\\=Sarah\\|title\\=Neither Rome, GA, Nor Rome, NY, Could Handle a Statue with Wolf Teats\\|url\\=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/neither\\-rome\\-ga\\-nor\\-rome\\-ny\\-could\\-handle\\-a\\-statue\\-with\\-wolf\\-teats\\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2018\\|work\\=Atlas Obscura\\|date\\=16 October 2015\\|language\\=en}} To encourage [American](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") goodwill, he sent several copies of the Capitoline Wolf to U.S. cities. In 1929 he sent [one replica](/wiki/Capitoline_Wolf_Statue%2C_Cincinnati \"Capitoline Wolf Statue, Cincinnati\") for a [Sons of Italy](/wiki/Sons_of_Italy \"Sons of Italy\") national convention in [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio \"Cincinnati, Ohio\"). It was switched for another one in 1931, which still stands in [Eden Park, Cincinnati](/wiki/Eden_Park%2C_Cincinnati \"Eden Park, Cincinnati\").{{cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=dW\\-52BWC4LoC\\&q\\=%22guilford\\+school%22\\+AND\\+cincinnati\\&pg\\=PA280 \\| title\\=Cincinnati, a Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors \\| date\\=1943 \\| access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-04 \\| author\\=Federal Writers' Project \\| author\\-link\\=Federal Writers' Project \\| pages\\=280\\| publisher\\=Best Books on \\| isbn\\=9781623760519 }} Another replica was given to the city of [Rome, Georgia](/wiki/Rome%2C_Georgia \"Rome, Georgia\"), the same year. A third copy went to [Rome, New York](/wiki/Rome%2C_New_York \"Rome, New York\"), in 1956 by Alfonso Felici, a veteran of World War II. Another ended up at North\\-Eastern Normal University, China, where ancient Greek and Roman history is studied.Günther, Sven; Zhang, Hongxia (2023\\). \"Mussolinis ‚Drittes Rom‘ in globaler Perspektive. Anmerkungen zu einer Kopie der Kapitolinischen Wölfin in Changchun, China\" \\[Mussolini's 'Third Rome' in a global perspective. Notes on a copy of the Capitoline Wolf in Changchun, China]. *Gymnasium* **130**, 6, pp. 547–562\\.", "The Capitoline Wolf was used on both the [emblem](/wiki/Emblem \"Emblem\") and the [poster](/wiki/Poster \"Poster\") for the [1960 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1960_Summer_Olympics \"1960 Summer Olympics\") in Rome. The Roman football club [A.S. Roma](/wiki/A.S._Roma \"A.S. Roma\") uses it in its emblem as well.", "It was used as the logo for [Artie Ripp's](/wiki/Artie_Ripp \"Artie Ripp\") record label [Family Productions](/wiki/Artie_Ripp%23Family_Productions \"Artie Ripp#Family Productions\"), which in 1971 released [Billy Joel's](/wiki/Billy_Joel \"Billy Joel\") first album as a solo artist, *[Cold Spring Harbor](/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_%28album%29 \"Cold Spring Harbor (album)\")*. Due to contractual obligations, it continued to appear on numerous Joel albums even after he was subsequently signed to [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\").{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/billy\\-joel\\-is\\-angry\\-19800904\\|date\\=September 4, 1980\\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2018\\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone\\|last1\\=White\\|first1\\=Timothy\\|title\\=Billy Joel Is Angry\\|archive\\-date\\=June 12, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141036/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/billy\\-joel\\-is\\-angry\\-19800904\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The programme of conservation undertaken in the 1990s resulted in an exhibition devoted to the *Lupa Capitolina* and her iconography.[Capitoline Museums: Exhibition \"The Capitoline She\\-Wolf\", June–October 2000](http://www.museicapitolini.org/en/eventi/mostre_lupa.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516045944/http://www.museicapitolini.org/en/eventi/mostre\\_lupa.htm \\|date\\=16 May 2006 }}", "[Anthony Mann](/wiki/Anthony_Mann \"Anthony Mann\")'s 1964 epic film *[The Fall of the Roman Empire](/wiki/The_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire_%28film%29 \"The Fall of the Roman Empire (film)\")* prominently features an enlarged replica prop of the Capitoline Wolf as a republican symbol at the back of the Senate House, where, historically, the altar and statue of [Victory](/wiki/Victoria_%28mythology%29 \"Victoria (mythology)\") would have stood.Allen M. Ward, \"History, Ancient and Modern, in *The Fall of the Roman Empire*\", in Martin M. Winkler (ed.), *The Fall of the Roman Empire* (Chichester: Wiley\\-Blackwell, 2009\\), pp. 51–88 \\[87–88].", "The 1976 TV series *[I, Claudius](/wiki/I%2C_Claudius_%28TV_series%29 \"I, Claudius (TV series)\")* also features the statue in its depiction of the interior of the Senate House.", "In the 2009 film *[Agora](/wiki/Agora_%28film%29 \"Agora (film)\")*, set in 5th\\-century [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"), the Capitoline Wolf—complete with the del Pollaiolo twins—can be seen in the prefect's palace. This is visible in the scene before [Hypatia](/wiki/Hypatia \"Hypatia\")'s capture, directly behind her character.", "In Rick Riordan's *[The Son of Neptune](/wiki/The_Son_of_Neptune \"The Son of Neptune\")*, Lupa is the wolf that trains all demigods who wish to enter Camp Jupiter. She trains [Percy Jackson](/wiki/Percy_Jackson \"Percy Jackson\") and is mentioned that she trained [Jason Grace](/wiki/Jason_Grace \"Jason Grace\") also. It is also possible that she trained [Frank Zhang](/wiki/Frank_Zhang \"Frank Zhang\"), [Hazel Levesque](/wiki/Hazel_Levesque \"Hazel Levesque\"), and [Reyna Avila Ramirez\\-Arellano](/wiki/Reyna_Avila_Ramirez-Arellano \"Reyna Avila Ramirez-Arellano\"). Although she is stern and tough, she still has a soft side.", "In the first episode of the American television programme *[The Addams Family](/wiki/The_Addams_Family_%281964_TV_series%29 \"The Addams Family (1964 TV series)\")*, a mirror\\-image sculpture of the Capitoline Wolf is on display in the Addams's living room. It can be seen standing atop a table, just to the right of the main staircase.", "The [Boston Latin School](/wiki/Boston_Latin_School \"Boston Latin School\") uses an image on the cover of their agenda book as well as being the official school emblem.", "The Capitoline Wolf is used in Romania and Moldova as a symbol of the Latin origin of its inhabitants and in some major cities there are replicas of the original statue given as a gift from Italy at the beginning of the 20th century.", "The Capitoline Wolf is reimagined in *[Look at Me (new Capitoline Wolf)](/wiki/Look_at_Me_%28new_Capitoline_Wolf%29 \"Look at Me (new Capitoline Wolf)\")*, a 2011 [installation](/wiki/Installation_art \"Installation art\") by [Polish](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") artist [Paweł Wocial](/wiki/Pawe%C5%82_Wocial \"Paweł Wocial\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2016}}", "" ]
History ------- ### Formation and *Sweet Vengeance* (2000–2003\) Nightrage was founded by [Marios Iliopoulos](/wiki/Marios_Iliopoulos_%28musician%29 "Marios Iliopoulos (musician)") and his close friend [Gus G](/wiki/Gus_G "Gus G") in June 2000\. They made three demos from 2001 to 2002\. Their debut album, *[Sweet Vengeance](/wiki/Sweet_Vengeance_%28album%29 "Sweet Vengeance (album)")*, was released in 2003 and featured drummer [Per Möller Jensen](/wiki/Per_M%C3%B6ller_Jensen "Per Möller Jensen") ([The Haunted](/wiki/The_Haunted_%28Swedish_band%29 "The Haunted (Swedish band)")), and bassist Brice Leclercq. They also managed to acquire the services of legendary vocalist [Tomas Lindberg](/wiki/Tomas_Lindberg "Tomas Lindberg") (ex [At the Gates](/wiki/At_the_Gates "At the Gates")). *Sweet Vengeance* also featured guest clean vocals on a few tracks by [Tom S. Englund](/wiki/Tom_S._Englund "Tom S. Englund") of [Evergrey](/wiki/Evergrey "Evergrey") fame. The album is proceeded by their first video for the track "Gloomy Daydreams" on an earlier edit, with Gus G. on vocals. ### *Descent into Chaos* and departure of Lindberg \& Gus G (2004–2006\) Their second release, *Descent into Chaos*, was released in 2005 and had a change of line up, with the addition of a more permanent rhythm section. Fotis Benardo ([Septic Flesh](/wiki/Septic_Flesh "Septic Flesh"), ex\-Innerwish) took over on drums and Henric Carlsson, who also plays in the band Cipher System, on bass. [Mikael Stanne](/wiki/Mikael_Stanne "Mikael Stanne"), of [Dark Tranquillity](/wiki/Dark_Tranquillity "Dark Tranquillity"), provided a clean vocal section on the track "Frozen". [Tomas Lindberg](/wiki/Tomas_Lindberg "Tomas Lindberg") left the band so that a more full\-time vocalist could accompany them on tours and studio albums. When Gus G was performing with [Arch Enemy](/wiki/Arch_Enemy "Arch Enemy") at [Ozzfest](/wiki/Ozzfest "Ozzfest") 2005, he was replaced by Pierre Lysell for Nightrage's touring activities. For some of Nightrage's tour in support of [Bolt Thrower](/wiki/Bolt_Thrower_%28band%29 "Bolt Thrower (band)"), Gus G was again unavailable and his place was taken by Christian Muenzer, of [Necrophagist](/wiki/Necrophagist "Necrophagist"). In March 2006, Gus G. permanently left Nightrage to focus completely on [Firewind](/wiki/Firewind "Firewind") (later in 2009 becoming the guitarist for [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne")). At this time, Fotis Benardo decided also to leave Nightrage and focus on the reunited [Septic Flesh](/wiki/Septic_Flesh "Septic Flesh"). He was replaced by Alex Svenningson. ### *A New Disease Is Born* (2007–2008\) Their third release, *[A New Disease Is Born](/wiki/A_New_Disease_Is_Born "A New Disease Is Born")*, was released in 2007\. Gus G. was replaced by [Dragonland](/wiki/Dragonland "Dragonland")/[Amaranthe](/wiki/Amaranthe "Amaranthe") guitar virtuoso [Olof Mörck](/wiki/Olof_M%C3%B6rck "Olof Mörck"). The song "Scathing" was chosen for the band's second [video](/wiki/Music_video "Music video"), and was directed by [Bob Katsionis](/wiki/Bob_Katsionis "Bob Katsionis"). After the release of *A New Disease Is Born*, Alex Svenningson and Jimmie Strimell left the band to form the melodic metalcore band [Dead by April](/wiki/Dead_by_April "Dead by April"). Longtime bassist Henric Karlsson also left the band due to his family obligations. ### *Wearing a Martyr's Crown* and *Vengeance Descending* (2009–2010\) Vocalist [Antony Hämäläinen](/wiki/Antony_H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen "Antony Hämäläinen"), bassist [Anders Hammer](/wiki/Anders_Hammer "Anders Hammer"), and drummer Johan Nunez joined the band in the summer of 2007\. Their fourth album, *[Wearing a Martyr's Crown](/wiki/Wearing_a_Martyr%27s_Crown "Wearing a Martyr's Crown")*, was recorded, produced, and mixed by [Fredrik Nordström](/wiki/Fredrik_Nordstr%C3%B6m "Fredrik Nordström") at [Studio Fredman](/wiki/Studio_Fredman "Studio Fredman") for a 2009 release date. On 18 February 2010, Nightrage released their third music video for the song "Wearing a Martyr's Crown." The video was again directed by [Bob Katsionis](/wiki/Bob_Katsionis "Bob Katsionis"). "A Grim Struggle", "Collision of Fate", "Shed the Blood", and "Wearing a Martyr's Crown" were made available as [downloadable content](/wiki/List_of_downloadable_songs_for_the_Rock_Band_series "List of downloadable songs for the Rock Band series") for the [*Rock Band*](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 "Rock Band (video game)") video game series on [Xbox](/wiki/Xbox_%28console%29 "Xbox (console)"). On 30 June 2011, "A Grim Struggle" was made available for download on the [PlayStation 3](/wiki/PlayStation_3 "PlayStation 3") console. Vengeance Descending is a double CD reissue of albums *[Sweet Vengeance](/wiki/Sweet_Vengeance_%28album%29 "Sweet Vengeance (album)")* and *Descent into Chaos*. The first disc features a bonus track called "Gloomy Daydreams", and the second one features "Black Skies", which was also a bonus track. Both tracks were previously only available in Japanese releases. ### *Insidious* and World Tour (2011–2012\) It was announced via [Blabbermouth.net](/wiki/Blabbermouth.net "Blabbermouth.net") that former At the Gates and Nightrage vocalist [Tomas Lindberg](/wiki/Tomas_Lindberg "Tomas Lindberg") would be performing guest vocals for the album titled *Insidious*. A short video clip of the session was added to YouTube. Other guests set to appear on the new album are [Gus G](/wiki/Gus_G "Gus G"), [Tom Englund](/wiki/Tom_Englund "Tom Englund"), [Apollo Papathanasio](/wiki/Apollo_Papathanasio "Apollo Papathanasio") and John K. *Insidious* was the first album since *Sweet Vengeance* to feature the original line up. [Antony Hämäläinen](/wiki/Antony_H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen "Antony Hämäläinen") spoke briefly about the album's direction in a recent interview with Deathmetalbaboon.com, "It sounds really heavy. Stripped down and in your face. The songs are a bit shorter and with fewer acoustic guitars than *Wearing a Martyr's Crown*. It's a very pissed off sound, so it's going to be a really heavy record. Lots of guitar solos and melodies there too of course."{{cite web\|title\=Interview with Nightrage\|url\=http://deathmetalbaboon.com/nightrage\-interview\|website\=Deathmetalbaboon.com\|access\-date\=11 August 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709005212/http://deathmetalbaboon.com/nightrage\-interview\|archive\-date\=9 July 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} The album release dates were 26 September 2011 in Europe and 11 October 2011 in North America. On 23 March the title track "Insidious" was made available as [downloadable content](/wiki/List_of_downloadable_songs_for_the_Rock_Band_series "List of downloadable songs for the Rock Band series") for the [*Rock Band*](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 "Rock Band (video game)") video game series on [Xbox](/wiki/Xbox_%28console%29 "Xbox (console)"). On 21 May the band released a new video for the track Delirium of the Fallen. The video was shot on 28 April at the Eightball Club in [Thessaloniki](/wiki/Thessaloniki "Thessaloniki"), Greece. Directing of the clip was handled by Gabriel Psaltakis.{{cite web \|title\=Nightrage \- Delirium of the Fallen video \|url\=http://www.metalcallout.com/metal\-music\-videos/new\-video\-nightrage\-delirium\-of\-the\-fallen.html\|website\=Metalcallout.com\|access\-date\=21 May 2012}} Starting on 9 October 2011, the band supported the album on a tour of North America with [Firewind](/wiki/Firewind "Firewind") and [Arsis](/wiki/Arsis "Arsis"), titled "Frets of Fury". In late April 2012, a tour of Europe alongside [Demon Hunter](/wiki/Demon_Hunter_%28band%29 "Demon Hunter (band)") and [Deadlock](/wiki/Deadlock_%28band%29 "Deadlock (band)") was scheduled. August 2012 was the first time the band played in Asia, headlining the Daejeon Metal Festival in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"). Announced in April 2013, the band will headline a tour of [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") for the first time in their career. The tour began on 5 November and was titled Extreme Metal over Japan. Support for the six date trek came from the Australian technical death metal band [Psycroptic](/wiki/Psycroptic "Psycroptic"), American technical death band [The Faceless](/wiki/The_Faceless "The Faceless") and French deathcore act In Arkadia. [Olof Mörck](/wiki/Olof_M%C3%B6rck "Olof Mörck") has not been part of a live performance or band photography since 2011\. It is assumed he has left the band to focus on his main project [Amaranthe](/wiki/Amaranthe "Amaranthe"). ### New members and releases (2013–present) In 2013, [Antony Hämäläinen](/wiki/Antony_H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen "Antony Hämäläinen") officially left the band to pursue other musical ventures. Ronnie Nyman was recruited to replace Hämäläinen on vocals. With Nyman, the band released their sixth studio album, *[The Puritan](/wiki/The_Puritan_%28album%29 "The Puritan (album)")*, in 2015\. In July 2016, Magnus Söderman (guitars), Francisco Escalona (bass), and Lawrence Dinamarca (drums) were announced as the newest members of Nightrage. The band recorded and released their seventh studio album, *The Venomous*, in 2017\. Their next album, *Wolf to Man*, was released on 29 March 2019\.{{cite news\|title\=NIGHTRAGE Releases 'By Darkness Drawn' Single\|url\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/nightrage\-releases\-by\-darkness\-drawn\-single/\|website\=\[\[Blabbermouth.net]]\|access\-date\=7 December 2018\|date\=7 December 2018}} Their ninth studio album, *Abyss Rising*, was released on 22 February 2022\.{{cite web\|url\=https://metalstorm.net/events/news\_comments.php?news\_id\=43796\|title\=Nightrage \- To Release Ninth Studio Album In February 2022\|publisher\=\[\[Metal Storm (webzine)\|Metal Storm]]\|access\-date\=October 28, 2021\|date\=October 26, 2021}} On 30 June 2023, Nightrage announced on both their Facebook and Instagram page that their long time vocalist Ronnie Nyman would be leaving the band to focus on his other musical project "Offerblod" and that [Jimmie Strimell](/wiki/Jimmie_Strimell "Jimmie Strimell") would be rejoining the band as their vocalist. He was then replaced by Konstantinos Togas. The band began recording their upcoming tenth studio album on 28 October 2023\.{{cite web\|url\=https://metalstorm.net/events/news\_comments.php?news\_id\=51428\|title\=Nightrage \- Introduce New Vocalist\|publisher\=\[\[Metal Storm (webzine)\|Metal Storm]]\|access\-date\=November 18, 2023\|date\=October 12, 2023}} On 8 March 2024, the band announced their upcoming album, *Remains of a Dead World*, would be released on 31 May.{{cite web\|url\=https://grande\-rock.com/news/nightrage\-to\-release\-new\-studio\-album\-remains\-of\-a\-dead\-world\-on\-may\-31st\-2024/\|title\=Nightrage to release new studio album "Remains of a Dead World" on May 31st 2024\|publisher\=Grande Rock\|access\-date\=March 11, 2024\|date\=March 8, 2024}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Formation and *Sweet Vengeance* (2000–2003\\)", "Nightrage was founded by [Marios Iliopoulos](/wiki/Marios_Iliopoulos_%28musician%29 \"Marios Iliopoulos (musician)\") and his close friend [Gus G](/wiki/Gus_G \"Gus G\") in June 2000\\. They made three demos from 2001 to 2002\\.", "Their debut album, *[Sweet Vengeance](/wiki/Sweet_Vengeance_%28album%29 \"Sweet Vengeance (album)\")*, was released in 2003 and featured drummer [Per Möller Jensen](/wiki/Per_M%C3%B6ller_Jensen \"Per Möller Jensen\") ([The Haunted](/wiki/The_Haunted_%28Swedish_band%29 \"The Haunted (Swedish band)\")), and bassist Brice Leclercq. They also managed to acquire the services of legendary vocalist [Tomas Lindberg](/wiki/Tomas_Lindberg \"Tomas Lindberg\") (ex [At the Gates](/wiki/At_the_Gates \"At the Gates\")). *Sweet Vengeance* also featured guest clean vocals on a few tracks by [Tom S. Englund](/wiki/Tom_S._Englund \"Tom S. Englund\") of [Evergrey](/wiki/Evergrey \"Evergrey\") fame. The album is proceeded by their first video for the track \"Gloomy Daydreams\" on an earlier edit, with Gus G. on vocals.", "### *Descent into Chaos* and departure of Lindberg \\& Gus G (2004–2006\\)", "Their second release, *Descent into Chaos*, was released in 2005 and had a change of line up, with the addition of a more permanent rhythm section. Fotis Benardo ([Septic Flesh](/wiki/Septic_Flesh \"Septic Flesh\"), ex\\-Innerwish) took over on drums and Henric Carlsson, who also plays in the band Cipher System, on bass. [Mikael Stanne](/wiki/Mikael_Stanne \"Mikael Stanne\"), of [Dark Tranquillity](/wiki/Dark_Tranquillity \"Dark Tranquillity\"), provided a clean vocal section on the track \"Frozen\". [Tomas Lindberg](/wiki/Tomas_Lindberg \"Tomas Lindberg\") left the band so that a more full\\-time vocalist could accompany them on tours and studio albums.", "When Gus G was performing with [Arch Enemy](/wiki/Arch_Enemy \"Arch Enemy\") at [Ozzfest](/wiki/Ozzfest \"Ozzfest\") 2005, he was replaced by Pierre Lysell for Nightrage's touring activities. For some of Nightrage's tour in support of [Bolt Thrower](/wiki/Bolt_Thrower_%28band%29 \"Bolt Thrower (band)\"), Gus G was again unavailable and his place was taken by Christian Muenzer, of [Necrophagist](/wiki/Necrophagist \"Necrophagist\"). In March 2006, Gus G. permanently left Nightrage to focus completely on [Firewind](/wiki/Firewind \"Firewind\") (later in 2009 becoming the guitarist for [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\")). At this time, Fotis Benardo decided also to leave Nightrage and focus on the reunited [Septic Flesh](/wiki/Septic_Flesh \"Septic Flesh\"). He was replaced by Alex Svenningson.", "### *A New Disease Is Born* (2007–2008\\)", "Their third release, *[A New Disease Is Born](/wiki/A_New_Disease_Is_Born \"A New Disease Is Born\")*, was released in 2007\\. Gus G. was replaced by [Dragonland](/wiki/Dragonland \"Dragonland\")/[Amaranthe](/wiki/Amaranthe \"Amaranthe\") guitar virtuoso [Olof Mörck](/wiki/Olof_M%C3%B6rck \"Olof Mörck\"). The song \"Scathing\" was chosen for the band's second [video](/wiki/Music_video \"Music video\"), and was directed by [Bob Katsionis](/wiki/Bob_Katsionis \"Bob Katsionis\").", "After the release of *A New Disease Is Born*, Alex Svenningson and Jimmie Strimell left the band to form the melodic metalcore band [Dead by April](/wiki/Dead_by_April \"Dead by April\"). Longtime bassist Henric Karlsson also left the band due to his family obligations.", "### *Wearing a Martyr's Crown* and *Vengeance Descending* (2009–2010\\)", "Vocalist [Antony Hämäläinen](/wiki/Antony_H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen \"Antony Hämäläinen\"), bassist [Anders Hammer](/wiki/Anders_Hammer \"Anders Hammer\"), and drummer Johan Nunez joined the band in the summer of 2007\\. Their fourth album, *[Wearing a Martyr's Crown](/wiki/Wearing_a_Martyr%27s_Crown \"Wearing a Martyr's Crown\")*, was recorded, produced, and mixed by [Fredrik Nordström](/wiki/Fredrik_Nordstr%C3%B6m \"Fredrik Nordström\") at [Studio Fredman](/wiki/Studio_Fredman \"Studio Fredman\") for a 2009 release date.", "On 18 February 2010, Nightrage released their third music video for the song \"Wearing a Martyr's Crown.\" The video was again directed by [Bob Katsionis](/wiki/Bob_Katsionis \"Bob Katsionis\").", "\"A Grim Struggle\", \"Collision of Fate\", \"Shed the Blood\", and \"Wearing a Martyr's Crown\" were made available as [downloadable content](/wiki/List_of_downloadable_songs_for_the_Rock_Band_series \"List of downloadable songs for the Rock Band series\") for the [*Rock Band*](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 \"Rock Band (video game)\") video game series on [Xbox](/wiki/Xbox_%28console%29 \"Xbox (console)\"). On 30 June 2011, \"A Grim Struggle\" was made available for download on the [PlayStation 3](/wiki/PlayStation_3 \"PlayStation 3\") console.", "Vengeance Descending is a double CD reissue of albums *[Sweet Vengeance](/wiki/Sweet_Vengeance_%28album%29 \"Sweet Vengeance (album)\")* and *Descent into Chaos*. The first disc features a bonus track called \"Gloomy Daydreams\", and the second one features \"Black Skies\", which was also a bonus track. Both tracks were previously only available in Japanese releases.", "### *Insidious* and World Tour (2011–2012\\)", "It was announced via [Blabbermouth.net](/wiki/Blabbermouth.net \"Blabbermouth.net\") that former At the Gates and Nightrage vocalist [Tomas Lindberg](/wiki/Tomas_Lindberg \"Tomas Lindberg\") would be performing guest vocals for the album titled *Insidious*. A short video clip of the session was added to YouTube. Other guests set to appear on the new album are [Gus G](/wiki/Gus_G \"Gus G\"), [Tom Englund](/wiki/Tom_Englund \"Tom Englund\"), [Apollo Papathanasio](/wiki/Apollo_Papathanasio \"Apollo Papathanasio\") and John K. *Insidious* was the first album since *Sweet Vengeance* to feature the original line up.", "[Antony Hämäläinen](/wiki/Antony_H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen \"Antony Hämäläinen\") spoke briefly about the album's direction in a recent interview with Deathmetalbaboon.com, \"It sounds really heavy. Stripped down and in your face. The songs are a bit shorter and with fewer acoustic guitars than *Wearing a Martyr's Crown*. It's a very pissed off sound, so it's going to be a really heavy record. Lots of guitar solos and melodies there too of course.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Interview with Nightrage\\|url\\=http://deathmetalbaboon.com/nightrage\\-interview\\|website\\=Deathmetalbaboon.com\\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709005212/http://deathmetalbaboon.com/nightrage\\-interview\\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\nThe album release dates were 26 September 2011 in Europe and 11 October 2011 in North America.", "On 23 March the title track \"Insidious\" was made available as [downloadable content](/wiki/List_of_downloadable_songs_for_the_Rock_Band_series \"List of downloadable songs for the Rock Band series\") for the [*Rock Band*](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 \"Rock Band (video game)\") video game series on [Xbox](/wiki/Xbox_%28console%29 \"Xbox (console)\").", "On 21 May the band released a new video for the track Delirium of the Fallen. The video was shot on 28 April at the Eightball Club in [Thessaloniki](/wiki/Thessaloniki \"Thessaloniki\"), Greece. Directing of the clip was handled by Gabriel Psaltakis.{{cite web \\|title\\=Nightrage \\- Delirium of the Fallen video \\|url\\=http://www.metalcallout.com/metal\\-music\\-videos/new\\-video\\-nightrage\\-delirium\\-of\\-the\\-fallen.html\\|website\\=Metalcallout.com\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2012}}", "Starting on 9 October 2011, the band supported the album on a tour of North America with [Firewind](/wiki/Firewind \"Firewind\") and [Arsis](/wiki/Arsis \"Arsis\"), titled \"Frets of Fury\".", "In late April 2012, a tour of Europe alongside [Demon Hunter](/wiki/Demon_Hunter_%28band%29 \"Demon Hunter (band)\") and [Deadlock](/wiki/Deadlock_%28band%29 \"Deadlock (band)\") was scheduled.", "August 2012 was the first time the band played in Asia, headlining the Daejeon Metal Festival in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\").", "Announced in April 2013, the band will headline a tour of [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") for the first time in their career. The tour began on 5 November and was titled Extreme Metal over Japan. Support for the six date trek came from the Australian technical death metal band [Psycroptic](/wiki/Psycroptic \"Psycroptic\"), American technical death band [The Faceless](/wiki/The_Faceless \"The Faceless\") and French deathcore act In Arkadia.", "[Olof Mörck](/wiki/Olof_M%C3%B6rck \"Olof Mörck\") has not been part of a live performance or band photography since 2011\\. It is assumed he has left the band to focus on his main project [Amaranthe](/wiki/Amaranthe \"Amaranthe\").", "### New members and releases (2013–present)", "In 2013, [Antony Hämäläinen](/wiki/Antony_H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen \"Antony Hämäläinen\") officially left the band to pursue other musical ventures. Ronnie Nyman was recruited to replace Hämäläinen on vocals. With Nyman, the band released their sixth studio album, *[The Puritan](/wiki/The_Puritan_%28album%29 \"The Puritan (album)\")*, in 2015\\.", "In July 2016, Magnus Söderman (guitars), Francisco Escalona (bass), and Lawrence Dinamarca (drums) were announced as the newest members of Nightrage. The band recorded and released their seventh studio album, *The Venomous*, in 2017\\. Their next album, *Wolf to Man*, was released on 29 March 2019\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=NIGHTRAGE Releases 'By Darkness Drawn' Single\\|url\\=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/nightrage\\-releases\\-by\\-darkness\\-drawn\\-single/\\|website\\=\\[\\[Blabbermouth.net]]\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2018\\|date\\=7 December 2018}} Their ninth studio album, *Abyss Rising*, was released on 22 February 2022\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://metalstorm.net/events/news\\_comments.php?news\\_id\\=43796\\|title\\=Nightrage \\- To Release Ninth Studio Album In February 2022\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Metal Storm (webzine)\\|Metal Storm]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2021\\|date\\=October 26, 2021}}", "On 30 June 2023, Nightrage announced on both their Facebook and Instagram page that their long time vocalist Ronnie Nyman would be leaving the band to focus on his other musical project \"Offerblod\" and that [Jimmie Strimell](/wiki/Jimmie_Strimell \"Jimmie Strimell\") would be rejoining the band as their vocalist. He was then replaced by Konstantinos Togas. The band began recording their upcoming tenth studio album on 28 October 2023\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://metalstorm.net/events/news\\_comments.php?news\\_id\\=51428\\|title\\=Nightrage \\- Introduce New Vocalist\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Metal Storm (webzine)\\|Metal Storm]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 18, 2023\\|date\\=October 12, 2023}}", "On 8 March 2024, the band announced their upcoming album, *Remains of a Dead World*, would be released on 31 May.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://grande\\-rock.com/news/nightrage\\-to\\-release\\-new\\-studio\\-album\\-remains\\-of\\-a\\-dead\\-world\\-on\\-may\\-31st\\-2024/\\|title\\=Nightrage to release new studio album \"Remains of a Dead World\" on May 31st 2024\\|publisher\\=Grande Rock\\|access\\-date\\=March 11, 2024\\|date\\=March 8, 2024}}", "" ]
### *Insidious* and World Tour (2011–2012\) It was announced via [Blabbermouth.net](/wiki/Blabbermouth.net "Blabbermouth.net") that former At the Gates and Nightrage vocalist [Tomas Lindberg](/wiki/Tomas_Lindberg "Tomas Lindberg") would be performing guest vocals for the album titled *Insidious*. A short video clip of the session was added to YouTube. Other guests set to appear on the new album are [Gus G](/wiki/Gus_G "Gus G"), [Tom Englund](/wiki/Tom_Englund "Tom Englund"), [Apollo Papathanasio](/wiki/Apollo_Papathanasio "Apollo Papathanasio") and John K. *Insidious* was the first album since *Sweet Vengeance* to feature the original line up. [Antony Hämäläinen](/wiki/Antony_H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen "Antony Hämäläinen") spoke briefly about the album's direction in a recent interview with Deathmetalbaboon.com, "It sounds really heavy. Stripped down and in your face. The songs are a bit shorter and with fewer acoustic guitars than *Wearing a Martyr's Crown*. It's a very pissed off sound, so it's going to be a really heavy record. Lots of guitar solos and melodies there too of course."{{cite web\|title\=Interview with Nightrage\|url\=http://deathmetalbaboon.com/nightrage\-interview\|website\=Deathmetalbaboon.com\|access\-date\=11 August 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709005212/http://deathmetalbaboon.com/nightrage\-interview\|archive\-date\=9 July 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} The album release dates were 26 September 2011 in Europe and 11 October 2011 in North America. On 23 March the title track "Insidious" was made available as [downloadable content](/wiki/List_of_downloadable_songs_for_the_Rock_Band_series "List of downloadable songs for the Rock Band series") for the [*Rock Band*](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 "Rock Band (video game)") video game series on [Xbox](/wiki/Xbox_%28console%29 "Xbox (console)"). On 21 May the band released a new video for the track Delirium of the Fallen. The video was shot on 28 April at the Eightball Club in [Thessaloniki](/wiki/Thessaloniki "Thessaloniki"), Greece. Directing of the clip was handled by Gabriel Psaltakis.{{cite web \|title\=Nightrage \- Delirium of the Fallen video \|url\=http://www.metalcallout.com/metal\-music\-videos/new\-video\-nightrage\-delirium\-of\-the\-fallen.html\|website\=Metalcallout.com\|access\-date\=21 May 2012}} Starting on 9 October 2011, the band supported the album on a tour of North America with [Firewind](/wiki/Firewind "Firewind") and [Arsis](/wiki/Arsis "Arsis"), titled "Frets of Fury". In late April 2012, a tour of Europe alongside [Demon Hunter](/wiki/Demon_Hunter_%28band%29 "Demon Hunter (band)") and [Deadlock](/wiki/Deadlock_%28band%29 "Deadlock (band)") was scheduled. August 2012 was the first time the band played in Asia, headlining the Daejeon Metal Festival in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"). Announced in April 2013, the band will headline a tour of [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") for the first time in their career. The tour began on 5 November and was titled Extreme Metal over Japan. Support for the six date trek came from the Australian technical death metal band [Psycroptic](/wiki/Psycroptic "Psycroptic"), American technical death band [The Faceless](/wiki/The_Faceless "The Faceless") and French deathcore act In Arkadia. [Olof Mörck](/wiki/Olof_M%C3%B6rck "Olof Mörck") has not been part of a live performance or band photography since 2011\. It is assumed he has left the band to focus on his main project [Amaranthe](/wiki/Amaranthe "Amaranthe").
[ "### *Insidious* and World Tour (2011–2012\\)", "It was announced via [Blabbermouth.net](/wiki/Blabbermouth.net \"Blabbermouth.net\") that former At the Gates and Nightrage vocalist [Tomas Lindberg](/wiki/Tomas_Lindberg \"Tomas Lindberg\") would be performing guest vocals for the album titled *Insidious*. A short video clip of the session was added to YouTube. Other guests set to appear on the new album are [Gus G](/wiki/Gus_G \"Gus G\"), [Tom Englund](/wiki/Tom_Englund \"Tom Englund\"), [Apollo Papathanasio](/wiki/Apollo_Papathanasio \"Apollo Papathanasio\") and John K. *Insidious* was the first album since *Sweet Vengeance* to feature the original line up.", "[Antony Hämäläinen](/wiki/Antony_H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen \"Antony Hämäläinen\") spoke briefly about the album's direction in a recent interview with Deathmetalbaboon.com, \"It sounds really heavy. Stripped down and in your face. The songs are a bit shorter and with fewer acoustic guitars than *Wearing a Martyr's Crown*. It's a very pissed off sound, so it's going to be a really heavy record. Lots of guitar solos and melodies there too of course.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Interview with Nightrage\\|url\\=http://deathmetalbaboon.com/nightrage\\-interview\\|website\\=Deathmetalbaboon.com\\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709005212/http://deathmetalbaboon.com/nightrage\\-interview\\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\nThe album release dates were 26 September 2011 in Europe and 11 October 2011 in North America.", "On 23 March the title track \"Insidious\" was made available as [downloadable content](/wiki/List_of_downloadable_songs_for_the_Rock_Band_series \"List of downloadable songs for the Rock Band series\") for the [*Rock Band*](/wiki/Rock_Band_%28video_game%29 \"Rock Band (video game)\") video game series on [Xbox](/wiki/Xbox_%28console%29 \"Xbox (console)\").", "On 21 May the band released a new video for the track Delirium of the Fallen. The video was shot on 28 April at the Eightball Club in [Thessaloniki](/wiki/Thessaloniki \"Thessaloniki\"), Greece. Directing of the clip was handled by Gabriel Psaltakis.{{cite web \\|title\\=Nightrage \\- Delirium of the Fallen video \\|url\\=http://www.metalcallout.com/metal\\-music\\-videos/new\\-video\\-nightrage\\-delirium\\-of\\-the\\-fallen.html\\|website\\=Metalcallout.com\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2012}}", "Starting on 9 October 2011, the band supported the album on a tour of North America with [Firewind](/wiki/Firewind \"Firewind\") and [Arsis](/wiki/Arsis \"Arsis\"), titled \"Frets of Fury\".", "In late April 2012, a tour of Europe alongside [Demon Hunter](/wiki/Demon_Hunter_%28band%29 \"Demon Hunter (band)\") and [Deadlock](/wiki/Deadlock_%28band%29 \"Deadlock (band)\") was scheduled.", "August 2012 was the first time the band played in Asia, headlining the Daejeon Metal Festival in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\").", "Announced in April 2013, the band will headline a tour of [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") for the first time in their career. The tour began on 5 November and was titled Extreme Metal over Japan. Support for the six date trek came from the Australian technical death metal band [Psycroptic](/wiki/Psycroptic \"Psycroptic\"), American technical death band [The Faceless](/wiki/The_Faceless \"The Faceless\") and French deathcore act In Arkadia.", "[Olof Mörck](/wiki/Olof_M%C3%B6rck \"Olof Mörck\") has not been part of a live performance or band photography since 2011\\. It is assumed he has left the band to focus on his main project [Amaranthe](/wiki/Amaranthe \"Amaranthe\").", "" ]
History ------- Marusan was founded in 1947 by three relatives, Haruyasu Ishida, his brother Minoru Ishida and brother\-in\-law Yasuo Arai. Its business was mainly selling tin toys and optical toys. In 1950, the company was formally incorporated as {{Nihongo\|"Marusan Shoten Ltd." \|株式会社マルサン商店\|Kabusikigaisha Marusan Shōten}}. Its logo was "SAN" in a circle since "maru" means circle, in Japanese. Initially, their business was a wholesale, but they eventually began to design and produce their own toys such as [celluloid](/wiki/Celluloid "Celluloid") dolls and [tin toys](/wiki/Tin_toy "Tin toy"). In 1953, they released the elaborate tin toy "1951 [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac "Cadillac") ". It was a huge success also in the US market. In 1954 they launched the tin toy SSN submarine series and a vinyl "Mammy doll". Submarine toy could run underwater over 10m by friction motor. In 1958, Marusan released their first plastic model kit, based on the submarine [USS *Nautilus*](/wiki/USS_Nautilus_%28SSN-571%29 "USS Nautilus (SSN-571)"). This model was recognized as the first Japanese domestic plastic model kit, though it was actually a copy of [Revell](/wiki/Revell "Revell")'s product. The following year, they started to sponsor Japanese TV program {{Nihongo\|''Land and Sea and Sky''\|陸と海と空\|Riku to Umi to Sora}} focused on promoting plastic model kits into the Japanese market. They called their plastic model kits {{Nihongo\|"Plamodel"\|プラモデル\|puramoderu}} and registered it as a trademark in 1959\. Marusan also tied up with Revell in 1960 and sold many Revell plastic models in Japan. In 1966, they introduced "[Ultra](/wiki/Ultra_series "Ultra series")\-kaiju" PVC figures. These tough toys won children's hearts and were very successful in business. In 1967 Marusan changed their name to "Maruzan Co., Ltd."(K.K.マルザン). New logo was "san", not "zan", in a red circle. Although the reason for change of the name was for wishing development of the company, Maruzan was unexpectedly bankrupted in 1968\. After the bankruptcy of Marusan three companies were established: In 1969 Minoru Ishida rebuilt Marusan as "Marusan Co., Ltd". New logo was again "SAN" with white band in a red circle. At the same time, Koutaro Ishida, a nephew of Minoru Ishida, built a new company named "[Bullmark](/wiki/Bullmark "Bullmark")" along with two other ex\-employees of Marusan, Saburo Ishizuki and Yutaka Shibata. Bullmark produced PVC monster character toys and monster\-related plastic models. And some ex\-employees of Marusan built a new company named "Fuji Hobby". It took over the military plastic model kit production. Newborn Marusan was also active in PVC toys. They created their own original monster series in 1970 and released *[Ultraman Ace](/wiki/Ultraman_Ace "Ultraman Ace")* series mini toys in 1972\. Also in plastic model kits, they released small models such as 1:100 scale Japanese fighter series in the early 1970s. In the mid 1970s, Marusan eventually moved primarily into the [OEM](/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer "Original equipment manufacturer") business of producing toys and parts for others and stopped producing original brand toys and models. In 1981, they developed small elaborate [gearboxes](/wiki/Gearbox "Gearbox") suitable for [pullback](/wiki/Pullback "Pullback") motor, which were used for many companies' products. Under the nostalgia boom, Marusan reproduced their original PVC monster series in 1997\. Since then Marusan is continuing production of the old style toys under their own brand.
[ "History\n-------", "Marusan was founded in 1947 by three relatives, Haruyasu Ishida, his brother Minoru Ishida and brother\\-in\\-law Yasuo Arai. Its business was mainly selling tin toys and optical toys. In 1950, the company was formally incorporated as {{Nihongo\\|\"Marusan Shoten Ltd.\" \\|株式会社マルサン商店\\|Kabusikigaisha Marusan Shōten}}. Its logo was \"SAN\" in a circle since \"maru\" means circle, in Japanese.", "Initially, their business was a wholesale, but they eventually began to design and produce their own toys such as [celluloid](/wiki/Celluloid \"Celluloid\") dolls and [tin toys](/wiki/Tin_toy \"Tin toy\"). In 1953, they released the elaborate tin toy \"1951 [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac \"Cadillac\") \". It was a huge success also in the US market. In 1954 they launched the tin toy SSN submarine series and a vinyl \"Mammy doll\". Submarine toy could run underwater over 10m by friction motor.", "In 1958, Marusan released their first plastic model kit, based on the submarine [USS *Nautilus*](/wiki/USS_Nautilus_%28SSN-571%29 \"USS Nautilus (SSN-571)\"). This model was recognized as the first Japanese domestic plastic model kit, though it was actually a copy of [Revell](/wiki/Revell \"Revell\")'s product. The following year, they started to sponsor Japanese TV program {{Nihongo\\|''Land and Sea and Sky''\\|陸と海と空\\|Riku to Umi to Sora}} focused on promoting plastic model kits into the Japanese market. They called their plastic model kits {{Nihongo\\|\"Plamodel\"\\|プラモデル\\|puramoderu}} and registered it as a trademark in 1959\\. Marusan also tied up with Revell in 1960 and sold many Revell plastic models in Japan.", "In 1966, they introduced \"[Ultra](/wiki/Ultra_series \"Ultra series\")\\-kaiju\" PVC figures. These tough toys won children's hearts and were very successful in business. In 1967 Marusan changed their name to \"Maruzan Co., Ltd.\"(K.K.マルザン). New logo was \"san\", not \"zan\", in a red circle. Although the reason for change of the name was for wishing development of the company, Maruzan was unexpectedly bankrupted in 1968\\.", "After the bankruptcy of Marusan three companies were established: In 1969 Minoru Ishida rebuilt Marusan as \"Marusan Co., Ltd\". New logo was again \"SAN\" with white band in a red circle. At the same time, Koutaro Ishida, a nephew of Minoru Ishida, built a new company named \"[Bullmark](/wiki/Bullmark \"Bullmark\")\" along with two other ex\\-employees of Marusan, Saburo Ishizuki and Yutaka Shibata. Bullmark produced PVC monster character toys and monster\\-related plastic models. And some ex\\-employees of Marusan built a new company named \"Fuji Hobby\". It took over the military plastic model kit production.", "Newborn Marusan was also active in PVC toys. They created their own original monster series in 1970 and released *[Ultraman Ace](/wiki/Ultraman_Ace \"Ultraman Ace\")* series mini toys in 1972\\. Also in plastic model kits, they released small models such as 1:100 scale Japanese fighter series in the early 1970s. In the mid 1970s, Marusan eventually moved primarily into the [OEM](/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer \"Original equipment manufacturer\") business of producing toys and parts for others and stopped producing original brand toys and models. In 1981, they developed small elaborate [gearboxes](/wiki/Gearbox \"Gearbox\") suitable for [pullback](/wiki/Pullback \"Pullback\") motor, which were used for many companies' products.", "Under the nostalgia boom, Marusan reproduced their original PVC monster series in 1997\\. Since then Marusan is continuing production of the old style toys under their own brand.", "" ]
History ------- Burns Lake's first inhabitants were the Carrier First Nations communities that spanned much of the Lakes District and beyond. Burns Lake itself began as a small rest stop for travellers on their way to the [Yukon Gold Rush](/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush "Klondike Gold Rush"). Many of these travellers spotted opportunity in the rich forestry, fur, and mining opportunities in Burns Lake and the surrounding area. Burns Lake acquired its name after Michael Byrnes, who was an explorer for the [Collins Overland Telegraph](/wiki/Collins_Overland_Telegraph "Collins Overland Telegraph") scheme. Byrnes passed Burns lake in about 1866 while surveying a route from Fort Fraser to Hagwilget.{{Citation \| last1 \=Akrigg \| first1 \=G.P.V. \| last2 \=Akrigg \| first2 \=Helen B. \| title \=British Columbia Place Names \| place \=Vancouver \| publisher \=UBC Press \| year \=1986 \| edition \=3rd, 1997 \| isbn \=0\-7748\-0636\-2 \| url\-access \=registration \| url \=https://archive.org/details/britishcolumbiap0000akri\_w1q9 }}{{rp\|33}} Recent research indicates that Byrnes was also a miner during the [Cariboo Gold Rush](/wiki/Cariboo_Gold_Rush "Cariboo Gold Rush") and had staked a claim on William's Creek earlier, in 1861\. On the 1866 trail map of the area, the name 'Byrnes' Lake appears; after 1876 however, the maps indicate it as Burns Lake.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.bclocalnews.com/community/134357278\.html?mobile\=true \|title\=The life and times of gold miner; Michael Byrnes \|last\=Guenter \|first\=Kerry \|date\=November 23, 2011 \|newspaper\=BC Local News \|publisher\=Blackpress \|access\-date\=January 27, 2017 \|quote\=Lohn Clayton White was the cartographer and artist for the Collins Overland Telegraph and would have applied the names to his 1866 map of the trail. Byrnes Lake, which appeared on maps after 1876 as Burns Lake, was the third feature named after Byrnes. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202123846/http://www.bclocalnews.com/community/134357278\.html?mobile\=true\# \|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-02 \|url\-status\=dead }} Bob Gerow, one of the main founders of Burns Lake, entered into partnership with Jack Seely and Howard Laidlaw to create Burns Lake Trading Company. Together, they built a store/hotel and a sawmill on Gerow Island, which would become the hub of trade for the surrounding area.Burns Lake Historical Society, "Burns Lake \& District" D.W. Friesen and Sons Ltd, Calgary Alberta, 1973\. The Village was incorporated on December 6, 1923\. The first Mayor was G. M Gerow. The first newspaper in Burns Lake was called the *Observer*, published and edited by Sidney Godwin. In the late 1950s, another newspaper, also called the *Observer*, was operated by Ralph Vipond. It closed in 1961\. The town continued to grow throughout the 20th century, despite damage suffered in an earthquake in August 1963\. Its current industries have become forestry and tourism, though many workers commute to jobs in the mining industry. Burns Lake received nationwide attention on January 20, 2012, when an explosion destroyed Babine Forest Products, a [wood mill](/wiki/Sawmill "Sawmill") which was one of the town's primary employers.["B.C. mill explosion near Burns Lake leaves 19 injured, many unaccounted for"](http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/01/21/b-c-mill-explosion-near-burns-lake-leaves-19-injured-many-unaccounted-for/). *[National Post](/wiki/National_Post "National Post")*, January 21, 2012\. The village of Burns Lake is infamous within the trucking and commercial transportation industries for its narrow, twisting main road which makes the transportation of large loads to adjacent communities difficult and sometimes impossible. Despite numerous unanswered complaints and appeals, the British Columbia Highway 16 remains throttled. A number of historic buildings still stand including: ### The Old Hospital First built in 1931 by the Women's Missionary Society of the [United Church of Canada](/wiki/United_Church_of_Canada "United Church of Canada"). Once the largest and finest public buildings between Prince George and Prince Rupert, it was famous for its fine gardens. It was later occupied by a senior citizens apartment complex, then declared a heritage building in 1982 and redeveloped as an office building by its owner, the [Burns Lake Native Development Corporation](/wiki/Burns_Lake_Native_Development_Corporation "Burns Lake Native Development Corporation"). ### The Bucket of Blood Located adjacent to the Lakes District Museum, this square\-cut log building is a former fur trade post which later became a gambling den. Due to the nature of gambling, fights broke out in the building, earning its name. It now contains a display of historical artifacts from the life of Barney Mulvaney, one of the founders of Burns Lake. [thumb\|Bucket of Blood](/wiki/File:Bucket_of_blood.jpg "Bucket of blood.jpg") [thumb\|Early morning mist on Burns Lake](/wiki/Image:Burns_Lake_BC.jpg "Burns Lake BC.jpg")
[ "History\n-------", "Burns Lake's first inhabitants were the Carrier First Nations communities that spanned much of the Lakes District and beyond.", "Burns Lake itself began as a small rest stop for travellers on their way to the [Yukon Gold Rush](/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush \"Klondike Gold Rush\"). Many of these travellers spotted opportunity in the rich forestry, fur, and mining opportunities in Burns Lake and the surrounding area.", "Burns Lake acquired its name after Michael Byrnes, who was an explorer for the [Collins Overland Telegraph](/wiki/Collins_Overland_Telegraph \"Collins Overland Telegraph\") scheme. Byrnes passed Burns lake in about 1866 while surveying a route from Fort Fraser to Hagwilget.{{Citation \\| last1 \\=Akrigg \\| first1 \\=G.P.V. \\| last2 \\=Akrigg \\| first2 \\=Helen B. \\| title \\=British Columbia Place Names \\| place \\=Vancouver \\| publisher \\=UBC Press \\| year \\=1986 \\| edition \\=3rd, 1997 \\| isbn \\=0\\-7748\\-0636\\-2 \\| url\\-access \\=registration \\| url \\=https://archive.org/details/britishcolumbiap0000akri\\_w1q9 }}{{rp\\|33}} Recent research indicates that Byrnes was also a miner during the [Cariboo Gold Rush](/wiki/Cariboo_Gold_Rush \"Cariboo Gold Rush\") and had staked a claim on William's Creek earlier, in 1861\\. On the 1866 trail map of the area, the name 'Byrnes' Lake appears; after 1876 however, the maps indicate it as Burns Lake.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.bclocalnews.com/community/134357278\\.html?mobile\\=true \\|title\\=The life and times of gold miner; Michael Byrnes \\|last\\=Guenter \\|first\\=Kerry \\|date\\=November 23, 2011 \\|newspaper\\=BC Local News \\|publisher\\=Blackpress \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2017 \\|quote\\=Lohn Clayton White was the cartographer and artist for the Collins Overland Telegraph and would have applied the names to his 1866 map of the trail. Byrnes Lake, which appeared on maps after 1876 as Burns Lake, was the third feature named after Byrnes. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202123846/http://www.bclocalnews.com/community/134357278\\.html?mobile\\=true\\# \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-02 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "Bob Gerow, one of the main founders of Burns Lake, entered into partnership with Jack Seely and Howard Laidlaw to create Burns Lake Trading Company. Together, they built a store/hotel and a sawmill on Gerow Island, which would become the hub of trade for the surrounding area.Burns Lake Historical Society, \"Burns Lake \\& District\" D.W. Friesen and Sons Ltd, Calgary Alberta, 1973\\. The Village was incorporated on December 6, 1923\\. The first Mayor was G. M Gerow.", "The first newspaper in Burns Lake was called the *Observer*, published and edited by Sidney Godwin. In the late 1950s, another newspaper, also called the *Observer*, was operated by Ralph Vipond. It closed in 1961\\.", "The town continued to grow throughout the 20th century, despite damage suffered in an earthquake in August 1963\\. Its current industries have become forestry and tourism, though many workers commute to jobs in the mining industry.", "Burns Lake received nationwide attention on January 20, 2012, when an explosion destroyed Babine Forest Products, a [wood mill](/wiki/Sawmill \"Sawmill\") which was one of the town's primary employers.[\"B.C. mill explosion near Burns Lake leaves 19 injured, many unaccounted for\"](http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/01/21/b-c-mill-explosion-near-burns-lake-leaves-19-injured-many-unaccounted-for/). *[National Post](/wiki/National_Post \"National Post\")*, January 21, 2012\\.", "The village of Burns Lake is infamous within the trucking and commercial transportation industries for its narrow, twisting main road which makes the transportation of large loads to adjacent communities difficult and sometimes impossible. Despite numerous unanswered complaints and appeals, the British Columbia Highway 16 remains throttled.", "A number of historic buildings still stand including:", "### The Old Hospital", "First built in 1931 by the Women's Missionary Society of the [United Church of Canada](/wiki/United_Church_of_Canada \"United Church of Canada\"). Once the largest and finest public buildings between Prince George and Prince Rupert, it was famous for its fine gardens. It was later occupied by a senior citizens apartment complex, then declared a heritage building in 1982 and redeveloped as an office building by its owner, the [Burns Lake Native Development Corporation](/wiki/Burns_Lake_Native_Development_Corporation \"Burns Lake Native Development Corporation\").", "### The Bucket of Blood", "Located adjacent to the Lakes District Museum, this square\\-cut log building is a former fur trade post which later became a gambling den. Due to the nature of gambling, fights broke out in the building, earning its name. It now contains a display of historical artifacts from the life of Barney Mulvaney, one of the founders of Burns Lake.\n[thumb\\|Bucket of Blood](/wiki/File:Bucket_of_blood.jpg \"Bucket of blood.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Early morning mist on Burns Lake](/wiki/Image:Burns_Lake_BC.jpg \"Burns Lake BC.jpg\")", "" ]
History ------- Global Smile Foundation was co\-founded in 2008 by Dr. Usama Hamdan and other volunteers. Dr. Hamdan is a plastic surgeon and otolaryngologist. They began to conduct outreach programs to provide comprehensive cleft care for children born with cleft lip and/or cleft palate living in low\-to\-middle\-income countries. In 2012, Global Smile Foundation established a sister organization, Fundación Global Smile\-Ecuador, to facilitate outreach programs in Ecuador. Volunteers within the country run this organization. In 2014, GSF and Fundación Global Smile\-Ecuador launched a Cleft Care Center at Hospital Leon Becerra in Guayaquil, Ecuador to provide year\-round comprehensive cleft care. Also in 2014, GSF established Global Smile Foundation MENA to facilitate outreach medical programs in Beirut, Lebanon. This organization is volunteer\-run. In 2024, GSF established Global Smile Foundation Peru to support the growth of outreach cleft care programs.
[ "History\n-------", "Global Smile Foundation was co\\-founded in 2008 by Dr. Usama Hamdan and other volunteers. Dr. Hamdan is a plastic surgeon and otolaryngologist. They began to conduct outreach programs to provide comprehensive cleft care for children born with cleft lip and/or cleft palate living in low\\-to\\-middle\\-income countries.", "In 2012, Global Smile Foundation established a sister organization, Fundación Global Smile\\-Ecuador, to facilitate outreach programs in Ecuador. Volunteers within the country run this organization.", "In 2014, GSF and Fundación Global Smile\\-Ecuador launched a Cleft Care Center at Hospital Leon Becerra in Guayaquil, Ecuador to provide year\\-round comprehensive cleft care.", "Also in 2014, GSF established Global Smile Foundation MENA to facilitate outreach medical programs in Beirut, Lebanon. This organization is volunteer\\-run.", "In 2024, GSF established Global Smile Foundation Peru to support the growth of outreach cleft care programs.", "" ]
Empress ------- ### The Two Holy Ones In 580, Emperor Xuan, who had by then passed the throne to his young son [Emperor Jing](/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Northern_Zhou "Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou") (by his [concubine](/wiki/Concubinage "Concubinage") [Zhu Manyue](/wiki/Zhu_Manyue "Zhu Manyue")) and become [retired emperor](/wiki/Taishang_Huang "Taishang Huang"), but who was retaining imperial powers, died suddenly. Yang Jian seized power as regent. It was at that time when Dugu Qieluo sent Yang Jian a message that stated, "This is like riding a wild beast. You will not be able to come off of it. You need to fight hard to stay on." After Yang Jian defeated the general [Yuchi Jiong](/wiki/Yuchi_Jiong "Yuchi Jiong"), who rose against him after he took power, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him in 581, ending Northern Zhou and establishing [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty "Sui dynasty") as Emperor Wen. He named Dugu Qieluo empress and their oldest son, [Yang Yong](/wiki/Yang_Yong_%28Sui_dynasty%29 "Yang Yong (Sui dynasty)"), crown prince, while granting their other children, including the former Empress Yang, royal titles. Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu lived in a unique monogamous relationship and in the same palace, which was unprecedented in Chinese history, because the emperor and empress had separate and indepent palaces for themselves. Because she was said to be studious and he listened to her, the couple often conferred with each other the important matters of state and rewards and punishments. It is difficult to say which decision was the idea of the emperor or the empress, or which one followed the other. It was not infrequent that when he hosted imperial meetings she would accompany him almost all the way into the meeting hall and she often asked [eunuchs](/wiki/Eunuch "Eunuch") to listen in on the meeting. When she believed that he made the wrong decisions, she would advise him to change. She would also usually wait near the meeting hall for the meeting to be done and then return with him to the palace. Even when the emperor was in his study receiving and reading memorials from all over the empire and carrying on its matters, the empress was by his side, helping him till midnight. Whenever the officials had a proposal and wanted to convey it directly to the emperor, the empress also sat next to his table and listened to the discussions and involved herself in the discussed issues. She excelled in her role as a wise counselor, a faithful wife, a virtuous assistant, and the mother of the empire. Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu became known as "the Two Holy Ones" inside the palace by officials, because the emperor was considered a holy person and because both of them managed government affairs together, this situation led to the name of two saints, "literally, two people who rule.". Because both of them were a harmonious couple who did not differentiate between each other and appeared together as much as possible, as if they were one soul, one heart with a common mindset, in two bodies. This situation set a precedent that in the future "Two Saints would preside over the court" (二聖臨朝, *Er Sheng Lín cháo*) and "Emperor and Empress Co\-rule" (帝后共治, *Dì hòu gòng zhì*) by [Empress Zetian of Zhou](/wiki/Wu_Zetian "Wu Zetian") with her husband, [Emperor Gaozong of Tang](/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Tang "Emperor Gaozong of Tang"), which was far beyond the position of Empress Dugu with Emperor Wen. As she lost her parents early in her life, Empress Dugu was particularly touched when she saw officials with both parents, and she would pay due respect to the officials' parents when she saw them. When officials suggested that, in accordance with rules set in the [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty "Zhou dynasty"), that their officials' marriages must be approved by the Empress, she declined, believing that it was very inappropriate for her to overly interfere in personal matters. She respected the official [Gao Jiong](/wiki/Gao_Jiong "Gao Jiong") not only because of his talent, but because his father Gao Bin (高賓) had served on her father's staff and was a trusted advisor for him. While she appreciated familial values, she did not tolerate criminal behaviour, even if it was exhibited by her own relatives. When her cousin Cui Changren (崔長仁) committed crimes that called for the death penalty, Emperor Wen was initially considering pardoning on her account, but she stated that she could not, based on kinship, break the laws, and Cui Changren was executed. Despite her honored status, Empress Dugu was said to be humble and lived frugally. She cut the expenses of the palace, like the making of overly luxurious handicrafts and clothing. She also demanded less tributes from the provinces, which had been customary for empresses to receive. These measures helped the imperial treasury to focus on urgent and far more imporant matters, such as a [canal](/wiki/Canal "Canal")\-building regime and state relief for landless farmers. However, it also caused a series of accidents with her husband. Once, when Emperor Wen wanted to reward the wife of his official Liu Song (劉嵩) with a gold\-decorated dress, Empress Dugu had none to give. In a more awkward situation, when Emperor Wen needed a medicine for [diarrhea](/wiki/Diarrhea "Diarrhea") that required ground pepper — then an exceedingly expensive spice that was more expensive than gold and which ladies of the court used for cosmetic purposes — he sought the ground pepper from Empress Dugu and found that she did not use it, on account of its cost. Empress Dugu had a poor relationship with her sister\-in\-law, the wife of Emperor Wen's brother, Yang Zan (楊瓚), the Prince of Teng — Northern Zhou's Princess Shenyang (daughter of [Yuwen Tai](/wiki/Yuwen_Tai "Yuwen Tai"), the father of the first three Northern Zhou emperors). It is said that Princess Shenyang used witchcraft to curse Empress Dugu, so Emperor Wen immediately ordered Yang Zan to divorce Princess Shenyang, but Yang Zan refused. When Yang Zan died in 591, it was believed that Emperor Wen poisoned his own brother in retaliation for his wife's suffering. In 595, the luxurious summer vacation palace, Renshou Palace (仁壽宮, in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji "Baoji"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")), was completed by the general [Yang Su](/wiki/Yang_Su "Yang Su"). When the frugal Emperor Wen saw how luxurious the palace was, he was unhappy and angrily stated, "Yang Su expanded the efforts of the people to construct this palace. The people will despise me." However, when the equally frugal Empress Dugu arrived at the palace as well, she advised her husband to comfort Yang Su, and when he subsequently summoned Yang Su to the palace, she stated, "You know that this old couple had little to enjoy, so you decorated this palace in this way. Is it not that in doing so, you are being both faithful and filial?" She then gave him a large award of money and silk. In 598, Empress Dugu and her younger half\-brother, Dugu Tuo (獨孤陀), born of different mothers, were embroiled in a mysterious scandal. It was said that Dugu Tuo, whose wife was a sister of the official [Yang Su](/wiki/Yang_Su "Yang Su")'s, had a female servant named Xu Ani (徐阿尼), who worshipped cat spirits and was capable to have those spirits kill people for her. At this time, both Empress Dugu and Yang Su's wife, Lady Zheng, were seriously ill, and it was suspected that they were afflicted by cat spirits. Emperor Wen suspected Dugu Tuo and had Gao Jiong investigate and Gao Jiong reported that it was indeed Dugu Tuo who instigated the matter. Emperor Wen ordered Dugu Tuo and Lady Yang to commit suicide, but Empress Dugu went on a three\-day hunger strike to save them, stating, "If Tuo had harmed the people, I would not dare to say anything, but his crime was on my account, and therefore I dare to beg you to spare his life." Dugu Tuo's younger brother, Dugu Zheng (獨孤整), also pleaded earnestly, and Emperor Wen spared them, reducing Dugu Tuo to commoner rank and forcing his wife to become a [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") nun. Over the years, the relationship between Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu was still loving and collaborative. However, on one occasion, when he happened to see Yuchi Jiong's beautiful granddaughter who had been forced into slave labor after her grandfather's death, he had sexual relations with her. When Empress Dugu found out, she had Lady Yuchi killed. In anger, he rode away from the palace on a horse, refused to return and said: "I am the emperor, but I don't have the freedom to do what I want". Gao Jiong and Yang Su had to track him down and urge him to return to the palace, with Gao Jiong stating, "Your Majesty, how can you abandon the empire on account of a mere woman?" When Emperor Wen did return to the palace after midnight, Empress Dugu was waiting for him, wept, and begged him for forgiveness for her crime. Gao Jiong and Yang Su subsequently hosted a banquet for the couple, and their quarrel ended. However, when Empress Dugu heard that Gao Jiong, whom she had respected previously, refer to her as "a mere woman," she became secretly resentful of him. Later, she became particularly angry at Gao Jiong over his marital relations, as after his wife died, she suggested Emperor Wen find him another wife, but Gao Jiong declined, stating that he was getting old and beginning to lose his sexual urges and did not need to remarry — and soon thereafter, his concubine bore a son. Empress Dugu pointed out that, in effect, he was not truthful, and Emperor Wen began to distance himself from Gao Jiong. Furthermore, in 598, when Gao Jiong, under Emperor Wen's duress, was forced to accompany [Yang Liang](/wiki/Yang_Liang "Yang Liang"), the Prince of Han, in a campaign against [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo "Goguryeo"), a campaign that he opposed, the campaign ended in failure, and Empress Dugu blamed him for the failure, particularly after Yang Liang, angry that Gao Jiong was not following his orders, complained to her. ### Succesion crisis Another person who began to draw Empress Dugu's ire was her eldest son, Yang Yong, the Crown Prince. When he was young, she and her husband had selected for him a wife from the honored Yuan clan, [Northern Wei](/wiki/Northern_Wei "Northern Wei")'s imperial clan—a daughter of the official Yuan Xiaoju (元孝鉅). However, Yang Yong did not favor Crown Princess Yuan and instead had many [concubines](/wiki/Concubinage "Concubinage"), including his favorite Consort Yun, and he did not have any sons with Crown Princess Yuan. When the Crown Princess died in 591 after a brief illness, Empress Dugu suspected Yang Yong and/or Consort Yun of poisoning her, and rebuked him. Her second son, [Yang Guang](/wiki/Emperor_Yang_of_Sui "Emperor Yang of Sui"), the Prince of Jin, had ambitions of displacing his older brother, so he put on pretenses of living frugally (which pleased both of his parents) and loving no one but his wife [Princess Xiao](/wiki/Empress_Xiao_%28Sui_dynasty%29 "Empress Xiao (Sui dynasty)") (which pleased his mother). By 599, both Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu were considering replacing Yang Yong with Yang Guang, but when she approached Gao Jiong with the issue, he stated firmly that the Crown Prince should not be replaced. Therefore, she suggested that Emperor Wen remove Gao Jiong, who was accused of crimes, removed from office and reduced to commoner rank. Meanwhile, Yang Guang continued to provoke his mother, falsely stating that he feared that Yang Yong would eventually put him to death. Yang Guang soon entered into an alliance with Yang Su, with whom Yang Yong had a very poor relationship, and Empress Dugu also told Yang Su to encourage Emperor Wen to depose Yang Yong. Subsequently, Yang Guang engaged Yang Yong's associate, Ji Wei (姬威), to falsely accuse Yang Yong of plotting treason. In 600, after an investigation conducted by Yang Su, in which he manufactured evidence against Yang Yong, Emperor Wen deposed the Crown Prince and put him under house arrest, replacing him with Yang Guang. In fall 602, Empress Dugu died, and Emperor Wen was greatly saddened and ordered a grand funeral, although he was comforted by Wang Shao (王劭), who submitted a petition in which he tried to use prophecies to show that Empress Dugu was, in fact, a [Bodhisattva](/wiki/Bodhisattva "Bodhisattva"). Emperor Wen never named another empress, though he began to engage in sexual relations with concubines, but those unions never conceived children.
[ "Empress\n-------", "### The Two Holy Ones", "In 580, Emperor Xuan, who had by then passed the throne to his young son [Emperor Jing](/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Northern_Zhou \"Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou\") (by his [concubine](/wiki/Concubinage \"Concubinage\") [Zhu Manyue](/wiki/Zhu_Manyue \"Zhu Manyue\")) and become [retired emperor](/wiki/Taishang_Huang \"Taishang Huang\"), but who was retaining imperial powers, died suddenly. Yang Jian seized power as regent. It was at that time when Dugu Qieluo sent Yang Jian a message that stated, \"This is like riding a wild beast. You will not be able to come off of it. You need to fight hard to stay on.\" After Yang Jian defeated the general [Yuchi Jiong](/wiki/Yuchi_Jiong \"Yuchi Jiong\"), who rose against him after he took power, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him in 581, ending Northern Zhou and establishing [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty \"Sui dynasty\") as Emperor Wen. He named Dugu Qieluo empress and their oldest son, [Yang Yong](/wiki/Yang_Yong_%28Sui_dynasty%29 \"Yang Yong (Sui dynasty)\"), crown prince, while granting their other children, including the former Empress Yang, royal titles.", "Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu lived in a unique monogamous relationship and in the same palace, which was unprecedented in Chinese history, because the emperor and empress had separate and indepent palaces for themselves. Because she was said to be studious and he listened to her, the couple often conferred with each other the important matters of state and rewards and punishments. It is difficult to say which decision was the idea of the emperor or the empress, or which one followed the other. It was not infrequent that when he hosted imperial meetings she would accompany him almost all the way into the meeting hall and she often asked [eunuchs](/wiki/Eunuch \"Eunuch\") to listen in on the meeting. When she believed that he made the wrong decisions, she would advise him to change. She would also usually wait near the meeting hall for the meeting to be done and then return with him to the palace. Even when the emperor was in his study receiving and reading memorials from all over the empire and carrying on its matters, the empress was by his side, helping him till midnight. Whenever the officials had a proposal and wanted to convey it directly to the emperor, the empress also sat next to his table and listened to the discussions and involved herself in the discussed issues. She excelled in her role as a wise counselor, a faithful wife, a virtuous assistant, and the mother of the empire.", "Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu became known as \"the Two Holy Ones\" inside the palace by officials, because the emperor was considered a holy person and because both of them managed government affairs together, this situation led to the name of two saints, \"literally, two people who rule.\". Because both of them were a harmonious couple who did not differentiate between each other and appeared together as much as possible, as if they were one soul, one heart with a common mindset, in two bodies. This situation set a precedent that in the future \"Two Saints would preside over the court\" (二聖臨朝, *Er Sheng Lín cháo*) and \"Emperor and Empress Co\\-rule\" (帝后共治, *Dì hòu gòng zhì*) by [Empress Zetian of Zhou](/wiki/Wu_Zetian \"Wu Zetian\") with her husband, [Emperor Gaozong of Tang](/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Tang \"Emperor Gaozong of Tang\"), which was far beyond the position of Empress Dugu with Emperor Wen.", "As she lost her parents early in her life, Empress Dugu was particularly touched when she saw officials with both parents, and she would pay due respect to the officials' parents when she saw them. When officials suggested that, in accordance with rules set in the [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty \"Zhou dynasty\"), that their officials' marriages must be approved by the Empress, she declined, believing that it was very inappropriate for her to overly interfere in personal matters. She respected the official [Gao Jiong](/wiki/Gao_Jiong \"Gao Jiong\") not only because of his talent, but because his father Gao Bin (高賓) had served on her father's staff and was a trusted advisor for him. While she appreciated familial values, she did not tolerate criminal behaviour, even if it was exhibited by her own relatives. When her cousin Cui Changren (崔長仁) committed crimes that called for the death penalty, Emperor Wen was initially considering pardoning on her account, but she stated that she could not, based on kinship, break the laws, and Cui Changren was executed.", "Despite her honored status, Empress Dugu was said to be humble and lived frugally. She cut the expenses of the palace, like the making of overly luxurious handicrafts and clothing. She also demanded less tributes from the provinces, which had been customary for empresses to receive. These measures helped the imperial treasury to focus on urgent and far more imporant matters, such as a [canal](/wiki/Canal \"Canal\")\\-building regime and state relief for landless farmers. However, it also caused a series of accidents with her husband. Once, when Emperor Wen wanted to reward the wife of his official Liu Song (劉嵩) with a gold\\-decorated dress, Empress Dugu had none to give. In a more awkward situation, when Emperor Wen needed a medicine for [diarrhea](/wiki/Diarrhea \"Diarrhea\") that required ground pepper — then an exceedingly expensive spice that was more expensive than gold and which ladies of the court used for cosmetic purposes — he sought the ground pepper from Empress Dugu and found that she did not use it, on account of its cost.", "Empress Dugu had a poor relationship with her sister\\-in\\-law, the wife of Emperor Wen's brother, Yang Zan (楊瓚), the Prince of Teng — Northern Zhou's Princess Shenyang (daughter of [Yuwen Tai](/wiki/Yuwen_Tai \"Yuwen Tai\"), the father of the first three Northern Zhou emperors). It is said that Princess Shenyang used witchcraft to curse Empress Dugu, so Emperor Wen immediately ordered Yang Zan to divorce Princess Shenyang, but Yang Zan refused. When Yang Zan died in 591, it was believed that Emperor Wen poisoned his own brother in retaliation for his wife's suffering.", "In 595, the luxurious summer vacation palace, Renshou Palace (仁壽宮, in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji \"Baoji\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")), was completed by the general [Yang Su](/wiki/Yang_Su \"Yang Su\"). When the frugal Emperor Wen saw how luxurious the palace was, he was unhappy and angrily stated, \"Yang Su expanded the efforts of the people to construct this palace. The people will despise me.\" However, when the equally frugal Empress Dugu arrived at the palace as well, she advised her husband to comfort Yang Su, and when he subsequently summoned Yang Su to the palace, she stated, \"You know that this old couple had little to enjoy, so you decorated this palace in this way. Is it not that in doing so, you are being both faithful and filial?\" She then gave him a large award of money and silk.", "In 598, Empress Dugu and her younger half\\-brother, Dugu Tuo (獨孤陀), born of different mothers, were embroiled in a mysterious scandal. It was said that Dugu Tuo, whose wife was a sister of the official [Yang Su](/wiki/Yang_Su \"Yang Su\")'s, had a female servant named Xu Ani (徐阿尼), who worshipped cat spirits and was capable to have those spirits kill people for her. At this time, both Empress Dugu and Yang Su's wife, Lady Zheng, were seriously ill, and it was suspected that they were afflicted by cat spirits. Emperor Wen suspected Dugu Tuo and had Gao Jiong investigate and Gao Jiong reported that it was indeed Dugu Tuo who instigated the matter. Emperor Wen ordered Dugu Tuo and Lady Yang to commit suicide, but Empress Dugu went on a three\\-day hunger strike to save them, stating, \"If Tuo had harmed the people, I would not dare to say anything, but his crime was on my account, and therefore I dare to beg you to spare his life.\" Dugu Tuo's younger brother, Dugu Zheng (獨孤整), also pleaded earnestly, and Emperor Wen spared them, reducing Dugu Tuo to commoner rank and forcing his wife to become a [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\") nun.", "Over the years, the relationship between Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu was still loving and collaborative. However, on one occasion, when he happened to see Yuchi Jiong's beautiful granddaughter who had been forced into slave labor after her grandfather's death, he had sexual relations with her. When Empress Dugu found out, she had Lady Yuchi killed. In anger, he rode away from the palace on a horse, refused to return and said: \"I am the emperor, but I don't have the freedom to do what I want\". Gao Jiong and Yang Su had to track him down and urge him to return to the palace, with Gao Jiong stating, \"Your Majesty, how can you abandon the empire on account of a mere woman?\" When Emperor Wen did return to the palace after midnight, Empress Dugu was waiting for him, wept, and begged him for forgiveness for her crime. Gao Jiong and Yang Su subsequently hosted a banquet for the couple, and their quarrel ended.", "However, when Empress Dugu heard that Gao Jiong, whom she had respected previously, refer to her as \"a mere woman,\" she became secretly resentful of him. Later, she became particularly angry at Gao Jiong over his marital relations, as after his wife died, she suggested Emperor Wen find him another wife, but Gao Jiong declined, stating that he was getting old and beginning to lose his sexual urges and did not need to remarry — and soon thereafter, his concubine bore a son. Empress Dugu pointed out that, in effect, he was not truthful, and Emperor Wen began to distance himself from Gao Jiong. Furthermore, in 598, when Gao Jiong, under Emperor Wen's duress, was forced to accompany [Yang Liang](/wiki/Yang_Liang \"Yang Liang\"), the Prince of Han, in a campaign against [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo \"Goguryeo\"), a campaign that he opposed, the campaign ended in failure, and Empress Dugu blamed him for the failure, particularly after Yang Liang, angry that Gao Jiong was not following his orders, complained to her.", "### Succesion crisis", "Another person who began to draw Empress Dugu's ire was her eldest son, Yang Yong, the Crown Prince. When he was young, she and her husband had selected for him a wife from the honored Yuan clan, [Northern Wei](/wiki/Northern_Wei \"Northern Wei\")'s imperial clan—a daughter of the official Yuan Xiaoju (元孝鉅). However, Yang Yong did not favor Crown Princess Yuan and instead had many [concubines](/wiki/Concubinage \"Concubinage\"), including his favorite Consort Yun, and he did not have any sons with Crown Princess Yuan. When the Crown Princess died in 591 after a brief illness, Empress Dugu suspected Yang Yong and/or Consort Yun of poisoning her, and rebuked him. Her second son, [Yang Guang](/wiki/Emperor_Yang_of_Sui \"Emperor Yang of Sui\"), the Prince of Jin, had ambitions of displacing his older brother, so he put on pretenses of living frugally (which pleased both of his parents) and loving no one but his wife [Princess Xiao](/wiki/Empress_Xiao_%28Sui_dynasty%29 \"Empress Xiao (Sui dynasty)\") (which pleased his mother).", "By 599, both Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu were considering replacing Yang Yong with Yang Guang, but when she approached Gao Jiong with the issue, he stated firmly that the Crown Prince should not be replaced. Therefore, she suggested that Emperor Wen remove Gao Jiong, who was accused of crimes, removed from office and reduced to commoner rank. Meanwhile, Yang Guang continued to provoke his mother, falsely stating that he feared that Yang Yong would eventually put him to death.", "Yang Guang soon entered into an alliance with Yang Su, with whom Yang Yong had a very poor relationship, and Empress Dugu also told Yang Su to encourage Emperor Wen to depose Yang Yong. Subsequently, Yang Guang engaged Yang Yong's associate, Ji Wei (姬威), to falsely accuse Yang Yong of plotting treason. In 600, after an investigation conducted by Yang Su, in which he manufactured evidence against Yang Yong, Emperor Wen deposed the Crown Prince and put him under house arrest, replacing him with Yang Guang.", "In fall 602, Empress Dugu died, and Emperor Wen was greatly saddened and ordered a grand funeral, although he was comforted by Wang Shao (王劭), who submitted a petition in which he tried to use prophecies to show that Empress Dugu was, in fact, a [Bodhisattva](/wiki/Bodhisattva \"Bodhisattva\"). Emperor Wen never named another empress, though he began to engage in sexual relations with concubines, but those unions never conceived children.", "" ]
### The Two Holy Ones In 580, Emperor Xuan, who had by then passed the throne to his young son [Emperor Jing](/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Northern_Zhou "Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou") (by his [concubine](/wiki/Concubinage "Concubinage") [Zhu Manyue](/wiki/Zhu_Manyue "Zhu Manyue")) and become [retired emperor](/wiki/Taishang_Huang "Taishang Huang"), but who was retaining imperial powers, died suddenly. Yang Jian seized power as regent. It was at that time when Dugu Qieluo sent Yang Jian a message that stated, "This is like riding a wild beast. You will not be able to come off of it. You need to fight hard to stay on." After Yang Jian defeated the general [Yuchi Jiong](/wiki/Yuchi_Jiong "Yuchi Jiong"), who rose against him after he took power, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him in 581, ending Northern Zhou and establishing [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty "Sui dynasty") as Emperor Wen. He named Dugu Qieluo empress and their oldest son, [Yang Yong](/wiki/Yang_Yong_%28Sui_dynasty%29 "Yang Yong (Sui dynasty)"), crown prince, while granting their other children, including the former Empress Yang, royal titles. Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu lived in a unique monogamous relationship and in the same palace, which was unprecedented in Chinese history, because the emperor and empress had separate and indepent palaces for themselves. Because she was said to be studious and he listened to her, the couple often conferred with each other the important matters of state and rewards and punishments. It is difficult to say which decision was the idea of the emperor or the empress, or which one followed the other. It was not infrequent that when he hosted imperial meetings she would accompany him almost all the way into the meeting hall and she often asked [eunuchs](/wiki/Eunuch "Eunuch") to listen in on the meeting. When she believed that he made the wrong decisions, she would advise him to change. She would also usually wait near the meeting hall for the meeting to be done and then return with him to the palace. Even when the emperor was in his study receiving and reading memorials from all over the empire and carrying on its matters, the empress was by his side, helping him till midnight. Whenever the officials had a proposal and wanted to convey it directly to the emperor, the empress also sat next to his table and listened to the discussions and involved herself in the discussed issues. She excelled in her role as a wise counselor, a faithful wife, a virtuous assistant, and the mother of the empire. Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu became known as "the Two Holy Ones" inside the palace by officials, because the emperor was considered a holy person and because both of them managed government affairs together, this situation led to the name of two saints, "literally, two people who rule.". Because both of them were a harmonious couple who did not differentiate between each other and appeared together as much as possible, as if they were one soul, one heart with a common mindset, in two bodies. This situation set a precedent that in the future "Two Saints would preside over the court" (二聖臨朝, *Er Sheng Lín cháo*) and "Emperor and Empress Co\-rule" (帝后共治, *Dì hòu gòng zhì*) by [Empress Zetian of Zhou](/wiki/Wu_Zetian "Wu Zetian") with her husband, [Emperor Gaozong of Tang](/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Tang "Emperor Gaozong of Tang"), which was far beyond the position of Empress Dugu with Emperor Wen. As she lost her parents early in her life, Empress Dugu was particularly touched when she saw officials with both parents, and she would pay due respect to the officials' parents when she saw them. When officials suggested that, in accordance with rules set in the [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty "Zhou dynasty"), that their officials' marriages must be approved by the Empress, she declined, believing that it was very inappropriate for her to overly interfere in personal matters. She respected the official [Gao Jiong](/wiki/Gao_Jiong "Gao Jiong") not only because of his talent, but because his father Gao Bin (高賓) had served on her father's staff and was a trusted advisor for him. While she appreciated familial values, she did not tolerate criminal behaviour, even if it was exhibited by her own relatives. When her cousin Cui Changren (崔長仁) committed crimes that called for the death penalty, Emperor Wen was initially considering pardoning on her account, but she stated that she could not, based on kinship, break the laws, and Cui Changren was executed. Despite her honored status, Empress Dugu was said to be humble and lived frugally. She cut the expenses of the palace, like the making of overly luxurious handicrafts and clothing. She also demanded less tributes from the provinces, which had been customary for empresses to receive. These measures helped the imperial treasury to focus on urgent and far more imporant matters, such as a [canal](/wiki/Canal "Canal")\-building regime and state relief for landless farmers. However, it also caused a series of accidents with her husband. Once, when Emperor Wen wanted to reward the wife of his official Liu Song (劉嵩) with a gold\-decorated dress, Empress Dugu had none to give. In a more awkward situation, when Emperor Wen needed a medicine for [diarrhea](/wiki/Diarrhea "Diarrhea") that required ground pepper — then an exceedingly expensive spice that was more expensive than gold and which ladies of the court used for cosmetic purposes — he sought the ground pepper from Empress Dugu and found that she did not use it, on account of its cost. Empress Dugu had a poor relationship with her sister\-in\-law, the wife of Emperor Wen's brother, Yang Zan (楊瓚), the Prince of Teng — Northern Zhou's Princess Shenyang (daughter of [Yuwen Tai](/wiki/Yuwen_Tai "Yuwen Tai"), the father of the first three Northern Zhou emperors). It is said that Princess Shenyang used witchcraft to curse Empress Dugu, so Emperor Wen immediately ordered Yang Zan to divorce Princess Shenyang, but Yang Zan refused. When Yang Zan died in 591, it was believed that Emperor Wen poisoned his own brother in retaliation for his wife's suffering. In 595, the luxurious summer vacation palace, Renshou Palace (仁壽宮, in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji "Baoji"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi")), was completed by the general [Yang Su](/wiki/Yang_Su "Yang Su"). When the frugal Emperor Wen saw how luxurious the palace was, he was unhappy and angrily stated, "Yang Su expanded the efforts of the people to construct this palace. The people will despise me." However, when the equally frugal Empress Dugu arrived at the palace as well, she advised her husband to comfort Yang Su, and when he subsequently summoned Yang Su to the palace, she stated, "You know that this old couple had little to enjoy, so you decorated this palace in this way. Is it not that in doing so, you are being both faithful and filial?" She then gave him a large award of money and silk. In 598, Empress Dugu and her younger half\-brother, Dugu Tuo (獨孤陀), born of different mothers, were embroiled in a mysterious scandal. It was said that Dugu Tuo, whose wife was a sister of the official [Yang Su](/wiki/Yang_Su "Yang Su")'s, had a female servant named Xu Ani (徐阿尼), who worshipped cat spirits and was capable to have those spirits kill people for her. At this time, both Empress Dugu and Yang Su's wife, Lady Zheng, were seriously ill, and it was suspected that they were afflicted by cat spirits. Emperor Wen suspected Dugu Tuo and had Gao Jiong investigate and Gao Jiong reported that it was indeed Dugu Tuo who instigated the matter. Emperor Wen ordered Dugu Tuo and Lady Yang to commit suicide, but Empress Dugu went on a three\-day hunger strike to save them, stating, "If Tuo had harmed the people, I would not dare to say anything, but his crime was on my account, and therefore I dare to beg you to spare his life." Dugu Tuo's younger brother, Dugu Zheng (獨孤整), also pleaded earnestly, and Emperor Wen spared them, reducing Dugu Tuo to commoner rank and forcing his wife to become a [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") nun. Over the years, the relationship between Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu was still loving and collaborative. However, on one occasion, when he happened to see Yuchi Jiong's beautiful granddaughter who had been forced into slave labor after her grandfather's death, he had sexual relations with her. When Empress Dugu found out, she had Lady Yuchi killed. In anger, he rode away from the palace on a horse, refused to return and said: "I am the emperor, but I don't have the freedom to do what I want". Gao Jiong and Yang Su had to track him down and urge him to return to the palace, with Gao Jiong stating, "Your Majesty, how can you abandon the empire on account of a mere woman?" When Emperor Wen did return to the palace after midnight, Empress Dugu was waiting for him, wept, and begged him for forgiveness for her crime. Gao Jiong and Yang Su subsequently hosted a banquet for the couple, and their quarrel ended. However, when Empress Dugu heard that Gao Jiong, whom she had respected previously, refer to her as "a mere woman," she became secretly resentful of him. Later, she became particularly angry at Gao Jiong over his marital relations, as after his wife died, she suggested Emperor Wen find him another wife, but Gao Jiong declined, stating that he was getting old and beginning to lose his sexual urges and did not need to remarry — and soon thereafter, his concubine bore a son. Empress Dugu pointed out that, in effect, he was not truthful, and Emperor Wen began to distance himself from Gao Jiong. Furthermore, in 598, when Gao Jiong, under Emperor Wen's duress, was forced to accompany [Yang Liang](/wiki/Yang_Liang "Yang Liang"), the Prince of Han, in a campaign against [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo "Goguryeo"), a campaign that he opposed, the campaign ended in failure, and Empress Dugu blamed him for the failure, particularly after Yang Liang, angry that Gao Jiong was not following his orders, complained to her.
[ "### The Two Holy Ones", "In 580, Emperor Xuan, who had by then passed the throne to his young son [Emperor Jing](/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Northern_Zhou \"Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou\") (by his [concubine](/wiki/Concubinage \"Concubinage\") [Zhu Manyue](/wiki/Zhu_Manyue \"Zhu Manyue\")) and become [retired emperor](/wiki/Taishang_Huang \"Taishang Huang\"), but who was retaining imperial powers, died suddenly. Yang Jian seized power as regent. It was at that time when Dugu Qieluo sent Yang Jian a message that stated, \"This is like riding a wild beast. You will not be able to come off of it. You need to fight hard to stay on.\" After Yang Jian defeated the general [Yuchi Jiong](/wiki/Yuchi_Jiong \"Yuchi Jiong\"), who rose against him after he took power, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him in 581, ending Northern Zhou and establishing [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty \"Sui dynasty\") as Emperor Wen. He named Dugu Qieluo empress and their oldest son, [Yang Yong](/wiki/Yang_Yong_%28Sui_dynasty%29 \"Yang Yong (Sui dynasty)\"), crown prince, while granting their other children, including the former Empress Yang, royal titles.", "Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu lived in a unique monogamous relationship and in the same palace, which was unprecedented in Chinese history, because the emperor and empress had separate and indepent palaces for themselves. Because she was said to be studious and he listened to her, the couple often conferred with each other the important matters of state and rewards and punishments. It is difficult to say which decision was the idea of the emperor or the empress, or which one followed the other. It was not infrequent that when he hosted imperial meetings she would accompany him almost all the way into the meeting hall and she often asked [eunuchs](/wiki/Eunuch \"Eunuch\") to listen in on the meeting. When she believed that he made the wrong decisions, she would advise him to change. She would also usually wait near the meeting hall for the meeting to be done and then return with him to the palace. Even when the emperor was in his study receiving and reading memorials from all over the empire and carrying on its matters, the empress was by his side, helping him till midnight. Whenever the officials had a proposal and wanted to convey it directly to the emperor, the empress also sat next to his table and listened to the discussions and involved herself in the discussed issues. She excelled in her role as a wise counselor, a faithful wife, a virtuous assistant, and the mother of the empire.", "Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu became known as \"the Two Holy Ones\" inside the palace by officials, because the emperor was considered a holy person and because both of them managed government affairs together, this situation led to the name of two saints, \"literally, two people who rule.\". Because both of them were a harmonious couple who did not differentiate between each other and appeared together as much as possible, as if they were one soul, one heart with a common mindset, in two bodies. This situation set a precedent that in the future \"Two Saints would preside over the court\" (二聖臨朝, *Er Sheng Lín cháo*) and \"Emperor and Empress Co\\-rule\" (帝后共治, *Dì hòu gòng zhì*) by [Empress Zetian of Zhou](/wiki/Wu_Zetian \"Wu Zetian\") with her husband, [Emperor Gaozong of Tang](/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Tang \"Emperor Gaozong of Tang\"), which was far beyond the position of Empress Dugu with Emperor Wen.", "As she lost her parents early in her life, Empress Dugu was particularly touched when she saw officials with both parents, and she would pay due respect to the officials' parents when she saw them. When officials suggested that, in accordance with rules set in the [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty \"Zhou dynasty\"), that their officials' marriages must be approved by the Empress, she declined, believing that it was very inappropriate for her to overly interfere in personal matters. She respected the official [Gao Jiong](/wiki/Gao_Jiong \"Gao Jiong\") not only because of his talent, but because his father Gao Bin (高賓) had served on her father's staff and was a trusted advisor for him. While she appreciated familial values, she did not tolerate criminal behaviour, even if it was exhibited by her own relatives. When her cousin Cui Changren (崔長仁) committed crimes that called for the death penalty, Emperor Wen was initially considering pardoning on her account, but she stated that she could not, based on kinship, break the laws, and Cui Changren was executed.", "Despite her honored status, Empress Dugu was said to be humble and lived frugally. She cut the expenses of the palace, like the making of overly luxurious handicrafts and clothing. She also demanded less tributes from the provinces, which had been customary for empresses to receive. These measures helped the imperial treasury to focus on urgent and far more imporant matters, such as a [canal](/wiki/Canal \"Canal\")\\-building regime and state relief for landless farmers. However, it also caused a series of accidents with her husband. Once, when Emperor Wen wanted to reward the wife of his official Liu Song (劉嵩) with a gold\\-decorated dress, Empress Dugu had none to give. In a more awkward situation, when Emperor Wen needed a medicine for [diarrhea](/wiki/Diarrhea \"Diarrhea\") that required ground pepper — then an exceedingly expensive spice that was more expensive than gold and which ladies of the court used for cosmetic purposes — he sought the ground pepper from Empress Dugu and found that she did not use it, on account of its cost.", "Empress Dugu had a poor relationship with her sister\\-in\\-law, the wife of Emperor Wen's brother, Yang Zan (楊瓚), the Prince of Teng — Northern Zhou's Princess Shenyang (daughter of [Yuwen Tai](/wiki/Yuwen_Tai \"Yuwen Tai\"), the father of the first three Northern Zhou emperors). It is said that Princess Shenyang used witchcraft to curse Empress Dugu, so Emperor Wen immediately ordered Yang Zan to divorce Princess Shenyang, but Yang Zan refused. When Yang Zan died in 591, it was believed that Emperor Wen poisoned his own brother in retaliation for his wife's suffering.", "In 595, the luxurious summer vacation palace, Renshou Palace (仁壽宮, in modern [Baoji](/wiki/Baoji \"Baoji\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\")), was completed by the general [Yang Su](/wiki/Yang_Su \"Yang Su\"). When the frugal Emperor Wen saw how luxurious the palace was, he was unhappy and angrily stated, \"Yang Su expanded the efforts of the people to construct this palace. The people will despise me.\" However, when the equally frugal Empress Dugu arrived at the palace as well, she advised her husband to comfort Yang Su, and when he subsequently summoned Yang Su to the palace, she stated, \"You know that this old couple had little to enjoy, so you decorated this palace in this way. Is it not that in doing so, you are being both faithful and filial?\" She then gave him a large award of money and silk.", "In 598, Empress Dugu and her younger half\\-brother, Dugu Tuo (獨孤陀), born of different mothers, were embroiled in a mysterious scandal. It was said that Dugu Tuo, whose wife was a sister of the official [Yang Su](/wiki/Yang_Su \"Yang Su\")'s, had a female servant named Xu Ani (徐阿尼), who worshipped cat spirits and was capable to have those spirits kill people for her. At this time, both Empress Dugu and Yang Su's wife, Lady Zheng, were seriously ill, and it was suspected that they were afflicted by cat spirits. Emperor Wen suspected Dugu Tuo and had Gao Jiong investigate and Gao Jiong reported that it was indeed Dugu Tuo who instigated the matter. Emperor Wen ordered Dugu Tuo and Lady Yang to commit suicide, but Empress Dugu went on a three\\-day hunger strike to save them, stating, \"If Tuo had harmed the people, I would not dare to say anything, but his crime was on my account, and therefore I dare to beg you to spare his life.\" Dugu Tuo's younger brother, Dugu Zheng (獨孤整), also pleaded earnestly, and Emperor Wen spared them, reducing Dugu Tuo to commoner rank and forcing his wife to become a [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\") nun.", "Over the years, the relationship between Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu was still loving and collaborative. However, on one occasion, when he happened to see Yuchi Jiong's beautiful granddaughter who had been forced into slave labor after her grandfather's death, he had sexual relations with her. When Empress Dugu found out, she had Lady Yuchi killed. In anger, he rode away from the palace on a horse, refused to return and said: \"I am the emperor, but I don't have the freedom to do what I want\". Gao Jiong and Yang Su had to track him down and urge him to return to the palace, with Gao Jiong stating, \"Your Majesty, how can you abandon the empire on account of a mere woman?\" When Emperor Wen did return to the palace after midnight, Empress Dugu was waiting for him, wept, and begged him for forgiveness for her crime. Gao Jiong and Yang Su subsequently hosted a banquet for the couple, and their quarrel ended.", "However, when Empress Dugu heard that Gao Jiong, whom she had respected previously, refer to her as \"a mere woman,\" she became secretly resentful of him. Later, she became particularly angry at Gao Jiong over his marital relations, as after his wife died, she suggested Emperor Wen find him another wife, but Gao Jiong declined, stating that he was getting old and beginning to lose his sexual urges and did not need to remarry — and soon thereafter, his concubine bore a son. Empress Dugu pointed out that, in effect, he was not truthful, and Emperor Wen began to distance himself from Gao Jiong. Furthermore, in 598, when Gao Jiong, under Emperor Wen's duress, was forced to accompany [Yang Liang](/wiki/Yang_Liang \"Yang Liang\"), the Prince of Han, in a campaign against [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo \"Goguryeo\"), a campaign that he opposed, the campaign ended in failure, and Empress Dugu blamed him for the failure, particularly after Yang Liang, angry that Gao Jiong was not following his orders, complained to her.", "" ]
The systems ----------- {{anchor\|Page–McIntyre system\|Page–McIntyre system}} ### Page–McIntyre system {{Main\|Page playoff system}} | Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 A | 1st semi\-finalNote that the terms "1st semi\-final" and "2nd semi\-final" specifically relate to the elimination and non\-elimination semi\-finals respectively, and they retain these names regardless of the chronological order that the games are played in. Many leagues which later adopted the Page–McIntyre system use the terms "Major Semi\-Final" and "Minor Semi\-Final" to more descriptively differentiate between the two games. | Rank 3 | v | Rank 4 | | B | 2nd semi\-final | Rank 1 | v | Rank 2 | | 2 | C | Preliminary final | Loser B | v | Winner A | | 3 | D | Grand final | Winner B | v | Winner C | The Page–McIntyre system features four teams. In the first round of the Page–McIntyre system, the highest\-two\-ranked teams play each other, with the winner going straight through to the grand final and the loser going through to the preliminary final. The lowest\-two\-ranked teams play each other, and the winner advances to the preliminary final. The winner of preliminary final gets through to the grand final. In this system, the top two teams are able to lose a match and still qualify for the grand final, this is referred to as a 'double chance'. Assuming that each team has an even chance of winning each match, the probability for both the highest\-ranked teams winning the competition is 37\.5%, compared to 12\.5% for the third and fourth placed teams. ### McIntyre final five system {{Main\|Top five play\-offs}} | Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | A | Elimination final | Rank 4 | v | Rank 5 | | B | Qualifying final | Rank 2 | v | Rank 3 | | 2 | C | 1st semi\-final | Loser B | v | Winner A | | D | 2nd semi\-final | Rank 1 | v | Winner B | | 3 | E | Preliminary final | Loser D | v | Winner C | | 4 | F | Grand final | Winner D | v | Winner E | As its name states, the McIntyre final five system features five teams. From the second round the McIntyre final five system is the same as the Page–McIntyre system; however, in the first round the lowest\-two\-ranked teams play to eliminate one team and the second and third\-ranked teams determine which match they will play in the second round. The highest\-ranked team has a bye in the first round. In this case, if all teams have an even chance of winning each match, the highest\-ranked team has a 37\.5% chance, ranks two and three have a 25% chance and the lowest\-two\-ranked teams have a 6\.25% chance of winning the competition. ### First McIntyre final six system | Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | A | 1st elimination final | Rank 5 | v | Rank 6 | | B | 2nd elimination final | Rank 3 | v | Rank 4 | | C | Qualifying final | Rank 1 | v | Rank 2 | | 2 | D | 1st semi\-final | Loser C | v | Winner A | | E | 2nd semi\-final | Winner C | v | Winner B | | 3 | F | Preliminary final | Loser E | v | Winner D | | 4 | G | Grand final | Winner E | v | Winner F | The first McIntyre final six system was also the same as the Page–McIntyre system from the second round. In this case, two of the four\-lowest\-ranked teams are eliminated in the first round, while the top two determine which match they will play in the second round. Under this system the top two teams receive a double chance, as does the winner of match B. ### Second McIntyre final six system | Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | A | 1st elimination final | Rank 4 | v | Rank 5 | | B | 2nd elimination final | Rank 3 | v | Rank 6 | | C | Qualifying final | Rank 1 | v | Rank 2 | | 2 | D | 1st semi\-final | Loser C | v | Lower\-ranked winner from A, B | | E | 2nd semi\-final | Winner C | v | Higher\-ranked winner from A, B | | 3 | F | Preliminary final | Loser E | v | Winner D | | 4 | G | Grand final | Winner E | v | Winner F | This adaptation of the first McIntyre system corrected for the anomaly that, in the first week, the team who finished 4th would have a more difficult opponent than the team who finished 5th, and was hence more likely to be eliminated, despite finishing higher. This was achieved by adding flexibility to the second round draw, so that the two elimination final winners were re\-ranked to determine which played the winner of the qualifying final and which played the loser. However, both McIntyre final six systems had another weakness: the loser of the qualifying final (which is the most difficult game of the first round), ended up facing elimination in the first semi\-final, while the higher\-ranked elimination final winner (who has had the easiest game of the first round) has a double chance in the second semi\-final. ### McIntyre final eight system {{Main\|McIntyre final eight system}} | Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | A | 1st qualifying final | Rank 4 | v | Rank 5 | | B | 2nd qualifying final | Rank 3 | v | Rank 6 | | C | 3rd qualifying final | Rank 2 | v | Rank 7 | | D | 4th qualifying final | Rank 1 | v | Rank 8 | | 2 | E | 2nd semi\-final | 4th\-highest\-ranked winner from A, B, C, D | v | 2nd\-highest\-ranked loser from A, B, C, D | | F | 1st semi\-final | 3rd\-highest\-ranked winner from A, B, C, D | v | Highest\-ranked loser from A, B, C, D | | 3 | G | 2nd Preliminary final | 2nd\-highest\-ranked winner from A, B, C, D | v | Winner F | | H | 1st Preliminary final | Highest\-ranked winner from A, B, C, D | v | Winner E | | 4 | I | Grand final | Winner G | v | Winner H | The McIntyre final eight bears little in common with the other McIntyre systems. At no stage does it follow the Page–McIntyre structure, and at no stage after the first week does any team retain a double chance. The system allows for 26 of the 28 combinations of the eight finalists to feature in the grand final (the two combinations not possible are 1st v 7th and 2nd v 8th). It gives 18\.75% to 1st and 2nd, 15\.625% to 3rd, 12\.5% to 4th and 5th, 9\.375% to 6th and 6\.25% to 7th and 8th.
[ "The systems\n-----------", "{{anchor\\|Page–McIntyre system\\|Page–McIntyre system}}", "### Page–McIntyre system", "{{Main\\|Page playoff system}}", "| Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 A | 1st semi\\-finalNote that the terms \"1st semi\\-final\" and \"2nd semi\\-final\" specifically relate to the elimination and non\\-elimination semi\\-finals respectively, and they retain these names regardless of the chronological order that the games are played in. Many leagues which later adopted the Page–McIntyre system use the terms \"Major Semi\\-Final\" and \"Minor Semi\\-Final\" to more descriptively differentiate between the two games. | Rank 3 | v | Rank 4 |\n| B | 2nd semi\\-final | Rank 1 | v | Rank 2 |\n| 2 | C | Preliminary final | Loser B | v | Winner A |\n| 3 | D | Grand final | Winner B | v | Winner C |", "The Page–McIntyre system features four teams. In the first round of the Page–McIntyre system, the highest\\-two\\-ranked teams play each other, with the winner going straight through to the grand final and the loser going through to the preliminary final. The lowest\\-two\\-ranked teams play each other, and the winner advances to the preliminary final. The winner of preliminary final gets through to the grand final. In this system, the top two teams are able to lose a match and still qualify for the grand final, this is referred to as a 'double chance'.", "Assuming that each team has an even chance of winning each match, the probability for both the highest\\-ranked teams winning the competition is 37\\.5%, compared to 12\\.5% for the third and fourth placed teams.", "### McIntyre final five system", "{{Main\\|Top five play\\-offs}}", "| Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | A | Elimination final | Rank 4 | v | Rank 5 |\n| B | Qualifying final | Rank 2 | v | Rank 3 |\n| 2 | C | 1st semi\\-final | Loser B | v | Winner A |\n| D | 2nd semi\\-final | Rank 1 | v | Winner B |\n| 3 | E | Preliminary final | Loser D | v | Winner C |\n| 4 | F | Grand final | Winner D | v | Winner E |", "As its name states, the McIntyre final five system features five teams. From the second round the McIntyre final five system is the same as the Page–McIntyre system; however, in the first round the lowest\\-two\\-ranked teams play to eliminate one team and the second and third\\-ranked teams determine which match they will play in the second round. The highest\\-ranked team has a bye in the first round.", "In this case, if all teams have an even chance of winning each match, the highest\\-ranked team has a 37\\.5% chance, ranks two and three have a 25% chance and the lowest\\-two\\-ranked teams have a 6\\.25% chance of winning the competition.", "### First McIntyre final six system", "", "| Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | A | 1st elimination final | Rank 5 | v | Rank 6 |\n| B | 2nd elimination final | Rank 3 | v | Rank 4 |\n| C | Qualifying final | Rank 1 | v | Rank 2 |\n| 2 | D | 1st semi\\-final | Loser C | v | Winner A |\n| E | 2nd semi\\-final | Winner C | v | Winner B |\n| 3 | F | Preliminary final | Loser E | v | Winner D |\n| 4 | G | Grand final | Winner E | v | Winner F |", "The first McIntyre final six system was also the same as the Page–McIntyre system from the second round. In this case, two of the four\\-lowest\\-ranked teams are eliminated in the first round, while the top two determine which match they will play in the second round. Under this system the top two teams receive a double chance, as does the winner of match B.", "### Second McIntyre final six system", "", "| Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | A | 1st elimination final | Rank 4 | v | Rank 5 |\n| B | 2nd elimination final | Rank 3 | v | Rank 6 |\n| C | Qualifying final | Rank 1 | v | Rank 2 |\n| 2 | D | 1st semi\\-final | Loser C | v | Lower\\-ranked winner from A, B |\n| E | 2nd semi\\-final | Winner C | v | Higher\\-ranked winner from A, B |\n| 3 | F | Preliminary final | Loser E | v | Winner D |\n| 4 | G | Grand final | Winner E | v | Winner F |", "This adaptation of the first McIntyre system corrected for the anomaly that, in the first week, the team who finished 4th would have a more difficult opponent than the team who finished 5th, and was hence more likely to be eliminated, despite finishing higher. This was achieved by adding flexibility to the second round draw, so that the two elimination final winners were re\\-ranked to determine which played the winner of the qualifying final and which played the loser.", "However, both McIntyre final six systems had another weakness: the loser of the qualifying final (which is the most difficult game of the first round), ended up facing elimination in the first semi\\-final, while the higher\\-ranked elimination final winner (who has had the easiest game of the first round) has a double chance in the second semi\\-final.", "### McIntyre final eight system", "{{Main\\|McIntyre final eight system}}", "| Round | Match | Name | Team 1 | | Team 2 |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | A | 1st qualifying final | Rank 4 | v | Rank 5 |\n| B | 2nd qualifying final | Rank 3 | v | Rank 6 |\n| C | 3rd qualifying final | Rank 2 | v | Rank 7 |\n| D | 4th qualifying final | Rank 1 | v | Rank 8 |\n| 2 | E | 2nd semi\\-final | 4th\\-highest\\-ranked winner from A, B, C, D | v | 2nd\\-highest\\-ranked loser from A, B, C, D |\n| F | 1st semi\\-final | 3rd\\-highest\\-ranked winner from A, B, C, D | v | Highest\\-ranked loser from A, B, C, D |\n| 3 | G | 2nd Preliminary final | 2nd\\-highest\\-ranked winner from A, B, C, D | v | Winner F |\n| H | 1st Preliminary final | Highest\\-ranked winner from A, B, C, D | v | Winner E |\n| 4 | I | Grand final | Winner G | v | Winner H |", "", "The McIntyre final eight bears little in common with the other McIntyre systems. At no stage does it follow the Page–McIntyre structure, and at no stage after the first week does any team retain a double chance. The system allows for 26 of the 28 combinations of the eight finalists to feature in the grand final (the two combinations not possible are 1st v 7th and 2nd v 8th). It gives 18\\.75% to 1st and 2nd, 15\\.625% to 3rd, 12\\.5% to 4th and 5th, 9\\.375% to 6th and 6\\.25% to 7th and 8th.", "" ]
Biography --------- Edmund Vivian Gabriel was born on 28 March 1875\. Educated at [Emmanuel College](/wiki/Emmanuel_College%2C_Cambridge "Emmanuel College, Cambridge"), [University of Cambridge](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge "University of Cambridge") ([B.A.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts"), 1896\), he entered the [Indian Civil Service](/wiki/Imperial_Civil_Service "Imperial Civil Service") in 1897 and the [Indian Political Service](/wiki/Indian_Political_Service "Indian Political Service") in 1913\. In his early years he served as [attaché](/wiki/Attach%C3%A9 "Attaché") to the 1903 [Coronation Durbar](/wiki/Coronation_Durbar "Coronation Durbar"), Political Advisor to [Chandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana](/wiki/Chandra_Shamsher_Jang_Bahadur_Rana "Chandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana"), [Prime Minister of Nepal](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Nepal "Prime Minister of Nepal") (1907\), [Resident](/wiki/Resident_%28title%29 "Resident (title)") of [Western Rajputana States](/wiki/Rajputana_Agency "Rajputana Agency") (1908\), and Chief Secretary, [North\-West Frontier Province](/wiki/North-West_Frontier_Province_%281901%E2%80%931955%29 "North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)") (1910\). During the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War") he was first assigned to the Imperial General Staff, [War Office](/wiki/War_Office "War Office"), in [London](/wiki/London "London"), where he was closely associated with [Lord Kitchener](/wiki/Herbert_Kitchener%2C_1st_Earl_Kitchener "Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener"), then [Secretary of State for War](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_War "Secretary of State for War"). He subsequently joined the British Military Mission with the [Italian Royal Army](/wiki/Italian_Royal_Army "Italian Royal Army"), as the head of the intelligence section, and later served as liaison officer to the naval forces in the [Aegean Sea](/wiki/Aegean_Sea "Aegean Sea") (British Aegean Squadron). In February 1917, he attended the demonstration of a new mortar in an open staff car in the company of some Italian Generals. The mortar exploded, killing five men and seriously injuring another. He insisted that the wounded man should be taken to hospital immediately. He later received a letter from the italian Government thanking him.The man whose life he saved with his prompt action was Benito Mussolini. Later, he was deployed to [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") and assigned to the [Egyptian Expeditionary Force](/wiki/Egyptian_Expeditionary_Force "Egyptian Expeditionary Force"). On 11 December 1917, he entered [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") with [General](/wiki/General "General") [Edmund Allenby](/wiki/Edmund_Allenby "Edmund Allenby") and was appointed financial advisor and [assistant administrator](/wiki/Administrator_of_the_Government "Administrator of the Government") of [Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") (then known as [Occupied Enemy Territory Administration South](/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration "Occupied Enemy Territory Administration")). After the war he moved to Britain and maintained his services with the [Territorial Army](/wiki/Territorial_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Territorial Army (United Kingdom)"), reaching the rank of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel"). His London residence was 40, [Wilton Crescent](/wiki/Wilton_Crescent "Wilton Crescent"). On 11 December 1924 he married Mabel McAfee, an American citizen, in a celebration held at [Saint Thomas Church](/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Church_%28Manhattan%29 "Saint Thomas Church (Manhattan)") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). In 1925, he was appointed to [King George V](/wiki/King_George_V "King George V")'s household as a [Gentleman Usher in Ordinary](/wiki/Gentleman_Usher "Gentleman Usher"), a title he maintained until his death. In the [1937 Coronation Honours](/wiki/1937_Coronation_Honours "1937 Coronation Honours") he was [knighted](/wiki/Knight_Bachelor "Knight Bachelor") by [King George VI](/wiki/King_George_VI "King George VI"). During the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") he was a member of the British Air Commission to the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America "United States of America"). Edmund Vivian Gabriel descended from the [Gabrielli](/wiki/Gabrielli_family "Gabrielli family"), a [noble](/wiki/Nobility "Nobility") [Italian](/wiki/Italy "Italy") family from [Gubbio](/wiki/Gubbio "Gubbio"), a branch of which had settled in [England](/wiki/England "England") in the 17th century. He maintained there a residence at 10, via Ducale, was honorary [curator](/wiki/Curator "Curator") of the local *Palazzo Ducale*, and supported the restoration of local artifacts and buildings. In the 1920s he decided to bequeath the collection of art he had gathered during his stay in [Asia](/wiki/Asian_Art "Asian Art") to the municipality of Gubbio: the *Vivian Gabriel Oriental Collection of Tibetan, Nepalese, Chinese and Indian Art* is today exposed in the [Palazzo dei Consoli](/wiki/Palazzo_dei_Consoli "Palazzo dei Consoli") in the [Umbrian](/wiki/Umbria "Umbria") hilltown. For this and his services during the war he was appointed by [King](/wiki/King_of_Italy "King of Italy") [Victor Emmanuel III](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III "Victor Emmanuel III") Officer, [Order of the Crown of Italy](/wiki/Order_of_the_Crown_of_Italy "Order of the Crown of Italy"), and Officer, [Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus](/wiki/Order_of_Saints_Maurice_and_Lazarus "Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus"). He also was a Knight of Justice of the [Venerable Order of Saint John of Jerusalem](/wiki/Venerable_Order_of_Saint_John "Venerable Order of Saint John"). He was also awarded the [Order of Saint Agatha](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Agatha "Order of Saint Agatha") by the Republic of [San Marino](/wiki/San_Marino "San Marino"). In 1926, Sir Vivian acquired the site of the [Inn of the Tongue of England](https://www.medievaltown.gr/item/inn-of-england/) in the Old Town of [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes_%28city%29 "Rhodes (city)") in the [Dodecanese](/wiki/Dodecanese "Dodecanese"). It was in turn given by his heirs to the ‘People of Greece’ in 1972\.Wall plaque, Rhodes Old Town: “This house was the Auberge of the Knights of the Tongue of England in the Convent at Rhodes of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem from 1310 to 1522… It was acquired in 1926 by Sir Vivian Gabriel a Knight of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in the British Realm and was given by his heirs and by the Most Venerable Order to the People of Greece in 1972\.”(viewed 27 February 2023\).
[ "Biography\n---------", "Edmund Vivian Gabriel was born on 28 March 1875\\. Educated at [Emmanuel College](/wiki/Emmanuel_College%2C_Cambridge \"Emmanuel College, Cambridge\"), [University of Cambridge](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge \"University of Cambridge\") ([B.A.](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\"), 1896\\), he entered the [Indian Civil Service](/wiki/Imperial_Civil_Service \"Imperial Civil Service\") in 1897 and the [Indian Political Service](/wiki/Indian_Political_Service \"Indian Political Service\") in 1913\\. In his early years he served as [attaché](/wiki/Attach%C3%A9 \"Attaché\") to the 1903 [Coronation Durbar](/wiki/Coronation_Durbar \"Coronation Durbar\"), Political Advisor to [Chandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana](/wiki/Chandra_Shamsher_Jang_Bahadur_Rana \"Chandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana\"), [Prime Minister of Nepal](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Nepal \"Prime Minister of Nepal\") (1907\\), [Resident](/wiki/Resident_%28title%29 \"Resident (title)\") of [Western Rajputana States](/wiki/Rajputana_Agency \"Rajputana Agency\") (1908\\), and Chief Secretary, [North\\-West Frontier Province](/wiki/North-West_Frontier_Province_%281901%E2%80%931955%29 \"North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)\") (1910\\).", "During the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") he was first assigned to the Imperial General Staff, [War Office](/wiki/War_Office \"War Office\"), in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), where he was closely associated with [Lord Kitchener](/wiki/Herbert_Kitchener%2C_1st_Earl_Kitchener \"Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener\"), then [Secretary of State for War](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_War \"Secretary of State for War\"). He subsequently joined the British Military Mission with the [Italian Royal Army](/wiki/Italian_Royal_Army \"Italian Royal Army\"), as the head of the intelligence section, and later served as liaison officer to the naval forces in the [Aegean Sea](/wiki/Aegean_Sea \"Aegean Sea\") (British Aegean Squadron).", "In February 1917, he attended the demonstration of a new mortar in an open staff car in the company of some Italian Generals. The mortar exploded, killing five men and seriously injuring another. He insisted that the wounded man should be taken to hospital immediately. He later received a letter from the italian Government thanking him.The man whose life he saved with his prompt action was Benito Mussolini.", "Later, he was deployed to [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") and assigned to the [Egyptian Expeditionary Force](/wiki/Egyptian_Expeditionary_Force \"Egyptian Expeditionary Force\"). On 11 December 1917, he entered [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") with [General](/wiki/General \"General\") [Edmund Allenby](/wiki/Edmund_Allenby \"Edmund Allenby\") and was appointed financial advisor and [assistant administrator](/wiki/Administrator_of_the_Government \"Administrator of the Government\") of [Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine \"Mandatory Palestine\") (then known as [Occupied Enemy Territory Administration South](/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration \"Occupied Enemy Territory Administration\")).", "After the war he moved to Britain and maintained his services with the [Territorial Army](/wiki/Territorial_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Territorial Army (United Kingdom)\"), reaching the rank of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\"). His London residence was 40, [Wilton Crescent](/wiki/Wilton_Crescent \"Wilton Crescent\"). On 11 December 1924 he married Mabel McAfee, an American citizen, in a celebration held at [Saint Thomas Church](/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Church_%28Manhattan%29 \"Saint Thomas Church (Manhattan)\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").", "In 1925, he was appointed to [King George V](/wiki/King_George_V \"King George V\")'s household as a [Gentleman Usher in Ordinary](/wiki/Gentleman_Usher \"Gentleman Usher\"), a title he maintained until his death. In the [1937 Coronation Honours](/wiki/1937_Coronation_Honours \"1937 Coronation Honours\") he was [knighted](/wiki/Knight_Bachelor \"Knight Bachelor\") by [King George VI](/wiki/King_George_VI \"King George VI\"). During the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") he was a member of the British Air Commission to the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America \"United States of America\").", "Edmund Vivian Gabriel descended from the [Gabrielli](/wiki/Gabrielli_family \"Gabrielli family\"), a [noble](/wiki/Nobility \"Nobility\") [Italian](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") family from [Gubbio](/wiki/Gubbio \"Gubbio\"), a branch of which had settled in [England](/wiki/England \"England\") in the 17th century. He maintained there a residence at 10, via Ducale, was honorary [curator](/wiki/Curator \"Curator\") of the local *Palazzo Ducale*, and supported the restoration of local artifacts and buildings. In the 1920s he decided to bequeath the collection of art he had gathered during his stay in [Asia](/wiki/Asian_Art \"Asian Art\") to the municipality of Gubbio: the *Vivian Gabriel Oriental Collection of Tibetan, Nepalese, Chinese and Indian Art* is today exposed in the [Palazzo dei Consoli](/wiki/Palazzo_dei_Consoli \"Palazzo dei Consoli\") in the [Umbrian](/wiki/Umbria \"Umbria\") hilltown.", "For this and his services during the war he was appointed by [King](/wiki/King_of_Italy \"King of Italy\") [Victor Emmanuel III](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III \"Victor Emmanuel III\") Officer, [Order of the Crown of Italy](/wiki/Order_of_the_Crown_of_Italy \"Order of the Crown of Italy\"), and Officer, [Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus](/wiki/Order_of_Saints_Maurice_and_Lazarus \"Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus\"). He also was a Knight of Justice of the [Venerable Order of Saint John of Jerusalem](/wiki/Venerable_Order_of_Saint_John \"Venerable Order of Saint John\"). He was also awarded the [Order of Saint Agatha](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Agatha \"Order of Saint Agatha\") by the Republic of [San Marino](/wiki/San_Marino \"San Marino\").", "In 1926, Sir Vivian acquired the site of the [Inn of the Tongue of England](https://www.medievaltown.gr/item/inn-of-england/) in the Old Town of [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes_%28city%29 \"Rhodes (city)\") in the [Dodecanese](/wiki/Dodecanese \"Dodecanese\"). It was in turn given by his heirs to the ‘People of Greece’ in 1972\\.Wall plaque, Rhodes Old Town: “This house was the Auberge of the Knights of the Tongue of England in the Convent at Rhodes of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem from 1310 to 1522… It was acquired in 1926 by Sir Vivian Gabriel a Knight of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in the British Realm and was given by his heirs and by the Most Venerable Order to the People of Greece in 1972\\.”(viewed 27 February 2023\\).", "" ]
History ------- The Memorial Museum of the Dominican Resistance was inspired by a concerned mother and a friend in 1995\. The mother of the freedom fighter Tony Mota Ricart, Mrs. Angela Ricart, was concerned about who would look after her son's things that reflected his brave [patriotism](/wiki/Patriotism "Patriotism") and sacrifice for the country after she died. This concern was expressed to her friend Cristina Gautier, who brought it up to her granddaughter, who at the time was the director of the [Columbus Lighthouse](/wiki/Columbus_Lighthouse "Columbus Lighthouse") and the future founding director of the museum, Luisa De Peña. With his mother reminding him of their responsibility to fallen heroes, Luisa De Peña began to plan the museum. While looking for support, many replied that the Museum of History and Geography and several commemorative monuments already existed. This did not discourage Luisa De Peña who, with the support of Mrs. Angela Ricart and his mother, continued knocking on doors and moving the project forward. Finally, he approached the Manolo Tavárez Justo Foundation where the project received a warm welcome. It was also immediately well received by the [Mirabal Sisters](/wiki/Mirabal_sisters "Mirabal sisters") Foundation through Noris González Mirabal, a member of both foundations. At the same time, the Testimony Foundation joined the project, and they also had the idea of creating a museum. In the summer of 2000, the [President of the Dominican Republic](/wiki/President_of_the_Dominican_Republic "President of the Dominican Republic"), [Dr. Leonel Fernández](/wiki/Leonel_Fern%C3%A1ndez "Leonel Fernández"), provided the Casa de las Fundaciones ("House of the Foundations"), located on Isabel La Católica street, for the establishment of a museum. In 2000, the Minister of Culture, Tony Raful, learned of the project, and he immediately supported it. In 2001, the Manolo Tavárez Justo Foundation proceeded to invite various patriotic foundations to participate in the project. A presentation was made at the Casa de las Fundaciones in the presence of the Tony Raful and seven patriotic foundations. In that same year, the [International Council of Museums](/wiki/International_Council_of_Museums "International Council of Museums") created the International Committee for Memorial Museums in Remembrance of the Victims of Public Crimes which recognized memorial museums as a special type of museum, with their own unique characteristics and a very specific mission. For four years, information was collected, people were interviewed, and [eyewitnesses](/wiki/Eyewitness_testimony "Eyewitness testimony") were sought. Notable collaborators included Dr. [Roberto Cassá](/wiki/Roberto_Cass%C3%A1 "Roberto Cassá"), the president of the Dominican Academy of History and historians Emilio Cordero Michel, Francisco Henríquez, and [Franklin Franco](/wiki/Franklin_Franco_Pichardo "Franklin Franco Pichardo"). The project continued to grow and gain national and international recognition. In 2005, it won a grant from the Ambassador's Fund for Cultural Preservation to digitize the collection. This scholarship opened the doors to the possibility of being eligible for the Memory of the World Programme. Later, in July 2009, the collection of the Dominican Resistance Memorial Museum would be registered as Memory of the World Programme by UNESCO. In 2005, the museum suffered a setback when the house destined for the museum entered into litigation, the Testimony Foundation was divided and the Federation of Patriotic Foundations lost two members and the museum premises. Later and through the "Fundación Héroes del 30 de Mayo" they got a house on Calle Arzobispo Nouel, donated by the VICINI Group (now INICIA). Finally, the museum entered its semi\-final phase. After sixteen years of planning, in 2011, it finally opened its doors to the public as one of the most modern museums in the Caribbean.{{cite web\|title\=Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana – El Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana busca rescatar y preservar la memoria histórica de los dominicanos\|url\=http://www.museodelaresistencia.com/\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-12\|website\=Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana}}
[ "History\n-------", "The Memorial Museum of the Dominican Resistance was inspired by a concerned mother and a friend in 1995\\. The mother of the freedom fighter Tony Mota Ricart, Mrs. Angela Ricart, was concerned about who would look after her son's things that reflected his brave [patriotism](/wiki/Patriotism \"Patriotism\") and sacrifice for the country after she died. This concern was expressed to her friend Cristina Gautier, who brought it up to her granddaughter, who at the time was the director of the [Columbus Lighthouse](/wiki/Columbus_Lighthouse \"Columbus Lighthouse\") and the future founding director of the museum, Luisa De Peña. With his mother reminding him of their responsibility to fallen heroes, Luisa De Peña began to plan the museum.", "While looking for support, many replied that the Museum of History and Geography and several commemorative monuments already existed. This did not discourage Luisa De Peña who, with the support of Mrs. Angela Ricart and his mother, continued knocking on doors and moving the project forward. Finally, he approached the Manolo Tavárez Justo Foundation where the project received a warm welcome. It was also immediately well received by the [Mirabal Sisters](/wiki/Mirabal_sisters \"Mirabal sisters\") Foundation through Noris González Mirabal, a member of both foundations. At the same time, the Testimony Foundation joined the project, and they also had the idea of creating a museum. In the summer of 2000, the [President of the Dominican Republic](/wiki/President_of_the_Dominican_Republic \"President of the Dominican Republic\"), [Dr. Leonel Fernández](/wiki/Leonel_Fern%C3%A1ndez \"Leonel Fernández\"), provided the Casa de las Fundaciones (\"House of the Foundations\"), located on Isabel La Católica street, for the establishment of a museum.", "In 2000, the Minister of Culture, Tony Raful, learned of the project, and he immediately supported it.", "In 2001, the Manolo Tavárez Justo Foundation proceeded to invite various patriotic foundations to participate in the project. A presentation was made at the Casa de las Fundaciones in the presence of the Tony Raful and seven patriotic foundations. In that same year, the [International Council of Museums](/wiki/International_Council_of_Museums \"International Council of Museums\") created the International Committee for Memorial Museums in Remembrance of the Victims of Public Crimes which recognized memorial museums as a special type of museum, with their own unique characteristics and a very specific mission.", "For four years, information was collected, people were interviewed, and [eyewitnesses](/wiki/Eyewitness_testimony \"Eyewitness testimony\") were sought. Notable collaborators included Dr. [Roberto Cassá](/wiki/Roberto_Cass%C3%A1 \"Roberto Cassá\"), the president of the Dominican Academy of History and historians Emilio Cordero Michel, Francisco Henríquez, and [Franklin Franco](/wiki/Franklin_Franco_Pichardo \"Franklin Franco Pichardo\").", "The project continued to grow and gain national and international recognition. In 2005, it won a grant from the Ambassador's Fund for Cultural Preservation to digitize the collection. This scholarship opened the doors to the possibility of being eligible for the Memory of the World Programme. Later, in July 2009, the collection of the Dominican Resistance Memorial Museum would be registered as Memory of the World Programme by UNESCO.", "In 2005, the museum suffered a setback when the house destined for the museum entered into litigation, the Testimony Foundation was divided and the Federation of Patriotic Foundations lost two members and the museum premises. Later and through the \"Fundación Héroes del 30 de Mayo\" they got a house on Calle Arzobispo Nouel, donated by the VICINI Group (now INICIA). Finally, the museum entered its semi\\-final phase.", "After sixteen years of planning, in 2011, it finally opened its doors to the public as one of the most modern museums in the Caribbean.{{cite web\\|title\\=Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana – El Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana busca rescatar y preservar la memoria histórica de los dominicanos\\|url\\=http://www.museodelaresistencia.com/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-12\\|website\\=Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana}}", "" ]
Life ---- Stanisław Sołtys was born 27 September 1433 in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków") to Maciej Sołtys and Jadwiga. His parents had long wanted a child and he was born on exactly the same date that the remains of [Stanislaus of Szczepanów](/wiki/Stanislaus_of_Szczepan%C3%B3w "Stanislaus of Szczepanów") were being moved. His parents were members of the Brotherhood of the Blessed Sacrament. He received his education from the [Canons Regular of the Lateran](/wiki/Canons_Regular_of_the_Lateran "Canons Regular of the Lateran") at their school not too far from his home which was attached to their [convent](/wiki/Convent "Convent") and to the local [parish church](/wiki/Parish_church "Parish church") of [Corpus Christi Basilica](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_Basilica "Corpus Christi Basilica") that the order administered. He went on to receive doctorates in [theological studies](/wiki/Theology "Theology") and in his philosophical studies from the [Jagiellonian University](/wiki/Jagiellonian_University "Jagiellonian University") in Kraków. He received a bachelor's degree in 1451\. The successful completion of his studies in 1456 saw him enter the Canons Regular of the Lateran and thus became a [novice](/wiki/Novice "Novice") in his [novitiate](/wiki/Novitiate "Novitiate"). He took the religious name of "Stanisław Kazimierczyk". His choice was due to the [shrine](/wiki/Shrine "Shrine") of the popular Saint Stanisław, a former [Bishop of Krakow](/wiki/Bishop_of_Krakow "Bishop of Krakow"), to whom he had a strong devotion his entire life. He was [ordained](/wiki/Holy_Orders "Holy Orders") as a [priest](/wiki/Priest_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Priest (Catholic Church)") in 1456 and was then named as the vice\-prior of the order despite being a new priest and not having enough experience. He was also made the novice master in charge of new candidates to the order. He also dedicated himself to the care of the ill and the poor and was noted for the deep devotion of the religious services that he celebrated. He developed a reputation for great spiritual insight as a [confessor](/wiki/Confession_%28religion%29 "Confession (religion)"). It was his allure as a preacher and confessor that saw people seek him out to preach and hear their confessions.{{cite web\|url\=http://catholicsaints.info/saint\-stanislas\-kazimierczyk/\|title\=Saint Stanislas Kazimierczyk\|publisher\=Saints SQPN\|date\=23 April 2015\|accessdate\=1 November 2016}} He preached in strong defense of the doctrine of the [Real Presence](/wiki/Real_Presence "Real Presence") in the [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist "Eucharist") against the preachings of the Polish followers of [John Wycliffe](/wiki/John_Wycliffe "John Wycliffe") and [Jan Hus](/wiki/Jan_Hus "Jan Hus"). It was due to this that he gained the title "Apostle of the [Blessed Sacrament](/wiki/Blessed_Sacrament "Blessed Sacrament")". [Saint John Cantius](/wiki/John_Cantius "John Cantius") \- a colleague of his at the Jagiellonian and a major scientist of the period \- was a close friend of his. The priest fasted numerous times and kept vigils on several occasions. He slept little and often slept on the ground more as a penitential act. On one occasion he went to visit the tomb of his patron saint when he saw the [Mother of God](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary "Blessed Virgin Mary") with the [Infant Jesus](/wiki/Jesus_Christ "Jesus Christ") in her arms; Saint Stanisław and other saints were around her. He often delivered his sermons in German as well as his native Polish. [King John I Albert](/wiki/John_I_Albert "John I Albert") once attributed an 8 September 1487 battle win against the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") to him. He died in mid\-1489 in Kraków and had been known in his life as a living saint. He had fallen quite ill at [Lent](/wiki/Lent "Lent") and towards his death requested anointing. He put his hands on his conferees' heads to bless them and to bid them farewell and died with his hands upraised to entrust his soul to [God](/wiki/God "God"). The faithful referred to him often as "Blessed" despite the fact that he had not been beatified but was called this due to his great reputation for personal holiness \- in the 1500s this title was recorded as being given. His remains were moved in 1632 after the priest Martin Kłoczyński commissioned a splendid altar in his honor to house the remains; a total of 176 purported miracles were reported to have taken place in the first year since his death.
[ "Life\n----", "Stanisław Sołtys was born 27 September 1433 in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\") to Maciej Sołtys and Jadwiga. His parents had long wanted a child and he was born on exactly the same date that the remains of [Stanislaus of Szczepanów](/wiki/Stanislaus_of_Szczepan%C3%B3w \"Stanislaus of Szczepanów\") were being moved. His parents were members of the Brotherhood of the Blessed Sacrament.", "He received his education from the [Canons Regular of the Lateran](/wiki/Canons_Regular_of_the_Lateran \"Canons Regular of the Lateran\") at their school not too far from his home which was attached to their [convent](/wiki/Convent \"Convent\") and to the local [parish church](/wiki/Parish_church \"Parish church\") of [Corpus Christi Basilica](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_Basilica \"Corpus Christi Basilica\") that the order administered. He went on to receive doctorates in [theological studies](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\") and in his philosophical studies from the [Jagiellonian University](/wiki/Jagiellonian_University \"Jagiellonian University\") in Kraków. He received a bachelor's degree in 1451\\.", "The successful completion of his studies in 1456 saw him enter the Canons Regular of the Lateran and thus became a [novice](/wiki/Novice \"Novice\") in his [novitiate](/wiki/Novitiate \"Novitiate\"). He took the religious name of \"Stanisław Kazimierczyk\". His choice was due to the [shrine](/wiki/Shrine \"Shrine\") of the popular Saint Stanisław, a former [Bishop of Krakow](/wiki/Bishop_of_Krakow \"Bishop of Krakow\"), to whom he had a strong devotion his entire life.", "He was [ordained](/wiki/Holy_Orders \"Holy Orders\") as a [priest](/wiki/Priest_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Priest (Catholic Church)\") in 1456 and was then named as the vice\\-prior of the order despite being a new priest and not having enough experience. He was also made the novice master in charge of new candidates to the order. He also dedicated himself to the care of the ill and the poor and was noted for the deep devotion of the religious services that he celebrated. He developed a reputation for great spiritual insight as a [confessor](/wiki/Confession_%28religion%29 \"Confession (religion)\"). It was his allure as a preacher and confessor that saw people seek him out to preach and hear their confessions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://catholicsaints.info/saint\\-stanislas\\-kazimierczyk/\\|title\\=Saint Stanislas Kazimierczyk\\|publisher\\=Saints SQPN\\|date\\=23 April 2015\\|accessdate\\=1 November 2016}} He preached in strong defense of the doctrine of the [Real Presence](/wiki/Real_Presence \"Real Presence\") in the [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist \"Eucharist\") against the preachings of the Polish followers of [John Wycliffe](/wiki/John_Wycliffe \"John Wycliffe\") and [Jan Hus](/wiki/Jan_Hus \"Jan Hus\"). It was due to this that he gained the title \"Apostle of the [Blessed Sacrament](/wiki/Blessed_Sacrament \"Blessed Sacrament\")\". [Saint John Cantius](/wiki/John_Cantius \"John Cantius\") \\- a colleague of his at the Jagiellonian and a major scientist of the period \\- was a close friend of his.", "The priest fasted numerous times and kept vigils on several occasions. He slept little and often slept on the ground more as a penitential act. On one occasion he went to visit the tomb of his patron saint when he saw the [Mother of God](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary \"Blessed Virgin Mary\") with the [Infant Jesus](/wiki/Jesus_Christ \"Jesus Christ\") in her arms; Saint Stanisław and other saints were around her. He often delivered his sermons in German as well as his native Polish. [King John I Albert](/wiki/John_I_Albert \"John I Albert\") once attributed an 8 September 1487 battle win against the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") to him.", "He died in mid\\-1489 in Kraków and had been known in his life as a living saint. He had fallen quite ill at [Lent](/wiki/Lent \"Lent\") and towards his death requested anointing. He put his hands on his conferees' heads to bless them and to bid them farewell and died with his hands upraised to entrust his soul to [God](/wiki/God \"God\").", "The faithful referred to him often as \"Blessed\" despite the fact that he had not been beatified but was called this due to his great reputation for personal holiness \\- in the 1500s this title was recorded as being given. His remains were moved in 1632 after the priest Martin Kłoczyński commissioned a splendid altar in his honor to house the remains; a total of 176 purported miracles were reported to have taken place in the first year since his death.", "" ]
Seattle/Tacoma Qualifying ------------------------- The qualifiers took place at the [Tacoma Dome](/wiki/Tacoma_Dome "Tacoma Dome") in [Seattle/Tacoma](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington "Tacoma, Washington"). Athletes who conquered the 18\-foot Mega Wall in **bold** and women who finished in the top 30 in *italics*. ### Night 1 The first qualifying round featured three new obstacles: Overpass, Tipping Point, and V Formation, along with 'Split\-Decision' (Domino Effect \& Spinning Log). Notable ninjas running the course included [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") driver [Jade Buford](/wiki/Jade_Buford "Jade Buford"), two\-time Olympic basketball gold medalist [Ruthie Bolton](/wiki/Ruthie_Bolton "Ruthie Bolton"), and 2008 Olympic gymnast [Jonathan Horton](/wiki/Jonathan_Horton "Jonathan Horton") was back for his 6th season. This episode set a record for the fewest finishers in a qualifying episode with only 5\. Notable ninjas who did not advance were Mathis "Kid" Owhadi, Thomas Stillings, Barclay Stockett (who returned after missing Season 12\), Maggi Thorne, Jeri D’Aurelio, Casey Shuchocki, Nate Burkhalter, Quest O’Neal, John Loobey, and Ben Wilson. | \+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Isaiah Thomas | 2:16\.67 | Finished | | 2 | Elijah Browning | 2:19\.19 | Finished | | 3 | Jody Avila | 2:25\.97 | Finished | | 4 | Vinnie Castranova | 2:42\.84 | Finished | | 5 | Jonathan Godbout | 3:02\.24 | Finished | | 6 | Nate Pardo | 1:14\.66 | V Formation | | 7 | Daniel Gil | 1:16\.54 | V Formation | | 8 | Christian Youst | 1:16\.78 | V Formation | | 9 | Brian Burkhardt | 1:18\.00 | V Formation | | 10 | Alex Blick | 1:19\.35 | V Formation | | 11 | Caleb Dowden | 1:23\.54 | V Formation | | 12 | Ryan Meeks | 1:23\.85 | V Formation | | 13 | Isaiah Wakeham | 1:26\.06 | V Formation | | 14 | Cole Verble | 1:26\.92 | V Formation | | 15 | *Isabella Wakeham* | 1:27\.04 | V Formation | | 16 | Josh Norton | 1:32\.13 | V Formation | | 17 | Caleb Benson | 1:32\.47 | V Formation | | 18 | Wade Lopp | 1:34\.81 | V Formation | | 19 | Karman Selby | 1:37\.09 | V Formation | | 20 | Dan Wentworth | 1:38\.19 | V Formation | | 21 | Bryan Billngmeier | 1:39\.44 | V Formation | | 22 | Adam Naids | 1:47\.68 | V Formation | | 23 | Jeremy Clark | 1:56\.78 | V Formation | | 24 | Abel Gonzalez | 2:01\.46 | V Formation | | 25 | *Lindsay Eskildsen* | 2:11\.01 | V Formation | | 26 | Sam Sann | 2:14\.57 | V Formation | | 27 | *Sophie Shaft* | 0:47\.91 | Tipping Point | | 28 | [Jonathan Horton](/wiki/Jonathan_Horton "Jonathan Horton") | 0:56\.82 | Tipping Point | | 29 | Jade Buford | 0:59\.71 | Tipping Point | | 30 | Cory Torkelson | 1:01\.25 | Tipping Point | | \+{{nowrap\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Isabella Wakeham | 1:27\.04 | V Formation | | 2 | Lindsay Eskildsen | 2:11\.01 | V Formation | | 3 | Sophie Shaft | 0:47\.91 | Tipping Point | | 4 | Chynna Hart | 0:27\.41 | Domino Effect | | 5 | Christie Brophy | 0:30\.66 | Domino Effect | | \+{{nowrap\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Nikki Asirvadam | Disguised as a horse, who loves Michael Jackson. | Shrinking Steps | | 2 | Dana Kielar | Got a beloved horse watching from the barn. | Overpass | | 3 | Juliana Wilson | Former Mrs. Tennessee as a pageant winner. | Shrinking Steps | | ### Night 2 The second qualifying round featured the same course as the first qualifier, but with two new Split\-Decision obstacles: Broken Bridge and Burn Rubber. Overpass was switched out with Weight For It from season 12\. Notable ninjas running the course were former Olympic hurdler [David "Crush" Payne](/wiki/David_Payne_%28hurdler%29 "David Payne (hurdler)") and Alex Weber, the host of *American Ninja Warrior: Crashing the Course* award\-winning web\-series. This was also the first time in the show's history where 5 women finished in the Top 30\. Also, "The Weatherman" Joe Moravsky was the first to make it up the 18\-foot Mega Wall this season. | \+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Kaden Lebsack | 1:49\.09 | Finished | | 2 | Lucas Reale | 2:02\.89 | Finished | | 3 | **[Joe Moravsky](/wiki/Joe_Moravsky "Joe Moravsky")** | 2:04\.10 | Finished (Mega Wall) | | 4 | Josiah Pippel | 2:53\.76 | Finished | | 5 | Anthony Porter | 3:01\.48 | Finished | | 6 | Victor Chan | 3:06\.58 | Finished | | 7 | Dan Champagne | 3:43\.59 | Finished | | 8 | Julius Ferguson | 0:59\.93 | V Formation | | 9 | True Becker | 1:02\.57 | V Formation | | 10 | Mike Beadle | 1:06\.34 | V Formation | | 11 | Lance Pekus | 1:16\.78 | V Formation | | 12 | Michael Larlee | 1:18\.04 | V Formation | | 13 | Cody Johnston | 1:18\.89 | V Formation | | 14 | Ruben Arellano | 1:23\.46 | V Formation | | 15 | Vincent Pane | 1:23\.87 | V Formation | | 16 | Xavier Dantzler | 1:29\.12 | V Formation | | 17 | Jason Grossman | 1:40\.24 | V Formation | | 18 | Jonah Bonner | 2:08\.17 | V Formation | | 19 | *Zhanique Lovett* | 2:14\.49 | V Formation | | 20 | Will Schlageter | 2:16\.78 | V Formation | | 21 | DC Banks | 2:24\.11 | V Formation | | 22 | Jose Gomez | 2:30\.46 | V Formation | | 23 | *Sandy Zimmerman* | 2:31\.62 | V Formation | | 24 | Deren Perez | 2:47\.57 | V Formation | | 25 | Francisco Barajas | 0:48\.99 | Tipping Point | | 26 | *Sophia Lavallee* | 0:59\.76 | Tipping Point | | 27 | Perry Madison | 1:02\.13 | Tipping Point | | 28 | Brian Montagnese | 1:06\.13 | Tipping Point | | 29 | *Brittney Durant* | 1:07\.70 | Tipping Point | | 30 | *Tiana Webberley* | 1:08\.34 | Tipping Point | | \+{{nowrap\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Zhanique Lovett | 2:14\.49 | V Formation | | 2 | Sandy Zimmerman | 2:31\.62 | V Formation | | 3 | Sophia Lavallee | 0:59\.76 | Tipping Point | | 4 | Brittney Durant | 1:07\.70 | Tipping Point | | 5 | Tiana Webberley | 1:08\.34 | Tipping Point | | \+{{nowrap\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Zac Palazzo | Lit it up outside the Tacoma Dome, as a fire breather and a carpenter. | Tipping Point | | 2 | Melissa Jackson | Got warmed up by taking a long ride on her unicycle. | Weight for it | | 3 | Emmanuel McConnell | As a Spartan Ninja, he looked ready for war. | Shrinking Steps | | ### Night 3 In this episode, two new obstacles were introduced: Air Surfer and Pretzel Twist. Notable ninjas running the course were former Olympic speed skater [K.C. Boutiette](/wiki/K.C._Boutiette "K.C. Boutiette"), freestyle motocross rider Zach DiPaolo, and former pro wakeboarder Austin Hair. Two rookies, 19\-year\-old Brett Hernandez Strong and 16\-year\-old Vance Walker (a two\-time [American Ninja Warrior Junior](/wiki/American_Ninja_Warrior_Junior "American Ninja Warrior Junior") winner), both scaled the Mega Wall. Notable ninjas who didn't advance were Grant McCartney ("Island Ninja"), Nick Hanson ("Eskimo Ninja"), one half of the "Towers of Power" Brandon Mears, who after falling on his fifth balance obstacle in the past five seasons, announced his possible retirement, Bootie Coothran, Grace Sims, and Michelle Warnky Buurma after falling in the 3rd obstacle. | \+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | R.J. Roman | 1:39\.84 | Finished | | 2 | Amir Malik | 1:51\.11 | Finished | | 3 | Enzo DeFerrari Wilson | 2:19\.92 | Finished | | 4 | Owen Dyer | 2:23\.13 | Finished | | 5 | Kevin Carbone | 2:33\.09 | Finished | | 6 | Max Feinberg | 2:35\.42 | Finished | | 7 | Austin Hair | 2:39\.62 | Finished | | 8 | **Brett Hernandez Strong** | 2:53\.07 | Finished (Mega Wall) | | 9 | Dan Polizzi | 3:04\.96 | Finished | | 10 | **Vance Walker** | 3:07\.32 | Finished (Mega Wall) | | 11 | Brett Sims | 3:37\.52 | Finished | | 12 | Tyler Gillett | 4:02\.22 | Finished | | 13 | WeiWei Qin | 1:00\.61 | Pretzel Twist | | 14 | Nico Gentry | 1:04\.78 | Pretzel Twist | | 15 | Devin Harrelson | 1:06\.10 | Pretzel Twist | | 16 | Kenny Tran | 1:06\.45 | Pretzel Twist | | 17 | Shaq Leach | 1:06\.89 | Pretzel Twist | | 18 | DeShawn Harris | 1:09\.25 | Pretzel Twist | | 19 | Josh Wagg | 1:11\.81 | Pretzel Twist | | 20 | Ben Whitlow | 1:13\.49 | Pretzel Twist | | 21 | Josiah Singleton | 1:14\.57 | Pretzel Twist | | 22 | Bob Reese | 1:19\.58 | Pretzel Twist | | 23 | Brad Giles | 1:21\.44 | Pretzel Twist | | 24 | Todd Bourgeois | 1:24\.76 | Pretzel Twist | | 25 | KC Boutiette | 1:26\.71 | Pretzel Twist | | 26 | Glenn Davis | 1:45\.78 | Pretzel Twist | | 27 | *Alyssa Varsalona* | 1:56\.43 | Pretzel Twist | | 28 | *Charity LeBlanc* | 2:13\.99 | Pretzel Twist | | 29 | Tony Miles | 2:30\.50 | Pretzel Twist | | 30 | Lenny Lopez | 0:34\.22 | Air Surfer | | \+{{nowrap\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Alyssa Varsalona | 1:56\.43 | Pretzel Twist | | 2 | Charity LeBlanc | 2:13\.99 | Pretzel Twist | | 3 | Megan Budway | 0:46\.18 | Air Surfer | | 4 | Cara Mack | 0:47\.56 | Air Surfer | | 5 | Heather Weissinger | 0:58\.76 | Air Surfer | | \+{{nowrap\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Tony Miles | He bet $75 000 that he completes the course, but missed. | Pretzel Twist ; qualified | | 2 | Jessica Helmer | She rescues abandoned rabbits, and she let Zuri Hall bunny sit during her run. | Shrinking Steps | | 3 | Josh Wagg | The Death Metal Ninja had plenty of swag | Pretzel Twist ; qualified | | ### Night 4 Another new obstacle was introduced, called Double Down. Notable ninjas running the course were super\-lightweight champion professional boxer [Melissa St. Vil](/wiki/Melissa_St._Vil "Melissa St. Vil"), former [NFL](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") player [Andrew East](/wiki/Andrew_East "Andrew East") (trained by his wife, Olympic gold\-medal gymnast [Shawn Johnson](/wiki/Shawn_Johnson "Shawn Johnson")), and [PLL](/wiki/Premier_Lacrosse_League "Premier Lacrosse League") lacrosse player [Rob Pannell](/wiki/Rob_Pannell "Rob Pannell"). However, schoolteacher Allyssa Beird was among the notable competitors who failed to advance to the semifinals. With Lorin Ball absent for season 13,{{Cite web\|url\=https://screenrant.com/american\-ninja\-warrior\-kevin\-bull\-facts\-trivia/\|title\=American Ninja Warrior: Everything to Know About Kevin Bull\|website\=\[\[Screen Rant]]\|date\=28 May 2021}} veterans David Campbell and Brian Kretsch became the only two competitors to have appeared on every single season of *American Ninja Warrior*. Additionally, this was only the second time five women made the top 30\. | \+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Jake Murray | 1:47\.20 | Finished | | 2 | Sean Bryan | 1:54\.38 | Finished | | 3 | Ethan Swanson | 1:56\.63 | Finished | | 4 | Nate Hansen | 2:03\.53 | Finished | | 5 | Matt Bradley | 2:19\.37 | Finished | | 6 | Caiden Madzelan | 2:34\.35 | Finished | | 7 | Jay Lewis | 2:37\.53 | Finished | | 8 | Jonah Munoz | 2:46\.35 | Finished | | 9 | Tage Herrington | 3:11\.82 | Finished | | 10 | Adam Rayl | 3:21\.44 | Finished | | 11 | David Campbell | 4:30\.12 | Finished | | 12 | Luke Dillon | 4:45\.00 | Finished | | 13 | *Meagan Martin* | 5:56\.49 | Finished | | 14 | Austin Gray | 0:57\.68 | Pretzel Twist | | 15 | Devan Alexander | 0:59\.77 | Pretzel Twist | | 16 | *Addy Herman* | 1:13\.46 | Pretzel Twist | | 17 | Mike Wright | 1:16\.87 | Pretzel Twist | | 18 | Chad Flexington | 1:19\.24 | Pretzel Twist | | 19 | John Uga | 1:23\.21 | Pretzel Twist | | 20 | Alex Begolly | 1:26\.77 | Pretzel Twist | | 21 | Logan Kreglow | 1:30\.54 | Pretzel Twist | | 22 | *Abby Clark* | 1:33\.02 | Pretzel Twist | | 23 | Quinn Nguyen | 1:33\.56 | Pretzel Twist | | 24 | Luciano Acuna Jr. | 1:46\.78 | Pretzel Twist | | 25 | Anthony Eardley | 1:56\.07 | Pretzel Twist | | 26 | Paul Fisher | 1:58\.97 | Pretzel Twist | | 27 | *Casey Rothschild* | 2:01\.12 | Pretzel Twist | | 28 | Judas Licciardello | 2:02\.57 | Pretzel Twist | | 29 | *Rachel Degutz* | 2:05\.67 | Pretzel Twist | | 30 | Brian Kretsch | 2:13\.45 | Pretzel Twist | | \+{{nowrap\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Meagan Martin | 5:56\.49 | Finished | | 2 | Addy Herman | 1:13\.46 | Pretzel Twist | | 3 | Abby Clark | 1:33\.02 | Pretzel Twist | | 4 | Casey Rothschild | 2:01\.12 | Pretzel Twist | | 5 | Rachel Degutz | 2:05\.67 | Pretzel Twist | | \+{{nowrap\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | John Huie | He led his entire middle school orchestra in a starline syndal. | Double Down | | 2 | Bryan "Muscle" Mendez | His mom made the hosts Authentic Salvadoran Pupusas. | Air Surfer | | 3 | Aubry Marie | She showed the flexibility that has made her a social media sensation. | Double Down | | ### Night 5 Another new obstacle was introduced, this one called Tilt\-A\-Whirl. Among the notable ninjas was former NFL quarterback [Jake Heaps](/wiki/Jake_Heaps "Jake Heaps"). Brian Beckstrand and his son, Kai (who previously competed on American Ninja Warrior Junior), became the first ever father\-and\-son duo to hit the buzzer in the qualifying round. The "Cat Daddy", Jackson Twait, made it up the Mega Wall. Jesse "Flex" Labreck joined Meagan Martin as one of only two women to hit a buzzer in the qualifying round this season. One competitor from this episode, Nick Hanson (who made it to Sideways), is a different Nick Hanson from the "Eskimo Ninja"; his nickname is the "Rugby Ninja". Among the notable veteran ninjas not advancing to the semifinals was Labreck’s fiancé, Chris DiGangi, as well as Michael Torres. | \+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Kai Beckstrand | 1:36\.83 | Finished | | 2 | Cal Plohoros | 1:51\.49 | Finished | | 3 | Tyler Yamauchi | 1:53\.17 | Finished | | 4 | Cam Baumgartner | 1:55\.19 | Finished | | 5 | **Jackson Twait** | 1:57\.59 | Finished (Mega Wall) | | 6 | Joe Meissner | 1:58\.66 | Finished | | 7 | Kyle Soderman | 2:03\.04 | Finished | | 8 | Hunter Guerard | 2:04\.83 | Finished | | 9 | Chris Behrends | 2:11\.04 | Finished | | 10 | John Mack | 2:23\.55 | Finished | | 11 | Eric Middleton | 2:59\.31 | Finished | | 12 | Sam Folsom | 3:03\.63 | Finished | | 13 | Mike Silenzi | 3:15\.54 | Finished | | 14 | Philip Scott | 3:16\.15 | Finished | | 15 | Brian Beckstrand | 3:23\.67 | Finished | | 16 | Joe Brown | 3:43\.52 | Finished | | 17 | *Jesse Labreck* | 3:50\.65 | Finished | | 18 | Jamie Rahn | 4:03\.15 | Finished | | 19 | Flip Rodriguez | 0:57\.61 | Sideways | | 20 | Donovan Metoyer | 1:02\.14 | Sideways | | 21 | Ben Martin | 1:03\.57 | Sideways | | 22 | Nick Hanson | 1:06\.44 | Sideways | | 23 | Sem Garay | 1:08\.94 | Sideways | | 24 | Marquez Green | 1:12\.24 | Sideways | | 25 | Roo Yori | 1:12\.56 | Sideways | | 26 | Jason Barber | 1:12\.78 | Sideways | | 27 | Andrew Stoinski | 1:13\.00 | Sideways | | 28 | Marcelino Riley | 1:14\.42 | Sideways | | 29 | Nathan Green | 1:14\.79 | Sideways | | 30 | Kyle Schulze | 1:18\.91 | Sideways | | \+{{nowrap\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Jesse Labreck | 3:50\.65 | Finished | | 2 | Megan Rowe | 1:23\.46 | Sideways | | 3 | Taylor Amann | 1:31\.35 | Sideways | | 4 | Jamie Ross | 1:39\.43 | Sideways | | 5 | Ava Colasanti | 1:02\.73 | Tilt\-A\-Whirl | | \+{{nowrap\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Eric Middleton | He brought the hosts a plate of tomato hornworms to eat if he finished the course. | Clear (2:59\.31\) | | 2 | Mike Silenzi | He had fellow Chicago Ninjas (Jesse Labreck, Chris DiGangi and Tyler Yamauchi) galloping on fake horses to represent his nickname "The Stallion". | Clear (3:15\.54\) | | 3 | Trinnie Bush | From the plains of Kansas, she looked like a character from little house on the prairie. | Shrinking Steps | | ### Seattle/Tacoma Qualifying Leaderboard | \+Top 150 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Kai Beckstrand | 1:36\.83 | Finished | | 2 | R.J. Roman | 1:39\.84 | Finished | | 3 | Jake Murray | 1:47\.20 | Finished | | 4 | Kaden Lebsack | 1:49\.09 | Finished | | 5 | Amir Malik | 1:51\.11 | Finished | | 6 | Cal Plohoros | 1:51\.49 | Finished | | 7 | Tyler Yamauchi | 1:53\.17 | Finished | | 8 | Sean Bryan | 1:54\.38 | Finished | | 9 | Cam Baumgartner | 1:55\.19 | Finished | | 10 | Ethan Swanson | 1:56\.63 | Finished | | 11 | **Jackson Twait** | 1:57\.59 | Finished (Mega Wall) | | 12 | Joe Meissner | 1:58\.66 | Finished | | 13 | Lucas Reale | 2:02\.89 | Finished | | 14 | Kyle Soderman | 2:03\.04 | Finished | | 15 | Nate Hansen | 2:03\.53 | Finished | | 16 | **[Joe Moravsky](/wiki/Joe_Moravsky "Joe Moravsky")** | 2:04\.10 | Finished (Mega Wall) | | 17 | Hunter Guerard | 2:04\.83 | Finished | | 18 | Chris Behrends | 2:11\.04 | Finished | | 19 | Isaiah Thomas | 2:16\.67 | Finished | | 20 | Elijah Browning | 2:19\.19 | Finished | | 21 | Matt Bradley | 2:19\.37 | Finished | | 22 | Enzo DeFerrari Wilson | 2:19\.92 | Finished | | 23 | Owen Dyer | 2:23\.13 | Finished | | 24 | John Mack | 2:23\.55 | Finished | | 25 | Jody Avila | 2:25\.97 | Finished | | 26 | Kevin Carbone | 2:33\.09 | Finished | | 27 | Caiden Madzelan | 2:34\.35 | Finished | | 28 | Max Feinberg | 2:35\.42 | Finished | | 29 | Jay Lewis | 2:37\.53 | Finished | | 30 | Austin Hair | 2:39\.62 | Finished | | 31 | Vinnie Castranova | 2:42\.84 | Finished | | 32 | Jonah Munoz | 2:46\.35 | Finished | | 33 | **Brett Hernandez Strong** | 2:53\.07 | Finished (Mega Wall) | | 34 | Josiah Pippel | 2:53\.76 | Finished | | 35 | Eric Middleton | 2:59\.31 | Finished | | 36 | Anthony Porter | 3:01\.48 | Finished | | 37 | Jonathan Godbout | 3:02\.24 | Finished | | 38 | Sam Folsom | 3:03\.63 | Finished | | 39 | Dan Polizzi | 3:04\.96 | Finished | | 40 | Victor Chan | 3:06\.58 | Finished | | 41 | **Vance Walker** | 3:07\.32 | Finished (Mega Wall) | | 42 | Tage Herrington | 3:11\.82 | Finished | | 43 | Mike Silenzi | 3:15\.54 | Finished | | 44 | Philip Scott | 3:16\.15 | Finished | | 45 | Adam Rayl | 3:21\.44 | Finished | | 46 | Brian Beckstrand | 3:23\.67 | Finished | | 47 | Brett Sims | 3:37\.52 | Finished | | 48 | Joe Brown | 3:43\.52 | Finished | | 49 | Dan Champagne | 3:43\.59 | Finished | | 50 | Jesse Labreck | 3:50\.65 | Finished | | 51 | Tyler Gillett | 4:02\.22 | Finished | | 52 | Jamie Rahn | 4:03\.15 | Finished | | 53 | David Campbell | 4:30\.12 | Finished | | 54 | Luke Dillon | 4:45\.00 | Finished | | 55 | Meagan Martin | 5:56\.49 | Finished | | 56 | Flip Rodriguez | 0:57\.61 | Sideways | | 57 | Austin Gray | 0:57\.68 | Pretzel Twist | | 58 | Devan Alexander | 0:59\.77 | Pretzel Twist | | 59 | Julius Ferguson | 0:59\.93 | V Formation | | 60 | WeiWei Qin | 1:00\.61 | Pretzel Twist | | 61 | Donovan Metoyer | 1:02\.14 | Sideways | | 62 | True Becker | 1:02\.57 | V Formation | | 63 | Ben Martin | 1:03\.57 | Sideways | | 64 | Nico Gentry | 1:04\.78 | Pretzel Twist | | 65 | Devin Harrelson | 1:06\.10 | Pretzel Twist | | 66 | Mike Beadle | 1:06\.34 | V Formation | | 67 | Nick Hanson | 1:06\.44 | Sideways | | 68 | Kenny Tran | 1:06\.45 | Pretzel Twist | | 69 | Shaq Leach | 1:06\.89 | Pretzel Twist | | 70 | Sem Garay | 1:08\.94 | Sideways | | 71 | DeShawn Harris | 1:09\.25 | Pretzel Twist | | 72 | Josh Wagg | 1:11\.81 | Pretzel Twist | | 73 | Marquez Green | 1:12\.24 | Sideways | | 74 | Roo Yori | 1:12\.56 | Sideways | | 75 | Jason Barber | 1:12\.78 | Sideways | | 76 | Andrew Stoinski | 1:13\.00 | Sideways | | 77 | Addy Herman | 1:13\.46 | Pretzel Twist | | 78 | Ben Whitlow | 1:13\.49 | Pretzel Twist | | 79 | Marcelino Riley | 1:14\.42 | Sideways | | 80 | Josiah Singleton | 1:14\.57 | Pretzel Twist | | 81 | Nate Pardo | 1:14\.66 | V Formation | | 82 | Nathan Green | 1:14\.79 | Sideways | | 83 | Daniel Gil | 1:16\.54 | V Formation | | 84 | Christian Youst | 1:16\.78 | V Formation | | 85 | Lance Pekus | 1:16\.78 | V Formation | | 86 | Mike Wright | 1:16\.87 | Pretzel Twist | | 87 | Brian Burkhardt | 1:18\.00 | V Formation | | 88 | Michael Larlee | 1:18\.04 | V Formation | | 89 | Cody Johnston | 1:18\.89 | V Formation | | 90 | Kyle Schulze | 1:18\.91 | Sideways | | 91 | Chad Flexington | 1:19\.24 | Pretzel Twist | | 92 | Alex Blick | 1:19\.35 | V Formation | | 93 | Bob Reese | 1:19\.58 | Pretzel Twist | | 94 | Brad Giles | 1:21\.44 | Pretzel Twist | | 95 | John Uga | 1:23\.21 | Pretzel Twist | | 96 | Ruben Arellano | 1:23\.46 | V Formation | | 97 | Caleb Dowden | 1:23\.54 | V Formation | | 98 | Ryan Meeks | 1:23\.85 | V Formation | | 99 | Vincent Pane | 1:23\.87 | V Formation | | 100 | Todd Bourgeois | 1:24\.76 | Pretzel Twist | | 101 | Isaiah Wakeham | 1:26\.06 | V Formation | | 102 | KC Boutiette | 1:26\.71 | Pretzel Twist | | 103 | Alex Begolly | 1:26\.77 | Pretzel Twist | | 104 | Cole Verble | 1:26\.92 | V Formation | | 105 | Isabella Wakeham | 1:27\.04 | V Formation | | 106 | Xavier Dantzler | 1:29\.12 | V Formation | | 107 | Logan Kreglow | 1:30\.54 | Pretzel Twist | | 108 | Josh Norton | 1:32\.13 | V Formation | | 109 | Caleb Benson | 1:32\.47 | V Formation | | 110 | Abby Clark | 1:33\.02 | Pretzel Twist | | 111 | Quinn Nguyen | 1:33\.56 | Pretzel Twist | | 112 | Wade Lopp | 1:34\.81 | V Formation | | 113 | Karman Selby | 1:37\.09 | V Formation | | 114 | Dan Wentworth | 1:38\.19 | V Formation | | 115 | Bryan Billngmeier | 1:39\.44 | V Formation | | 116 | Jason Grossman | 1:40\.24 | V Formation | | 117 | Glenn Davis | 1:45\.78 | Pretzel Twist | | 118 | Luciano Acuna Jr. | 1:46\.78 | Pretzel Twist | | 119 | Adam Naids | 1:47\.68 | V Formation | | 120 | Anthony Eardley | 1:56\.07 | Pretzel Twist | | 121 | Alyssa Varsalona | 1:56\.43 | Pretzel Twist | | 122 | Jeremy Clark | 1:56\.78 | V Formation | | 123 | Paul Fisher | 1:58\.97 | Pretzel Twist | | 124 | Casey Rothschild | 2:01\.12 | Pretzel Twist | | 125 | Abel Gonzalez | 2:01\.46 | V Formation | | 126 | Judas Licciardello | 2:02\.57 | Pretzel Twist | | 127 | Rachel Degutz | 2:05\.67 | Pretzel Twist | | 128 | Jonah Bonner | 2:08\.17 | V Formation | | 129 | Lindsay Eskildsen | 2:11\.01 | V Formation | | 130 | Brian Kretsch | 2:13\.45 | Pretzel Twist | | 131 | Charity LeBlanc | 2:13\.99 | Pretzel Twist | | 132 | Zhanique Lovett | 2:14\.49 | V Formation | | 133 | Sam Sann | 2:14\.57 | V Formation | | 134 | Will Schlageter | 2:16\.78 | V Formation | | 135 | DC Banks | 2:24\.11 | V Formation | | 136 | Jose Gomez | 2:30\.46 | V Formation | | 137 | Tony Miles | 2:30\.50 | Pretzel Twist | | 138 | Sandy Zimmerman | 2:31\.62 | V Formation | | 139 | Deren Perez | 2:47\.57 | V Formation | | 140 | Sophie Shaft | 0:47\.91 | Tipping Point | | 141 | Francisco Barajas | 0:48\.99 | Tipping Point | | 142 | [Jonathan Horton](/wiki/Jonathan_Horton "Jonathan Horton") | 0:56\.82 | Tipping Point | | 143 | Jade Buford | 0:59\.71 | Tipping Point | | 144 | Sophia Lavallee | 0:59\.76 | Tipping Point | | 145 | Cory Torkelson | 1:01\.25 | Tipping Point | | 146 | Perry Madison | 1:02\.13 | Tipping Point | | 147 | Brian Montagnese | 1:06\.13 | Tipping Point | | 148 | Brittney Durant | 1:07\.70 | Tipping Point | | 149 | Tiana Webberley | 1:08\.34 | Tipping Point | | 150 | Lenny Lopez | 0:34\.22 | Air Surfer | | \+{{nowrap\|Top 25 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Jesse Labreck | 3:50\.65 | Finished | | 2 | Meagan Martin | 5:56\.49 | Finished | | 3 | Addy Herman | 1:13\.46 | Pretzel Twist | | 4 | Megan Rowe | 1:23\.46 | Sideways | | 5 | Isabella Wakeham | 1:27\.04 | V Formation | | 6 | Taylor Amann | 1:31\.35 | Sideways | | 7 | Abby Clark | 1:33\.02 | Pretzel Twist | | 8 | Jamie Ross | 1:39\.43 | Sideways | | 9 | Alyssa Varsalona | 1:56\.43 | Pretzel Twist | | 10 | Casey Rothschild | 2:01\.12 | Pretzel Twist | | 11 | Rachel Degutz | 2:05\.67 | Pretzel Twist | | 12 | Lindsay Eskildsen | 2:11\.01 | V Formation | | 13 | Charity LeBlanc | 2:13\.99 | Pretzel Twist | | 14 | Zhanique Lovett | 2:14\.49 | V Formation | | 15 | Sandy Zimmerman | 2:31\.62 | V Formation | | 16 | Megan Budway | 0:46\.18 | Air Surfer | | 17 | Cara Mack | 0:47\.56 | Air Surfer | | 18 | Sophie Shaft | 0:47\.91 | Tipping Point | | 19 | Heather Weissinger | 0:58\.76 | Air Surfer | | 20 | Sophia Lavallee | 0:59\.76 | Tipping Point | | 21 | Ava Colasanti | 1:02\.73 | Tilt\-A\-Whirl | | 22 | Brittney Durant | 1:07\.70 | Tipping Point | | 23 | Tiana Webberley | 1:08\.34 | Tipping Point | | 24 | Chynna Hart | 0:27\.41 | Domino Effect | | 25 | Christie Brophy | 0:30\.66 | Domino Effect |
[ "Seattle/Tacoma Qualifying\n-------------------------", "The qualifiers took place at the [Tacoma Dome](/wiki/Tacoma_Dome \"Tacoma Dome\") in [Seattle/Tacoma](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington \"Tacoma, Washington\"). Athletes who conquered the 18\\-foot Mega Wall in **bold** and women who finished in the top 30 in *italics*.", "### Night 1", "The first qualifying round featured three new obstacles: Overpass, Tipping Point, and V Formation, along with 'Split\\-Decision' (Domino Effect \\& Spinning Log). Notable ninjas running the course included [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") driver [Jade Buford](/wiki/Jade_Buford \"Jade Buford\"), two\\-time Olympic basketball gold medalist [Ruthie Bolton](/wiki/Ruthie_Bolton \"Ruthie Bolton\"), and 2008 Olympic gymnast [Jonathan Horton](/wiki/Jonathan_Horton \"Jonathan Horton\") was back for his 6th season.", "This episode set a record for the fewest finishers in a qualifying episode with only 5\\. Notable ninjas who did not advance were Mathis \"Kid\" Owhadi, Thomas Stillings, Barclay Stockett (who returned after missing Season 12\\), Maggi Thorne, Jeri D’Aurelio, Casey Shuchocki, Nate Burkhalter, Quest O’Neal, John Loobey, and Ben Wilson.", "", "| \\+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Isaiah Thomas | 2:16\\.67 | Finished |\n| 2 | Elijah Browning | 2:19\\.19 | Finished |\n| 3 | Jody Avila | 2:25\\.97 | Finished |\n| 4 | Vinnie Castranova | 2:42\\.84 | Finished |\n| 5 | Jonathan Godbout | 3:02\\.24 | Finished |\n| 6 | Nate Pardo | 1:14\\.66 | V Formation |\n| 7 | Daniel Gil | 1:16\\.54 | V Formation |\n| 8 | Christian Youst | 1:16\\.78 | V Formation |\n| 9 | Brian Burkhardt | 1:18\\.00 | V Formation |\n| 10 | Alex Blick | 1:19\\.35 | V Formation |\n| 11 | Caleb Dowden | 1:23\\.54 | V Formation |\n| 12 | Ryan Meeks | 1:23\\.85 | V Formation |\n| 13 | Isaiah Wakeham | 1:26\\.06 | V Formation |\n| 14 | Cole Verble | 1:26\\.92 | V Formation |\n| 15 | *Isabella Wakeham* | 1:27\\.04 | V Formation |\n| 16 | Josh Norton | 1:32\\.13 | V Formation |\n| 17 | Caleb Benson | 1:32\\.47 | V Formation |\n| 18 | Wade Lopp | 1:34\\.81 | V Formation |\n| 19 | Karman Selby | 1:37\\.09 | V Formation |\n| 20 | Dan Wentworth | 1:38\\.19 | V Formation |\n| 21 | Bryan Billngmeier | 1:39\\.44 | V Formation |\n| 22 | Adam Naids | 1:47\\.68 | V Formation |\n| 23 | Jeremy Clark | 1:56\\.78 | V Formation |\n| 24 | Abel Gonzalez | 2:01\\.46 | V Formation |\n| 25 | *Lindsay Eskildsen* | 2:11\\.01 | V Formation |\n| 26 | Sam Sann | 2:14\\.57 | V Formation |\n| 27 | *Sophie Shaft* | 0:47\\.91 | Tipping Point |\n| 28 | [Jonathan Horton](/wiki/Jonathan_Horton \"Jonathan Horton\") | 0:56\\.82 | Tipping Point |\n| 29 | Jade Buford | 0:59\\.71 | Tipping Point |\n| 30 | Cory Torkelson | 1:01\\.25 | Tipping Point |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Isabella Wakeham | 1:27\\.04 | V Formation |\n| 2 | Lindsay Eskildsen | 2:11\\.01 | V Formation |\n| 3 | Sophie Shaft | 0:47\\.91 | Tipping Point |\n| 4 | Chynna Hart | 0:27\\.41 | Domino Effect |\n| 5 | Christie Brophy | 0:30\\.66 | Domino Effect |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Nikki Asirvadam | Disguised as a horse, who loves Michael Jackson. | Shrinking Steps |\n| 2 | Dana Kielar | Got a beloved horse watching from the barn. | Overpass |\n| 3 | Juliana Wilson | Former Mrs. Tennessee as a pageant winner. | Shrinking Steps |\n|", "### Night 2", "The second qualifying round featured the same course as the first qualifier, but with two new Split\\-Decision obstacles: Broken Bridge and Burn Rubber. Overpass was switched out with Weight For It from season 12\\. Notable ninjas running the course were former Olympic hurdler [David \"Crush\" Payne](/wiki/David_Payne_%28hurdler%29 \"David Payne (hurdler)\") and Alex Weber, the host of *American Ninja Warrior: Crashing the Course* award\\-winning web\\-series.", "This was also the first time in the show's history where 5 women finished in the Top 30\\. Also, \"The Weatherman\" Joe Moravsky was the first to make it up the 18\\-foot Mega Wall this season.", "", "| \\+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Kaden Lebsack | 1:49\\.09 | Finished |\n| 2 | Lucas Reale | 2:02\\.89 | Finished |\n| 3 | **[Joe Moravsky](/wiki/Joe_Moravsky \"Joe Moravsky\")** | 2:04\\.10 | Finished (Mega Wall) |\n| 4 | Josiah Pippel | 2:53\\.76 | Finished |\n| 5 | Anthony Porter | 3:01\\.48 | Finished |\n| 6 | Victor Chan | 3:06\\.58 | Finished |\n| 7 | Dan Champagne | 3:43\\.59 | Finished |\n| 8 | Julius Ferguson | 0:59\\.93 | V Formation |\n| 9 | True Becker | 1:02\\.57 | V Formation |\n| 10 | Mike Beadle | 1:06\\.34 | V Formation |\n| 11 | Lance Pekus | 1:16\\.78 | V Formation |\n| 12 | Michael Larlee | 1:18\\.04 | V Formation |\n| 13 | Cody Johnston | 1:18\\.89 | V Formation |\n| 14 | Ruben Arellano | 1:23\\.46 | V Formation |\n| 15 | Vincent Pane | 1:23\\.87 | V Formation |\n| 16 | Xavier Dantzler | 1:29\\.12 | V Formation |\n| 17 | Jason Grossman | 1:40\\.24 | V Formation |\n| 18 | Jonah Bonner | 2:08\\.17 | V Formation |\n| 19 | *Zhanique Lovett* | 2:14\\.49 | V Formation |\n| 20 | Will Schlageter | 2:16\\.78 | V Formation |\n| 21 | DC Banks | 2:24\\.11 | V Formation |\n| 22 | Jose Gomez | 2:30\\.46 | V Formation |\n| 23 | *Sandy Zimmerman* | 2:31\\.62 | V Formation |\n| 24 | Deren Perez | 2:47\\.57 | V Formation |\n| 25 | Francisco Barajas | 0:48\\.99 | Tipping Point |\n| 26 | *Sophia Lavallee* | 0:59\\.76 | Tipping Point |\n| 27 | Perry Madison | 1:02\\.13 | Tipping Point |\n| 28 | Brian Montagnese | 1:06\\.13 | Tipping Point |\n| 29 | *Brittney Durant* | 1:07\\.70 | Tipping Point |\n| 30 | *Tiana Webberley* | 1:08\\.34 | Tipping Point |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Zhanique Lovett | 2:14\\.49 | V Formation |\n| 2 | Sandy Zimmerman | 2:31\\.62 | V Formation |\n| 3 | Sophia Lavallee | 0:59\\.76 | Tipping Point |\n| 4 | Brittney Durant | 1:07\\.70 | Tipping Point |\n| 5 | Tiana Webberley | 1:08\\.34 | Tipping Point |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Zac Palazzo | Lit it up outside the Tacoma Dome, as a fire breather and a carpenter. | Tipping Point |\n| 2 | Melissa Jackson | Got warmed up by taking a long ride on her unicycle. | Weight for it |\n| 3 | Emmanuel McConnell | As a Spartan Ninja, he looked ready for war. | Shrinking Steps |\n|", "### Night 3", "In this episode, two new obstacles were introduced: Air Surfer and Pretzel Twist. Notable ninjas running the course were former Olympic speed skater [K.C. Boutiette](/wiki/K.C._Boutiette \"K.C. Boutiette\"), freestyle motocross rider Zach DiPaolo, and former pro wakeboarder Austin Hair. Two rookies, 19\\-year\\-old Brett Hernandez Strong and 16\\-year\\-old Vance Walker (a two\\-time [American Ninja Warrior Junior](/wiki/American_Ninja_Warrior_Junior \"American Ninja Warrior Junior\") winner), both scaled the Mega Wall.", "Notable ninjas who didn't advance were Grant McCartney (\"Island Ninja\"), Nick Hanson (\"Eskimo Ninja\"), one half of the \"Towers of Power\" Brandon Mears, who after falling on his fifth balance obstacle in the past five seasons, announced his possible retirement, Bootie Coothran, Grace Sims, and Michelle Warnky Buurma after falling in the 3rd obstacle.", "", "| \\+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | R.J. Roman | 1:39\\.84 | Finished |\n| 2 | Amir Malik | 1:51\\.11 | Finished |\n| 3 | Enzo DeFerrari Wilson | 2:19\\.92 | Finished |\n| 4 | Owen Dyer | 2:23\\.13 | Finished |\n| 5 | Kevin Carbone | 2:33\\.09 | Finished |\n| 6 | Max Feinberg | 2:35\\.42 | Finished |\n| 7 | Austin Hair | 2:39\\.62 | Finished |\n| 8 | **Brett Hernandez Strong** | 2:53\\.07 | Finished (Mega Wall) |\n| 9 | Dan Polizzi | 3:04\\.96 | Finished |\n| 10 | **Vance Walker** | 3:07\\.32 | Finished (Mega Wall) |\n| 11 | Brett Sims | 3:37\\.52 | Finished |\n| 12 | Tyler Gillett | 4:02\\.22 | Finished |\n| 13 | WeiWei Qin | 1:00\\.61 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 14 | Nico Gentry | 1:04\\.78 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 15 | Devin Harrelson | 1:06\\.10 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 16 | Kenny Tran | 1:06\\.45 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 17 | Shaq Leach | 1:06\\.89 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 18 | DeShawn Harris | 1:09\\.25 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 19 | Josh Wagg | 1:11\\.81 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 20 | Ben Whitlow | 1:13\\.49 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 21 | Josiah Singleton | 1:14\\.57 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 22 | Bob Reese | 1:19\\.58 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 23 | Brad Giles | 1:21\\.44 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 24 | Todd Bourgeois | 1:24\\.76 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 25 | KC Boutiette | 1:26\\.71 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 26 | Glenn Davis | 1:45\\.78 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 27 | *Alyssa Varsalona* | 1:56\\.43 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 28 | *Charity LeBlanc* | 2:13\\.99 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 29 | Tony Miles | 2:30\\.50 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 30 | Lenny Lopez | 0:34\\.22 | Air Surfer |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Alyssa Varsalona | 1:56\\.43 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 2 | Charity LeBlanc | 2:13\\.99 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 3 | Megan Budway | 0:46\\.18 | Air Surfer |\n| 4 | Cara Mack | 0:47\\.56 | Air Surfer |\n| 5 | Heather Weissinger | 0:58\\.76 | Air Surfer |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Tony Miles | He bet $75 000 that he completes the course, but missed. | Pretzel Twist ; qualified |\n| 2 | Jessica Helmer | She rescues abandoned rabbits, and she let Zuri Hall bunny sit during her run. | Shrinking Steps |\n| 3 | Josh Wagg | The Death Metal Ninja had plenty of swag | Pretzel Twist ; qualified |\n|", "### Night 4", "Another new obstacle was introduced, called Double Down. Notable ninjas running the course were super\\-lightweight champion professional boxer [Melissa St. Vil](/wiki/Melissa_St._Vil \"Melissa St. Vil\"), former [NFL](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") player [Andrew East](/wiki/Andrew_East \"Andrew East\") (trained by his wife, Olympic gold\\-medal gymnast [Shawn Johnson](/wiki/Shawn_Johnson \"Shawn Johnson\")), and [PLL](/wiki/Premier_Lacrosse_League \"Premier Lacrosse League\") lacrosse player [Rob Pannell](/wiki/Rob_Pannell \"Rob Pannell\"). However, schoolteacher Allyssa Beird was among the notable competitors who failed to advance to the semifinals.", "With Lorin Ball absent for season 13,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/american\\-ninja\\-warrior\\-kevin\\-bull\\-facts\\-trivia/\\|title\\=American Ninja Warrior: Everything to Know About Kevin Bull\\|website\\=\\[\\[Screen Rant]]\\|date\\=28 May 2021}} veterans David Campbell and Brian Kretsch became the only two competitors to have appeared on every single season of *American Ninja Warrior*.", "Additionally, this was only the second time five women made the top 30\\.", "", "| \\+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Jake Murray | 1:47\\.20 | Finished |\n| 2 | Sean Bryan | 1:54\\.38 | Finished |\n| 3 | Ethan Swanson | 1:56\\.63 | Finished |\n| 4 | Nate Hansen | 2:03\\.53 | Finished |\n| 5 | Matt Bradley | 2:19\\.37 | Finished |\n| 6 | Caiden Madzelan | 2:34\\.35 | Finished |\n| 7 | Jay Lewis | 2:37\\.53 | Finished |\n| 8 | Jonah Munoz | 2:46\\.35 | Finished |\n| 9 | Tage Herrington | 3:11\\.82 | Finished |\n| 10 | Adam Rayl | 3:21\\.44 | Finished |\n| 11 | David Campbell | 4:30\\.12 | Finished |\n| 12 | Luke Dillon | 4:45\\.00 | Finished |\n| 13 | *Meagan Martin* | 5:56\\.49 | Finished |\n| 14 | Austin Gray | 0:57\\.68 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 15 | Devan Alexander | 0:59\\.77 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 16 | *Addy Herman* | 1:13\\.46 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 17 | Mike Wright | 1:16\\.87 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 18 | Chad Flexington | 1:19\\.24 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 19 | John Uga | 1:23\\.21 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 20 | Alex Begolly | 1:26\\.77 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 21 | Logan Kreglow | 1:30\\.54 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 22 | *Abby Clark* | 1:33\\.02 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 23 | Quinn Nguyen | 1:33\\.56 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 24 | Luciano Acuna Jr. | 1:46\\.78 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 25 | Anthony Eardley | 1:56\\.07 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 26 | Paul Fisher | 1:58\\.97 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 27 | *Casey Rothschild* | 2:01\\.12 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 28 | Judas Licciardello | 2:02\\.57 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 29 | *Rachel Degutz* | 2:05\\.67 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 30 | Brian Kretsch | 2:13\\.45 | Pretzel Twist |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Meagan Martin | 5:56\\.49 | Finished |\n| 2 | Addy Herman | 1:13\\.46 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 3 | Abby Clark | 1:33\\.02 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 4 | Casey Rothschild | 2:01\\.12 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 5 | Rachel Degutz | 2:05\\.67 | Pretzel Twist |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | John Huie | He led his entire middle school orchestra in a starline syndal. | Double Down |\n| 2 | Bryan \"Muscle\" Mendez | His mom made the hosts Authentic Salvadoran Pupusas. | Air Surfer |\n| 3 | Aubry Marie | She showed the flexibility that has made her a social media sensation. | Double Down |\n|", "### Night 5", "Another new obstacle was introduced, this one called Tilt\\-A\\-Whirl. Among the notable ninjas was former NFL quarterback [Jake Heaps](/wiki/Jake_Heaps \"Jake Heaps\"). Brian Beckstrand and his son, Kai (who previously competed on American Ninja Warrior Junior), became the first ever father\\-and\\-son duo to hit the buzzer in the qualifying round. The \"Cat Daddy\", Jackson Twait, made it up the Mega Wall. Jesse \"Flex\" Labreck joined Meagan Martin as one of only two women to hit a buzzer in the qualifying round this season. One competitor from this episode, Nick Hanson (who made it to Sideways), is a different Nick Hanson from the \"Eskimo Ninja\"; his nickname is the \"Rugby Ninja\".", "Among the notable veteran ninjas not advancing to the semifinals was Labreck’s fiancé, Chris DiGangi, as well as Michael Torres.", "", "| \\+Top 30 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Kai Beckstrand | 1:36\\.83 | Finished |\n| 2 | Cal Plohoros | 1:51\\.49 | Finished |\n| 3 | Tyler Yamauchi | 1:53\\.17 | Finished |\n| 4 | Cam Baumgartner | 1:55\\.19 | Finished |\n| 5 | **Jackson Twait** | 1:57\\.59 | Finished (Mega Wall) |\n| 6 | Joe Meissner | 1:58\\.66 | Finished |\n| 7 | Kyle Soderman | 2:03\\.04 | Finished |\n| 8 | Hunter Guerard | 2:04\\.83 | Finished |\n| 9 | Chris Behrends | 2:11\\.04 | Finished |\n| 10 | John Mack | 2:23\\.55 | Finished |\n| 11 | Eric Middleton | 2:59\\.31 | Finished |\n| 12 | Sam Folsom | 3:03\\.63 | Finished |\n| 13 | Mike Silenzi | 3:15\\.54 | Finished |\n| 14 | Philip Scott | 3:16\\.15 | Finished |\n| 15 | Brian Beckstrand | 3:23\\.67 | Finished |\n| 16 | Joe Brown | 3:43\\.52 | Finished |\n| 17 | *Jesse Labreck* | 3:50\\.65 | Finished |\n| 18 | Jamie Rahn | 4:03\\.15 | Finished |\n| 19 | Flip Rodriguez | 0:57\\.61 | Sideways |\n| 20 | Donovan Metoyer | 1:02\\.14 | Sideways |\n| 21 | Ben Martin | 1:03\\.57 | Sideways |\n| 22 | Nick Hanson | 1:06\\.44 | Sideways |\n| 23 | Sem Garay | 1:08\\.94 | Sideways |\n| 24 | Marquez Green | 1:12\\.24 | Sideways |\n| 25 | Roo Yori | 1:12\\.56 | Sideways |\n| 26 | Jason Barber | 1:12\\.78 | Sideways |\n| 27 | Andrew Stoinski | 1:13\\.00 | Sideways |\n| 28 | Marcelino Riley | 1:14\\.42 | Sideways |\n| 29 | Nathan Green | 1:14\\.79 | Sideways |\n| 30 | Kyle Schulze | 1:18\\.91 | Sideways |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Top 5 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Jesse Labreck | 3:50\\.65 | Finished |\n| 2 | Megan Rowe | 1:23\\.46 | Sideways |\n| 3 | Taylor Amann | 1:31\\.35 | Sideways |\n| 4 | Jamie Ross | 1:39\\.43 | Sideways |\n| 5 | Ava Colasanti | 1:02\\.73 | Tilt\\-A\\-Whirl |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Akbar’s Gbajabia\\-Moments}} | Rank | Competitor | Reason for inclusion | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Eric Middleton | He brought the hosts a plate of tomato hornworms to eat if he finished the course. | Clear (2:59\\.31\\) |\n| 2 | Mike Silenzi | He had fellow Chicago Ninjas (Jesse Labreck, Chris DiGangi and Tyler Yamauchi) galloping on fake horses to represent his nickname \"The Stallion\". | Clear (3:15\\.54\\) |\n| 3 | Trinnie Bush | From the plains of Kansas, she looked like a character from little house on the prairie. | Shrinking Steps |\n|", "### Seattle/Tacoma Qualifying Leaderboard", "", "| \\+Top 150 Competitors | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Kai Beckstrand | 1:36\\.83 | Finished |\n| 2 | R.J. Roman | 1:39\\.84 | Finished |\n| 3 | Jake Murray | 1:47\\.20 | Finished |\n| 4 | Kaden Lebsack | 1:49\\.09 | Finished |\n| 5 | Amir Malik | 1:51\\.11 | Finished |\n| 6 | Cal Plohoros | 1:51\\.49 | Finished |\n| 7 | Tyler Yamauchi | 1:53\\.17 | Finished |\n| 8 | Sean Bryan | 1:54\\.38 | Finished |\n| 9 | Cam Baumgartner | 1:55\\.19 | Finished |\n| 10 | Ethan Swanson | 1:56\\.63 | Finished |\n| 11 | **Jackson Twait** | 1:57\\.59 | Finished (Mega Wall) |\n| 12 | Joe Meissner | 1:58\\.66 | Finished |\n| 13 | Lucas Reale | 2:02\\.89 | Finished |\n| 14 | Kyle Soderman | 2:03\\.04 | Finished |\n| 15 | Nate Hansen | 2:03\\.53 | Finished |\n| 16 | **[Joe Moravsky](/wiki/Joe_Moravsky \"Joe Moravsky\")** | 2:04\\.10 | Finished (Mega Wall) |\n| 17 | Hunter Guerard | 2:04\\.83 | Finished |\n| 18 | Chris Behrends | 2:11\\.04 | Finished |\n| 19 | Isaiah Thomas | 2:16\\.67 | Finished |\n| 20 | Elijah Browning | 2:19\\.19 | Finished |\n| 21 | Matt Bradley | 2:19\\.37 | Finished |\n| 22 | Enzo DeFerrari Wilson | 2:19\\.92 | Finished |\n| 23 | Owen Dyer | 2:23\\.13 | Finished |\n| 24 | John Mack | 2:23\\.55 | Finished |\n| 25 | Jody Avila | 2:25\\.97 | Finished |\n| 26 | Kevin Carbone | 2:33\\.09 | Finished |\n| 27 | Caiden Madzelan | 2:34\\.35 | Finished |\n| 28 | Max Feinberg | 2:35\\.42 | Finished |\n| 29 | Jay Lewis | 2:37\\.53 | Finished |\n| 30 | Austin Hair | 2:39\\.62 | Finished |\n| 31 | Vinnie Castranova | 2:42\\.84 | Finished |\n| 32 | Jonah Munoz | 2:46\\.35 | Finished |\n| 33 | **Brett Hernandez Strong** | 2:53\\.07 | Finished (Mega Wall) |\n| 34 | Josiah Pippel | 2:53\\.76 | Finished |\n| 35 | Eric Middleton | 2:59\\.31 | Finished |\n| 36 | Anthony Porter | 3:01\\.48 | Finished |\n| 37 | Jonathan Godbout | 3:02\\.24 | Finished |\n| 38 | Sam Folsom | 3:03\\.63 | Finished |\n| 39 | Dan Polizzi | 3:04\\.96 | Finished |\n| 40 | Victor Chan | 3:06\\.58 | Finished |\n| 41 | **Vance Walker** | 3:07\\.32 | Finished (Mega Wall) |\n| 42 | Tage Herrington | 3:11\\.82 | Finished |\n| 43 | Mike Silenzi | 3:15\\.54 | Finished |\n| 44 | Philip Scott | 3:16\\.15 | Finished |\n| 45 | Adam Rayl | 3:21\\.44 | Finished |\n| 46 | Brian Beckstrand | 3:23\\.67 | Finished |\n| 47 | Brett Sims | 3:37\\.52 | Finished |\n| 48 | Joe Brown | 3:43\\.52 | Finished |\n| 49 | Dan Champagne | 3:43\\.59 | Finished |\n| 50 | Jesse Labreck | 3:50\\.65 | Finished |\n| 51 | Tyler Gillett | 4:02\\.22 | Finished |\n| 52 | Jamie Rahn | 4:03\\.15 | Finished |\n| 53 | David Campbell | 4:30\\.12 | Finished |\n| 54 | Luke Dillon | 4:45\\.00 | Finished |\n| 55 | Meagan Martin | 5:56\\.49 | Finished |\n| 56 | Flip Rodriguez | 0:57\\.61 | Sideways |\n| 57 | Austin Gray | 0:57\\.68 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 58 | Devan Alexander | 0:59\\.77 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 59 | Julius Ferguson | 0:59\\.93 | V Formation |\n| 60 | WeiWei Qin | 1:00\\.61 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 61 | Donovan Metoyer | 1:02\\.14 | Sideways |\n| 62 | True Becker | 1:02\\.57 | V Formation |\n| 63 | Ben Martin | 1:03\\.57 | Sideways |\n| 64 | Nico Gentry | 1:04\\.78 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 65 | Devin Harrelson | 1:06\\.10 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 66 | Mike Beadle | 1:06\\.34 | V Formation |\n| 67 | Nick Hanson | 1:06\\.44 | Sideways |\n| 68 | Kenny Tran | 1:06\\.45 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 69 | Shaq Leach | 1:06\\.89 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 70 | Sem Garay | 1:08\\.94 | Sideways |\n| 71 | DeShawn Harris | 1:09\\.25 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 72 | Josh Wagg | 1:11\\.81 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 73 | Marquez Green | 1:12\\.24 | Sideways |\n| 74 | Roo Yori | 1:12\\.56 | Sideways |\n| 75 | Jason Barber | 1:12\\.78 | Sideways |\n| 76 | Andrew Stoinski | 1:13\\.00 | Sideways |\n| 77 | Addy Herman | 1:13\\.46 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 78 | Ben Whitlow | 1:13\\.49 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 79 | Marcelino Riley | 1:14\\.42 | Sideways |\n| 80 | Josiah Singleton | 1:14\\.57 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 81 | Nate Pardo | 1:14\\.66 | V Formation |\n| 82 | Nathan Green | 1:14\\.79 | Sideways |\n| 83 | Daniel Gil | 1:16\\.54 | V Formation |\n| 84 | Christian Youst | 1:16\\.78 | V Formation |\n| 85 | Lance Pekus | 1:16\\.78 | V Formation |\n| 86 | Mike Wright | 1:16\\.87 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 87 | Brian Burkhardt | 1:18\\.00 | V Formation |\n| 88 | Michael Larlee | 1:18\\.04 | V Formation |\n| 89 | Cody Johnston | 1:18\\.89 | V Formation |\n| 90 | Kyle Schulze | 1:18\\.91 | Sideways |\n| 91 | Chad Flexington | 1:19\\.24 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 92 | Alex Blick | 1:19\\.35 | V Formation |\n| 93 | Bob Reese | 1:19\\.58 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 94 | Brad Giles | 1:21\\.44 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 95 | John Uga | 1:23\\.21 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 96 | Ruben Arellano | 1:23\\.46 | V Formation |\n| 97 | Caleb Dowden | 1:23\\.54 | V Formation |\n| 98 | Ryan Meeks | 1:23\\.85 | V Formation |\n| 99 | Vincent Pane | 1:23\\.87 | V Formation |\n| 100 | Todd Bourgeois | 1:24\\.76 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 101 | Isaiah Wakeham | 1:26\\.06 | V Formation |\n| 102 | KC Boutiette | 1:26\\.71 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 103 | Alex Begolly | 1:26\\.77 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 104 | Cole Verble | 1:26\\.92 | V Formation |\n| 105 | Isabella Wakeham | 1:27\\.04 | V Formation |\n| 106 | Xavier Dantzler | 1:29\\.12 | V Formation |\n| 107 | Logan Kreglow | 1:30\\.54 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 108 | Josh Norton | 1:32\\.13 | V Formation |\n| 109 | Caleb Benson | 1:32\\.47 | V Formation |\n| 110 | Abby Clark | 1:33\\.02 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 111 | Quinn Nguyen | 1:33\\.56 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 112 | Wade Lopp | 1:34\\.81 | V Formation |\n| 113 | Karman Selby | 1:37\\.09 | V Formation |\n| 114 | Dan Wentworth | 1:38\\.19 | V Formation |\n| 115 | Bryan Billngmeier | 1:39\\.44 | V Formation |\n| 116 | Jason Grossman | 1:40\\.24 | V Formation |\n| 117 | Glenn Davis | 1:45\\.78 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 118 | Luciano Acuna Jr. | 1:46\\.78 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 119 | Adam Naids | 1:47\\.68 | V Formation |\n| 120 | Anthony Eardley | 1:56\\.07 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 121 | Alyssa Varsalona | 1:56\\.43 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 122 | Jeremy Clark | 1:56\\.78 | V Formation |\n| 123 | Paul Fisher | 1:58\\.97 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 124 | Casey Rothschild | 2:01\\.12 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 125 | Abel Gonzalez | 2:01\\.46 | V Formation |\n| 126 | Judas Licciardello | 2:02\\.57 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 127 | Rachel Degutz | 2:05\\.67 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 128 | Jonah Bonner | 2:08\\.17 | V Formation |\n| 129 | Lindsay Eskildsen | 2:11\\.01 | V Formation |\n| 130 | Brian Kretsch | 2:13\\.45 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 131 | Charity LeBlanc | 2:13\\.99 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 132 | Zhanique Lovett | 2:14\\.49 | V Formation |\n| 133 | Sam Sann | 2:14\\.57 | V Formation |\n| 134 | Will Schlageter | 2:16\\.78 | V Formation |\n| 135 | DC Banks | 2:24\\.11 | V Formation |\n| 136 | Jose Gomez | 2:30\\.46 | V Formation |\n| 137 | Tony Miles | 2:30\\.50 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 138 | Sandy Zimmerman | 2:31\\.62 | V Formation |\n| 139 | Deren Perez | 2:47\\.57 | V Formation |\n| 140 | Sophie Shaft | 0:47\\.91 | Tipping Point |\n| 141 | Francisco Barajas | 0:48\\.99 | Tipping Point |\n| 142 | [Jonathan Horton](/wiki/Jonathan_Horton \"Jonathan Horton\") | 0:56\\.82 | Tipping Point |\n| 143 | Jade Buford | 0:59\\.71 | Tipping Point |\n| 144 | Sophia Lavallee | 0:59\\.76 | Tipping Point |\n| 145 | Cory Torkelson | 1:01\\.25 | Tipping Point |\n| 146 | Perry Madison | 1:02\\.13 | Tipping Point |\n| 147 | Brian Montagnese | 1:06\\.13 | Tipping Point |\n| 148 | Brittney Durant | 1:07\\.70 | Tipping Point |\n| 149 | Tiana Webberley | 1:08\\.34 | Tipping Point |\n| 150 | Lenny Lopez | 0:34\\.22 | Air Surfer |", "", "| \\+{{nowrap\\|Top 25 Women}} | Rank | Competitor | Time | Furthest Obstacle |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Jesse Labreck | 3:50\\.65 | Finished |\n| 2 | Meagan Martin | 5:56\\.49 | Finished |\n| 3 | Addy Herman | 1:13\\.46 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 4 | Megan Rowe | 1:23\\.46 | Sideways |\n| 5 | Isabella Wakeham | 1:27\\.04 | V Formation |\n| 6 | Taylor Amann | 1:31\\.35 | Sideways |\n| 7 | Abby Clark | 1:33\\.02 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 8 | Jamie Ross | 1:39\\.43 | Sideways |\n| 9 | Alyssa Varsalona | 1:56\\.43 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 10 | Casey Rothschild | 2:01\\.12 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 11 | Rachel Degutz | 2:05\\.67 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 12 | Lindsay Eskildsen | 2:11\\.01 | V Formation |\n| 13 | Charity LeBlanc | 2:13\\.99 | Pretzel Twist |\n| 14 | Zhanique Lovett | 2:14\\.49 | V Formation |\n| 15 | Sandy Zimmerman | 2:31\\.62 | V Formation |\n| 16 | Megan Budway | 0:46\\.18 | Air Surfer |\n| 17 | Cara Mack | 0:47\\.56 | Air Surfer |\n| 18 | Sophie Shaft | 0:47\\.91 | Tipping Point |\n| 19 | Heather Weissinger | 0:58\\.76 | Air Surfer |\n| 20 | Sophia Lavallee | 0:59\\.76 | Tipping Point |\n| 21 | Ava Colasanti | 1:02\\.73 | Tilt\\-A\\-Whirl |\n| 22 | Brittney Durant | 1:07\\.70 | Tipping Point |\n| 23 | Tiana Webberley | 1:08\\.34 | Tipping Point |\n| 24 | Chynna Hart | 0:27\\.41 | Domino Effect |\n| 25 | Christie Brophy | 0:30\\.66 | Domino Effect |", "" ]
Career ------ ### Early years Saitō debuted in [Michinoku Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Michinoku_Pro_Wrestling "Michinoku Pro Wrestling") around the same time as [Yoshito Sugamoto](/wiki/Gamma_%28wrestler%29 "Gamma (wrestler)"), and then went on to wrestle on the Japanese [independent circuit](/wiki/Independent_circuit "Independent circuit"). ### Toryumon He joined [Tōryūmon](/wiki/Toryumon_%28%C3%9Altimo_Drag%C3%B3n%29 "Toryumon (Último Dragón)") in 1999 as Makoto, with a vampire style gimmick. As Makoto he was a member of the legendary Crazy Max stable. However, he did not get along with [Taru](/wiki/Yoshikazu_Taru "Yoshikazu Taru"), and eventually was kicked out of the stable after losing to Taru in a loser leaves match. He returned to Tōryūmon as Darkness Dragon, a takeoff on the Último Dragón lineage, joining heel stable M2K. With the help of his stablemates he became a main event performer. He had a bitter feud with [Dragon Kid](/wiki/Dragon_Kid "Dragon Kid") that ended in 2002 with Kid winning the feud after winning a best of 3 falls mask vs mask match. Darkness Dragon unmasked and briefly went face, forming a face stable called Do Fixer with Kid and [Ryo Saito](/wiki/Ryo_Saito "Ryo Saito"). His face turn, however, was a ruse designed to cause dissention between the faces. He would soon turn heel again, joining the remnants of M2K and revealing that they were the real Do Fixer. He remasked and reinvented himself as K\-ness., and engaged in a major feud and rivalry with [Yossino](/wiki/Masato_Yoshino "Masato Yoshino"). In November 2003 he suffered a major shoulder injury which caused him to miss out on the majority of 2004, and the switch from Tōryūmon to [Dragon Gate](/wiki/Dragon_Gate_%28wrestling%29 "Dragon Gate (wrestling)"). ### Dragon Gate By the time K\-ness returned, Último Dragón had left the promotion and taken the Tōryūmon trademark with him. On returning, K\-ness re\-united members from the various M2K factions that had split up over the past few years and created Final M2K. He had a relatively quiet 2005\. He faced long term rival Yossino for the [Open the Brave Gate Championship](/wiki/Open_the_Brave_Gate_Championship "Open the Brave Gate Championship"), but was defeated. In 2006, he spent a lot of time on the shelf again, recovering from nagging injuries. When he returned at the end of the year, he was no longer himself in terms of his health, and began to wrestle in the opening matches on Dragon Gate cards to reduce the possibility of re\-injuring himself. He then held an office position as field manager and booker. In late 2007 he began to take matches in the upper card again. Teaming with [Masaaki Mochizuki](/wiki/Masaaki_Mochizuki "Masaaki Mochizuki") and [Don Fujii](/wiki/Don_Fujii "Don Fujii"), he ended up with a reign as one third of the [Open the Triangle Gate](/wiki/Open_the_Triangle_Gate "Open the Triangle Gate") champions. After dropping the titles, K\-ness primarily returned to his background role. During that time, he unofficially allied with the "Over 30" veterans of Mochizuki, Fujii and [Magnitude Kishiwada](/wiki/Magnitude_Kishiwada "Magnitude Kishiwada"), and occasionally took upper card matches with them. In 2009, K\-ness began wrestling as 'X' although no one knew who exactly X was. [Genki Horiguchi](/wiki/Genki_Horiguchi "Genki Horiguchi") eventually called out X, who turned out to be K\-ness. He stopped teaming with the other veterans and joined Real Hazard, reuniting the K\-neSuka team with [Susumu Yokosuka](/wiki/Susumu_Mochizuki "Susumu Mochizuki"). On January 11, 2010, he defeated [Naoki Tanizaki](/wiki/Naoki_Tanizaki "Naoki Tanizaki") to become the Open the Brave Gate Champion. On January 10, 2010, Genki Horiguchi announced that Real Hazard would start winning matches through teamwork rather than illegal tactics. He initially started out alone on this mission, but six days later, Yokosuka and K\-ness decided to help him in his pursuit of clean fights. However, they all found themselves on the losing end of trios matches, with Horiguchi taking the fall every time, and a divide formed in Real Hazard over the clean fights issue, with them on one side and [Yasushi Kanda](/wiki/Yasushi_Kanda "Yasushi Kanda"), [Kzy](/wiki/Kzy "Kzy"), and [Takuya Sugawara](/wiki/Takuya_Sugawara "Takuya Sugawara"){{snd}}who wanted to win through illegal methods{{snd}}on the other. On February 10, after [Kagetora](/wiki/Fumiyuki_Hashimoto "Fumiyuki Hashimoto") accidentally cost Sugawara a shot at becoming the next challenger for the [Open the Dream Gate Championship](/wiki/Open_the_Dream_Gate_Championship "Open the Dream Gate Championship"), tensions boiled over. Yokosuka and K\-ness left Real Hazard, along with Horiguchi. K\-neSuka also agreed to stop teaming with Horiguchi, since they all did not like how Horiguchi was losing constantly, and they all felt that that was preventing K\-neSuka from getting to the top of the tag team division. On February 27, K\-ness dropped the Brave Gate title to [Super Shisa](/wiki/Super_Shisa "Super Shisa"). On May 13, 2010, K\-ness and Susumu Yokosuka defeated [Cyber Kong](/wiki/Cyber_Kong "Cyber Kong") and [Shingo Takagi](/wiki/Shingo_Takagi "Shingo Takagi") to win the [Dragon Gate Open the Twin Gate Championship](/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Open_the_Twin_Gate_Championship "Dragon Gate Open the Twin Gate Championship"). After the longest reign in the title's history, with four successful defenses, K\-ness and Yokosuka lost the Open the Twin Gate Championship to [Gamma](/wiki/Gamma_%28wrestler%29 "Gamma (wrestler)") and [Naruki Doi](/wiki/Naruki_Doi "Naruki Doi") on November 23, 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1290753672\|title\=Viva La Raza! Lucha Weekly\|date\=2010\-11\-26\|last\=Boutwell\|first\=Josh\|access\-date\=2010\-11\-26\|work\=WrestleView}} On December 4, K\-ness and Susumu Yokosuka joined World\-1\. In a match on February 6, 2011, K\-ness suffered a dislocated right shoulder and took time off to heal. On April 14, 2011, World\-1 was forced to disband after losing a match to the Blood Warriors.{{cite web\|url\=http://iheartdg.com/index.php?subaction\=showfull\&id\=1302775264\&archive\=\&start\_from\=\&ucat\=\&\|title\=4/14 Champion Gate \- 14 Apr 2011\|date\=2011\-04\-14\|access\-date\=2011\-04\-14\|work\=iHeartDG\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420142840/http://iheartdg.com/index.php?subaction\=showfull\&id\=1302775264\&archive\=\&start\_from\=\&ucat\=\&\|archive\-date\=20 April 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} On September 9, 2015, upon joining the Jimmyz stable, he was renamed Jimmy K\-ness J.K.S.{{cite web\|url\=http://battle\-news.com/?p\=13993\|title\=ドラゴンゲート9\.9後楽園大会 Summer Adventure Tag League 2015、土井＆Yamatovs.クネスカ、大阪06vs.フジイ＆斎了、キッド＆フラミータvs.ハルク＆Kzy\|date\=2015\-09\-10\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-10\|work\=Battle News\|language\=ja}} On September 18, 2017, the Jimmyz were forced to disband after losing a match to VerserK. In December 2021, K\-ness announced that he would be retiring in April 2022 due to a lingering neck injury.
[ "Career\n------", "### Early years", "Saitō debuted in [Michinoku Pro Wrestling](/wiki/Michinoku_Pro_Wrestling \"Michinoku Pro Wrestling\") around the same time as [Yoshito Sugamoto](/wiki/Gamma_%28wrestler%29 \"Gamma (wrestler)\"), and then went on to wrestle on the Japanese [independent circuit](/wiki/Independent_circuit \"Independent circuit\").", "### Toryumon", "He joined [Tōryūmon](/wiki/Toryumon_%28%C3%9Altimo_Drag%C3%B3n%29 \"Toryumon (Último Dragón)\") in 1999 as Makoto, with a vampire style gimmick. As Makoto he was a member of the legendary Crazy Max stable. However, he did not get along with [Taru](/wiki/Yoshikazu_Taru \"Yoshikazu Taru\"), and eventually was kicked out of the stable after losing to Taru in a loser leaves match.", "He returned to Tōryūmon as Darkness Dragon, a takeoff on the Último Dragón lineage, joining heel stable M2K. With the help of his stablemates he became a main event performer. He had a bitter feud with [Dragon Kid](/wiki/Dragon_Kid \"Dragon Kid\") that ended in 2002 with Kid winning the feud after winning a best of 3 falls mask vs mask match. Darkness Dragon unmasked and briefly went face, forming a face stable called Do Fixer with Kid and [Ryo Saito](/wiki/Ryo_Saito \"Ryo Saito\"). His face turn, however, was a ruse designed to cause dissention between the faces. He would soon turn heel again, joining the remnants of M2K and revealing that they were the real Do Fixer. He remasked and reinvented himself as K\\-ness., and engaged in a major feud and rivalry with [Yossino](/wiki/Masato_Yoshino \"Masato Yoshino\").", "In November 2003 he suffered a major shoulder injury which caused him to miss out on the majority of 2004, and the switch from Tōryūmon to [Dragon Gate](/wiki/Dragon_Gate_%28wrestling%29 \"Dragon Gate (wrestling)\").", "### Dragon Gate", "By the time K\\-ness returned, Último Dragón had left the promotion and taken the Tōryūmon trademark with him.", "On returning, K\\-ness re\\-united members from the various M2K factions that had split up over the past few years and created Final M2K. He had a relatively quiet 2005\\. He faced long term rival Yossino for the [Open the Brave Gate Championship](/wiki/Open_the_Brave_Gate_Championship \"Open the Brave Gate Championship\"), but was defeated.", "In 2006, he spent a lot of time on the shelf again, recovering from nagging injuries. When he returned at the end of the year, he was no longer himself in terms of his health, and began to wrestle in the opening matches on Dragon Gate cards to reduce the possibility of re\\-injuring himself. He then held an office position as field manager and booker.", "In late 2007 he began to take matches in the upper card again. Teaming with [Masaaki Mochizuki](/wiki/Masaaki_Mochizuki \"Masaaki Mochizuki\") and [Don Fujii](/wiki/Don_Fujii \"Don Fujii\"), he ended up with a reign as one third of the [Open the Triangle Gate](/wiki/Open_the_Triangle_Gate \"Open the Triangle Gate\") champions. After dropping the titles, K\\-ness primarily returned to his background role. During that time, he unofficially allied with the \"Over 30\" veterans of Mochizuki, Fujii and [Magnitude Kishiwada](/wiki/Magnitude_Kishiwada \"Magnitude Kishiwada\"), and occasionally took upper card matches with them.", "In 2009, K\\-ness began wrestling as 'X' although no one knew who exactly X was. [Genki Horiguchi](/wiki/Genki_Horiguchi \"Genki Horiguchi\") eventually called out X, who turned out to be K\\-ness. He stopped teaming with the other veterans and joined Real Hazard, reuniting the K\\-neSuka team with [Susumu Yokosuka](/wiki/Susumu_Mochizuki \"Susumu Mochizuki\"). On January 11, 2010, he defeated [Naoki Tanizaki](/wiki/Naoki_Tanizaki \"Naoki Tanizaki\") to become the Open the Brave Gate Champion.", "On January 10, 2010, Genki Horiguchi announced that Real Hazard would start winning matches through teamwork rather than illegal tactics. He initially started out alone on this mission, but six days later, Yokosuka and K\\-ness decided to help him in his pursuit of clean fights. However, they all found themselves on the losing end of trios matches, with Horiguchi taking the fall every time, and a divide formed in Real Hazard over the clean fights issue, with them on one side and [Yasushi Kanda](/wiki/Yasushi_Kanda \"Yasushi Kanda\"), [Kzy](/wiki/Kzy \"Kzy\"), and [Takuya Sugawara](/wiki/Takuya_Sugawara \"Takuya Sugawara\"){{snd}}who wanted to win through illegal methods{{snd}}on the other. On February 10, after [Kagetora](/wiki/Fumiyuki_Hashimoto \"Fumiyuki Hashimoto\") accidentally cost Sugawara a shot at becoming the next challenger for the [Open the Dream Gate Championship](/wiki/Open_the_Dream_Gate_Championship \"Open the Dream Gate Championship\"), tensions boiled over. Yokosuka and K\\-ness left Real Hazard, along with Horiguchi. K\\-neSuka also agreed to stop teaming with Horiguchi, since they all did not like how Horiguchi was losing constantly, and they all felt that that was preventing K\\-neSuka from getting to the top of the tag team division.", "On February 27, K\\-ness dropped the Brave Gate title to [Super Shisa](/wiki/Super_Shisa \"Super Shisa\"). On May 13, 2010, K\\-ness and Susumu Yokosuka defeated [Cyber Kong](/wiki/Cyber_Kong \"Cyber Kong\") and [Shingo Takagi](/wiki/Shingo_Takagi \"Shingo Takagi\") to win the [Dragon Gate Open the Twin Gate Championship](/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Open_the_Twin_Gate_Championship \"Dragon Gate Open the Twin Gate Championship\"). After the longest reign in the title's history, with four successful defenses, K\\-ness and Yokosuka lost the Open the Twin Gate Championship to [Gamma](/wiki/Gamma_%28wrestler%29 \"Gamma (wrestler)\") and [Naruki Doi](/wiki/Naruki_Doi \"Naruki Doi\") on November 23, 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1290753672\\|title\\=Viva La Raza! Lucha Weekly\\|date\\=2010\\-11\\-26\\|last\\=Boutwell\\|first\\=Josh\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-26\\|work\\=WrestleView}} On December 4, K\\-ness and Susumu Yokosuka joined World\\-1\\. In a match on February 6, 2011, K\\-ness suffered a dislocated right shoulder and took time off to heal. On April 14, 2011, World\\-1 was forced to disband after losing a match to the Blood Warriors.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://iheartdg.com/index.php?subaction\\=showfull\\&id\\=1302775264\\&archive\\=\\&start\\_from\\=\\&ucat\\=\\&\\|title\\=4/14 Champion Gate \\- 14 Apr 2011\\|date\\=2011\\-04\\-14\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-04\\-14\\|work\\=iHeartDG\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420142840/http://iheartdg.com/index.php?subaction\\=showfull\\&id\\=1302775264\\&archive\\=\\&start\\_from\\=\\&ucat\\=\\&\\|archive\\-date\\=20 April 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} On September 9, 2015, upon joining the Jimmyz stable, he was renamed Jimmy K\\-ness J.K.S.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://battle\\-news.com/?p\\=13993\\|title\\=ドラゴンゲート9\\.9後楽園大会 Summer Adventure Tag League 2015、土井＆Yamatovs.クネスカ、大阪06vs.フジイ＆斎了、キッド＆フラミータvs.ハルク＆Kzy\\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-10\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-10\\|work\\=Battle News\\|language\\=ja}} On September 18, 2017, the Jimmyz were forced to disband after losing a match to VerserK.", "In December 2021, K\\-ness announced that he would be retiring in April 2022 due to a lingering neck injury.", "" ]
### Dragon Gate By the time K\-ness returned, Último Dragón had left the promotion and taken the Tōryūmon trademark with him. On returning, K\-ness re\-united members from the various M2K factions that had split up over the past few years and created Final M2K. He had a relatively quiet 2005\. He faced long term rival Yossino for the [Open the Brave Gate Championship](/wiki/Open_the_Brave_Gate_Championship "Open the Brave Gate Championship"), but was defeated. In 2006, he spent a lot of time on the shelf again, recovering from nagging injuries. When he returned at the end of the year, he was no longer himself in terms of his health, and began to wrestle in the opening matches on Dragon Gate cards to reduce the possibility of re\-injuring himself. He then held an office position as field manager and booker. In late 2007 he began to take matches in the upper card again. Teaming with [Masaaki Mochizuki](/wiki/Masaaki_Mochizuki "Masaaki Mochizuki") and [Don Fujii](/wiki/Don_Fujii "Don Fujii"), he ended up with a reign as one third of the [Open the Triangle Gate](/wiki/Open_the_Triangle_Gate "Open the Triangle Gate") champions. After dropping the titles, K\-ness primarily returned to his background role. During that time, he unofficially allied with the "Over 30" veterans of Mochizuki, Fujii and [Magnitude Kishiwada](/wiki/Magnitude_Kishiwada "Magnitude Kishiwada"), and occasionally took upper card matches with them. In 2009, K\-ness began wrestling as 'X' although no one knew who exactly X was. [Genki Horiguchi](/wiki/Genki_Horiguchi "Genki Horiguchi") eventually called out X, who turned out to be K\-ness. He stopped teaming with the other veterans and joined Real Hazard, reuniting the K\-neSuka team with [Susumu Yokosuka](/wiki/Susumu_Mochizuki "Susumu Mochizuki"). On January 11, 2010, he defeated [Naoki Tanizaki](/wiki/Naoki_Tanizaki "Naoki Tanizaki") to become the Open the Brave Gate Champion. On January 10, 2010, Genki Horiguchi announced that Real Hazard would start winning matches through teamwork rather than illegal tactics. He initially started out alone on this mission, but six days later, Yokosuka and K\-ness decided to help him in his pursuit of clean fights. However, they all found themselves on the losing end of trios matches, with Horiguchi taking the fall every time, and a divide formed in Real Hazard over the clean fights issue, with them on one side and [Yasushi Kanda](/wiki/Yasushi_Kanda "Yasushi Kanda"), [Kzy](/wiki/Kzy "Kzy"), and [Takuya Sugawara](/wiki/Takuya_Sugawara "Takuya Sugawara"){{snd}}who wanted to win through illegal methods{{snd}}on the other. On February 10, after [Kagetora](/wiki/Fumiyuki_Hashimoto "Fumiyuki Hashimoto") accidentally cost Sugawara a shot at becoming the next challenger for the [Open the Dream Gate Championship](/wiki/Open_the_Dream_Gate_Championship "Open the Dream Gate Championship"), tensions boiled over. Yokosuka and K\-ness left Real Hazard, along with Horiguchi. K\-neSuka also agreed to stop teaming with Horiguchi, since they all did not like how Horiguchi was losing constantly, and they all felt that that was preventing K\-neSuka from getting to the top of the tag team division. On February 27, K\-ness dropped the Brave Gate title to [Super Shisa](/wiki/Super_Shisa "Super Shisa"). On May 13, 2010, K\-ness and Susumu Yokosuka defeated [Cyber Kong](/wiki/Cyber_Kong "Cyber Kong") and [Shingo Takagi](/wiki/Shingo_Takagi "Shingo Takagi") to win the [Dragon Gate Open the Twin Gate Championship](/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Open_the_Twin_Gate_Championship "Dragon Gate Open the Twin Gate Championship"). After the longest reign in the title's history, with four successful defenses, K\-ness and Yokosuka lost the Open the Twin Gate Championship to [Gamma](/wiki/Gamma_%28wrestler%29 "Gamma (wrestler)") and [Naruki Doi](/wiki/Naruki_Doi "Naruki Doi") on November 23, 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\=1290753672\|title\=Viva La Raza! Lucha Weekly\|date\=2010\-11\-26\|last\=Boutwell\|first\=Josh\|access\-date\=2010\-11\-26\|work\=WrestleView}} On December 4, K\-ness and Susumu Yokosuka joined World\-1\. In a match on February 6, 2011, K\-ness suffered a dislocated right shoulder and took time off to heal. On April 14, 2011, World\-1 was forced to disband after losing a match to the Blood Warriors.{{cite web\|url\=http://iheartdg.com/index.php?subaction\=showfull\&id\=1302775264\&archive\=\&start\_from\=\&ucat\=\&\|title\=4/14 Champion Gate \- 14 Apr 2011\|date\=2011\-04\-14\|access\-date\=2011\-04\-14\|work\=iHeartDG\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420142840/http://iheartdg.com/index.php?subaction\=showfull\&id\=1302775264\&archive\=\&start\_from\=\&ucat\=\&\|archive\-date\=20 April 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} On September 9, 2015, upon joining the Jimmyz stable, he was renamed Jimmy K\-ness J.K.S.{{cite web\|url\=http://battle\-news.com/?p\=13993\|title\=ドラゴンゲート9\.9後楽園大会 Summer Adventure Tag League 2015、土井＆Yamatovs.クネスカ、大阪06vs.フジイ＆斎了、キッド＆フラミータvs.ハルク＆Kzy\|date\=2015\-09\-10\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-10\|work\=Battle News\|language\=ja}} On September 18, 2017, the Jimmyz were forced to disband after losing a match to VerserK. In December 2021, K\-ness announced that he would be retiring in April 2022 due to a lingering neck injury.
[ "### Dragon Gate", "By the time K\\-ness returned, Último Dragón had left the promotion and taken the Tōryūmon trademark with him.", "On returning, K\\-ness re\\-united members from the various M2K factions that had split up over the past few years and created Final M2K. He had a relatively quiet 2005\\. He faced long term rival Yossino for the [Open the Brave Gate Championship](/wiki/Open_the_Brave_Gate_Championship \"Open the Brave Gate Championship\"), but was defeated.", "In 2006, he spent a lot of time on the shelf again, recovering from nagging injuries. When he returned at the end of the year, he was no longer himself in terms of his health, and began to wrestle in the opening matches on Dragon Gate cards to reduce the possibility of re\\-injuring himself. He then held an office position as field manager and booker.", "In late 2007 he began to take matches in the upper card again. Teaming with [Masaaki Mochizuki](/wiki/Masaaki_Mochizuki \"Masaaki Mochizuki\") and [Don Fujii](/wiki/Don_Fujii \"Don Fujii\"), he ended up with a reign as one third of the [Open the Triangle Gate](/wiki/Open_the_Triangle_Gate \"Open the Triangle Gate\") champions. After dropping the titles, K\\-ness primarily returned to his background role. During that time, he unofficially allied with the \"Over 30\" veterans of Mochizuki, Fujii and [Magnitude Kishiwada](/wiki/Magnitude_Kishiwada \"Magnitude Kishiwada\"), and occasionally took upper card matches with them.", "In 2009, K\\-ness began wrestling as 'X' although no one knew who exactly X was. [Genki Horiguchi](/wiki/Genki_Horiguchi \"Genki Horiguchi\") eventually called out X, who turned out to be K\\-ness. He stopped teaming with the other veterans and joined Real Hazard, reuniting the K\\-neSuka team with [Susumu Yokosuka](/wiki/Susumu_Mochizuki \"Susumu Mochizuki\"). On January 11, 2010, he defeated [Naoki Tanizaki](/wiki/Naoki_Tanizaki \"Naoki Tanizaki\") to become the Open the Brave Gate Champion.", "On January 10, 2010, Genki Horiguchi announced that Real Hazard would start winning matches through teamwork rather than illegal tactics. He initially started out alone on this mission, but six days later, Yokosuka and K\\-ness decided to help him in his pursuit of clean fights. However, they all found themselves on the losing end of trios matches, with Horiguchi taking the fall every time, and a divide formed in Real Hazard over the clean fights issue, with them on one side and [Yasushi Kanda](/wiki/Yasushi_Kanda \"Yasushi Kanda\"), [Kzy](/wiki/Kzy \"Kzy\"), and [Takuya Sugawara](/wiki/Takuya_Sugawara \"Takuya Sugawara\"){{snd}}who wanted to win through illegal methods{{snd}}on the other. On February 10, after [Kagetora](/wiki/Fumiyuki_Hashimoto \"Fumiyuki Hashimoto\") accidentally cost Sugawara a shot at becoming the next challenger for the [Open the Dream Gate Championship](/wiki/Open_the_Dream_Gate_Championship \"Open the Dream Gate Championship\"), tensions boiled over. Yokosuka and K\\-ness left Real Hazard, along with Horiguchi. K\\-neSuka also agreed to stop teaming with Horiguchi, since they all did not like how Horiguchi was losing constantly, and they all felt that that was preventing K\\-neSuka from getting to the top of the tag team division.", "On February 27, K\\-ness dropped the Brave Gate title to [Super Shisa](/wiki/Super_Shisa \"Super Shisa\"). On May 13, 2010, K\\-ness and Susumu Yokosuka defeated [Cyber Kong](/wiki/Cyber_Kong \"Cyber Kong\") and [Shingo Takagi](/wiki/Shingo_Takagi \"Shingo Takagi\") to win the [Dragon Gate Open the Twin Gate Championship](/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Open_the_Twin_Gate_Championship \"Dragon Gate Open the Twin Gate Championship\"). After the longest reign in the title's history, with four successful defenses, K\\-ness and Yokosuka lost the Open the Twin Gate Championship to [Gamma](/wiki/Gamma_%28wrestler%29 \"Gamma (wrestler)\") and [Naruki Doi](/wiki/Naruki_Doi \"Naruki Doi\") on November 23, 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/viewnews.php?id\\=1290753672\\|title\\=Viva La Raza! Lucha Weekly\\|date\\=2010\\-11\\-26\\|last\\=Boutwell\\|first\\=Josh\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-26\\|work\\=WrestleView}} On December 4, K\\-ness and Susumu Yokosuka joined World\\-1\\. In a match on February 6, 2011, K\\-ness suffered a dislocated right shoulder and took time off to heal. On April 14, 2011, World\\-1 was forced to disband after losing a match to the Blood Warriors.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://iheartdg.com/index.php?subaction\\=showfull\\&id\\=1302775264\\&archive\\=\\&start\\_from\\=\\&ucat\\=\\&\\|title\\=4/14 Champion Gate \\- 14 Apr 2011\\|date\\=2011\\-04\\-14\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-04\\-14\\|work\\=iHeartDG\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420142840/http://iheartdg.com/index.php?subaction\\=showfull\\&id\\=1302775264\\&archive\\=\\&start\\_from\\=\\&ucat\\=\\&\\|archive\\-date\\=20 April 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} On September 9, 2015, upon joining the Jimmyz stable, he was renamed Jimmy K\\-ness J.K.S.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://battle\\-news.com/?p\\=13993\\|title\\=ドラゴンゲート9\\.9後楽園大会 Summer Adventure Tag League 2015、土井＆Yamatovs.クネスカ、大阪06vs.フジイ＆斎了、キッド＆フラミータvs.ハルク＆Kzy\\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-10\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-10\\|work\\=Battle News\\|language\\=ja}} On September 18, 2017, the Jimmyz were forced to disband after losing a match to VerserK.", "In December 2021, K\\-ness announced that he would be retiring in April 2022 due to a lingering neck injury.", "" ]
Service history --------------- The 299th Infantry Regiment was formed on 17 August 1923 from the old 2nd Hawaiian Infantry. Both the old 2nd Hawaiian Infantry and the new 299th were part of the [Hawaii National Guard](/wiki/Hawaii_National_Guard "Hawaii National Guard"). The old 1st Hawaiian Infantry was also reformed and designated the 298th Infantry.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/armor\-cav/299cv.htm\|title\=299th Cavalry Regiment (Hawaiian Guardians) Lineage and Honors\|date\=7 April 2014\|publisher\=United States Army Center of Military History\|access\-date\=17 August 2017}} ### World War II In 1940, the 299th Infantry and its sister regiment, the 298th Infantry were called into federal service as the United States began to prepare for a possible war with the [Axis Powers](/wiki/Axis_Powers "Axis Powers"). In 1941, the [Hawaiian Division](/wiki/Hawaiian_Division "Hawaiian Division") was reformed from a square division, which was the army's World War I divisional format, into the triangular division that would be the norm for World War II and Korea. Out of the old division came both the [24th Infantry Division](/wiki/24th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "24th Infantry Division (United States)") and the [25th Infantry Division](/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "25th Infantry Division (United States)"). The 299th IN was sent to provide the third infantry regiment for the new 24th Infantry Division. In May 1941, the 299th was sent to the neighbor islands to provide for their defense,{{cite book \| url\=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard\-US/ \| title\=United States Army in World War II: Guarding the United States and its Outposts \| publisher\=Center of Military History \| last\=Fairchild \| first\=Byron \| year\=1964 \| location\=Washington, D.C.}}{{rp\|170}} since the regiment was mostly composed of citizens from these islands. As part of the US preparation for World War II, the Islands were on a war footing as an outpost of the United States. After the draft and activation of 1940, the makeup of the 299th changed dramatically, with a mix of Hawaiian, White, Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Puerto Rican, and other races. During this time, the 299th Infantry Regiment were removed from the Hawaii National Guard territorial control and fell under control of the active duty military. Despite some pushback from Washington DC, the multiethnic unit provided support for it's active duty counterparts in Hawaii. Although the initial activation was only supposed to last for 12 months, it was extended in October 1941, much to the chagrin of many of the men who were federalized and taken away from their civilian jobs and families. Hawaii transitioned to possible attacks by conducting blackout drills and air raid practices that continued in Hawaii up until December 1941\. The Regiment was also able to increase its numbers due to the draft to provide a full Regiment, and train despite not being given the most modern equipment. In the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, the 299th Infantry Regiment was guarding the outer islands from possible invasion by the Empire of Japan. This was a real fear for Hawaii, as Japanese Imperial troops conquered across Asia and the Pacific Islands. Following December 7, 1941, The 299th Infantry enforced Martial Law across Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai. As the de facto military governors of the islands, the unit's commanders prepared for possible invasion, enforced rationing and blackouts, coordinated with the County Governments, and made plans to integrate follow on forces into the defense of the outer islands. Many US military planners feared the Japanese would bypass Oahu and use Hawaii Island or Maui as landing sites and mass their combat power on the mostly agricultural lands, and then isolate and then seize Oahu from the US military. The 299th Infantry protected key infrastructure, manned defensive positions, and built defenses along the coasts. Stress and fear in the wake of the Pearl Harbor in the islands was palpable. Gas masks were issued to all citizens as the Japanese had used gas countless times in China, a majority of the population of Hawaii were fingerprinted, and curfews were initiated. Nobody knew how strong the Japanese forces were, especially civilians who were not privy to military intelligence. On the night of December 30, 1941 the Japanese submarines launched a coordinated strike on Hilo, Hawaii, on Kahului, Maui, and Nawiliwili on Kauaʻi. The Japanese operation can best be described as ‘morale bombings’, as the attack was not significant enough take or destroy a military objective. In Hilo, the submarine I\-1 surfaced and fired ten high explosive shells into Hilo piers before submerging once again. The shells landed primarily around Pier 1, damaging a "fenders and a concrete haunch and pile”. Overall, damage done was insignificant, however the aim of the operation was not to inflict high casualties or damage, but to inflict phycological damage and to jar the Homefront. Soldiers of the 299th Infantry inspected the damage and found the shells fired into Hilo. On January 28, 1942, the US Army Transport Ship Royal T. Frank, was bringing 26 soldiers of the 299th Infantry back home to Hawaii Island after finishing their basic training, which had been interrupted by the attack on Pearl Harbor. While in a three ship convoy, with the small cargo ship Kalae, and their escort the [USS Trever (DMS\-16\)](/wiki/USS_Trever_%28DMS-16%29 "USS Trever (DMS-16)") they departed from Maui and were crossing the ‘Alenuihāhā Channel between Maui and Hawaii Island. [The Japanese submarine I\-171](/wiki/The_Japanese_submarine_I-171 "The Japanese submarine I-171"), surfaced and fired two torpedo's that missed the Frank. The third torpedo launched hit the Frank, the ship is reported to have sunk in thirty seconds. Many below deck didn't make it, the survivors swam in oil laden water for three hours awaiting rescue. Of the 60 people aboard the Frank, only 36 survived. Survivors of the explosion included nine of the Big Island soldiers who had been above deck and 27 crew members. Some were thrown into the water, and others jumped in soon afterwards. Covered in oil, the survivors spent hours in the ocean, many clinging to whatever debris they could, before they were picked up by the ammunition barge that had been the actual target of the Japanese submarine. Upon being rescued they were taken to Hana, Maui where the Hana School, who had been preparing for emergencies since the war began, created a triage and first aid center and awaited military personnel. It took some time to reach Hana, but when the military arrived, they told the local population that the incident didn't happen and were told to never tell anyone. Sixteen 299th Infantry soldiers of multiple ethnicities lost their lives, only nine survived. Eight would go on to fight in the 100th Infantry Battalion, and one would serve in the South Pacific with the 298th Infantry Regiment. They were from then known as "The Torpedo Gang" and gathered every January 28th to have a drink and remember their fallen comrades, this is why the unit has chosen January 28th as the Regimental Memorial Day. The sinking was kept classified, and the families of the sixteen were not told of how their loved one died until the end of the war. Fears of Japanese sentiment, martial law, and news of Japanese submarines still patrolling Hawaiian waters contributed to the decision to keep the sinking of the Frank classified. The Torpedo Gang survivors were also ordered not to tell anyone what happened. Relief from the Mainland finally started to arrive in March 1941, and the 299th Infantry began to transition to Scofield Barracks for service. Although the [Hawaii Territorial Guard](/wiki/Hawaii_Territorial_Guard "Hawaii Territorial Guard"), created by the Governor of Hawaii following the attack on Pearl Harbor, eventually removed soldiers who were Americans of Japanese Ancestry in January 1942, the 299th Infantry and 298th Infantry did not. Soldiers of Japanese ancestry remained at their posts until June 1942\. On 4 June, the Japanese\-American soldiers of both the 299th and 298th were pulled from the ranks of the regiments, some 29 officers and 1277 enlisted men in all.{{rp\|212}} These Hawaii [Nisei](/wiki/Nisei "Nisei") (Japanese\-Americans) would form the famed [100th Infantry Battalion](/wiki/100th_Infantry_Battalion "100th Infantry Battalion") later attached to the [442nd RCT](/wiki/442nd_RCT "442nd RCT") and would fight heroically in Europe becoming the most decorated unit of its size in World War II. However the Nisei soldiers were nearly 40% of the 299th ranks, and the removal of these men put the regiment grossly under strength. Therefore, on 21 July 1942, the 299th was relieved from the 24th Infantry Division and deactivated, the unit's men and material being transferred to the 298th. However the 2nd Battalion, 299th's HHC and B Company remained intact. These units were sent overseas to the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") and the [Ryukyu Islands](/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands "Ryukyu Islands") for which the 2–299th received campaign participation. However it is not clear with whom they were attached and what role they played in these campaigns. ### Post\-War period After the war, the Hawaii National Guard had to be reconstituted as most of their units had been deactivated and the men sent to other units. The 299th was activated in August 1946 and formed into the 299th Regimental Combat Team (RCT). The regiment was to have its companies on the islands of Hawai'i, Maui and Moloka'i, with the 298th Infantry taking O'ahu and Kaua'i.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/258847769/\|title\=2,100 TH Guardsmen Begin Move to Camp\|date\=10 June 1952\|newspaper\=Honolulu Advertiser\|access\-date\=17 August 2017\|pages\=1, 3\|url\-access\=subscription \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} The process to rebuild the regiment was slow in the post\-war years and but by May 1947 the regiment had over 1,000 men in ranks. However, by 1949, the 299th RCT was at full strength and equipped with new weapons and gear, taking part in a large military review with the 298th RCT at [Schofield Barracks](/wiki/Schofield_Barracks "Schofield Barracks").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/259924930/\|title\=Gov. Long Reviews Guard Combat Teams\|last\=Lytle\|first\=Hugh\|date\=21 June 1949\|newspaper\=Honolulu Advertiser\|access\-date\=17 August 2017\|page\=1\|url\-access\=subscription \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} In 1959 the 299th RCT was deactivated and the 299th Infantry with its 1st, 2nd and 3rd Battalions transferred to form the [29th Infantry Brigade](/wiki/29th_Infantry_Brigade_Combat_Team_%28United_States%29 "29th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States)") Hawaii Army National Guard. ### Vietnam activation In May 1968 the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 299th was called to active duty under its parent unit the 29th Infantry Brigade. The 299th reported to Schofield to begin training for any possible deployment to Vietnam or other Asian hotspots (i.e. Korea) The 29th SIB was to serve as a strategic reserve for the Army since active\-duty units such as the 25th Infantry Division were tied up fighting in Vietnam. According to Hawaii's political leadership at the time, the 299th and the 29th Brigade were never intended to deploy to Vietnam when they were federalized.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/270609888/\|title\=Inouye sees no war duty for reservists\|last\=Sanger\|first\=Stephen L.\|date\=3 May 1968\|newspaper\=Honolulu Star\-Bulletin\|access\-date\=17 August 2017\|page\=A1\|url\-access\=subscription \|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Nonetheless many soldiers from the 299th went to Vietnam as individual replacements, serving in the active\-duty units that were already in\-country. Some 1,500 Hawaii Guard soldiers served in Vietnam during the 29th's mobilization,{{cite web \| url\=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/07/18/news/index7\.html \| title\=Guard leader readies for war \| publisher\=Honolulu Star\-Bulletin \| date\=18 July 2004 \| accessdate\=9 August 2011 \| last\=Kakesako \| first\=Gregg K.}} the majority of them coming from the 299th. Thirteen soldiers from the 299th died in Vietnam: {{col\-begin}} {{col\-2}} 1st Battalion * SGT Gaylord K. DeFries * SP4 Rudy Aquino * SP4 Walter D. Browne * SP4 David Laamea * SP4 John S. Otake * PFC Earl C.M. Au Hoy {{col\-2}} 2nd Battalion * 1LT John K. Kauhaihao * SFC Edward L. Loo JR * SGT Wilfredo B. Andrada * SP4 Frank T. Longakit * SP4 Alberto Milar JR * PFC Dennis M. Silveri * PFC Glenn T. Shibata {{col\-end}} ### Operation Iraqi Freedom III In August 2004 the 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry Regiment was activated for deployment to Iraq with the 29th BCT (the 1st Battalion having been decommissioned after Vietnam). The 2–299th IN, commanded by LTC Kenneth Hara, began train\-up at Schofield Barracks before moving to [Ft. Bliss](/wiki/Ft._Bliss "Ft. Bliss") in October 2004\. The bulk of the battalion's training was done at Camp McGreggor near Ft. Bliss. In January 2005 the battalion completed combat certification at [JRTC](/wiki/Fort_Polk%23JRTC_moves_to_Polk "Fort Polk#JRTC moves to Polk") in [Ft. Polk](/wiki/Ft._Polk "Ft. Polk"), and began arriving in Iraq in February.{{cite web \| url\=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2005/02/23/news/story1\.html \| title\=Guard starts 1\-year tour in Iraq \| publisher\=Honolulu Star\-Bulletin \| date\=23 February 2005 \| accessdate\=9 August 2011 \| last\=Kakesako \| first\=Gregg K.}} The 2–299th IN was based out of [Camp Victory](/wiki/Camp_Victory "Camp Victory") in [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad") where it was charged with base defense (i.e. manning the ECPs, guard towers and providing quick reaction forces). In addition, the battalion was also responsible for security in the areas and neighborhoods surrounding Camp Victory (such as Al Furat, Makasib and parts of [Route Irish](/wiki/Route_Irish "Route Irish")) conducting patrols and cordon and search missions to capture, kill, or disrupt the enemy insurgents in the area. During the 2–299th's IN deployment the battalion's strength was augmented by the attachment of A Company, 2d Battalion, [297th Infantry](/wiki/297th_Infantry "297th Infantry") from the [Alaska Army National Guard](/wiki/Alaska_Army_National_Guard "Alaska Army National Guard"). The battalion redeployed from Iraq in February 2006\. For its service, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry Regiment was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation. ### Conversion to Cavalry When the 2–299th Infantry returned from Iraq they began the process of being re\-flagged into a reconnaissance squadron under the command of LTC Kenneth Hara.{{cite web \| url\=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2006/11/19/news/story07\.html \| title\=Hawaii Guard unit will go to Japan \| publisher\=Honolulu Star\-Bulletin \| date\=19 November 2006 \| accessdate\=9 August 2011 \| last\=Kakesako \| first\=Gregg K.}} They would become 1st Squadron, 299th Cavalry, a "cav scout" squadron, and serve as the eyes and ears of the 29th IBCT. On 1 September 2007 the 299th Cavalry officially inherited the lineage, honors and history of their 299th Infantry predecessors. There were many transitions during this period as the 29th Separate Infantry Brigade (Enhanced) morphed into the 29th Infantry Brigade Combat Team, part of the Army's new modular Unit of Action doctrine. All of the battalion's former infantry companies were reflagged as cavalry troops and a forward support company was added, maintaining the lineages of the previous units. A Troop and B Troop, 1st Battalion, 299th Cavalry were stationed in Pearl City, Oahu taking their lineages from D Company and B Company, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry respectively. C Troop, 1st Battalion, 299th Cavalry was positioned on Kauai in the Hanapepe and Kapa'a armories. They took their lineage from A Company, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry and maintained their infantrymen as a dismounted reconnaissance troop. HHT remained on the Big Island of Hawaii in Hilo, taking its lineage from 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry. During this time, many soldiers on the Big Island of Hawaii found themselves in a new position as many units on that island were reflagged as Company D, Forward Support 29th BSB, taking its lineage from C Company, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry and stationed in the Hilo and Kona armories. This forward support company was added to 1st Battalion, 299th Cavalry as its support arm, and was made up of mostly HHC, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry's Support Platoon, mechanics from HHC 2–299th IN's Maintenance, infantryman from B Company 2\-299 IN and HHC Mortar Platoon, and combat engineers from 227th Combat Engineer Company. Many of the soldiers had to change their military occupational specialties (MOS) as their new positions required them to change their branches. Then squadron was now retasked from an infantry battalion to a reconnaissance squadron that was built to provide intelligence to the 29th IBCT's commander.{{Cite web\| title \= Special Unit Designations\| url \= http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Heraldry/ArmyDUISSICOA/ArmyHeraldryUnit.aspx?u\=3150\| accessdate \= 6 July 2011\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20121005064559/http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Heraldry/ArmyDUISSICOA/ArmyHeraldryUnit.aspx?u\=3150\| archive\-date \= 5 October 2012\| url\-status \= dead}} ### Operation Iraqi Freedom VIII Following the 1–299th Cavalry's conversion to cavalry, the squadron was assigned to Camp Buehring, Kuwait in November 2008 as part of a convoy security task force. As "Task Force Koa," the squadron was commanded by LTC Rudolph Ligsay and CSM Craig Ynigues. TF Koa conducted convoy escorts from logistical bases in Kuwait, into and throughout the entire Iraq Theater of Operations. From Basra in the south to Mosul in the north, 1–299th Cavalry escorted supply and equipment convoys all over the country. The squadron had four convoy security companies in total, as they were augmented by other units within the 29th IBCT. Among the units was the Headquarters, Headquarters Troop 1–299th Cavalry (Hellfire) commanded by CPT Kevin Carbrey, Convoy Security Company (CSC) 1 was A Troop, 1–299th Cavalry (Roughriders) commanded by CPT James Fea\-Fiame, CSC 2 was B Troop, 1–299th Cavalry (Blackjack) commanded first by CPT Jonathan Ishikawa and later CPT Peter Ammerman, CSC 3 was A Company 29th BSTB (Sapper) commanded by CPT Audreth "Tino" Tumpap, CSC 4 was A Battery 1–487th FA BN (Animal) commanded by CPT Timothy Spencer. The vehicles the convoy escort teams (CET) used at the time were originally the M1151 Armored HMMWV, and later the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles were used as the lead vehicles. As TF Koa, 1–299 CAV logged well over 10,000 miles and engaged in numerous contacts with the enemy. The unit also took over escorts of US troops to the Kuwait City International Airport late in their deployment, providing security for soldiers leaving theater on emergency leave. The unit redeployed in August 2009 and focused on its new role as a reconnaissance squadron. ### Operation Enduring Freedom In support of "Operation Enduring Freedom", members of the 1–299 Cavalry have been deployed on an ongoing mission to augment the Joint Special Operations Task Force\-Philippines. They assisted in training the Philippine Marines, and augment them as a security element. In 2008 some volunteers from the 1–299 Cavalry were sent to help augment the 1–158 IN (AZ ARNG), a new member battalion of the 29th IBCT, in their deployment to Afghanistan. In November 2012, senior officers, non\-commissioned officers, and some enlisted soldiers of the 1–299th Cavalry were selected and deployed forward to Afghanistan as security forces advisor teams (SFAT) as part of a group pooled from the 29th IBCT to train the Afghan National Security Forces. The SFAT advisors were distributed throughout southern Afghanistan in support of the Afghan National Security Forces and ISAF initiatives in the Regional Command\-South. ### Multinational Force and Observers In October 2018, the 1\-299 Cavalry, commanded by LTC John Udani and CSM Shon Antolin, were deployed as Peacekeepers to the Sinai, Egypt as part of the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) mission. Rather than wearing the United Nations’ blue beret and helmet cover, the MFO is an independent peacekeeping organization. Here the 1\-299 Soldiers, now known by their rotation number United States Battalion 65 (USBATT65\), wore the orange beret, caps, and helmet covers to symbolize their roles as Peacekeepers in a Multinational Peacekeeping Organization. The Squadron served with and within Combined Joint Battalions and Staff from October 2018 through July 2019\. The unit was split in two with LTC Udani taking charge of South Camp with HHT and C Troop as part of the MFO's Southern Battalion (SOUTHBATT). Their mission here was to conduct the MFO's observe, verify, and report possible treaty violations, ensuring the Treaty of Peace endured between Egypt and Israel. In the Southern portion of Zone C of the Sinai Peninsula, the 1\-299 Cavalry, was joined in SOUTHBATT with Fijian and Australian Defence Force Members. Here C Troop was tasked with the security of South Camp as part of the South Camp Response Team as well as three Observation Posts to watch for possible violations. One Observation Post was on Tiran Island Where the troops only received resupply by helicopter. The unit also worked with the Italian Navy and conducted several training missions with them. The Squadron Staff were charged with coordinating missions in the south and for overall security of the base. The unit took charge of planning and securing several high ranking diplomatic visits to include United Nations symposiums. In the Northern half of Zone C of the Sinai Peninsula, the 1\-299 Cavalry Soldiers in the North were taken charge by MAJ Kawika Hosea, the Squadron Executive Officer. A detachment of HHT Staff and B Troop, were placed at FOB North where they were tasked with providing security and command and control of MFO and US assets as part of the Northern Battalion (NORTHBATT) Staff and B Troop as part of the FOB North Response Team. The Battalion Commander was a Colombian Army LTC, while the Squadron Executive Officer served as the Second in Command and Chief of Operations for the Northern Area of Operations. MAJ Hosea also served as the Acting Battalion Commander for the Multinational Battalion for three months while the Colombian Commanders were on leave. Here the Squadron Staff were fully integrated into the Multinational Staff with members from Colombia, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Uruguay, the United Kingdom, The United States, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Japan, and Fiji. The unit served as the head of MFO missions in the Northern Sinai and provided security of FOB North. As the Egyptian Armed Forces were combatting insurgents in the Northern Sinai, the unit was on a heightened alert throughout their tour having to carry their weapons even while off duty. There were minor contact with insurgent forces by the MFO, but it remained a neutral observer to ensure the peace between Egypt and Israel. Sometimes threatened with closed routes, FOB North faced several shortages of resupply. The MFO role was to ensure the tenets of the peace treaty and facilitate peaceful communication between Egypt and Israel, hosting several meetings and security for these meetings. The also processed reported treaty violations through the MFO Chain of Command in South Camp. While there in the North, the unit conducted several training missions with their Multinational partners. B Troop also provided security for the Civilian Observation Unit while they conducted their operations. The unit conducted three Spur Rides while deployed. Awarding Spurs to several 1\-299 Cav, Active Duty, Italian, Colombian, and New Zealand service members. They were replaced by their fellow 29th IBCT unit, the 1\-294 IN from Guam, in July 2019\. ### National Guard Civil Support The Squadron has participated numerous times in support of civil authorities over its lifetime. The unit has supported Kauai County with humanitarian aid in 1992 following the devastation of [Hurricane Iniki](/wiki/Hurricane_Iniki "Hurricane Iniki"). The Squadron had also supported lava response in Hawaii County in the Puna District in 2015 and [2018](/wiki/2018_lower_Puna_eruption "2018 lower Puna eruption"). 1\-299 CAV provided security for dignitaries during the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation conference in November 2011, protecting routes and locations for delegations from the 21 member economies as they met in Honolulu, Hawaii. And most recently the 1\-299 CAV have supported COVID\-19 response all across the State of Hawaii, providing supervision, planning assistance, security, screening, and testing for Hawaii's response to the numerous agencies during the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"). As the Squadron is spread across the State of Hawaii in each county, 1\-299 CAV is often called on to support the different counties in the State of Hawaii. As part of its State mission to support the Governor of the State of Hawaii, the 1\-299 CAV stands by to provide support to the local communities that they are a part of.
[ "Service history\n---------------", "The 299th Infantry Regiment was formed on 17 August 1923 from the old 2nd Hawaiian Infantry. Both the old 2nd Hawaiian Infantry and the new 299th were part of the [Hawaii National Guard](/wiki/Hawaii_National_Guard \"Hawaii National Guard\"). The old 1st Hawaiian Infantry was also reformed and designated the 298th Infantry.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/armor\\-cav/299cv.htm\\|title\\=299th Cavalry Regiment (Hawaiian Guardians) Lineage and Honors\\|date\\=7 April 2014\\|publisher\\=United States Army Center of Military History\\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2017}}", "### World War II", "In 1940, the 299th Infantry and its sister regiment, the 298th Infantry were called into federal service as the United States began to prepare for a possible war with the [Axis Powers](/wiki/Axis_Powers \"Axis Powers\"). In 1941, the [Hawaiian Division](/wiki/Hawaiian_Division \"Hawaiian Division\") was reformed from a square division, which was the army's World War I divisional format, into the triangular division that would be the norm for World War II and Korea. Out of the old division came both the [24th Infantry Division](/wiki/24th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"24th Infantry Division (United States)\") and the [25th Infantry Division](/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"25th Infantry Division (United States)\"). The 299th IN was sent to provide the third infantry regiment for the new 24th Infantry Division. In May 1941, the 299th was sent to the neighbor islands to provide for their defense,{{cite book \\| url\\=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard\\-US/ \\| title\\=United States Army in World War II: Guarding the United States and its Outposts \\| publisher\\=Center of Military History \\| last\\=Fairchild \\| first\\=Byron \\| year\\=1964 \\| location\\=Washington, D.C.}}{{rp\\|170}} since the regiment was mostly composed of citizens from these islands.", "As part of the US preparation for World War II, the Islands were on a war footing as an outpost of the United States. After the draft and activation of 1940, the makeup of the 299th changed dramatically, with a mix of Hawaiian, White, Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Puerto Rican, and other races. During this time, the 299th Infantry Regiment were removed from the Hawaii National Guard territorial control and fell under control of the active duty military. Despite some pushback from Washington DC, the multiethnic unit provided support for it's active duty counterparts in Hawaii. Although the initial activation was only supposed to last for 12 months, it was extended in October 1941, much to the chagrin of many of the men who were federalized and taken away from their civilian jobs and families. Hawaii transitioned to possible attacks by conducting blackout drills and air raid practices that continued in Hawaii up until December 1941\\. The Regiment was also able to increase its numbers due to the draft to provide a full Regiment, and train despite not being given the most modern equipment.", "In the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, the 299th Infantry Regiment was guarding the outer islands from possible invasion by the Empire of Japan. This was a real fear for Hawaii, as Japanese Imperial troops conquered across Asia and the Pacific Islands. Following December 7, 1941, The 299th Infantry enforced Martial Law across Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai. As the de facto military governors of the islands, the unit's commanders prepared for possible invasion, enforced rationing and blackouts, coordinated with the County Governments, and made plans to integrate follow on forces into the defense of the outer islands. Many US military planners feared the Japanese would bypass Oahu and use Hawaii Island or Maui as landing sites and mass their combat power on the mostly agricultural lands, and then isolate and then seize Oahu from the US military. The 299th Infantry protected key infrastructure, manned defensive positions, and built defenses along the coasts.", "Stress and fear in the wake of the Pearl Harbor in the islands was palpable. Gas masks were issued to all citizens as the Japanese had used gas countless times in China, a majority of the population of Hawaii were fingerprinted, and curfews were initiated. Nobody knew how strong the Japanese forces were, especially civilians who were not privy to military intelligence. On the night of December 30, 1941 the Japanese submarines launched a coordinated strike on Hilo, Hawaii, on Kahului, Maui, and Nawiliwili on Kauaʻi. The Japanese operation can best be described as ‘morale bombings’, as the attack was not significant enough take or destroy a military objective. In Hilo, the submarine I\\-1 surfaced and fired ten high explosive shells into Hilo piers before submerging once again. The shells landed primarily around Pier 1, damaging a \"fenders and a concrete haunch and pile”. Overall, damage done was insignificant, however the aim of the operation was not to inflict high casualties or damage, but to inflict phycological damage and to jar the Homefront. Soldiers of the 299th Infantry inspected the damage and found the shells fired into Hilo.", "On January 28, 1942, the US Army Transport Ship Royal T. Frank, was bringing 26 soldiers of the 299th Infantry back home to Hawaii Island after finishing their basic training, which had been interrupted by the attack on Pearl Harbor. While in a three ship convoy, with the small cargo ship Kalae, and their escort the [USS Trever (DMS\\-16\\)](/wiki/USS_Trever_%28DMS-16%29 \"USS Trever (DMS-16)\") they departed from Maui and were crossing the ‘Alenuihāhā Channel between Maui and Hawaii Island. [The Japanese submarine I\\-171](/wiki/The_Japanese_submarine_I-171 \"The Japanese submarine I-171\"), surfaced and fired two torpedo's that missed the Frank. The third torpedo launched hit the Frank, the ship is reported to have sunk in thirty seconds. Many below deck didn't make it, the survivors swam in oil laden water for three hours awaiting rescue. Of the 60 people aboard the Frank, only 36 survived. Survivors of the explosion included nine of the Big Island soldiers who had been above deck and 27 crew members. Some were thrown into the water, and others jumped in soon afterwards. Covered in oil, the survivors spent hours in the ocean, many clinging to whatever debris they could, before they were picked up by the ammunition barge that had been the actual target of the Japanese submarine. Upon being rescued they were taken to Hana, Maui where the Hana School, who had been preparing for emergencies since the war began, created a triage and first aid center and awaited military personnel. It took some time to reach Hana, but when the military arrived, they told the local population that the incident didn't happen and were told to never tell anyone. Sixteen 299th Infantry soldiers of multiple ethnicities lost their lives, only nine survived. Eight would go on to fight in the 100th Infantry Battalion, and one would serve in the South Pacific with the 298th Infantry Regiment. They were from then known as \"The Torpedo Gang\" and gathered every January 28th to have a drink and remember their fallen comrades, this is why the unit has chosen January 28th as the Regimental Memorial Day. The sinking was kept classified, and the families of the sixteen were not told of how their loved one died until the end of the war. Fears of Japanese sentiment, martial law, and news of Japanese submarines still patrolling Hawaiian waters contributed to the decision to keep the sinking of the Frank classified. The Torpedo Gang survivors were also ordered not to tell anyone what happened.", "Relief from the Mainland finally started to arrive in March 1941, and the 299th Infantry began to transition to Scofield Barracks for service. Although the [Hawaii Territorial Guard](/wiki/Hawaii_Territorial_Guard \"Hawaii Territorial Guard\"), created by the Governor of Hawaii following the attack on Pearl Harbor, eventually removed soldiers who were Americans of Japanese Ancestry in January 1942, the 299th Infantry and 298th Infantry did not. Soldiers of Japanese ancestry remained at their posts until June 1942\\.", "On 4 June, the Japanese\\-American soldiers of both the 299th and 298th were pulled from the ranks of the regiments, some 29 officers and 1277 enlisted men in all.{{rp\\|212}} These Hawaii [Nisei](/wiki/Nisei \"Nisei\") (Japanese\\-Americans) would form the famed [100th Infantry Battalion](/wiki/100th_Infantry_Battalion \"100th Infantry Battalion\") later attached to the [442nd RCT](/wiki/442nd_RCT \"442nd RCT\") and would fight heroically in Europe becoming the most decorated unit of its size in World War II. However the Nisei soldiers were nearly 40% of the 299th ranks, and the removal of these men put the regiment grossly under strength. Therefore, on 21 July 1942, the 299th was relieved from the 24th Infantry Division and deactivated, the unit's men and material being transferred to the 298th. However the 2nd Battalion, 299th's HHC and B Company remained intact. These units were sent overseas to the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") and the [Ryukyu Islands](/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands \"Ryukyu Islands\") for which the 2–299th received campaign participation. However it is not clear with whom they were attached and what role they played in these campaigns.", "### Post\\-War period", "After the war, the Hawaii National Guard had to be reconstituted as most of their units had been deactivated and the men sent to other units. The 299th was activated in August 1946 and formed into the 299th Regimental Combat Team (RCT). The regiment was to have its companies on the islands of Hawai'i, Maui and Moloka'i, with the 298th Infantry taking O'ahu and Kaua'i.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/258847769/\\|title\\=2,100 TH Guardsmen Begin Move to Camp\\|date\\=10 June 1952\\|newspaper\\=Honolulu Advertiser\\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2017\\|pages\\=1, 3\\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} The process to rebuild the regiment was slow in the post\\-war years and but by May 1947 the regiment had over 1,000 men in ranks. However, by 1949, the 299th RCT was at full strength and equipped with new weapons and gear, taking part in a large military review with the 298th RCT at [Schofield Barracks](/wiki/Schofield_Barracks \"Schofield Barracks\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/259924930/\\|title\\=Gov. Long Reviews Guard Combat Teams\\|last\\=Lytle\\|first\\=Hugh\\|date\\=21 June 1949\\|newspaper\\=Honolulu Advertiser\\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2017\\|page\\=1\\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} In 1959 the 299th RCT was deactivated and the 299th Infantry with its 1st, 2nd and 3rd Battalions transferred to form the [29th Infantry Brigade](/wiki/29th_Infantry_Brigade_Combat_Team_%28United_States%29 \"29th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States)\") Hawaii Army National Guard.", "### Vietnam activation", "In May 1968 the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 299th was called to active duty under its parent unit the 29th Infantry Brigade. The 299th reported to Schofield to begin training for any possible deployment to Vietnam or other Asian hotspots (i.e. Korea) The 29th SIB was to serve as a strategic reserve for the Army since active\\-duty units such as the 25th Infantry Division were tied up fighting in Vietnam. According to Hawaii's political leadership at the time, the 299th and the 29th Brigade were never intended to deploy to Vietnam when they were federalized.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/270609888/\\|title\\=Inouye sees no war duty for reservists\\|last\\=Sanger\\|first\\=Stephen L.\\|date\\=3 May 1968\\|newspaper\\=Honolulu Star\\-Bulletin\\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2017\\|page\\=A1\\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Nonetheless many soldiers from the 299th went to Vietnam as individual replacements, serving in the active\\-duty units that were already in\\-country. Some 1,500 Hawaii Guard soldiers served in Vietnam during the 29th's mobilization,{{cite web \\| url\\=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/07/18/news/index7\\.html \\| title\\=Guard leader readies for war \\| publisher\\=Honolulu Star\\-Bulletin \\| date\\=18 July 2004 \\| accessdate\\=9 August 2011 \\| last\\=Kakesako \\| first\\=Gregg K.}} the majority of them coming from the 299th. Thirteen soldiers from the 299th died in Vietnam:\n{{col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-2}}\n1st Battalion\n* SGT Gaylord K. DeFries\n* SP4 Rudy Aquino\n* SP4 Walter D. Browne\n* SP4 David Laamea\n* SP4 John S. Otake\n* PFC Earl C.M. Au Hoy\n{{col\\-2}}\n2nd Battalion\n* 1LT John K. Kauhaihao\n* SFC Edward L. Loo JR\n* SGT Wilfredo B. Andrada\n* SP4 Frank T. Longakit\n* SP4 Alberto Milar JR\n* PFC Dennis M. Silveri\n* PFC Glenn T. Shibata\n{{col\\-end}}", "### Operation Iraqi Freedom III", "In August 2004 the 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry Regiment was activated for deployment to Iraq with the 29th BCT (the 1st Battalion having been decommissioned after Vietnam). The 2–299th IN, commanded by LTC Kenneth Hara, began train\\-up at Schofield Barracks before moving to [Ft. Bliss](/wiki/Ft._Bliss \"Ft. Bliss\") in October 2004\\. The bulk of the battalion's training was done at Camp McGreggor near Ft. Bliss. In January 2005 the battalion completed combat certification at [JRTC](/wiki/Fort_Polk%23JRTC_moves_to_Polk \"Fort Polk#JRTC moves to Polk\") in [Ft. Polk](/wiki/Ft._Polk \"Ft. Polk\"), and began arriving in Iraq in February.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2005/02/23/news/story1\\.html \\| title\\=Guard starts 1\\-year tour in Iraq \\| publisher\\=Honolulu Star\\-Bulletin \\| date\\=23 February 2005 \\| accessdate\\=9 August 2011 \\| last\\=Kakesako \\| first\\=Gregg K.}} The 2–299th IN was based out of [Camp Victory](/wiki/Camp_Victory \"Camp Victory\") in [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\") where it was charged with base defense (i.e. manning the ECPs, guard towers and providing quick reaction forces). In addition, the battalion was also responsible for security in the areas and neighborhoods surrounding Camp Victory (such as Al Furat, Makasib and parts of [Route Irish](/wiki/Route_Irish \"Route Irish\")) conducting patrols and cordon and search missions to capture, kill, or disrupt the enemy insurgents in the area. During the 2–299th's IN deployment the battalion's strength was augmented by the attachment of A Company, 2d Battalion, [297th Infantry](/wiki/297th_Infantry \"297th Infantry\") from the [Alaska Army National Guard](/wiki/Alaska_Army_National_Guard \"Alaska Army National Guard\"). The battalion redeployed from Iraq in February 2006\\. For its service, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry Regiment was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation.", "### Conversion to Cavalry", "When the 2–299th Infantry returned from Iraq they began the process of being re\\-flagged into a reconnaissance squadron under the command of LTC Kenneth Hara.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2006/11/19/news/story07\\.html \\| title\\=Hawaii Guard unit will go to Japan \\| publisher\\=Honolulu Star\\-Bulletin \\| date\\=19 November 2006 \\| accessdate\\=9 August 2011 \\| last\\=Kakesako \\| first\\=Gregg K.}} They would become 1st Squadron, 299th Cavalry, a \"cav scout\" squadron, and serve as the eyes and ears of the 29th IBCT. On 1 September 2007 the 299th Cavalry officially inherited the lineage, honors and history of their 299th Infantry predecessors. There were many transitions during this period as the 29th Separate Infantry Brigade (Enhanced) morphed into the 29th Infantry Brigade Combat Team, part of the Army's new modular Unit of Action doctrine. All of the battalion's former infantry companies were reflagged as cavalry troops and a forward support company was added, maintaining the lineages of the previous units. A Troop and B Troop, 1st Battalion, 299th Cavalry were stationed in Pearl City, Oahu taking their lineages from D Company and B Company, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry respectively. C Troop, 1st Battalion, 299th Cavalry was positioned on Kauai in the Hanapepe and Kapa'a armories. They took their lineage from A Company, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry and maintained their infantrymen as a dismounted reconnaissance troop. HHT remained on the Big Island of Hawaii in Hilo, taking its lineage from 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry.", "During this time, many soldiers on the Big Island of Hawaii found themselves in a new position as many units on that island were reflagged as Company D, Forward Support 29th BSB, taking its lineage from C Company, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry and stationed in the Hilo and Kona armories. This forward support company was added to 1st Battalion, 299th Cavalry as its support arm, and was made up of mostly HHC, 2nd Battalion, 299th Infantry's Support Platoon, mechanics from HHC 2–299th IN's Maintenance, infantryman from B Company 2\\-299 IN and HHC Mortar Platoon, and combat engineers from 227th Combat Engineer Company. Many of the soldiers had to change their military occupational specialties (MOS) as their new positions required them to change their branches. Then squadron was now retasked from an infantry battalion to a reconnaissance squadron that was built to provide intelligence to the 29th IBCT's commander.{{Cite web\\| title \\= Special Unit Designations\\| url \\= http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Heraldry/ArmyDUISSICOA/ArmyHeraldryUnit.aspx?u\\=3150\\| accessdate \\= 6 July 2011\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121005064559/http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Heraldry/ArmyDUISSICOA/ArmyHeraldryUnit.aspx?u\\=3150\\| archive\\-date \\= 5 October 2012\\| url\\-status \\= dead}}", "### Operation Iraqi Freedom VIII", "Following the 1–299th Cavalry's conversion to cavalry, the squadron was assigned to Camp Buehring, Kuwait in November 2008 as part of a convoy security task force. As \"Task Force Koa,\" the squadron was commanded by LTC Rudolph Ligsay and CSM Craig Ynigues. TF Koa conducted convoy escorts from logistical bases in Kuwait, into and throughout the entire Iraq Theater of Operations. From Basra in the south to Mosul in the north, 1–299th Cavalry escorted supply and equipment convoys all over the country. The squadron had four convoy security companies in total, as they were augmented by other units within the 29th IBCT. Among the units was the Headquarters, Headquarters Troop 1–299th Cavalry (Hellfire) commanded by CPT Kevin Carbrey, Convoy Security Company (CSC) 1 was A Troop, 1–299th Cavalry (Roughriders) commanded by CPT James Fea\\-Fiame, CSC 2 was B Troop, 1–299th Cavalry (Blackjack) commanded first by CPT Jonathan Ishikawa and later CPT Peter Ammerman, CSC 3 was A Company 29th BSTB (Sapper) commanded by CPT Audreth \"Tino\" Tumpap, CSC 4 was A Battery 1–487th FA BN (Animal) commanded by CPT Timothy Spencer. The vehicles the convoy escort teams (CET) used at the time were originally the M1151 Armored HMMWV, and later the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles were used as the lead vehicles. As TF Koa, 1–299 CAV logged well over 10,000 miles and engaged in numerous contacts with the enemy. The unit also took over escorts of US troops to the Kuwait City International Airport late in their deployment, providing security for soldiers leaving theater on emergency leave. The unit redeployed in August 2009 and focused on its new role as a reconnaissance squadron.", "### Operation Enduring Freedom", "In support of \"Operation Enduring Freedom\", members of the 1–299 Cavalry have been deployed on an ongoing mission to augment the Joint Special Operations Task Force\\-Philippines. They assisted in training the Philippine Marines, and augment them as a security element. In 2008 some volunteers from the 1–299 Cavalry were sent to help augment the 1–158 IN (AZ ARNG), a new member battalion of the 29th IBCT, in their deployment to Afghanistan. In November 2012, senior officers, non\\-commissioned officers, and some enlisted soldiers of the 1–299th Cavalry were selected and deployed forward to Afghanistan as security forces advisor teams (SFAT) as part of a group pooled from the 29th IBCT to train the Afghan National Security Forces. The SFAT advisors were distributed throughout southern Afghanistan in support of the Afghan National Security Forces and ISAF initiatives in the Regional Command\\-South.", "### Multinational Force and Observers", "In October 2018, the 1\\-299 Cavalry, commanded by LTC John Udani and CSM Shon Antolin, were deployed as Peacekeepers to the Sinai, Egypt as part of the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) mission. Rather than wearing the United Nations’ blue beret and helmet cover, the MFO is an independent peacekeeping organization. Here the 1\\-299 Soldiers, now known by their rotation number United States Battalion 65 (USBATT65\\), wore the orange beret, caps, and helmet covers to symbolize their roles as Peacekeepers in a Multinational Peacekeeping Organization. The Squadron served with and within Combined Joint Battalions and Staff from October 2018 through July 2019\\.", "The unit was split in two with LTC Udani taking charge of South Camp with HHT and C Troop as part of the MFO's Southern Battalion (SOUTHBATT). Their mission here was to conduct the MFO's observe, verify, and report possible treaty violations, ensuring the Treaty of Peace endured between Egypt and Israel. In the Southern portion of Zone C of the Sinai Peninsula, the 1\\-299 Cavalry, was joined in SOUTHBATT with Fijian and Australian Defence Force Members. Here C Troop was tasked with the security of South Camp as part of the South Camp Response Team as well as three Observation Posts to watch for possible violations. One Observation Post was on Tiran Island Where the troops only received resupply by helicopter. The unit also worked with the Italian Navy and conducted several training missions with them. The Squadron Staff were charged with coordinating missions in the south and for overall security of the base. The unit took charge of planning and securing several high ranking diplomatic visits to include United Nations symposiums.", "In the Northern half of Zone C of the Sinai Peninsula, the 1\\-299 Cavalry Soldiers in the North were taken charge by MAJ Kawika Hosea, the Squadron Executive Officer. A detachment of HHT Staff and B Troop, were placed at FOB North where they were tasked with providing security and command and control of MFO and US assets as part of the Northern Battalion (NORTHBATT) Staff and B Troop as part of the FOB North Response Team. The Battalion Commander was a Colombian Army LTC, while the Squadron Executive Officer served as the Second in Command and Chief of Operations for the Northern Area of Operations. MAJ Hosea also served as the Acting Battalion Commander for the Multinational Battalion for three months while the Colombian Commanders were on leave. Here the Squadron Staff were fully integrated into the Multinational Staff with members from Colombia, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Uruguay, the United Kingdom, The United States, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Japan, and Fiji. The unit served as the head of MFO missions in the Northern Sinai and provided security of FOB North. As the Egyptian Armed Forces were combatting insurgents in the Northern Sinai, the unit was on a heightened alert throughout their tour having to carry their weapons even while off duty. There were minor contact with insurgent forces by the MFO, but it remained a neutral observer to ensure the peace between Egypt and Israel. Sometimes threatened with closed routes, FOB North faced several shortages of resupply. The MFO role was to ensure the tenets of the peace treaty and facilitate peaceful communication between Egypt and Israel, hosting several meetings and security for these meetings. The also processed reported treaty violations through the MFO Chain of Command in South Camp. While there in the North, the unit conducted several training missions with their Multinational partners. B Troop also provided security for the Civilian Observation Unit while they conducted their operations.", "The unit conducted three Spur Rides while deployed. Awarding Spurs to several 1\\-299 Cav, Active Duty, Italian, Colombian, and New Zealand service members. They were replaced by their fellow 29th IBCT unit, the 1\\-294 IN from Guam, in July 2019\\.", "### National Guard Civil Support", "The Squadron has participated numerous times in support of civil authorities over its lifetime. The unit has supported Kauai County with humanitarian aid in 1992 following the devastation of [Hurricane Iniki](/wiki/Hurricane_Iniki \"Hurricane Iniki\"). The Squadron had also supported lava response in Hawaii County in the Puna District in 2015 and [2018](/wiki/2018_lower_Puna_eruption \"2018 lower Puna eruption\"). 1\\-299 CAV provided security for dignitaries during the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation conference in November 2011, protecting routes and locations for delegations from the 21 member economies as they met in Honolulu, Hawaii. And most recently the 1\\-299 CAV have supported COVID\\-19 response all across the State of Hawaii, providing supervision, planning assistance, security, screening, and testing for Hawaii's response to the numerous agencies during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"). As the Squadron is spread across the State of Hawaii in each county, 1\\-299 CAV is often called on to support the different counties in the State of Hawaii. As part of its State mission to support the Governor of the State of Hawaii, the 1\\-299 CAV stands by to provide support to the local communities that they are a part of.", "" ]
### World War II In 1940, the 299th Infantry and its sister regiment, the 298th Infantry were called into federal service as the United States began to prepare for a possible war with the [Axis Powers](/wiki/Axis_Powers "Axis Powers"). In 1941, the [Hawaiian Division](/wiki/Hawaiian_Division "Hawaiian Division") was reformed from a square division, which was the army's World War I divisional format, into the triangular division that would be the norm for World War II and Korea. Out of the old division came both the [24th Infantry Division](/wiki/24th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "24th Infantry Division (United States)") and the [25th Infantry Division](/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "25th Infantry Division (United States)"). The 299th IN was sent to provide the third infantry regiment for the new 24th Infantry Division. In May 1941, the 299th was sent to the neighbor islands to provide for their defense,{{cite book \| url\=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard\-US/ \| title\=United States Army in World War II: Guarding the United States and its Outposts \| publisher\=Center of Military History \| last\=Fairchild \| first\=Byron \| year\=1964 \| location\=Washington, D.C.}}{{rp\|170}} since the regiment was mostly composed of citizens from these islands. As part of the US preparation for World War II, the Islands were on a war footing as an outpost of the United States. After the draft and activation of 1940, the makeup of the 299th changed dramatically, with a mix of Hawaiian, White, Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Puerto Rican, and other races. During this time, the 299th Infantry Regiment were removed from the Hawaii National Guard territorial control and fell under control of the active duty military. Despite some pushback from Washington DC, the multiethnic unit provided support for it's active duty counterparts in Hawaii. Although the initial activation was only supposed to last for 12 months, it was extended in October 1941, much to the chagrin of many of the men who were federalized and taken away from their civilian jobs and families. Hawaii transitioned to possible attacks by conducting blackout drills and air raid practices that continued in Hawaii up until December 1941\. The Regiment was also able to increase its numbers due to the draft to provide a full Regiment, and train despite not being given the most modern equipment. In the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, the 299th Infantry Regiment was guarding the outer islands from possible invasion by the Empire of Japan. This was a real fear for Hawaii, as Japanese Imperial troops conquered across Asia and the Pacific Islands. Following December 7, 1941, The 299th Infantry enforced Martial Law across Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai. As the de facto military governors of the islands, the unit's commanders prepared for possible invasion, enforced rationing and blackouts, coordinated with the County Governments, and made plans to integrate follow on forces into the defense of the outer islands. Many US military planners feared the Japanese would bypass Oahu and use Hawaii Island or Maui as landing sites and mass their combat power on the mostly agricultural lands, and then isolate and then seize Oahu from the US military. The 299th Infantry protected key infrastructure, manned defensive positions, and built defenses along the coasts. Stress and fear in the wake of the Pearl Harbor in the islands was palpable. Gas masks were issued to all citizens as the Japanese had used gas countless times in China, a majority of the population of Hawaii were fingerprinted, and curfews were initiated. Nobody knew how strong the Japanese forces were, especially civilians who were not privy to military intelligence. On the night of December 30, 1941 the Japanese submarines launched a coordinated strike on Hilo, Hawaii, on Kahului, Maui, and Nawiliwili on Kauaʻi. The Japanese operation can best be described as ‘morale bombings’, as the attack was not significant enough take or destroy a military objective. In Hilo, the submarine I\-1 surfaced and fired ten high explosive shells into Hilo piers before submerging once again. The shells landed primarily around Pier 1, damaging a "fenders and a concrete haunch and pile”. Overall, damage done was insignificant, however the aim of the operation was not to inflict high casualties or damage, but to inflict phycological damage and to jar the Homefront. Soldiers of the 299th Infantry inspected the damage and found the shells fired into Hilo. On January 28, 1942, the US Army Transport Ship Royal T. Frank, was bringing 26 soldiers of the 299th Infantry back home to Hawaii Island after finishing their basic training, which had been interrupted by the attack on Pearl Harbor. While in a three ship convoy, with the small cargo ship Kalae, and their escort the [USS Trever (DMS\-16\)](/wiki/USS_Trever_%28DMS-16%29 "USS Trever (DMS-16)") they departed from Maui and were crossing the ‘Alenuihāhā Channel between Maui and Hawaii Island. [The Japanese submarine I\-171](/wiki/The_Japanese_submarine_I-171 "The Japanese submarine I-171"), surfaced and fired two torpedo's that missed the Frank. The third torpedo launched hit the Frank, the ship is reported to have sunk in thirty seconds. Many below deck didn't make it, the survivors swam in oil laden water for three hours awaiting rescue. Of the 60 people aboard the Frank, only 36 survived. Survivors of the explosion included nine of the Big Island soldiers who had been above deck and 27 crew members. Some were thrown into the water, and others jumped in soon afterwards. Covered in oil, the survivors spent hours in the ocean, many clinging to whatever debris they could, before they were picked up by the ammunition barge that had been the actual target of the Japanese submarine. Upon being rescued they were taken to Hana, Maui where the Hana School, who had been preparing for emergencies since the war began, created a triage and first aid center and awaited military personnel. It took some time to reach Hana, but when the military arrived, they told the local population that the incident didn't happen and were told to never tell anyone. Sixteen 299th Infantry soldiers of multiple ethnicities lost their lives, only nine survived. Eight would go on to fight in the 100th Infantry Battalion, and one would serve in the South Pacific with the 298th Infantry Regiment. They were from then known as "The Torpedo Gang" and gathered every January 28th to have a drink and remember their fallen comrades, this is why the unit has chosen January 28th as the Regimental Memorial Day. The sinking was kept classified, and the families of the sixteen were not told of how their loved one died until the end of the war. Fears of Japanese sentiment, martial law, and news of Japanese submarines still patrolling Hawaiian waters contributed to the decision to keep the sinking of the Frank classified. The Torpedo Gang survivors were also ordered not to tell anyone what happened. Relief from the Mainland finally started to arrive in March 1941, and the 299th Infantry began to transition to Scofield Barracks for service. Although the [Hawaii Territorial Guard](/wiki/Hawaii_Territorial_Guard "Hawaii Territorial Guard"), created by the Governor of Hawaii following the attack on Pearl Harbor, eventually removed soldiers who were Americans of Japanese Ancestry in January 1942, the 299th Infantry and 298th Infantry did not. Soldiers of Japanese ancestry remained at their posts until June 1942\. On 4 June, the Japanese\-American soldiers of both the 299th and 298th were pulled from the ranks of the regiments, some 29 officers and 1277 enlisted men in all.{{rp\|212}} These Hawaii [Nisei](/wiki/Nisei "Nisei") (Japanese\-Americans) would form the famed [100th Infantry Battalion](/wiki/100th_Infantry_Battalion "100th Infantry Battalion") later attached to the [442nd RCT](/wiki/442nd_RCT "442nd RCT") and would fight heroically in Europe becoming the most decorated unit of its size in World War II. However the Nisei soldiers were nearly 40% of the 299th ranks, and the removal of these men put the regiment grossly under strength. Therefore, on 21 July 1942, the 299th was relieved from the 24th Infantry Division and deactivated, the unit's men and material being transferred to the 298th. However the 2nd Battalion, 299th's HHC and B Company remained intact. These units were sent overseas to the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") and the [Ryukyu Islands](/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands "Ryukyu Islands") for which the 2–299th received campaign participation. However it is not clear with whom they were attached and what role they played in these campaigns.
[ "### World War II", "In 1940, the 299th Infantry and its sister regiment, the 298th Infantry were called into federal service as the United States began to prepare for a possible war with the [Axis Powers](/wiki/Axis_Powers \"Axis Powers\"). In 1941, the [Hawaiian Division](/wiki/Hawaiian_Division \"Hawaiian Division\") was reformed from a square division, which was the army's World War I divisional format, into the triangular division that would be the norm for World War II and Korea. Out of the old division came both the [24th Infantry Division](/wiki/24th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"24th Infantry Division (United States)\") and the [25th Infantry Division](/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"25th Infantry Division (United States)\"). The 299th IN was sent to provide the third infantry regiment for the new 24th Infantry Division. In May 1941, the 299th was sent to the neighbor islands to provide for their defense,{{cite book \\| url\\=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard\\-US/ \\| title\\=United States Army in World War II: Guarding the United States and its Outposts \\| publisher\\=Center of Military History \\| last\\=Fairchild \\| first\\=Byron \\| year\\=1964 \\| location\\=Washington, D.C.}}{{rp\\|170}} since the regiment was mostly composed of citizens from these islands.", "As part of the US preparation for World War II, the Islands were on a war footing as an outpost of the United States. After the draft and activation of 1940, the makeup of the 299th changed dramatically, with a mix of Hawaiian, White, Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Puerto Rican, and other races. During this time, the 299th Infantry Regiment were removed from the Hawaii National Guard territorial control and fell under control of the active duty military. Despite some pushback from Washington DC, the multiethnic unit provided support for it's active duty counterparts in Hawaii. Although the initial activation was only supposed to last for 12 months, it was extended in October 1941, much to the chagrin of many of the men who were federalized and taken away from their civilian jobs and families. Hawaii transitioned to possible attacks by conducting blackout drills and air raid practices that continued in Hawaii up until December 1941\\. The Regiment was also able to increase its numbers due to the draft to provide a full Regiment, and train despite not being given the most modern equipment.", "In the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, the 299th Infantry Regiment was guarding the outer islands from possible invasion by the Empire of Japan. This was a real fear for Hawaii, as Japanese Imperial troops conquered across Asia and the Pacific Islands. Following December 7, 1941, The 299th Infantry enforced Martial Law across Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai. As the de facto military governors of the islands, the unit's commanders prepared for possible invasion, enforced rationing and blackouts, coordinated with the County Governments, and made plans to integrate follow on forces into the defense of the outer islands. Many US military planners feared the Japanese would bypass Oahu and use Hawaii Island or Maui as landing sites and mass their combat power on the mostly agricultural lands, and then isolate and then seize Oahu from the US military. The 299th Infantry protected key infrastructure, manned defensive positions, and built defenses along the coasts.", "Stress and fear in the wake of the Pearl Harbor in the islands was palpable. Gas masks were issued to all citizens as the Japanese had used gas countless times in China, a majority of the population of Hawaii were fingerprinted, and curfews were initiated. Nobody knew how strong the Japanese forces were, especially civilians who were not privy to military intelligence. On the night of December 30, 1941 the Japanese submarines launched a coordinated strike on Hilo, Hawaii, on Kahului, Maui, and Nawiliwili on Kauaʻi. The Japanese operation can best be described as ‘morale bombings’, as the attack was not significant enough take or destroy a military objective. In Hilo, the submarine I\\-1 surfaced and fired ten high explosive shells into Hilo piers before submerging once again. The shells landed primarily around Pier 1, damaging a \"fenders and a concrete haunch and pile”. Overall, damage done was insignificant, however the aim of the operation was not to inflict high casualties or damage, but to inflict phycological damage and to jar the Homefront. Soldiers of the 299th Infantry inspected the damage and found the shells fired into Hilo.", "On January 28, 1942, the US Army Transport Ship Royal T. Frank, was bringing 26 soldiers of the 299th Infantry back home to Hawaii Island after finishing their basic training, which had been interrupted by the attack on Pearl Harbor. While in a three ship convoy, with the small cargo ship Kalae, and their escort the [USS Trever (DMS\\-16\\)](/wiki/USS_Trever_%28DMS-16%29 \"USS Trever (DMS-16)\") they departed from Maui and were crossing the ‘Alenuihāhā Channel between Maui and Hawaii Island. [The Japanese submarine I\\-171](/wiki/The_Japanese_submarine_I-171 \"The Japanese submarine I-171\"), surfaced and fired two torpedo's that missed the Frank. The third torpedo launched hit the Frank, the ship is reported to have sunk in thirty seconds. Many below deck didn't make it, the survivors swam in oil laden water for three hours awaiting rescue. Of the 60 people aboard the Frank, only 36 survived. Survivors of the explosion included nine of the Big Island soldiers who had been above deck and 27 crew members. Some were thrown into the water, and others jumped in soon afterwards. Covered in oil, the survivors spent hours in the ocean, many clinging to whatever debris they could, before they were picked up by the ammunition barge that had been the actual target of the Japanese submarine. Upon being rescued they were taken to Hana, Maui where the Hana School, who had been preparing for emergencies since the war began, created a triage and first aid center and awaited military personnel. It took some time to reach Hana, but when the military arrived, they told the local population that the incident didn't happen and were told to never tell anyone. Sixteen 299th Infantry soldiers of multiple ethnicities lost their lives, only nine survived. Eight would go on to fight in the 100th Infantry Battalion, and one would serve in the South Pacific with the 298th Infantry Regiment. They were from then known as \"The Torpedo Gang\" and gathered every January 28th to have a drink and remember their fallen comrades, this is why the unit has chosen January 28th as the Regimental Memorial Day. The sinking was kept classified, and the families of the sixteen were not told of how their loved one died until the end of the war. Fears of Japanese sentiment, martial law, and news of Japanese submarines still patrolling Hawaiian waters contributed to the decision to keep the sinking of the Frank classified. The Torpedo Gang survivors were also ordered not to tell anyone what happened.", "Relief from the Mainland finally started to arrive in March 1941, and the 299th Infantry began to transition to Scofield Barracks for service. Although the [Hawaii Territorial Guard](/wiki/Hawaii_Territorial_Guard \"Hawaii Territorial Guard\"), created by the Governor of Hawaii following the attack on Pearl Harbor, eventually removed soldiers who were Americans of Japanese Ancestry in January 1942, the 299th Infantry and 298th Infantry did not. Soldiers of Japanese ancestry remained at their posts until June 1942\\.", "On 4 June, the Japanese\\-American soldiers of both the 299th and 298th were pulled from the ranks of the regiments, some 29 officers and 1277 enlisted men in all.{{rp\\|212}} These Hawaii [Nisei](/wiki/Nisei \"Nisei\") (Japanese\\-Americans) would form the famed [100th Infantry Battalion](/wiki/100th_Infantry_Battalion \"100th Infantry Battalion\") later attached to the [442nd RCT](/wiki/442nd_RCT \"442nd RCT\") and would fight heroically in Europe becoming the most decorated unit of its size in World War II. However the Nisei soldiers were nearly 40% of the 299th ranks, and the removal of these men put the regiment grossly under strength. Therefore, on 21 July 1942, the 299th was relieved from the 24th Infantry Division and deactivated, the unit's men and material being transferred to the 298th. However the 2nd Battalion, 299th's HHC and B Company remained intact. These units were sent overseas to the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") and the [Ryukyu Islands](/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands \"Ryukyu Islands\") for which the 2–299th received campaign participation. However it is not clear with whom they were attached and what role they played in these campaigns.", "" ]
Academics --------- The school offers the following degrees: * [Master of Public Administration](/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration "Master of Public Administration") (MPA) in public and nonprofit management and policy * Master of Public Administration in health policy and management * [Master of Healthcare Administration](/wiki/Master_of_Healthcare_Administration "Master of Healthcare Administration") (MHA) * [Master of Urban Planning](/wiki/Master_of_Urban_Planning "Master of Urban Planning") (MUP) * [Master of Science in Public Policy](/wiki/Master_of_Public_Policy "Master of Public Policy") (MSPP) * Executive [Master of Public Administration](/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration "Master of Public Administration") (EMPA) * [Doctor of Philosophy](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy "Doctor of Philosophy") (PhD) in public administration NYU Wagner also offers joint degree programs with the [NYU School of Law](/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Law "New York University School of Law"), NYU [Stern School of Business](/wiki/New_York_University_Stern_School_of_Business "New York University Stern School of Business"), [NYU School of Medicine](/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Medicine "New York University School of Medicine"), the Skirball Department of Hebrew and Judaic Studies, the NYU [College of Arts and Science](/wiki/New_York_University_College_of_Arts_%26_Science "New York University College of Arts & Science"), and the NYU College of Global Public Health. The school operates several research centers, institutes, and initiatives. ### Programs In addition to offerings in the NYU Wagner course listings, students are eligible to cross\-register for many courses at the other graduate and professional schools at NYU. NYU Wagner offers the following Undergraduate Minors in partnership with several New York University schools: * Social Entrepreneurship * Public Policy and Management * Social and Public Policy * Multifaith and Spiritual Leadership Combined Bachelor's and master's degree programs at NYU Wagner allow students to complete undergraduate and graduate degrees in five years instead of the traditional six. Combined dual\-degree BA\-MPA programs include: * BA\-MPA with [NYU Abu Dhabi](/wiki/New_York_University_Abu_Dhabi "New York University Abu Dhabi") * BA\-MPA with [NYU College of Arts and Science](/wiki/New_York_University_College_of_Arts_%26_Science "New York University College of Arts & Science") * BA\-MPA with [NYU Gallatin School of Individualized Study](/wiki/Gallatin_School_of_Individualized_Study "Gallatin School of Individualized Study") * BA\-MPA with [NYU Global Liberal Studies](/wiki/NYU_Liberal_Studies "NYU Liberal Studies") The BA\-MUP with the College of Arts and Science allows New York University undergraduates majoring in Economics, International Relations, Metropolitan Studies, Politics, Sociology, or Urban Design and Architecture who have completed most of their undergraduate degrees to take graduate courses and receive the Master's in Urban Planning. The BA\-MUP with the NYU Tandon School of Engineering allows New York University Tandon undergraduates majoring in Sustainable Urban Environments, Construction Management, or Civil Engineering who have earned a GPA of 3\.0 or higher to take graduate courses and receive the Master's in Urban Planning. ### Capstone project All MPA and MUP students are required to complete a team\-based Capstone project where they turn their classroom learning into practice to help nonprofit, public, and private sector organizations tackle a critical challenge.
[ "Academics\n---------", "The school offers the following degrees:", "* [Master of Public Administration](/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration \"Master of Public Administration\") (MPA) in public and nonprofit management and policy\n* Master of Public Administration in health policy and management\n* [Master of Healthcare Administration](/wiki/Master_of_Healthcare_Administration \"Master of Healthcare Administration\") (MHA)\n* [Master of Urban Planning](/wiki/Master_of_Urban_Planning \"Master of Urban Planning\") (MUP)\n* [Master of Science in Public Policy](/wiki/Master_of_Public_Policy \"Master of Public Policy\") (MSPP)\n* Executive [Master of Public Administration](/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration \"Master of Public Administration\") (EMPA)\n* [Doctor of Philosophy](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy \"Doctor of Philosophy\") (PhD) in public administration", "NYU Wagner also offers joint degree programs with the [NYU School of Law](/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Law \"New York University School of Law\"), NYU [Stern School of Business](/wiki/New_York_University_Stern_School_of_Business \"New York University Stern School of Business\"), [NYU School of Medicine](/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Medicine \"New York University School of Medicine\"), the Skirball Department of Hebrew and Judaic Studies, the NYU [College of Arts and Science](/wiki/New_York_University_College_of_Arts_%26_Science \"New York University College of Arts & Science\"), and the NYU College of Global Public Health.", "The school operates several research centers, institutes, and initiatives.", "### Programs", "In addition to offerings in the NYU Wagner course listings, students are eligible to cross\\-register for many courses at the other graduate and professional schools at NYU.", "NYU Wagner offers the following Undergraduate Minors in partnership with several New York University schools:\n* Social Entrepreneurship\n* Public Policy and Management\n* Social and Public Policy\n* Multifaith and Spiritual Leadership\nCombined Bachelor's and master's degree programs at NYU Wagner allow students to complete undergraduate and graduate degrees in five years instead of the traditional six. Combined dual\\-degree BA\\-MPA programs include:\n* BA\\-MPA with [NYU Abu Dhabi](/wiki/New_York_University_Abu_Dhabi \"New York University Abu Dhabi\")\n* BA\\-MPA with [NYU College of Arts and Science](/wiki/New_York_University_College_of_Arts_%26_Science \"New York University College of Arts & Science\")\n* BA\\-MPA with [NYU Gallatin School of Individualized Study](/wiki/Gallatin_School_of_Individualized_Study \"Gallatin School of Individualized Study\")\n* BA\\-MPA with [NYU Global Liberal Studies](/wiki/NYU_Liberal_Studies \"NYU Liberal Studies\")\nThe BA\\-MUP with the College of Arts and Science allows New York University undergraduates majoring in Economics, International Relations, Metropolitan Studies, Politics, Sociology, or Urban Design and Architecture who have completed most of their undergraduate degrees to take graduate courses and receive the Master's in Urban Planning.", "The BA\\-MUP with the NYU Tandon School of Engineering allows New York University Tandon undergraduates majoring in Sustainable Urban Environments, Construction Management, or Civil Engineering who have earned a GPA of 3\\.0 or higher to take graduate courses and receive the Master's in Urban Planning.", "### Capstone project", "All MPA and MUP students are required to complete a team\\-based Capstone project where they turn their classroom learning into practice to help nonprofit, public, and private sector organizations tackle a critical challenge.", "", "", "" ]
Biography --------- {{Original research\|date\=June 2021}} Toshinaga was born in what is now part of the city of [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya "Nagoya") in [Owari Province](/wiki/Owari_Province "Owari Province"), where his father was in the service of Oda Nobunaga In 1581, he married one of Oda Nobunaga's daughters, Ei\-hime, who was only six years old at the time. Nobunaga was assassinated the following year at the [Honnō\-ji Incident](/wiki/Honn%C5%8D-ji_Incident "Honnō-ji Incident"). In 1583, he assisted his father at the [Battle of Shizugatake](/wiki/Battle_of_Shizugatake "Battle of Shizugatake") and after the death of [Shibata Katsuie](/wiki/Shibata_Katsuie "Shibata Katsuie"), he swore fealty to [Toyotomi Hideyoshi](/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi "Toyotomi Hideyoshi") and was awarded a 40,000 *[koku](/wiki/Koku "Koku")* fief in [Kaga Province](/wiki/Kaga_Province "Kaga Province"). In 1585, he played a key role in Hideyoshi's campaign against [Sassa Narimasa](/wiki/Sassa_Narimasa "Sassa Narimasa"), and his holdings were greatly expanded to 320,000 *koku* across Kaga and [Etchū Provinces](/wiki/Etch%C5%AB_Province "Etchū Province"). He led some 3,000 men in Toyotomi Hideyoshi's during the [Kyūshū Campaign](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB_Campaign "Kyūshū Campaign") (1587\) and the [Siege of Odawara (1590\)](/wiki/Siege_of_Odawara_%281590%29 "Siege of Odawara (1590)"). In 1598, he received the 267,000 *koku* Kanazawa holdings of his father, Maeda Toshiie. Toshiie died the following year 1599, and [Hosokawa Tadaoki](/wiki/Hosokawa_Tadaoki "Hosokawa Tadaoki") convinced Toshinaga to support [Tokugawa Ieyasu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu "Tokugawa Ieyasu") over [Ishida Mitsunari](/wiki/Ishida_Mitsunari "Ishida Mitsunari") and [Toyotomi Hideyori](/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyori "Toyotomi Hideyori"). In 1600, at the time of the [Battle of Sekigahara](/wiki/Battle_of_Sekigahara "Battle of Sekigahara"), his role was primarily to contain the forces of [Uesugi Kagekatsu](/wiki/Uesugi_Kagekatsu "Uesugi Kagekatsu") and [Niwa Nagashige](/wiki/Niwa_Nagashige "Niwa Nagashige"), they clash at [Battle of Asainawate](/wiki/Battle_of_Asainawate "Battle of Asainawate"), and at the same time, to keep the forces of his younger brother, [Maeda Toshimasa](/wiki/Maeda_Toshimasa_%281578%29 "Maeda Toshimasa (1578)"), ruler of [Noto Province](/wiki/Noto_Province "Noto Province"), from joining the western army. On the establishment of the [Tokugawa shogunate](/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate "Tokugawa shogunate"), Toshinaga was confirmed in his holdings, which had also been expanded by the addition of 225,000 *koku* formerly held by his brother Toshimasa, and 120,000 *koku* from Komatsu Castle and 63,000 *koku* from Daisho\-ji Castle to a total of 1,025,000 *koku*, which covered the provinces of Kaga, Noto and Etchū. The *[kokudaka](/wiki/Kokudaka "Kokudaka")* of [Kaga Domain](/wiki/Kaga_Domain "Kaga Domain") was exceeded only by the Shogunal house itself. Toshinaga built and resided in [Kanazawa Castle](/wiki/Kanazawa_Castle "Kanazawa Castle"). With the establishment of the *[sankin\-kōtai](/wiki/Sankin-k%C5%8Dtai "Sankin-kōtai")* system of alternative attendance in [Edo](/wiki/Edo "Edo"), Toshinaga was the first *daimyō* to establish a residence in the new capital. Toshinaga had no son and adopted his younger brother [Maeda Toshitsune](/wiki/Maeda_Toshitsune "Maeda Toshitsune") as his heir. He retired in 1605, and relocated from Kanazawa to [Toyama Castle](/wiki/Toyama_Castle "Toyama Castle"), setting aside 220,000 *koku* for his retirement expenses.
[ "Biography\n---------", "{{Original research\\|date\\=June 2021}}\nToshinaga was born in what is now part of the city of [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya \"Nagoya\") in [Owari Province](/wiki/Owari_Province \"Owari Province\"), where his father was in the service of Oda Nobunaga In 1581, he married one of Oda Nobunaga's daughters, Ei\\-hime, who was only six years old at the time. Nobunaga was assassinated the following year at the [Honnō\\-ji Incident](/wiki/Honn%C5%8D-ji_Incident \"Honnō-ji Incident\").", "In 1583, he assisted his father at the [Battle of Shizugatake](/wiki/Battle_of_Shizugatake \"Battle of Shizugatake\") and after the death of [Shibata Katsuie](/wiki/Shibata_Katsuie \"Shibata Katsuie\"), he swore fealty to [Toyotomi Hideyoshi](/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi \"Toyotomi Hideyoshi\") and was awarded a 40,000 *[koku](/wiki/Koku \"Koku\")* fief in [Kaga Province](/wiki/Kaga_Province \"Kaga Province\").", "In 1585, he played a key role in Hideyoshi's campaign against [Sassa Narimasa](/wiki/Sassa_Narimasa \"Sassa Narimasa\"), and his holdings were greatly expanded to 320,000 *koku* across Kaga and [Etchū Provinces](/wiki/Etch%C5%AB_Province \"Etchū Province\"). He led some 3,000 men in Toyotomi Hideyoshi's during the [Kyūshū Campaign](/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB_Campaign \"Kyūshū Campaign\") (1587\\) and the [Siege of Odawara (1590\\)](/wiki/Siege_of_Odawara_%281590%29 \"Siege of Odawara (1590)\").", "In 1598, he received the 267,000 *koku* Kanazawa holdings of his father, Maeda Toshiie. \nToshiie died the following year 1599, and [Hosokawa Tadaoki](/wiki/Hosokawa_Tadaoki \"Hosokawa Tadaoki\") convinced Toshinaga to support [Tokugawa Ieyasu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu \"Tokugawa Ieyasu\") over [Ishida Mitsunari](/wiki/Ishida_Mitsunari \"Ishida Mitsunari\") and [Toyotomi Hideyori](/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyori \"Toyotomi Hideyori\").", "In 1600, at the time of the [Battle of Sekigahara](/wiki/Battle_of_Sekigahara \"Battle of Sekigahara\"), his role was primarily to contain the forces of [Uesugi Kagekatsu](/wiki/Uesugi_Kagekatsu \"Uesugi Kagekatsu\") and [Niwa Nagashige](/wiki/Niwa_Nagashige \"Niwa Nagashige\"), they clash at [Battle of Asainawate](/wiki/Battle_of_Asainawate \"Battle of Asainawate\"), and at the same time, to keep the forces of his younger brother, [Maeda Toshimasa](/wiki/Maeda_Toshimasa_%281578%29 \"Maeda Toshimasa (1578)\"), ruler of [Noto Province](/wiki/Noto_Province \"Noto Province\"), from joining the western army.", "On the establishment of the [Tokugawa shogunate](/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate \"Tokugawa shogunate\"), Toshinaga was confirmed in his holdings, which had also been expanded by the addition of 225,000 *koku* formerly held by his brother Toshimasa, and 120,000 *koku* from Komatsu Castle and 63,000 *koku* from Daisho\\-ji Castle to a total of 1,025,000 *koku*, which covered the provinces of Kaga, Noto and Etchū. The *[kokudaka](/wiki/Kokudaka \"Kokudaka\")* of [Kaga Domain](/wiki/Kaga_Domain \"Kaga Domain\") was exceeded only by the Shogunal house itself. Toshinaga built and resided in [Kanazawa Castle](/wiki/Kanazawa_Castle \"Kanazawa Castle\").", "With the establishment of the *[sankin\\-kōtai](/wiki/Sankin-k%C5%8Dtai \"Sankin-kōtai\")* system of alternative attendance in [Edo](/wiki/Edo \"Edo\"), Toshinaga was the first *daimyō* to establish a residence in the new capital.", "Toshinaga had no son and adopted his younger brother [Maeda Toshitsune](/wiki/Maeda_Toshitsune \"Maeda Toshitsune\") as his heir. He retired in 1605, and relocated from Kanazawa to [Toyama Castle](/wiki/Toyama_Castle \"Toyama Castle\"), setting aside 220,000 *koku* for his retirement expenses.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- ### Pilot The half\-hour black and white pilot titled *The Virginian* aired in 1958 as part of the [anthology series](/wiki/Anthology_series "Anthology series") *[Decision](/wiki/Decision_%28TV_series%29 "Decision (TV series)")*, which in other weeks aired pilots for six other series. In the pilot, unlike in the later series, the Virginian had a noticeable Southern accent and wore a belt buckle marked "CSA", indicating service in the [Confederate States Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army "Confederate States Army").[The Virginian season 1](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUt-eReRkSA&list=PLDUsZRzIoAi_ODJfSWVIZT6RUh7c8cnkT){{original research inline\|date\=March 2019}}{{dead link\|date\=June 2024}} The portrayal of him as a young [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") veteran would indicate that the time period of the pilot was decades earlier than that of the series. He arrived by invitation at the ranch of Judge Henry (Robert Burton) to be an accountant and manager. He soon becomes involved in unraveling a plot to destroy the judge's efforts to create a new town in the surrounding region. Other actors in the pilot, some of whom appeared in the series years later, included [Andrew Duggan](/wiki/Andrew_Duggan "Andrew Duggan"), [Jeanette Nolan](/wiki/Jeanette_Nolan "Jeanette Nolan"), and [Dan Blocker](/wiki/Dan_Blocker "Dan Blocker") (in a small, nonspeaking role). ### Seasons 1–8 [thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|The main cast in the fall of 1964: Center: Lee J. Cobb (Judge Garth), from left: Roberta Shore (Betsy Garth), Clu Gulager (Emmett Ryker), Doug McClure (Trampas), Randy Boone (ranch hand), James Drury (the Virginian)](/wiki/File:The_Virginian_cast_1964.JPG "The Virginian cast 1964.JPG") Set in the late 19th century, and loosely based on *The Virginian, A Horseman of the Plains*, a 1902 novel by Owen Wister, the series revolved around the foreman of the Shiloh Ranch, played by Drury. His top hand, Trampas (McClure), was the only character to remain with the show for the entire run, although [Ross Elliott](/wiki/Ross_Elliott "Ross Elliott"), as Sheriff Abbott, recurred throughout the run, appearing in 61 episodes over nine years. As in the book, the foreman went only by the name "the Virginian". The series was set in [Medicine Bow, Wyoming](/wiki/Medicine_Bow%2C_Wyoming "Medicine Bow, Wyoming"). Various references in the first season indicate that setting is 1898: * In episode five, "The Brazen Bell", guest star [George C. Scott](/wiki/George_C._Scott "George C. Scott") quotes from [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde "Oscar Wilde")'s *[The Ballad of Reading Gaol](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Reading_Gaol "The Ballad of Reading Gaol")*, which was first published in 1898\. * In episode seven, "Riff Raff", several of the main characters join [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt "Theodore Roosevelt")'s [Rough Riders](/wiki/Rough_Riders "Rough Riders"), the volunteer cavalry unit formed in 1898 to fight in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") during the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Spanish–American War"). * In episode 11, "The Devil's Children", the grave marker for one of the characters who dies in the episode states 1898 as the year of death. * In episode 13, "The Accomplice", an 1898 calendar is present in the bunkhouse. The series focused on the foreman's quest to maintain an orderly lifestyle at Shiloh Ranch. The ranch was named after the two\-day [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh "Battle of Shiloh"), at [Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee](/wiki/Pittsburg_Landing%2C_Tennessee "Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee"). The show's white [Appaloosa](/wiki/Appaloosa "Appaloosa") was named Joe D., and Trampas' [buckskin horse](/wiki/Buckskin_%28horse%29 "Buckskin (horse)") was named Buck. Several cast changes were made throughout the program's run. In the first four seasons (1962–1966\), the owner of the ranch was Judge Henry Garth (Cobb). His *de facto* daughter{{efn\|In episode 2 of season 1 ("Woman from White Wing"), Betsy's real father is identified as Garth's former friend Frank Dawson; when Dawson went to prison, Garth took custody of baby Betsy and never told her about her true background, and years later Dawson, who has come back to take her with him, chooses to leave Shiloh without telling her either.}} Betsy ([Roberta Shore](/wiki/Roberta_Shore "Roberta Shore")) lived at the ranch with him, and had a sister relationship with the ranch hands. Ranch hand Steve Hill ([Gary Clarke](/wiki/Gary_Clarke "Gary Clarke")) joined in episode storylines. Randy Boone joined the show in the second season as a youthful ranch hand who played guitar and sang duets with Betsy. In 1965, [Decca Records](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") released an LP of songs from the two singing actors. In the episode "First to Thine Own Self" (February 12, 1964\), Boone's character sings "[I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry](/wiki/I%27m_So_Lonesome_I_Could_Cry "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry")", written by [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams "Hank Williams") in 1949\. In the third season, [Clu Gulager](/wiki/Clu_Gulager "Clu Gulager"), who had previously guest\-starred twice in earlier seasons, was added to the show as deputy Emmett Ryker. At the end of season three, executive producer [Frank Price](/wiki/Frank_Price "Frank Price") was replaced by [Norman Macdonnell](/wiki/Norman_Macdonnell "Norman Macdonnell"). Conversely, season four's production was strained and troublesome. When Shore left the cast, Macdonnell added a new leading woman—[Diane Roter](/wiki/Diane_Roter "Diane Roter"), who played Jennifer, the judge's niece. When Cobb left the show in 1966, [John Dehner](/wiki/John_Dehner "John Dehner"), as Morgan Starr, was brought in as the manager of Shiloh when Judge Garth left to become the governor of Wyoming. Producer Frank Price returned for season five. The characters of Randy, Morgan Starr, and Jennifer were subsequently replaced with characters of a more familiar tone. John Grainger (played by Charles Bickford) became the new owner. Elizabeth Grainger (played by [Sara Lane](/wiki/Sara_Lane_%28actress_born_1949%29 "Sara Lane (actress born 1949)")), was John Grainger's granddaughter. Her brother Stacey ([Don Quine](/wiki/Don_Quine "Don Quine")) rounded out this new cast. Although Price later left again, the series continued smoothly in the pattern he set. Due to Charles Bickford's sudden death in November 1967, season six saw Clay Grainger (John McIntire), take ownership of Shiloh after his brother John's apparent departure "on business". The sixth season also added Holly Grainger (played by Jeanette Nolan, McIntire's real\-life wife, with whom he often worked professionally) as Clay's wife. Season seven had the entrance of David Sutton, played by [David Hartman](/wiki/David_Hartman_%28TV_personality%29 "David Hartman (TV personality)"). Sutton was replaced in season eight with a younger hand, Jim Horn ([Tim Matheson](/wiki/Tim_Matheson "Tim Matheson")). ### Season 9 [thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|The new *The Men from Shiloh* title card](/wiki/File:The_Men_from_Shiloh_title_card.png "The Men from Shiloh title card.png") In season 9 (1970–1971\), the name of the program was changed to *The Men from Shiloh* and the look of the series was completely redesigned. Ownership of the Shiloh Ranch was changed once more, and Colonel Alan MacKenzie ([Stewart Granger](/wiki/Stewart_Granger "Stewart Granger")) took over.{{Cite journal \|date\=April 2, 1970 \|title\=Stewart Granger to join Virginian \|journal\=Los Angeles Times \|id\={{ProQuest\|156444068}}}} {{Subscription required\|date\=October 2016}}.{{Cite journal \|author\=Smart, W. E. \|date\=Jul 5, 1970 \|title\=Program notes .. \|journal\=The Washington Post and Times\-Herald \|id\={{ProQuest\|147727877}}}} {{Subscription required\|date\=October 2016}}. Also [Lee Majors](/wiki/Lee_Majors "Lee Majors") joined as a new character, Roy Tate, introduced in the fifth episode of the season. Granger said of his character: > They had some idea of Colonel Mackenzie against the West. I wanted no part of that. Englishmen were running cattle here from the beginning. The English have this thing for land; for animals and crops... I said this old cocker's out of India and the colonies: he can take the American West on his own terms.{{Cite journal \|author\=Smith, C. \|date\=Aug 30, 1970 \|title\=GRANGER comes to SHILOH \|journal\=Los Angeles Times \|id\={{ProQuest\|156550855}}}} {{Subscription required\|date\=October 2016}}. In several countries, including the United Kingdom, the show went under the extended title *The Virginian: Men from Shiloh.*{{Cite web \|title\=Search – BBC Programme Index \|url\=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/search/0/20?q\=The\+Virginian%3A\+Men\+from\+Shiloh\#top}} A new opening theme song was composed by [Ennio Morricone](/wiki/Ennio_Morricone "Ennio Morricone"), and the look of the show was changed reflecting a style similar to [spaghetti Westerns](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western "Spaghetti Western"), which were popular at the time.{{cite AV media\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=8xna6GjwSJ0\|title\=The Virginian – Season 9 Opening Credits\|via\=\[\[YouTube]]\|access\-date\=2011\-06\-18}} These changes brought a better ranking (number 18\) in the top\-30 primetime shows in the United States, after the previous year had the show slip out of the top\-30 rankings for the first time. (It was one of only four Western series shown in primetime.{{cite news \|title\=1970, Those changes at shiloh ranch \|work\=The Washington Post and Times\-Herald \|id\={{ProQuest\|147941084}}}} {{Subscription required\|date\=October 2016}}.) The final season operated on a "rotating lead actor" basis of the four stars, with normally just one lead appearing each week. Two of the four lead actors (Lee Majors and Doug McClure) never appeared together in the last season. The ranch itself played a very nominal part in season 9, with most scripts featuring the four stars away from the ranch. Little seemingly could save it, as the final season brought in several big guest stars to the remaining episodes. The studio and network were set on ending the series, as evidenced by rivals CBS and ABC making demographic moves away from rural\-oriented shows (see "[rural purge](/wiki/Rural_purge "Rural purge")"). The final episode aired on March 24, 1971, ending the show's nine\-season run.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "### Pilot", "The half\\-hour black and white pilot titled *The Virginian* aired in 1958 as part of the [anthology series](/wiki/Anthology_series \"Anthology series\") *[Decision](/wiki/Decision_%28TV_series%29 \"Decision (TV series)\")*, which in other weeks aired pilots for six other series.", "In the pilot, unlike in the later series, the Virginian had a noticeable Southern accent and wore a belt buckle marked \"CSA\", indicating service in the [Confederate States Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army \"Confederate States Army\").[The Virginian season 1](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUt-eReRkSA&list=PLDUsZRzIoAi_ODJfSWVIZT6RUh7c8cnkT){{original research inline\\|date\\=March 2019}}{{dead link\\|date\\=June 2024}} The portrayal of him as a young [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") veteran would indicate that the time period of the pilot was decades earlier than that of the series. He arrived by invitation at the ranch of Judge Henry (Robert Burton) to be an accountant and manager. He soon becomes involved in unraveling a plot to destroy the judge's efforts to create a new town in the surrounding region. Other actors in the pilot, some of whom appeared in the series years later, included [Andrew Duggan](/wiki/Andrew_Duggan \"Andrew Duggan\"), [Jeanette Nolan](/wiki/Jeanette_Nolan \"Jeanette Nolan\"), and [Dan Blocker](/wiki/Dan_Blocker \"Dan Blocker\") (in a small, nonspeaking role).", "### Seasons 1–8", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|The main cast in the fall of 1964: Center: Lee J. Cobb (Judge Garth), from left: Roberta Shore (Betsy Garth), Clu Gulager (Emmett Ryker), Doug McClure (Trampas), Randy Boone (ranch hand), James Drury (the Virginian)](/wiki/File:The_Virginian_cast_1964.JPG \"The Virginian cast 1964.JPG\")\nSet in the late 19th century, and loosely based on *The Virginian, A Horseman of the Plains*, a 1902 novel by Owen Wister, the series revolved around the foreman of the Shiloh Ranch, played by Drury. His top hand, Trampas (McClure), was the only character to remain with the show for the entire run, although [Ross Elliott](/wiki/Ross_Elliott \"Ross Elliott\"), as Sheriff Abbott, recurred throughout the run, appearing in 61 episodes over nine years. As in the book, the foreman went only by the name \"the Virginian\". The series was set in [Medicine Bow, Wyoming](/wiki/Medicine_Bow%2C_Wyoming \"Medicine Bow, Wyoming\"). Various references in the first season indicate that setting is 1898:\n* In episode five, \"The Brazen Bell\", guest star [George C. Scott](/wiki/George_C._Scott \"George C. Scott\") quotes from [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde \"Oscar Wilde\")'s *[The Ballad of Reading Gaol](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Reading_Gaol \"The Ballad of Reading Gaol\")*, which was first published in 1898\\.\n* In episode seven, \"Riff Raff\", several of the main characters join [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt \"Theodore Roosevelt\")'s [Rough Riders](/wiki/Rough_Riders \"Rough Riders\"), the volunteer cavalry unit formed in 1898 to fight in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") during the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\").\n* In episode 11, \"The Devil's Children\", the grave marker for one of the characters who dies in the episode states 1898 as the year of death.\n* In episode 13, \"The Accomplice\", an 1898 calendar is present in the bunkhouse.", "The series focused on the foreman's quest to maintain an orderly lifestyle at Shiloh Ranch. The ranch was named after the two\\-day [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh \"Battle of Shiloh\"), at [Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee](/wiki/Pittsburg_Landing%2C_Tennessee \"Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee\"). The show's white [Appaloosa](/wiki/Appaloosa \"Appaloosa\") was named Joe D., and Trampas' [buckskin horse](/wiki/Buckskin_%28horse%29 \"Buckskin (horse)\") was named Buck.", "Several cast changes were made throughout the program's run. In the first four seasons (1962–1966\\), the owner of the ranch was Judge Henry Garth (Cobb). His *de facto* daughter{{efn\\|In episode 2 of season 1 (\"Woman from White Wing\"), Betsy's real father is identified as Garth's former friend Frank Dawson; when Dawson went to prison, Garth took custody of baby Betsy and never told her about her true background, and years later Dawson, who has come back to take her with him, chooses to leave Shiloh without telling her either.}} Betsy ([Roberta Shore](/wiki/Roberta_Shore \"Roberta Shore\")) lived at the ranch with him, and had a sister relationship with the ranch hands. Ranch hand Steve Hill ([Gary Clarke](/wiki/Gary_Clarke \"Gary Clarke\")) joined in episode storylines. Randy Boone joined the show in the second season as a youthful ranch hand who played guitar and sang duets with Betsy.", "In 1965, [Decca Records](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") released an LP of songs from the two singing actors. In the episode \"First to Thine Own Self\" (February 12, 1964\\), Boone's character sings \"[I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry](/wiki/I%27m_So_Lonesome_I_Could_Cry \"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry\")\", written by [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams \"Hank Williams\") in 1949\\.", "In the third season, [Clu Gulager](/wiki/Clu_Gulager \"Clu Gulager\"), who had previously guest\\-starred twice in earlier seasons, was added to the show as deputy Emmett Ryker. At the end of season three, executive producer [Frank Price](/wiki/Frank_Price \"Frank Price\") was replaced by [Norman Macdonnell](/wiki/Norman_Macdonnell \"Norman Macdonnell\"). Conversely, season four's production was strained and troublesome. When Shore left the cast, Macdonnell added a new leading woman—[Diane Roter](/wiki/Diane_Roter \"Diane Roter\"), who played Jennifer, the judge's niece. When Cobb left the show in 1966, [John Dehner](/wiki/John_Dehner \"John Dehner\"), as Morgan Starr, was brought in as the manager of Shiloh when Judge Garth left to become the governor of Wyoming.", "Producer Frank Price returned for season five. The characters of Randy, Morgan Starr, and Jennifer were subsequently replaced with characters of a more familiar tone. John Grainger (played by Charles Bickford) became the new owner. Elizabeth Grainger (played by [Sara Lane](/wiki/Sara_Lane_%28actress_born_1949%29 \"Sara Lane (actress born 1949)\")), was John Grainger's granddaughter. Her brother Stacey ([Don Quine](/wiki/Don_Quine \"Don Quine\")) rounded out this new cast.", "Although Price later left again, the series continued smoothly in the pattern he set. Due to Charles Bickford's sudden death in November 1967, season six saw Clay Grainger (John McIntire), take ownership of Shiloh after his brother John's apparent departure \"on business\". The sixth season also added Holly Grainger (played by Jeanette Nolan, McIntire's real\\-life wife, with whom he often worked professionally) as Clay's wife. Season seven had the entrance of David Sutton, played by [David Hartman](/wiki/David_Hartman_%28TV_personality%29 \"David Hartman (TV personality)\"). Sutton was replaced in season eight with a younger hand, Jim Horn ([Tim Matheson](/wiki/Tim_Matheson \"Tim Matheson\")).", "### Season 9", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|The new *The Men from Shiloh* title card](/wiki/File:The_Men_from_Shiloh_title_card.png \"The Men from Shiloh title card.png\")\nIn season 9 (1970–1971\\), the name of the program was changed to *The Men from Shiloh* and the look of the series was completely redesigned. Ownership of the Shiloh Ranch was changed once more, and Colonel Alan MacKenzie ([Stewart Granger](/wiki/Stewart_Granger \"Stewart Granger\")) took over.{{Cite journal \\|date\\=April 2, 1970 \\|title\\=Stewart Granger to join Virginian \\|journal\\=Los Angeles Times \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|156444068}}}} {{Subscription required\\|date\\=October 2016}}.{{Cite journal \\|author\\=Smart, W. E. \\|date\\=Jul 5, 1970 \\|title\\=Program notes .. \\|journal\\=The Washington Post and Times\\-Herald \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|147727877}}}} {{Subscription required\\|date\\=October 2016}}. Also [Lee Majors](/wiki/Lee_Majors \"Lee Majors\") joined as a new character, Roy Tate, introduced in the fifth episode of the season. Granger said of his character:", "> They had some idea of Colonel Mackenzie against the West. I wanted no part of that. Englishmen were running cattle here from the beginning. The English have this thing for land; for animals and crops... I said this old cocker's out of India and the colonies: he can take the American West on his own terms.{{Cite journal \\|author\\=Smith, C. \\|date\\=Aug 30, 1970 \\|title\\=GRANGER comes to SHILOH \\|journal\\=Los Angeles Times \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|156550855}}}} {{Subscription required\\|date\\=October 2016}}.", "In several countries, including the United Kingdom, the show went under the extended title *The Virginian: Men from Shiloh.*{{Cite web \\|title\\=Search – BBC Programme Index \\|url\\=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/search/0/20?q\\=The\\+Virginian%3A\\+Men\\+from\\+Shiloh\\#top}}", "A new opening theme song was composed by [Ennio Morricone](/wiki/Ennio_Morricone \"Ennio Morricone\"), and the look of the show was changed reflecting a style similar to [spaghetti Westerns](/wiki/Spaghetti_Western \"Spaghetti Western\"), which were popular at the time.{{cite AV media\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=8xna6GjwSJ0\\|title\\=The Virginian – Season 9 Opening Credits\\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-18}}", "These changes brought a better ranking (number 18\\) in the top\\-30 primetime shows in the United States, after the previous year had the show slip out of the top\\-30 rankings for the first time. (It was one of only four Western series shown in primetime.{{cite news \\|title\\=1970, Those changes at shiloh ranch \\|work\\=The Washington Post and Times\\-Herald \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|147941084}}}} {{Subscription required\\|date\\=October 2016}}.)", "The final season operated on a \"rotating lead actor\" basis of the four stars, with normally just one lead appearing each week. Two of the four lead actors (Lee Majors and Doug McClure) never appeared together in the last season. The ranch itself played a very nominal part in season 9, with most scripts featuring the four stars away from the ranch. Little seemingly could save it, as the final season brought in several big guest stars to the remaining episodes. The studio and network were set on ending the series, as evidenced by rivals CBS and ABC making demographic moves away from rural\\-oriented shows (see \"[rural purge](/wiki/Rural_purge \"Rural purge\")\"). The final episode aired on March 24, 1971, ending the show's nine\\-season run.", "" ]
### Seasons 1–8 [thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|The main cast in the fall of 1964: Center: Lee J. Cobb (Judge Garth), from left: Roberta Shore (Betsy Garth), Clu Gulager (Emmett Ryker), Doug McClure (Trampas), Randy Boone (ranch hand), James Drury (the Virginian)](/wiki/File:The_Virginian_cast_1964.JPG "The Virginian cast 1964.JPG") Set in the late 19th century, and loosely based on *The Virginian, A Horseman of the Plains*, a 1902 novel by Owen Wister, the series revolved around the foreman of the Shiloh Ranch, played by Drury. His top hand, Trampas (McClure), was the only character to remain with the show for the entire run, although [Ross Elliott](/wiki/Ross_Elliott "Ross Elliott"), as Sheriff Abbott, recurred throughout the run, appearing in 61 episodes over nine years. As in the book, the foreman went only by the name "the Virginian". The series was set in [Medicine Bow, Wyoming](/wiki/Medicine_Bow%2C_Wyoming "Medicine Bow, Wyoming"). Various references in the first season indicate that setting is 1898: * In episode five, "The Brazen Bell", guest star [George C. Scott](/wiki/George_C._Scott "George C. Scott") quotes from [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde "Oscar Wilde")'s *[The Ballad of Reading Gaol](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Reading_Gaol "The Ballad of Reading Gaol")*, which was first published in 1898\. * In episode seven, "Riff Raff", several of the main characters join [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt "Theodore Roosevelt")'s [Rough Riders](/wiki/Rough_Riders "Rough Riders"), the volunteer cavalry unit formed in 1898 to fight in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") during the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Spanish–American War"). * In episode 11, "The Devil's Children", the grave marker for one of the characters who dies in the episode states 1898 as the year of death. * In episode 13, "The Accomplice", an 1898 calendar is present in the bunkhouse. The series focused on the foreman's quest to maintain an orderly lifestyle at Shiloh Ranch. The ranch was named after the two\-day [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh "Battle of Shiloh"), at [Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee](/wiki/Pittsburg_Landing%2C_Tennessee "Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee"). The show's white [Appaloosa](/wiki/Appaloosa "Appaloosa") was named Joe D., and Trampas' [buckskin horse](/wiki/Buckskin_%28horse%29 "Buckskin (horse)") was named Buck. Several cast changes were made throughout the program's run. In the first four seasons (1962–1966\), the owner of the ranch was Judge Henry Garth (Cobb). His *de facto* daughter{{efn\|In episode 2 of season 1 ("Woman from White Wing"), Betsy's real father is identified as Garth's former friend Frank Dawson; when Dawson went to prison, Garth took custody of baby Betsy and never told her about her true background, and years later Dawson, who has come back to take her with him, chooses to leave Shiloh without telling her either.}} Betsy ([Roberta Shore](/wiki/Roberta_Shore "Roberta Shore")) lived at the ranch with him, and had a sister relationship with the ranch hands. Ranch hand Steve Hill ([Gary Clarke](/wiki/Gary_Clarke "Gary Clarke")) joined in episode storylines. Randy Boone joined the show in the second season as a youthful ranch hand who played guitar and sang duets with Betsy. In 1965, [Decca Records](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") released an LP of songs from the two singing actors. In the episode "First to Thine Own Self" (February 12, 1964\), Boone's character sings "[I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry](/wiki/I%27m_So_Lonesome_I_Could_Cry "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry")", written by [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams "Hank Williams") in 1949\. In the third season, [Clu Gulager](/wiki/Clu_Gulager "Clu Gulager"), who had previously guest\-starred twice in earlier seasons, was added to the show as deputy Emmett Ryker. At the end of season three, executive producer [Frank Price](/wiki/Frank_Price "Frank Price") was replaced by [Norman Macdonnell](/wiki/Norman_Macdonnell "Norman Macdonnell"). Conversely, season four's production was strained and troublesome. When Shore left the cast, Macdonnell added a new leading woman—[Diane Roter](/wiki/Diane_Roter "Diane Roter"), who played Jennifer, the judge's niece. When Cobb left the show in 1966, [John Dehner](/wiki/John_Dehner "John Dehner"), as Morgan Starr, was brought in as the manager of Shiloh when Judge Garth left to become the governor of Wyoming. Producer Frank Price returned for season five. The characters of Randy, Morgan Starr, and Jennifer were subsequently replaced with characters of a more familiar tone. John Grainger (played by Charles Bickford) became the new owner. Elizabeth Grainger (played by [Sara Lane](/wiki/Sara_Lane_%28actress_born_1949%29 "Sara Lane (actress born 1949)")), was John Grainger's granddaughter. Her brother Stacey ([Don Quine](/wiki/Don_Quine "Don Quine")) rounded out this new cast. Although Price later left again, the series continued smoothly in the pattern he set. Due to Charles Bickford's sudden death in November 1967, season six saw Clay Grainger (John McIntire), take ownership of Shiloh after his brother John's apparent departure "on business". The sixth season also added Holly Grainger (played by Jeanette Nolan, McIntire's real\-life wife, with whom he often worked professionally) as Clay's wife. Season seven had the entrance of David Sutton, played by [David Hartman](/wiki/David_Hartman_%28TV_personality%29 "David Hartman (TV personality)"). Sutton was replaced in season eight with a younger hand, Jim Horn ([Tim Matheson](/wiki/Tim_Matheson "Tim Matheson")).
[ "### Seasons 1–8", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|The main cast in the fall of 1964: Center: Lee J. Cobb (Judge Garth), from left: Roberta Shore (Betsy Garth), Clu Gulager (Emmett Ryker), Doug McClure (Trampas), Randy Boone (ranch hand), James Drury (the Virginian)](/wiki/File:The_Virginian_cast_1964.JPG \"The Virginian cast 1964.JPG\")\nSet in the late 19th century, and loosely based on *The Virginian, A Horseman of the Plains*, a 1902 novel by Owen Wister, the series revolved around the foreman of the Shiloh Ranch, played by Drury. His top hand, Trampas (McClure), was the only character to remain with the show for the entire run, although [Ross Elliott](/wiki/Ross_Elliott \"Ross Elliott\"), as Sheriff Abbott, recurred throughout the run, appearing in 61 episodes over nine years. As in the book, the foreman went only by the name \"the Virginian\". The series was set in [Medicine Bow, Wyoming](/wiki/Medicine_Bow%2C_Wyoming \"Medicine Bow, Wyoming\"). Various references in the first season indicate that setting is 1898:\n* In episode five, \"The Brazen Bell\", guest star [George C. Scott](/wiki/George_C._Scott \"George C. Scott\") quotes from [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde \"Oscar Wilde\")'s *[The Ballad of Reading Gaol](/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Reading_Gaol \"The Ballad of Reading Gaol\")*, which was first published in 1898\\.\n* In episode seven, \"Riff Raff\", several of the main characters join [Theodore Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt \"Theodore Roosevelt\")'s [Rough Riders](/wiki/Rough_Riders \"Rough Riders\"), the volunteer cavalry unit formed in 1898 to fight in [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") during the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\").\n* In episode 11, \"The Devil's Children\", the grave marker for one of the characters who dies in the episode states 1898 as the year of death.\n* In episode 13, \"The Accomplice\", an 1898 calendar is present in the bunkhouse.", "The series focused on the foreman's quest to maintain an orderly lifestyle at Shiloh Ranch. The ranch was named after the two\\-day [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") [Battle of Shiloh](/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh \"Battle of Shiloh\"), at [Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee](/wiki/Pittsburg_Landing%2C_Tennessee \"Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee\"). The show's white [Appaloosa](/wiki/Appaloosa \"Appaloosa\") was named Joe D., and Trampas' [buckskin horse](/wiki/Buckskin_%28horse%29 \"Buckskin (horse)\") was named Buck.", "Several cast changes were made throughout the program's run. In the first four seasons (1962–1966\\), the owner of the ranch was Judge Henry Garth (Cobb). His *de facto* daughter{{efn\\|In episode 2 of season 1 (\"Woman from White Wing\"), Betsy's real father is identified as Garth's former friend Frank Dawson; when Dawson went to prison, Garth took custody of baby Betsy and never told her about her true background, and years later Dawson, who has come back to take her with him, chooses to leave Shiloh without telling her either.}} Betsy ([Roberta Shore](/wiki/Roberta_Shore \"Roberta Shore\")) lived at the ranch with him, and had a sister relationship with the ranch hands. Ranch hand Steve Hill ([Gary Clarke](/wiki/Gary_Clarke \"Gary Clarke\")) joined in episode storylines. Randy Boone joined the show in the second season as a youthful ranch hand who played guitar and sang duets with Betsy.", "In 1965, [Decca Records](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") released an LP of songs from the two singing actors. In the episode \"First to Thine Own Self\" (February 12, 1964\\), Boone's character sings \"[I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry](/wiki/I%27m_So_Lonesome_I_Could_Cry \"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry\")\", written by [Hank Williams](/wiki/Hank_Williams \"Hank Williams\") in 1949\\.", "In the third season, [Clu Gulager](/wiki/Clu_Gulager \"Clu Gulager\"), who had previously guest\\-starred twice in earlier seasons, was added to the show as deputy Emmett Ryker. At the end of season three, executive producer [Frank Price](/wiki/Frank_Price \"Frank Price\") was replaced by [Norman Macdonnell](/wiki/Norman_Macdonnell \"Norman Macdonnell\"). Conversely, season four's production was strained and troublesome. When Shore left the cast, Macdonnell added a new leading woman—[Diane Roter](/wiki/Diane_Roter \"Diane Roter\"), who played Jennifer, the judge's niece. When Cobb left the show in 1966, [John Dehner](/wiki/John_Dehner \"John Dehner\"), as Morgan Starr, was brought in as the manager of Shiloh when Judge Garth left to become the governor of Wyoming.", "Producer Frank Price returned for season five. The characters of Randy, Morgan Starr, and Jennifer were subsequently replaced with characters of a more familiar tone. John Grainger (played by Charles Bickford) became the new owner. Elizabeth Grainger (played by [Sara Lane](/wiki/Sara_Lane_%28actress_born_1949%29 \"Sara Lane (actress born 1949)\")), was John Grainger's granddaughter. Her brother Stacey ([Don Quine](/wiki/Don_Quine \"Don Quine\")) rounded out this new cast.", "Although Price later left again, the series continued smoothly in the pattern he set. Due to Charles Bickford's sudden death in November 1967, season six saw Clay Grainger (John McIntire), take ownership of Shiloh after his brother John's apparent departure \"on business\". The sixth season also added Holly Grainger (played by Jeanette Nolan, McIntire's real\\-life wife, with whom he often worked professionally) as Clay's wife. Season seven had the entrance of David Sutton, played by [David Hartman](/wiki/David_Hartman_%28TV_personality%29 \"David Hartman (TV personality)\"). Sutton was replaced in season eight with a younger hand, Jim Horn ([Tim Matheson](/wiki/Tim_Matheson \"Tim Matheson\")).", "" ]
Characters ---------- ### The Virginian {{Infobox character \| name \= The Virginian \| image \= \[\[File:James Drury The Virginian.JPG\|220px]] \| caption \= James Drury as the Virginian in the Universal series by the same name \| first \= "The Executioners" (1962\) \| last \= "Jump\-up" (1971\) \| gender \= \[\[Male]] \| occupation \= Foreman of the Shiloh Ranch in Medicine Bow, Wyoming \| portrayer \= \[\[James Drury]] \| creator \= \[\[Owen Wister]] }} Played by [James Drury](/wiki/James_Drury "James Drury"),{{cite AV media\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=YWet2qgieVc\|title\=The Virginian – Season 1 Opening Credits\|via\=\[\[YouTube]]\|access\-date\=2011\-06\-18}} the Virginian was the tough foreman of the Shiloh Ranch. Based loosely on the character in the Owen Wister novel, he always stood his ground firmly. Respected by the town citizens and the hands of the ranch, he was a prominent figure in Medicine Bow. In the series, the Virginian is the ranch foreman from the first episode. This way, the producers were able to establish a feeling that he had been there for a while, thus keeping a consistent story line; this differed from the book, where he was the deputy foreman, eventually promoted to foreman. The Virginian usually wore a black hat, black leather vest, black boots, a maroon red shirt and a single right\-handed holster and revolver. He often ordered Monongahela brand whiskey in saloons. When making the show, the producers chose not to reveal the Virginian's real name, and little about his past was actually made known, making the Virginian an intriguing and mysterious character. The foreman worked under five ranch owners throughout the series: Judge Garth (Lee J. Cobb), Morgan Starr (John Dehner), John Grainger (Charles Bickford), Clay Grainger (John McIntire), and Colonel Alan Mackenzie (Stewart Granger). Drury was the only cast member to appear in the pilot (aired as an episode of the series *Decision*) and the entire nine season run of *The Virginian*, with McClure the only other cast member to remain with the show for all nine seasons of *The Virginian*, though not in the initial pilot. ### Judge Garth [Lee J. Cobb](/wiki/Lee_J._Cobb "Lee J. Cobb")'s Judge Garth was portrayed as a stern man with a soft side to his personality, acting as a father figure to the Virginian. Respected by all the townspeople as well as his employees, Garth was often looked to as mediator for certain matters. Cobb left the series near the end of season four. In the episode "Morgan Starr", the character was stated to have left Shiloh to become governor of Wyoming. Garth had previously said he would leave Shiloh to his daughter Betsy in "The Hero" (season three, episode four). ### Trampas Played by [Doug McClure](/wiki/Doug_McClure "Doug McClure"), the character of Trampas took on a completely different personality from the character in the novel. In Wister's book, Trampas was a villain throughout the story and at the end was shot by the Virginian. In the series, producers chose to make Trampas a fun\-loving and rowdy character; McClure fit the part perfectly. Trampas, a sandy\-haired, rowdy cowhand who eventually settled down on the ranch, was by far the most developed character in the series, as compared to the minimal history on the title character. Several episodes were made detailing his past. McClure added a touch of light comedy to the series to counterbalance the Virginian's serious manner. For part of season 9, the Trampas character wore a thick mustache and broader brimmed hat. ### Steve Hill Played by [Gary Clarke](/wiki/Gary_Clarke "Gary Clarke"), Steve was a good friend of both Trampas' and the Virginian's. He was constantly getting Trampas in and out of his usual scrapes. The on\-screen chemistry that Gary Clarke and Doug McClure possessed reflected a good friendship off screen, and was loved by fans worldwide. Although he was with the show at the beginning, Clarke was being phased out of the show at the end of season two, but remained as a guest star for a few episodes in season three, before departing permanently. ### Betsy Garth Played by [Roberta Shore](/wiki/Roberta_Shore "Roberta Shore") from seasons 1–4, Betsy was the only daughter of Judge Garth. Early in the series, she was made clear to be adopted, but nevertheless, the judge treated her as his own. Betsy and the ranch hands had a relationship similar to that of brother and sister. Trampas and Steve had a particular soft spot for her, often jumping to protect her, and looking out for her wellbeing. At the start of the series, Betsy was said to be 15 years old. In a season\-four episode, "The Awakening", she married a minister ([Glenn Corbett](/wiki/Glenn_Corbett "Glenn Corbett")), and moved to Pennsylvania, reflecting Shore's departure from the show. ### Randy Benton Played by Randy Boone from seasons 2–4, Randy was a young ranch hand who played guitar and sang. He came into the show as Steve Hill was being phased out as a regular cast member. Before the new Grainger family was brought in for season five, his character was discontinued. ### Deputy Sheriff Emmett Ryker At the beginning of season three, a new cast regular was introduced. [Clu Gulager](/wiki/Clu_Gulager "Clu Gulager") played the restless deputy Emmett Ryker. Ryker was the first cast regular not to live on Shiloh. A former lawman turned hired gun, because the pay was better, Ryker decided to settle in Medicine Bow before he took his new profession too far. He was hired by Sheriff Abbott, with whom he had been acquainted, after solving the murder of a prominent rancher in the introductory episode "Ryker". He became the sheriff in season four. Gulager remained with the show for four seasons, leaving briefly at the beginning of season five, then returning for the rest of season five before leaving for good toward the end of season six. ### Jennifer Sommers After Roberta Shore's departure, [Diane Roter](/wiki/Diane_Roter "Diane Roter") was brought in as the judge's niece. At the end of season four, along with Boone and Dehner, she left, making room for the new owners. ### Morgan Starr Halfway through season four, Morgan Starr was brought in to run the ranch for Judge Garth because of Garth's appointment as governor of Wyoming. [John Dehner](/wiki/John_Dehner "John Dehner") played a tough and demanding man, who was hard to befriend, as the Virginian and Trampas soon found out. Fans disliked Dehner's character, and he left the show at the end of the season. ### John Grainger At the beginning of season five, with Judge Garth, Betsy, and Jennifer gone, a new character was brought in to run Shiloh.{{cite AV media\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Qr0KSr\-RVZM\|title\=The Virginian – Season 5 Opening Credits\|via\=\[\[YouTube]]\|access\-date\=2011\-06\-18}} [Charles Bickford](/wiki/Charles_Bickford "Charles Bickford") played a stern but loving grandfather to his two grandchildren, Stacey and Elizabeth. Although the Virginian and Mr. Grainger never quite had the father–son relationship that the Virginian and Judge Garth had, they got along well. Charles Bickford's death on November 9, 1967, was a shock to the cast. He was replaced by John McIntire as his brother Clay. ### Stacey Grainger Played by [Don Quine](/wiki/Don_Quine "Don Quine"), Stacey Grainger, the grandson of John Grainger, lived at Shiloh, beginning in season five.{{cite AV media\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Qr0KSr\-RVZM\|title\=The Virginian – Season 5 Opening Credits\|via\=\[\[YouTube]]\|access\-date\=2011\-06\-18}} He worked alongside Trampas, and the two become good friends. Stacey's sister Elizabeth looked up to him as a big brother, and he filled the role more than competently. Quine's two seasons on *The Virginian* were the only ones that finished in the Nielsen rating top\-15 year\-end rankings. ### Elizabeth Grainger Stacey's younger sister Elizabeth ([Sara Lane](/wiki/Sara_Lane_%28actress%29 "Sara Lane (actress)")) was the granddaughter of John Grainger, starting in season five.{{cite AV media\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Qr0KSr\-RVZM\|title\=The Virginian – Season 5 Opening Credits\|via\=\[\[YouTube]]\|access\-date\=2011\-06\-18}} Trampas, the Virginian, and Stacey all looked out for her wellbeing. Elizabeth was cast as a teenage girl enjoying her life on the frontier. She loved horses, riding the range, and going to the ever\-present Saturday\-night dances. Sara Lane departed the series in season eight. ### Clay Grainger After the death of Charles Bickford, [John McIntire](/wiki/John_McIntire "John McIntire") was hired as his brother, Liz and Stacey's great uncle. Clay had a wife, Holly ([Jeanette Nolan](/wiki/Jeanette_Nolan "Jeanette Nolan")), and was the ranch owner for seasons five through eight. McIntire had earlier taken over the lead role in *Wagon Train* upon the death of Ward Bond, assuming the role of the new wagonmaster. In season 9, *The Virginian* was revamped, and McIntire, along with Nolan, Lane, David Hartman, and Tim Matheson, left the show. File:James Drury The Virginian 1971\.JPG\|James Drury as the Virginian File:Lee J. Cobb The Virginian.JPG\|Lee J. Cobb as Judge Garth File:Lee J. Cobb James Drury The Virginian 1962\.JPG\|Lee J. Cobb and James Drury File:Doug McClure Trampas The Virginian.JPG\|Doug McClure as Trampas File:Gary Clarke The Virginian 1962\.JPG\|Gary Clarke as Steve Hill File:Roberta Shore Betsy Garth The Virginian.JPG\|Roberta Shore as Betsy Garth File:Charles Bickford John Grainger The Virginian.JPG\|Charles Bickford as John Grainger File:Charles Bickford Sara Lane Don Quine The Virginian.JPG\|Stacey (Don Quine) and Elizabeth (Sara Lane) Grainger with their grandfather File:Jeannette Nolan The Virginian.JPG\|Jeannette Nolan as Clay Grainger's wife, Holly File:Robert Redford Patricia Blair The Virginian 1964\.jpg\|\[\[Robert Redford]] and \[\[Patricia Blair]], 1964 episode File:The Virginian Jim Drury Billy Mumy 1965\.jpg\|James Drury and \[\[Billy Mumy]] File:Victor Jory\-Linden Chiles in The Virginian.JPG\|\[\[Victor Jory]] and \[\[Linden Chiles]]
[ "Characters\n----------", "### The Virginian", "{{Infobox character\n\\| name \\= The Virginian\n\\| image \\= \\[\\[File:James Drury The Virginian.JPG\\|220px]]\n\\| caption \\= James Drury as the Virginian in the Universal series by the same name\n\\| first \\= \"The Executioners\" (1962\\)\n\\| last \\= \"Jump\\-up\" (1971\\)\n\\| gender \\= \\[\\[Male]]\n\\| occupation \\= Foreman of the Shiloh Ranch in Medicine Bow, Wyoming\n\\| portrayer \\= \\[\\[James Drury]]\n\\| creator \\= \\[\\[Owen Wister]]\n}}", "Played by [James Drury](/wiki/James_Drury \"James Drury\"),{{cite AV media\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=YWet2qgieVc\\|title\\=The Virginian – Season 1 Opening Credits\\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-18}} the Virginian was the tough foreman of the Shiloh Ranch. Based loosely on the character in the Owen Wister novel, he always stood his ground firmly. Respected by the town citizens and the hands of the ranch, he was a prominent figure in Medicine Bow. In the series, the Virginian is the ranch foreman from the first episode. This way, the producers were able to establish a feeling that he had been there for a while, thus keeping a consistent story line; this differed from the book, where he was the deputy foreman, eventually promoted to foreman. The Virginian usually wore a black hat, black leather vest, black boots, a maroon red shirt and a single right\\-handed holster and revolver. He often ordered Monongahela brand whiskey in saloons.", "When making the show, the producers chose not to reveal the Virginian's real name, and little about his past was actually made known, making the Virginian an intriguing and mysterious character. The foreman worked under five ranch owners throughout the series: Judge Garth (Lee J. Cobb), Morgan Starr (John Dehner), John Grainger (Charles Bickford), Clay Grainger (John McIntire), and Colonel Alan Mackenzie (Stewart Granger). Drury was the only cast member to appear in the pilot (aired as an episode of the series *Decision*) and the entire nine season run of *The Virginian*, with McClure the only other cast member to remain with the show for all nine seasons of *The Virginian*, though not in the initial pilot.", "### Judge Garth", "[Lee J. Cobb](/wiki/Lee_J._Cobb \"Lee J. Cobb\")'s Judge Garth was portrayed as a stern man with a soft side to his personality, acting as a father figure to the Virginian. Respected by all the townspeople as well as his employees, Garth was often looked to as mediator for certain matters. Cobb left the series near the end of season four. In the episode \"Morgan Starr\", the character was stated to have left Shiloh to become governor of Wyoming. Garth had previously said he would leave Shiloh to his daughter Betsy in \"The Hero\" (season three, episode four).", "### Trampas", "Played by [Doug McClure](/wiki/Doug_McClure \"Doug McClure\"), the character of Trampas took on a completely different personality from the character in the novel. In Wister's book, Trampas was a villain throughout the story and at the end was shot by the Virginian. In the series, producers chose to make Trampas a fun\\-loving and rowdy character; McClure fit the part perfectly. Trampas, a sandy\\-haired, rowdy cowhand who eventually settled down on the ranch, was by far the most developed character in the series, as compared to the minimal history on the title character. Several episodes were made detailing his past. McClure added a touch of light comedy to the series to counterbalance the Virginian's serious manner. For part of season 9, the Trampas character wore a thick mustache and broader brimmed hat.", "### Steve Hill", "Played by [Gary Clarke](/wiki/Gary_Clarke \"Gary Clarke\"), Steve was a good friend of both Trampas' and the Virginian's. He was constantly getting Trampas in and out of his usual scrapes. The on\\-screen chemistry that Gary Clarke and Doug McClure possessed reflected a good friendship off screen, and was loved by fans worldwide. Although he was with the show at the beginning, Clarke was being phased out of the show at the end of season two, but remained as a guest star for a few episodes in season three, before departing permanently.", "### Betsy Garth", "Played by [Roberta Shore](/wiki/Roberta_Shore \"Roberta Shore\") from seasons 1–4, Betsy was the only daughter of Judge Garth. Early in the series, she was made clear to be adopted, but nevertheless, the judge treated her as his own. Betsy and the ranch hands had a relationship similar to that of brother and sister. Trampas and Steve had a particular soft spot for her, often jumping to protect her, and looking out for her wellbeing. At the start of the series, Betsy was said to be 15 years old. In a season\\-four episode, \"The Awakening\", she married a minister ([Glenn Corbett](/wiki/Glenn_Corbett \"Glenn Corbett\")), and moved to Pennsylvania, reflecting Shore's departure from the show.", "### Randy Benton", "Played by Randy Boone from seasons 2–4, Randy was a young ranch hand who played guitar and sang. He came into the show as Steve Hill was being phased out as a regular cast member. Before the new Grainger family was brought in for season five, his character was discontinued.", "### Deputy Sheriff Emmett Ryker", "At the beginning of season three, a new cast regular was introduced. [Clu Gulager](/wiki/Clu_Gulager \"Clu Gulager\") played the restless deputy Emmett Ryker. Ryker was the first cast regular not to live on Shiloh. A former lawman turned hired gun, because the pay was better, Ryker decided to settle in Medicine Bow before he took his new profession too far. He was hired by Sheriff Abbott, with whom he had been acquainted, after solving the murder of a prominent rancher in the introductory episode \"Ryker\". He became the sheriff in season four. Gulager remained with the show for four seasons, leaving briefly at the beginning of season five, then returning for the rest of season five before leaving for good toward the end of season six.", "### Jennifer Sommers", "After Roberta Shore's departure, [Diane Roter](/wiki/Diane_Roter \"Diane Roter\") was brought in as the judge's niece. At the end of season four, along with Boone and Dehner, she left, making room for the new owners.", "### Morgan Starr", "Halfway through season four, Morgan Starr was brought in to run the ranch for Judge Garth because of Garth's appointment as governor of Wyoming. [John Dehner](/wiki/John_Dehner \"John Dehner\") played a tough and demanding man, who was hard to befriend, as the Virginian and Trampas soon found out. Fans disliked Dehner's character, and he left the show at the end of the season.", "### John Grainger", "At the beginning of season five, with Judge Garth, Betsy, and Jennifer gone, a new character was brought in to run Shiloh.{{cite AV media\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Qr0KSr\\-RVZM\\|title\\=The Virginian – Season 5 Opening Credits\\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-18}} [Charles Bickford](/wiki/Charles_Bickford \"Charles Bickford\") played a stern but loving grandfather to his two grandchildren, Stacey and Elizabeth. Although the Virginian and Mr. Grainger never quite had the father–son relationship that the Virginian and Judge Garth had, they got along well. Charles Bickford's death on November 9, 1967, was a shock to the cast. He was replaced by John McIntire as his brother Clay.", "### Stacey Grainger", "Played by [Don Quine](/wiki/Don_Quine \"Don Quine\"), Stacey Grainger, the grandson of John Grainger, lived at Shiloh, beginning in season five.{{cite AV media\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Qr0KSr\\-RVZM\\|title\\=The Virginian – Season 5 Opening Credits\\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-18}} He worked alongside Trampas, and the two become good friends. Stacey's sister Elizabeth looked up to him as a big brother, and he filled the role more than competently. Quine's two seasons on *The Virginian* were the only ones that finished in the Nielsen rating top\\-15 year\\-end rankings.", "### Elizabeth Grainger", "Stacey's younger sister Elizabeth ([Sara Lane](/wiki/Sara_Lane_%28actress%29 \"Sara Lane (actress)\")) was the granddaughter of John Grainger, starting in season five.{{cite AV media\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Qr0KSr\\-RVZM\\|title\\=The Virginian – Season 5 Opening Credits\\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-18}} Trampas, the Virginian, and Stacey all looked out for her wellbeing. Elizabeth was cast as a teenage girl enjoying her life on the frontier. She loved horses, riding the range, and going to the ever\\-present Saturday\\-night dances. Sara Lane departed the series in season eight.", "### Clay Grainger", "After the death of Charles Bickford, [John McIntire](/wiki/John_McIntire \"John McIntire\") was hired as his brother, Liz and Stacey's great uncle. Clay had a wife, Holly ([Jeanette Nolan](/wiki/Jeanette_Nolan \"Jeanette Nolan\")), and was the ranch owner for seasons five through eight. McIntire had earlier taken over the lead role in *Wagon Train* upon the death of Ward Bond, assuming the role of the new wagonmaster. In season 9, *The Virginian* was revamped, and McIntire, along with Nolan, Lane, David Hartman, and Tim Matheson, left the show.", "", "File:James Drury The Virginian 1971\\.JPG\\|James Drury as the Virginian\nFile:Lee J. Cobb The Virginian.JPG\\|Lee J. Cobb as Judge Garth\nFile:Lee J. Cobb James Drury The Virginian 1962\\.JPG\\|Lee J. Cobb and James Drury\nFile:Doug McClure Trampas The Virginian.JPG\\|Doug McClure as Trampas\nFile:Gary Clarke The Virginian 1962\\.JPG\\|Gary Clarke as Steve Hill\nFile:Roberta Shore Betsy Garth The Virginian.JPG\\|Roberta Shore as Betsy Garth\nFile:Charles Bickford John Grainger The Virginian.JPG\\|Charles Bickford as John Grainger\nFile:Charles Bickford Sara Lane Don Quine The Virginian.JPG\\|Stacey (Don Quine) and Elizabeth (Sara Lane) Grainger with their grandfather\nFile:Jeannette Nolan The Virginian.JPG\\|Jeannette Nolan as Clay Grainger's wife, Holly\nFile:Robert Redford Patricia Blair The Virginian 1964\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Robert Redford]] and \\[\\[Patricia Blair]], 1964 episode\nFile:The Virginian Jim Drury Billy Mumy 1965\\.jpg\\|James Drury and \\[\\[Billy Mumy]]\nFile:Victor Jory\\-Linden Chiles in The Virginian.JPG\\|\\[\\[Victor Jory]] and \\[\\[Linden Chiles]]", "", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|left\|upright\|A 1912 [Railway Clearing House](/wiki/Railway_Clearing_House "Railway Clearing House") Junction Diagram showing railways in the vicinity of Pontypridd (upper left). Taff Vale Railway in green; Barry Railway in orange.](/wiki/File:Coity%2C_Biglis%2C_Bridgend%2C_Peterston%2C_Pontypridd%2C_St_Fagan%27s%2C_Treforest_%26_Trehafod_RJD_127.jpg "Coity, Biglis, Bridgend, Peterston, Pontypridd, St Fagan's, Treforest & Trehafod RJD 127.jpg") ### Taff Vale Railway The station was built by the [Taff Vale Railway](/wiki/Taff_Vale_Railway "Taff Vale Railway") (TVR) and opened on 9 October 1840\. It was known as *Newbridge Junction* until March 1866 when it was renamed *Pontypridd*.{{cite book \|last\=Butt \|first\=R.V.J. \|title\=The Directory of Railway Stations \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=Patrick Stephens Ltd \|location\=Yeovil \|isbn\=1\-85260\-508\-1 \|id\=R508 \|pages\=168 }} It was progressively remodelled during the 19th century, but its present appearance derives largely from reconstruction carried out between 1907 and 1914\. Reflecting both the narrow steep sided topography of the valley, and the need to accommodate many converging passenger routes and passing coal trains, it is effectively designed as two back\-to\-back termini. This gave it the then longest [island platform](/wiki/Island_platform "Island platform") in the world, around which were arranged seven platforms. The west side of the [island platform](/wiki/Island_platform "Island platform") has two, stepped platform faces (originally platforms 1 \& 2\) each originally capable of accommodating a full\-length train. The east side of the [island platform](/wiki/Island_platform "Island platform") has three stepped platform faces (originally platforms 5, 6 \& 7\) arranged as a north bay platform, a through platform and a south bay platform. The north end of the [island platform](/wiki/Island_platform "Island platform") accommodated two bay platforms (originally platforms 3 \& 4\), now filled in. The north end bay platforms were used for services to Aberdare, Nelson and Ynysybwl, and the south bay platform (originally platform 7\) for services to Llantrisant and Cowbridge. The modernisation of 2014/2015 brought former through platform 6 back into use as a bay platform, now numbered platform 1, for southbound services to Cardiff. (Due to loss of railway land to road widening, the southern end of the concourse of new bay platform 1 (old platform 6\) has been cut back and re\-profiled, and its track has been slewed partly into the adjacent trackbed of former bay platform 7\.) Architecturally, the 1912 station still includes all the original red brick and terracotta buildings on the island platform, some of which remain in public use, e.g. as ticket office and waiting room. The elaborate 1912 main station façade in the same art nouveau style was destroyed during modernisation in the mid 1970s and replaced by a featureless red brick wall. The station subsequently achieved Listed Building status in 1990 for architectural interest as a fine Edwardian railway station retaining original character. The 1970s façade was itself replaced by a mainly blue brick wall in the 1990s, temporarily exposing the severely damaged Edwardian façade. ### Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway The [Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway](/wiki/Pontypridd%2C_Caerphilly_and_Newport_Railway "Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway") (PC\&NR) was opened for goods on 25 July 1884, providing a route to [Newport Docks](/wiki/Newport_Docks "Newport Docks") for Rhondda coal; the trains were worked by TVR locomotives. Passenger services, which used the TVR's station at Pontypridd, began on 28 December 1887, and were operated by the [Alexandra (Newport and South Wales) Docks and Railway](/wiki/Alexandra_%28Newport_and_South_Wales%29_Docks_and_Railway "Alexandra (Newport and South Wales) Docks and Railway") (ADR), which absorbed the PC\&NR in 1897\.{{cite book \|last\=Awdry \|first\=Christopher \|author\-link\=Christopher Awdry \|title\=Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies \|year\=1990 \|publisher\=Guild Publishing \|location\=London \|id\=CN 8983 \|pages\=14, 40 }} Between April 1904 and July 1922, passenger services from {{stnlnk\|Caerphilly}} terminating at Pontypridd used the ADR's own station at {{stnlnk\|Pontypridd Tram Road}}. ### 1911 accident {{main\|Pontypridd railway accident}} Also known as the [Hopkinstown](/wiki/Hopkinstown "Hopkinstown") rail disaster, this accident occurred on 23 January 1911 when a passenger train collided with a coal train at [Hopkinstown](/wiki/Hopkinstown "Hopkinstown"), outside Pontypridd, resulting in the loss of eleven*The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales*. [John Davies](/wiki/John_Davies_%28historian%29 "John Davies (historian)"), [Nigel Jenkins](/wiki/Nigel_Jenkins "Nigel Jenkins"), Menna Baines and Peredur Lynch (2008\) pg730 {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7083\-1953\-6}} lives. ### Great Western Railway The TVR and ADR amalgamated with the [Great Western Railway](/wiki/Great_Western_Railway "Great Western Railway") on 1 January 1922, as did the [Barry Railway](/wiki/Barry_Railway "Barry Railway"), which also had a station in Pontypridd. To avoid confusion, the two stations were both renamed in 1924, the former TVR station becoming *Pontypridd Central*, with the ex\-Barry Railway station becoming *{{stnlnk\|Pontypridd Graig}}*.{{harvnb\|Butt\|1995\|p\=188}} On 10 July 1930, Pontypridd Graig was closed, with its services being diverted to Pontypridd Central, which reverted to its former name of *Pontypridd*. ### British Rail The former PC\&NR route was closed to passengers from 17 September 1956\.{{harvnb\|Awdry\|1990\|p\=14}} and completely in 1965, whilst the service to [Llantrisant](/wiki/Llantrisant "Llantrisant") ended on 31 March 1952 and the former Barry Railway services to {{rws\|Cadoxton}} and to Cardiff Central via St Fagans on 10 September 1962\. With the [Beeching Plan](/wiki/Beeching_Axe "Beeching Axe") reducing passenger traffic (the line to Aberdare closing in March 1964\), and falling coal production, track simplification was carried out by [British Rail](/wiki/British_Rail "British Rail") in 1974, resulting in the removal of all track from the eastern side of the island platform. Effectively, from 1974 onwards, the station functioned as a single\-platform station (using old platform 1\). However, with the subsequent re\-opening of Aberdare and the growth of passenger traffic, British Rail added a new northbound platform in 1990–1991\. This platform was built alongside the former freight lines west of the main island platform, and did not form part of the original station.{{cite book\| author\=Hutton, John\| title\=The Taff Vale Railway, vol. 1\| publisher\=Silver Link\| year\=2006\| isbn\=978\-1\-85794\-249\-1 }}
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|A 1912 [Railway Clearing House](/wiki/Railway_Clearing_House \"Railway Clearing House\") Junction Diagram showing railways in the vicinity of Pontypridd (upper left). Taff Vale Railway in green; Barry Railway in orange.](/wiki/File:Coity%2C_Biglis%2C_Bridgend%2C_Peterston%2C_Pontypridd%2C_St_Fagan%27s%2C_Treforest_%26_Trehafod_RJD_127.jpg \"Coity, Biglis, Bridgend, Peterston, Pontypridd, St Fagan's, Treforest & Trehafod RJD 127.jpg\")", "### Taff Vale Railway", "The station was built by the [Taff Vale Railway](/wiki/Taff_Vale_Railway \"Taff Vale Railway\") (TVR) and opened on 9 October 1840\\. It was known as *Newbridge Junction* until March 1866 when it was renamed *Pontypridd*.{{cite book \\|last\\=Butt \\|first\\=R.V.J. \\|title\\=The Directory of Railway Stations \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Patrick Stephens Ltd \\|location\\=Yeovil \\|isbn\\=1\\-85260\\-508\\-1 \\|id\\=R508 \\|pages\\=168 }}", "It was progressively remodelled during the 19th century, but its present appearance derives largely from reconstruction carried out between 1907 and 1914\\. Reflecting both the narrow steep sided topography of the valley, and the need to accommodate many converging passenger routes and passing coal trains, it is effectively designed as two back\\-to\\-back termini. This gave it the then longest [island platform](/wiki/Island_platform \"Island platform\") in the world, around which were arranged seven platforms.", "The west side of the [island platform](/wiki/Island_platform \"Island platform\") has two, stepped platform faces (originally platforms 1 \\& 2\\) each originally capable of accommodating a full\\-length train. The east side of the [island platform](/wiki/Island_platform \"Island platform\") has three stepped platform faces (originally platforms 5, 6 \\& 7\\) arranged as a north bay platform, a through platform and a south bay platform. The north end of the [island platform](/wiki/Island_platform \"Island platform\") accommodated two bay platforms (originally platforms 3 \\& 4\\), now filled in. The north end bay platforms were used for services to Aberdare, Nelson and Ynysybwl, and the south bay platform (originally platform 7\\) for services to Llantrisant and Cowbridge.", "The modernisation of 2014/2015 brought former through platform 6 back into use as a bay platform, now numbered platform 1, for southbound services to Cardiff. (Due to loss of railway land to road widening, the southern end of the concourse of new bay platform 1 (old platform 6\\) has been cut back and re\\-profiled, and its track has been slewed partly into the adjacent trackbed of former bay platform 7\\.)", "Architecturally, the 1912 station still includes all the original red brick and terracotta buildings on the island platform, some of which remain in public use, e.g. as ticket office and waiting room. The elaborate 1912 main station façade in the same art nouveau style was destroyed during modernisation in the mid 1970s and replaced by a featureless red brick wall. The station subsequently achieved Listed Building status in 1990 for architectural interest as a fine Edwardian railway station retaining original character. The 1970s façade was itself replaced by a mainly blue brick wall in the 1990s, temporarily exposing the severely damaged Edwardian façade.", "### Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway", "The [Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway](/wiki/Pontypridd%2C_Caerphilly_and_Newport_Railway \"Pontypridd, Caerphilly and Newport Railway\") (PC\\&NR) was opened for goods on 25 July 1884, providing a route to [Newport Docks](/wiki/Newport_Docks \"Newport Docks\") for Rhondda coal; the trains were worked by TVR locomotives. Passenger services, which used the TVR's station at Pontypridd, began on 28 December 1887, and were operated by the [Alexandra (Newport and South Wales) Docks and Railway](/wiki/Alexandra_%28Newport_and_South_Wales%29_Docks_and_Railway \"Alexandra (Newport and South Wales) Docks and Railway\") (ADR), which absorbed the PC\\&NR in 1897\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Awdry \\|first\\=Christopher \\|author\\-link\\=Christopher Awdry \\|title\\=Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies \\|year\\=1990 \\|publisher\\=Guild Publishing \\|location\\=London \\|id\\=CN 8983 \\|pages\\=14, 40 }} Between April 1904 and July 1922, passenger services from {{stnlnk\\|Caerphilly}} terminating at Pontypridd used the ADR's own station at {{stnlnk\\|Pontypridd Tram Road}}.", "### 1911 accident", "{{main\\|Pontypridd railway accident}}\nAlso known as the [Hopkinstown](/wiki/Hopkinstown \"Hopkinstown\") rail disaster, this accident occurred on 23 January 1911 when a passenger train collided with a coal train at [Hopkinstown](/wiki/Hopkinstown \"Hopkinstown\"), outside Pontypridd, resulting in the loss of eleven*The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales*. [John Davies](/wiki/John_Davies_%28historian%29 \"John Davies (historian)\"), [Nigel Jenkins](/wiki/Nigel_Jenkins \"Nigel Jenkins\"), Menna Baines and Peredur Lynch (2008\\) pg730 {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7083\\-1953\\-6}} lives.", "### Great Western Railway", "The TVR and ADR amalgamated with the [Great Western Railway](/wiki/Great_Western_Railway \"Great Western Railway\") on 1 January 1922, as did the [Barry Railway](/wiki/Barry_Railway \"Barry Railway\"), which also had a station in Pontypridd. To avoid confusion, the two stations were both renamed in 1924, the former TVR station becoming *Pontypridd Central*, with the ex\\-Barry Railway station becoming *{{stnlnk\\|Pontypridd Graig}}*.{{harvnb\\|Butt\\|1995\\|p\\=188}}", "On 10 July 1930, Pontypridd Graig was closed, with its services being diverted to Pontypridd Central, which reverted to its former name of *Pontypridd*.", "### British Rail", "The former PC\\&NR route was closed to passengers from 17 September 1956\\.{{harvnb\\|Awdry\\|1990\\|p\\=14}} and completely in 1965, whilst the service to [Llantrisant](/wiki/Llantrisant \"Llantrisant\") ended on 31 March 1952 and the former Barry Railway services to {{rws\\|Cadoxton}} and to Cardiff Central via St Fagans on 10 September 1962\\.", "With the [Beeching Plan](/wiki/Beeching_Axe \"Beeching Axe\") reducing passenger traffic (the line to Aberdare closing in March 1964\\), and falling coal production, track simplification was carried out by [British Rail](/wiki/British_Rail \"British Rail\") in 1974, resulting in the removal of all track from the eastern side of the island platform. Effectively, from 1974 onwards, the station functioned as a single\\-platform station (using old platform 1\\). However, with the subsequent re\\-opening of Aberdare and the growth of passenger traffic, British Rail added a new northbound platform in 1990–1991\\. This platform was built alongside the former freight lines west of the main island platform, and did not form part of the original station.{{cite book\\| author\\=Hutton, John\\| title\\=The Taff Vale Railway, vol. 1\\| publisher\\=Silver Link\\| year\\=2006\\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85794\\-249\\-1 }}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1950\= 277 \|1960\= 264 \|1970\= 1800 \|1980\= 2213 \|1990\= 2660 \|2000\= 2415 \|2010\= 2504 \|2020\= 2213 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2020 census | \+New Llano racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US2254175\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 29, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race Number Percentage | --- | | [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) 837 | 37\.82% | | [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) 843 | 38\.09% | | [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") 26 | 1\.17% | | [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)") 114 | 5\.15% | | [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)") 11 | 0\.5% | | [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") 160 | 7\.23% | | [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") 222 | 10\.03% | As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 2,213 people, 934 households, and 591 families residing in the town. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 2,415 people, 925 households, and 640 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|2,488\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 1,037 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,068\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 46\.09% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 40\.29% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.83% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 3\.77% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.29% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 4\.10% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 4\.64% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 8\.57% of the population. There were 925 households, out of which 40\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 18\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\.8% were non\-families. 24\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.61 and the average family size was 3\.11\. In the town, the population was spread out, with 30\.8% under the age of 18, 10\.6% from 18 to 24, 33\.5% from 25 to 44, 19\.7% from 45 to 64, and 5\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 100\.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95\.8 males. The median income for a household in the town was $35,417, and the median income for a family was $34,271\. Males had a median income of $26,563 versus $20,500 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $15,902\. About 13\.5% of families and 15\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 18\.4% of those under age 18 and 13\.9% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1950\\= 277\n\\|1960\\= 264\n\\|1970\\= 1800\n\\|1980\\= 2213\n\\|1990\\= 2660\n\\|2000\\= 2415\n\\|2010\\= 2504\n\\|2020\\= 2213\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2020 census", "", "| \\+New Llano racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US2254175\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 29, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race", "Number", "Percentage", "| --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)", "837 |\n 37\\.82% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)", "843 |\n 38\\.09% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\")", "26 |\n 1\\.17% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\")", "114 |\n 5\\.15% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\")", "11 |\n 0\\.5% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\")", "160 |\n 7\\.23% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\")", "222 |\n 10\\.03% |", "As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 2,213 people, 934 households, and 591 families residing in the town.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 2,415 people, 925 households, and 640 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|2,488\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 1,037 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1,068\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 46\\.09% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 40\\.29% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.83% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.77% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.29% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 4\\.10% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 4\\.64% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 8\\.57% of the population.", "There were 925 households, out of which 40\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 18\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30\\.8% were non\\-families. 24\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.61 and the average family size was 3\\.11\\.", "In the town, the population was spread out, with 30\\.8% under the age of 18, 10\\.6% from 18 to 24, 33\\.5% from 25 to 44, 19\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 5\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 100\\.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95\\.8 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $35,417, and the median income for a family was $34,271\\. Males had a median income of $26,563 versus $20,500 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $15,902\\. About 13\\.5% of families and 15\\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 18\\.4% of those under age 18 and 13\\.9% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Career ------ Rono first came to prominence at the age of twenty by winning bronze medals in the [3000 metres steeplechase](/wiki/3000_metres_steeplechase "3000 metres steeplechase") at both the [1978 Commonwealth Games](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1978_Commonwealth_Games "Athletics at the 1978 Commonwealth Games") and the [1978 All\-Africa Games](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1978_All-Africa_Games "Athletics at the 1978 All-Africa Games"). At both events, there was a Kenyan medal sweep led by [Henry Rono](/wiki/Henry_Rono "Henry Rono") and [James Munyala](/wiki/James_Munyala "James Munyala"). [COMMONWEALTH GAMES MEDALLISTS \- ATHLETICS (MEN)](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/cg.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\.[All\-Africa Games](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/afg.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. (Contemporary news reports stated that he was Henry Rono's brother.)[ALGERIA: KENYAN RUNNERS SWEEP 3,000 METRE STEEPLECHASE AND HENRY RONO TAKES HIS SECOND GOLD AT THE AFRICAN GAMES.](http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist//RTV/1978/07/27/BGY510300419/?s=*). ITN News (1978\-07\-27\). Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. The following year he established himself in his own right by winning steeplechase gold medals at the [East and Central African Championships](/wiki/East_and_Central_African_Championships "East and Central African Championships") and the inaugural [1979 African Championships in Athletics](/wiki/1979_African_Championships_in_Athletics "1979 African Championships in Athletics") (where he also claimed a [5000 metres](/wiki/5000_metres "5000 metres") bronze behind Ethiopia's [Miruts Yifter](/wiki/Miruts_Yifter "Miruts Yifter") and [Yohannes Mohamed](/wiki/Yohannes_Mohamed "Yohannes Mohamed").[East and Central African Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/ecafc.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\.[African Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/afc.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. His position as one of the world's leading steeplechasers was cemented at the [1979 IAAF World Cup](/wiki/1979_IAAF_World_Cup "1979 IAAF World Cup"), where he led by fifty metres before the last lap and became the first African man to win the steeplechase at that event.[IAAF World Cup](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/wp.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\.[IAAF Continental Cup 2010 Handbook](http://www.iaaf.org/download/downloadresultinfo?filename=c7c54f59-5a59-4de8-8c98-ccc55036d0b6.pdf&urlSlug=iaaf-statistics-handbook-split-2010), pg. 35\. IAAF. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. The following year he was affected by the [1980 Summer Olympics boycott](/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott "1980 Summer Olympics boycott"). Despite a run of 8:12\.0 minutes at the [Golden Gala](/wiki/Golden_Gala "Golden Gala") in Rome – the second fastest that year after [Bronisław Malinowski](/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski_%28athlete%29 "Bronisław Malinowski (athlete)") – he was unable to compete at a major competition.[WORLD TOP PERFORMERS 1980\-2005: MEN (OUTDOOR)](http://www.gbrathletics.com/tp/worm.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. He did compete at the [Liberty Bell Classic](/wiki/Liberty_Bell_Classic "Liberty Bell Classic") (Olympic Boycott Games) and while Malinowski took the steeplechase, Rono was the gold medallist in the 5000 m.[Olympic Boycott Games](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/obg.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. He won back\-to\-back steeplechase titles at the [Kenyan Athletics Championships](/wiki/Kenyan_Athletics_Championships "Kenyan Athletics Championships") in 1983 to 1984\.[Kenyan Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/nc/ken.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. However, upon entering top level international competitions he proved to be past his best. At the [1983 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/1983_World_Championships_in_Athletics "1983 World Championships in Athletics") he ranked twentieth in the semi\-finals with a time of 8:33\.97 minutes.[Kip Rono](http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/kenya/kiprotich-rono-7561#honours). IAAF. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. He went out in the first round at the [1984 Los Angeles Olympics](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics "Athletics at the 1984 Summer Olympics"), finishing ninth in his heat with a time of 8:41\.75 minutes. [Athletics at the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Games: Men's 3,000 metres Steeplechase Round One](https://web.archive.org/web/20200417174432/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1984/ATH/mens-3000-metres-steeplechase-round-one.html). Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. He declined in the steeplechase thereafter. His next international appearance came at the [1988 IAAF World Cross Country Championships](/wiki/1988_IAAF_World_Cross_Country_Championships "1988 IAAF World Cross Country Championships"). There he was part of a dominant Kenyan team led by [John Ngugi](/wiki/John_Ngugi "John Ngugi") which took all top nine placings (bar Ethiopia's [Abebe Mekonnen](/wiki/Abebe_Mekonnen "Abebe Mekonnen") in fifth). Rono shared in the team gold medals for his eighth\-place finish. [IAAF World Cross Country Championships \- 12\.0km CC Men \- Auckland Elleslie Date: Saturday, March 26, 1988](https://web.archive.org/web/20071016110522/http://mypage.bluewin.ch/tomtytom/iccu/wxc_iaaf/wxc_SM1988S.html). Athchamps (archived). Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\. Towards the end of his career, he focused on [road running](/wiki/Road_running "Road running"). In 1988 he was fourth at the [Great Scottish Run](/wiki/Great_Scottish_Run "Great Scottish Run") and set a [half marathon](/wiki/Half_marathon "Half marathon") best of 1:00:52 hours to win the [Semi Marathon du Lion](/wiki/Semi_Marathon_du_Lion "Semi Marathon du Lion"). He was also runner\-up at the [Giro Podistico di Pettinengo](/wiki/Giro_Podistico_di_Pettinengo "Giro Podistico di Pettinengo") and placed third at the AAA 10 Kilometres Championship.[Kiprotich Rono](https://more.arrs.run/runner/6215). [Association of Road Racing Statisticians](/wiki/Association_of_Road_Racing_Statisticians "Association of Road Racing Statisticians"). Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\.[British Road Race Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/bc/road.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\-06\-03\.
[ "Career\n------", "Rono first came to prominence at the age of twenty by winning bronze medals in the [3000 metres steeplechase](/wiki/3000_metres_steeplechase \"3000 metres steeplechase\") at both the [1978 Commonwealth Games](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1978_Commonwealth_Games \"Athletics at the 1978 Commonwealth Games\") and the [1978 All\\-Africa Games](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1978_All-Africa_Games \"Athletics at the 1978 All-Africa Games\"). At both events, there was a Kenyan medal sweep led by [Henry Rono](/wiki/Henry_Rono \"Henry Rono\") and [James Munyala](/wiki/James_Munyala \"James Munyala\"). [COMMONWEALTH GAMES MEDALLISTS \\- ATHLETICS (MEN)](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/cg.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.[All\\-Africa Games](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/afg.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.\n(Contemporary news reports stated that he was Henry Rono's brother.)[ALGERIA: KENYAN RUNNERS SWEEP 3,000 METRE STEEPLECHASE AND HENRY RONO TAKES HIS SECOND GOLD AT THE AFRICAN GAMES.](http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist//RTV/1978/07/27/BGY510300419/?s=*). ITN News (1978\\-07\\-27\\). Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\. The following year he established himself in his own right by winning steeplechase gold medals at the [East and Central African Championships](/wiki/East_and_Central_African_Championships \"East and Central African Championships\") and the inaugural [1979 African Championships in Athletics](/wiki/1979_African_Championships_in_Athletics \"1979 African Championships in Athletics\") (where he also claimed a [5000 metres](/wiki/5000_metres \"5000 metres\") bronze behind Ethiopia's [Miruts Yifter](/wiki/Miruts_Yifter \"Miruts Yifter\") and [Yohannes Mohamed](/wiki/Yohannes_Mohamed \"Yohannes Mohamed\").[East and Central African Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/ecafc.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.[African Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/afc.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\. His position as one of the world's leading steeplechasers was cemented at the [1979 IAAF World Cup](/wiki/1979_IAAF_World_Cup \"1979 IAAF World Cup\"), where he led by fifty metres before the last lap and became the first African man to win the steeplechase at that event.[IAAF World Cup](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/wp.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.[IAAF Continental Cup 2010 Handbook](http://www.iaaf.org/download/downloadresultinfo?filename=c7c54f59-5a59-4de8-8c98-ccc55036d0b6.pdf&urlSlug=iaaf-statistics-handbook-split-2010), pg. 35\\. IAAF. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.", "The following year he was affected by the [1980 Summer Olympics boycott](/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott \"1980 Summer Olympics boycott\"). Despite a run of 8:12\\.0 minutes at the [Golden Gala](/wiki/Golden_Gala \"Golden Gala\") in Rome – the second fastest that year after [Bronisław Malinowski](/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski_%28athlete%29 \"Bronisław Malinowski (athlete)\") – he was unable to compete at a major competition.[WORLD TOP PERFORMERS 1980\\-2005: MEN (OUTDOOR)](http://www.gbrathletics.com/tp/worm.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\. He did compete at the [Liberty Bell Classic](/wiki/Liberty_Bell_Classic \"Liberty Bell Classic\") (Olympic Boycott Games) and while Malinowski took the steeplechase, Rono was the gold medallist in the 5000 m.[Olympic Boycott Games](http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/obg.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.", "He won back\\-to\\-back steeplechase titles at the [Kenyan Athletics Championships](/wiki/Kenyan_Athletics_Championships \"Kenyan Athletics Championships\") in 1983 to 1984\\.[Kenyan Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/nc/ken.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\. However, upon entering top level international competitions he proved to be past his best. At the [1983 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/1983_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"1983 World Championships in Athletics\") he ranked twentieth in the semi\\-finals with a time of 8:33\\.97 minutes.[Kip Rono](http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/kenya/kiprotich-rono-7561#honours). IAAF. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\. He went out in the first round at the [1984 Los Angeles Olympics](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics \"Athletics at the 1984 Summer Olympics\"), finishing ninth in his heat with a time of 8:41\\.75 minutes. [Athletics at the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Games: Men's 3,000 metres Steeplechase Round One](https://web.archive.org/web/20200417174432/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1984/ATH/mens-3000-metres-steeplechase-round-one.html). Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.", "He declined in the steeplechase thereafter. His next international appearance came at the [1988 IAAF World Cross Country Championships](/wiki/1988_IAAF_World_Cross_Country_Championships \"1988 IAAF World Cross Country Championships\"). There he was part of a dominant Kenyan team led by [John Ngugi](/wiki/John_Ngugi \"John Ngugi\") which took all top nine placings (bar Ethiopia's [Abebe Mekonnen](/wiki/Abebe_Mekonnen \"Abebe Mekonnen\") in fifth). Rono shared in the team gold medals for his eighth\\-place finish. [IAAF World Cross Country Championships \\- 12\\.0km CC Men \\- Auckland Elleslie Date: Saturday, March 26, 1988](https://web.archive.org/web/20071016110522/http://mypage.bluewin.ch/tomtytom/iccu/wxc_iaaf/wxc_SM1988S.html). Athchamps (archived). Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.", "Towards the end of his career, he focused on [road running](/wiki/Road_running \"Road running\"). In 1988 he was fourth at the [Great Scottish Run](/wiki/Great_Scottish_Run \"Great Scottish Run\") and set a [half marathon](/wiki/Half_marathon \"Half marathon\") best of 1:00:52 hours to win the [Semi Marathon du Lion](/wiki/Semi_Marathon_du_Lion \"Semi Marathon du Lion\"). He was also runner\\-up at the [Giro Podistico di Pettinengo](/wiki/Giro_Podistico_di_Pettinengo \"Giro Podistico di Pettinengo\") and placed third at the AAA 10 Kilometres Championship.[Kiprotich Rono](https://more.arrs.run/runner/6215). [Association of Road Racing Statisticians](/wiki/Association_of_Road_Racing_Statisticians \"Association of Road Racing Statisticians\"). Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.[British Road Race Championships](http://www.gbrathletics.com/bc/road.htm). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2015\\-06\\-03\\.", "" ]
Geography --------- The Tehachapis form a geographic, [watershed](/wiki/Drainage_divide "Drainage divide"), [habitat](/wiki/Habitat "Habitat"), and [rain shadow](/wiki/Rain_shadow "Rain shadow") divide separating the [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley "San Joaquin Valley") to the northwest and the [Mojave Desert](/wiki/Mojave_Desert "Mojave Desert") to the southeast. The Tehachapis' crest varies in height from approximately {{convert\|4000\|\-\|8000\|ft\|m}}. They are southeast of [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California "Bakersfield, California") and the [Central Valley](/wiki/Central_Valley_%28California%29 "Central Valley (California)"), and west of [Mojave](/wiki/Mojave%2C_California "Mojave, California") and the [Antelope Valley](/wiki/Antelope_Valley "Antelope Valley"). The range runs southwest to northeast (SW\-NE) connecting the Southern [Sierra Nevada](/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_%28U.S.%29 "Sierra Nevada (U.S.)") range on their northeast with the [San Emigdio Mountains](/wiki/San_Emigdio_Mountains "San Emigdio Mountains") on the west and [Sierra Pelona Mountains](/wiki/Sierra_Pelona_Mountains "Sierra Pelona Mountains") on the southwest. The Tehachapis are delineated from the San Emigdio Mountains by [Tejon Pass](/wiki/Tejon_Pass "Tejon Pass") at the range's western end. The dramatic incline of [Interstate 5](/wiki/Interstate_5_in_California "Interstate 5 in California") from the San Joaquin Valley floor up to the pass, is regionally referred to as *The Grapevine*, after Grapevine Canyon which it follows between the northern slopes of the two mountain ranges and is sometimes extended to include the portion of Interstate 5 on the southern side of Tejon Pass, especially during snow closures. The canyon was named after [native](/wiki/Native_plant "Native plant") grapevines, the [California grapevine (*Vitis californica*)](/wiki/Vitis_californica "Vitis californica"), found at [springs](/wiki/Spring_%28hydrosphere%29 "Spring (hydrosphere)") on its slopes. The [California State Water Project](/wiki/California_State_Water_Project "California State Water Project") is to the east, with the [California Aqueduct](/wiki/California_Aqueduct "California Aqueduct") pumped by the [Edmonston Pumping Plant](/wiki/Edmonston_Pumping_Plant "Edmonston Pumping Plant") over/through the Tehachapis to [Castaic Lake](/wiki/Castaic_Lake "Castaic Lake") reservoir. The Tehachapis are delineated from the Sierra Pelona Mountains by [California State Route 138](/wiki/California_State_Route_138 "California State Route 138") at the range's southwestern end, connecting Interstate 5 and the Antelope Valley. The Tehachapis are delineated from the Sierra Nevada by [Tehachapi Pass](/wiki/Tehachapi_Pass "Tehachapi Pass") and [State Route 58](/wiki/California_State_Route_58 "California State Route 58") at the range's northeastern end, connecting the San Joaquin Valley and Mojave Desert. The [Union Pacific](/wiki/Union_Pacific "Union Pacific") north/south railroad line, with the famous [Tehachapi Loop](/wiki/Tehachapi_Loop "Tehachapi Loop"), crosses here also. The [Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm](/wiki/Tehachapi_Pass_Wind_Farm "Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm") is on its eastern side. The Tehachapis, though neither as long or high as other California mountain ranges, are often considered the topographic feature that separates this part of [Northern California](/wiki/Northern_California "Northern California") from [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California"),{{cite book\|last\=Gunther\|first\=John\|author\-link\=John Gunther\|title\=\[\[Inside U.S.A. (book)\|Inside U.S.A.]]\|pages\=3–4\|location\=\[\[New York City\|New York]], \[\[London]]\|publisher\=\[\[Harper \& Brothers]]\|year\=1947}} with the geographic boundary often being [Kern County](/wiki/Kern_County%2C_California "Kern County, California"). Some historians consider that California averted a potential split into two separate states – "North California" and "South California" – from the early 20th century [Ridge Route](/wiki/Ridge_Route "Ridge Route") construction, the first highway crossing these mountains to connect the [Greater Los Angeles](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_Area "Greater Los Angeles Area") and San Joaquin Valley regions.Note: there have been two occasions in California state history, in 1860 and 1965, when the split into two separate states was proposed in the state legislature, both using the crest of the Tehachapi Mountains as the new border, and both proposals failing.
[ "Geography\n---------", "The Tehachapis form a geographic, [watershed](/wiki/Drainage_divide \"Drainage divide\"), [habitat](/wiki/Habitat \"Habitat\"), and [rain shadow](/wiki/Rain_shadow \"Rain shadow\") divide separating the [San Joaquin Valley](/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley \"San Joaquin Valley\") to the northwest and the [Mojave Desert](/wiki/Mojave_Desert \"Mojave Desert\") to the southeast. The Tehachapis' crest varies in height from approximately {{convert\\|4000\\|\\-\\|8000\\|ft\\|m}}. They are southeast of [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California \"Bakersfield, California\") and the [Central Valley](/wiki/Central_Valley_%28California%29 \"Central Valley (California)\"), and west of [Mojave](/wiki/Mojave%2C_California \"Mojave, California\") and the [Antelope Valley](/wiki/Antelope_Valley \"Antelope Valley\"). The range runs southwest to northeast (SW\\-NE) connecting the Southern [Sierra Nevada](/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_%28U.S.%29 \"Sierra Nevada (U.S.)\") range on their northeast with the [San Emigdio Mountains](/wiki/San_Emigdio_Mountains \"San Emigdio Mountains\") on the west and [Sierra Pelona Mountains](/wiki/Sierra_Pelona_Mountains \"Sierra Pelona Mountains\") on the southwest.", "The Tehachapis are delineated from the San Emigdio Mountains by [Tejon Pass](/wiki/Tejon_Pass \"Tejon Pass\") at the range's western end. The dramatic incline of [Interstate 5](/wiki/Interstate_5_in_California \"Interstate 5 in California\") from the San Joaquin Valley floor up to the pass, is regionally referred to as *The Grapevine*, after Grapevine Canyon which it follows between the northern slopes of the two mountain ranges and is sometimes extended to include the portion of Interstate 5 on the southern side of Tejon Pass, especially during snow closures. The canyon was named after [native](/wiki/Native_plant \"Native plant\") grapevines, the [California grapevine (*Vitis californica*)](/wiki/Vitis_californica \"Vitis californica\"), found at [springs](/wiki/Spring_%28hydrosphere%29 \"Spring (hydrosphere)\") on its slopes. The [California State Water Project](/wiki/California_State_Water_Project \"California State Water Project\") is to the east, with the [California Aqueduct](/wiki/California_Aqueduct \"California Aqueduct\") pumped by the [Edmonston Pumping Plant](/wiki/Edmonston_Pumping_Plant \"Edmonston Pumping Plant\") over/through the Tehachapis to [Castaic Lake](/wiki/Castaic_Lake \"Castaic Lake\") reservoir.", "The Tehachapis are delineated from the Sierra Pelona Mountains by [California State Route 138](/wiki/California_State_Route_138 \"California State Route 138\") at the range's southwestern end, connecting Interstate 5 and the Antelope Valley.", "The Tehachapis are delineated from the Sierra Nevada by [Tehachapi Pass](/wiki/Tehachapi_Pass \"Tehachapi Pass\") and [State Route 58](/wiki/California_State_Route_58 \"California State Route 58\") at the range's northeastern end, connecting the San Joaquin Valley and Mojave Desert. The [Union Pacific](/wiki/Union_Pacific \"Union Pacific\") north/south railroad line, with the famous [Tehachapi Loop](/wiki/Tehachapi_Loop \"Tehachapi Loop\"), crosses here also. The [Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm](/wiki/Tehachapi_Pass_Wind_Farm \"Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm\") is on its eastern side.", "The Tehachapis, though neither as long or high as other California mountain ranges, are often considered the topographic feature that separates this part of [Northern California](/wiki/Northern_California \"Northern California\") from [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\"),{{cite book\\|last\\=Gunther\\|first\\=John\\|author\\-link\\=John Gunther\\|title\\=\\[\\[Inside U.S.A. (book)\\|Inside U.S.A.]]\\|pages\\=3–4\\|location\\=\\[\\[New York City\\|New York]], \\[\\[London]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Harper \\& Brothers]]\\|year\\=1947}} with the geographic boundary often being [Kern County](/wiki/Kern_County%2C_California \"Kern County, California\"). Some historians consider that California averted a potential split into two separate states – \"North California\" and \"South California\" – from the early 20th century [Ridge Route](/wiki/Ridge_Route \"Ridge Route\") construction, the first highway crossing these mountains to connect the [Greater Los Angeles](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_Area \"Greater Los Angeles Area\") and San Joaquin Valley regions.Note: there have been two occasions in California state history, in 1860 and 1965, when the split into two separate states was proposed in the state legislature, both using the crest of the Tehachapi Mountains as the new border, and both proposals failing.", "" ]