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Chess career highlights
-----------------------
[right\|150px\|thumb\|Kavalek in 1981](/wiki/File:Lubomir_Kavalek_1981_Bochum.jpg "Lubomir Kavalek 1981 Bochum.jpg")
### National championships
#### Czechoslovak Championships
Kavalek played in four Czechoslovak championships. Three results were significant:
* 1962 – aged 19, became the youngest player to win the Championship of Czechoslovakia. (Kavalek 12\.5/17, [Hort](/wiki/Vlastimil_Hort "Vlastimil Hort") and [Blatný](/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Blatn%C3%BD "František Blatný") 11\){{cite web\|url\=http://www.chess.cz/www/souteze/mcr\-muzi/historie.html\|title\=Historie MČR mužů\|publisher\=chess.cz\|access\-date\=2012\-06\-04\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216024915/http://www.chess.cz/www/souteze/mcr\-muzi/historie.html\|archive\-date\=2012\-02\-16}}Di Felice 2013a, p. 185\.
* 1963 – shared second place ([Pachman](/wiki/Lud%C4%9Bk_Pachman "Luděk Pachman") 14\.5/19, Kavalek and [Filip](/wiki/Miroslav_Filip "Miroslav Filip") 13\.5, Hort 12\.5\)
* 1968 – won the all\-time strongest Championship (Kavalek 15/19, Hort and [Smejkal](/wiki/Jan_Smejkal "Jan Smejkal") 14, Filip 13, Pachman and Jansa 12\)*The Oxford Companion to Chess*, [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"), second edition, 1992, p. 195, {{ISBN\|0\-19\-866164\-9}}
#### US Championships
Kavalek finished first in three U.S. championships.
* 1972 – shared first place with [Samuel Reshevsky](/wiki/Samuel_Reshevsky "Samuel Reshevsky") and [Robert Byrne](/wiki/Robert_Byrne_%28chess_player%29 "Robert Byrne (chess player)") at the U.S. Championship tournament in New York; Byrne won the playoff in Chicago in 1973\.Di Felice 2014a, p. 148\.
* 1973 – co\-winner with [John Grefe](/wiki/John_Grefe "John Grefe").
* 1978 – winner with a 10–4 record, a full point ahead of [James Tarjan](/wiki/James_Tarjan "James Tarjan").Di Felice 2014c, p. 59\.
### International victories
#### Significant successes
* 1968 – first major international victory in Amsterdam (Kavalek 10\.5/15, Bronstein 10\){{cite web\|url\=http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lab/7378/amster.htm \|title\=Amsterdam and Chess \|first\=Bill \|last\=Wall \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-25 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028082835/http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lab/7378/amster.htm \|archive\-date\=2009\-10\-28 }}{{cite book \|first1\=Wladyslaw\|last1\=Litmanowicz\|first2\=Jerzy\|last2\=Gizycki\|year\=1986\|title\=Szachy od A do Z\|publisher\=Wydawnictwo Sport i Turystyka Warszawa\|isbn\=83\-217\-2481\-7\|pages\=416\|volume\=1\. A\-M)}}
* 1970 – On the way to the United States in 1970, Kavalek won another strong tournament in Caracas (Kavalek 13/17, Leonid Stein and Panno 12, Benko, Ivkov and Karpov 11\.5\)
"During the 1970s Kavalek was one of the most active and successful tournament competitors from the USA."
#### The best year \- 1973
Besides sharing first place at the U.S. championship, Kavalek won four tournaments:
* Lanzarote (Kavalek 8\.5/10, Andersson 8, Ljubojevic 7\.5, Ribli 7\){{cite journal \|year\=1973\|title\=25 Games in a Chess Paradise, Lanzarote 1973\|journal\=Chess Life and Review \|issue\=July \|pages\=371}}
* Netanya (Kavalek 11/15, Reshevsky 10\){{cite journal \|year\=1973\|title\=Netanya 1973\|journal\=Chess Life and Review \|issue\=October\|pages\=568}}{{cite book\|first1\=Anthony\|last1\=Saidy\|first2\=Norman\|last2\=Lessing\|author\-link1\=Anthony Saidy\|author\-link2\=Norman Lessing\|year\=1974\|title\=The World of Chess, Diary of a Chess Master\|publisher\=Random House\|isbn\=978\-0394487779\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/worldofchess00said/page/216 216–223]\|url\-access\=registration\|url\=https://archive.org/details/worldofchess00said/page/216}}
* Montilla, shared first (Kavalek and Pfleger 6/9\){{cite journal \|year\=1974\|title\=Fun with Chess and Wine, Montilla 1973\|journal\=Chess Life and Review \|issue\=January\|pages\=15}}
* Bauang (Kavalek 7\.5/9, Ivkov and Quinteros 6\.5, Larsen 6\){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Bauang\_1973/23409\|title\=Bauang 1973\|publisher\=365chess.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-20}}
He also finished third in Amsterdam (Petrosian and Planinc 10, Kavalek 9\.5, Spassky 9\) and in Manila (Larsen 12\.5/15, Ljubojevic 11\.5, Kavalek 11\).{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Manila\_1973/23584\|title\=Manila 1973\|publisher\=365chess.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-20}}
Because of these results, Kavalek moved in 1974 to number 10 in the world on the official FIDE rating list at 2625\. Also in 1974 he shared first place in Solingen (Kavalek, Polugaevsky 10/14, Spassky, Kurajica 8\.5\).
### Zonals and Interzonals
Kavalek finished third at the 1966 The Hague European Zonal (Gligorić 12\.5/16, Bilek 12, Kavalek 11\.5\) and qualified for the 1967 Interzonal in Sousse, where he was one of the three players to draw with [Bobby Fischer](/wiki/Bobby_Fischer "Bobby Fischer").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mark\-weeks.com/chess/6769$iix.htm\|title\=1967 Sousse Interzonal Tournament\|publisher\=mark\-weeks.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-14}} In the Manila Interzonal in 1976, Kavalek finished seventh.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mark\-weeks.com/chess/76782iix.htm\|title\=1976 Manila Interzonal Tournament\|publisher\=mark\-weeks.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-14}}
Kavalek also qualified for the 1979 and 1987 Interzonals, but never achieved a place in the Candidates Matches.
### Other notable results
#### Other first places
* Split 1964 (Kavalek and Kurajica 9/11\)
* Varna 1965 and again in 1967
* Zwolle in 1967{{cite journal \|year\=1967 \|title\=Charm and Simplicity, Holland 1967, Zwolle International\|journal\=Chess Life and Review \|issue\=July \|pages\=210}}
* The Hague 1968{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/The\_Hague\_1968/26577\|title\=The Hague 1968\|publisher\=365chess.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-12}}
* Netanya 1971 shared first (Kavalek and Parma 10/15\){{cite web\|url\=http://netanyachess.com/Topic/ev\_Netanya1973A.en.htm\|title\=International tournament A, Netanya 1973\|publisher\=Netanya Chess Club\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-12}}{{cite web\|url\=http://netanyachess.com/Topic/ev\_Netanya1971\.en.htm\|title\=International tournament, Netanya 1971\|publisher\=Netanya Chess Club\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-12}}
* The West German International Championship in Bochum in 1981 (Kavalek 12/15, Hort 10\.5\){{cite journal \|year\=1981 \|title\=West German Open Grandmasters' Championship:Bochum 1981\|journal\=British Chess Magazine\|issue\=September 1981\|pages\=396}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/bochum\_1981\|title\=Bochum 1981\|publisher\=365chess.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-12}}
* Mentor Hall of Fame Classic, Alexandria 1996 (Kavalek 2\.5/4, Benko, Bisguier and Curdo 2, Denker 1\.5\)
* Dutch Open in Dieren in 1969 with a 10\-0 perfect score{{cite journal \|year\=1969 \|title\=Dutch Open 1968\|journal\=Schaakbulletin \|volume\=17/18}}
#### Second places
* Leipzig in 1965 (Pietzsch 10\.5/15, Kavalek and Liberzon 10\). The last GM norm.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/leipzig\_inter\_1st\_1965\|title\=Leipzig 1965\|publisher\=365chess.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-08}}
* Polanica Zdroj in 1968 (Smyslov 11\.5/15, Kavalek 10\.5\){{cite web\|url\=http://polbase.w.interia.pl/rub68\.htm\|title\=Polanica Zdrój 1968\|publisher\=polbase.w.interia.pl\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-08\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022092304/http://polbase.w.interia.pl/rub68\.htm\|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-22\|url\-status\=dead}}
* Montilla\-Moriles in 1976 (2nd through 4th) (Karpov 7/9, Kavalek 5\.5\)Di Felice 2014b, p. 174\.
* Waddinxveen, the Netherlands, in May 1979 (Karpov 4\.5/6, Kavalek 3, Hort 2\.5, Sosonko 2\){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Waddinxveen\_1979\|title\=Waddinxveen 1979\|publisher\=365chess.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-08}}
#### Bizarre Montreal 1979
In 1979, Kavalek played in the double\-round Man and his World Chess Challenge in Montreal, which he also organized. It was the most bizarre result of his career. He finished last in the first half with 1\.5/9, but won the second half with 6\.5/9\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lubomir\-kavalek/chess\-history\-from\-bobby\_b\_845539\.html\|title\=Chess History: From Bobby Fischer to Hikaru Nakamura\|work\=The Huffington Post\|date\=15 April 2011 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-07}} He ended tying for seventh place overall.
#### Other showings
* Bucuresti 1966 third (Korchnoi 12\.5/14, Gheorghiu 10 Kavalek 9\.5\)Di Felice 2013b
* Tilburg 1977 shared third (Karpov 8/11, Miles 7, Kavalek, Hort, Hubner, and Timman 6\){{cite web\|url\=http://www.endgame.nl/tilburg.htm\|title\=TILBURG CHESS EVENTS\|publisher\=Endgame.nl\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-04\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030912235347/http://www.endgame.nl/tilburg.htm\|archive\-date\=2003\-09\-12}}
* Amsterdam 1977 shared third (Miles 10\.5/15, Hulak 9\.5, Kavalek and Liberzon 9\){{cite web\|url\=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chesscollection?cid\=1020691\|title\=Amsterdam IBM 1977\|publisher\=Chessgames.com\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-04}}
* Amsterdam 1981 shared fourth (Timman 7\.5/11, Karpov and Portisch 7, Kavalek, Hort and Smyslov 6\.5\){{cite web\|url\=http://www.endgame.nl/ibm.htm\|title\=IBM Amsterdam\|publisher\=Endgame.nl\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-03\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419115259/http://www.endgame.nl/ibm.htm\|archive\-date\=2012\-04\-19}}
[right\|150px\|thumb\|Kavalek in 1980](/wiki/File:L_Kavalek.jpg "L Kavalek.jpg")
### Olympiads and team competitions
Kavalek played in nine [Chess Olympiads](/wiki/Chess_Olympiad "Chess Olympiad"), representing Czechoslovakia in 1964 and 1966 and the US from 1972 through 1986 except 1980\. In his seven appearances on the US team he played top board three times and second board twice, and the team collected one gold and five bronze medals.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.olimpbase.org/players/x1pbvvxg.html\|title\=Kavalek, Lubomir\|publisher\=Olimpbase.org\|access\-date\=2009\-05\-04}} In 1976 he was a member of the first U.S. team to win a gold medal since the 1930s.{{Cite news\|last\=McClain\|first\=Dylan Loeb\|date\=2021\-01\-22\|title\=Lubomir Kavalek, Czech Who Became U.S. Chess Champion, Dies at 77\|language\=en\-US\|work\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/us/lubomir\-kavalek\-dead.html\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-24\|issn\=0362\-4331}}
From 1969 until 1991 Kavalek was a leading player for the German team in Solingen. During his tenure the team won 10 national championships in 1969, 1971,1972,1973,1974,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/dmm\-bis1974\|title\=Deutsche Meisterschaft bis 1974\|publisher\=www.schachchronik.de\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-30}} 1975,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1975\|title\=Bundesliga 1974/75\|publisher\=www.schachchronik.de\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-30}} 1980,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1980\|title\=Bundesliga 1979/80\|publisher\=www.schachchronik.de\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-30}} 1981,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1981\|title\=Bundesliga von 1975 bis 1980:Bundesliga 1980/81\|publisher\=www.schachchronik.de\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-30}} 1987{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1987\|title\=Bundesliga von 1981 bis 1988:Bundesliga 1986/87\|publisher\=www.schachchronik.de\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-30}} and 1988{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1988\|title\=Bundesliga von 1981 bis 1988:Bundesliga 1987/88\|publisher\=www.schachchronik.de\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-30}} and the 1976 and 1990 European Club Championships.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.olimpbase.org/1976c/1976slng.html\|title\=1st European Chess Club Cup: 1975/1976\|publisher\=Olimpbase.org\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-01}}
In the 1977–79 European Club championship, Kavalek scored 5\.5/6 on the top board, including two wins over V. Smyslov.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.olimpbase.org/1979c/1979slng.html\|title\=2nd European Chess Club Cup: 1977/1979\|publisher\=Olimpbase.org\|access\-date\=2012\-05\-01}}
In the Nordic team vs. United States in Reykjavik in 1986, Kavalek on second board defeated Bent Larsen 1\.5\-0\.5\.
In the match Moscow vs. Prague in April 1968, Kavalek beat Evgeny Vasyukov 1\.5\-0\.5\.
In 1976, Kavalek was the top player on the Washington Plumbers team that won the National Chess League.{{cite journal \|year\=1976 \|title\=National Chess League Champions, the Washington Plumbers \|journal\=Chess Life and Review \|issue\=June \|pages\=cover,375}}{{Cite web\|url \= https://nezhmet.wordpress.com/2007/11/28/the\-fabulous\-70s\-washington\-plumbers\-win\-the\-1976\-national\-chess\-league/\|title \= The Fabulous 70s: Washington Plumbers win the 1976 National Chess League!\|date \= 2007\-11\-28\|website \= IM Mark Ginsburg Presents A Personal Chess History\|access\-date \= 2016\-05\-02}}
### Matches
Kavalek won two international matches:
* In 1969 \- won a 10\-game match against the Dutch champion Hans Ree in Eersel, the Netherlands, with the score of 7 to 3\.Di Felice 2013c, p. 227\.{{cite journal \|year\=1969 \|title\=? \|journal\=Schaakbulletin \|volume\=12 \|pages\=9–13 \|publisher\=Eersel}}
* In 1978, Kavalek won a match against the world\-class Swedish grandmaster Ulf Andersson by the impressive score of 6\.5 to 3\.5\. The match was held in the showroom of a Volvo dealership in Washington, D.C.
Kavalek lost two matches against two of the world's best players in Solingen, Germany. In 1970 he lost to Bent Larsen with a score 2\-6{{cite journal \|last1\=Larsen \|first1\=Bent \|year\=1970 \|title\=By Larsen: My Match with Kavalek (Larsen\-Kavalek match 1970\)\|journal\=Chess Life and Review \|pages\=437}} and in 1977 he was defeated by Boris Spassky 2–4\.
### Rating
Kavalek ranked among the top 100 players in the world continuously from the end of 1962 until September 1988, peaking at number 10 in 1974, when he achieved his peak [Elo rating](/wiki/Elo_rating "Elo rating") of 2625 on the [FIDE](/wiki/FIDE "FIDE") Rating list.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.olimpbase.org/Elo/Elo197405e.html\|title\=FIDE Rating List May 1974\|publisher\=Olimpbase\|access\-date\=2009\-12\-11}} By [Chessmetrics](/wiki/Chessmetrics "Chessmetrics") ratings, he achieved his peak ranking of number 18 in early 1974 with a Chessmetrics rating of 2695\.{{cite web\|url\=http://chessmetrics.com/cm/CM2/PlayerProfile.asp?Params\=199510SSSSS3S063226000000131000000000015710100\|title\=Chessmetrics Player Profile: Lubomir Kavalek \|last\=Sonas\|first\=J.\|publisher\=Chessmetrics\|access\-date\=2009\-12\-11}}
|
[
"Chess career highlights\n-----------------------",
"[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|Kavalek in 1981](/wiki/File:Lubomir_Kavalek_1981_Bochum.jpg \"Lubomir Kavalek 1981 Bochum.jpg\")",
"### National championships",
"#### Czechoslovak Championships",
"Kavalek played in four Czechoslovak championships. Three results were significant:\n* 1962 – aged 19, became the youngest player to win the Championship of Czechoslovakia. (Kavalek 12\\.5/17, [Hort](/wiki/Vlastimil_Hort \"Vlastimil Hort\") and [Blatný](/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Blatn%C3%BD \"František Blatný\") 11\\){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chess.cz/www/souteze/mcr\\-muzi/historie.html\\|title\\=Historie MČR mužů\\|publisher\\=chess.cz\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-04\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216024915/http://www.chess.cz/www/souteze/mcr\\-muzi/historie.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-16}}Di Felice 2013a, p. 185\\.\n* 1963 – shared second place ([Pachman](/wiki/Lud%C4%9Bk_Pachman \"Luděk Pachman\") 14\\.5/19, Kavalek and [Filip](/wiki/Miroslav_Filip \"Miroslav Filip\") 13\\.5, Hort 12\\.5\\)\n* 1968 – won the all\\-time strongest Championship (Kavalek 15/19, Hort and [Smejkal](/wiki/Jan_Smejkal \"Jan Smejkal\") 14, Filip 13, Pachman and Jansa 12\\)*The Oxford Companion to Chess*, [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press \"Oxford University Press\"), second edition, 1992, p. 195, {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-866164\\-9}}",
"#### US Championships",
"Kavalek finished first in three U.S. championships.\n* 1972 – shared first place with [Samuel Reshevsky](/wiki/Samuel_Reshevsky \"Samuel Reshevsky\") and [Robert Byrne](/wiki/Robert_Byrne_%28chess_player%29 \"Robert Byrne (chess player)\") at the U.S. Championship tournament in New York; Byrne won the playoff in Chicago in 1973\\.Di Felice 2014a, p. 148\\.\n* 1973 – co\\-winner with [John Grefe](/wiki/John_Grefe \"John Grefe\").\n* 1978 – winner with a 10–4 record, a full point ahead of [James Tarjan](/wiki/James_Tarjan \"James Tarjan\").Di Felice 2014c, p. 59\\.",
"### International victories",
"#### Significant successes",
"* 1968 – first major international victory in Amsterdam (Kavalek 10\\.5/15, Bronstein 10\\){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lab/7378/amster.htm \\|title\\=Amsterdam and Chess \\|first\\=Bill \\|last\\=Wall \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-25 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028082835/http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lab/7378/amster.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-28 }}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Wladyslaw\\|last1\\=Litmanowicz\\|first2\\=Jerzy\\|last2\\=Gizycki\\|year\\=1986\\|title\\=Szachy od A do Z\\|publisher\\=Wydawnictwo Sport i Turystyka Warszawa\\|isbn\\=83\\-217\\-2481\\-7\\|pages\\=416\\|volume\\=1\\. A\\-M)}}\n* 1970 – On the way to the United States in 1970, Kavalek won another strong tournament in Caracas (Kavalek 13/17, Leonid Stein and Panno 12, Benko, Ivkov and Karpov 11\\.5\\)\n\"During the 1970s Kavalek was one of the most active and successful tournament competitors from the USA.\"",
"#### The best year \\- 1973",
"Besides sharing first place at the U.S. championship, Kavalek won four tournaments:",
"* Lanzarote (Kavalek 8\\.5/10, Andersson 8, Ljubojevic 7\\.5, Ribli 7\\){{cite journal \\|year\\=1973\\|title\\=25 Games in a Chess Paradise, Lanzarote 1973\\|journal\\=Chess Life and Review \\|issue\\=July \\|pages\\=371}}\n* Netanya (Kavalek 11/15, Reshevsky 10\\){{cite journal \\|year\\=1973\\|title\\=Netanya 1973\\|journal\\=Chess Life and Review \\|issue\\=October\\|pages\\=568}}{{cite book\\|first1\\=Anthony\\|last1\\=Saidy\\|first2\\=Norman\\|last2\\=Lessing\\|author\\-link1\\=Anthony Saidy\\|author\\-link2\\=Norman Lessing\\|year\\=1974\\|title\\=The World of Chess, Diary of a Chess Master\\|publisher\\=Random House\\|isbn\\=978\\-0394487779\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/worldofchess00said/page/216 216–223]\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/worldofchess00said/page/216}}\n* Montilla, shared first (Kavalek and Pfleger 6/9\\){{cite journal \\|year\\=1974\\|title\\=Fun with Chess and Wine, Montilla 1973\\|journal\\=Chess Life and Review \\|issue\\=January\\|pages\\=15}}\n* Bauang (Kavalek 7\\.5/9, Ivkov and Quinteros 6\\.5, Larsen 6\\){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Bauang\\_1973/23409\\|title\\=Bauang 1973\\|publisher\\=365chess.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-20}}",
"He also finished third in Amsterdam (Petrosian and Planinc 10, Kavalek 9\\.5, Spassky 9\\) and in Manila (Larsen 12\\.5/15, Ljubojevic 11\\.5, Kavalek 11\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Manila\\_1973/23584\\|title\\=Manila 1973\\|publisher\\=365chess.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-20}}",
"Because of these results, Kavalek moved in 1974 to number 10 in the world on the official FIDE rating list at 2625\\. Also in 1974 he shared first place in Solingen (Kavalek, Polugaevsky 10/14, Spassky, Kurajica 8\\.5\\).",
"### Zonals and Interzonals",
"Kavalek finished third at the 1966 The Hague European Zonal (Gligorić 12\\.5/16, Bilek 12, Kavalek 11\\.5\\) and qualified for the 1967 Interzonal in Sousse, where he was one of the three players to draw with [Bobby Fischer](/wiki/Bobby_Fischer \"Bobby Fischer\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mark\\-weeks.com/chess/6769$iix.htm\\|title\\=1967 Sousse Interzonal Tournament\\|publisher\\=mark\\-weeks.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-14}} In the Manila Interzonal in 1976, Kavalek finished seventh.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mark\\-weeks.com/chess/76782iix.htm\\|title\\=1976 Manila Interzonal Tournament\\|publisher\\=mark\\-weeks.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-14}}",
"Kavalek also qualified for the 1979 and 1987 Interzonals, but never achieved a place in the Candidates Matches.",
"### Other notable results",
"#### Other first places",
"* Split 1964 (Kavalek and Kurajica 9/11\\)\n* Varna 1965 and again in 1967\n* Zwolle in 1967{{cite journal \\|year\\=1967 \\|title\\=Charm and Simplicity, Holland 1967, Zwolle International\\|journal\\=Chess Life and Review \\|issue\\=July \\|pages\\=210}}\n* The Hague 1968{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/The\\_Hague\\_1968/26577\\|title\\=The Hague 1968\\|publisher\\=365chess.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-12}}\n* Netanya 1971 shared first (Kavalek and Parma 10/15\\){{cite web\\|url\\=http://netanyachess.com/Topic/ev\\_Netanya1973A.en.htm\\|title\\=International tournament A, Netanya 1973\\|publisher\\=Netanya Chess Club\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-12}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://netanyachess.com/Topic/ev\\_Netanya1971\\.en.htm\\|title\\=International tournament, Netanya 1971\\|publisher\\=Netanya Chess Club\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-12}}\n* The West German International Championship in Bochum in 1981 (Kavalek 12/15, Hort 10\\.5\\){{cite journal \\|year\\=1981 \\|title\\=West German Open Grandmasters' Championship:Bochum 1981\\|journal\\=British Chess Magazine\\|issue\\=September 1981\\|pages\\=396}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/bochum\\_1981\\|title\\=Bochum 1981\\|publisher\\=365chess.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-12}}\n* Mentor Hall of Fame Classic, Alexandria 1996 (Kavalek 2\\.5/4, Benko, Bisguier and Curdo 2, Denker 1\\.5\\)\n* Dutch Open in Dieren in 1969 with a 10\\-0 perfect score{{cite journal \\|year\\=1969 \\|title\\=Dutch Open 1968\\|journal\\=Schaakbulletin \\|volume\\=17/18}}",
"#### Second places",
"* Leipzig in 1965 (Pietzsch 10\\.5/15, Kavalek and Liberzon 10\\). The last GM norm.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/leipzig\\_inter\\_1st\\_1965\\|title\\=Leipzig 1965\\|publisher\\=365chess.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-08}}\n* Polanica Zdroj in 1968 (Smyslov 11\\.5/15, Kavalek 10\\.5\\){{cite web\\|url\\=http://polbase.w.interia.pl/rub68\\.htm\\|title\\=Polanica Zdrój 1968\\|publisher\\=polbase.w.interia.pl\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-08\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022092304/http://polbase.w.interia.pl/rub68\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-22\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n* Montilla\\-Moriles in 1976 (2nd through 4th) (Karpov 7/9, Kavalek 5\\.5\\)Di Felice 2014b, p. 174\\.\n* Waddinxveen, the Netherlands, in May 1979 (Karpov 4\\.5/6, Kavalek 3, Hort 2\\.5, Sosonko 2\\){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Waddinxveen\\_1979\\|title\\=Waddinxveen 1979\\|publisher\\=365chess.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-08}}",
"#### Bizarre Montreal 1979",
"In 1979, Kavalek played in the double\\-round Man and his World Chess Challenge in Montreal, which he also organized. It was the most bizarre result of his career. He finished last in the first half with 1\\.5/9, but won the second half with 6\\.5/9\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lubomir\\-kavalek/chess\\-history\\-from\\-bobby\\_b\\_845539\\.html\\|title\\=Chess History: From Bobby Fischer to Hikaru Nakamura\\|work\\=The Huffington Post\\|date\\=15 April 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-07}} He ended tying for seventh place overall.",
"#### Other showings",
"* Bucuresti 1966 third (Korchnoi 12\\.5/14, Gheorghiu 10 Kavalek 9\\.5\\)Di Felice 2013b\n* Tilburg 1977 shared third (Karpov 8/11, Miles 7, Kavalek, Hort, Hubner, and Timman 6\\){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.endgame.nl/tilburg.htm\\|title\\=TILBURG CHESS EVENTS\\|publisher\\=Endgame.nl\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-04\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030912235347/http://www.endgame.nl/tilburg.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2003\\-09\\-12}}\n* Amsterdam 1977 shared third (Miles 10\\.5/15, Hulak 9\\.5, Kavalek and Liberzon 9\\){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chesscollection?cid\\=1020691\\|title\\=Amsterdam IBM 1977\\|publisher\\=Chessgames.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-04}}\n* Amsterdam 1981 shared fourth (Timman 7\\.5/11, Karpov and Portisch 7, Kavalek, Hort and Smyslov 6\\.5\\){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.endgame.nl/ibm.htm\\|title\\=IBM Amsterdam\\|publisher\\=Endgame.nl\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419115259/http://www.endgame.nl/ibm.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-19}}\n[right\\|150px\\|thumb\\|Kavalek in 1980](/wiki/File:L_Kavalek.jpg \"L Kavalek.jpg\")",
"### Olympiads and team competitions",
"Kavalek played in nine [Chess Olympiads](/wiki/Chess_Olympiad \"Chess Olympiad\"), representing Czechoslovakia in 1964 and 1966 and the US from 1972 through 1986 except 1980\\. In his seven appearances on the US team he played top board three times and second board twice, and the team collected one gold and five bronze medals.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.olimpbase.org/players/x1pbvvxg.html\\|title\\=Kavalek, Lubomir\\|publisher\\=Olimpbase.org\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-05\\-04}} In 1976 he was a member of the first U.S. team to win a gold medal since the 1930s.{{Cite news\\|last\\=McClain\\|first\\=Dylan Loeb\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-22\\|title\\=Lubomir Kavalek, Czech Who Became U.S. Chess Champion, Dies at 77\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/us/lubomir\\-kavalek\\-dead.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-24\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"From 1969 until 1991 Kavalek was a leading player for the German team in Solingen. During his tenure the team won 10 national championships in 1969, 1971,1972,1973,1974,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/dmm\\-bis1974\\|title\\=Deutsche Meisterschaft bis 1974\\|publisher\\=www.schachchronik.de\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-30}} 1975,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1975\\|title\\=Bundesliga 1974/75\\|publisher\\=www.schachchronik.de\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-30}} 1980,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1980\\|title\\=Bundesliga 1979/80\\|publisher\\=www.schachchronik.de\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-30}} 1981,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1981\\|title\\=Bundesliga von 1975 bis 1980:Bundesliga 1980/81\\|publisher\\=www.schachchronik.de\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-30}} 1987{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1987\\|title\\=Bundesliga von 1981 bis 1988:Bundesliga 1986/87\\|publisher\\=www.schachchronik.de\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-30}} and 1988{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.schachchronik.de/bundesliga/1988\\|title\\=Bundesliga von 1981 bis 1988:Bundesliga 1987/88\\|publisher\\=www.schachchronik.de\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-30}} and the 1976 and 1990 European Club Championships.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.olimpbase.org/1976c/1976slng.html\\|title\\=1st European Chess Club Cup: 1975/1976\\|publisher\\=Olimpbase.org\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-01}}\nIn the 1977–79 European Club championship, Kavalek scored 5\\.5/6 on the top board, including two wins over V. Smyslov.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.olimpbase.org/1979c/1979slng.html\\|title\\=2nd European Chess Club Cup: 1977/1979\\|publisher\\=Olimpbase.org\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-01}}",
"In the Nordic team vs. United States in Reykjavik in 1986, Kavalek on second board defeated Bent Larsen 1\\.5\\-0\\.5\\.",
"In the match Moscow vs. Prague in April 1968, Kavalek beat Evgeny Vasyukov 1\\.5\\-0\\.5\\.",
"In 1976, Kavalek was the top player on the Washington Plumbers team that won the National Chess League.{{cite journal \\|year\\=1976 \\|title\\=National Chess League Champions, the Washington Plumbers \\|journal\\=Chess Life and Review \\|issue\\=June \\|pages\\=cover,375}}{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://nezhmet.wordpress.com/2007/11/28/the\\-fabulous\\-70s\\-washington\\-plumbers\\-win\\-the\\-1976\\-national\\-chess\\-league/\\|title \\= The Fabulous 70s: Washington Plumbers win the 1976 National Chess League!\\|date \\= 2007\\-11\\-28\\|website \\= IM Mark Ginsburg Presents A Personal Chess History\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-05\\-02}}",
"### Matches",
"Kavalek won two international matches:\n* In 1969 \\- won a 10\\-game match against the Dutch champion Hans Ree in Eersel, the Netherlands, with the score of 7 to 3\\.Di Felice 2013c, p. 227\\.{{cite journal \\|year\\=1969 \\|title\\=? \\|journal\\=Schaakbulletin \\|volume\\=12 \\|pages\\=9–13 \\|publisher\\=Eersel}}\n* In 1978, Kavalek won a match against the world\\-class Swedish grandmaster Ulf Andersson by the impressive score of 6\\.5 to 3\\.5\\. The match was held in the showroom of a Volvo dealership in Washington, D.C.",
"Kavalek lost two matches against two of the world's best players in Solingen, Germany. In 1970 he lost to Bent Larsen with a score 2\\-6{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Larsen \\|first1\\=Bent \\|year\\=1970 \\|title\\=By Larsen: My Match with Kavalek (Larsen\\-Kavalek match 1970\\)\\|journal\\=Chess Life and Review \\|pages\\=437}} and in 1977 he was defeated by Boris Spassky 2–4\\.",
"### Rating",
"Kavalek ranked among the top 100 players in the world continuously from the end of 1962 until September 1988, peaking at number 10 in 1974, when he achieved his peak [Elo rating](/wiki/Elo_rating \"Elo rating\") of 2625 on the [FIDE](/wiki/FIDE \"FIDE\") Rating list.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.olimpbase.org/Elo/Elo197405e.html\\|title\\=FIDE Rating List May 1974\\|publisher\\=Olimpbase\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-12\\-11}} By [Chessmetrics](/wiki/Chessmetrics \"Chessmetrics\") ratings, he achieved his peak ranking of number 18 in early 1974 with a Chessmetrics rating of 2695\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://chessmetrics.com/cm/CM2/PlayerProfile.asp?Params\\=199510SSSSS3S063226000000131000000000015710100\\|title\\=Chessmetrics Player Profile: Lubomir Kavalek \\|last\\=Sonas\\|first\\=J.\\|publisher\\=Chessmetrics\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-12\\-11}}",
""
] |
Career
------
Cooper had hoped to work for *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker "The New Yorker")* since he was 16\. He submitted two articles after graduating from college and had no immediate response. Around this time, in 1956, Cooper was drafted into the U.S. Army, where he worked as a clerk\-typist within the United States before being discharged in 1958\.
He then attended the [Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism](/wiki/Columbia_University_Graduate_School_of_Journalism "Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism") for several months, before hearing from *The New Yorker*{{'}}s editor [William Shawn](/wiki/William_Shawn "William Shawn"). Shawn was impressed with the two articles and hired Cooper, who ended up working for the company for 35 years, from 1958 to 1993\. Cooper also wrote for other publications, including *[The New York Times Book Review](/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Book_Review "The New York Times Book Review")*. His primary focus at *The New Yorker* was on the U.S. space program, starting during its period of high publicity in the 1960s. Many of the articles formed the basis of books he later authored.
In 1972, Cooper served as a judge for the [National Book Awards](/wiki/National_Book_Awards "National Book Awards"). He earned a [Guggenheim Fellowship](/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship "Guggenheim Fellowship") in 1975 and a science writing award from the [American Association for the Advancement of Science](/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science "American Association for the Advancement of Science") in 1977\.
In 1981, Cooper founded the environmental group Otsego 2000, which campaigned against industrial wind turbines, fracking, and a planned motorboat launching ramp on [Otsego Lake](/wiki/Otsego_Lake_%28New_York%29 "Otsego Lake (New York)") in Cooperstown. Originally named "Friends of P.R.O.T.E.C.T.", the organization changed its name to Otsego 2000 in 1998\. Cooper was the president of the organization for years, and subsequently became its chairman. Under Cooper, the organization had worked to promote preservation of the [Glimmerglass Historic District](/wiki/Glimmerglass_Historic_District "Glimmerglass Historic District"), the opening of Cooperstown Farmers' Market, and the formation of the Glimmerglass Coalition.
Cooper wrote eight books between 1969 and 1993, with Robert Lescher as his [literary agent](/wiki/Literary_agent "Literary agent"). Lescher had been an agent to authors such as [Robert Frost](/wiki/Robert_Frost "Robert Frost") and [Georgia O'Keeffe](/wiki/Georgia_O%27Keeffe "Georgia O'Keeffe").
Cooper retired from authorship and writing at *The New Yorker* in 1993\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Cooper had hoped to work for *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker \"The New Yorker\")* since he was 16\\. He submitted two articles after graduating from college and had no immediate response. Around this time, in 1956, Cooper was drafted into the U.S. Army, where he worked as a clerk\\-typist within the United States before being discharged in 1958\\.",
"He then attended the [Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism](/wiki/Columbia_University_Graduate_School_of_Journalism \"Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism\") for several months, before hearing from *The New Yorker*{{'}}s editor [William Shawn](/wiki/William_Shawn \"William Shawn\"). Shawn was impressed with the two articles and hired Cooper, who ended up working for the company for 35 years, from 1958 to 1993\\. Cooper also wrote for other publications, including *[The New York Times Book Review](/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Book_Review \"The New York Times Book Review\")*. His primary focus at *The New Yorker* was on the U.S. space program, starting during its period of high publicity in the 1960s. Many of the articles formed the basis of books he later authored.",
"In 1972, Cooper served as a judge for the [National Book Awards](/wiki/National_Book_Awards \"National Book Awards\"). He earned a [Guggenheim Fellowship](/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship \"Guggenheim Fellowship\") in 1975 and a science writing award from the [American Association for the Advancement of Science](/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science \"American Association for the Advancement of Science\") in 1977\\.",
"In 1981, Cooper founded the environmental group Otsego 2000, which campaigned against industrial wind turbines, fracking, and a planned motorboat launching ramp on [Otsego Lake](/wiki/Otsego_Lake_%28New_York%29 \"Otsego Lake (New York)\") in Cooperstown. Originally named \"Friends of P.R.O.T.E.C.T.\", the organization changed its name to Otsego 2000 in 1998\\. Cooper was the president of the organization for years, and subsequently became its chairman. Under Cooper, the organization had worked to promote preservation of the [Glimmerglass Historic District](/wiki/Glimmerglass_Historic_District \"Glimmerglass Historic District\"), the opening of Cooperstown Farmers' Market, and the formation of the Glimmerglass Coalition.",
"Cooper wrote eight books between 1969 and 1993, with Robert Lescher as his [literary agent](/wiki/Literary_agent \"Literary agent\"). Lescher had been an agent to authors such as [Robert Frost](/wiki/Robert_Frost \"Robert Frost\") and [Georgia O'Keeffe](/wiki/Georgia_O%27Keeffe \"Georgia O'Keeffe\").",
"Cooper retired from authorship and writing at *The New Yorker* in 1993\\.",
""
] |
Personal life and family
------------------------
Henry S. F. Cooper married Mary Luke Langben on October 13, 1966, a relationship that ended in divorce. He had three daughters, Elizabeth, Hannah, and Molly Cooper, and three grandchildren. Cooper lived at 1165 Fifth Avenue, on the [Upper East Side](/wiki/Upper_East_Side "Upper East Side") of Manhattan. Later in life, Cooper spent more time in Cooperstown, and purchased a house nearby, in [Middlefield](/wiki/Middlefield%2C_New_York "Middlefield, New York")'s Red Creek section.
Cooper was a member of the [Yale Club](/wiki/Yale_Club "Yale Club"), the Century Association (where he was twice trustee), and the [New York Society Library](/wiki/New_York_Society_Library "New York Society Library"). In Cooperstown, he was a board member of the [Glimmerglass Opera](/wiki/Glimmerglass_Opera "Glimmerglass Opera"), the Otsego Land Trust, and a founder of the Smithy Pioneer Gallery. Cooper was a trustee of the Wrexham Foundation, part of Yale's [Manuscript Society](/wiki/Manuscript_Society "Manuscript Society"). He joined the board in 1957, and was twice its chairman. He was a trustee of the [Yale University Art Gallery](/wiki/Yale_University_Art_Gallery "Yale University Art Gallery") beginning in 1970, and of the Yale Library Associates beginning in 1976\. Cooper was also a member of the [Authors Guild](/wiki/Authors_Guild "Authors Guild"), the [American Association for the Advancement of Science](/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science "American Association for the Advancement of Science"), the [Municipal Art Society](/wiki/Municipal_Art_Society "Municipal Art Society"), the [Grolier Club](/wiki/Grolier_Club "Grolier Club"), and the Coffee House Club.
The New York Society Library considered Cooper the [éminence grise](/wiki/%C3%89minence_grise "Éminence grise") of its organization, as he served on its board from 1971 to 2015, and as chair from 1985 to 1992\. Cooper also co\-wrote and edited a history of the society, *The New York Society Library: 250 Years*.
For the Yale Club, he wrote a comprehensive history of its library, *History of the Yale Club Library*. Cooper stood as a longtime member of the Yale Club Library Committee.
During the production of the 2004 [Wes Anderson](/wiki/Wes_Anderson "Wes Anderson") film *[The Life Aquatic](/wiki/The_Life_Aquatic "The Life Aquatic")*, Cooper was in Rome visiting his daughter Molly, then an assistant to producer [Barry Mendel](/wiki/Barry_Mendel "Barry Mendel"). One of the film's actors unexpectedly had a stroke, and with a lack of replacements, Cooper auditioned and got the part in the film.
|
[
"Personal life and family\n------------------------",
"Henry S. F. Cooper married Mary Luke Langben on October 13, 1966, a relationship that ended in divorce. He had three daughters, Elizabeth, Hannah, and Molly Cooper, and three grandchildren. Cooper lived at 1165 Fifth Avenue, on the [Upper East Side](/wiki/Upper_East_Side \"Upper East Side\") of Manhattan. Later in life, Cooper spent more time in Cooperstown, and purchased a house nearby, in [Middlefield](/wiki/Middlefield%2C_New_York \"Middlefield, New York\")'s Red Creek section.",
"Cooper was a member of the [Yale Club](/wiki/Yale_Club \"Yale Club\"), the Century Association (where he was twice trustee), and the [New York Society Library](/wiki/New_York_Society_Library \"New York Society Library\"). In Cooperstown, he was a board member of the [Glimmerglass Opera](/wiki/Glimmerglass_Opera \"Glimmerglass Opera\"), the Otsego Land Trust, and a founder of the Smithy Pioneer Gallery. Cooper was a trustee of the Wrexham Foundation, part of Yale's [Manuscript Society](/wiki/Manuscript_Society \"Manuscript Society\"). He joined the board in 1957, and was twice its chairman. He was a trustee of the [Yale University Art Gallery](/wiki/Yale_University_Art_Gallery \"Yale University Art Gallery\") beginning in 1970, and of the Yale Library Associates beginning in 1976\\. Cooper was also a member of the [Authors Guild](/wiki/Authors_Guild \"Authors Guild\"), the [American Association for the Advancement of Science](/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science \"American Association for the Advancement of Science\"), the [Municipal Art Society](/wiki/Municipal_Art_Society \"Municipal Art Society\"), the [Grolier Club](/wiki/Grolier_Club \"Grolier Club\"), and the Coffee House Club.",
"The New York Society Library considered Cooper the [éminence grise](/wiki/%C3%89minence_grise \"Éminence grise\") of its organization, as he served on its board from 1971 to 2015, and as chair from 1985 to 1992\\. Cooper also co\\-wrote and edited a history of the society, *The New York Society Library: 250 Years*.",
"For the Yale Club, he wrote a comprehensive history of its library, *History of the Yale Club Library*. Cooper stood as a longtime member of the Yale Club Library Committee.",
"During the production of the 2004 [Wes Anderson](/wiki/Wes_Anderson \"Wes Anderson\") film *[The Life Aquatic](/wiki/The_Life_Aquatic \"The Life Aquatic\")*, Cooper was in Rome visiting his daughter Molly, then an assistant to producer [Barry Mendel](/wiki/Barry_Mendel \"Barry Mendel\"). One of the film's actors unexpectedly had a stroke, and with a lack of replacements, Cooper auditioned and got the part in the film.",
""
] |
Margaret of Valois
------------------
[thumb\| [Margaret of Valois](/wiki/Margaret_of_Valois "Margaret of Valois"), by [François Clouet](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Clouet "François Clouet"), c. 1570\. Usually remembered for her scandalous and stormy life, Margaret was above all an active politician, acting as a mediator between Catholics and Huguenots. She was also an intellectual, a protector of the arts and also a writer and poet. Her most important work was her *Memoirs*, the first written in a modern style by a woman.Craveri, *Amanti e regine*, pp. 81–82\.](/wiki/File:CLOUET_MARGUERITE_DE_VALOIS.jpg "CLOUET MARGUERITE DE VALOIS.jpg")
After the signature of the [peace of Saint\-Germain](/wiki/Peace_of_Saint-Germain "Peace of Saint-Germain"), [Catherine de' Medici](/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici "Catherine de' Medici"), the powerful mother of [King Charles IX](/wiki/Charles_IX_of_France "Charles IX of France"), was convinced by [François of Montmorency](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Montmorency "François de Montmorency") to marry her daughter [Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_of_Valois "Margaret of Valois") with Henry. The match was in fact assumed almost thirteen years earlier by the late [King Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France "Henry II of France").Pitts, *Henry IV of France*, pp. 8–9\. Catherine, who believed in dynastic marriage as a potent political tool, aimed to unite the interests of the [Valois](/wiki/House_of_Valois "House of Valois") and the [Bourbons](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon "House of Bourbon"), and create harmony between Catholics and Huguenots in the reign of France.
By all accounts, Margaret of Valois was deemed highly attractive, even [sexually magnetic](/wiki/Sexual_attraction "Sexual attraction"): "The beauty of that princess is more divine than human, she is made to damn and ruin men rather than to save them", said about her Don [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria "John of Austria") came to court just to see her.Wellman, p. 278\.{{efn\|After watching her in a festival procession, the court chronicler \[\[Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme]] described her as follows: "One had never seen anything lovelier in the world. Beside the beauty of her face and her well\-turned body, she was superbly dressed and fantastically valuable jewellery adorned her attire. Her lovely face shone with faultless white skin and her hair was dressed with big white pearls, precious stones and extremely rare diamonds shaped like stars—one could say that her natural beauty and the shimmering of her jewels competed with a brilliant night sky full of stars, so to speak".}} Margaret had also an enterprising and flirtatious character. Shortly before this marriage plan with Henry of Navarre, she had been involved in a scandal: it was discovered that she encouraged the handsome [Henry of Guise](/wiki/Henry_I%2C_Duke_of_Guise "Henry I, Duke of Guise"), who intended to marry her, entertaining a secret correspondence with him. When her family discovered it put an end to the crush between them and sent Henry of Guise away from court.{{efn\|Spanish ambassador Don Alava relates that when Catherine found this out, she and the king then beat Margaret, ripping her nightclothes and pulling out handfuls of her hair.Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 135\.}}
Some sources claim the duke of Guise was Margaret's first lover, but this is highly unlikely. For political reasons, the duty of a Daughter of France was to be a [virgin](/wiki/Virginity%23Female_virginity "Virginity#Female virginity") at the wedding and for this she was very guarded. If Margaret had really compromised her reputation, [Jeanne d'Albret](/wiki/Jeanne_d%27Albret "Jeanne d'Albret") would not accept the marriage between her son and the princess.Williams, *Queen Margot*, p. 39 Although certainly after the wedding, Margaret was unfaithful to her husband, many of the extramarital adventures are the result of pamphlets that have had to politically discredit her and her family: the most famous was *Le Divorce Satyrique* (1607\), who described her as a [nymphomaniac](/wiki/Nymphomaniac "Nymphomaniac").Wellman, p. 275\.
Margaret complied with her mother's desire to marry Henry, provided she was not forced to convert to Protestantism. When Jeanne arrived at the French court after receiving numerous pressures from Catherine, she was extremely impressed by Margaret: "She has frankly owned to me the favourable impression which she has formed of you. With her beauty and wit, she exercises a great influence over the Queen\-Mother and the King, and Messieurs her younger brothers."Quoted by Williams, p. 60\. The problems began when the Protestant Jeanne discovered that Margaret had no intention of abjuring Catholicism.{{efn\|When Jeanne did attend court, Catherine piled mental pressure on her. Jeanne wrote to Henry: "I am not free to talk with either the King or Madame, only the Queen Mother, who goads me \[''me traite á la fourche'']… You have doubtless realized that their main object, my son, is to separate you from God, and from me".Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 148–49\.}} Meanwhile the marriage negotiations were repeatedly impeded by the Pope and the King of Spain.
Tired of the duration of the negotiations, Charles IX decided that the wedding would be celebrated by the [Cardinal of Bourbon](/wiki/Charles%2C_Cardinal_de_Bourbon_%28born_1523%29 "Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon (born 1523)") even without papal dispensation, so Jeanne gave her consent to the wedding by promising that Henry could remain a Huguenot. When Jeanne arrived in Paris to buy clothes for the wedding, she was taken ill and died, aged forty\-four; and Henry succeeded her as the King of Navarre.{{efn\|Huguenot writers later accused Catherine of murdering Jeanne with poisoned gloves: an autopsy revealed tuberculosis and an abscess.Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', pp. 150\-151\.}} Henry arrived in Paris in July 1572 and saw Margaret after six years of separation (they had spent their childhood together with the French court). Despite subsequent historiographic interpretations, contemporaries do not point out any mutual dissatisfaction between future spouses.Boucher, *Deux épouses et reines à la fin du XVIe siècle*, pp. 21\-22\.
[thumb\|left\|Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois](/wiki/File:Henry%26Margot.jpg "Henry&Margot.jpg")
The controversial wedding took place on 18 August 1572 at [Notre\-Dame](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris "Notre-Dame de Paris"), Paris.{{efn\|A royal match between a \[\[Roman Catholic]] and a Huguenot was controversial and irregular. The different faiths of the bridal couple made for an unusual wedding service: for example, Henry did not attend the \[\[mass (liturgy)\|mass]], where his place was taken by Margaret's brother \[\[Henry III of France\|Duke of Anjou]].Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 153\.}} After a nuptial lunch, four days of balls, masques and banquets ensued, only to be interrupted by the outbreak of violence in Paris. After the attempted assassination of the Huguenot leader [Gaspard de Coligny](/wiki/Gaspard_II_de_Coligny "Gaspard II de Coligny") on 22 August 1572, Catherine and Charles IX, to forestall the expected Huguenot backlash, ordered the murder of the Huguenot leaders gathered in Paris for the wedding. The result was the [St. Bartholomew's Day massacre](/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre"), in which thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris and throughout the reign."Saint Bartholomew's Day, Massacre of" in *The New Encyclopædia Britannica* (15th edition, Chicago, 1991\) **10**:311:3b.
Margaret later described in her *Memoirs* the chaos and bloodshed in the [Louvre Palace](/wiki/Louvre_Palace "Louvre Palace"), where she and her new husband were lodged. Henry found himself escorted to a room with his cousin [Henry of Condé](/wiki/Henri_I_de_Bourbon%2C_prince_de_Cond%C3%A9 "Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé"), and told to choose between death and conversion to Roman Catholicism. He chose the latter.Pitts, pp. 63\-65\. After the massacre, the Queen\-Mother proposed to her daughter that the marriage be annulled, but Margaret replied that this was impossible because she had already had sexual relations with Henry and was "in every sense" his wife. She wrote in her *Memoirs*: "I suspected the design of separating me from my husband was in order to work some mischief against him."Memoirs, p. 67\.
[left\| thumb\| [Charlotte de Sauve](/wiki/Charlotte_de_Sauve "Charlotte de Sauve"), Henry's mistress during the early years of his marriage to Marguerite of Valois, worked as an informant for Catherine de' Medici as a member of her "Flying Squadron"](/wiki/File:CharlottedeBeauneSemblancay.jpg "CharlottedeBeauneSemblancay.jpg")
Until 1576, Henry remained at court, siding with Margaret and her brother [François of Alençon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%2C_Duke_of_Anjou "François, Duke of Anjou") against [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_France "Henry III of France"), who became king in 1574\. During this time, Henry of Navarre often ignored Margaret and instead slept with his mistress, [Charlotte de Sauve](/wiki/Charlotte_de_Sauve "Charlotte de Sauve").Buisseret, 9\. It appeared, in the words of Henry's biographer David Buisseret, as if "the pleasure\-loving and libidinous elements of his ancestry had finally gained the upper hand".Buisseret, 8\. A rivalry developed between him and Alençon over the beautiful de Sauve, who was one of Catherine de' Medici's so\-called "flying squadron", a group of "court lovelies" whom Catherine used to lure noblemen to court and, it was rumoured, as informants. According to Margaret's *Memoirs*, de Sauve "treated both of them in such a way that they became extremely jealous of each other… to such a point that they forgot their ambitions, their duties and their plans and thought of nothing but chasing after this woman". De Sauve may have been acting as a tool of Henry III and Catherine in their attempts to split the two men. Henry of Navarre's good judgement was already known to desert him when it came to women. He wrote to a friend:
{{quote\|This Court is the strangest place on earth. We are nearly always ready to cut each other's throats… All the band you know wants my death on account of my love for Monsieur \[Alençon] and they have forbidden my mistress to speak to me. They have such a hold on her that she does not dare look at me… they say they will kill me, and I want to be one jump ahead of them.}}
Margaret's behaviour was also the subject of scandal. On one occasion in 1575, Catherine de' Medici was heard yelling at her, accusing her of taking a lover. In a separate incident, the king sent a band of assassins to murder Margaret's lover [Bussy d'Amboise](/wiki/Louis_de_Bussy_d%27Amboise "Louis de Bussy d'Amboise"), a friend of Alençon's, who managed to escape. As Catherine's biographer Leonie Frieda puts it: "he then decided to leave the Court immediately citing health reasons, which happened to be nothing less than the truth". In 1576, Henry III accused Marguerite of improper relations with a lady\-in\-waiting. Margaret claimed in her *Memoirs* that he would have killed her if Catherine had not stopped him. Despite their sexual infidelities, Margaret remained politically loyal to her husband during the early period of their marriage and helped him negotiate the complexities of the court. By 1575, however, their relations were no longer physical: "I could not endure the pain that I felt", she recalled in her *Memoirs*, "and I stopped sleeping with the King my husband".
In 1576, Henry managed to slip away while hunting and made for his kingdom, where he [abjured](/wiki/Abjuration "Abjuration") the Catholic religion on 13 June. For a time, the abandoned Margaret found herself imprisoned, suspected of complicity, and was afterwards distrusted by her own family. Henry eventually demanded that she be brought to him. In 1578, therefore, Catherine de' Medici travelled south to Nérac and duly delivered Margaret to her husband. At first, in this new phase in their marriage, the couple managed a show of harmony, but strains were apparent. In 1580 a religious war, later called the "Lovers' War", broke out between the Huguenots and King Henry III. Although inaccurate, this name for the war relates to a series of scandals at the Navarre court and to the notion that Henry of Navarre took up arms in response to jibes about his love life from the French court. At this point, he was conducting a passionate affair with a mistress known as "[La Belle Fosseuse](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_de_Montmorency-Fosseux "Françoise de Montmorency-Fosseux")", while Margaret was involved with one of his own commanders, the Vicomte de Turenne. Henry wrote to Margaret apologising for the state of affairs between them. He expressed "extreme regret that instead of bringing you contentment… I have brought the opposite".
In 1582, Margaret returned to the French court without her husband, who was still openly besotted with *La Fosseuse*. Before long, she began taking lovers again, such as Harlay de Champvallon, one of her brother François's retinue, and acting more scandalously than ever. After a rumour that she had borne Champvallon a child, Henry III ordered her back to Navarre and then had her carriage searched and detained her in an abbey for questioning.
Henry of Navarre at first refused to take Margaret back unless Henry III made a public statement asserting her innocence of all the charges against her. Catherine de' Medici sent [Pomponne de Bellièvre](/wiki/Pomponne_de_Belli%C3%A8vre "Pomponne de Bellièvre") south to smooth things over and arrange Margaret's return. In a letter, she spelled out to Margaret that a royal wife must bear her husband's affairs without complaint, recalling proudly that her own conduct as a wife had been impeccable, despite all provocation.Knecht, *Catherine de' Medici*, 215–16\. Margaret was reunited with Henry on 13 April 1584, but she failed to heed her mother's words, even though the death of her brother François in June 1584 made her husband heir presumptive to the French throne. Henry himself was under increased pressure to produce an heir. He was advised by his closest friend Philippe Duplessis\-Mornay that it was now "time to make love to France".
[thumb\| Henry's mistress [Diane d'Andouins](/wiki/Diane_d%27Andouins "Diane d'Andouins"), Countess of Gramont, was nicknamed "La Belle Corisande".](/wiki/File:DianedAndouins1565.jpg "DianedAndouins1565.jpg")
In 1585, Henry embarked on a passionate love affair with a widow called [Diane d'Andouins](/wiki/Diane_d%27Andouins "Diane d'Andouins"), nicknamed *La Belle Corisande*. Margaret found it impossible to ignore this particular lover of Henry's, since d'Andouins was pressing Henry to repudiate Margaret so that she could become queen of Navarre herself. Margaret responded by attempting to poison Henry, and then she shot at him with a pistol but missed. To escape his revenge, she fled the Kingdom of Navarre again, this time to her property at [Agen](/wiki/Agen "Agen"). From there she wrote to her mother begging for money. Catherine sent her enough "to put food on her table" but was contemptuous.
Margaret attempted to strengthen the fortifications at Agen, raise troops, and ally with the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 "Catholic League (French)") against her husband. Before long, however, the officials and people of Agen drove her out of the town. Retreating to her lofty and impregnable fortress of [Carlat](/wiki/Carlat "Carlat"), and refusing her mother's pleas that she move to a royal manor, she there took a lover called d'Aubiac. Catherine's patience ran out, and she insisted that Henry III arrest "this insufferable torment" and act "before she brings shame on us again".
On 13 October 1586, therefore, the king had Margaret forcibly removed from Carlat and locked up in the [Château d'Usson](/wiki/Usson%2C_Puy-de-D%C3%B4me "Usson, Puy-de-Dôme"). D'Aubiac was executed, though not, as Catherine demanded, in front of Margaret.{{efn\|Henry III wrote to his secretary \[\[Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy\|Villeroy]]: "The Queen my mother wishes me to hang Obyac {{sic}} in the presence of this miserable creature \[Margaret] in the courtyard of the Château d'Usson".Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 254–55\.}} Catherine cut Marguerite out of her will. Margaret never saw her mother or brother again. Margaret assumed she was going to die and even employed a food taster at the château. In a "farewell" letter to her mother, she asked that after her execution a [post\-mortem](/wiki/Post-mortem "Post-mortem") be held to prove that she was not, despite gossip, pregnant with d'Aubiac's child. At this point, her luck took a turn for the better. Her gaoler, the Marquis de Canillac, whom she was rumoured to have seduced, suddenly switched from the royal side in the civil war to that of the Catholic League and released her in early 1587\. Her freedom suited the League perfectly: her continued existence guaranteed that Henry of Navarre would remain without an heir. This problem became acute for Henry after he [succeeded to the throne of France](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France%27s_succession "Henry IV of France's succession") in 1589\.
|
[
"Margaret of Valois\n------------------",
"[thumb\\| [Margaret of Valois](/wiki/Margaret_of_Valois \"Margaret of Valois\"), by [François Clouet](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Clouet \"François Clouet\"), c. 1570\\. Usually remembered for her scandalous and stormy life, Margaret was above all an active politician, acting as a mediator between Catholics and Huguenots. She was also an intellectual, a protector of the arts and also a writer and poet. Her most important work was her *Memoirs*, the first written in a modern style by a woman.Craveri, *Amanti e regine*, pp. 81–82\\.](/wiki/File:CLOUET_MARGUERITE_DE_VALOIS.jpg \"CLOUET MARGUERITE DE VALOIS.jpg\")",
"After the signature of the [peace of Saint\\-Germain](/wiki/Peace_of_Saint-Germain \"Peace of Saint-Germain\"), [Catherine de' Medici](/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici \"Catherine de' Medici\"), the powerful mother of [King Charles IX](/wiki/Charles_IX_of_France \"Charles IX of France\"), was convinced by [François of Montmorency](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Montmorency \"François de Montmorency\") to marry her daughter [Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_of_Valois \"Margaret of Valois\") with Henry. The match was in fact assumed almost thirteen years earlier by the late [King Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France \"Henry II of France\").Pitts, *Henry IV of France*, pp. 8–9\\. Catherine, who believed in dynastic marriage as a potent political tool, aimed to unite the interests of the [Valois](/wiki/House_of_Valois \"House of Valois\") and the [Bourbons](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon \"House of Bourbon\"), and create harmony between Catholics and Huguenots in the reign of France.",
"By all accounts, Margaret of Valois was deemed highly attractive, even [sexually magnetic](/wiki/Sexual_attraction \"Sexual attraction\"): \"The beauty of that princess is more divine than human, she is made to damn and ruin men rather than to save them\", said about her Don [John of Austria](/wiki/John_of_Austria \"John of Austria\") came to court just to see her.Wellman, p. 278\\.{{efn\\|After watching her in a festival procession, the court chronicler \\[\\[Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme]] described her as follows: \"One had never seen anything lovelier in the world. Beside the beauty of her face and her well\\-turned body, she was superbly dressed and fantastically valuable jewellery adorned her attire. Her lovely face shone with faultless white skin and her hair was dressed with big white pearls, precious stones and extremely rare diamonds shaped like stars—one could say that her natural beauty and the shimmering of her jewels competed with a brilliant night sky full of stars, so to speak\".}} Margaret had also an enterprising and flirtatious character. Shortly before this marriage plan with Henry of Navarre, she had been involved in a scandal: it was discovered that she encouraged the handsome [Henry of Guise](/wiki/Henry_I%2C_Duke_of_Guise \"Henry I, Duke of Guise\"), who intended to marry her, entertaining a secret correspondence with him. When her family discovered it put an end to the crush between them and sent Henry of Guise away from court.{{efn\\|Spanish ambassador Don Alava relates that when Catherine found this out, she and the king then beat Margaret, ripping her nightclothes and pulling out handfuls of her hair.Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 135\\.}}",
"Some sources claim the duke of Guise was Margaret's first lover, but this is highly unlikely. For political reasons, the duty of a Daughter of France was to be a [virgin](/wiki/Virginity%23Female_virginity \"Virginity#Female virginity\") at the wedding and for this she was very guarded. If Margaret had really compromised her reputation, [Jeanne d'Albret](/wiki/Jeanne_d%27Albret \"Jeanne d'Albret\") would not accept the marriage between her son and the princess.Williams, *Queen Margot*, p. 39 Although certainly after the wedding, Margaret was unfaithful to her husband, many of the extramarital adventures are the result of pamphlets that have had to politically discredit her and her family: the most famous was *Le Divorce Satyrique* (1607\\), who described her as a [nymphomaniac](/wiki/Nymphomaniac \"Nymphomaniac\").Wellman, p. 275\\.",
"Margaret complied with her mother's desire to marry Henry, provided she was not forced to convert to Protestantism. When Jeanne arrived at the French court after receiving numerous pressures from Catherine, she was extremely impressed by Margaret: \"She has frankly owned to me the favourable impression which she has formed of you. With her beauty and wit, she exercises a great influence over the Queen\\-Mother and the King, and Messieurs her younger brothers.\"Quoted by Williams, p. 60\\. The problems began when the Protestant Jeanne discovered that Margaret had no intention of abjuring Catholicism.{{efn\\|When Jeanne did attend court, Catherine piled mental pressure on her. Jeanne wrote to Henry: \"I am not free to talk with either the King or Madame, only the Queen Mother, who goads me \\[''me traite á la fourche'']… You have doubtless realized that their main object, my son, is to separate you from God, and from me\".Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 148–49\\.}} Meanwhile the marriage negotiations were repeatedly impeded by the Pope and the King of Spain.",
"Tired of the duration of the negotiations, Charles IX decided that the wedding would be celebrated by the [Cardinal of Bourbon](/wiki/Charles%2C_Cardinal_de_Bourbon_%28born_1523%29 \"Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon (born 1523)\") even without papal dispensation, so Jeanne gave her consent to the wedding by promising that Henry could remain a Huguenot. When Jeanne arrived in Paris to buy clothes for the wedding, she was taken ill and died, aged forty\\-four; and Henry succeeded her as the King of Navarre.{{efn\\|Huguenot writers later accused Catherine of murdering Jeanne with poisoned gloves: an autopsy revealed tuberculosis and an abscess.Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', pp. 150\\-151\\.}} Henry arrived in Paris in July 1572 and saw Margaret after six years of separation (they had spent their childhood together with the French court). Despite subsequent historiographic interpretations, contemporaries do not point out any mutual dissatisfaction between future spouses.Boucher, *Deux épouses et reines à la fin du XVIe siècle*, pp. 21\\-22\\.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois](/wiki/File:Henry%26Margot.jpg \"Henry&Margot.jpg\")\nThe controversial wedding took place on 18 August 1572 at [Notre\\-Dame](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris \"Notre-Dame de Paris\"), Paris.{{efn\\|A royal match between a \\[\\[Roman Catholic]] and a Huguenot was controversial and irregular. The different faiths of the bridal couple made for an unusual wedding service: for example, Henry did not attend the \\[\\[mass (liturgy)\\|mass]], where his place was taken by Margaret's brother \\[\\[Henry III of France\\|Duke of Anjou]].Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 153\\.}} After a nuptial lunch, four days of balls, masques and banquets ensued, only to be interrupted by the outbreak of violence in Paris. After the attempted assassination of the Huguenot leader [Gaspard de Coligny](/wiki/Gaspard_II_de_Coligny \"Gaspard II de Coligny\") on 22 August 1572, Catherine and Charles IX, to forestall the expected Huguenot backlash, ordered the murder of the Huguenot leaders gathered in Paris for the wedding. The result was the [St. Bartholomew's Day massacre](/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre \"St. Bartholomew's Day massacre\"), in which thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris and throughout the reign.\"Saint Bartholomew's Day, Massacre of\" in *The New Encyclopædia Britannica* (15th edition, Chicago, 1991\\) **10**:311:3b.",
"Margaret later described in her *Memoirs* the chaos and bloodshed in the [Louvre Palace](/wiki/Louvre_Palace \"Louvre Palace\"), where she and her new husband were lodged. Henry found himself escorted to a room with his cousin [Henry of Condé](/wiki/Henri_I_de_Bourbon%2C_prince_de_Cond%C3%A9 \"Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé\"), and told to choose between death and conversion to Roman Catholicism. He chose the latter.Pitts, pp. 63\\-65\\. After the massacre, the Queen\\-Mother proposed to her daughter that the marriage be annulled, but Margaret replied that this was impossible because she had already had sexual relations with Henry and was \"in every sense\" his wife. She wrote in her *Memoirs*: \"I suspected the design of separating me from my husband was in order to work some mischief against him.\"Memoirs, p. 67\\.",
"[left\\| thumb\\| [Charlotte de Sauve](/wiki/Charlotte_de_Sauve \"Charlotte de Sauve\"), Henry's mistress during the early years of his marriage to Marguerite of Valois, worked as an informant for Catherine de' Medici as a member of her \"Flying Squadron\"](/wiki/File:CharlottedeBeauneSemblancay.jpg \"CharlottedeBeauneSemblancay.jpg\")",
"Until 1576, Henry remained at court, siding with Margaret and her brother [François of Alençon](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%2C_Duke_of_Anjou \"François, Duke of Anjou\") against [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_France \"Henry III of France\"), who became king in 1574\\. During this time, Henry of Navarre often ignored Margaret and instead slept with his mistress, [Charlotte de Sauve](/wiki/Charlotte_de_Sauve \"Charlotte de Sauve\").Buisseret, 9\\. It appeared, in the words of Henry's biographer David Buisseret, as if \"the pleasure\\-loving and libidinous elements of his ancestry had finally gained the upper hand\".Buisseret, 8\\. A rivalry developed between him and Alençon over the beautiful de Sauve, who was one of Catherine de' Medici's so\\-called \"flying squadron\", a group of \"court lovelies\" whom Catherine used to lure noblemen to court and, it was rumoured, as informants. According to Margaret's *Memoirs*, de Sauve \"treated both of them in such a way that they became extremely jealous of each other… to such a point that they forgot their ambitions, their duties and their plans and thought of nothing but chasing after this woman\". De Sauve may have been acting as a tool of Henry III and Catherine in their attempts to split the two men. Henry of Navarre's good judgement was already known to desert him when it came to women. He wrote to a friend:",
"{{quote\\|This Court is the strangest place on earth. We are nearly always ready to cut each other's throats… All the band you know wants my death on account of my love for Monsieur \\[Alençon] and they have forbidden my mistress to speak to me. They have such a hold on her that she does not dare look at me… they say they will kill me, and I want to be one jump ahead of them.}}",
"Margaret's behaviour was also the subject of scandal. On one occasion in 1575, Catherine de' Medici was heard yelling at her, accusing her of taking a lover. In a separate incident, the king sent a band of assassins to murder Margaret's lover [Bussy d'Amboise](/wiki/Louis_de_Bussy_d%27Amboise \"Louis de Bussy d'Amboise\"), a friend of Alençon's, who managed to escape. As Catherine's biographer Leonie Frieda puts it: \"he then decided to leave the Court immediately citing health reasons, which happened to be nothing less than the truth\". In 1576, Henry III accused Marguerite of improper relations with a lady\\-in\\-waiting. Margaret claimed in her *Memoirs* that he would have killed her if Catherine had not stopped him. Despite their sexual infidelities, Margaret remained politically loyal to her husband during the early period of their marriage and helped him negotiate the complexities of the court. By 1575, however, their relations were no longer physical: \"I could not endure the pain that I felt\", she recalled in her *Memoirs*, \"and I stopped sleeping with the King my husband\".",
"In 1576, Henry managed to slip away while hunting and made for his kingdom, where he [abjured](/wiki/Abjuration \"Abjuration\") the Catholic religion on 13 June. For a time, the abandoned Margaret found herself imprisoned, suspected of complicity, and was afterwards distrusted by her own family. Henry eventually demanded that she be brought to him. In 1578, therefore, Catherine de' Medici travelled south to Nérac and duly delivered Margaret to her husband. At first, in this new phase in their marriage, the couple managed a show of harmony, but strains were apparent. In 1580 a religious war, later called the \"Lovers' War\", broke out between the Huguenots and King Henry III. Although inaccurate, this name for the war relates to a series of scandals at the Navarre court and to the notion that Henry of Navarre took up arms in response to jibes about his love life from the French court. At this point, he was conducting a passionate affair with a mistress known as \"[La Belle Fosseuse](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_de_Montmorency-Fosseux \"Françoise de Montmorency-Fosseux\")\", while Margaret was involved with one of his own commanders, the Vicomte de Turenne. Henry wrote to Margaret apologising for the state of affairs between them. He expressed \"extreme regret that instead of bringing you contentment… I have brought the opposite\".",
"In 1582, Margaret returned to the French court without her husband, who was still openly besotted with *La Fosseuse*. Before long, she began taking lovers again, such as Harlay de Champvallon, one of her brother François's retinue, and acting more scandalously than ever. After a rumour that she had borne Champvallon a child, Henry III ordered her back to Navarre and then had her carriage searched and detained her in an abbey for questioning.",
"Henry of Navarre at first refused to take Margaret back unless Henry III made a public statement asserting her innocence of all the charges against her. Catherine de' Medici sent [Pomponne de Bellièvre](/wiki/Pomponne_de_Belli%C3%A8vre \"Pomponne de Bellièvre\") south to smooth things over and arrange Margaret's return. In a letter, she spelled out to Margaret that a royal wife must bear her husband's affairs without complaint, recalling proudly that her own conduct as a wife had been impeccable, despite all provocation.Knecht, *Catherine de' Medici*, 215–16\\. Margaret was reunited with Henry on 13 April 1584, but she failed to heed her mother's words, even though the death of her brother François in June 1584 made her husband heir presumptive to the French throne. Henry himself was under increased pressure to produce an heir. He was advised by his closest friend Philippe Duplessis\\-Mornay that it was now \"time to make love to France\".",
"[thumb\\| Henry's mistress [Diane d'Andouins](/wiki/Diane_d%27Andouins \"Diane d'Andouins\"), Countess of Gramont, was nicknamed \"La Belle Corisande\".](/wiki/File:DianedAndouins1565.jpg \"DianedAndouins1565.jpg\")\nIn 1585, Henry embarked on a passionate love affair with a widow called [Diane d'Andouins](/wiki/Diane_d%27Andouins \"Diane d'Andouins\"), nicknamed *La Belle Corisande*. Margaret found it impossible to ignore this particular lover of Henry's, since d'Andouins was pressing Henry to repudiate Margaret so that she could become queen of Navarre herself. Margaret responded by attempting to poison Henry, and then she shot at him with a pistol but missed. To escape his revenge, she fled the Kingdom of Navarre again, this time to her property at [Agen](/wiki/Agen \"Agen\"). From there she wrote to her mother begging for money. Catherine sent her enough \"to put food on her table\" but was contemptuous.",
"Margaret attempted to strengthen the fortifications at Agen, raise troops, and ally with the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 \"Catholic League (French)\") against her husband. Before long, however, the officials and people of Agen drove her out of the town. Retreating to her lofty and impregnable fortress of [Carlat](/wiki/Carlat \"Carlat\"), and refusing her mother's pleas that she move to a royal manor, she there took a lover called d'Aubiac. Catherine's patience ran out, and she insisted that Henry III arrest \"this insufferable torment\" and act \"before she brings shame on us again\".",
"On 13 October 1586, therefore, the king had Margaret forcibly removed from Carlat and locked up in the [Château d'Usson](/wiki/Usson%2C_Puy-de-D%C3%B4me \"Usson, Puy-de-Dôme\"). D'Aubiac was executed, though not, as Catherine demanded, in front of Margaret.{{efn\\|Henry III wrote to his secretary \\[\\[Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy\\|Villeroy]]: \"The Queen my mother wishes me to hang Obyac {{sic}} in the presence of this miserable creature \\[Margaret] in the courtyard of the Château d'Usson\".Knecht, ''Catherine de' Medici'', 254–55\\.}} Catherine cut Marguerite out of her will. Margaret never saw her mother or brother again. Margaret assumed she was going to die and even employed a food taster at the château. In a \"farewell\" letter to her mother, she asked that after her execution a [post\\-mortem](/wiki/Post-mortem \"Post-mortem\") be held to prove that she was not, despite gossip, pregnant with d'Aubiac's child. At this point, her luck took a turn for the better. Her gaoler, the Marquis de Canillac, whom she was rumoured to have seduced, suddenly switched from the royal side in the civil war to that of the Catholic League and released her in early 1587\\. Her freedom suited the League perfectly: her continued existence guaranteed that Henry of Navarre would remain without an heir. This problem became acute for Henry after he [succeeded to the throne of France](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France%27s_succession \"Henry IV of France's succession\") in 1589\\.",
""
] |
Marie de' Medici
----------------
In October 1599, the *parlement* of Paris officially petitioned that Henry marry a princess worthy of his dignity. Henry took note and began considering candidates from several foreign states. According to Sully, however, he ruled out a German wife, on the grounds that it would feel like going to bed with a wine\-barrel. Henry was keenest on [Maria de' Medici](/wiki/Marie_de%27_Medici "Marie de' Medici"), the niece of [Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany](/wiki/Ferdinando_I_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany "Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany"), and the daughter of the previous duke, [Francesco I de' Medici](/wiki/Francesco_I_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany "Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany"). What he found particularly attractive about Maria was her enormous wealth.
[thumb\|Henry's second wife, [Marie de' Medici](/wiki/Marie_de%27_Medici "Marie de' Medici"). [Ralph Winwood](/wiki/Ralph_Winwood "Ralph Winwood") described her as "of a comely stature", whose beauty was without artifice.Buisseret, 86–87\.](/wiki/File:MariadeMedici04.jpg "MariadeMedici04.jpg")
On 17 December 1599, the Archbishop of Arles pronounced the annulment of Henry's marriage to Margaret of Valois.{{efn\|The grounds were closeness of kin; that Margaret's father, \[\[Henry II of France\|Henry II]], had been Henry's godfather; and that \[\[Catherine de' Medici]] had forced Margaret into the marriage against her will.Buisseret, p. 79\.}} The Medici marriage contract was signed in April 1600, pledging a huge dowry of 600,000 *[écus](/wiki/%C3%89cus "Écus")*, part of which was subtracted to pay Henry's debts to Ferdinando. Henry played his part by proclaiming undying devotion to Maria in a series of letters, though he was sending similar love letters to Henriette d'Entragues, telling her in one that he wanted to kiss her a million times.Buisseret, 86\. A [proxy marriage](/wiki/Proxy_marriage "Proxy marriage") took place in Florence in October 1600, and then Maria—to be known in France as Marie—sailed in great pomp for [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille"), where she disembarked on 3 November. Henry, on campaign in [Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy "Duchy of Savoy"), rode to meet her at [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon "Lyon"), where he found her at supper. He visited her afterwards in her chamber; according to [Ralph Winwood](/wiki/Ralph_Winwood "Ralph Winwood"), secretary to English ambassador Sir Henry Neville:
> She met him at the door, and offered to kneel down, but he took her in his arms, where he held her embraced a long time ... He doth profess to the World the great Contentment he finds in her, how that for her Beauty, her sweet and pleasing carriage, her gracious behaviour, she doth surpass the relation which hath been made of her, and the Expectation which he thereby conceived.Quoted in Buisseret, 87\.
The couple underwent a second marriage ceremony in Lyon; and Marie finally reached Paris on 7 February, already pregnant.Buisseret, 87\. She found her new home, the [Louvre](/wiki/Louvre "Louvre"), so shabby that at first she thought Henry was playing a joke. She gave birth to a son, [Louis](/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France "Louis XIII of France"), at the [Palace of Fontainebleau](/wiki/Palace_of_Fontainebleau "Palace of Fontainebleau") on 27 September 1601, to the delight of Henry, who had rushed from military duties to her bedside to serve, he joked, as one of her midwives.Buisseret, 108–9\. The moment Henry was told that the child was a boy, he ushered two hundred courtiers into the chamber to share the [euphoria](/wiki/Euphoria "Euphoria"). The baby was fed a spoonful of wine and handed over to a governess, Baroness {{Interlanguage link multi\|Robert de Harlay, baron de Monglat\|fr\|3\=Monglat}}, and to the physician {{Interlanguage link multi\|Jean Héroard\|fr}}, an expert on the bone structure of horses.Moote, 19–20\. According to Winwood, the baby was a "strong and a goodly prince, and doth promise long life".Buisseret, 109\. The birth of a [dauphin](/wiki/Dauphin_of_France "Dauphin of France"), as the first son of a French king was known, inspired rejoicing and bonfires throughout France.Moote, 20\.
Marie believed that after bearing a son, she "would begin to be a queen". However, a few weeks later, Henriette d'Entragues also produced a son ([Gaston Henri, Duc de Verneuil](/wiki/Gaston_Henri%2C_Duc_de_Verneuil "Gaston Henri, Duc de Verneuil")) and Henry not only made just as much fuss over this son but declared that he was better\-looking, not fat and dark like Louis and the [Medici](/wiki/House_of_Medici "House of Medici"). In the words of biographer David Buisseret, "the royal couple was well embarked upon nine years of mutual recrimination and misunderstandings, in which the fault plainly lay with the king".
Henry had made Marie's position clear to her from the first. When she began by pressing him to accept the decrees of the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent "Council of Trent"), he told her to keep her nose out of state business and look after herself.{{efn\|Among other losses to the \[\[Catholic Church in France\|Gallican Church]], this would have meant Henry giving up the right to appoint his own bishops.Buisseret, 108\.}} Shortly after Marie's arrival in Paris, Henry had introduced Henriette d'Entragues to her, reportedly pushing Henriette further towards the ground when her curtsey was not low enough. He housed his senior mistress close to the Louvre and was seen dining with the queen and d'Entragues together. Marie also had to cope with a second public mistress, La Bourdaisière, as well as with Henry's continued visits to Zamet's house for services provided by "la belle garce Claude". In the next nine years, Marie bore Henry six children; but he also sired five more by d'Entragues, [Jacqueline de Bueil](/wiki/Jacqueline_de_Bueil "Jacqueline de Bueil"), and [Charlotte des Essarts](/wiki/Charlotte_des_Essarts "Charlotte des Essarts").Mousnier, 186\. Nonetheless, Henry often wrote affectionate letters to Marie and in other ways treated her with respect.
[thumb\| [Henriette d'Entragues, Marquise de Verneuil](/wiki/Catherine_Henriette_de_Balzac_d%27Entragues "Catherine Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues"), believed that Henry had legally promised to marry her and that his children by the queen were therefore bastards.](/wiki/File:Henriette_d%27Entragues.jpg "Henriette d'Entragues.jpg")
Henriette d'Entragues never reconciled herself to Henry's marriage, and she drove Marie to tears by calling her his "fat banker", claiming her own children were Henry's legitimate heirs and branding the dauphin a bastard.Moote, 29\. Henry's devotion to d'Entragues was tested during the revolt of [Marshal Biron](/wiki/Charles_de_Gontaut%2C_duc_de_Biron "Charles de Gontaut, duc de Biron") in 1602, in which her half\-brother, [Charles, Count of Auvergne](/wiki/Charles_de_Valois%2C_Duke_of_Angoul%C3%AAme "Charles de Valois, Duke of Angoulême"), was implicated and she was compromised. Though Biron was executed, Henry released Auvergne to please Henriette. In 1604, she was at the heart of a Spanish\-backed plot to install her son by the king as heir to the throne.{{efn\|Henriette d'Entragues possessed a letter from Henry promising to marry her if she bore him a son; and she and her ambitious family used this document to challenge Henry's marriage to Marie. They hoped to convince the pope to annul the marriage, leaving Prince Louis a bastard.Mousnier, 126\.}} Her father, the sieur d'Entragues, was involved in this plot, along with, again, her half\-brother. Henriette d'Entragues was sentenced to confinement in a convent, but Henry was moved to spare her even that and allowed her to retire to her estate at [Verneuil](/wiki/Verneuil_en_Beauvoisis "Verneuil en Beauvoisis"){{efn\|He also released her father and merely imprisoned her half\-brother, though both had been sentenced to death for \[\[lèse\-majesté]].Buisseret, 125–26\. }} Despite the king's clemency, Henriette d'Entragues may have continued to plot further against him. According to a government report of 1616, a former companion of d'Entragues, Mlle d'Escoman, had claimed in 1611 that d'Entragues had met [François Ravaillac](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Ravaillac "François Ravaillac"), Henry's assassin of 1610\. However, this evidence is compromised by the fact that, at the time she made this accusation, Mlle d'Escoman was in prison on another charge.{{efn\|"It is hard to know how much of her story to believe."Mousnier, 47–48\.}}
The dauphin, Louis, turned out to be a difficult and temperamental child, and some historians have blamed this on his parents and the circumstances of his upbringing.Moote, 21\. He was raised just outside Paris at the [château of Saint\-Germain\-en\-Laye](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Saint-Germain-en-Laye "Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye"), not only alongside Marie's other children by Henry but, as Henry insisted, with several children of Henry's mistresses.Moote, 22\. Henry always seemed to get his mistresses pregnant at the same time as Marie. Just as Marie was in constant competition with Henry's mistresses, so her children were forced to compete with their children for his affection.Moote, 28\. The fact that Henry's three children by Gabrielle d'Estrées were older than the heir to the throne caused particular problems of rivalry. [César](/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_de_Bourbon%2C_duc_de_Vend%C3%B4me "César de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme") and Alexandre were later to rebel against Louis when he was king.{{sfn\|Moote\|1991\|p\=190\-191}} He did not hesitate to throw them into prison.{{sfn\|Moote\|1991\|p\=190\-191}}
Louis shared his father's stubbornness, but he may have inherited his temper tantrums from his mother, who often gave Henry tongue\-lashings in public. Although Marie has been accused of lacking affection for her children, a study of her letters reveals the contrary, though she was a stern disciplinarian. She wrote to the dauphin's governess, for example, asking her to avoid whippings when the weather was hot and to beat Louis only "with such caution that the anger he might feel would not cause any illness".Moote, 27\. On another occasion, she reprimanded her middle daughter, Christine, for being ill, accusing her of not following the advice of her doctors.Moote, 27–28\. Marie personally educated the children in practical matters, such as [etiquette](/wiki/Etiquette "Etiquette").Moote, 26–27\. After Henry's assassination in 1610, she became [regent](/wiki/Regent "Regent") of France and retained influence over Louis XIII until he finally rejected her in 1617\.
Henry's last passion was for [Charlotte of Montmorency](/wiki/Charlotte-Marguerite_de_Montmorency "Charlotte-Marguerite de Montmorency"), the fifteen\-year\-old wife of [Henry, prince of Condé](/wiki/Henry_II_de_Bourbon%2C_prince_de_Cond%C3%A9 "Henry II de Bourbon, prince de Condé"), [First Prince of the Blood](/wiki/First_Prince_of_the_Blood "First Prince of the Blood"). The king had arranged Charlotte's marriage to Condé for his own convenience, in order to sleep with her himself when he pleased. To escape from this predicament, the couple fled to [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"). The king was enraged and threatened to march into [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders") with an army unless the Habsburg governors returned Condé and his wife at once. At the time, he was also threatening war with the Habsburgs over the succession to the [United Duchies of Jülich\-Cleves\-Berg](/wiki/United_Duchies_of_J%C3%BClich-Cleves-Berg "United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg"), so historians are unsure how crucial in itself Charlotte's return was as a reason for war. Condé continued to provoke Henry from Flanders. When asked to drink to the queen of France, he replied that there seemed to be more than one queen of France, maybe as many as four or five.Buisseret, 173–74\.
|
[
"Marie de' Medici\n----------------",
"In October 1599, the *parlement* of Paris officially petitioned that Henry marry a princess worthy of his dignity. Henry took note and began considering candidates from several foreign states. According to Sully, however, he ruled out a German wife, on the grounds that it would feel like going to bed with a wine\\-barrel. Henry was keenest on [Maria de' Medici](/wiki/Marie_de%27_Medici \"Marie de' Medici\"), the niece of [Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany](/wiki/Ferdinando_I_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany \"Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany\"), and the daughter of the previous duke, [Francesco I de' Medici](/wiki/Francesco_I_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany \"Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany\"). What he found particularly attractive about Maria was her enormous wealth.",
"[thumb\\|Henry's second wife, [Marie de' Medici](/wiki/Marie_de%27_Medici \"Marie de' Medici\"). [Ralph Winwood](/wiki/Ralph_Winwood \"Ralph Winwood\") described her as \"of a comely stature\", whose beauty was without artifice.Buisseret, 86–87\\.](/wiki/File:MariadeMedici04.jpg \"MariadeMedici04.jpg\")\nOn 17 December 1599, the Archbishop of Arles pronounced the annulment of Henry's marriage to Margaret of Valois.{{efn\\|The grounds were closeness of kin; that Margaret's father, \\[\\[Henry II of France\\|Henry II]], had been Henry's godfather; and that \\[\\[Catherine de' Medici]] had forced Margaret into the marriage against her will.Buisseret, p. 79\\.}} The Medici marriage contract was signed in April 1600, pledging a huge dowry of 600,000 *[écus](/wiki/%C3%89cus \"Écus\")*, part of which was subtracted to pay Henry's debts to Ferdinando. Henry played his part by proclaiming undying devotion to Maria in a series of letters, though he was sending similar love letters to Henriette d'Entragues, telling her in one that he wanted to kiss her a million times.Buisseret, 86\\. A [proxy marriage](/wiki/Proxy_marriage \"Proxy marriage\") took place in Florence in October 1600, and then Maria—to be known in France as Marie—sailed in great pomp for [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\"), where she disembarked on 3 November. Henry, on campaign in [Savoy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy \"Duchy of Savoy\"), rode to meet her at [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\"), where he found her at supper. He visited her afterwards in her chamber; according to [Ralph Winwood](/wiki/Ralph_Winwood \"Ralph Winwood\"), secretary to English ambassador Sir Henry Neville:",
"",
"> She met him at the door, and offered to kneel down, but he took her in his arms, where he held her embraced a long time ... He doth profess to the World the great Contentment he finds in her, how that for her Beauty, her sweet and pleasing carriage, her gracious behaviour, she doth surpass the relation which hath been made of her, and the Expectation which he thereby conceived.Quoted in Buisseret, 87\\.",
"The couple underwent a second marriage ceremony in Lyon; and Marie finally reached Paris on 7 February, already pregnant.Buisseret, 87\\. She found her new home, the [Louvre](/wiki/Louvre \"Louvre\"), so shabby that at first she thought Henry was playing a joke. She gave birth to a son, [Louis](/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France \"Louis XIII of France\"), at the [Palace of Fontainebleau](/wiki/Palace_of_Fontainebleau \"Palace of Fontainebleau\") on 27 September 1601, to the delight of Henry, who had rushed from military duties to her bedside to serve, he joked, as one of her midwives.Buisseret, 108–9\\. The moment Henry was told that the child was a boy, he ushered two hundred courtiers into the chamber to share the [euphoria](/wiki/Euphoria \"Euphoria\"). The baby was fed a spoonful of wine and handed over to a governess, Baroness {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Robert de Harlay, baron de Monglat\\|fr\\|3\\=Monglat}}, and to the physician {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Jean Héroard\\|fr}}, an expert on the bone structure of horses.Moote, 19–20\\. According to Winwood, the baby was a \"strong and a goodly prince, and doth promise long life\".Buisseret, 109\\. The birth of a [dauphin](/wiki/Dauphin_of_France \"Dauphin of France\"), as the first son of a French king was known, inspired rejoicing and bonfires throughout France.Moote, 20\\.",
"Marie believed that after bearing a son, she \"would begin to be a queen\". However, a few weeks later, Henriette d'Entragues also produced a son ([Gaston Henri, Duc de Verneuil](/wiki/Gaston_Henri%2C_Duc_de_Verneuil \"Gaston Henri, Duc de Verneuil\")) and Henry not only made just as much fuss over this son but declared that he was better\\-looking, not fat and dark like Louis and the [Medici](/wiki/House_of_Medici \"House of Medici\"). In the words of biographer David Buisseret, \"the royal couple was well embarked upon nine years of mutual recrimination and misunderstandings, in which the fault plainly lay with the king\".",
"Henry had made Marie's position clear to her from the first. When she began by pressing him to accept the decrees of the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent \"Council of Trent\"), he told her to keep her nose out of state business and look after herself.{{efn\\|Among other losses to the \\[\\[Catholic Church in France\\|Gallican Church]], this would have meant Henry giving up the right to appoint his own bishops.Buisseret, 108\\.}} Shortly after Marie's arrival in Paris, Henry had introduced Henriette d'Entragues to her, reportedly pushing Henriette further towards the ground when her curtsey was not low enough. He housed his senior mistress close to the Louvre and was seen dining with the queen and d'Entragues together. Marie also had to cope with a second public mistress, La Bourdaisière, as well as with Henry's continued visits to Zamet's house for services provided by \"la belle garce Claude\". In the next nine years, Marie bore Henry six children; but he also sired five more by d'Entragues, [Jacqueline de Bueil](/wiki/Jacqueline_de_Bueil \"Jacqueline de Bueil\"), and [Charlotte des Essarts](/wiki/Charlotte_des_Essarts \"Charlotte des Essarts\").Mousnier, 186\\. Nonetheless, Henry often wrote affectionate letters to Marie and in other ways treated her with respect.",
"[thumb\\| [Henriette d'Entragues, Marquise de Verneuil](/wiki/Catherine_Henriette_de_Balzac_d%27Entragues \"Catherine Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues\"), believed that Henry had legally promised to marry her and that his children by the queen were therefore bastards.](/wiki/File:Henriette_d%27Entragues.jpg \"Henriette d'Entragues.jpg\")",
"Henriette d'Entragues never reconciled herself to Henry's marriage, and she drove Marie to tears by calling her his \"fat banker\", claiming her own children were Henry's legitimate heirs and branding the dauphin a bastard.Moote, 29\\. Henry's devotion to d'Entragues was tested during the revolt of [Marshal Biron](/wiki/Charles_de_Gontaut%2C_duc_de_Biron \"Charles de Gontaut, duc de Biron\") in 1602, in which her half\\-brother, [Charles, Count of Auvergne](/wiki/Charles_de_Valois%2C_Duke_of_Angoul%C3%AAme \"Charles de Valois, Duke of Angoulême\"), was implicated and she was compromised. Though Biron was executed, Henry released Auvergne to please Henriette. In 1604, she was at the heart of a Spanish\\-backed plot to install her son by the king as heir to the throne.{{efn\\|Henriette d'Entragues possessed a letter from Henry promising to marry her if she bore him a son; and she and her ambitious family used this document to challenge Henry's marriage to Marie. They hoped to convince the pope to annul the marriage, leaving Prince Louis a bastard.Mousnier, 126\\.}} Her father, the sieur d'Entragues, was involved in this plot, along with, again, her half\\-brother. Henriette d'Entragues was sentenced to confinement in a convent, but Henry was moved to spare her even that and allowed her to retire to her estate at [Verneuil](/wiki/Verneuil_en_Beauvoisis \"Verneuil en Beauvoisis\"){{efn\\|He also released her father and merely imprisoned her half\\-brother, though both had been sentenced to death for \\[\\[lèse\\-majesté]].Buisseret, 125–26\\. }} Despite the king's clemency, Henriette d'Entragues may have continued to plot further against him. According to a government report of 1616, a former companion of d'Entragues, Mlle d'Escoman, had claimed in 1611 that d'Entragues had met [François Ravaillac](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Ravaillac \"François Ravaillac\"), Henry's assassin of 1610\\. However, this evidence is compromised by the fact that, at the time she made this accusation, Mlle d'Escoman was in prison on another charge.{{efn\\|\"It is hard to know how much of her story to believe.\"Mousnier, 47–48\\.}}",
"The dauphin, Louis, turned out to be a difficult and temperamental child, and some historians have blamed this on his parents and the circumstances of his upbringing.Moote, 21\\. He was raised just outside Paris at the [château of Saint\\-Germain\\-en\\-Laye](/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Saint-Germain-en-Laye \"Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye\"), not only alongside Marie's other children by Henry but, as Henry insisted, with several children of Henry's mistresses.Moote, 22\\. Henry always seemed to get his mistresses pregnant at the same time as Marie. Just as Marie was in constant competition with Henry's mistresses, so her children were forced to compete with their children for his affection.Moote, 28\\. The fact that Henry's three children by Gabrielle d'Estrées were older than the heir to the throne caused particular problems of rivalry. [César](/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_de_Bourbon%2C_duc_de_Vend%C3%B4me \"César de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme\") and Alexandre were later to rebel against Louis when he was king.{{sfn\\|Moote\\|1991\\|p\\=190\\-191}} He did not hesitate to throw them into prison.{{sfn\\|Moote\\|1991\\|p\\=190\\-191}}",
"Louis shared his father's stubbornness, but he may have inherited his temper tantrums from his mother, who often gave Henry tongue\\-lashings in public. Although Marie has been accused of lacking affection for her children, a study of her letters reveals the contrary, though she was a stern disciplinarian. She wrote to the dauphin's governess, for example, asking her to avoid whippings when the weather was hot and to beat Louis only \"with such caution that the anger he might feel would not cause any illness\".Moote, 27\\. On another occasion, she reprimanded her middle daughter, Christine, for being ill, accusing her of not following the advice of her doctors.Moote, 27–28\\. Marie personally educated the children in practical matters, such as [etiquette](/wiki/Etiquette \"Etiquette\").Moote, 26–27\\. After Henry's assassination in 1610, she became [regent](/wiki/Regent \"Regent\") of France and retained influence over Louis XIII until he finally rejected her in 1617\\.",
"Henry's last passion was for [Charlotte of Montmorency](/wiki/Charlotte-Marguerite_de_Montmorency \"Charlotte-Marguerite de Montmorency\"), the fifteen\\-year\\-old wife of [Henry, prince of Condé](/wiki/Henry_II_de_Bourbon%2C_prince_de_Cond%C3%A9 \"Henry II de Bourbon, prince de Condé\"), [First Prince of the Blood](/wiki/First_Prince_of_the_Blood \"First Prince of the Blood\"). The king had arranged Charlotte's marriage to Condé for his own convenience, in order to sleep with her himself when he pleased. To escape from this predicament, the couple fled to [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"). The king was enraged and threatened to march into [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\") with an army unless the Habsburg governors returned Condé and his wife at once. At the time, he was also threatening war with the Habsburgs over the succession to the [United Duchies of Jülich\\-Cleves\\-Berg](/wiki/United_Duchies_of_J%C3%BClich-Cleves-Berg \"United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg\"), so historians are unsure how crucial in itself Charlotte's return was as a reason for war. Condé continued to provoke Henry from Flanders. When asked to drink to the queen of France, he replied that there seemed to be more than one queen of France, maybe as many as four or five.Buisseret, 173–74\\.",
""
] |
Life
----
Jadwiga Długoborska was born to Aleksander Wagner and Karolina née Leszczyńska. She has graduated from private girls’ school in [Siedlce](/wiki/Siedlce "Siedlce") prior to the outbreak of the World War I. In 1919, she married Bolesław Długoborski, an administrator of the estate in [Oblęgorek](/wiki/Obl%C4%99gorek "Oblęgorek"), and started work as a teacher at elementary school in Ostrów Mazowiecka. She became actively involved in charity campaigns including the local Committee for Child Nutrition.{{Cite journal\|last\=Gawin\|first\=Magdalena\|date\=2013\|title\=Pensjonat Jadwigi Długoborskiej\|journal\=Teologia Polityczna\|volume\=7\|pages\=159–179}}
### The occupation – aiding Jews
The Wagner family had been letting apartments to Polish and Jewish tenants. Both the family home and the boarding house which Długoborska managed, were located just several hundred meters from the prison being run by the German [gendarmerie](/wiki/Gendarmerie "Gendarmerie") and [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo "Gestapo") on Jatkowa Street (currently Pocztowa Street).
After the outbreak of the World War II, Długoborska helped to take care of wounded soldiers at the hospital. The town was bombarded prior to the arrival of the German forces. Soon, the occupiers began oppressing and murdering the civilian population. The violence escalated on 11 November 1939, when the 91st SS Police Regiment subordinate to the Einsatzgruppe z.b.V. arrived from Warsaw and murdered the town's entire Jewish community under the command of Hans Hoffmann, Theodor Pilich, and Kurt Kirschner. It was the first mass extermination of Jews in the General Government, deliberately carried out on a national Polish holiday: 11 November. According to official German numbers, 364 men, women, and children were killed that day. The Poles maintained that the number of victims was significantly higher. The Germans had carried out provocations ahead of the execution by setting fire to the town center and then spreading rumors that the guilty party was the Jews who had no intention of leaving their possessions in the hands of Poles. The Nazis had used the 1939 register of permanent residents in which the Jews’ precise addresses were recorded in order to gather them outside the town hall and in the courtyard of the middle school.{{Cite book\|title\=Ensatzgruppen w Polsce\|last1\=Böhler\|first1\=Joachen\|last2\=Amallman\|first2\=Klaus\-Michael\|last3\=Matthäus\|first3\=Jürgen\|year\=2009\|location\=Warszawa\|pages\=39\|language\=pl}}
On 9 or 10 November 1939, Jadwiga Długoborska, her mother and most likely her sister Wanda Wujcik, concealed 10 Jewish tenants in hidden rooms upstairs, for they knew that their home was present on the Germans’ list. Those tenants were the Ryczke, Rekant, Lewartowicz, and Szumowicz families, who survived the day of the extermination and left town the following day, crossing the border into the USSR. They sent a postcard from Białystok that they were still alive. After that first successful attempt to help Jews, Jadwiga Długoborska tried again, hiding a Jewish family with two children in the fall of 1940\.{{Cite book\|title\=Kaci Hitlera. Brudny sekret Europy\|last\=Hale\|first\=Christopher\|publisher\=Znak\|year\=2012\|isbn\=9788324022175\|location\=Kraków\|pages\=54–55\|translator\-last\=Habura\|translator\-first\=Miłosz}}
Jadwiga Długoborska was aided by one of her tenants, Ludwik Tomaszewski pseud. “Cis”, an employee at the German magistracy and member of the Ostrów Mazowiecka District division of the [Home Army](/wiki/Home_Army "Home Army") (code name “Opocznik” \[“Flycatcher”]). Following a denunciation from a caretaker working at the magistracy, Tomaszewski and 14 Polish clerks were arrested by the Gestapo on 20 March 1943 and taken to [Pawiak prison](/wiki/Pawiak_prison "Pawiak prison"). He died in the mass execution of a group of 280 men in Warsaw. He did not expose Jadwiga during the investigation. A [death sentence](/wiki/Capital_punishment "Capital punishment") was carried out on the informer by “Opocznik” Home Army soldiers.{{Cite book\|title\=Od Andrzejewa do Pecynki 1939–1944\|last\=Bratniczak\|first\=Mieczysław\|year\=1984\|location\=Warszawa\|pages\=138}}
[thumb](/wiki/File:Jadwiga_D%C5%82ugoborska_02.jpg "Jadwiga Długoborska 02.jpg")
### Activity in the Home Army “Opocznik” division and cooperation with the local magistracy
Długoborska was actively engaged in the underground independence movement and cooperated closely with the Home Army “Opocznik” division. She gave shelter to Home Army officers, among whom were Władysław Reda pseud. “Jeliński”, Maj. Eugeniusz Mieszkowski pseud. “Ostry”, Maj. Henryk Antoni Pracki pseud. “Rola”, the district's radio officer Lt Edward Nowicki pseud. “Tyczka”, and the commander of the Brok station Lt Henryk Dubois pseud. “Ryszard”.{{Cite book\|title\=Warszawski pierścień śmierci\|last\=Bartoszewski\|first\=Władysław\|year\=1970\|location\=Warszawa\|pages\=334}}
Due to her [maiden name](/wiki/Maiden_Name "Maiden Name"), the occupying authorities proposed on several occasions that she sign the [Volksliste](/wiki/Volksliste "Volksliste"), but she refused. She was forced to undergo daily inspections. She had to report to the Gestapo headquarters every day at 6 a.m. and present her boarding house's list of tenants. Many of them were not registered and took advantage of the numerous nooks and crannies in the basements of several interconnected multistory houses up for rent. The Gestapo carried out searches in the boarding house and tormented its tenants with their intrusions.
Jadwiga Długoborska visited her family in Warsaw on several occasions. In January 1943, she gave shelter to Emil G., a refugee from Warsaw who carried a Kennkarte with a Polish surname beginning with the letter Ż. She took him in and he lived openly with the other tenants, working as a foreman at the local sawmill. The rest of the tenants were fully aware of the refugee's Jewish origins.
Two months before the Germans withdrew from the town, the chambermaid Marianna M. was fired from her work for stealing. In revenge, she went to the Gestapo and denounced Długoborska and her own husband, from whom she was separated, as well as his whole family. The secret police entered the boarding house on the night of 23 June 1944 and arrested Jadwiga Długoborska and her sister Cecylia Pachecka, the mother of adolescent children and widow of Cpt. Pachecka who had been killed in the [1939 defensive war](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland"), on charges of having hidden Jews and Home Army officers. The informer's husband and brother\-in\-law were murdered on the morning of 24 June and the remaining family members were brought to the Gestapo headquarters and released several weeks later.
### To the rescue
Długoborska and Pachecka were interned in a prison which the residents of Ostrów called Czerwoniak \[Red building] due to the color of its façade. The day after the arrest, Wanda Wujcik, Długoborska's sister and the wife of Lt Władysław Wujcik, who was being held in the II\-C Woldenburg [POW camp](/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp "Prisoner-of-war camp"), arrived from Warsaw. She had been informed by Emil Ż. Wujcik took immediate steps to free her sisters. She went to Dr. Leon Surowski, a member of the Home Army who advised her to give the imprisoned Cecylia Pachecka a hot herbal tea made from tobacco. Wanda delivered the tea and Pachecka drank it and was quickly stricken by a high fever and acute stomach pains. Dr. Leon Surowski was summoned to the prison and gave a false diagnosis in the presence of the Gestapo, claiming that the prisoner was suffering from typhus. Cecylia was taken to an infections hospital in a prison ambulance, accompanied by a Polish doctor.
The last time Wanda Wujcik saw Długoborska was in prison on 26 June, when she gave her a package of food. She received a message the next day that her sister had been taken to the Gestapo headquarters. The Gestapo officer "Cyk" personally tormented her. "Cyk" shot 10 prisoners in the forest near the village of [Guty\-Bujno](/wiki/Guty-Bujno "Guty-Bujno") on 29 June 1944, including Jadwiga Długoborska, Cecylia Warchalska (née Kasińska, the wife of middle school professor Kazimierz Warchalski who was murdered in the [Majdanek concentration camp](/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp "Majdanek concentration camp") for holding classes in secret) and Władysław Nejman, a resident of Ostrów and lessee of the town's pond. The names of the remaining victims have never been discovered.
### The fate of the informer
The chambermaid was arrested and shot by the Gestapo on 16 July 1944 on charges of withholding knowledge and not informing about the concealment of Jews quickly enough. Her body was found by chance by her husband's family after the Germans had withdrawn from the town. She was buried in a nameless grave in the town's cemetery.
### Długoborska’s funeral
Wanda Wujcik began the search for her murdered sister's body on 29 August 1944, one day after the Germans had withdrawn from the town. It took two weeks for her to find the place where the body lay. The exhumation of Długoborska's body revealed the injuries that had been dealt: one eye ruined, fingernails missing from both hands, multiple abrasions on the arms and legs, back blackened with blood.{{Cite book\|title\=Ostrów Mazowiecka i okolice Panorama historyczno\-krajoznawcza\|last\=Bartniczak\|first\=Mieczysław\|year\=1987\|location\=Warszawa\|pages\=128\|oclc\=803640527}}
Długoborska was buried on 13 September 1944 in the first funeral following the Germans' withdrawal, drawing crowds of Ostrów Mazowiecka residents. Her coffin was covered with flowers. She was laid to rest in the parish cemetery, buried in her family grave onto which the inscription "She died a martyr's death" was engraved.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Jadwiga Długoborska was born to Aleksander Wagner and Karolina née Leszczyńska. She has graduated from private girls’ school in [Siedlce](/wiki/Siedlce \"Siedlce\") prior to the outbreak of the World War I. In 1919, she married Bolesław Długoborski, an administrator of the estate in [Oblęgorek](/wiki/Obl%C4%99gorek \"Oblęgorek\"), and started work as a teacher at elementary school in Ostrów Mazowiecka. She became actively involved in charity campaigns including the local Committee for Child Nutrition.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Gawin\\|first\\=Magdalena\\|date\\=2013\\|title\\=Pensjonat Jadwigi Długoborskiej\\|journal\\=Teologia Polityczna\\|volume\\=7\\|pages\\=159–179}}",
"### The occupation – aiding Jews",
"The Wagner family had been letting apartments to Polish and Jewish tenants. Both the family home and the boarding house which Długoborska managed, were located just several hundred meters from the prison being run by the German [gendarmerie](/wiki/Gendarmerie \"Gendarmerie\") and [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo \"Gestapo\") on Jatkowa Street (currently Pocztowa Street).",
"After the outbreak of the World War II, Długoborska helped to take care of wounded soldiers at the hospital. The town was bombarded prior to the arrival of the German forces. Soon, the occupiers began oppressing and murdering the civilian population. The violence escalated on 11 November 1939, when the 91st SS Police Regiment subordinate to the Einsatzgruppe z.b.V. arrived from Warsaw and murdered the town's entire Jewish community under the command of Hans Hoffmann, Theodor Pilich, and Kurt Kirschner. It was the first mass extermination of Jews in the General Government, deliberately carried out on a national Polish holiday: 11 November. According to official German numbers, 364 men, women, and children were killed that day. The Poles maintained that the number of victims was significantly higher. The Germans had carried out provocations ahead of the execution by setting fire to the town center and then spreading rumors that the guilty party was the Jews who had no intention of leaving their possessions in the hands of Poles. The Nazis had used the 1939 register of permanent residents in which the Jews’ precise addresses were recorded in order to gather them outside the town hall and in the courtyard of the middle school.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Ensatzgruppen w Polsce\\|last1\\=Böhler\\|first1\\=Joachen\\|last2\\=Amallman\\|first2\\=Klaus\\-Michael\\|last3\\=Matthäus\\|first3\\=Jürgen\\|year\\=2009\\|location\\=Warszawa\\|pages\\=39\\|language\\=pl}}",
"On 9 or 10 November 1939, Jadwiga Długoborska, her mother and most likely her sister Wanda Wujcik, concealed 10 Jewish tenants in hidden rooms upstairs, for they knew that their home was present on the Germans’ list. Those tenants were the Ryczke, Rekant, Lewartowicz, and Szumowicz families, who survived the day of the extermination and left town the following day, crossing the border into the USSR. They sent a postcard from Białystok that they were still alive. After that first successful attempt to help Jews, Jadwiga Długoborska tried again, hiding a Jewish family with two children in the fall of 1940\\.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Kaci Hitlera. Brudny sekret Europy\\|last\\=Hale\\|first\\=Christopher\\|publisher\\=Znak\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=9788324022175\\|location\\=Kraków\\|pages\\=54–55\\|translator\\-last\\=Habura\\|translator\\-first\\=Miłosz}}",
"Jadwiga Długoborska was aided by one of her tenants, Ludwik Tomaszewski pseud. “Cis”, an employee at the German magistracy and member of the Ostrów Mazowiecka District division of the [Home Army](/wiki/Home_Army \"Home Army\") (code name “Opocznik” \\[“Flycatcher”]). Following a denunciation from a caretaker working at the magistracy, Tomaszewski and 14 Polish clerks were arrested by the Gestapo on 20 March 1943 and taken to [Pawiak prison](/wiki/Pawiak_prison \"Pawiak prison\"). He died in the mass execution of a group of 280 men in Warsaw. He did not expose Jadwiga during the investigation. A [death sentence](/wiki/Capital_punishment \"Capital punishment\") was carried out on the informer by “Opocznik” Home Army soldiers.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Od Andrzejewa do Pecynki 1939–1944\\|last\\=Bratniczak\\|first\\=Mieczysław\\|year\\=1984\\|location\\=Warszawa\\|pages\\=138}}",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:Jadwiga_D%C5%82ugoborska_02.jpg \"Jadwiga Długoborska 02.jpg\")",
"### Activity in the Home Army “Opocznik” division and cooperation with the local magistracy",
"Długoborska was actively engaged in the underground independence movement and cooperated closely with the Home Army “Opocznik” division. She gave shelter to Home Army officers, among whom were Władysław Reda pseud. “Jeliński”, Maj. Eugeniusz Mieszkowski pseud. “Ostry”, Maj. Henryk Antoni Pracki pseud. “Rola”, the district's radio officer Lt Edward Nowicki pseud. “Tyczka”, and the commander of the Brok station Lt Henryk Dubois pseud. “Ryszard”.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Warszawski pierścień śmierci\\|last\\=Bartoszewski\\|first\\=Władysław\\|year\\=1970\\|location\\=Warszawa\\|pages\\=334}}",
"Due to her [maiden name](/wiki/Maiden_Name \"Maiden Name\"), the occupying authorities proposed on several occasions that she sign the [Volksliste](/wiki/Volksliste \"Volksliste\"), but she refused. She was forced to undergo daily inspections. She had to report to the Gestapo headquarters every day at 6 a.m. and present her boarding house's list of tenants. Many of them were not registered and took advantage of the numerous nooks and crannies in the basements of several interconnected multistory houses up for rent. The Gestapo carried out searches in the boarding house and tormented its tenants with their intrusions.",
"Jadwiga Długoborska visited her family in Warsaw on several occasions. In January 1943, she gave shelter to Emil G., a refugee from Warsaw who carried a Kennkarte with a Polish surname beginning with the letter Ż. She took him in and he lived openly with the other tenants, working as a foreman at the local sawmill. The rest of the tenants were fully aware of the refugee's Jewish origins.",
"Two months before the Germans withdrew from the town, the chambermaid Marianna M. was fired from her work for stealing. In revenge, she went to the Gestapo and denounced Długoborska and her own husband, from whom she was separated, as well as his whole family. The secret police entered the boarding house on the night of 23 June 1944 and arrested Jadwiga Długoborska and her sister Cecylia Pachecka, the mother of adolescent children and widow of Cpt. Pachecka who had been killed in the [1939 defensive war](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\"), on charges of having hidden Jews and Home Army officers. The informer's husband and brother\\-in\\-law were murdered on the morning of 24 June and the remaining family members were brought to the Gestapo headquarters and released several weeks later.",
"### To the rescue",
"Długoborska and Pachecka were interned in a prison which the residents of Ostrów called Czerwoniak \\[Red building] due to the color of its façade. The day after the arrest, Wanda Wujcik, Długoborska's sister and the wife of Lt Władysław Wujcik, who was being held in the II\\-C Woldenburg [POW camp](/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp \"Prisoner-of-war camp\"), arrived from Warsaw. She had been informed by Emil Ż. Wujcik took immediate steps to free her sisters. She went to Dr. Leon Surowski, a member of the Home Army who advised her to give the imprisoned Cecylia Pachecka a hot herbal tea made from tobacco. Wanda delivered the tea and Pachecka drank it and was quickly stricken by a high fever and acute stomach pains. Dr. Leon Surowski was summoned to the prison and gave a false diagnosis in the presence of the Gestapo, claiming that the prisoner was suffering from typhus. Cecylia was taken to an infections hospital in a prison ambulance, accompanied by a Polish doctor.",
"The last time Wanda Wujcik saw Długoborska was in prison on 26 June, when she gave her a package of food. She received a message the next day that her sister had been taken to the Gestapo headquarters. The Gestapo officer \"Cyk\" personally tormented her. \"Cyk\" shot 10 prisoners in the forest near the village of [Guty\\-Bujno](/wiki/Guty-Bujno \"Guty-Bujno\") on 29 June 1944, including Jadwiga Długoborska, Cecylia Warchalska (née Kasińska, the wife of middle school professor Kazimierz Warchalski who was murdered in the [Majdanek concentration camp](/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp \"Majdanek concentration camp\") for holding classes in secret) and Władysław Nejman, a resident of Ostrów and lessee of the town's pond. The names of the remaining victims have never been discovered.",
"### The fate of the informer",
"The chambermaid was arrested and shot by the Gestapo on 16 July 1944 on charges of withholding knowledge and not informing about the concealment of Jews quickly enough. Her body was found by chance by her husband's family after the Germans had withdrawn from the town. She was buried in a nameless grave in the town's cemetery.",
"### Długoborska’s funeral",
"Wanda Wujcik began the search for her murdered sister's body on 29 August 1944, one day after the Germans had withdrawn from the town. It took two weeks for her to find the place where the body lay. The exhumation of Długoborska's body revealed the injuries that had been dealt: one eye ruined, fingernails missing from both hands, multiple abrasions on the arms and legs, back blackened with blood.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Ostrów Mazowiecka i okolice Panorama historyczno\\-krajoznawcza\\|last\\=Bartniczak\\|first\\=Mieczysław\\|year\\=1987\\|location\\=Warszawa\\|pages\\=128\\|oclc\\=803640527}}",
"Długoborska was buried on 13 September 1944 in the first funeral following the Germans' withdrawal, drawing crowds of Ostrów Mazowiecka residents. Her coffin was covered with flowers. She was laid to rest in the parish cemetery, buried in her family grave onto which the inscription \"She died a martyr's death\" was engraved.",
""
] |
History
-------
### County of Tyrol
Construction of the Brenner Railway between Verona (Bern\-im\-Wälsch) to Innsbruck began in 1851 under the Austrian Empire's Südbahn.
On 25 July 1867, the section between Bozen and Brenner entered operation; the first train to leave for Bozen left Brenner at 8\.05 am. Brenner station was officially opened on 24 August 1867, together with the remaining final section to Innsbruck.
Some houses in Brenner had been destroyed to make room for a new area, {{convert\|600\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} long, for the station building and other rail infrastructure. The arrival of railway opened a new era for the village: it confirmed Brenner Pass, which has already been a major trans\-Alpine crossing from the ancient Roman times, as the principal mountain pass for travellers and merchants. Moreover, the railway enabled more efficient movement of troops for the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire "Austrian Empire") to secure its southern regions of modern\-day [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto "Veneto") and [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy "Lombardy").
### Transfer to Italy
On 26 April 1915, the [Treaty of London](/wiki/Treaty_of_London_%281915%29 "Treaty of London (1915)") promised Italy the territory south of the Brenner Pass (now known as [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol "South Tyrol")), if the country switched its side to support the Entente powers against the Central Powers led by the German and Austro\-Hungarian empires.
On 10 November 1918, following the German Empire's call for an armistice, Italian troops moved up from Veneto and arrived at Brenner. The [Treaty of Saint\-Germain\-en\-Laye](/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_%281919%29 "Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)") was signed with Austria on 10 September 1919\. Under that treaty, the new border of Italy and Austria (Republic of German\-Austria) moved to Brenner.Con.fine Brennero, Editrice Athesia, 2006, {{ISBN\|88\-8266\-410\-4}}
### Schengen passport\-free zone
In 1992, Austria signed the [Schengen Agreement](/wiki/Schengen_Agreement "Schengen Agreement") and subsequently became a member nation of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") in 1995\. Border and custom control posts at Brenner station have been removed.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### County of Tyrol",
"Construction of the Brenner Railway between Verona (Bern\\-im\\-Wälsch) to Innsbruck began in 1851 under the Austrian Empire's Südbahn.",
"On 25 July 1867, the section between Bozen and Brenner entered operation; the first train to leave for Bozen left Brenner at 8\\.05 am. Brenner station was officially opened on 24 August 1867, together with the remaining final section to Innsbruck.",
"Some houses in Brenner had been destroyed to make room for a new area, {{convert\\|600\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} long, for the station building and other rail infrastructure. The arrival of railway opened a new era for the village: it confirmed Brenner Pass, which has already been a major trans\\-Alpine crossing from the ancient Roman times, as the principal mountain pass for travellers and merchants. Moreover, the railway enabled more efficient movement of troops for the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire \"Austrian Empire\") to secure its southern regions of modern\\-day [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto \"Veneto\") and [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy \"Lombardy\").",
"### Transfer to Italy",
"On 26 April 1915, the [Treaty of London](/wiki/Treaty_of_London_%281915%29 \"Treaty of London (1915)\") promised Italy the territory south of the Brenner Pass (now known as [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol \"South Tyrol\")), if the country switched its side to support the Entente powers against the Central Powers led by the German and Austro\\-Hungarian empires.",
"On 10 November 1918, following the German Empire's call for an armistice, Italian troops moved up from Veneto and arrived at Brenner. The [Treaty of Saint\\-Germain\\-en\\-Laye](/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_%281919%29 \"Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)\") was signed with Austria on 10 September 1919\\. Under that treaty, the new border of Italy and Austria (Republic of German\\-Austria) moved to Brenner.Con.fine Brennero, Editrice Athesia, 2006, {{ISBN\\|88\\-8266\\-410\\-4}}",
"### Schengen passport\\-free zone",
"In 1992, Austria signed the [Schengen Agreement](/wiki/Schengen_Agreement \"Schengen Agreement\") and subsequently became a member nation of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") in 1995\\. Border and custom control posts at Brenner station have been removed.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 12th–19th centuries
Newcastle was not recorded in the 1086 [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book"), as it grew up round a 12th\-century castle, but it must have gained rapid importance, as a [charter](/wiki/Charter "Charter"), known solely through a reference in another charter to [Preston](/wiki/Preston%2C_Lancashire "Preston, Lancashire"), was given to the town by [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_England "Henry II of England") in 1173\. The new castle superseded an older fortress at [Chesterton](/wiki/Chesterton%2C_Staffordshire "Chesterton, Staffordshire"), about {{convert\|2\|mi\|km\|0}} to the north, whose ruins were visible up to the end of the 16th century.
In 1235 [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England "Henry III of England") turned the town into a free borough, granting a [guild](/wiki/Guild "Guild") and other privileges. In 1251 he leased it under a [fee farm grant](/wiki/Fee_farm_grant "Fee farm grant") to the burgesses. In 1265 Newcastle was granted by the [Crown](/wiki/The_Crown "The Crown") to [Simon de Montfort](/wiki/Simon_de_Montfort%2C_6th_Earl_of_Leicester "Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester") and later to [Edmund Crouchback](/wiki/Edmund_Crouchback "Edmund Crouchback"), through whom it passed to [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England "Henry IV of England"). In [John Leland's](/wiki/John_Leland_%28antiquary%29 "John Leland (antiquary)") time the castle had disappeared "save one great Toure".
[thumb\|Ironmarket, Newcastle\-Under\-Lyme](/wiki/File:Ironmarket%2C_Newcastle-Under-Lyme_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2101001.jpg "Ironmarket, Newcastle-Under-Lyme - geograph.org.uk - 2101001.jpg")
Newcastle did not feature much in the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War "English Civil War"), except as a victim of [Royalist](/wiki/Cavalier "Cavalier") [plundering](/wiki/Plundering "Plundering").{{cn\|date\=March 2023}} However, it was the home town of Major General [Thomas Harrison](/wiki/Thomas_Harrison_%28soldier%29 "Thomas Harrison (soldier)"), a [Cromwellian](/wiki/Cromwellian "Cromwellian") army officer and leader of the [Fifth Monarchy Men](/wiki/Fifth_Monarchy_Men "Fifth Monarchy Men").
An inclosure act in 1816{{which\|date\=January 2024}} enclosed the common lands of the borough, and removed their common rights. They were thereafter held in trust for the burgesses of the borough. The Newcastle under Lyme Burgess Lands charity continues to exist, with entitlement to benefits going to those who would have been burgesses before the reforms of 1835: either the son of someone entitled to the trust, who was resident or occupying property within the borough's boundaries.
The [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 "Municipal Corporations Act 1835") reformed the borough, creating a new governing charter,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\_id\=10002795\&c\_id\=10001043 \|title\=Relationships/unit history of NEWCASTLE UNDER LYME \|work\=A Vision of Britain \|publisher\=\[\[University of Portsmouth]] Department of \[\[Geography]] \|access\-date\=6 May 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204304/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\_id\=10002795\&c\_id\=10001043 \|archive\-date\=30 September 2007 \|df\=dmy\-all}} repealing the previous charters of 1590 and 1664\. The unreformed corporation prior to 1835 had been styled the "Mayor, Bailiffs and Burgesses of Newcastle\-under\-Lyme", but that act changed the style to "Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses of Newcastle\-under\-Lyme".{{citation \|title\=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 s. 6 \|date\=14 August 2023 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/statutesunitedk35britgoog/page/392/ \|quote\=... shall take and bear the Name of the Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of such Borough ...}}
In 1835, the admission of new burgesses was forbidden by section 13 of the [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 "Municipal Corporations Act 1835") under any criteria expect that of being a ratepayer.{{cite book \|chapter\=Newcastle\-under\-Lyme: Economic history and social life \|title\=A History of the County of Stafford \|volume\=8 \|editor\-first\=J. G. \|editor\-last\=Jenkins \|location\=London \|date\=1963 \|pages\=44–54 \|via\=British History Online \|chapter\-url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/vch/staffs/vol8/pp44\-54 \|access\-date\=28 March 2023}}{{citation \|title\=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 s. 13 \|date\=14 August 2023 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/statutesunitedk35britgoog/page/395/ \|quote\=And it be enacted, That after the passing of this Act no Person shall be enrolled a Burgess of any Borough, for the Purposes of enjoying the Rights conferred for the first Time by this Act, in respect of any Title other than by Occupancy and Payment of Rates within such Borough, according to the Meaning and Provision of this Act.}} This only affected the creation of borough burgesses, and not the entitlement rules of the Burgess Lands Trust, which continued on the historic burgess criteria.
Newcastle sent two members to Parliament from 1355 to 1885, then lost one of its seats.[The History of Parliament Trust, Newcastle\-under\-Lyme, Borough, from 1386 to 1481](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/constituencies/newcastle-under-lyme) Retrieved 29 May 2019\.
[right\|thumb\|Nelson Place and view up King Street, from a postcard, {{circa\|1900}}](/wiki/File:Nelsonplace1900.jpg "Nelsonplace1900.jpg")
### 20th century
When [Stoke\-on\-Trent](/wiki/Stoke-on-Trent "Stoke-on-Trent") was [formed by the 1910 amalgamation](/wiki/Federation_of_Stoke-on-Trent "Federation of Stoke-on-Trent") of the "six towns" ([Stoke](/wiki/Stoke-upon-Trent "Stoke-upon-Trent"), [Hanley](/wiki/Hanley%2C_Staffordshire "Hanley, Staffordshire"), [Fenton](/wiki/Fenton%2C_Staffordshire "Fenton, Staffordshire"), [Longton](/wiki/Longton%2C_Staffordshire "Longton, Staffordshire"), [Burslem](/wiki/Burslem "Burslem") and [Tunstall](/wiki/Tunstall%2C_Staffordshire "Tunstall, Staffordshire")), Newcastle remained separate.
Despite its close proximity, it was not directly involved in the pottery industry and it strongly opposed attempts to join the merger in 1930,{{Cite news \|title\=Stoke\-on\-Trent Bill: Extension of the City \|work\=The Times \|date\=2 May 1930}} with a postcard poll showing residents opposing the Stoke\-on\-Trent Extension Bill by a majority of 97\.4 per cent. Although passed by the [House of Commons](/wiki/British_House_of_Commons "British House of Commons"), the bill was rejected by the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords "House of Lords").{{cn\|date\=March 2023}}
After the [Local Government Act 1972](/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972 "Local Government Act 1972"), Newcastle became the principal settlement of the Borough of Newcastle\-under\-Lyme.
### Economy
Like neighbouring Stoke\-on\-Trent, Newcastle's early economy was based around the hatting trade, silk and [cotton mills](/wiki/Cotton_mill "Cotton mill"). Later [coal mining](/wiki/Coal_mining "Coal mining"), [brick](/wiki/Brick "Brick") manufacture, [iron](/wiki/Iron "Iron") casting and [engineering](/wiki/Engineering "Engineering") rose to prominence. Fine red earthenware and [soft\-paste porcelain](/wiki/Soft-paste_porcelain "Soft-paste porcelain") [tableware](/wiki/Tableware "Tableware") (the first such production in Staffordshire) was produced in Newcastle at Samuel Bell's factory in Lower Street in 1724–1754, when production ceased. Except for a failed enterprise in 1790–1797, which then switched to [brewing](/wiki/Brewing "Brewing"), there was no further commercial production of pottery within the town. Production of earthenware tiles, however, continued at several locations in the borough. Manufacture of fine [bone china](/wiki/Bone_china "Bone china") was re\-established in the borough in 1963 by [Mayfair Pottery](/wiki/Mayfair_Pottery "Mayfair Pottery") at [Chesterton](/wiki/Chesterton%2C_Staffordshire "Chesterton, Staffordshire").
The manufacture in the borough of clay [tobacco\-smoking pipes](/wiki/Smoking_pipe_%28tobacco%29 "Smoking pipe (tobacco)") started about 1637 and grew rapidly, until it was second only to hatting as an industry. Nationally, the town ranked with [Chester](/wiki/Chester "Chester"), [York](/wiki/York "York") and [Hull](/wiki/Kingston_upon_Hull "Kingston upon Hull") as the four major pipe producers. The industry continued until the mid\-19th century, when decline set in rapidly, so that by 1881 it had only one tobacco\-pipe maker left.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the town had a flourishing [felt](/wiki/Felt "Felt") hat manufacturing industry, probably at its peak locally in the 1820s, when a third of the town's population were involved in over 20 factories, but by 1892 there was only one still in production.
In 1944, the [Rolls\-Royce Derwent](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Derwent "Rolls-Royce Derwent") engine for the [Gloster Meteor](/wiki/Gloster_Meteor "Gloster Meteor") fighter was made in the borough.
Newcastle's 20th\-century industries include: iron\-working, construction materials, clothing (especially military, police and transport uniforms), computers, publishing, electric motors and machinery.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2022}}
Near the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the town received major redevelopment to incorporate a new street (Castle Walk) into the town centre, providing Newcastle with a new [bus station](/wiki/Bus_station "Bus station") and bringing in more companies. Various business centres in the town provide offices for companies that operate in the service sector.
The town was classed as a BID ([business improvement district](/wiki/Business_improvement_district "Business improvement district")) in 2015, reiterated in 2021\.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2022}}
### Politicians
[thumb\|[Vera Brittain](/wiki/Vera_Brittain "Vera Brittain")](/wiki/File:Vera_Brittain.jpg "Vera Brittain.jpg")
The town has been the birthplace of several notable politicians and activists. [Fanny Deakin](/wiki/Fanny_Deakin "Fanny Deakin") was a campaigner for better nourishment for babies and young children and better maternity care for mothers. The former [chairwoman](/wiki/Chairwoman "Chairwoman") of [Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament](/wiki/Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament "Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament") ([CND](/wiki/CND "CND")), [Janet Bloomfield](/wiki/Janet_Bloomfield "Janet Bloomfield") (née Hood) is a peace and disarmament campaigner. [Vera Brittain](/wiki/Vera_Brittain "Vera Brittain"). writer, [feminist](/wiki/Feminist "Feminist") (and mother of [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 "Labour Party (UK)") Minister and later [Liberal Democrat](/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_%28UK%29 "Liberal Democrats (UK)") [Shirley Williams](/wiki/Shirley_Williams "Shirley Williams")) was born in the town.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.newcastle\-staffs.gov.uk/General.asp?id\=SXA203\-A77FA129 \|title\=Vera Brittain 1893–1970 \|publisher\=Newcastle\-under\-Lyme Borough Council \|access\-date\=6 May 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901100123/http://www.newcastle\-staffs.gov.uk/general.asp?id\=SXA203\-A77FA129 \|archive\-date\=1 September 2007 \|df\=dmy\-all}}
There have been two particularly notable [Members of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)") (MPs). [Josiah Wedgwood IV](/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood%2C_1st_Baron_Wedgwood "Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood") was a [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28UK%29 "Liberal Party (UK)"), Independent and [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 "Labour Party (UK)") MP, who served as [Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Duchy_of_Lancaster "Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster") in the [cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_%28government%29 "Cabinet (government)") of [Ramsay MacDonald](/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald "Ramsay MacDonald"), in the first ever Labour government. He was an MP from 1909 to 1942\. [John Golding](/wiki/John_Golding_%28British_politician%29 "John Golding (British politician)") was elected a Labour MP for [Newcastle\-under\-Lyme](/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Newcastle-under-Lyme (UK Parliament constituency)") at a by\-election in 1969\. He served in the governments of [Harold Wilson](/wiki/Harold_Wilson "Harold Wilson") and [Jim Callaghan](/wiki/Jim_Callaghan "Jim Callaghan"), as PPS to [Eric Varley](/wiki/Eric_Varley "Eric Varley") as [Minister of Technology](/wiki/Minister_of_Technology "Minister of Technology"), a Labour whip in opposition, and Minister for Employment, stepping down in [1986](/wiki/1986_Newcastle-under-Lyme_by-election "1986 Newcastle-under-Lyme by-election").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,,322315,00\.html \|title\=Right at the heart of Labour \|work\=Guardian Unlimited \|publisher\=Guardian News and Media Limited \|first\=Paul \|last\=Farrelly \|date\=22 January 1999 \|access\-date\=6 May 2007}}
The current MP is [Adam Jogee](/wiki/Adam_Jogee "Adam Jogee").
### Transport
The town was once served by the [North Staffordshire Railway](/wiki/North_Staffordshire_Railway "North Staffordshire Railway"), its station being on a branch from [Stoke\-on\-Trent](/wiki/Stoke-on-Trent "Stoke-on-Trent") via Newcastle, [Silverdale](/wiki/Silverdale%2C_Staffordshire "Silverdale, Staffordshire") and [Keele](/wiki/Keele "Keele"), to [Market Drayton](/wiki/Market_Drayton "Market Drayton") in [Shropshire](/wiki/Shropshire "Shropshire"). [Newcastle\-under\-Lyme railway station](/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme_railway_station "Newcastle-under-Lyme railway station") opened in September 1852, after numerous construction difficulties involving the two tunnels of {{convert\|605\|yd\|m}} and {{convert\|96\|yd\|m}} at Hartshill. There were also two halts to the west of Newcastle railway station, located at [Brampton](/wiki/Brampton_Halt_railway_station "Brampton Halt railway station") and [Liverpool Road](/wiki/Liverpool_Road_Halt_railway_station "Liverpool Road Halt railway station").{{Cite book \|last2\=Miller \|first2\=R. W. \|last1\=Christiansen \|first1\=Rex \|year\=1971 \|title\=The North Staffordshire Railway \|page\=124 \|publisher\=David \& Charles \|isbn\=0\-7153\-5121\-4}}
The section from [Silverdale](/wiki/Silverdale_%28Staffordshire%29_railway_station "Silverdale (Staffordshire) railway station") to [Market Drayton](/wiki/Market_Drayton_railway_station "Market Drayton railway station") closed to passengers in May 1956 and the rest of the line in March 1964\. Only small sections remained from Madeley to Silverdale, and from Silverdale to Holditch, for coal traffic from the local collieries. The line from Newcastle Junction to Silverdale has been removed, and the site of Newcastle railway station and the Hartshill tunnels filled in.
Newcastle was on the national [canal](/wiki/Canal "Canal") network, but the [Newcastle\-under\-Lyme Canal](/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme_Canal "Newcastle-under-Lyme Canal") running from the [Trent and Mersey Canal](/wiki/Trent_and_Mersey_Canal "Trent and Mersey Canal") at Stoke\-on\-Trent to [Sir Nigel Gresley's Canal](/wiki/Sir_Nigel_Gresley%27s_Canal "Sir Nigel Gresley's Canal") has been disused since 1935 and mostly filled in.
Today the town relies on buses for public transport. [FirstGroup](/wiki/FirstGroup "FirstGroup") runs a network of services connecting Newcastle to the towns of [the Potteries](/wiki/The_Potteries_Urban_Area "The Potteries Urban Area") and to [Stafford](/wiki/Stafford "Stafford"). Arriva buses run to [Shrewsbury](/wiki/Shrewsbury "Shrewsbury") via [Market Drayton](/wiki/Market_Drayton "Market Drayton")
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 12th–19th centuries",
"Newcastle was not recorded in the 1086 [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\"), as it grew up round a 12th\\-century castle, but it must have gained rapid importance, as a [charter](/wiki/Charter \"Charter\"), known solely through a reference in another charter to [Preston](/wiki/Preston%2C_Lancashire \"Preston, Lancashire\"), was given to the town by [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_England \"Henry II of England\") in 1173\\. The new castle superseded an older fortress at [Chesterton](/wiki/Chesterton%2C_Staffordshire \"Chesterton, Staffordshire\"), about {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km\\|0}} to the north, whose ruins were visible up to the end of the 16th century.",
"In 1235 [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England \"Henry III of England\") turned the town into a free borough, granting a [guild](/wiki/Guild \"Guild\") and other privileges. In 1251 he leased it under a [fee farm grant](/wiki/Fee_farm_grant \"Fee farm grant\") to the burgesses. In 1265 Newcastle was granted by the [Crown](/wiki/The_Crown \"The Crown\") to [Simon de Montfort](/wiki/Simon_de_Montfort%2C_6th_Earl_of_Leicester \"Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester\") and later to [Edmund Crouchback](/wiki/Edmund_Crouchback \"Edmund Crouchback\"), through whom it passed to [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England \"Henry IV of England\"). In [John Leland's](/wiki/John_Leland_%28antiquary%29 \"John Leland (antiquary)\") time the castle had disappeared \"save one great Toure\".",
"[thumb\\|Ironmarket, Newcastle\\-Under\\-Lyme](/wiki/File:Ironmarket%2C_Newcastle-Under-Lyme_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2101001.jpg \"Ironmarket, Newcastle-Under-Lyme - geograph.org.uk - 2101001.jpg\")\nNewcastle did not feature much in the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"), except as a victim of [Royalist](/wiki/Cavalier \"Cavalier\") [plundering](/wiki/Plundering \"Plundering\").{{cn\\|date\\=March 2023}} However, it was the home town of Major General [Thomas Harrison](/wiki/Thomas_Harrison_%28soldier%29 \"Thomas Harrison (soldier)\"), a [Cromwellian](/wiki/Cromwellian \"Cromwellian\") army officer and leader of the [Fifth Monarchy Men](/wiki/Fifth_Monarchy_Men \"Fifth Monarchy Men\").",
"An inclosure act in 1816{{which\\|date\\=January 2024}} enclosed the common lands of the borough, and removed their common rights. They were thereafter held in trust for the burgesses of the borough. The Newcastle under Lyme Burgess Lands charity continues to exist, with entitlement to benefits going to those who would have been burgesses before the reforms of 1835: either the son of someone entitled to the trust, who was resident or occupying property within the borough's boundaries.",
"The [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 \"Municipal Corporations Act 1835\") reformed the borough, creating a new governing charter,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\\_id\\=10002795\\&c\\_id\\=10001043 \\|title\\=Relationships/unit history of NEWCASTLE UNDER LYME \\|work\\=A Vision of Britain \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Portsmouth]] Department of \\[\\[Geography]] \\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204304/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\\_id\\=10002795\\&c\\_id\\=10001043 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2007 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} repealing the previous charters of 1590 and 1664\\. The unreformed corporation prior to 1835 had been styled the \"Mayor, Bailiffs and Burgesses of Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme\", but that act changed the style to \"Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses of Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme\".{{citation \\|title\\=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 s. 6 \\|date\\=14 August 2023 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/statutesunitedk35britgoog/page/392/ \\|quote\\=... shall take and bear the Name of the Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of such Borough ...}}",
"In 1835, the admission of new burgesses was forbidden by section 13 of the [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 \"Municipal Corporations Act 1835\") under any criteria expect that of being a ratepayer.{{cite book \\|chapter\\=Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme: Economic history and social life \\|title\\=A History of the County of Stafford \\|volume\\=8 \\|editor\\-first\\=J. G. \\|editor\\-last\\=Jenkins \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=1963 \\|pages\\=44–54 \\|via\\=British History Online \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/vch/staffs/vol8/pp44\\-54 \\|access\\-date\\=28 March 2023}}{{citation \\|title\\=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 s. 13 \\|date\\=14 August 2023 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/statutesunitedk35britgoog/page/395/ \\|quote\\=And it be enacted, That after the passing of this Act no Person shall be enrolled a Burgess of any Borough, for the Purposes of enjoying the Rights conferred for the first Time by this Act, in respect of any Title other than by Occupancy and Payment of Rates within such Borough, according to the Meaning and Provision of this Act.}} This only affected the creation of borough burgesses, and not the entitlement rules of the Burgess Lands Trust, which continued on the historic burgess criteria.",
"Newcastle sent two members to Parliament from 1355 to 1885, then lost one of its seats.[The History of Parliament Trust, Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme, Borough, from 1386 to 1481](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/constituencies/newcastle-under-lyme) Retrieved 29 May 2019\\.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Nelson Place and view up King Street, from a postcard, {{circa\\|1900}}](/wiki/File:Nelsonplace1900.jpg \"Nelsonplace1900.jpg\")",
"### 20th century",
"When [Stoke\\-on\\-Trent](/wiki/Stoke-on-Trent \"Stoke-on-Trent\") was [formed by the 1910 amalgamation](/wiki/Federation_of_Stoke-on-Trent \"Federation of Stoke-on-Trent\") of the \"six towns\" ([Stoke](/wiki/Stoke-upon-Trent \"Stoke-upon-Trent\"), [Hanley](/wiki/Hanley%2C_Staffordshire \"Hanley, Staffordshire\"), [Fenton](/wiki/Fenton%2C_Staffordshire \"Fenton, Staffordshire\"), [Longton](/wiki/Longton%2C_Staffordshire \"Longton, Staffordshire\"), [Burslem](/wiki/Burslem \"Burslem\") and [Tunstall](/wiki/Tunstall%2C_Staffordshire \"Tunstall, Staffordshire\")), Newcastle remained separate.",
"Despite its close proximity, it was not directly involved in the pottery industry and it strongly opposed attempts to join the merger in 1930,{{Cite news \\|title\\=Stoke\\-on\\-Trent Bill: Extension of the City \\|work\\=The Times \\|date\\=2 May 1930}} with a postcard poll showing residents opposing the Stoke\\-on\\-Trent Extension Bill by a majority of 97\\.4 per cent. Although passed by the [House of Commons](/wiki/British_House_of_Commons \"British House of Commons\"), the bill was rejected by the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords \"House of Lords\").{{cn\\|date\\=March 2023}}",
"After the [Local Government Act 1972](/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972 \"Local Government Act 1972\"), Newcastle became the principal settlement of the Borough of Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme.",
"### Economy",
"Like neighbouring Stoke\\-on\\-Trent, Newcastle's early economy was based around the hatting trade, silk and [cotton mills](/wiki/Cotton_mill \"Cotton mill\"). Later [coal mining](/wiki/Coal_mining \"Coal mining\"), [brick](/wiki/Brick \"Brick\") manufacture, [iron](/wiki/Iron \"Iron\") casting and [engineering](/wiki/Engineering \"Engineering\") rose to prominence. Fine red earthenware and [soft\\-paste porcelain](/wiki/Soft-paste_porcelain \"Soft-paste porcelain\") [tableware](/wiki/Tableware \"Tableware\") (the first such production in Staffordshire) was produced in Newcastle at Samuel Bell's factory in Lower Street in 1724–1754, when production ceased. Except for a failed enterprise in 1790–1797, which then switched to [brewing](/wiki/Brewing \"Brewing\"), there was no further commercial production of pottery within the town. Production of earthenware tiles, however, continued at several locations in the borough. Manufacture of fine [bone china](/wiki/Bone_china \"Bone china\") was re\\-established in the borough in 1963 by [Mayfair Pottery](/wiki/Mayfair_Pottery \"Mayfair Pottery\") at [Chesterton](/wiki/Chesterton%2C_Staffordshire \"Chesterton, Staffordshire\").",
"The manufacture in the borough of clay [tobacco\\-smoking pipes](/wiki/Smoking_pipe_%28tobacco%29 \"Smoking pipe (tobacco)\") started about 1637 and grew rapidly, until it was second only to hatting as an industry. Nationally, the town ranked with [Chester](/wiki/Chester \"Chester\"), [York](/wiki/York \"York\") and [Hull](/wiki/Kingston_upon_Hull \"Kingston upon Hull\") as the four major pipe producers. The industry continued until the mid\\-19th century, when decline set in rapidly, so that by 1881 it had only one tobacco\\-pipe maker left.",
"In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the town had a flourishing [felt](/wiki/Felt \"Felt\") hat manufacturing industry, probably at its peak locally in the 1820s, when a third of the town's population were involved in over 20 factories, but by 1892 there was only one still in production.",
"In 1944, the [Rolls\\-Royce Derwent](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Derwent \"Rolls-Royce Derwent\") engine for the [Gloster Meteor](/wiki/Gloster_Meteor \"Gloster Meteor\") fighter was made in the borough.",
"Newcastle's 20th\\-century industries include: iron\\-working, construction materials, clothing (especially military, police and transport uniforms), computers, publishing, electric motors and machinery.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}}",
"Near the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the town received major redevelopment to incorporate a new street (Castle Walk) into the town centre, providing Newcastle with a new [bus station](/wiki/Bus_station \"Bus station\") and bringing in more companies. Various business centres in the town provide offices for companies that operate in the service sector.",
"The town was classed as a BID ([business improvement district](/wiki/Business_improvement_district \"Business improvement district\")) in 2015, reiterated in 2021\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}}",
"### Politicians",
"[thumb\\|[Vera Brittain](/wiki/Vera_Brittain \"Vera Brittain\")](/wiki/File:Vera_Brittain.jpg \"Vera Brittain.jpg\")\nThe town has been the birthplace of several notable politicians and activists. [Fanny Deakin](/wiki/Fanny_Deakin \"Fanny Deakin\") was a campaigner for better nourishment for babies and young children and better maternity care for mothers. The former [chairwoman](/wiki/Chairwoman \"Chairwoman\") of [Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament](/wiki/Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament \"Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament\") ([CND](/wiki/CND \"CND\")), [Janet Bloomfield](/wiki/Janet_Bloomfield \"Janet Bloomfield\") (née Hood) is a peace and disarmament campaigner. [Vera Brittain](/wiki/Vera_Brittain \"Vera Brittain\"). writer, [feminist](/wiki/Feminist \"Feminist\") (and mother of [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 \"Labour Party (UK)\") Minister and later [Liberal Democrat](/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_%28UK%29 \"Liberal Democrats (UK)\") [Shirley Williams](/wiki/Shirley_Williams \"Shirley Williams\")) was born in the town.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.newcastle\\-staffs.gov.uk/General.asp?id\\=SXA203\\-A77FA129 \\|title\\=Vera Brittain 1893–1970 \\|publisher\\=Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme Borough Council \\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901100123/http://www.newcastle\\-staffs.gov.uk/general.asp?id\\=SXA203\\-A77FA129 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 September 2007 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"There have been two particularly notable [Members of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") (MPs). [Josiah Wedgwood IV](/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood%2C_1st_Baron_Wedgwood \"Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood\") was a [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28UK%29 \"Liberal Party (UK)\"), Independent and [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 \"Labour Party (UK)\") MP, who served as [Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Duchy_of_Lancaster \"Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster\") in the [cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_%28government%29 \"Cabinet (government)\") of [Ramsay MacDonald](/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald \"Ramsay MacDonald\"), in the first ever Labour government. He was an MP from 1909 to 1942\\. [John Golding](/wiki/John_Golding_%28British_politician%29 \"John Golding (British politician)\") was elected a Labour MP for [Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme](/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Newcastle-under-Lyme (UK Parliament constituency)\") at a by\\-election in 1969\\. He served in the governments of [Harold Wilson](/wiki/Harold_Wilson \"Harold Wilson\") and [Jim Callaghan](/wiki/Jim_Callaghan \"Jim Callaghan\"), as PPS to [Eric Varley](/wiki/Eric_Varley \"Eric Varley\") as [Minister of Technology](/wiki/Minister_of_Technology \"Minister of Technology\"), a Labour whip in opposition, and Minister for Employment, stepping down in [1986](/wiki/1986_Newcastle-under-Lyme_by-election \"1986 Newcastle-under-Lyme by-election\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,,322315,00\\.html \\|title\\=Right at the heart of Labour \\|work\\=Guardian Unlimited \\|publisher\\=Guardian News and Media Limited \\|first\\=Paul \\|last\\=Farrelly \\|date\\=22 January 1999 \\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2007}}",
"The current MP is [Adam Jogee](/wiki/Adam_Jogee \"Adam Jogee\").",
"### Transport",
"The town was once served by the [North Staffordshire Railway](/wiki/North_Staffordshire_Railway \"North Staffordshire Railway\"), its station being on a branch from [Stoke\\-on\\-Trent](/wiki/Stoke-on-Trent \"Stoke-on-Trent\") via Newcastle, [Silverdale](/wiki/Silverdale%2C_Staffordshire \"Silverdale, Staffordshire\") and [Keele](/wiki/Keele \"Keele\"), to [Market Drayton](/wiki/Market_Drayton \"Market Drayton\") in [Shropshire](/wiki/Shropshire \"Shropshire\"). [Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme railway station](/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme_railway_station \"Newcastle-under-Lyme railway station\") opened in September 1852, after numerous construction difficulties involving the two tunnels of {{convert\\|605\\|yd\\|m}} and {{convert\\|96\\|yd\\|m}} at Hartshill. There were also two halts to the west of Newcastle railway station, located at [Brampton](/wiki/Brampton_Halt_railway_station \"Brampton Halt railway station\") and [Liverpool Road](/wiki/Liverpool_Road_Halt_railway_station \"Liverpool Road Halt railway station\").{{Cite book \\|last2\\=Miller \\|first2\\=R. W. \\|last1\\=Christiansen \\|first1\\=Rex \\|year\\=1971 \\|title\\=The North Staffordshire Railway \\|page\\=124 \\|publisher\\=David \\& Charles \\|isbn\\=0\\-7153\\-5121\\-4}}",
"The section from [Silverdale](/wiki/Silverdale_%28Staffordshire%29_railway_station \"Silverdale (Staffordshire) railway station\") to [Market Drayton](/wiki/Market_Drayton_railway_station \"Market Drayton railway station\") closed to passengers in May 1956 and the rest of the line in March 1964\\. Only small sections remained from Madeley to Silverdale, and from Silverdale to Holditch, for coal traffic from the local collieries. The line from Newcastle Junction to Silverdale has been removed, and the site of Newcastle railway station and the Hartshill tunnels filled in.",
"Newcastle was on the national [canal](/wiki/Canal \"Canal\") network, but the [Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme Canal](/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme_Canal \"Newcastle-under-Lyme Canal\") running from the [Trent and Mersey Canal](/wiki/Trent_and_Mersey_Canal \"Trent and Mersey Canal\") at Stoke\\-on\\-Trent to [Sir Nigel Gresley's Canal](/wiki/Sir_Nigel_Gresley%27s_Canal \"Sir Nigel Gresley's Canal\") has been disused since 1935 and mostly filled in.",
"Today the town relies on buses for public transport. [FirstGroup](/wiki/FirstGroup \"FirstGroup\") runs a network of services connecting Newcastle to the towns of [the Potteries](/wiki/The_Potteries_Urban_Area \"The Potteries Urban Area\") and to [Stafford](/wiki/Stafford \"Stafford\"). Arriva buses run to [Shrewsbury](/wiki/Shrewsbury \"Shrewsbury\") via [Market Drayton](/wiki/Market_Drayton \"Market Drayton\")",
""
] |
### 12th–19th centuries
Newcastle was not recorded in the 1086 [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book"), as it grew up round a 12th\-century castle, but it must have gained rapid importance, as a [charter](/wiki/Charter "Charter"), known solely through a reference in another charter to [Preston](/wiki/Preston%2C_Lancashire "Preston, Lancashire"), was given to the town by [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_England "Henry II of England") in 1173\. The new castle superseded an older fortress at [Chesterton](/wiki/Chesterton%2C_Staffordshire "Chesterton, Staffordshire"), about {{convert\|2\|mi\|km\|0}} to the north, whose ruins were visible up to the end of the 16th century.
In 1235 [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England "Henry III of England") turned the town into a free borough, granting a [guild](/wiki/Guild "Guild") and other privileges. In 1251 he leased it under a [fee farm grant](/wiki/Fee_farm_grant "Fee farm grant") to the burgesses. In 1265 Newcastle was granted by the [Crown](/wiki/The_Crown "The Crown") to [Simon de Montfort](/wiki/Simon_de_Montfort%2C_6th_Earl_of_Leicester "Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester") and later to [Edmund Crouchback](/wiki/Edmund_Crouchback "Edmund Crouchback"), through whom it passed to [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England "Henry IV of England"). In [John Leland's](/wiki/John_Leland_%28antiquary%29 "John Leland (antiquary)") time the castle had disappeared "save one great Toure".
[thumb\|Ironmarket, Newcastle\-Under\-Lyme](/wiki/File:Ironmarket%2C_Newcastle-Under-Lyme_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2101001.jpg "Ironmarket, Newcastle-Under-Lyme - geograph.org.uk - 2101001.jpg")
Newcastle did not feature much in the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War "English Civil War"), except as a victim of [Royalist](/wiki/Cavalier "Cavalier") [plundering](/wiki/Plundering "Plundering").{{cn\|date\=March 2023}} However, it was the home town of Major General [Thomas Harrison](/wiki/Thomas_Harrison_%28soldier%29 "Thomas Harrison (soldier)"), a [Cromwellian](/wiki/Cromwellian "Cromwellian") army officer and leader of the [Fifth Monarchy Men](/wiki/Fifth_Monarchy_Men "Fifth Monarchy Men").
An inclosure act in 1816{{which\|date\=January 2024}} enclosed the common lands of the borough, and removed their common rights. They were thereafter held in trust for the burgesses of the borough. The Newcastle under Lyme Burgess Lands charity continues to exist, with entitlement to benefits going to those who would have been burgesses before the reforms of 1835: either the son of someone entitled to the trust, who was resident or occupying property within the borough's boundaries.
The [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 "Municipal Corporations Act 1835") reformed the borough, creating a new governing charter,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\_id\=10002795\&c\_id\=10001043 \|title\=Relationships/unit history of NEWCASTLE UNDER LYME \|work\=A Vision of Britain \|publisher\=\[\[University of Portsmouth]] Department of \[\[Geography]] \|access\-date\=6 May 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204304/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\_id\=10002795\&c\_id\=10001043 \|archive\-date\=30 September 2007 \|df\=dmy\-all}} repealing the previous charters of 1590 and 1664\. The unreformed corporation prior to 1835 had been styled the "Mayor, Bailiffs and Burgesses of Newcastle\-under\-Lyme", but that act changed the style to "Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses of Newcastle\-under\-Lyme".{{citation \|title\=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 s. 6 \|date\=14 August 2023 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/statutesunitedk35britgoog/page/392/ \|quote\=... shall take and bear the Name of the Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of such Borough ...}}
In 1835, the admission of new burgesses was forbidden by section 13 of the [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 "Municipal Corporations Act 1835") under any criteria expect that of being a ratepayer.{{cite book \|chapter\=Newcastle\-under\-Lyme: Economic history and social life \|title\=A History of the County of Stafford \|volume\=8 \|editor\-first\=J. G. \|editor\-last\=Jenkins \|location\=London \|date\=1963 \|pages\=44–54 \|via\=British History Online \|chapter\-url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/vch/staffs/vol8/pp44\-54 \|access\-date\=28 March 2023}}{{citation \|title\=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 s. 13 \|date\=14 August 2023 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/statutesunitedk35britgoog/page/395/ \|quote\=And it be enacted, That after the passing of this Act no Person shall be enrolled a Burgess of any Borough, for the Purposes of enjoying the Rights conferred for the first Time by this Act, in respect of any Title other than by Occupancy and Payment of Rates within such Borough, according to the Meaning and Provision of this Act.}} This only affected the creation of borough burgesses, and not the entitlement rules of the Burgess Lands Trust, which continued on the historic burgess criteria.
Newcastle sent two members to Parliament from 1355 to 1885, then lost one of its seats.[The History of Parliament Trust, Newcastle\-under\-Lyme, Borough, from 1386 to 1481](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/constituencies/newcastle-under-lyme) Retrieved 29 May 2019\.
[right\|thumb\|Nelson Place and view up King Street, from a postcard, {{circa\|1900}}](/wiki/File:Nelsonplace1900.jpg "Nelsonplace1900.jpg")
|
[
"### 12th–19th centuries",
"Newcastle was not recorded in the 1086 [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\"), as it grew up round a 12th\\-century castle, but it must have gained rapid importance, as a [charter](/wiki/Charter \"Charter\"), known solely through a reference in another charter to [Preston](/wiki/Preston%2C_Lancashire \"Preston, Lancashire\"), was given to the town by [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_England \"Henry II of England\") in 1173\\. The new castle superseded an older fortress at [Chesterton](/wiki/Chesterton%2C_Staffordshire \"Chesterton, Staffordshire\"), about {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km\\|0}} to the north, whose ruins were visible up to the end of the 16th century.",
"In 1235 [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England \"Henry III of England\") turned the town into a free borough, granting a [guild](/wiki/Guild \"Guild\") and other privileges. In 1251 he leased it under a [fee farm grant](/wiki/Fee_farm_grant \"Fee farm grant\") to the burgesses. In 1265 Newcastle was granted by the [Crown](/wiki/The_Crown \"The Crown\") to [Simon de Montfort](/wiki/Simon_de_Montfort%2C_6th_Earl_of_Leicester \"Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester\") and later to [Edmund Crouchback](/wiki/Edmund_Crouchback \"Edmund Crouchback\"), through whom it passed to [Henry IV](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England \"Henry IV of England\"). In [John Leland's](/wiki/John_Leland_%28antiquary%29 \"John Leland (antiquary)\") time the castle had disappeared \"save one great Toure\".",
"[thumb\\|Ironmarket, Newcastle\\-Under\\-Lyme](/wiki/File:Ironmarket%2C_Newcastle-Under-Lyme_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2101001.jpg \"Ironmarket, Newcastle-Under-Lyme - geograph.org.uk - 2101001.jpg\")\nNewcastle did not feature much in the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"), except as a victim of [Royalist](/wiki/Cavalier \"Cavalier\") [plundering](/wiki/Plundering \"Plundering\").{{cn\\|date\\=March 2023}} However, it was the home town of Major General [Thomas Harrison](/wiki/Thomas_Harrison_%28soldier%29 \"Thomas Harrison (soldier)\"), a [Cromwellian](/wiki/Cromwellian \"Cromwellian\") army officer and leader of the [Fifth Monarchy Men](/wiki/Fifth_Monarchy_Men \"Fifth Monarchy Men\").",
"An inclosure act in 1816{{which\\|date\\=January 2024}} enclosed the common lands of the borough, and removed their common rights. They were thereafter held in trust for the burgesses of the borough. The Newcastle under Lyme Burgess Lands charity continues to exist, with entitlement to benefits going to those who would have been burgesses before the reforms of 1835: either the son of someone entitled to the trust, who was resident or occupying property within the borough's boundaries.",
"The [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 \"Municipal Corporations Act 1835\") reformed the borough, creating a new governing charter,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\\_id\\=10002795\\&c\\_id\\=10001043 \\|title\\=Relationships/unit history of NEWCASTLE UNDER LYME \\|work\\=A Vision of Britain \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Portsmouth]] Department of \\[\\[Geography]] \\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204304/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u\\_id\\=10002795\\&c\\_id\\=10001043 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2007 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} repealing the previous charters of 1590 and 1664\\. The unreformed corporation prior to 1835 had been styled the \"Mayor, Bailiffs and Burgesses of Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme\", but that act changed the style to \"Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses of Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme\".{{citation \\|title\\=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 s. 6 \\|date\\=14 August 2023 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/statutesunitedk35britgoog/page/392/ \\|quote\\=... shall take and bear the Name of the Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of such Borough ...}}",
"In 1835, the admission of new burgesses was forbidden by section 13 of the [Municipal Corporations Act 1835](/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_Act_1835 \"Municipal Corporations Act 1835\") under any criteria expect that of being a ratepayer.{{cite book \\|chapter\\=Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme: Economic history and social life \\|title\\=A History of the County of Stafford \\|volume\\=8 \\|editor\\-first\\=J. G. \\|editor\\-last\\=Jenkins \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=1963 \\|pages\\=44–54 \\|via\\=British History Online \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/vch/staffs/vol8/pp44\\-54 \\|access\\-date\\=28 March 2023}}{{citation \\|title\\=Municipal Corporations Act 1835 s. 13 \\|date\\=14 August 2023 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/statutesunitedk35britgoog/page/395/ \\|quote\\=And it be enacted, That after the passing of this Act no Person shall be enrolled a Burgess of any Borough, for the Purposes of enjoying the Rights conferred for the first Time by this Act, in respect of any Title other than by Occupancy and Payment of Rates within such Borough, according to the Meaning and Provision of this Act.}} This only affected the creation of borough burgesses, and not the entitlement rules of the Burgess Lands Trust, which continued on the historic burgess criteria.",
"Newcastle sent two members to Parliament from 1355 to 1885, then lost one of its seats.[The History of Parliament Trust, Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme, Borough, from 1386 to 1481](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/constituencies/newcastle-under-lyme) Retrieved 29 May 2019\\.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Nelson Place and view up King Street, from a postcard, {{circa\\|1900}}](/wiki/File:Nelsonplace1900.jpg \"Nelsonplace1900.jpg\")",
""
] |
### Economy
Like neighbouring Stoke\-on\-Trent, Newcastle's early economy was based around the hatting trade, silk and [cotton mills](/wiki/Cotton_mill "Cotton mill"). Later [coal mining](/wiki/Coal_mining "Coal mining"), [brick](/wiki/Brick "Brick") manufacture, [iron](/wiki/Iron "Iron") casting and [engineering](/wiki/Engineering "Engineering") rose to prominence. Fine red earthenware and [soft\-paste porcelain](/wiki/Soft-paste_porcelain "Soft-paste porcelain") [tableware](/wiki/Tableware "Tableware") (the first such production in Staffordshire) was produced in Newcastle at Samuel Bell's factory in Lower Street in 1724–1754, when production ceased. Except for a failed enterprise in 1790–1797, which then switched to [brewing](/wiki/Brewing "Brewing"), there was no further commercial production of pottery within the town. Production of earthenware tiles, however, continued at several locations in the borough. Manufacture of fine [bone china](/wiki/Bone_china "Bone china") was re\-established in the borough in 1963 by [Mayfair Pottery](/wiki/Mayfair_Pottery "Mayfair Pottery") at [Chesterton](/wiki/Chesterton%2C_Staffordshire "Chesterton, Staffordshire").
The manufacture in the borough of clay [tobacco\-smoking pipes](/wiki/Smoking_pipe_%28tobacco%29 "Smoking pipe (tobacco)") started about 1637 and grew rapidly, until it was second only to hatting as an industry. Nationally, the town ranked with [Chester](/wiki/Chester "Chester"), [York](/wiki/York "York") and [Hull](/wiki/Kingston_upon_Hull "Kingston upon Hull") as the four major pipe producers. The industry continued until the mid\-19th century, when decline set in rapidly, so that by 1881 it had only one tobacco\-pipe maker left.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the town had a flourishing [felt](/wiki/Felt "Felt") hat manufacturing industry, probably at its peak locally in the 1820s, when a third of the town's population were involved in over 20 factories, but by 1892 there was only one still in production.
In 1944, the [Rolls\-Royce Derwent](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Derwent "Rolls-Royce Derwent") engine for the [Gloster Meteor](/wiki/Gloster_Meteor "Gloster Meteor") fighter was made in the borough.
Newcastle's 20th\-century industries include: iron\-working, construction materials, clothing (especially military, police and transport uniforms), computers, publishing, electric motors and machinery.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2022}}
Near the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the town received major redevelopment to incorporate a new street (Castle Walk) into the town centre, providing Newcastle with a new [bus station](/wiki/Bus_station "Bus station") and bringing in more companies. Various business centres in the town provide offices for companies that operate in the service sector.
The town was classed as a BID ([business improvement district](/wiki/Business_improvement_district "Business improvement district")) in 2015, reiterated in 2021\.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2022}}
|
[
"### Economy",
"Like neighbouring Stoke\\-on\\-Trent, Newcastle's early economy was based around the hatting trade, silk and [cotton mills](/wiki/Cotton_mill \"Cotton mill\"). Later [coal mining](/wiki/Coal_mining \"Coal mining\"), [brick](/wiki/Brick \"Brick\") manufacture, [iron](/wiki/Iron \"Iron\") casting and [engineering](/wiki/Engineering \"Engineering\") rose to prominence. Fine red earthenware and [soft\\-paste porcelain](/wiki/Soft-paste_porcelain \"Soft-paste porcelain\") [tableware](/wiki/Tableware \"Tableware\") (the first such production in Staffordshire) was produced in Newcastle at Samuel Bell's factory in Lower Street in 1724–1754, when production ceased. Except for a failed enterprise in 1790–1797, which then switched to [brewing](/wiki/Brewing \"Brewing\"), there was no further commercial production of pottery within the town. Production of earthenware tiles, however, continued at several locations in the borough. Manufacture of fine [bone china](/wiki/Bone_china \"Bone china\") was re\\-established in the borough in 1963 by [Mayfair Pottery](/wiki/Mayfair_Pottery \"Mayfair Pottery\") at [Chesterton](/wiki/Chesterton%2C_Staffordshire \"Chesterton, Staffordshire\").",
"The manufacture in the borough of clay [tobacco\\-smoking pipes](/wiki/Smoking_pipe_%28tobacco%29 \"Smoking pipe (tobacco)\") started about 1637 and grew rapidly, until it was second only to hatting as an industry. Nationally, the town ranked with [Chester](/wiki/Chester \"Chester\"), [York](/wiki/York \"York\") and [Hull](/wiki/Kingston_upon_Hull \"Kingston upon Hull\") as the four major pipe producers. The industry continued until the mid\\-19th century, when decline set in rapidly, so that by 1881 it had only one tobacco\\-pipe maker left.",
"In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the town had a flourishing [felt](/wiki/Felt \"Felt\") hat manufacturing industry, probably at its peak locally in the 1820s, when a third of the town's population were involved in over 20 factories, but by 1892 there was only one still in production.",
"In 1944, the [Rolls\\-Royce Derwent](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Derwent \"Rolls-Royce Derwent\") engine for the [Gloster Meteor](/wiki/Gloster_Meteor \"Gloster Meteor\") fighter was made in the borough.",
"Newcastle's 20th\\-century industries include: iron\\-working, construction materials, clothing (especially military, police and transport uniforms), computers, publishing, electric motors and machinery.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}}",
"Near the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the town received major redevelopment to incorporate a new street (Castle Walk) into the town centre, providing Newcastle with a new [bus station](/wiki/Bus_station \"Bus station\") and bringing in more companies. Various business centres in the town provide offices for companies that operate in the service sector.",
"The town was classed as a BID ([business improvement district](/wiki/Business_improvement_district \"Business improvement district\")) in 2015, reiterated in 2021\\.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2022}}",
""
] |
Sport
-----
The sports clubs and associations include [Newcastle Town F.C.](/wiki/Newcastle_Town_F.C. "Newcastle Town F.C."), playing [association football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") in the Northern Premier League Division One South East. Rugby is represented by Newcastle Staffs Rugby Union Club.
Cycle Staffordshire organises local cycling events, as does the Newcastle [Track Cycling](/wiki/Track_cycling "Track cycling") Association. The town has a [velodrome](/wiki/Velodrome "Velodrome") used by the Lyme Racing Club.[Lyme Racing Club website.](http://www.lymeracingclub.co.uk/) Retrieved January 2017\.
[thumb\|Newcastle Golf Club](/wiki/File:Newcastle_Golf_Club_-_Clubhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_407961.jpg "Newcastle Golf Club - Clubhouse - geograph.org.uk - 407961.jpg")
Newcastle Athletic Club[Newcastle (Staffs) AC website](http://newcastlestaffsac.org.uk/information/who-we-are/). Retrieved January 2017\. is based at the Ashfield Road track next to Newcastle College. This ash track was constructed in 1964\. The club competes in the North Staffs XC League and the Local, National and Heart of England League 3\.
The town is home to a volleyball club: [Newcastle (Staffs) Volleyball Club](/wiki/Newcastle_%28Staffs%29_Volleyball_Club "Newcastle (Staffs) Volleyball Club"). Founded in 1980, it has teams in the National Volleyball League.{{Citation needed\|date\=October 2020}}
Newcastle\-under\-Lyme College is home to Castle Korfball Club, one of the nation's older such clubs. This club was founded in June 1996 originally based at keele university[Castle Korfball Club website.](http://www.castlekorfball.co.uk) Retrieved January 2017\.
The town has a swimming club; Newcastle (Staffs) Swimming Club, which was founded in 1908\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.newcastleasc.net/ \|title\=Newcastle (Staffs) ASC {{!}} Newcastle Staffs Amateur Swimming Club, founded 1908 \|language\=en\-GB \|access\-date\=2019\-02\-13}}
There are golf courses at Kidsgrove, Wolstanton, Keele and Westlands.[Newcastle Golf Club website.](http://www.newcastlegolfclub.co.uk/index.php/en/) Retrieved January 2017\.[Wolstanton Golf Clubwebsite](http://www.wolstantongolfclub.co.uk/) Retrieved January 2017\.[Keele Golf Range website.](http://www.keelegolfrange.co.uk/drivingrange/) Retrieved January 2017\.
Keele University is home to one of the UK's first [quidditch](/wiki/Quidditch_%28real-life_sport%29 "Quidditch (real-life sport)") teams, the Keele Squirrels.[Keele university quidditch society website.](https://keelesu.com/activities/society/quidditch/) Retrieved April 2018\. It hosted the first ever quidditch game in the UK in 2011 against the [Leicester](/wiki/Leicester "Leicester") Thestrals.
|
[
"Sport\n-----",
"The sports clubs and associations include [Newcastle Town F.C.](/wiki/Newcastle_Town_F.C. \"Newcastle Town F.C.\"), playing [association football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") in the Northern Premier League Division One South East. Rugby is represented by Newcastle Staffs Rugby Union Club.",
"Cycle Staffordshire organises local cycling events, as does the Newcastle [Track Cycling](/wiki/Track_cycling \"Track cycling\") Association. The town has a [velodrome](/wiki/Velodrome \"Velodrome\") used by the Lyme Racing Club.[Lyme Racing Club website.](http://www.lymeracingclub.co.uk/) Retrieved January 2017\\.\n[thumb\\|Newcastle Golf Club](/wiki/File:Newcastle_Golf_Club_-_Clubhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_407961.jpg \"Newcastle Golf Club - Clubhouse - geograph.org.uk - 407961.jpg\")\nNewcastle Athletic Club[Newcastle (Staffs) AC website](http://newcastlestaffsac.org.uk/information/who-we-are/). Retrieved January 2017\\. is based at the Ashfield Road track next to Newcastle College. This ash track was constructed in 1964\\. The club competes in the North Staffs XC League and the Local, National and Heart of England League 3\\.",
"The town is home to a volleyball club: [Newcastle (Staffs) Volleyball Club](/wiki/Newcastle_%28Staffs%29_Volleyball_Club \"Newcastle (Staffs) Volleyball Club\"). Founded in 1980, it has teams in the National Volleyball League.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=October 2020}}",
"Newcastle\\-under\\-Lyme College is home to Castle Korfball Club, one of the nation's older such clubs. This club was founded in June 1996 originally based at keele university[Castle Korfball Club website.](http://www.castlekorfball.co.uk) Retrieved January 2017\\.",
"The town has a swimming club; Newcastle (Staffs) Swimming Club, which was founded in 1908\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.newcastleasc.net/ \\|title\\=Newcastle (Staffs) ASC {{!}} Newcastle Staffs Amateur Swimming Club, founded 1908 \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-13}}",
"There are golf courses at Kidsgrove, Wolstanton, Keele and Westlands.[Newcastle Golf Club website.](http://www.newcastlegolfclub.co.uk/index.php/en/) Retrieved January 2017\\.[Wolstanton Golf Clubwebsite](http://www.wolstantongolfclub.co.uk/) Retrieved January 2017\\.[Keele Golf Range website.](http://www.keelegolfrange.co.uk/drivingrange/) Retrieved January 2017\\.",
"Keele University is home to one of the UK's first [quidditch](/wiki/Quidditch_%28real-life_sport%29 \"Quidditch (real-life sport)\") teams, the Keele Squirrels.[Keele university quidditch society website.](https://keelesu.com/activities/society/quidditch/) Retrieved April 2018\\. It hosted the first ever quidditch game in the UK in 2011 against the [Leicester](/wiki/Leicester \"Leicester\") Thestrals.",
""
] |
Early life and education
------------------------
Forten, known as "Lottie," was born on August 17, 1837, in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), to Mary Virginia Wood (1815–1840\) and Robert Bridges Forten (1813–1864\).{{Cite web \|last\=Maillard \|first\=Mary \|date\=17 November 2019 \|title\=Mary Virginia Wood (Forten) (1815\-1840\) \|url\=https://www.blackpast.org/african\-american\-history/mary\-virginia\-wood\-forten\-1815\-1840/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024010835/https://www.blackpast.org/african\-american\-history/mary\-virginia\-wood\-forten\-1815\-1840/ \|archive\-date\=2020\-10\-24 \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-01 \|website\=\[\[Black Past]] \|language\=en\-US}}
### Paternal family lineage
Her father, Robert Forten, and his brother\-in\-law, [Robert Purvis](/wiki/Robert_Purvis "Robert Purvis"), were [abolitionists](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States "Abolitionism in the United States") and members of the [Philadelphia Vigilance Committee](/wiki/Philadelphia_Vigilance_Committee "Philadelphia Vigilance Committee"), ered assistance to people who escaped [slavery](/wiki/Slavery "Slavery"). Her paternal grandfather, the wealthy sailmaker [James Forten](/wiki/James_Forten "James Forten") Sr., was an early [abolitionist](/wiki/Abolitionism "Abolitionism") in Philadelphia.[Winch, Julie](/wiki/Julie_Winch "Julie Winch"), *A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten*, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, 279–80\.
Her paternal aunts – [Margaretta Forten](/wiki/Margaretta_Forten "Margaretta Forten"), [Sarah Louisa Forten Purvis](/wiki/Sarah_Louisa_Forten_Purvis "Sarah Louisa Forten Purvis"), and [Harriet Forten Purvis](/wiki/Harriet_Forten_Purvis "Harriet Forten Purvis") – and her paternal grandmother, [Charlotte Vandine Forten](/wiki/Charlotte_Vandine_Forten "Charlotte Vandine Forten"), were all founding members of the [Philadelphia Female Anti\-Slavery Society](/wiki/Philadelphia_Female_Anti-Slavery_Society "Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society").
### Maternal family lineage
While the Fortens were free northern blacks, Charlotte's mother, Mary Virginia Wood, had been born into slavery in the south. She was the daughter of wealthy planter James Cathcart Johnston of [Hayes Plantation](/wiki/Hayes_Plantation "Hayes Plantation"), Edenton, North Carolina, and the granddaughter of Governor [Samuel Johnston](/wiki/Samuel_Johnston "Samuel Johnston") of North Carolina.Maillard, Mary, {{"'}}Faithfully Drawn from Real Life:' Autobiographical Elements in Frank J. Webb's The Garies and Their Friends", *Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography* 137\.3 (2013\): 265–271\.Smith, Martha M., ["Johnston, James Cathcart"](http://ncpedia.org/biography/johnston-james-cathcart), NCpedia, 1988\. Revised by SLNC Government and Heritage Library, July 2023\.
Charlotte's maternal grandmother, Edith "Edy" Wood (1795–1846\) was the slave of Captain James Wood, owner of the Eagle Inn and Tavern in [Hertford](/wiki/Hertford%2C_North_Carolina "Hertford, North Carolina"), [Perquimans County](/wiki/Perquimans_County%2C_North_Carolina "Perquimans County, North Carolina"), [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina"). Edy Wood and the wealthy planter James Cathcart Johnston carried on a longstanding relationship and had four daughters: Mary Virginia, Caroline (1827–1836\), Louisa (1828–1836\), and Annie E. (1831–1879\).
Johnston emancipated Edy and their children in 1832 and settled them in Philadelphia in 1833 where they rented a Pine Street home for two years from [Sarah Allen](/wiki/Sarah_Allen_%28missionary%29 "Sarah Allen (missionary)"), widow of [Richard Allen](/wiki/Richard_Allen_%28bishop%29 "Richard Allen (bishop)") of Philadelphia's [Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church](/wiki/Mother_Bethel_A.M.E._Church "Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church"). From 1835 through 1836, Edy Wood and her children boarded with Elizabeth Willson, mother of Joseph Willson, author of *Sketches of Black Upper Class Life in Antebellum Philadelphia*.
### Woods–Forten marriage and family life
After Mary Virginia Wood's 1836 marriage to Robert B. Forten, her mother Edy joined the Forten household and paid board to her son\-in\-law. When Mary died of [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis") in 1840, Edy continued to care for her grandchild Charlotte alongside Charlotte's young aunt, Annie Wood, who was only six years older. Upon Edy Wood's death in 1846, Charlotte was raised by various members of the Forten\-Purvis family, while her aunt Annie moved to the [Cassey House](/wiki/Cassey_House "Cassey House"), where she was adopted by Amy Matilda Cassey.Janine Black, ["Cassey, Amy Matilda Williams 1808–1856"](http://www.blackpast.org/aah/cassey-amy-matilda-williams-1808-1856), *BlackPast*.
In 1854, Forten joined the household of Amy Matilda Cassey and her second husband, [Charles Lenox Remond](/wiki/Charles_Lenox_Remond "Charles Lenox Remond"), in [Salem](/wiki/Salem%2C_Massachusetts "Salem, Massachusetts"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts"), where she attended the Higginson Grammar School, a private academy for young women.{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2007\-04\-19 \|title\=Charlotte Forten, Women In Education: Teacher Of Emancipated Slaves \|url\=https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2007/04/charlotte\-forten.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603211117/https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2007/04/charlotte\-forten.html \|archive\-date\=2020\-06\-03 \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-01 \|website\=History of American Women \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2005\-03\-06 \|title\=Charlotte Forten Grimke biography \|url\=http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/grim\-cha.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050306212200/http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/grim\-cha.htm \|archive\-date\=2005\-03\-06 \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-01 \|website\=Women in History}} She was the only non\-white student in a class of 200\. The school offered classes in history, geography, drawing, and cartography, with special emphasis placed on critical thinking skills. After Higginson, Forten studied literature and education at the Salem Normal School, which trained teachers.{{Cite news \|last\=Williams \|first\=Fannie Barrier\|author\-link\=Fannie Barrier Williams \|date\=1914\-08\-06 \|title\=A Tribute to Charlotte Forten Grimke \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/38273456/the\-new\-york\-age/ \|url\-access\=limited \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-01 \|work\=The New York Age \|pages\=4}} Forten cited [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare"), [John Milton](/wiki/John_Milton "John Milton"), [Margaret Fuller](/wiki/Margaret_Fuller "Margaret Fuller") and [William Wordsworth](/wiki/William_Wordsworth "William Wordsworth") as some of her favorite authors. Her first teaching position was at Eppes Grammar School in Salem, becoming the first African American hired to teach white students in a Salem public school.[Brenda Stevenson](/wiki/Brenda_Elaine_Stevenson "Brenda Elaine Stevenson"), ed., *The Journals of Charlotte Forten*, New York: Oxford Press, 1988\.
[thumb\|left\|187px\|Grimké assisted with her husband's ministry at Fifteenth Street Presbyterian Church in Washington, DC, shown here as it was in about 1899\.](/wiki/File:15th_St_Presbyterian_Wash_DC_3b15749t.jpg "15th St Presbyterian Wash DC 3b15749t.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|187px\|The Fifteenth Street Presbyterian Church today](/wiki/File:Fifteenth_Street_Presbyterian_Church_-_Washington%2C_DC.jpg "Fifteenth Street Presbyterian Church - Washington, DC.jpg")
|
[
"Early life and education\n------------------------",
"Forten, known as \"Lottie,\" was born on August 17, 1837, in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania \"Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), to Mary Virginia Wood (1815–1840\\) and Robert Bridges Forten (1813–1864\\).{{Cite web \\|last\\=Maillard \\|first\\=Mary \\|date\\=17 November 2019 \\|title\\=Mary Virginia Wood (Forten) (1815\\-1840\\) \\|url\\=https://www.blackpast.org/african\\-american\\-history/mary\\-virginia\\-wood\\-forten\\-1815\\-1840/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024010835/https://www.blackpast.org/african\\-american\\-history/mary\\-virginia\\-wood\\-forten\\-1815\\-1840/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-24 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-01 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Black Past]] \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Paternal family lineage",
"Her father, Robert Forten, and his brother\\-in\\-law, [Robert Purvis](/wiki/Robert_Purvis \"Robert Purvis\"), were [abolitionists](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States \"Abolitionism in the United States\") and members of the [Philadelphia Vigilance Committee](/wiki/Philadelphia_Vigilance_Committee \"Philadelphia Vigilance Committee\"), ered assistance to people who escaped [slavery](/wiki/Slavery \"Slavery\"). Her paternal grandfather, the wealthy sailmaker [James Forten](/wiki/James_Forten \"James Forten\") Sr., was an early [abolitionist](/wiki/Abolitionism \"Abolitionism\") in Philadelphia.[Winch, Julie](/wiki/Julie_Winch \"Julie Winch\"), *A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten*, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, 279–80\\.",
"Her paternal aunts – [Margaretta Forten](/wiki/Margaretta_Forten \"Margaretta Forten\"), [Sarah Louisa Forten Purvis](/wiki/Sarah_Louisa_Forten_Purvis \"Sarah Louisa Forten Purvis\"), and [Harriet Forten Purvis](/wiki/Harriet_Forten_Purvis \"Harriet Forten Purvis\") – and her paternal grandmother, [Charlotte Vandine Forten](/wiki/Charlotte_Vandine_Forten \"Charlotte Vandine Forten\"), were all founding members of the [Philadelphia Female Anti\\-Slavery Society](/wiki/Philadelphia_Female_Anti-Slavery_Society \"Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society\").",
"### Maternal family lineage",
"While the Fortens were free northern blacks, Charlotte's mother, Mary Virginia Wood, had been born into slavery in the south. She was the daughter of wealthy planter James Cathcart Johnston of [Hayes Plantation](/wiki/Hayes_Plantation \"Hayes Plantation\"), Edenton, North Carolina, and the granddaughter of Governor [Samuel Johnston](/wiki/Samuel_Johnston \"Samuel Johnston\") of North Carolina.Maillard, Mary, {{\"'}}Faithfully Drawn from Real Life:' Autobiographical Elements in Frank J. Webb's The Garies and Their Friends\", *Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography* 137\\.3 (2013\\): 265–271\\.Smith, Martha M., [\"Johnston, James Cathcart\"](http://ncpedia.org/biography/johnston-james-cathcart), NCpedia, 1988\\. Revised by SLNC Government and Heritage Library, July 2023\\.",
"Charlotte's maternal grandmother, Edith \"Edy\" Wood (1795–1846\\) was the slave of Captain James Wood, owner of the Eagle Inn and Tavern in [Hertford](/wiki/Hertford%2C_North_Carolina \"Hertford, North Carolina\"), [Perquimans County](/wiki/Perquimans_County%2C_North_Carolina \"Perquimans County, North Carolina\"), [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\"). Edy Wood and the wealthy planter James Cathcart Johnston carried on a longstanding relationship and had four daughters: Mary Virginia, Caroline (1827–1836\\), Louisa (1828–1836\\), and Annie E. (1831–1879\\).",
"Johnston emancipated Edy and their children in 1832 and settled them in Philadelphia in 1833 where they rented a Pine Street home for two years from [Sarah Allen](/wiki/Sarah_Allen_%28missionary%29 \"Sarah Allen (missionary)\"), widow of [Richard Allen](/wiki/Richard_Allen_%28bishop%29 \"Richard Allen (bishop)\") of Philadelphia's [Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church](/wiki/Mother_Bethel_A.M.E._Church \"Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church\"). From 1835 through 1836, Edy Wood and her children boarded with Elizabeth Willson, mother of Joseph Willson, author of *Sketches of Black Upper Class Life in Antebellum Philadelphia*.",
"### Woods–Forten marriage and family life",
"After Mary Virginia Wood's 1836 marriage to Robert B. Forten, her mother Edy joined the Forten household and paid board to her son\\-in\\-law. When Mary died of [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\") in 1840, Edy continued to care for her grandchild Charlotte alongside Charlotte's young aunt, Annie Wood, who was only six years older. Upon Edy Wood's death in 1846, Charlotte was raised by various members of the Forten\\-Purvis family, while her aunt Annie moved to the [Cassey House](/wiki/Cassey_House \"Cassey House\"), where she was adopted by Amy Matilda Cassey.Janine Black, [\"Cassey, Amy Matilda Williams 1808–1856\"](http://www.blackpast.org/aah/cassey-amy-matilda-williams-1808-1856), *BlackPast*.",
"In 1854, Forten joined the household of Amy Matilda Cassey and her second husband, [Charles Lenox Remond](/wiki/Charles_Lenox_Remond \"Charles Lenox Remond\"), in [Salem](/wiki/Salem%2C_Massachusetts \"Salem, Massachusetts\"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\"), where she attended the Higginson Grammar School, a private academy for young women.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-19 \\|title\\=Charlotte Forten, Women In Education: Teacher Of Emancipated Slaves \\|url\\=https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2007/04/charlotte\\-forten.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603211117/https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2007/04/charlotte\\-forten.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-01 \\|website\\=History of American Women \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2005\\-03\\-06 \\|title\\=Charlotte Forten Grimke biography \\|url\\=http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/grim\\-cha.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050306212200/http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/grim\\-cha.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-03\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-01 \\|website\\=Women in History}} She was the only non\\-white student in a class of 200\\. The school offered classes in history, geography, drawing, and cartography, with special emphasis placed on critical thinking skills. After Higginson, Forten studied literature and education at the Salem Normal School, which trained teachers.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Williams \\|first\\=Fannie Barrier\\|author\\-link\\=Fannie Barrier Williams \\|date\\=1914\\-08\\-06 \\|title\\=A Tribute to Charlotte Forten Grimke \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/38273456/the\\-new\\-york\\-age/ \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-01 \\|work\\=The New York Age \\|pages\\=4}} Forten cited [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\"), [John Milton](/wiki/John_Milton \"John Milton\"), [Margaret Fuller](/wiki/Margaret_Fuller \"Margaret Fuller\") and [William Wordsworth](/wiki/William_Wordsworth \"William Wordsworth\") as some of her favorite authors. Her first teaching position was at Eppes Grammar School in Salem, becoming the first African American hired to teach white students in a Salem public school.[Brenda Stevenson](/wiki/Brenda_Elaine_Stevenson \"Brenda Elaine Stevenson\"), ed., *The Journals of Charlotte Forten*, New York: Oxford Press, 1988\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|187px\\|Grimké assisted with her husband's ministry at Fifteenth Street Presbyterian Church in Washington, DC, shown here as it was in about 1899\\.](/wiki/File:15th_St_Presbyterian_Wash_DC_3b15749t.jpg \"15th St Presbyterian Wash DC 3b15749t.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|187px\\|The Fifteenth Street Presbyterian Church today](/wiki/File:Fifteenth_Street_Presbyterian_Church_-_Washington%2C_DC.jpg \"Fifteenth Street Presbyterian Church - Washington, DC.jpg\")",
""
] |
Consequences
------------
### Developments in the Dutch Republic
[left\|thumb\|200px\|Arms adopted by the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic") to mark the recognition of its sovereignty after the Twelve Years' Truce.](/wiki/File:Belgick-lion_Benthien_kazerne_Dordrecht.jpg "Belgick-lion Benthien kazerne Dordrecht.jpg") The immediate result for the Republic was that it was now officially recognised by other European states as a sovereign nation.Israel (1995\), pp. 405–6 To mark the recognition of the independence of the United Provinces, the States\-General added a closed [crown](/wiki/Crown_%28heraldry%29 "Crown (heraldry)") with two arches to their arms.[http://www.hubert\-herald.nl/INHOUD.htm](http://www.hubert-herald.nl/INHOUD.htm) (in Dutch, consulted 29 April 2011\). Soon after the truce commenced, the Dutch emissaries in Paris and London were accorded full [ambassadorial](/wiki/Ambassador "Ambassador") status. The Republic established diplomatic ties with the [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice "Republic of Venice"), the [Sultanate of Morocco](/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate "Saadi Sultanate"), and the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). A network of [consuls](/wiki/Consul_%28representative%29 "Consul (representative)") was set up in the main ports. On 17 June 1609 France and England signed a treaty guaranteeing the independence of the Republic. To protect their interests in the [Baltic](/wiki/Baltic_Region "Baltic Region"), the United Provinces signed a defensive pact with the [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League "Hanseatic League") in 1614 that was intended to deter [Danish](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") aggression.Israel (1998\) pp. 405–406; Groenveld (2009\) pp. 103–111\.
[right\|thumb\|300px\|Plan of [Batavia](/wiki/Jakarta "Jakarta") in 1627\.](/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Reproductie_van_een_plattegrond_van_Batavia_uit_circa_1627_TMnr_496-3.jpg "COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Reproductie van een plattegrond van Batavia uit circa 1627 TMnr 496-3.jpg") The truce did not halt Dutch [colonial expansion](/wiki/Dutch_Empire "Dutch Empire"). The United East India Company established its presence on the island of [Solor](/wiki/Solor "Solor"),Borschberg (2011\) p. 311n142\. founded the town of [Batavia](/wiki/Jakarta "Jakarta") on the island of [Java](/wiki/Java "Java"), and gained a foothold on the [Coromandel Coast](/wiki/Dutch_Coromandel "Dutch Coromandel") in [Pulicat](/wiki/Pulicat "Pulicat"). In the New World, the Republic encouraged the colonization of [New Netherland](/wiki/New_Netherland "New Netherland").Israel (1982\) pp. 66–69\. The Dutch [merchant navy](/wiki/Merchant_navy "Merchant navy") expanded rapidly, asserting itself on new routes, particularly in the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea").
The official embargo on trade with the Americas had ended, but the colonists now imposed their own unofficial one, limiting Dutch trade with [Caracas](/wiki/Caracas "Caracas") and the [Amazon](/wiki/Amazon_Rainforest "Amazon Rainforest") region. Temporary setbacks in the Indies caused the price of VOC shares on the [Amsterdam Stock Exchange](/wiki/Amsterdam_Stock_Exchange "Amsterdam Stock Exchange") to fall from a high of 200 in 1608 to 132 after the truce began. The Zeeland transit traffic to the Southern Netherlands declined sharply. On the other hand, the lifting of the Dutch blockade of Antwerp and the Flemish coast helped revive the trade in Flemish textile products, just as the Flemish textile industry experienced a revival itself.Israel (1995\), pp. 409–10, 437
Despite the truce, in 1614 the Dutch Captain [Joris van Spilbergen](/wiki/Joris_van_Spilbergen "Joris van Spilbergen") sailed beyond the [Strait of Magellan](/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan "Strait of Magellan") with an expedition of five ships, and raided the Spanish settlements on the coast of Mexico and South America. He fought the Spanish at [Callao](/wiki/Callao "Callao"), [Acapulco](/wiki/Acapulco "Acapulco") and [Navidad](/wiki/Navidad%2C_Chile "Navidad, Chile").Quanchi, *Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands*, page 233[Myers, Paul A., *North to California*, Llumina Press, 2004](https://books.google.com/books?id=-chO8R-i3PYC&dq=joris+van+spilbergen&pg=PA459) {{ISBN\|9781595262516}}
In the Republic, ports profited from the expansion of trade. In contrast, brewing towns such as Delft, and textile producing centers like [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden "Leiden") and [Gouda](/wiki/Gouda%2C_South_Holland "Gouda, South Holland"), suffered from the competition of goods produced more cheaply in the Habsburg Netherlands.Israel (1982\) pp. 56–59\.
#### Remonstrants and Counter\-Remonstrants
[left\|thumb\|200px\|Johan van Oldenbarnevelt by [Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt](/wiki/Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt "Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt").](/wiki/File:Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_%28atelier%29_-_Johan_van_Oldenbarnevelt.jpg "Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt (atelier) - Johan van Oldenbarnevelt.jpg")
During the Truce, two factions emerged in the Dutch Republic. The divisions separating them were religious as well as political. The unity of the [Dutch Reformed Church](/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church "Dutch Reformed Church") was threatened by a [controversy](/wiki/History_of_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate "History of Calvinist–Arminian debate") that found its origins in the opposing views of [Jacobus Arminius](/wiki/Jacobus_Arminius "Jacobus Arminius") and [Franciscus Gomarus](/wiki/Franciscus_Gomarus "Franciscus Gomarus") on [predestination](/wiki/Predestination_%28Calvinism%29 "Predestination (Calvinism)").
Arminius' less rigid views appealed to the well\-to\-do merchants of Holland. They were also popular among the regents dominating the political life of that province, because they offered the prospect of an inclusive church controlled by the state. Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius were among the principal supporters.
The strict interpretations of Gomarus stood for a church of the elect, independent of outside control. They appealed to the industrious strata of the manufacturing towns as well as to exiles from the Southern Netherlands who were excluded from political power, adding an element of social conflict to the controversy.
In many towns congregations split between [Remonstrants](/wiki/Remonstrants "Remonstrants") seeking to moderate the [Belgic Confession](/wiki/Belgic_Confession "Belgic Confession"), and Counter\-Remonstrants who were strict Calvinists, insisting on its rigid interpretation. On 23 September 1617 Stadtholder Maurice of Orange openly sided with the Counter\-Remonstrants. Maurice and many of the counter\-Remonstrants had mixed feelings about the truce. Maurice was opposed to some of the measures of the truce and wanted full independence for the Dutch Republic. He favoured continuing the war until a total Spanish defeat that led to an unquestionable freedom for the Republic.Anderson p. 6
In an attempt to force the issue, Remonstrant regents used their sway over local authorities to recruit mercenaries with the "[Sharp Resolution](/wiki/Sharp_Resolution "Sharp Resolution")" of 4 August 1617, which authorised city governments to raise mercenary armies, the so\-called *waardgelders*,This was a Dutch bastardization of the German word "Warte Gelt", or "retainer", and at the time was a general Dutch designation for "mercenary". outside the federal army or civic militias, to maintain public order. This drew an immediate protest from Maurice and from the other provinces on constitutional grounds. They asserted that the Union of Utrecht prohibited the raising of troops by individual cities without consent from the States General. Even more threatening to the federal supremacy had been the provision in the Sharp Resolution that asserted that units in the federal army paid for the account of Holland owed their primary allegiance to that province. This was a restatement of Holland's old constitutional position that the provinces were supremely sovereign, and the Union no more than a confederation of sovereign provinces. Maurice, and the other provinces (except Utrecht), now claimed that the States General possessed an overriding sovereignty in matters of common defence and foreign policyIsrael (1995\), pp. 438–43
Maurice now mobilised the support of the five provinces opposing Holland and Utrecht for a States General resolution disbanding the *waardgelders*. This was voted through on 9 July 1618, with five votes to two, Holland and Utrecht opposing. Van Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius, in desperation, now overplayed their hand: appealing to the requirement for unanimity in the Union treaty, they sent a delegation to the federal troops in Utrecht (that were supposed to disarm the *waardgelders* in that city) with instructions that their first allegiance was to the province that paid them, and that they were to ignore instructions by the stadtholder in case of conflict. This intervention was construed by their opponents as treason. Prince MauriceHe had succeeded his half\-brother Philip William as Prince of Orange, after the latter's death in February 1618 now brought up additional federal troops to Utrecht and started to disarm the *waardgelders* there on 31 July 1618\. There was no resistance. The political opposition to his actions imploded as van Oldenbarnevelt's Utrecht ally, [Gilles van Ledenberg](/wiki/Gilles_van_Ledenberg "Gilles van Ledenberg"), *advocaat* of the Utrecht States, fled to HollandIsrael (1995\), pp. 443–8
On 29 August 1618 Maurice had Oldenbarnevelt and other leaders of the Remonstrants arrested and then proceeded to purge the Holland *ridderschap*College of Nobles; this was the [co\-opting](/wiki/Co-option "Co-option") college that represented the Holland nobles in the States, with one vote. and the *vroedschappen* of a number of cities that had been governed by Remonstrant regents up to then. He replaced the old regents with adherents of the Counter\-Remonstrant faction, often *[nouveau riche](/wiki/Nouveau_riche "Nouveau riche")* merchants that had little experience in government affairs. These purges constituted a political revolution and ensured that his [Orangist](/wiki/Orangism_%28Netherlands%29 "Orangism (Netherlands)") regime would be securely in charge of the Republic for the next 32 years. Henceforth the stadtholder, not the *Advocate of Holland*, would direct the affairs of the Republic, mainly through his parliamentary managers in the Holland *ridderschap*. The Holland leadership was emasculated by making sure that the position of [Grand Pensionary](/wiki/Grand_Pensionary "Grand Pensionary")van Oldenbarnevelt's title of *Advocate* was now abolished and replaced with this new title. would henceforth be filled by Orangists.Israel (1995\), pp. 448–56, 458
Oldenbarnevelt was [tried and executed](/wiki/Trial_of_Oldenbarnevelt%2C_Grotius_and_Hogerbeets "Trial of Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Hogerbeets"). Others, such as Grotius, were imprisoned in Castle [Loevestein](/wiki/Loevestein "Loevestein"). Meanwhile, the [Synod of Dort](/wiki/Synod_of_Dort "Synod of Dort") upheld the strict interpretation of predestination and declared [Arminianism](/wiki/Arminianism "Arminianism") heretical. Arminian theologians such as [Johannes Wtenbogaert](/wiki/Johannes_Wtenbogaert "Johannes Wtenbogaert") went into exile, where they set up a separate [Remonstrant Church](/wiki/Remonstrants "Remonstrants").Van Deursen (1974\).
### Developments in the Spanish monarchy
In Spain the truce was seen as a major humiliation – it had suffered a political, military and ideological defeat and the affront to its prestige was immense.Perez 135{{cite book\|last1\=Lynch\|first1\=John\|title\=Spain Under the Habsburgs: Spain and America, 1598–1700 Volume 2 of Spain Under the Habsburgs\|date\=1969\|publisher\=B. Blackwell\|page\=42\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KhhpAAAAMAAJ}} The truce was not prestigious for the Spaniards as the Dutch emerged as the most favoured party.Lim pp. 77 Spanish councillors opposed renewing the truce in order to preserve Spain's reputation as a great power and renew the war. The terms of the 1609 truce that the Spanish found objectionable not only included the virtual recognition of Dutch independence but also the closure of the river Scheldt to traffic in and out of Antwerp, and the acceptance of Dutch commercial operations in the Spanish and Portuguese colonial maritime lanes.{{cite book\|last1\=Lindquist\|first1\=Thea L\|title\=The Politics of Diplomacy: The Palatinate and Anglo\-Imperial Relations in the Thirty Years' War\|date\=2001\|publisher\=University of Wisconsin\|pages\=98–99\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=l0qtAAAAMAAJ}} A defeat for Spain was essentially a defeat for Castile, for it was Castile which provided the policy and the maintenance of the empire.
For the time of its duration, however, the truce allowed Philip and Duke of Lerma to disengage from the conflict in the Low Countries and devote their energies to the internal problems of the Spanish monarchy. Nevertheless, Philip also longed to expunge the truce through a vigorous resumption of war.
### Developments in the Southern Netherlands
The Southern Netherlands benefited from the truce. Agriculture was at last allowed to recover from the devastation of war. The archducal regime encouraged the reclaiming of land that had been inundated in the course of the hostilities and sponsored the impoldering of the [Moeren](/wiki/Les_Mo%C3%ABres "Les Moëres"), a marshy area that is presently astride the Belgian–French border. The recovery of agriculture led in turn to a modest increase of the population after decades of demographic losses. Repairing the damage to churches and other buildings helped to boost demand. Industry and in particular the luxury trades likewise underwent a recovery. Other sectors, such as textiles and breweries, benefitted from comparatively lower wages than those of the Dutch Republic. International trade was however hampered by the closure of the river Scheldt. The archducal regime had plans to bypass the blockade with a system of canals linking Ostend via Bruges to the Scheldt in Ghent and joining the Meuse to the Rhine between [Venlo](/wiki/Venlo "Venlo") and [Rheinberg](/wiki/Rheinberg "Rheinberg"). In order to combat urban poverty, the government supported the creation of a network of [mounts of piety](/wiki/Mont_de_Pi%C3%A9t%C3%A9 "Mont de Piété") based on the Italian model.
Meanwhile, the archducal regime ensured the triumph of the [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation") in the Habsburg Netherlands. Most Protestants had by that stage left the region. Under the terms of legislation passed shortly after the truce, the remaining Protestant population was tolerated, provided they did not worship in public. Engaging in religious debates was also forbidden by law. The resolutions of the Third Provincial Council of Mechelen of 1607 were likewise given official sanction. Through such measures and by the appointment of a generation of able and committed bishops, Albert and Isabella laid the foundation of the Catholic confessionalisation of the population.
|
[
"Consequences\n------------",
"### Developments in the Dutch Republic",
"[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Arms adopted by the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\") to mark the recognition of its sovereignty after the Twelve Years' Truce.](/wiki/File:Belgick-lion_Benthien_kazerne_Dordrecht.jpg \"Belgick-lion Benthien kazerne Dordrecht.jpg\") The immediate result for the Republic was that it was now officially recognised by other European states as a sovereign nation.Israel (1995\\), pp. 405–6 To mark the recognition of the independence of the United Provinces, the States\\-General added a closed [crown](/wiki/Crown_%28heraldry%29 \"Crown (heraldry)\") with two arches to their arms.[http://www.hubert\\-herald.nl/INHOUD.htm](http://www.hubert-herald.nl/INHOUD.htm) (in Dutch, consulted 29 April 2011\\). Soon after the truce commenced, the Dutch emissaries in Paris and London were accorded full [ambassadorial](/wiki/Ambassador \"Ambassador\") status. The Republic established diplomatic ties with the [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\"), the [Sultanate of Morocco](/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate \"Saadi Sultanate\"), and the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"). A network of [consuls](/wiki/Consul_%28representative%29 \"Consul (representative)\") was set up in the main ports. On 17 June 1609 France and England signed a treaty guaranteeing the independence of the Republic. To protect their interests in the [Baltic](/wiki/Baltic_Region \"Baltic Region\"), the United Provinces signed a defensive pact with the [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League \"Hanseatic League\") in 1614 that was intended to deter [Danish](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") aggression.Israel (1998\\) pp. 405–406; Groenveld (2009\\) pp. 103–111\\.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|300px\\|Plan of [Batavia](/wiki/Jakarta \"Jakarta\") in 1627\\.](/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Reproductie_van_een_plattegrond_van_Batavia_uit_circa_1627_TMnr_496-3.jpg \"COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Reproductie van een plattegrond van Batavia uit circa 1627 TMnr 496-3.jpg\") The truce did not halt Dutch [colonial expansion](/wiki/Dutch_Empire \"Dutch Empire\"). The United East India Company established its presence on the island of [Solor](/wiki/Solor \"Solor\"),Borschberg (2011\\) p. 311n142\\. founded the town of [Batavia](/wiki/Jakarta \"Jakarta\") on the island of [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\"), and gained a foothold on the [Coromandel Coast](/wiki/Dutch_Coromandel \"Dutch Coromandel\") in [Pulicat](/wiki/Pulicat \"Pulicat\"). In the New World, the Republic encouraged the colonization of [New Netherland](/wiki/New_Netherland \"New Netherland\").Israel (1982\\) pp. 66–69\\. The Dutch [merchant navy](/wiki/Merchant_navy \"Merchant navy\") expanded rapidly, asserting itself on new routes, particularly in the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\").",
"The official embargo on trade with the Americas had ended, but the colonists now imposed their own unofficial one, limiting Dutch trade with [Caracas](/wiki/Caracas \"Caracas\") and the [Amazon](/wiki/Amazon_Rainforest \"Amazon Rainforest\") region. Temporary setbacks in the Indies caused the price of VOC shares on the [Amsterdam Stock Exchange](/wiki/Amsterdam_Stock_Exchange \"Amsterdam Stock Exchange\") to fall from a high of 200 in 1608 to 132 after the truce began. The Zeeland transit traffic to the Southern Netherlands declined sharply. On the other hand, the lifting of the Dutch blockade of Antwerp and the Flemish coast helped revive the trade in Flemish textile products, just as the Flemish textile industry experienced a revival itself.Israel (1995\\), pp. 409–10, 437",
"Despite the truce, in 1614 the Dutch Captain [Joris van Spilbergen](/wiki/Joris_van_Spilbergen \"Joris van Spilbergen\") sailed beyond the [Strait of Magellan](/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan \"Strait of Magellan\") with an expedition of five ships, and raided the Spanish settlements on the coast of Mexico and South America. He fought the Spanish at [Callao](/wiki/Callao \"Callao\"), [Acapulco](/wiki/Acapulco \"Acapulco\") and [Navidad](/wiki/Navidad%2C_Chile \"Navidad, Chile\").Quanchi, *Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands*, page 233[Myers, Paul A., *North to California*, Llumina Press, 2004](https://books.google.com/books?id=-chO8R-i3PYC&dq=joris+van+spilbergen&pg=PA459) {{ISBN\\|9781595262516}}",
"In the Republic, ports profited from the expansion of trade. In contrast, brewing towns such as Delft, and textile producing centers like [Leiden](/wiki/Leiden \"Leiden\") and [Gouda](/wiki/Gouda%2C_South_Holland \"Gouda, South Holland\"), suffered from the competition of goods produced more cheaply in the Habsburg Netherlands.Israel (1982\\) pp. 56–59\\.",
"#### Remonstrants and Counter\\-Remonstrants",
"[left\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Johan van Oldenbarnevelt by [Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt](/wiki/Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt \"Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt\").](/wiki/File:Michiel_Jansz_van_Mierevelt_%28atelier%29_-_Johan_van_Oldenbarnevelt.jpg \"Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt (atelier) - Johan van Oldenbarnevelt.jpg\")\nDuring the Truce, two factions emerged in the Dutch Republic. The divisions separating them were religious as well as political. The unity of the [Dutch Reformed Church](/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church \"Dutch Reformed Church\") was threatened by a [controversy](/wiki/History_of_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate \"History of Calvinist–Arminian debate\") that found its origins in the opposing views of [Jacobus Arminius](/wiki/Jacobus_Arminius \"Jacobus Arminius\") and [Franciscus Gomarus](/wiki/Franciscus_Gomarus \"Franciscus Gomarus\") on [predestination](/wiki/Predestination_%28Calvinism%29 \"Predestination (Calvinism)\").",
"Arminius' less rigid views appealed to the well\\-to\\-do merchants of Holland. They were also popular among the regents dominating the political life of that province, because they offered the prospect of an inclusive church controlled by the state. Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius were among the principal supporters.",
"The strict interpretations of Gomarus stood for a church of the elect, independent of outside control. They appealed to the industrious strata of the manufacturing towns as well as to exiles from the Southern Netherlands who were excluded from political power, adding an element of social conflict to the controversy.",
"In many towns congregations split between [Remonstrants](/wiki/Remonstrants \"Remonstrants\") seeking to moderate the [Belgic Confession](/wiki/Belgic_Confession \"Belgic Confession\"), and Counter\\-Remonstrants who were strict Calvinists, insisting on its rigid interpretation. On 23 September 1617 Stadtholder Maurice of Orange openly sided with the Counter\\-Remonstrants. Maurice and many of the counter\\-Remonstrants had mixed feelings about the truce. Maurice was opposed to some of the measures of the truce and wanted full independence for the Dutch Republic. He favoured continuing the war until a total Spanish defeat that led to an unquestionable freedom for the Republic.Anderson p. 6",
"In an attempt to force the issue, Remonstrant regents used their sway over local authorities to recruit mercenaries with the \"[Sharp Resolution](/wiki/Sharp_Resolution \"Sharp Resolution\")\" of 4 August 1617, which authorised city governments to raise mercenary armies, the so\\-called *waardgelders*,This was a Dutch bastardization of the German word \"Warte Gelt\", or \"retainer\", and at the time was a general Dutch designation for \"mercenary\". outside the federal army or civic militias, to maintain public order. This drew an immediate protest from Maurice and from the other provinces on constitutional grounds. They asserted that the Union of Utrecht prohibited the raising of troops by individual cities without consent from the States General. Even more threatening to the federal supremacy had been the provision in the Sharp Resolution that asserted that units in the federal army paid for the account of Holland owed their primary allegiance to that province. This was a restatement of Holland's old constitutional position that the provinces were supremely sovereign, and the Union no more than a confederation of sovereign provinces. Maurice, and the other provinces (except Utrecht), now claimed that the States General possessed an overriding sovereignty in matters of common defence and foreign policyIsrael (1995\\), pp. 438–43",
"Maurice now mobilised the support of the five provinces opposing Holland and Utrecht for a States General resolution disbanding the *waardgelders*. This was voted through on 9 July 1618, with five votes to two, Holland and Utrecht opposing. Van Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius, in desperation, now overplayed their hand: appealing to the requirement for unanimity in the Union treaty, they sent a delegation to the federal troops in Utrecht (that were supposed to disarm the *waardgelders* in that city) with instructions that their first allegiance was to the province that paid them, and that they were to ignore instructions by the stadtholder in case of conflict. This intervention was construed by their opponents as treason. Prince MauriceHe had succeeded his half\\-brother Philip William as Prince of Orange, after the latter's death in February 1618 now brought up additional federal troops to Utrecht and started to disarm the *waardgelders* there on 31 July 1618\\. There was no resistance. The political opposition to his actions imploded as van Oldenbarnevelt's Utrecht ally, [Gilles van Ledenberg](/wiki/Gilles_van_Ledenberg \"Gilles van Ledenberg\"), *advocaat* of the Utrecht States, fled to HollandIsrael (1995\\), pp. 443–8",
"On 29 August 1618 Maurice had Oldenbarnevelt and other leaders of the Remonstrants arrested and then proceeded to purge the Holland *ridderschap*College of Nobles; this was the [co\\-opting](/wiki/Co-option \"Co-option\") college that represented the Holland nobles in the States, with one vote. and the *vroedschappen* of a number of cities that had been governed by Remonstrant regents up to then. He replaced the old regents with adherents of the Counter\\-Remonstrant faction, often *[nouveau riche](/wiki/Nouveau_riche \"Nouveau riche\")* merchants that had little experience in government affairs. These purges constituted a political revolution and ensured that his [Orangist](/wiki/Orangism_%28Netherlands%29 \"Orangism (Netherlands)\") regime would be securely in charge of the Republic for the next 32 years. Henceforth the stadtholder, not the *Advocate of Holland*, would direct the affairs of the Republic, mainly through his parliamentary managers in the Holland *ridderschap*. The Holland leadership was emasculated by making sure that the position of [Grand Pensionary](/wiki/Grand_Pensionary \"Grand Pensionary\")van Oldenbarnevelt's title of *Advocate* was now abolished and replaced with this new title. would henceforth be filled by Orangists.Israel (1995\\), pp. 448–56, 458",
"Oldenbarnevelt was [tried and executed](/wiki/Trial_of_Oldenbarnevelt%2C_Grotius_and_Hogerbeets \"Trial of Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Hogerbeets\"). Others, such as Grotius, were imprisoned in Castle [Loevestein](/wiki/Loevestein \"Loevestein\"). Meanwhile, the [Synod of Dort](/wiki/Synod_of_Dort \"Synod of Dort\") upheld the strict interpretation of predestination and declared [Arminianism](/wiki/Arminianism \"Arminianism\") heretical. Arminian theologians such as [Johannes Wtenbogaert](/wiki/Johannes_Wtenbogaert \"Johannes Wtenbogaert\") went into exile, where they set up a separate [Remonstrant Church](/wiki/Remonstrants \"Remonstrants\").Van Deursen (1974\\).",
"### Developments in the Spanish monarchy",
"In Spain the truce was seen as a major humiliation – it had suffered a political, military and ideological defeat and the affront to its prestige was immense.Perez 135{{cite book\\|last1\\=Lynch\\|first1\\=John\\|title\\=Spain Under the Habsburgs: Spain and America, 1598–1700 Volume 2 of Spain Under the Habsburgs\\|date\\=1969\\|publisher\\=B. Blackwell\\|page\\=42\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KhhpAAAAMAAJ}} The truce was not prestigious for the Spaniards as the Dutch emerged as the most favoured party.Lim pp. 77 Spanish councillors opposed renewing the truce in order to preserve Spain's reputation as a great power and renew the war. The terms of the 1609 truce that the Spanish found objectionable not only included the virtual recognition of Dutch independence but also the closure of the river Scheldt to traffic in and out of Antwerp, and the acceptance of Dutch commercial operations in the Spanish and Portuguese colonial maritime lanes.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Lindquist\\|first1\\=Thea L\\|title\\=The Politics of Diplomacy: The Palatinate and Anglo\\-Imperial Relations in the Thirty Years' War\\|date\\=2001\\|publisher\\=University of Wisconsin\\|pages\\=98–99\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=l0qtAAAAMAAJ}} A defeat for Spain was essentially a defeat for Castile, for it was Castile which provided the policy and the maintenance of the empire.",
"For the time of its duration, however, the truce allowed Philip and Duke of Lerma to disengage from the conflict in the Low Countries and devote their energies to the internal problems of the Spanish monarchy. Nevertheless, Philip also longed to expunge the truce through a vigorous resumption of war.",
"### Developments in the Southern Netherlands",
"The Southern Netherlands benefited from the truce. Agriculture was at last allowed to recover from the devastation of war. The archducal regime encouraged the reclaiming of land that had been inundated in the course of the hostilities and sponsored the impoldering of the [Moeren](/wiki/Les_Mo%C3%ABres \"Les Moëres\"), a marshy area that is presently astride the Belgian–French border. The recovery of agriculture led in turn to a modest increase of the population after decades of demographic losses. Repairing the damage to churches and other buildings helped to boost demand. Industry and in particular the luxury trades likewise underwent a recovery. Other sectors, such as textiles and breweries, benefitted from comparatively lower wages than those of the Dutch Republic. International trade was however hampered by the closure of the river Scheldt. The archducal regime had plans to bypass the blockade with a system of canals linking Ostend via Bruges to the Scheldt in Ghent and joining the Meuse to the Rhine between [Venlo](/wiki/Venlo \"Venlo\") and [Rheinberg](/wiki/Rheinberg \"Rheinberg\"). In order to combat urban poverty, the government supported the creation of a network of [mounts of piety](/wiki/Mont_de_Pi%C3%A9t%C3%A9 \"Mont de Piété\") based on the Italian model.",
"Meanwhile, the archducal regime ensured the triumph of the [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\") in the Habsburg Netherlands. Most Protestants had by that stage left the region. Under the terms of legislation passed shortly after the truce, the remaining Protestant population was tolerated, provided they did not worship in public. Engaging in religious debates was also forbidden by law. The resolutions of the Third Provincial Council of Mechelen of 1607 were likewise given official sanction. Through such measures and by the appointment of a generation of able and committed bishops, Albert and Isabella laid the foundation of the Catholic confessionalisation of the population.",
""
] |
History
-------
Soon after the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War "Mexican–American War"), the city was surveyed first by Thomas Campbell in 1847 and later by Chester Lyman, in 1848, following the standard grid street pattern utilizing traditional Spanish pathways. This street pattern has remained virtually unaltered to this day. The development of American commercial areas in San Jose extended into this newly surveyed area, just east of the original [pueblo](/wiki/Pueblo "Pueblo") site of 1797 (relocated from the 1777 site after major flooding).
In the 1870s and mid\-1880s, the heart of downtown commercial activity had moved northward along Market Street (immediately west of First Street and part of the Pueblo) to the Santa Clara Street intersection. However, by the latter part of the 1880s, Santa Clara and First Streets became the new focus for downtown business activity. The early horse\-drawn railway systems reinforced the importance of this intersection with single and, later, double tracks located along both streets.
During this period, Italianate and Romanesque Revival styles dominated. This was a group of buildings designed by the finest local architects and built by the leading citizens of the time: [James D. Phelan](/wiki/James_D._Phelan "James D. Phelan"), F. Sourisseau, C. T. Ryland, Martin Murphy's descendants and the Auzerais family. Buildings such as the [Knox\-Goodrich Building](/wiki/Sarah_Knox-Goodrich%23Knox-Goodrich_Building "Sarah Knox-Goodrich#Knox-Goodrich Building") at 34 South First Street, with its extreme [rustication](/wiki/Rustication_%28architecture%29 "Rustication (architecture)"), reflect the qualities of the wealthy, orchard oriented, agricultural community of the turn\-of\-the\-century.
Following the [1906 San Francisco earthquake](/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake "1906 San Francisco earthquake"), Edwardian and Neoclassical commercial buildings replaced the damaged Victorian and Romanesque businesses. In addition, Mission Revival, California's first indigenous architecture, dominated smaller commercial architecture. Spanish Colonial Revival also provided California with a new historic architectural mode.
During the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, modernization and further consolidation characterized the downtown core. New growth patterns to the west and south of the center of the city changed the commercial desirability of the downtown core area of San Jose. New construction was virtually nonexistent until the government sponsored redevelopment programs of the 1960s began razing of entire center city blocks for planned new development.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Soon after the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War \"Mexican–American War\"), the city was surveyed first by Thomas Campbell in 1847 and later by Chester Lyman, in 1848, following the standard grid street pattern utilizing traditional Spanish pathways. This street pattern has remained virtually unaltered to this day. The development of American commercial areas in San Jose extended into this newly surveyed area, just east of the original [pueblo](/wiki/Pueblo \"Pueblo\") site of 1797 (relocated from the 1777 site after major flooding).",
"In the 1870s and mid\\-1880s, the heart of downtown commercial activity had moved northward along Market Street (immediately west of First Street and part of the Pueblo) to the Santa Clara Street intersection. However, by the latter part of the 1880s, Santa Clara and First Streets became the new focus for downtown business activity. The early horse\\-drawn railway systems reinforced the importance of this intersection with single and, later, double tracks located along both streets.",
"During this period, Italianate and Romanesque Revival styles dominated. This was a group of buildings designed by the finest local architects and built by the leading citizens of the time: [James D. Phelan](/wiki/James_D._Phelan \"James D. Phelan\"), F. Sourisseau, C. T. Ryland, Martin Murphy's descendants and the Auzerais family. Buildings such as the [Knox\\-Goodrich Building](/wiki/Sarah_Knox-Goodrich%23Knox-Goodrich_Building \"Sarah Knox-Goodrich#Knox-Goodrich Building\") at 34 South First Street, with its extreme [rustication](/wiki/Rustication_%28architecture%29 \"Rustication (architecture)\"), reflect the qualities of the wealthy, orchard oriented, agricultural community of the turn\\-of\\-the\\-century.",
"Following the [1906 San Francisco earthquake](/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake \"1906 San Francisco earthquake\"), Edwardian and Neoclassical commercial buildings replaced the damaged Victorian and Romanesque businesses. In addition, Mission Revival, California's first indigenous architecture, dominated smaller commercial architecture. Spanish Colonial Revival also provided California with a new historic architectural mode.",
"During the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, modernization and further consolidation characterized the downtown core. New growth patterns to the west and south of the center of the city changed the commercial desirability of the downtown core area of San Jose. New construction was virtually nonexistent until the government sponsored redevelopment programs of the 1960s began razing of entire center city blocks for planned new development.",
""
] |
History
-------
Built during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the airfield accommodated many [Royal Australian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force "Royal Australian Air Force") (RAAF), [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces") and [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army_Air_Force "Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force") units, flying bombing and escort missions against Japanese positions in the [Dutch East Indies](/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies "Dutch East Indies") and the [South\-West Pacific](/wiki/South-West_Pacific "South-West Pacific").
U.S. Army [General MacArthur](/wiki/General_MacArthur "General MacArthur") [arrived](/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur%27s_escape_from_the_Philippines "Douglas MacArthur's escape from the Philippines") at Batchelor from [Corregidor Island](/wiki/Corregidor_Island "Corregidor Island") via [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao "Mindanao") on 17 March 1942 aboard a USAAF [B\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress "B-17 Flying Fortress"), before making his way to [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"). During December 1941, the 19th Bombardment Group began [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") and bombardment operations against Japanese shipping and landing parties. By the end of the year, ground personnel joined [infantry](/wiki/Infantry "Infantry") units defending the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), while the air echelon moved to Batchelor to transport supplies from there to the Philippines and to evacuate personnel. From Batchelor, the unit moved to [Java](/wiki/Java "Java") to take part in the defense of the [Dutch East Indies](/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies "Dutch East Indies"), then was reassigned to [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane") to regroup, resupply and rearm. The 27th Bombardment Group saw action from Batchelor over [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea "New Guinea"), flying thirteen A\-24s to [Port Moresby](/wiki/Port_Moresby "Port Moresby"). However, the group suffered heavy losses while in New Guinea. They were withdrawn after it was realised that they were not suited for their intended role without adequate fighter protection and they were desperately in need of adequate workshop facilities and spares backup. The aircraft of the unit was subsequently reassigned to other squadrons and the personnel returned to the United States.
The Americans created their own "tent town" at Batchelor, and tried to make life as comfortable as possible. To keep up with the war a newspaper was mimeographed. There was a hanging bedsheet and projector movie theatre, an agreeable swimming hole in the nearby [Adelaide River](/wiki/Adelaide_River "Adelaide River"), and a squadron store which sold any number of interesting items, acquired through questionable means or otherwise. The young American men often ventured into the bush which surrounded their field bivouacs to wonder at the three\-metre high, solid mud termite mounds that towered above the scrub floor. Some caught the odd marsupial or exotic bird for pets, but learned early that the small grey bandicoots and kangaroos were impossible to domesticate. The newcomers were warned to be cautious of the venomous snakes in the area. The aboriginals were considered mysterious, although friendly.
Many Americans traded food items for native souvenirs and learned the curious pidgin English that flavoured the aboriginal dialect. They also swapped cigarettes for fresh fruit and wild yams to improve their lacklustre diet, but few Americans could tolerate the flesh of the lizards, snakes, fish and flying foxbats that their native hosts considered delicacies. Some learned of the shotguns supplied to their armament section and requisitioned these for bird hunting to enhance their meals. VIPs were sometimes surprised by a full course roast duck banquet, made possible by various marksmen. Life was not always completely mysterious to the newcomer Americans. The contesting Aussies shared a genuine camaraderie with their common love of sport. American baseball diamonds were scraped in the sand at every unit location and the Aussie sportsmen even went so far as to contest them at their own game.
Most operational units in early 1945 had moved further north whereby administrative units occupied the field until January 1946 when the military use of the airfield ended. Today there are some hangars used by the flying club, and some aircraft parking aprons. The main NW\-SE runway is in good repair, and what appears to be a remnant of a parallel taxiway is visible in aerial photographs. The original E\-W runway is gone although traces of it can be seen on aerial photos. Some wartime taxiways and hardstands remain to the south, along with the remnants of [Gould airstrip](/wiki/Gould_Airfield "Gould Airfield"), all of which are in a poor state of repair. The roads of the wartime containment area exist, now being the streets of the town, although none of the wartime buildings, or facilities have survived.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Built during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the airfield accommodated many [Royal Australian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force \"Royal Australian Air Force\") (RAAF), [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") and [Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_East_Indies_Army_Air_Force \"Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force\") units, flying bombing and escort missions against Japanese positions in the [Dutch East Indies](/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies \"Dutch East Indies\") and the [South\\-West Pacific](/wiki/South-West_Pacific \"South-West Pacific\").",
"U.S. Army [General MacArthur](/wiki/General_MacArthur \"General MacArthur\") [arrived](/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur%27s_escape_from_the_Philippines \"Douglas MacArthur's escape from the Philippines\") at Batchelor from [Corregidor Island](/wiki/Corregidor_Island \"Corregidor Island\") via [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao \"Mindanao\") on 17 March 1942 aboard a USAAF [B\\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress \"B-17 Flying Fortress\"), before making his way to [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"). During December 1941, the 19th Bombardment Group began [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") and bombardment operations against Japanese shipping and landing parties. By the end of the year, ground personnel joined [infantry](/wiki/Infantry \"Infantry\") units defending the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), while the air echelon moved to Batchelor to transport supplies from there to the Philippines and to evacuate personnel. From Batchelor, the unit moved to [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\") to take part in the defense of the [Dutch East Indies](/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies \"Dutch East Indies\"), then was reassigned to [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\") to regroup, resupply and rearm. The 27th Bombardment Group saw action from Batchelor over [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\"), flying thirteen A\\-24s to [Port Moresby](/wiki/Port_Moresby \"Port Moresby\"). However, the group suffered heavy losses while in New Guinea. They were withdrawn after it was realised that they were not suited for their intended role without adequate fighter protection and they were desperately in need of adequate workshop facilities and spares backup. The aircraft of the unit was subsequently reassigned to other squadrons and the personnel returned to the United States.",
"The Americans created their own \"tent town\" at Batchelor, and tried to make life as comfortable as possible. To keep up with the war a newspaper was mimeographed. There was a hanging bedsheet and projector movie theatre, an agreeable swimming hole in the nearby [Adelaide River](/wiki/Adelaide_River \"Adelaide River\"), and a squadron store which sold any number of interesting items, acquired through questionable means or otherwise. The young American men often ventured into the bush which surrounded their field bivouacs to wonder at the three\\-metre high, solid mud termite mounds that towered above the scrub floor. Some caught the odd marsupial or exotic bird for pets, but learned early that the small grey bandicoots and kangaroos were impossible to domesticate. The newcomers were warned to be cautious of the venomous snakes in the area. The aboriginals were considered mysterious, although friendly.",
"Many Americans traded food items for native souvenirs and learned the curious pidgin English that flavoured the aboriginal dialect. They also swapped cigarettes for fresh fruit and wild yams to improve their lacklustre diet, but few Americans could tolerate the flesh of the lizards, snakes, fish and flying foxbats that their native hosts considered delicacies. Some learned of the shotguns supplied to their armament section and requisitioned these for bird hunting to enhance their meals. VIPs were sometimes surprised by a full course roast duck banquet, made possible by various marksmen. Life was not always completely mysterious to the newcomer Americans. The contesting Aussies shared a genuine camaraderie with their common love of sport. American baseball diamonds were scraped in the sand at every unit location and the Aussie sportsmen even went so far as to contest them at their own game.",
"Most operational units in early 1945 had moved further north whereby administrative units occupied the field until January 1946 when the military use of the airfield ended. Today there are some hangars used by the flying club, and some aircraft parking aprons. The main NW\\-SE runway is in good repair, and what appears to be a remnant of a parallel taxiway is visible in aerial photographs. The original E\\-W runway is gone although traces of it can be seen on aerial photos. Some wartime taxiways and hardstands remain to the south, along with the remnants of [Gould airstrip](/wiki/Gould_Airfield \"Gould Airfield\"), all of which are in a poor state of repair. The roads of the wartime containment area exist, now being the streets of the town, although none of the wartime buildings, or facilities have survived.",
""
] |
Legal career
------------
Dalley matriculated from [University College, Oxford](/wiki/University_College%2C_Oxford "University College, Oxford") in November 1895\. He studied law at [Oxford University](/wiki/Oxford_University "Oxford University") and was admitted as a student to the [Inner Temple](/wiki/Inner_Temple "Inner Temple") in London.'Council of Legal Education', *The Times* (London), 16 June 1897, page 10\.'Calls to the Bar', *The Times* (London), 19 November 1901, page 8\. During his studies, 'Jack' Dalley and his two brothers enjoyed an active life. In about March 1898 William wrote to Frank Butler, who had been one of the guardians of the three brothers: "We have a good time here with plenty of horses, and lots of riding, fishing, shooting, and hunting".[William Bede Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/115383486), *Freeman's Journal*, 12 March 1898, page 14\.
In October 1899, Dalley's younger brother Charles died after suffering a broken neck from an accident while hunting at [Enfield](/wiki/Enfield%2C_London "Enfield, London"), north of London. John Dalley was riding with his brother when the accident occurred.[Young Dalley Killed in the Hunting\-Field](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/111074207), *Freeman's Journal*, 11 November 1899, page 16\.[My Brother John](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/118824502), *Evening News* (Sydney), 12 September 1922, page 6\. Charles Dalley's remains were sent to Sydney on the mail steamer *Cuzco*, accompanied by his brothers William and John, for interment in the family vault at [Waverley Cemetery](/wiki/Waverley_Cemetery "Waverley Cemetery"). His funeral was held on 2 January 1900\.[The Late Charles Bede Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/111079365), *Freeman's Journal*, 30 December 1899, page 17\.[The Late Mr. C. V. P. B. Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/14261533), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 3 January 1900, page 8\.
[thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.85\|John Bede Dalley, aged about 27 (published in *The Bulletin*, 19 November 1903\).](/wiki/File:John_Bede_Dalley_Bulletin_19Nov1903.jpg "John Bede Dalley Bulletin 19Nov1903.jpg")
John Dalley returned to England in May 1900 aboard the mail steamer *Arcadia*, accompanied by his younger sister Mary.[Mr John Bede Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/111313069), *Freeman's Journal*, 12 May 1900, page 20\. Dalley was [called to the Bar](/wiki/Called_to_the_Bar "Called to the Bar") in England on 18 November 1901 and soon afterwards he returned to Australia, intending to remain and practise law.[The two surviving sons...](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/111309680), *Freeman's Journal*, 31 March 1900, page 16\. John Dalley was admitted to the New South Wales Bar on 10 February 1902\.[Law Report](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/14441920), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 11 February 1902, page 3\. In September 1902 he was appointed as a Crown Prosecutor at the [Goulburn](/wiki/Goulburn "Goulburn") Assizes.[Items of Interest](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/219550189), *Lithgow Mercury*, 3 October 1902, page 8\.
Dalley practised for several years at Wigram Chambers in Phillip Street, Sydney, and was a member of the exclusive [Union Club](/wiki/Union%2C_University_%26_Schools_Club "Union, University & Schools Club").
{{multiple image
\| align \= right
\| total\_width \= 450
\| image1 \= John B Dalley Lionel Lindsay EveningNews 6Nov1905\.jpg
\| caption1 \= John B. Dalley, co\-respondent.
\| caption\_align \= center
\| image2 \= William B Dalley Lionel Lindsay EveningNews 6Nov1905\.jpg
\| caption2 \= William B. Dalley, petitioner.
\| image3 \= Mrs. W B Dalley Lionel Lindsay EveningNews 6Nov1905\.jpg
\| caption3 \= Mrs. W. B. Dalley, respondent.
\| footer\_background \= \#eaecee
\| footer\_align \= center
\| footer \= The principals in the Dalley divorce case; drawings by \[\[Lionel Lindsay]].
}}
In November 1903, Dalley announced his intention to stand as a candidate for the [Protectionist Party](/wiki/Protectionist_Party "Protectionist Party") in the federal seat of [Wentworth](/wiki/Division_of_Wentworth "Division of Wentworth").[Mr. J. B. Dalley's Candidature](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/14579298), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 13 November 1903, page 6\. Dalley's opponent, [William Kelly](/wiki/Willie_Kelly_%28politician%29 "Willie Kelly (politician)"), was from the [Free Trade Party](/wiki/Free_Trade_Party "Free Trade Party"). At the [election](/wiki/1903_Australian_federal_election "1903 Australian federal election") held on 16 December 1903 Dalley was defeated, receiving only 28% of the vote.[Commonwealth of Australia Legislative Election of 16 December 1903: Wentworth, NSW](http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/a/australia/1903/1903repsnsw.txt), *Psephos: Adam Carr's Election Archive* website; accessed 4 November 2023\.
In Sydney in November 1905, the two Dalley brothers, William and John, were involved in a sensational divorce case between William and his wife Ianthe (*née* Fattorini), who had been married in August 1895 at Darling Point in Sydney. William Dalley petitioned for the dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery with his brother John (who was named as a co\-respondent in the case). William claimed the two had committed adultery in July and August 1900 at [Cadenabbia](/wiki/Cadenabbia "Cadenabbia"), on the shore of [Lake Como](/wiki/Lake_Como "Lake Como") in Italy, and from August 1903 to June 1904 at [Narrabeen](/wiki/Narrabeen "Narrabeen"), [Pittwater](/wiki/Pittwater "Pittwater") and other locations "in and about Sydney". Ianthe Dalley was also accused of deserting her husband and "connivance". Furthermore, of his wife's two children, William claimed to be the father of only the first child (born in August 1897\) and questioned the paternity of the second (born in August 1899\). As the respondent, Ianthe Dalley countered with accusations of cruelty and adultery by her husband at various times between 1895 and 1904 with a number of women.[The Dalley Divorce Case](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/113280143/12074593) and [Dalley Divorce Suit](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/113280177), *Evening News* (Sydney), 6 November 1905, pages 4 and 5\. William and Ianthe Dalley had separated in 1903\. The case was heard over eighteen days before a judge and jury and the details were extensively reported.{{Ref\|NoteB\|\[B]}} When the case concluded on 1 December the jury was locked up for twelve hours, after which they advised the judge they "were not prepared to give a verdict on all the issues". The jury reached only one unanimous agreement, that William had committed adultery with a woman named Kitty Cowell during the period 1895 to 1904\.[The Dalley Case](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/113285824), *Evening News* (Sydney), 2 December 1905, page 4\. In March 1906 a *[decree nisi](/wiki/Decree_nisi "Decree nisi")* for the dissolution of the marriage was granted to Ianthe Dalley.[Dalley v. Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/239434861), *Daily Telegraph* (Sydney), 15 March 1906, page 9\. Further litigation followed when Ianthe sought alimony and maintenance for her second child.
John Dalley suffered from hearing loss, a legacy of injuries he had received from falls from a horse while engaged in [hunting](/wiki/Fox_hunting "Fox hunting") pursuits. In addition to a fractured knee and a broken collarbones, Dalley had suffered from [concussion](/wiki/Concussion "Concussion") on three occasions while undertaking the sport in both England and Australia. By about 1906 his persistent deafness prompted his decision to stop practising law and turn to journalism.
|
[
"Legal career\n------------",
"Dalley matriculated from [University College, Oxford](/wiki/University_College%2C_Oxford \"University College, Oxford\") in November 1895\\. He studied law at [Oxford University](/wiki/Oxford_University \"Oxford University\") and was admitted as a student to the [Inner Temple](/wiki/Inner_Temple \"Inner Temple\") in London.'Council of Legal Education', *The Times* (London), 16 June 1897, page 10\\.'Calls to the Bar', *The Times* (London), 19 November 1901, page 8\\. During his studies, 'Jack' Dalley and his two brothers enjoyed an active life. In about March 1898 William wrote to Frank Butler, who had been one of the guardians of the three brothers: \"We have a good time here with plenty of horses, and lots of riding, fishing, shooting, and hunting\".[William Bede Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/115383486), *Freeman's Journal*, 12 March 1898, page 14\\.",
"In October 1899, Dalley's younger brother Charles died after suffering a broken neck from an accident while hunting at [Enfield](/wiki/Enfield%2C_London \"Enfield, London\"), north of London. John Dalley was riding with his brother when the accident occurred.[Young Dalley Killed in the Hunting\\-Field](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/111074207), *Freeman's Journal*, 11 November 1899, page 16\\.[My Brother John](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/118824502), *Evening News* (Sydney), 12 September 1922, page 6\\. Charles Dalley's remains were sent to Sydney on the mail steamer *Cuzco*, accompanied by his brothers William and John, for interment in the family vault at [Waverley Cemetery](/wiki/Waverley_Cemetery \"Waverley Cemetery\"). His funeral was held on 2 January 1900\\.[The Late Charles Bede Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/111079365), *Freeman's Journal*, 30 December 1899, page 17\\.[The Late Mr. C. V. P. B. Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/14261533), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 3 January 1900, page 8\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.85\\|John Bede Dalley, aged about 27 (published in *The Bulletin*, 19 November 1903\\).](/wiki/File:John_Bede_Dalley_Bulletin_19Nov1903.jpg \"John Bede Dalley Bulletin 19Nov1903.jpg\")",
"John Dalley returned to England in May 1900 aboard the mail steamer *Arcadia*, accompanied by his younger sister Mary.[Mr John Bede Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/111313069), *Freeman's Journal*, 12 May 1900, page 20\\. Dalley was [called to the Bar](/wiki/Called_to_the_Bar \"Called to the Bar\") in England on 18 November 1901 and soon afterwards he returned to Australia, intending to remain and practise law.[The two surviving sons...](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/111309680), *Freeman's Journal*, 31 March 1900, page 16\\. John Dalley was admitted to the New South Wales Bar on 10 February 1902\\.[Law Report](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/14441920), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 11 February 1902, page 3\\. In September 1902 he was appointed as a Crown Prosecutor at the [Goulburn](/wiki/Goulburn \"Goulburn\") Assizes.[Items of Interest](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/219550189), *Lithgow Mercury*, 3 October 1902, page 8\\.",
"Dalley practised for several years at Wigram Chambers in Phillip Street, Sydney, and was a member of the exclusive [Union Club](/wiki/Union%2C_University_%26_Schools_Club \"Union, University & Schools Club\").",
"{{multiple image\n \\| align \\= right\n \\| total\\_width \\= 450\n \\| image1 \\= John B Dalley Lionel Lindsay EveningNews 6Nov1905\\.jpg\n \\| caption1 \\= John B. Dalley, co\\-respondent.\n \\| caption\\_align \\= center\n \\| image2 \\= William B Dalley Lionel Lindsay EveningNews 6Nov1905\\.jpg\n \\| caption2 \\= William B. Dalley, petitioner.\n \\| image3 \\= Mrs. W B Dalley Lionel Lindsay EveningNews 6Nov1905\\.jpg\n \\| caption3 \\= Mrs. W. B. Dalley, respondent.\n \\| footer\\_background \\= \\#eaecee \n \\| footer\\_align \\= center\n \\| footer \\= The principals in the Dalley divorce case; drawings by \\[\\[Lionel Lindsay]].\n}}",
"In November 1903, Dalley announced his intention to stand as a candidate for the [Protectionist Party](/wiki/Protectionist_Party \"Protectionist Party\") in the federal seat of [Wentworth](/wiki/Division_of_Wentworth \"Division of Wentworth\").[Mr. J. B. Dalley's Candidature](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/14579298), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 13 November 1903, page 6\\. Dalley's opponent, [William Kelly](/wiki/Willie_Kelly_%28politician%29 \"Willie Kelly (politician)\"), was from the [Free Trade Party](/wiki/Free_Trade_Party \"Free Trade Party\"). At the [election](/wiki/1903_Australian_federal_election \"1903 Australian federal election\") held on 16 December 1903 Dalley was defeated, receiving only 28% of the vote.[Commonwealth of Australia Legislative Election of 16 December 1903: Wentworth, NSW](http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/a/australia/1903/1903repsnsw.txt), *Psephos: Adam Carr's Election Archive* website; accessed 4 November 2023\\.",
"In Sydney in November 1905, the two Dalley brothers, William and John, were involved in a sensational divorce case between William and his wife Ianthe (*née* Fattorini), who had been married in August 1895 at Darling Point in Sydney. William Dalley petitioned for the dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery with his brother John (who was named as a co\\-respondent in the case). William claimed the two had committed adultery in July and August 1900 at [Cadenabbia](/wiki/Cadenabbia \"Cadenabbia\"), on the shore of [Lake Como](/wiki/Lake_Como \"Lake Como\") in Italy, and from August 1903 to June 1904 at [Narrabeen](/wiki/Narrabeen \"Narrabeen\"), [Pittwater](/wiki/Pittwater \"Pittwater\") and other locations \"in and about Sydney\". Ianthe Dalley was also accused of deserting her husband and \"connivance\". Furthermore, of his wife's two children, William claimed to be the father of only the first child (born in August 1897\\) and questioned the paternity of the second (born in August 1899\\). As the respondent, Ianthe Dalley countered with accusations of cruelty and adultery by her husband at various times between 1895 and 1904 with a number of women.[The Dalley Divorce Case](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/113280143/12074593) and [Dalley Divorce Suit](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/113280177), *Evening News* (Sydney), 6 November 1905, pages 4 and 5\\. William and Ianthe Dalley had separated in 1903\\. The case was heard over eighteen days before a judge and jury and the details were extensively reported.{{Ref\\|NoteB\\|\\[B]}} When the case concluded on 1 December the jury was locked up for twelve hours, after which they advised the judge they \"were not prepared to give a verdict on all the issues\". The jury reached only one unanimous agreement, that William had committed adultery with a woman named Kitty Cowell during the period 1895 to 1904\\.[The Dalley Case](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/113285824), *Evening News* (Sydney), 2 December 1905, page 4\\. In March 1906 a *[decree nisi](/wiki/Decree_nisi \"Decree nisi\")* for the dissolution of the marriage was granted to Ianthe Dalley.[Dalley v. Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/239434861), *Daily Telegraph* (Sydney), 15 March 1906, page 9\\. Further litigation followed when Ianthe sought alimony and maintenance for her second child.",
"John Dalley suffered from hearing loss, a legacy of injuries he had received from falls from a horse while engaged in [hunting](/wiki/Fox_hunting \"Fox hunting\") pursuits. In addition to a fractured knee and a broken collarbones, Dalley had suffered from [concussion](/wiki/Concussion \"Concussion\") on three occasions while undertaking the sport in both England and Australia. By about 1906 his persistent deafness prompted his decision to stop practising law and turn to journalism.",
""
] |
Post\-war years
---------------
After returning from the war Dalley rejoined *The Bulletin*.
On 7 May 1919, John Dalley married Sarah Ann Sharpe (*née* Bright), a New Zealand\-born divorcee who managed a costume business. The couple married in a registry office at Paddington in Sydney.[Dalley v. Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/245470592), *Daily Telegraph* (Sydney), 15 November 1924, page 13\.
A novel by John Dalley called *The Careerist* was serialised in the high\-quality quarterly magazine *[The Home: An Australian Quarterly](/wiki/The_Home "The Home")* from December 1921 to December 1922\.The first instalment: [The Careerist: An Aspect of Sydney Life](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375386013/view?sectionId=nla.obj-377365318&partId=nla.obj-375435122#page/n30/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 December 1921, pages 29\-32, 34, 36\-39\.The final instalment: [The Careerist](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375614462/view?partId=nla.obj-375689906#page/n59/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 December 1922, pages 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 77\-78\. In 1922 the *[Evening News](/wiki/The_Evening_News_%28Sydney%29 "The Evening News (Sydney)")* newspaper purchased the Australian serial rights for a novel written by Dalley called *Indian Summer* (with the subtitles *An Australian Novel* and *Life in Sydney Society*). The novel was serialised in the *Evening News* and *Sunday News* newspapers, published in instalments from 13 September to 13 October 1922\.[Australian Novel](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/118858359), *Evening News* (Sydney), 29 August 1922, page 4\.The first instalment: [Commence Reading the new "News" Serial To\-day](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/118824112), *Evening News* (Sydney), 13 September 1922, page 12\.The final instalment: [Serial Story: "Indian Summer"](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/118830275), *Evening News* (Sydney), 13 October 1922, page 11\.
In the Divorce Court on 1 August 1924, Dalley petitioned for the restitution of conjugal rights on the part of his wife, Sarah Ann. The judge made an order directing her "to return to her husband".[In Divorce](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/119975636), *Evening News* (Sydney), 1 August 1924, page 7\. When Sarah refused to comply with the restitution order a *decree nisi* was granted in November 1924 on the ground of desertion. The divorce was finalised in June 1925\.[In Divorce](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/16221053), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 3 June 1925, page 9\.
[thumb\|right\|upright\=0\.8\|Caricature of John B. Dalley by [Will Dyson](/wiki/Will_Dyson "Will Dyson"), published in *The Herald*, 24 March 1928\.](/wiki/File:John_B._Dalley_Will_Dyson_The_Herald_24Mar1928.jpg "John B. Dalley Will Dyson The Herald 24Mar1928.jpg")
In December 1924, the revitalised Melbourne *[Punch](/wiki/Melbourne_Punch "Melbourne Punch")*, acquired by [The Herald and Weekly Times](/wiki/The_Herald_and_Weekly_Times "The Herald and Weekly Times") newspaper group, was launched with Dalley as the editor. The newspaper had an expanded format and a new cohort of literary and artistic staff\-members including [Percy Leason](/wiki/Percy_Leason "Percy Leason") (chief cartoonist) and the writers [Hugh McCrae](/wiki/Hugh_McCrae "Hugh McCrae") and [Kenneth Slessor](/wiki/Kenneth_Slessor "Kenneth Slessor").[Punch (advertisement)](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/234433729), *Smith's Weekly* (Sydney), 20 December 1924, page 28\.[The New "Punch"](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/182719406), *The Telegraph* (Brisbane), 23 December 1924, page 6\.
The Australian artist [Will Dyson](/wiki/Will_Dyson "Will Dyson"), who had achieved international recognition as a political cartoonist in London, was induced back to Australia by [Keith Murdoch](/wiki/Keith_Murdoch "Keith Murdoch"), editor of *[The Herald](/wiki/The_Herald_%28Melbourne%29 "The Herald (Melbourne)")* newspaper, to join [Percy Leason](/wiki/Percy_Leason "Percy Leason") as a staff cartoonist for *Punch*.[Leason as Cartoonist](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243868877), *The Herald* (Melbourne), 15 January 1925, page 7\. Dyson returned to Melbourne in March 1925\.["Australia Again!": Delight of Will Dyson](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243723484), *The Herald* (Melbourne), 10 March 1925, page 5\. As editor, Dalley was willing to give Dyson full freedom to express himself, but the proprietors of the journal exerted pressure to limit his social and political satire. Eventually "Dyson was edged from his special field into the production of pleasant comic drawings, and he finally accepted this role of entertainer with a wry resignation".Vance Palmer (1949\), 'Will Dyson', *[Meanjin](/wiki/Meanjin "Meanjin")*, Vol. 8 Issue 4 (December 1949\), pages 220\-221\.
In December 1925, *Punch* was incorporated into the weekly magazine, *[Table Talk](/wiki/Table_Talk_%28magazine%29 "Table Talk (magazine)")* (which had been acquired by the Herald group in 1924\).[Table Talk With Which is Incorporated Punch](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/228065563), *Punch* (Melbourne), 10 December 1925, page 4\.[Melbourne "Herald"...](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/250082840), *Labour Call* (Melbourne), 25 September 1924, page 7\. In January 1926 it was reported that Dalley was to take up a newspaper position in London.[Dilly\-Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/234435579), *Smith's Weekly* (Sydney), 23 January 1926, page 18\.
In late January 1926, on the eve of his departure for England, Dalley was involved in an accident at [Sorrento](/wiki/Sorrento%2C_Victoria "Sorrento, Victoria"), on the [Mornington Peninsula](/wiki/Mornington_Peninsula "Mornington Peninsula") near Melbourne. As he was stepping into a motor\-car he was knocked off the running board by a passing car and received a deep wound to his temple. He was brought to Melbourne by ambulance after the incident.[Mr. J. B. Dalley Injured](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/244048929), *The Herald* (Melbourne), 1 February 1926, page 1\. After he recovered Dalley left Australia to become the London correspondent for The Herald newspaper group.[John B. Dalley Returns](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-799220546/view?sectionId=nla.obj-828835097&partId=nla.obj-799222571#page/n46/mode/1up), *The New Triad*, 1 July 1928, page 45\. He arrived in London by May 1926 after which his reports began to be published in Melbourne's *The Herald* and *Table Talk*.[Britain On Strike](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243583131), *The Herald* (Melbourne), 14 June 1926, page 6\.[The Theatre in London](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/146595134), *Table Talk* (Melbourne), 24 June 1926, page 28\.
In early 1928, Dalley's novel called *No Armour* was published by [John Long Ltd](/wiki/John_Long_Ltd "John Long Ltd"). in London.[Life in Sydney](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/129303963), *News* (Adelaide), 29 February 1928, page 13\. Dalley's novel was primarily set amongst the affluent social life of Sydney.[John Dalley's Novel: An Acute Study of Sydney Life](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243911493) by C. R. Bradish, *The Herald* (Melbourne), 24 March 1928, page 13\.[Literary Jottings](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/237923097) by S. A. Rosa, *The Labor Daily* (Sydney), 28 April 1928, page 11\. By the end of February 1928 the third edition of *No Armour* had sold out in England (with the printing eventually running to six editions).[Novelist and Artist](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/223251582), *The Sun* (Sydney), 8 November 1928, page 13\. It was released in Australia in March 1928\.
Dalley returned to Sydney in July 1928 to take up a position with *The Bulletin*, employed as an associate\-editor. He also worked as the Sydney correspondent for *The Herald* in Melbourne. Dalley's writing style was described as belonging "to a literary half\-world, the territory between the fringes of journalism and literature", a rarity "in the factory\-made atmosphere of modern newspapers". Dalley was described as "an all\-rounder" in respect of the variety of his contributions during his periods of employment at *The Bulletin*.[John B. Dalley](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-553467177/view?partId=nla.obj-553482143#page/n2/mode/1up), *The Bulletin* (Sydney), 18 September 1935, page 4\. By the time of his death in 1935 Dalley was recognised as the oldest member of *The Bulletin'''s literary staff, having been first employed by the magazine in 1907\.*
John Dalley and Claire Scott were married on 8 November 1928 in St. Stephen's Presbyterian church at Wooloomooloo.{{Dictionary of Australian Biography\|First\=John Bede\|Last\=Dalley\|shortlink\=0\-dict\-biogD.html\#dalley1}} After their marriage the couple resided at a flat at Kelburn Hall in Elizabeth Bay. Claire was an artist who had been on the staff of Punch *in 1924\. She designed the [book jackets](/wiki/Dust_jacket "Dust jacket") of Dalley's novels, beginning with* No Armour *published in early 1928\.*
In early 192,9 John Long Ltd. published Dalley's novel, Max Flambard *in England. The novel's synopsis was described as "a masterly account of the incompatibility of the self\-made millionaire with his English wife of a noble family: social life on board ship: and the seamy side of journalism in an Australian suburban village".From a review in the *[Northern Whig](/wiki/Northern_Whig "Northern Whig")* newspaper; quoted in an advertisement for John Long Ltd. publications, *The Times*, 8 February 1929, page 9\. Dalley's novel* Only the Morning *was published in 1930\. The synopsis was described as: "The story of a self\-made Australian, who starts life in Sydney as a clerk, and ends as a multi\-millionaire, which deals convincingly with his relations with the Mother Country, and the problem of his children, brought up in England, and given an entirely different outlook and environment from his own".["Only in the Morning" (John Dalley)](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/136308266), *The World's News* (Sydney), 26 November 1930, page 34\.[An Australian](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/225340261), *The Sun* (Sydney), 23 November 1930, page 30\. Dalley's published novels, drawing upon his own experiences, took a distinctly sardonic view of upper\-class Sydney society and the English aristocracy.*
Death
-----
On Friday, 6 September 1935, Dalley left The Bulletin *offices with the intention of going fishing at the northern seaside suburb of [Avalon](/wiki/Avalon_Beach%2C_New_South_Wales "Avalon Beach, New South Wales"). His wife and child were spending the weekend at [Kurrajong](/wiki/Kurrajong%2C_New_South_Wales "Kurrajong, New South Wales"), on the lower slopes of the [Blue Mountains](/wiki/Blue_Mountains_%28New_South_Wales%29 "Blue Mountains (New South Wales)") west of Sydney, with Dalley intending to join them later. By the following Monday, after Claire Dalley fully realised that her husband was missing, she informed the [Narrabeen](/wiki/Narrabeen "Narrabeen") police who found Dalley's unoccupied car on the Avalon headland. A search was instigated but no sign of the journalist was found and it was feared he had been washed from the rocks below the headland while fishing and subsequently drowned.[No Sign: Missing Author](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/231186173), *The Sun* (Sydney), 10 September 1935, page 7\.[Mr. John B. Dalley: Declared Officially Dead](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/160543137), *National Advocate* (Bathurst), 6 May 1936, page 1\.*
John B. Dalley's remains were never found. In May 1936, he was officially declared to be deceased.
Publications
------------
* The Careerist *(1921\-2\), serialised in* The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, December 1921 to 1922\.[The Careerist](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375614408/view?sectionId=nla.obj-383273169&partId=nla.obj-375631420), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 March 1922, pages 29\-30, 32, 69\-70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82\.[The Careerist](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375614424/view?partId=nla.obj-375646079#page/n34/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 June 1922, pages 33\-34, 36, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78\.[The Careerist](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375614443/view?sectionId=nla.obj-376292707&partId=nla.obj-375671528#page/n53/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 September 1922, pages 48, 50\-54, 56, 58, 60, 62\-64, 66\.*
* Indian Summer *(1922\), serialised in the* Evening News *and* Sunday News *from 13 September to 13 October 1922\.*
* The Libertine: With a Gentle Tracing of his Path of Dalliance *(1923\), a [short story](/wiki/Short_story "Short story") published in* The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, June 1923\.[The Libertine](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-379197776/view?sectionId=nla.obj-383295067&partId=nla.obj-379256114#page/n39/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 June 1923, pages 38, 80, 82\.*
* The Burglaries at "Mon Repos" *(1925\), a short story published in* Punch *(Melbourne), 10 December 1925 (with illustrations by Will Dyson).[The Burglaries at "Mon Repos"](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/228065586/22367909), *Punch* (Melbourne), 10 December 1925, pages 12\-13, 24\.*
* No Armour *(1928\), London: John Long Ltd.*
* Max Flambard *(1928\), London: John Long Ltd.*
* Only the Morning'' (1930\), London: John Long Ltd.
|
[
"Post\\-war years\n---------------",
"After returning from the war Dalley rejoined *The Bulletin*.",
"On 7 May 1919, John Dalley married Sarah Ann Sharpe (*née* Bright), a New Zealand\\-born divorcee who managed a costume business. The couple married in a registry office at Paddington in Sydney.[Dalley v. Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/245470592), *Daily Telegraph* (Sydney), 15 November 1924, page 13\\.",
"A novel by John Dalley called *The Careerist* was serialised in the high\\-quality quarterly magazine *[The Home: An Australian Quarterly](/wiki/The_Home \"The Home\")* from December 1921 to December 1922\\.The first instalment: [The Careerist: An Aspect of Sydney Life](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375386013/view?sectionId=nla.obj-377365318&partId=nla.obj-375435122#page/n30/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 December 1921, pages 29\\-32, 34, 36\\-39\\.The final instalment: [The Careerist](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375614462/view?partId=nla.obj-375689906#page/n59/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 December 1922, pages 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 77\\-78\\. In 1922 the *[Evening News](/wiki/The_Evening_News_%28Sydney%29 \"The Evening News (Sydney)\")* newspaper purchased the Australian serial rights for a novel written by Dalley called *Indian Summer* (with the subtitles *An Australian Novel* and *Life in Sydney Society*). The novel was serialised in the *Evening News* and *Sunday News* newspapers, published in instalments from 13 September to 13 October 1922\\.[Australian Novel](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/118858359), *Evening News* (Sydney), 29 August 1922, page 4\\.The first instalment: [Commence Reading the new \"News\" Serial To\\-day](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/118824112), *Evening News* (Sydney), 13 September 1922, page 12\\.The final instalment: [Serial Story: \"Indian Summer\"](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/118830275), *Evening News* (Sydney), 13 October 1922, page 11\\.",
"In the Divorce Court on 1 August 1924, Dalley petitioned for the restitution of conjugal rights on the part of his wife, Sarah Ann. The judge made an order directing her \"to return to her husband\".[In Divorce](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/119975636), *Evening News* (Sydney), 1 August 1924, page 7\\. When Sarah refused to comply with the restitution order a *decree nisi* was granted in November 1924 on the ground of desertion. The divorce was finalised in June 1925\\.[In Divorce](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/16221053), *Sydney Morning Herald*, 3 June 1925, page 9\\.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|Caricature of John B. Dalley by [Will Dyson](/wiki/Will_Dyson \"Will Dyson\"), published in *The Herald*, 24 March 1928\\.](/wiki/File:John_B._Dalley_Will_Dyson_The_Herald_24Mar1928.jpg \"John B. Dalley Will Dyson The Herald 24Mar1928.jpg\")",
"In December 1924, the revitalised Melbourne *[Punch](/wiki/Melbourne_Punch \"Melbourne Punch\")*, acquired by [The Herald and Weekly Times](/wiki/The_Herald_and_Weekly_Times \"The Herald and Weekly Times\") newspaper group, was launched with Dalley as the editor. The newspaper had an expanded format and a new cohort of literary and artistic staff\\-members including [Percy Leason](/wiki/Percy_Leason \"Percy Leason\") (chief cartoonist) and the writers [Hugh McCrae](/wiki/Hugh_McCrae \"Hugh McCrae\") and [Kenneth Slessor](/wiki/Kenneth_Slessor \"Kenneth Slessor\").[Punch (advertisement)](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/234433729), *Smith's Weekly* (Sydney), 20 December 1924, page 28\\.[The New \"Punch\"](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/182719406), *The Telegraph* (Brisbane), 23 December 1924, page 6\\.",
"The Australian artist [Will Dyson](/wiki/Will_Dyson \"Will Dyson\"), who had achieved international recognition as a political cartoonist in London, was induced back to Australia by [Keith Murdoch](/wiki/Keith_Murdoch \"Keith Murdoch\"), editor of *[The Herald](/wiki/The_Herald_%28Melbourne%29 \"The Herald (Melbourne)\")* newspaper, to join [Percy Leason](/wiki/Percy_Leason \"Percy Leason\") as a staff cartoonist for *Punch*.[Leason as Cartoonist](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243868877), *The Herald* (Melbourne), 15 January 1925, page 7\\. Dyson returned to Melbourne in March 1925\\.[\"Australia Again!\": Delight of Will Dyson](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243723484), *The Herald* (Melbourne), 10 March 1925, page 5\\. As editor, Dalley was willing to give Dyson full freedom to express himself, but the proprietors of the journal exerted pressure to limit his social and political satire. Eventually \"Dyson was edged from his special field into the production of pleasant comic drawings, and he finally accepted this role of entertainer with a wry resignation\".Vance Palmer (1949\\), 'Will Dyson', *[Meanjin](/wiki/Meanjin \"Meanjin\")*, Vol. 8 Issue 4 (December 1949\\), pages 220\\-221\\.",
"In December 1925, *Punch* was incorporated into the weekly magazine, *[Table Talk](/wiki/Table_Talk_%28magazine%29 \"Table Talk (magazine)\")* (which had been acquired by the Herald group in 1924\\).[Table Talk With Which is Incorporated Punch](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/228065563), *Punch* (Melbourne), 10 December 1925, page 4\\.[Melbourne \"Herald\"...](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/250082840), *Labour Call* (Melbourne), 25 September 1924, page 7\\. In January 1926 it was reported that Dalley was to take up a newspaper position in London.[Dilly\\-Dalley](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/234435579), *Smith's Weekly* (Sydney), 23 January 1926, page 18\\.",
"In late January 1926, on the eve of his departure for England, Dalley was involved in an accident at [Sorrento](/wiki/Sorrento%2C_Victoria \"Sorrento, Victoria\"), on the [Mornington Peninsula](/wiki/Mornington_Peninsula \"Mornington Peninsula\") near Melbourne. As he was stepping into a motor\\-car he was knocked off the running board by a passing car and received a deep wound to his temple. He was brought to Melbourne by ambulance after the incident.[Mr. J. B. Dalley Injured](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/244048929), *The Herald* (Melbourne), 1 February 1926, page 1\\. After he recovered Dalley left Australia to become the London correspondent for The Herald newspaper group.[John B. Dalley Returns](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-799220546/view?sectionId=nla.obj-828835097&partId=nla.obj-799222571#page/n46/mode/1up), *The New Triad*, 1 July 1928, page 45\\. He arrived in London by May 1926 after which his reports began to be published in Melbourne's *The Herald* and *Table Talk*.[Britain On Strike](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243583131), *The Herald* (Melbourne), 14 June 1926, page 6\\.[The Theatre in London](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/146595134), *Table Talk* (Melbourne), 24 June 1926, page 28\\.",
"In early 1928, Dalley's novel called *No Armour* was published by [John Long Ltd](/wiki/John_Long_Ltd \"John Long Ltd\"). in London.[Life in Sydney](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/129303963), *News* (Adelaide), 29 February 1928, page 13\\. Dalley's novel was primarily set amongst the affluent social life of Sydney.[John Dalley's Novel: An Acute Study of Sydney Life](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243911493) by C. R. Bradish, *The Herald* (Melbourne), 24 March 1928, page 13\\.[Literary Jottings](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/237923097) by S. A. Rosa, *The Labor Daily* (Sydney), 28 April 1928, page 11\\. By the end of February 1928 the third edition of *No Armour* had sold out in England (with the printing eventually running to six editions).[Novelist and Artist](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/223251582), *The Sun* (Sydney), 8 November 1928, page 13\\. It was released in Australia in March 1928\\.",
"Dalley returned to Sydney in July 1928 to take up a position with *The Bulletin*, employed as an associate\\-editor. He also worked as the Sydney correspondent for *The Herald* in Melbourne. Dalley's writing style was described as belonging \"to a literary half\\-world, the territory between the fringes of journalism and literature\", a rarity \"in the factory\\-made atmosphere of modern newspapers\". Dalley was described as \"an all\\-rounder\" in respect of the variety of his contributions during his periods of employment at *The Bulletin*.[John B. Dalley](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-553467177/view?partId=nla.obj-553482143#page/n2/mode/1up), *The Bulletin* (Sydney), 18 September 1935, page 4\\. By the time of his death in 1935 Dalley was recognised as the oldest member of *The Bulletin'''s literary staff, having been first employed by the magazine in 1907\\.*",
"John Dalley and Claire Scott were married on 8 November 1928 in St. Stephen's Presbyterian church at Wooloomooloo.{{Dictionary of Australian Biography\\|First\\=John Bede\\|Last\\=Dalley\\|shortlink\\=0\\-dict\\-biogD.html\\#dalley1}} After their marriage the couple resided at a flat at Kelburn Hall in Elizabeth Bay. Claire was an artist who had been on the staff of Punch *in 1924\\. She designed the [book jackets](/wiki/Dust_jacket \"Dust jacket\") of Dalley's novels, beginning with* No Armour *published in early 1928\\.*",
"In early 192,9 John Long Ltd. published Dalley's novel, Max Flambard *in England. The novel's synopsis was described as \"a masterly account of the incompatibility of the self\\-made millionaire with his English wife of a noble family: social life on board ship: and the seamy side of journalism in an Australian suburban village\".From a review in the *[Northern Whig](/wiki/Northern_Whig \"Northern Whig\")* newspaper; quoted in an advertisement for John Long Ltd. publications, *The Times*, 8 February 1929, page 9\\. Dalley's novel* Only the Morning *was published in 1930\\. The synopsis was described as: \"The story of a self\\-made Australian, who starts life in Sydney as a clerk, and ends as a multi\\-millionaire, which deals convincingly with his relations with the Mother Country, and the problem of his children, brought up in England, and given an entirely different outlook and environment from his own\".[\"Only in the Morning\" (John Dalley)](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/136308266), *The World's News* (Sydney), 26 November 1930, page 34\\.[An Australian](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/225340261), *The Sun* (Sydney), 23 November 1930, page 30\\. Dalley's published novels, drawing upon his own experiences, took a distinctly sardonic view of upper\\-class Sydney society and the English aristocracy.*",
"Death\n-----",
"On Friday, 6 September 1935, Dalley left The Bulletin *offices with the intention of going fishing at the northern seaside suburb of [Avalon](/wiki/Avalon_Beach%2C_New_South_Wales \"Avalon Beach, New South Wales\"). His wife and child were spending the weekend at [Kurrajong](/wiki/Kurrajong%2C_New_South_Wales \"Kurrajong, New South Wales\"), on the lower slopes of the [Blue Mountains](/wiki/Blue_Mountains_%28New_South_Wales%29 \"Blue Mountains (New South Wales)\") west of Sydney, with Dalley intending to join them later. By the following Monday, after Claire Dalley fully realised that her husband was missing, she informed the [Narrabeen](/wiki/Narrabeen \"Narrabeen\") police who found Dalley's unoccupied car on the Avalon headland. A search was instigated but no sign of the journalist was found and it was feared he had been washed from the rocks below the headland while fishing and subsequently drowned.[No Sign: Missing Author](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/231186173), *The Sun* (Sydney), 10 September 1935, page 7\\.[Mr. John B. Dalley: Declared Officially Dead](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/160543137), *National Advocate* (Bathurst), 6 May 1936, page 1\\.*",
"John B. Dalley's remains were never found. In May 1936, he was officially declared to be deceased.\nPublications\n------------",
"* The Careerist *(1921\\-2\\), serialised in* The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, December 1921 to 1922\\.[The Careerist](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375614408/view?sectionId=nla.obj-383273169&partId=nla.obj-375631420), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 March 1922, pages 29\\-30, 32, 69\\-70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82\\.[The Careerist](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375614424/view?partId=nla.obj-375646079#page/n34/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 June 1922, pages 33\\-34, 36, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78\\.[The Careerist](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-375614443/view?sectionId=nla.obj-376292707&partId=nla.obj-375671528#page/n53/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 September 1922, pages 48, 50\\-54, 56, 58, 60, 62\\-64, 66\\.*\n* Indian Summer *(1922\\), serialised in the* Evening News *and* Sunday News *from 13 September to 13 October 1922\\.*\n* The Libertine: With a Gentle Tracing of his Path of Dalliance *(1923\\), a [short story](/wiki/Short_story \"Short story\") published in* The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, June 1923\\.[The Libertine](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-379197776/view?sectionId=nla.obj-383295067&partId=nla.obj-379256114#page/n39/mode/1up), *The Home: An Australian Quarterly*, 1 June 1923, pages 38, 80, 82\\.*\n* The Burglaries at \"Mon Repos\" *(1925\\), a short story published in* Punch *(Melbourne), 10 December 1925 (with illustrations by Will Dyson).[The Burglaries at \"Mon Repos\"](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/228065586/22367909), *Punch* (Melbourne), 10 December 1925, pages 12\\-13, 24\\.*\n* No Armour *(1928\\), London: John Long Ltd.*\n* Max Flambard *(1928\\), London: John Long Ltd.*\n* Only the Morning'' (1930\\), London: John Long Ltd."
] |
Plot
----
At [Hong Kong International Airport](/wiki/Hong_Kong_International_Airport "Hong Kong International Airport") in 2021, [Ted](/wiki/Ted_Mosby "Ted Mosby")'s flight to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") has been cancelled. While arguing with an attendant at the departure lounge, he runs into Wendy the Waitress. [Future Ted](/wiki/Future_Ted "Future Ted") describes how it happened.
At MacLaren's, Ted and Zoey tell Wendy the Waitress how they ended up together. Ted says Zoey was unhappy with her marriage to the Captain, and after a serious fight that ended with the Captain wanting a divorce, Zoey and Ted decided to give a relationship a try. Zoey asks Ted to get her personal belongings from the Captain's apartment. The stuff has been left at the lobby. Just as Ted comes to get the box, the Captain encounters him and at his study, says that Zoey left him for a mustachioed man, narrating a different version of his last argument with Zoey. Ted fails to get the box. He later returns to the apartment building, where the Captain claims that the doorman seduced Zoey. He threatens to harm the doorman but Ted convinces him to let her go because they have nothing in common anyway. Before leaving the apartment with Zoey's box, he admits that he was the one for whom Zoey left the Captain. Later at MacLaren's, Zoey says that good things can come out of something bad.
Meanwhile, [Barney](/wiki/Barney_Stinson "Barney Stinson") reports to the gang that his [laser tag](/wiki/Laser_tag "Laser tag") date on [Valentine's Day](/wiki/Valentine%27s_Day "Valentine's Day") with Nora did not go well, despite her giving him her calling card which he later tears up. [Robin](/wiki/Robin_Scherbatsky "Robin Scherbatsky") catches Barney smiling whenever he mentions Nora, and gives him a napkin with Nora's phone number so he can call her. Robin eventually dares him to sleep with her to prove he does not like Nora. Barney shows up at Ted and Robin's apartment, which infuriates Robin because she had been encouraging him to pursue Nora. However, Barney reveals he had actually come to ask for Nora's phone number; pleased, Robin gives it to him and tells him to go for it.
[Lily](/wiki/Lily_Aldrin "Lily Aldrin") is frustrated at home because [Marshall](/wiki/Marshall_Eriksen "Marshall Eriksen") is too fixated with watching a documentary about the [Great Pacific Garbage Patch](/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch "Great Pacific Garbage Patch") to even think about sex. He creates a presentation for a new GNB environmental campaign, but it is negatively received and Arthur Hobbs fires Meeker, the only employee who liked the presentation. Lily catches Marshall in the dumpster trying to find a set of [Tallboy](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Bicycles "Santa Cruz Bicycles") O\-rings. Marshall tells Lily that his father's death affected his career choices and fears that starting a family right away could force him to work at GNB forever. Lily asks him to save the planet first then start raising a family.
Marshall's obsession also angers Wendy the Waitress because his advocacy prompts MacLaren's to have her carry spent bottles to the recycling center every night, which results in her having back pains. Future Ted says Meeker was a MacLaren's patron who met Wendy the night he goes to the bar to confront Marshall over his dismissal. Wendy's bag of bottles breaks and Meeker helps Wendy pick them up.
The ending scene shows that because they both hated Marshall, Wendy and Meeker did end up together, being on their second honeymoon when they encountered Ted at the airport. Ted says he is already married with two kids, and his relationship with Zoey did not end well. Ted begins the story of how he met his wife starting from the wedding, but Wendy interrupts saying they have to go. Ted immediately calls Marshall about the encounter.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"At [Hong Kong International Airport](/wiki/Hong_Kong_International_Airport \"Hong Kong International Airport\") in 2021, [Ted](/wiki/Ted_Mosby \"Ted Mosby\")'s flight to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") has been cancelled. While arguing with an attendant at the departure lounge, he runs into Wendy the Waitress. [Future Ted](/wiki/Future_Ted \"Future Ted\") describes how it happened.",
"At MacLaren's, Ted and Zoey tell Wendy the Waitress how they ended up together. Ted says Zoey was unhappy with her marriage to the Captain, and after a serious fight that ended with the Captain wanting a divorce, Zoey and Ted decided to give a relationship a try. Zoey asks Ted to get her personal belongings from the Captain's apartment. The stuff has been left at the lobby. Just as Ted comes to get the box, the Captain encounters him and at his study, says that Zoey left him for a mustachioed man, narrating a different version of his last argument with Zoey. Ted fails to get the box. He later returns to the apartment building, where the Captain claims that the doorman seduced Zoey. He threatens to harm the doorman but Ted convinces him to let her go because they have nothing in common anyway. Before leaving the apartment with Zoey's box, he admits that he was the one for whom Zoey left the Captain. Later at MacLaren's, Zoey says that good things can come out of something bad.",
"Meanwhile, [Barney](/wiki/Barney_Stinson \"Barney Stinson\") reports to the gang that his [laser tag](/wiki/Laser_tag \"Laser tag\") date on [Valentine's Day](/wiki/Valentine%27s_Day \"Valentine's Day\") with Nora did not go well, despite her giving him her calling card which he later tears up. [Robin](/wiki/Robin_Scherbatsky \"Robin Scherbatsky\") catches Barney smiling whenever he mentions Nora, and gives him a napkin with Nora's phone number so he can call her. Robin eventually dares him to sleep with her to prove he does not like Nora. Barney shows up at Ted and Robin's apartment, which infuriates Robin because she had been encouraging him to pursue Nora. However, Barney reveals he had actually come to ask for Nora's phone number; pleased, Robin gives it to him and tells him to go for it.",
"[Lily](/wiki/Lily_Aldrin \"Lily Aldrin\") is frustrated at home because [Marshall](/wiki/Marshall_Eriksen \"Marshall Eriksen\") is too fixated with watching a documentary about the [Great Pacific Garbage Patch](/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch \"Great Pacific Garbage Patch\") to even think about sex. He creates a presentation for a new GNB environmental campaign, but it is negatively received and Arthur Hobbs fires Meeker, the only employee who liked the presentation. Lily catches Marshall in the dumpster trying to find a set of [Tallboy](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Bicycles \"Santa Cruz Bicycles\") O\\-rings. Marshall tells Lily that his father's death affected his career choices and fears that starting a family right away could force him to work at GNB forever. Lily asks him to save the planet first then start raising a family.",
"Marshall's obsession also angers Wendy the Waitress because his advocacy prompts MacLaren's to have her carry spent bottles to the recycling center every night, which results in her having back pains. Future Ted says Meeker was a MacLaren's patron who met Wendy the night he goes to the bar to confront Marshall over his dismissal. Wendy's bag of bottles breaks and Meeker helps Wendy pick them up.",
"The ending scene shows that because they both hated Marshall, Wendy and Meeker did end up together, being on their second honeymoon when they encountered Ted at the airport. Ted says he is already married with two kids, and his relationship with Zoey did not end well. Ted begins the story of how he met his wife starting from the wedding, but Wendy interrupts saying they have to go. Ted immediately calls Marshall about the encounter.",
""
] |
Transport
---------
Rukum District is considered remote and air service is irregular. With recent road building, bus and jeep service are available with links to the southern plains and major cities including Kathmandu. Two airports offer safe but rudimentary facilities for passenger flights, mainly from [Nepalganj](/wiki/Nepalgunj_Airport "Nepalgunj Airport") and [Kathmandu](/wiki/Tribhuvan_International_Airport "Tribhuvan International Airport").
The Rapti Highway was under construction (as of 2010\) to connect Musikot to [Salyan Khalanga](/wiki/Salyan%2C_Nepal "Salyan, Nepal"), [Tulsipur](/wiki/Tulsipur%2C_Rapti "Tulsipur, Rapti"), and [Mahendra Highway](/wiki/Mahendra_Highway "Mahendra Highway") to the south. On the other hand, Nepal's dream project "Mid\-Hill Highway" is under construction.
### Rapti Highway
It is about a four\-hour bus ride from Dang Tulsipur to Rukum Musikot.
### Mid\-Hill Highway
Mid\-Hill Highway is under construction. It is a national pride project that passes through 12 zones, 24 districts, and 215 VDCs. With a total length of 1,767 km, the highway connects Chiyo Bhanjyang of Pachthar district in the east with Jhulaghat of [Baitadi district](/wiki/Baitadi_District "Baitadi District") in the west.
The bus ride from Kathmandu takes up to 24 hours to Musikot.
### Airports
The two airports in Rukum are in [Chaurjahari](/wiki/Chaurjahari "Chaurjahari") ({{lang\-ne\|चौरजहारी}}) and Salle ({{lang\-ne\|सल्ले}}).
[Chaurjahari Airport](/wiki/Chaurjahari_Airport "Chaurjahari Airport") lies near the [Bheri River](/wiki/Bheri_River "Bheri River"), 762 m above sea level and accessible by footpaths and horse trails only, with a grass runway 850 m long and 30 m wide. It was the primary mode of travel to Rukum for government, NGO personnel, aid workers and backpackers before the civil war. During the conflict the security situation deteriorated and the local police station was shut down. The airport has 10 aircraft parking spaces.
The flight from [Nepalganj](/wiki/Nepalganj "Nepalganj") to Rukum Salle airport takes 20–300 minutes.
[Rukum Salle Airport](/wiki/Rukum_Salle_Airport "Rukum Salle Airport") lies near Musikot, the district headquarters. It is accessible by foot way and road transport since Rapti Highway has touched Salle airport. Its runway is 650 meters long with capability of parking of four aircraft.
The flight from Kathmandu to Rukum Salle airport takes about 90 minutes, while the flight from Nepalganj takes about 20 minutes.
|
[
"Transport\n---------",
"Rukum District is considered remote and air service is irregular. With recent road building, bus and jeep service are available with links to the southern plains and major cities including Kathmandu. Two airports offer safe but rudimentary facilities for passenger flights, mainly from [Nepalganj](/wiki/Nepalgunj_Airport \"Nepalgunj Airport\") and [Kathmandu](/wiki/Tribhuvan_International_Airport \"Tribhuvan International Airport\").",
"The Rapti Highway was under construction (as of 2010\\) to connect Musikot to [Salyan Khalanga](/wiki/Salyan%2C_Nepal \"Salyan, Nepal\"), [Tulsipur](/wiki/Tulsipur%2C_Rapti \"Tulsipur, Rapti\"), and [Mahendra Highway](/wiki/Mahendra_Highway \"Mahendra Highway\") to the south. On the other hand, Nepal's dream project \"Mid\\-Hill Highway\" is under construction.",
"### Rapti Highway",
"It is about a four\\-hour bus ride from Dang Tulsipur to Rukum Musikot.",
"### Mid\\-Hill Highway",
"Mid\\-Hill Highway is under construction. It is a national pride project that passes through 12 zones, 24 districts, and 215 VDCs. With a total length of 1,767 km, the highway connects Chiyo Bhanjyang of Pachthar district in the east with Jhulaghat of [Baitadi district](/wiki/Baitadi_District \"Baitadi District\") in the west.",
"The bus ride from Kathmandu takes up to 24 hours to Musikot.",
"### Airports",
"The two airports in Rukum are in [Chaurjahari](/wiki/Chaurjahari \"Chaurjahari\") ({{lang\\-ne\\|चौरजहारी}}) and Salle ({{lang\\-ne\\|सल्ले}}).",
"[Chaurjahari Airport](/wiki/Chaurjahari_Airport \"Chaurjahari Airport\") lies near the [Bheri River](/wiki/Bheri_River \"Bheri River\"), 762 m above sea level and accessible by footpaths and horse trails only, with a grass runway 850 m long and 30 m wide. It was the primary mode of travel to Rukum for government, NGO personnel, aid workers and backpackers before the civil war. During the conflict the security situation deteriorated and the local police station was shut down. The airport has 10 aircraft parking spaces.",
"The flight from [Nepalganj](/wiki/Nepalganj \"Nepalganj\") to Rukum Salle airport takes 20–300 minutes.",
"[Rukum Salle Airport](/wiki/Rukum_Salle_Airport \"Rukum Salle Airport\") lies near Musikot, the district headquarters. It is accessible by foot way and road transport since Rapti Highway has touched Salle airport. Its runway is 650 meters long with capability of parking of four aircraft.",
"The flight from Kathmandu to Rukum Salle airport takes about 90 minutes, while the flight from Nepalganj takes about 20 minutes.",
""
] |
Synopsis
--------
Emily Fletcher, Adriane Charday, and Kara Davies, three very different girls\-turned\-[mages](/wiki/Magician_%28fantasy%29 "Magician (fantasy)") (highly skilled magic users), band together to protect and find [Avalon](/wiki/Avalon "Avalon"), the very source of all [magic](/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 "Magic (paranormal)"). Each girl has a bonded animal and magic stone; their animal friends help them on their magical journeys through the different worlds along the Magic Web. The safety of the Magic Web, and the worlds it connects together, hangs on their success as they battle two main antagonists, the Dark Sorceress and the Spider Witch, who wish to harness the tremendous magical energy and magic of Avalon and distort the Magic Web for their own evil ends. The titular Web of Magic is a web on the magical, mystical plane of existence, connecting all worlds and planets with each other through mystical portals.
### *Circles in the Stream*
Emily, Adriane, and Kara are all drawn to a secret place deep in the woods. It is much harder than it would be because Kara will not cooperate with the other two mages. There they discover a portal to another world through which strange and wondrous animals have emerged, searching desperately for the magic that will keep them alive. The animals are peaceful and good, but what follows them through the portal is pure evil. The girls have been chosen by magical beings called Fairimentals to protect the magical animals, though they do not know why. To save them and their world, the three girls must begin a quest to find the lost home of legendary magic, Avalon, or to perish trying.
### *All That Glitters*
Emily and Adriane have one thing that Kara does not: a magical gem. But when Kara finally finds a magical stone of her own, a diamond [unicorn](/wiki/Unicorn "Unicorn") horn (the unicorn jewel), it brings more trouble than anyone can handle. Pesky dragonflies start showing up everywhere and new Fairimentals warn of danger. While trying to use the mystical jewel to make her hair stop growing longer uncontrollably, her hair turns rainbow\-colored. Worse, a band of terrifying monsters stalk Kara, and signs of an evil sorceress keep appearing before her. All these creatures come from another world and all want something from her. Finding out may take Kara, Emily, and Adriane a step closer to Avalon, the essential source of all magic. But it may also cost one of them her life.
### *Cry of the Wolf*
Adriane and Stormbringer, the mistwolf, have quite a uniquely close and strong emotional bond of friendship. But is it strong enough to save them when Storm is lured through the portal to Aldenmor, another world much like Earth where magic still thrives? Adriane believes it is, and follows Storm to the magical world. There, Adriane faces the challenge of her life as she confronts Moonshadow, the pack leader and the entire mistwolf pack and tries to bring Storm home. The strange boy she meets, Zach, may be able to help her, but she will need Emily and Kara's magic to survive this battle.
### *The Secret of the Unicorn*
Aldenmor's problems are worsening. Many new creatures are arriving in Ravenswood through the portal and they report that the [Fairy](/wiki/Fairy "Fairy") Glen, home of the fairimentals, has vanished. A frightened and wounded unicorn is among the new refugees to Ravenswood. Can Emily communicate with her to offer help? The future of the Magic Web depends upon the dark secret the unicorn carries. All the while, a new terror of a harpy stalks Emily as she tries to find out about the injured creature.
### *Spellsinger*
The first benefit concert for the Ravenswood Wildlife Preserve is on and everyone is depending on the event to ensure the Preserve's survival. Kara has booked hottie pop idol Johnny Conrad. But Conrad may be hiding a dangerous secret that threatens the animals, Ravenswood, and the girls themselves. This time, the magic is in the sound and music, and if Emily, Adriane, and Kara can not perform, their chance to find Avalon may be gone forever.
### *Trial by Fire*
The road to Avalon is about to be revealed. The path is on the fairy map, a sparkling globe of wondrous magical power. Kara holds the fairy map in her hands, and must use it for the good of all worlds and all animals. But evil stalks Kara. The Dark Sorceress is after the map, too. If she finds Avalon first, people and animals from all worlds are doomed. The time has come for Emily, Adriane and Kara to be the healer, the warrior and the blazing star they were meant to be. They must win this battle – even if it means sacrificing the life of a dearly beloved friend.
### *Song of the Unicorns*
Emily's dad wants her to vacation with him and his new wife—Emily's new step mom—at a horse ranch in [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico "New Mexico"). Emily convinces her two friends to accompany her. But along the Magic Web, a dangerous magic tracker is hunting down unicorns, the one magical creature that can control the flow of magic. In the desert, the mages discover an entire herd of baby unicorns. Emily, Adriane, Kara, Ozzie, Dreamer, and Lyra must find a way to hide them and fight the dark hunter.
### *All's Fairy in Love and War*
Kara cannot control her magical abilities. So she goes back to doing what she does best—being pretty and popular, and performing in the school play. The other mages, Emily and Adriane, have to continue without her. But the magic has other plans for Kara, the Blazing Star. Whisked into the Fairy Realms through a magic mirror, Kara falls smack into the middle of an impending war, and meets a mysterious boy with a dark secret. Kara may be the only one who can restore peace between the Fairies and the [Goblins](/wiki/Goblin "Goblin"), but she must first tame her unstable powers, her wild heart, and a stallion made of pure fire. If she fails, it could mean the destruction of all of the Fairy Realms, the unraveling of the Magic Web... and even the end of Avalon itself.
### *Ghost Wolf*
Adriane, the Warrior, knows what it's like to lose a close and dearest friend. And now she is on the verge of losing everything she loves. The Spider Witch and the Dark Sorceress will stop at nothing to capture the power crystals of Avalon. This time, they have launched an attack directly at Ravenswood, the sanctuary for magical animals and Adriane's home. The fight to save Ravenswood will take Adriane to places she never imagined, into the very heart of mistwolf magic where a best friend she thought she had lost forever lives on. Is Adriane brave enough to walk the ghostly spirit path? She will have to rise to a whole new, stronger power\-level of magic in order to save her best friends, her pack\-mates, and Avalon itself, or risk losing everything... again.
### *The Heart of Avalon*
A mysterious sickness threatens the sea dragons of Aldenmor. But Emily the healer can not find a cure unless she can bond with one special animal and advance to a Level Two mages like her friends. A strange, shape\-shifting creature whisks her away and Emily meets perilous monsters, salty sea [elves](/wiki/Elf "Elf"), and a hidden treasure holding the secrets to evolving her healing magic and finding the path to Avalon. To save the animals, Emily must face her deepest fears, and discover the truth about her enormously strong and powerful mage abilities... but she would not be alone.
### *The Dark Mage*
In the very heart of the magic, darkness is growing. Time is running out and Emily, Kara, and Adriane must retrieve the last remaining power crystals to open the Gates of Avalon and save the Magic Web. No one told the girls the real secret of the Prophecy. Like their enemies, the Spider Witch and the Dark Sorceress, one mage is destined to bond and become one with dark magic. In their most dangerous adventure yet, each mage will be called upon to face her darkest fears. Their friendship is pushed to the limit; and one will become the Dark Mage.
### *Full Circle*
Emily, Adriane, and Kara became mages, but failed to discover the secrets of Avalon and save their beloved animal friends. Now, the Gates of Avalon are locked, beloved friends are doomed, and the Dark Sorceress reigns supreme. There may be one final chance to fulfill their destiny. The mages must put everything they deeply and dearly love and care for on the line; and be prepared to sacrifice all as the final battle for Avalon begins.
|
[
"Synopsis\n--------",
"Emily Fletcher, Adriane Charday, and Kara Davies, three very different girls\\-turned\\-[mages](/wiki/Magician_%28fantasy%29 \"Magician (fantasy)\") (highly skilled magic users), band together to protect and find [Avalon](/wiki/Avalon \"Avalon\"), the very source of all [magic](/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 \"Magic (paranormal)\"). Each girl has a bonded animal and magic stone; their animal friends help them on their magical journeys through the different worlds along the Magic Web. The safety of the Magic Web, and the worlds it connects together, hangs on their success as they battle two main antagonists, the Dark Sorceress and the Spider Witch, who wish to harness the tremendous magical energy and magic of Avalon and distort the Magic Web for their own evil ends. The titular Web of Magic is a web on the magical, mystical plane of existence, connecting all worlds and planets with each other through mystical portals.",
"### *Circles in the Stream*",
"Emily, Adriane, and Kara are all drawn to a secret place deep in the woods. It is much harder than it would be because Kara will not cooperate with the other two mages. There they discover a portal to another world through which strange and wondrous animals have emerged, searching desperately for the magic that will keep them alive. The animals are peaceful and good, but what follows them through the portal is pure evil. The girls have been chosen by magical beings called Fairimentals to protect the magical animals, though they do not know why. To save them and their world, the three girls must begin a quest to find the lost home of legendary magic, Avalon, or to perish trying.",
"### *All That Glitters*",
"Emily and Adriane have one thing that Kara does not: a magical gem. But when Kara finally finds a magical stone of her own, a diamond [unicorn](/wiki/Unicorn \"Unicorn\") horn (the unicorn jewel), it brings more trouble than anyone can handle. Pesky dragonflies start showing up everywhere and new Fairimentals warn of danger. While trying to use the mystical jewel to make her hair stop growing longer uncontrollably, her hair turns rainbow\\-colored. Worse, a band of terrifying monsters stalk Kara, and signs of an evil sorceress keep appearing before her. All these creatures come from another world and all want something from her. Finding out may take Kara, Emily, and Adriane a step closer to Avalon, the essential source of all magic. But it may also cost one of them her life.",
"### *Cry of the Wolf*",
"Adriane and Stormbringer, the mistwolf, have quite a uniquely close and strong emotional bond of friendship. But is it strong enough to save them when Storm is lured through the portal to Aldenmor, another world much like Earth where magic still thrives? Adriane believes it is, and follows Storm to the magical world. There, Adriane faces the challenge of her life as she confronts Moonshadow, the pack leader and the entire mistwolf pack and tries to bring Storm home. The strange boy she meets, Zach, may be able to help her, but she will need Emily and Kara's magic to survive this battle.",
"### *The Secret of the Unicorn*",
"Aldenmor's problems are worsening. Many new creatures are arriving in Ravenswood through the portal and they report that the [Fairy](/wiki/Fairy \"Fairy\") Glen, home of the fairimentals, has vanished. A frightened and wounded unicorn is among the new refugees to Ravenswood. Can Emily communicate with her to offer help? The future of the Magic Web depends upon the dark secret the unicorn carries. All the while, a new terror of a harpy stalks Emily as she tries to find out about the injured creature.",
"### *Spellsinger*",
"The first benefit concert for the Ravenswood Wildlife Preserve is on and everyone is depending on the event to ensure the Preserve's survival. Kara has booked hottie pop idol Johnny Conrad. But Conrad may be hiding a dangerous secret that threatens the animals, Ravenswood, and the girls themselves. This time, the magic is in the sound and music, and if Emily, Adriane, and Kara can not perform, their chance to find Avalon may be gone forever.",
"### *Trial by Fire*",
"The road to Avalon is about to be revealed. The path is on the fairy map, a sparkling globe of wondrous magical power. Kara holds the fairy map in her hands, and must use it for the good of all worlds and all animals. But evil stalks Kara. The Dark Sorceress is after the map, too. If she finds Avalon first, people and animals from all worlds are doomed. The time has come for Emily, Adriane and Kara to be the healer, the warrior and the blazing star they were meant to be. They must win this battle – even if it means sacrificing the life of a dearly beloved friend.",
"### *Song of the Unicorns*",
"Emily's dad wants her to vacation with him and his new wife—Emily's new step mom—at a horse ranch in [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico \"New Mexico\"). Emily convinces her two friends to accompany her. But along the Magic Web, a dangerous magic tracker is hunting down unicorns, the one magical creature that can control the flow of magic. In the desert, the mages discover an entire herd of baby unicorns. Emily, Adriane, Kara, Ozzie, Dreamer, and Lyra must find a way to hide them and fight the dark hunter.",
"### *All's Fairy in Love and War*",
"Kara cannot control her magical abilities. So she goes back to doing what she does best—being pretty and popular, and performing in the school play. The other mages, Emily and Adriane, have to continue without her. But the magic has other plans for Kara, the Blazing Star. Whisked into the Fairy Realms through a magic mirror, Kara falls smack into the middle of an impending war, and meets a mysterious boy with a dark secret. Kara may be the only one who can restore peace between the Fairies and the [Goblins](/wiki/Goblin \"Goblin\"), but she must first tame her unstable powers, her wild heart, and a stallion made of pure fire. If she fails, it could mean the destruction of all of the Fairy Realms, the unraveling of the Magic Web... and even the end of Avalon itself.",
"### *Ghost Wolf*",
"Adriane, the Warrior, knows what it's like to lose a close and dearest friend. And now she is on the verge of losing everything she loves. The Spider Witch and the Dark Sorceress will stop at nothing to capture the power crystals of Avalon. This time, they have launched an attack directly at Ravenswood, the sanctuary for magical animals and Adriane's home. The fight to save Ravenswood will take Adriane to places she never imagined, into the very heart of mistwolf magic where a best friend she thought she had lost forever lives on. Is Adriane brave enough to walk the ghostly spirit path? She will have to rise to a whole new, stronger power\\-level of magic in order to save her best friends, her pack\\-mates, and Avalon itself, or risk losing everything... again.",
"### *The Heart of Avalon*",
"A mysterious sickness threatens the sea dragons of Aldenmor. But Emily the healer can not find a cure unless she can bond with one special animal and advance to a Level Two mages like her friends. A strange, shape\\-shifting creature whisks her away and Emily meets perilous monsters, salty sea [elves](/wiki/Elf \"Elf\"), and a hidden treasure holding the secrets to evolving her healing magic and finding the path to Avalon. To save the animals, Emily must face her deepest fears, and discover the truth about her enormously strong and powerful mage abilities... but she would not be alone.",
"### *The Dark Mage*",
"In the very heart of the magic, darkness is growing. Time is running out and Emily, Kara, and Adriane must retrieve the last remaining power crystals to open the Gates of Avalon and save the Magic Web. No one told the girls the real secret of the Prophecy. Like their enemies, the Spider Witch and the Dark Sorceress, one mage is destined to bond and become one with dark magic. In their most dangerous adventure yet, each mage will be called upon to face her darkest fears. Their friendship is pushed to the limit; and one will become the Dark Mage.",
"### *Full Circle*",
"Emily, Adriane, and Kara became mages, but failed to discover the secrets of Avalon and save their beloved animal friends. Now, the Gates of Avalon are locked, beloved friends are doomed, and the Dark Sorceress reigns supreme. There may be one final chance to fulfill their destiny. The mages must put everything they deeply and dearly love and care for on the line; and be prepared to sacrifice all as the final battle for Avalon begins.",
""
] |
Club career
-----------
### Millwall
Philpot was first called up to a Millwall matchday squad on 21 March 2015, remaining an unused substitute in their 2–2 [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship "Football League Championship") draw with [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. "Brentford F.C.") at [Griffin Park](/wiki/Griffin_Park "Griffin Park").{{cite news\|title\=Brentford 2–2 Millwall\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/31882507\|accessdate\=3 May 2015\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=21 March 2015}} His next call\-up was for their final game of the season following relegation to [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One "Football League One"), away to [Wolverhampton Wanderers](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers "Wolverhampton Wanderers") at the [Molineux](/wiki/Molineux_Stadium "Molineux Stadium"). He came on for his debut as an 80th\-minute substitute for [Lee Martin](/wiki/Lee_Martin_%28footballer%2C_born_1987%29 "Lee Martin (footballer, born 1987)"), and less than two minutes later scored. However, in the 89th minute, he was substituted for fellow debutant [Alfie Pavey](/wiki/Alfie_Pavey "Alfie Pavey") due to injury and Millwall lost 2–4\.{{cite news\|title\=Wolves 4–2 Millwall\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/32460070\|accessdate\=3 May 2015\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=2 May 2015\|first\=Ged\|last\=Scott}} After an unfortunate lay\-off through injury, Philpot returned to first team action for The Lions after coming on as a second\-half substitute{{Cite news \|title\=Millwall 3–0 Blackpool \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/35675527 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=5 March 2016 \|accessdate\=16 August 2017}} in the 3–0 win against [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. "Blackpool F.C."). This followed a number of impressive displays in Millwall's under\-21s.
On 21 October 2016, Philpot signed a 28\-day loan with [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 "National League (division)") club [Bromley](/wiki/Bromley_F.C. "Bromley F.C."). He made three appearances for The Ravens, before returning to Millwall on 15 November 2016\.
On 3 August 2017, Philpot joined [Woking](/wiki/Woking_F.C. "Woking F.C.") on loan until January 2018\.{{Cite news \|title\=Striker joins on loan from Millwall \|url\=http://www.wokingfc.co.uk/news/article/5913/striker\-joins\-on\-loan\-from\-millwall/ \|publisher\=Woking Official Site \|date\=3 August 2017 \|accessdate\=16 August 2017}} On 5 August 2017, Philpot made his Woking debut during their 2–1 home victory over [Gateshead](/wiki/Gateshead_F.C. "Gateshead F.C."), replacing [Bobson Bawling](/wiki/Bobson_Bawling "Bobson Bawling") in the 70th minute.{{Cite news \|title\=Woking 2–1 Gateshead \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/40761395 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=5 August 2017 \|accessdate\=16 August 2017}} Philpot scored his first goal for Woking in their 2–1 win against [AFC Fylde](/wiki/A.F.C._Fylde "A.F.C. Fylde") in the [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 "National League (division)") on 23 September 2017\.{{Cite news \|title\=AFC Fylde 1\-2 Woking \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/41290687 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=23 September 2017 \|accessdate\=3 October 2017}} A week later, Philpot continued his impressive form, scoring Woking's equaliser in their 1–1 home draw against [Hartlepool United](/wiki/Hartlepool_United_F.C. "Hartlepool United F.C.").{{Cite news \|title\=Woking 1\-1 Hartlepool United \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/41370536 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=30 September 2017 \|accessdate\=3 October 2017}} Philpot scored once again three days later in their 2–0 away victory against [Chester](/wiki/Chester_F.C. "Chester F.C."), latching onto a poor back pass and rounding the goalkeeper.{{Cite news \|title\=Chester 0\-2 Woking \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/41395057 \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|date\=3 October 2017 \|accessdate\=4 October 2017}} Philpot returned to Millwall in January 2018, following the conclusion of his loan spell.
On 12 February 2018, Philpot joined [National League South](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 "National League (division)") side [Welling United](/wiki/Welling_United_F.C. "Welling United F.C.") on a one\-month loan deal.{{Cite news \|title\=Now Philpot Is Sent To Wings On Loan \|url\=https://nonleague.pitchero.com/headlines/now\-philpot\-sent\-wings\-loan/ \|publisher\=Pitchero Non\-League \|date\=13 February 2018 \|accessdate\=18 February 2018}} Just under a week later, he scored on his debut during Welling's 3–1 home victory over [St Albans City](/wiki/St_Albans_City_F.C. "St Albans City F.C.").{{Cite news \|title\=Welling United vs. St Albans City \|url\=https://uk.soccerway.com/matches/2018/02/17/england/conference\-n\-\-s/welling\-united\-fc/st\-albans\-city\-fc/2496549/ \|publisher\=Soccerway \|date\=17 February 2018 \|accessdate\=18 February 2018}} On 14 March 2018, Philpot's loan was extended until the end of the campaign.{{Cite news \|title\=Welling United FC on Twitter \|url\=https://twitter.com/wellingunited/status/973893172685430784 \|publisher\=Welling United Official Twitter \|date\=14 March 2018 \|accessdate\=20 March 2018}} In total, Philpot netted six times in fourteen appearances before returning to Millwall at the end of the season.
He was released by Millwall at the end of the 2017–18 season.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/44153770\|title\=Tim Cahill and Jimmy Abdou: Millwall release veteran Australian and midfielder\|date\=17 May 2018\|accessdate\=18 May 2018\|publisher\=BBC Sport}}
### Dartford
On 1 August 2018, Philpot joined [National League South](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 "National League (division)") side [Dartford](/wiki/Dartford_F.C. "Dartford F.C.").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dartfordfc.com/player\-news\-jamie\-philpot/\|title\=PLAYER NEWS: Jamie Philpot\|date\=1 August 2018\|accessdate\=1 August 2018\|publisher\=Dartford F.C.}} Philpot left Dartford on 18 January 2019\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dartfordfc.com/player\-news\-jamie\-philpot\-2/\|title\=PLAYER NEWS: Jamie Philpot\|date\=18 January 2019\|accessdate\=18 January 2019\|publisher\=Dartford F.C.}}
### Maidstone United
On the same day as his release from Dartford, Philpot joined [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 "National League (division)") side [Maidstone United](/wiki/Maidstone_United_F.C. "Maidstone United F.C.") on trial.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.maidstoneunited.co.uk/2019/01/stones\-bring\-in\-philpot\-on\-trial/\|title\=Stones bring in Philpot on trial\|date\=18 January 2019\|accessdate\=18 January 2019\|publisher\=Maidstone United F.C.}}
### Bromley
On 9 February 2019, Philpot joined [Bromley](/wiki/Bromley_F.C. "Bromley F.C.").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bromleyfc.tv/site/squad\-update\-philpot\-and\-lewis\-added\-to\-squad/\|title\=Squad update: Philpot and Lewis added to squad\|date\=9 February 2019\|accessdate\=9 February 2019\|publisher\=Bromley F.C.}} On 12 March 2019, Bromley announced that Philpot had left the club having made just three substitute appearances.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bromleyfc.tv/site/squad\-update\-hackett\-fairchild\-added\-to\-ranks/\|title\=Squad update: Hackett\-Fairchild added to ranks\|date\=9 February 2019\|accessdate\=12 March 2019\|publisher\=Bromley F.C.}}
### Barrow
On 22 March 2019, Philpot joined [Barrow](/wiki/Barrow_A.F.C. "Barrow A.F.C.") on non\-contract terms.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.barrowafc.com/bluebirds\-sign\-striker\-philpot/\|title\=Bluebirds Sign Striker Philpot!\|date\=22 March 2019\|accessdate\=22 March 2019\|publisher\=Barrow A.F.C.}}
### Staines Town
On 26 July 2019, Philpot joined [Staines Town](/wiki/Staines_Town_F.C. "Staines Town F.C.") for the 2019/20 season.{{cite web\|url\=https://stainestownfootballclub.co.uk/swans\-sign\-striker\-jamie\-philpot/\|title\=SWANS SIGN STRIKER JAMIE PHILPOT
\|date\=26 July 2019\|accessdate\=26 July 2019\|publisher\=Staines Town F.C.}}
### Glebe
On 16 September 2019, Philpot joined [Glebe](/wiki/Glebe_F.C. "Glebe F.C.") in the [Southern Counties East Premier Division](/wiki/Southern_Counties_East_Football_League "Southern Counties East Football League") having left Staines Town.{{cite web\|url\=http://kentishfootball.co.uk/news/glebe170919\|title\=Glebe manager Gary Alexander makes Jamie Philpot his first signing\|date\=16 September 2019\|accessdate\=16 September 2019\|publisher\= Kentish Football}} On 30 April 2022, The Foxes announced that Philpot had signed a new contract until the end of the 2022–23 season.
|
[
"Club career\n-----------",
"### Millwall",
"Philpot was first called up to a Millwall matchday squad on 21 March 2015, remaining an unused substitute in their 2–2 [Championship](/wiki/Football_League_Championship \"Football League Championship\") draw with [Brentford](/wiki/Brentford_F.C. \"Brentford F.C.\") at [Griffin Park](/wiki/Griffin_Park \"Griffin Park\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Brentford 2–2 Millwall\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/31882507\\|accessdate\\=3 May 2015\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=21 March 2015}} His next call\\-up was for their final game of the season following relegation to [League One](/wiki/Football_League_One \"Football League One\"), away to [Wolverhampton Wanderers](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers \"Wolverhampton Wanderers\") at the [Molineux](/wiki/Molineux_Stadium \"Molineux Stadium\"). He came on for his debut as an 80th\\-minute substitute for [Lee Martin](/wiki/Lee_Martin_%28footballer%2C_born_1987%29 \"Lee Martin (footballer, born 1987)\"), and less than two minutes later scored. However, in the 89th minute, he was substituted for fellow debutant [Alfie Pavey](/wiki/Alfie_Pavey \"Alfie Pavey\") due to injury and Millwall lost 2–4\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Wolves 4–2 Millwall\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/32460070\\|accessdate\\=3 May 2015\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=2 May 2015\\|first\\=Ged\\|last\\=Scott}} After an unfortunate lay\\-off through injury, Philpot returned to first team action for The Lions after coming on as a second\\-half substitute{{Cite news \\|title\\=Millwall 3–0 Blackpool \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/35675527 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=5 March 2016 \\|accessdate\\=16 August 2017}} in the 3–0 win against [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. \"Blackpool F.C.\"). This followed a number of impressive displays in Millwall's under\\-21s.",
"On 21 October 2016, Philpot signed a 28\\-day loan with [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 \"National League (division)\") club [Bromley](/wiki/Bromley_F.C. \"Bromley F.C.\"). He made three appearances for The Ravens, before returning to Millwall on 15 November 2016\\.",
"On 3 August 2017, Philpot joined [Woking](/wiki/Woking_F.C. \"Woking F.C.\") on loan until January 2018\\.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Striker joins on loan from Millwall \\|url\\=http://www.wokingfc.co.uk/news/article/5913/striker\\-joins\\-on\\-loan\\-from\\-millwall/ \\|publisher\\=Woking Official Site \\|date\\=3 August 2017 \\|accessdate\\=16 August 2017}} On 5 August 2017, Philpot made his Woking debut during their 2–1 home victory over [Gateshead](/wiki/Gateshead_F.C. \"Gateshead F.C.\"), replacing [Bobson Bawling](/wiki/Bobson_Bawling \"Bobson Bawling\") in the 70th minute.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Woking 2–1 Gateshead \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/40761395 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=5 August 2017 \\|accessdate\\=16 August 2017}} Philpot scored his first goal for Woking in their 2–1 win against [AFC Fylde](/wiki/A.F.C._Fylde \"A.F.C. Fylde\") in the [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 \"National League (division)\") on 23 September 2017\\.{{Cite news \\|title\\=AFC Fylde 1\\-2 Woking \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/41290687 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=23 September 2017 \\|accessdate\\=3 October 2017}} A week later, Philpot continued his impressive form, scoring Woking's equaliser in their 1–1 home draw against [Hartlepool United](/wiki/Hartlepool_United_F.C. \"Hartlepool United F.C.\").{{Cite news \\|title\\=Woking 1\\-1 Hartlepool United \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/41370536 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=30 September 2017 \\|accessdate\\=3 October 2017}} Philpot scored once again three days later in their 2–0 away victory against [Chester](/wiki/Chester_F.C. \"Chester F.C.\"), latching onto a poor back pass and rounding the goalkeeper.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Chester 0\\-2 Woking \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/41395057 \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=3 October 2017 \\|accessdate\\=4 October 2017}} Philpot returned to Millwall in January 2018, following the conclusion of his loan spell.",
"On 12 February 2018, Philpot joined [National League South](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 \"National League (division)\") side [Welling United](/wiki/Welling_United_F.C. \"Welling United F.C.\") on a one\\-month loan deal.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Now Philpot Is Sent To Wings On Loan \\|url\\=https://nonleague.pitchero.com/headlines/now\\-philpot\\-sent\\-wings\\-loan/ \\|publisher\\=Pitchero Non\\-League \\|date\\=13 February 2018 \\|accessdate\\=18 February 2018}} Just under a week later, he scored on his debut during Welling's 3–1 home victory over [St Albans City](/wiki/St_Albans_City_F.C. \"St Albans City F.C.\").{{Cite news \\|title\\=Welling United vs. St Albans City \\|url\\=https://uk.soccerway.com/matches/2018/02/17/england/conference\\-n\\-\\-s/welling\\-united\\-fc/st\\-albans\\-city\\-fc/2496549/ \\|publisher\\=Soccerway \\|date\\=17 February 2018 \\|accessdate\\=18 February 2018}} On 14 March 2018, Philpot's loan was extended until the end of the campaign.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Welling United FC on Twitter \\|url\\=https://twitter.com/wellingunited/status/973893172685430784 \\|publisher\\=Welling United Official Twitter \\|date\\=14 March 2018 \\|accessdate\\=20 March 2018}} In total, Philpot netted six times in fourteen appearances before returning to Millwall at the end of the season.",
"He was released by Millwall at the end of the 2017–18 season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/44153770\\|title\\=Tim Cahill and Jimmy Abdou: Millwall release veteran Australian and midfielder\\|date\\=17 May 2018\\|accessdate\\=18 May 2018\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport}}",
"### Dartford",
"On 1 August 2018, Philpot joined [National League South](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 \"National League (division)\") side [Dartford](/wiki/Dartford_F.C. \"Dartford F.C.\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dartfordfc.com/player\\-news\\-jamie\\-philpot/\\|title\\=PLAYER NEWS: Jamie Philpot\\|date\\=1 August 2018\\|accessdate\\=1 August 2018\\|publisher\\=Dartford F.C.}} Philpot left Dartford on 18 January 2019\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dartfordfc.com/player\\-news\\-jamie\\-philpot\\-2/\\|title\\=PLAYER NEWS: Jamie Philpot\\|date\\=18 January 2019\\|accessdate\\=18 January 2019\\|publisher\\=Dartford F.C.}}",
"### Maidstone United",
"On the same day as his release from Dartford, Philpot joined [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28division%29 \"National League (division)\") side [Maidstone United](/wiki/Maidstone_United_F.C. \"Maidstone United F.C.\") on trial.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.maidstoneunited.co.uk/2019/01/stones\\-bring\\-in\\-philpot\\-on\\-trial/\\|title\\=Stones bring in Philpot on trial\\|date\\=18 January 2019\\|accessdate\\=18 January 2019\\|publisher\\=Maidstone United F.C.}}",
"### Bromley",
"On 9 February 2019, Philpot joined [Bromley](/wiki/Bromley_F.C. \"Bromley F.C.\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bromleyfc.tv/site/squad\\-update\\-philpot\\-and\\-lewis\\-added\\-to\\-squad/\\|title\\=Squad update: Philpot and Lewis added to squad\\|date\\=9 February 2019\\|accessdate\\=9 February 2019\\|publisher\\=Bromley F.C.}} On 12 March 2019, Bromley announced that Philpot had left the club having made just three substitute appearances.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bromleyfc.tv/site/squad\\-update\\-hackett\\-fairchild\\-added\\-to\\-ranks/\\|title\\=Squad update: Hackett\\-Fairchild added to ranks\\|date\\=9 February 2019\\|accessdate\\=12 March 2019\\|publisher\\=Bromley F.C.}}",
"### Barrow",
"On 22 March 2019, Philpot joined [Barrow](/wiki/Barrow_A.F.C. \"Barrow A.F.C.\") on non\\-contract terms.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.barrowafc.com/bluebirds\\-sign\\-striker\\-philpot/\\|title\\=Bluebirds Sign Striker Philpot!\\|date\\=22 March 2019\\|accessdate\\=22 March 2019\\|publisher\\=Barrow A.F.C.}}",
"### Staines Town",
"On 26 July 2019, Philpot joined [Staines Town](/wiki/Staines_Town_F.C. \"Staines Town F.C.\") for the 2019/20 season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://stainestownfootballclub.co.uk/swans\\-sign\\-striker\\-jamie\\-philpot/\\|title\\=SWANS SIGN STRIKER JAMIE PHILPOT\n\\|date\\=26 July 2019\\|accessdate\\=26 July 2019\\|publisher\\=Staines Town F.C.}}",
"### Glebe",
"On 16 September 2019, Philpot joined [Glebe](/wiki/Glebe_F.C. \"Glebe F.C.\") in the [Southern Counties East Premier Division](/wiki/Southern_Counties_East_Football_League \"Southern Counties East Football League\") having left Staines Town.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kentishfootball.co.uk/news/glebe170919\\|title\\=Glebe manager Gary Alexander makes Jamie Philpot his first signing\\|date\\=16 September 2019\\|accessdate\\=16 September 2019\\|publisher\\= Kentish Football}} On 30 April 2022, The Foxes announced that Philpot had signed a new contract until the end of the 2022–23 season.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|Manila\-Acapulco galleon trade route, showing onward route to Spain](/wiki/File:Manila-Accapulco_galleon_trade_route%2C_showing_onward_route_to_Spain.png "Manila-Accapulco galleon trade route, showing onward route to Spain.png")
### Discovery of the route
[thumb\|Iberian *[mare clausum](/wiki/Mare_clausum "Mare clausum")* claims during the [Age of Discovery](/wiki/Age_of_Discovery "Age of Discovery")](/wiki/File:Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg "Iberian mare clausum claims.svg")
In 1521, a Spanish expedition led by [Ferdinand Magellan](/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan "Ferdinand Magellan") sailed west across the Pacific using the westward [trade winds](/wiki/Trade_winds "Trade winds"). The expedition discovered the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands "Mariana Islands") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") and claimed them for Spain. Although Magellan was killed by natives commanded by [Lapulapu](/wiki/Lapulapu "Lapulapu") during the [battle of Mactan](/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan "Battle of Mactan") in the Philippines, one of his ships, the *Victoria*, made it back to Spain by continuing westward.
[left\|thumb\|[Acapulco](/wiki/Acapulco "Acapulco") in 1628, Mexican terminus of the Manila galleon](/wiki/File:Puerto_de_Acapulco_Boot_1628_%28cropped%29.png "Puerto de Acapulco Boot 1628 (cropped).png")
[thumb\|Northerly trade route as used by eastbound Manila galleons](/wiki/File:Andres_Urdaneta_Tornaviaje.jpg "Andres Urdaneta Tornaviaje.jpg")
To settle and trade with these islands from the Americas, an eastward maritime return path was necessary. The [Trinidad](/wiki/Trinidad_%28ship%29 "Trinidad (ship)"), which tried this a few years later, failed. In 1529, [Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Saavedra_Cer%C3%B3n "Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón") also tried sailing east from the Philippines, but could not find "[westerlies](/wiki/Westerlies "Westerlies")" across the Pacific. In 1543, [Bernardo de la Torre](/wiki/Bernardo_de_la_Torre "Bernardo de la Torre") also failed. In 1542, however, [Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo](/wiki/Juan_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Cabrillo "Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo") helped pave the way by sailing north from Mexico to explore the Pacific coast, reaching just north of the [38th parallel](/wiki/38th_parallel_north "38th parallel north") at the [Russian River](/wiki/Russian_River_%28California%29 "Russian River (California)"). The frustration of these failures is shown in a letter sent in 1552 from [Portuguese Goa](/wiki/Portuguese_Goa "Portuguese Goa") by the Spanish missionary [Francis Xavier](/wiki/Francis_Xavier "Francis Xavier") to [Simão Rodrigues](/wiki/Sim%C3%A3o_Rodrigues "Simão Rodrigues") asking that no more fleets attempt the New Spain–East Asia route, lest they be lost.{{cite journal\|last1\=Pereira Fernández\|first1\=José Manuel\|date\=2008\|title\=Andrés de Urdaneta: ''In memoriam'' en el quinto centenario de su nacimiento\|trans\-title\=Andrés de Urdaneta: ''In memoriam'' in the fifth centenary of his birthday\|url\=https://armada.defensa.gob.es/archivo/mardigitalrevistas/rhn/2008/2008102\.pdf\|journal\=Revista de Historia Naval\|language\=es\|location\=Spain\|publisher\=Ministry of Defence (Spain)\|issue\=102\|page\=16\|issn\=0212\-467\-X\|access\-date\=November 19, 2020}}
The letter is referenced as {{cite book\|last1\=Rodríguez Rodríguez\|first1\=I.\|title\=Andrés de Urdaneta, agustino. En carreta sobre el Pacífico\|last2\=Álvarez Fernández\|first2\=J.\|date\=1991\|location\=Zamora\|page\=181\|language\=es\|trans\-title\=Andrés de Urdaneta, Augustinian. By cart over the Pacific}}
The Manila–Acapulco galleon trade finally began when Spanish navigators [Alonso de Arellano](/wiki/Alonso_de_Arellano "Alonso de Arellano") and [Andrés de Urdaneta](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta "Andrés de Urdaneta") discovered the eastward return route in 1565\. Sailing as part of the expedition commanded by [Miguel López de Legazpi](/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi "Miguel López de Legazpi") to conquer the Philippines in 1564, Urdaneta was given the task of finding a return route.{{sfn\|Osborne\|2013\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=oqFtdhdbt7UC\&pg\=PA30 30–31]}} Reasoning that the [trade winds](/wiki/Trade_winds "Trade winds") of the Pacific might move in a [gyre](/wiki/Gyre "Gyre") as the Atlantic winds did, they sailed north, going all the way to the [38th parallel north](/wiki/38th_parallel_north "38th parallel north"), off the east coast of Japan, before catching the westerlies that would take them back across the Pacific. He commanded a vessel which completed the eastward voyage in 129 days; this marked the opening of the Manila galleon trade.{{sfn\|Osborne\|2013\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=oqFtdhdbt7UC\&pg\=PA31 31]}}
Reaching the [west coast of North America](/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America "History of the west coast of North America"), Urdaneta's ship, the *San Pedro*, hit the coast near [Santa Catalina Island](/wiki/Santa_Catalina_Island_%28California%29 "Santa Catalina Island (California)"), California, then followed the shoreline south to [San Blas](/wiki/San_Blas%2C_Nayarit "San Blas, Nayarit") and later to [Acapulco](/wiki/Acapulco "Acapulco"), arriving on October 8, 1565\.{{cite book\|author\=Derek Hayes\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0Z26YL407SkC\&pg\=PA152\|title\=Historical atlas of the North Pacific Ocean: maps of discovery and scientific exploration, 1500–2000\|publisher\=Douglas \& McIntyre\|year\=2001\|isbn\=9781550548655\|page\=18}} Most of his crew died on the long initial voyage, for which they had not sufficiently provisioned. Arellano, who had taken a more southerly route, had already arrived.
The English privateer [Francis Drake](/wiki/Francis_Drake "Francis Drake") also reached the California coast, in 1579\. After capturing [a Spanish ship heading for Manila](/wiki/Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_la_Concepci%C3%B3n "Nuestra Señora de la Concepción"), Drake turned north, hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco. He failed in that regard, but staked [an English claim](/wiki/New_Albion "New Albion") somewhere on the northern California coast. Although the ship's log and other records were lost, the officially accepted location is now called [Drakes Bay](/wiki/Drakes_Bay "Drakes Bay"), on [Point Reyes](/wiki/Point_Reyes "Point Reyes") south of Cape Mendocino.{{efn\|The Drakes Cove site began its review by the National Park Service (NPS) in 1994, thus starting an 18\-year study of the suggested Drake sites. The first formal nomination to mark the Nova Albion site at Drake's Cove as a National Historic Landmark was provided to NPS on January 1, 1996\. As part of its review, NPS obtained independent, confidential comments from professional historians. The NPS staff concluded that the Drake's Cove site is the "most probable"{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.nps.gov/nhl/Fall11Noms/DrakesBayES.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=September 28, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222133454/http://www.nps.gov/nhl/Fall11Noms/DrakesBayES.pdf \|archive\-date\=February 22, 2014 \|url\-status\=dead }} and "most likely"{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.nps.gov/nhl/Fall11Noms/RedactedDrakesBay.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=September 28, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222133455/http://www.nps.gov/nhl/Fall11Noms/RedactedDrakesBay.pdf \|archive\-date\=February 22, 2014 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.winepi.com/NHLDrakesBay9\-8\-11\.doc\|format\=DOC\|title\=University of California Archaeological Site Survey Record, Mrn\-230\|website\=Winepi.com\|access\-date\=February 23, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525082727/http://www.winepi.com/NHLDrakesBay9\-8\-11\.doc\|archive\-date\=May 25, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.winepi.com/NHLAppendices9\-8\-11\.doc\|format\=DOC\|title\=A Brief History of Scholarship Relating to Drake's Port of Nova Albion\|website\=Winepi.com\|access\-date\=February 24, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525082728/http://www.winepi.com/NHLAppendices9\-8\-11\.doc\|archive\-date\=May 25, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.winepi.com/NHLAppendices9\-8\-11a.doc\|format\=DOC\|title\=National Historic Landmarks Property Name: Drakes Bay Historic and Archeological District\|website\=Winepi.com\|access\-date\=February 24, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525082730/http://www.winepi.com/NHLAppendices9\-8\-11a.doc\|archive\-date\=May 25, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} Drake landing site. The National Park System Advisory Board Landmarks Committee sought public comments on the Port of Nova Albion Historic and Archaeological District Nomination{{cite web\|url\=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2011/09/08/2011\-22904/landmarks\-committee\-of\-the\-national\-park\-system\-advisory\-board\-meeting\|title\=Landmarks Committee of the National Park System Advisory Board Meeting\|date\=September 8, 2011\|website\=Federal Register\|access\-date\=February 23, 2019}} and received more than two dozen letters of support and none in opposition. At the Committee's meeting of November 9, 2011, in Washington, DC, representatives of the government of Spain, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and Congresswoman Lynn Wolsey all spoke in favor of the nomination: there was no opposition. Staff and the Drake Navigators Guild's president, \[\[Edward Von der Porten]], gave the presentation. The Nomination was strongly endorsed by committee member Dr. James M. Allan, Archaeologist, and the Committee as a whole which approved the nomination unanimously. The National Park System Advisory Board sought further public comments on the Nomination,{{Cite web \|title\=Federal Register, Volume 76 Issue 189 (Thursday, September 29, 2011\) \|url\=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR\-2011\-09\-29/html/2011\-25046\.htm \|access\-date\=February 23, 2019 \|website\=Govinfo.gov}} but no additional comments were received. At the Board's meeting on December 1, 2011, in Florida, the nomination was further reviewed: the Board approved the nomination unanimously. On October 16, 2012, Secretary of the Interior \[\[Ken Salazar]] signed the nomination and on October 17, 2012, The Drakes Bay Historic and Archaeological District was formally announced as a new National Historic Landmark.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/Interior\-Designates\-27\-New\-National\-Landmarks\|title\=Interior Designates 27 New National Landmarks\|date\=October 17, 2012\|website\=Doi.gov\|access\-date\=February 23, 2019}}}}{{cite web\|title\=The Drake Navigators Guild Press Release\|url\=http://www.winepi.com/DNG8\.htm\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017021036/http://www.winepi.com/DNG8\.htm\|archive\-date\=October 17, 2016\|access\-date\=February 21, 2013\|website\=Winepi.com}}
By the 18th century, it was understood that a less northerly track was sufficient when nearing the North American coast, and galleon navigators steered well clear of the rocky and often fogbound northern and central California coast. According to historian William Lytle Schurz, "They generally made their landfall well down the coast, somewhere between [Point Conception](/wiki/Point_Conception "Point Conception") and [Cape San Lucas](/wiki/Cabo_San_Lucas "Cabo San Lucas") ... After all, these were preeminently merchant ships, and the business of exploration lay outside their field, though chance discoveries were welcomed".Schurz 1917, p.107\-108
The first motivation for land exploration of present\-day California was to scout out possible way stations for the seaworn Manila galleons on the last leg of their journey. Early proposals came to little, but in 1769, the [Portola expedition](/wiki/Portola_expedition "Portola expedition") established ports at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California "San Diego, California") and [Monterey](/wiki/Monterey%2C_California "Monterey, California") (which became the administrative center of [Alta California](/wiki/Alta_California "Alta California")), providing safe harbors for returning Manila galleons.{{clear}}
### The Manila galleon and California
{{More citations needed section\|date\=January 2020}}
Monterey, California, was about two months and three weeks out from Manila in the 18th century, and the galleon tended to stop there 40 days before arriving in Acapulco. Galleons stopped in Monterey prior to California's Spanish settlement in 1769; however, visits became regular between 1777 and 1794 because the Crown ordered the galleon to stop in Monterey.{{Cite book \|last\=Schurz \|first\=William Lytle \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4YRDAAAAIAAJ\&q\=%20california%20monterey \|title\=The Manila Galleon \|date\=1939 \|publisher\=E. P. Dutton \|location\=New York \|language\=en}}{{clarify\|date\=March 2021}}
### Trade
[left\|thumb\|White represents the route of the Manila galleons in the Pacific and the [flota](/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet "Spanish treasure fleet") in the Atlantic. (Blue represents [Portuguese routes.)](/wiki/Portuguese_India_Armadas "Portuguese India Armadas")](/wiki/File:16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png "16th century Portuguese Spanish trade routes.png")
Trade with [Ming China](/wiki/Ming_dynasty "Ming dynasty") via Manila served as a major source of revenue for the [Spanish Empire](/wiki/Spanish_Empire "Spanish Empire") and as a fundamental source of income for Spanish colonists in the Philippine Islands. Galleons used for the trade between East and West were crafted by Filipino artisans.{{Cite web \|last\=Medillo \|first\=Robert Joseph P. \|date\=June 19, 2015 \|title\=Forgotten history? The polistas of the Galleon Trade \|url\=https://www.rappler.com/voices/ispeak/forgotten\-history\-polistas\-galleon\-trade \|website\=Rappler}} Until 1593, two or more ships would set sail annually from each port.Schurz, William Lytle (1939\). *The Manila Galleon*, p. 193\. The Manila trade became so lucrative that [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville") merchants petitioned king [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain "Philip II of Spain") to protect the monopoly of the [Casa de Contratación](/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n "Casa de Contratación") based in Seville. This led to the passing of a decree in 1593 that set a limit of two ships sailing each year from either port, with one kept in reserve in Acapulco and one in Manila. An "armada", or armed escort of galleons, was also approved. Due to official attempts to control the galleon trade, contraband and understating of ships' cargoes became widespread.{{citation\|author\=Charles C. Mann\|author\-link\=Charles C. Mann\|title\=1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=IqaMEWNvsJQC\|pages\=123–163\|year\=2011\|publisher\=Random House Digital\|isbn\=9780307596727}}
[thumb\|The [Selden Map](/wiki/Selden_Map "Selden Map"), a merchant map showing trade routes with its epicenter from [Quanzhou](/wiki/Quanzhou "Quanzhou") to [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila") and the [Spanish Philippines](/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines "Captaincy General of the Philippines"), then across the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East")](/wiki/File:Selden_map.jpg "Selden map.jpg")
The galleon trade was supplied by merchants largely from port areas of [Fujian](/wiki/Fujian "Fujian"), such as [Quanzhou](/wiki/Quanzhou "Quanzhou"), as depicted in the [Selden Map](/wiki/Selden_Map "Selden Map"), and [Yuegang](/wiki/Yuegang "Yuegang") (the old port of [Haicheng](/wiki/Haicheng%2C_Fujian "Haicheng, Fujian") in [Zhangzhou](/wiki/Zhangzhou "Zhangzhou"), [Fujian](/wiki/Fujian "Fujian")),{{citation\|last\=Brook\|first\=Timothy\|title\=The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YuMcHWWbXqMC\|pages\=205\|year\=1998\|location\=Berkeley\|publisher\=University of California Press\|isbn\=0\-520\-21091\-3\|authorlink\=Timothy Brook}}
{{citation\|author\=\[\[Charles C. Mann]]\|title\=1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=IqaMEWNvsJQC\|pages\=149–150\|year\=2011\|publisher\=Random House Digital\|isbn\=978\-0\-307\-59672\-7}}* who traveled to Manila to sell the Spaniards spices, porcelain, ivory, [lacquerware](/wiki/Chinese_lacquerware "Chinese lacquerware"), processed silk cloth and other valuable commodities. Cargoes varied from one voyage to another but often included goods from all over Asia: jade, wax, gunpowder and silk from China; amber, cotton and rugs from India; spices from Indonesia and Malaysia; and a variety of goods from Japan, the Spanish part of the so\-called [Nanban trade](/wiki/Nanban_trade "Nanban trade"), including [Japanese fans](/wiki/Japanese_fan "Japanese fan"), chests, [screens](/wiki/Byobu "Byobu"), porcelain and [lacquerware](/wiki/Japanese_lacquerware "Japanese lacquerware").
In addition, [slaves](/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America "Slavery in colonial Spanish America") of various origins, including East Africa, Portuguese India, the Muslim sultanates of Southeast Asia, and the Spanish Philippines, were transported from Manila and sold in New Spain. African slaves were categorized as *negros* or *cafres* while all slaves of Asian origin were called *chinos*. The lack of detailed records makes it difficult to estimate the total number of slaves transported or the proportions of slaves from each region.{{cite book\|author\=Tatiana Seijas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=d\-DGAwAAQBAJ\|title\=Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians\|date\=2014\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-139\-95285\-9}}
{{cite web\|last1\=Rose\|first1\=Christopher\|date\=January 13, 2016\|title\=Episode 76: The Trans\-Pacific Slave Trade\|url\=https://15minutehistory.org/2016/01/13/episode\-76\-the\-trans\-pacific\-slave\-trade/\|access\-date\=January 13, 2016\|website\=15 Minute History\|publisher\=University of Texas at Austin}}
* Galleons transported goods to be sold in the Americas, namely in [New Spain](/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain "Viceroyalty of New Spain") and [Peru](/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru "Viceroyalty of Peru"), as well as in European markets. [East Asia](/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia") trading primarily functioned on a [silver standard](/wiki/Silver_standard "Silver standard") due to Ming China's use of [silver ingots](/wiki/Sycee "Sycee") as a medium of exchange. As such, goods were mostly bought with [silver mined from New Spain](/wiki/Mexican_silver "Mexican silver") and [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD "Potosí").
The cargoes arrived in Acapulco and were transported by land across Mexico. Mule trains would carry the goods along the China Road from Acapulco first to the administrative center of Mexico City, then on to the port of [Veracruz](/wiki/Veracruz_%28city%29 "Veracruz (city)") on the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico "Gulf of Mexico"), where they were loaded onto the [Spanish treasure fleet](/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet "Spanish treasure fleet") bound for Spain. The transport of goods overland by porters, the housing of travelers and sailors at inns by innkeepers, and the stocking of long voyages with food and supplies provided by [haciendas](/wiki/Haciendas "Haciendas") before departing Acapulco helped to stimulate the economy of New Spain.{{Cite journal\|last\=Seijas\|first\=Tatiana\|date\=2016\|title\=Inns, mules, and hardtack for the voyage: the local economy of the Manila Galleon in Mexico\|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/10609164\.2016\.1180787\|journal\=Colonial Latin American Review\|volume\=25\|issue\=1\|pages\=56–76\|doi\=10\.1080/10609164\.2016\.1180787\|s2cid\=163214741\|issn\=1060\-9164}}
The trade of goods and exchanges of people were not limited to Mexico and the Philippines, since Guatemala, Panama, Ecuador, and Peru also served as supplementary streams to the main one between Mexico and Philippines.{{Cite journal \|last\=Schottenhammer \|first\=Angela \|date\=2019 \|title\=Connecting China with the Pacific World \|url\=https://www.academia.edu/44625493 \|journal\=Orientierungen: Zeitschrift zur Kultur Asiens \|volume\=31 \|pages\=144–145 \|via\=Academia.edu}}
[right\|thumb\|200x200px\|Sample of goods brought via Manila galleon in [Acapulco](/wiki/Acapulco "Acapulco")](/wiki/File:GoodsManilaGalleonSanDiego.JPG "GoodsManilaGalleonSanDiego.JPG")
Around 80% of the goods shipped back from Acapulco to Manila were from the Americas – silver, [cochineal](/wiki/Cochineal "Cochineal"), seeds, sweet potato, corn, tomato, tobacco, chickpeas, chocolate and cocoa, watermelon seeds, vines, and fig trees. The remaining 20% were goods transshipped from Europe and North Africa such as wine and olive oil, and metal goods such as weapons, knobs and spurs.{{cite journal \|last1\=Mejia \|first1\=Javier \|title\=The Economics of the Manila Galleon \|url\=https://nyuad.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyuad/academics/divisions/social\-science/working\-papers/2019/0023\.pdf \|journal\=Working Paper \|publisher\=New York University, Abu Dhabi \|volume\=0023}}
This Pacific route was the alternative to the trip west across the Indian Ocean, and around the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope "Cape of Good Hope"), which was reserved to Portugal according to the [Treaty of Tordesillas](/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas "Treaty of Tordesillas"). It also avoided stopping over at ports controlled by competing powers such as Portugal and the Netherlands. From the early days of exploration, the Spanish knew that the American continent was much narrower across the [Panamanian isthmus](/wiki/Geography_of_Panama "Geography of Panama") than across Mexico. They tried to establish a regular land crossing there, but the thick jungle and tropical diseases such as [yellow fever](/wiki/Yellow_fever "Yellow fever") and [malaria](/wiki/Malaria "Malaria") made it impractical.{{cn\|date\=February 2024}}
It took at least four months to sail across the Pacific Ocean from Manila to Acapulco, and the galleons were the main link between the Philippines and the viceregal capital at [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City "Mexico City") and thence to Spain itself. Many of the so\-called "Kastilas" or Spaniards in the Philippines were actually of Mexican descent, and the Hispanic culture of the Philippines is influenced by Spanish and Mexican culture in particular.Guevarra, Rudy P. (2007\). *Mexipino: A History of Multiethnic Identity and the Formation of the Mexican and Filipino Communities of San Diego, 1900–1965*. University of California, Santa Barbara. {{ISBN\|0549122869}} Soldiers and settlers recruited from Mexico and Peru also gathered in Acapulco before they were sent to settle at the [presidios](/wiki/Presidios "Presidios") of the Philippines.Mehl, Eva Maria (2016\). *Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World*, p. 235\. Cambridge University Press. Even after the galleon era, and at the time when Mexico finally gained its independence, the two nations still continued to trade, except for a brief lull during the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Spanish–American War").
In Manila, the safety of ocean crossings was commended to the virgin [Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga](/wiki/Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_la_Soledad_de_Porta_Vaga "Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga") in masses held by the Archbishop of Manila. If the expedition was successful the voyagers would go to La Ermita (the church) to pay homage, and offer gold and other precious gems or jewelries from Hispanic countries to the image of the virgin. So it came to be that the virgin was named the "Queen of the Galleons".
Economic shocks due to the arrival of Spanish\-American silver in China were among the factors that led to the [end of the Ming dynasty](/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing "Transition from Ming to Qing").
### End of the galleons
In 1740, as part of the administrative changes of the [Bourbon Reforms](/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms "Bourbon Reforms"), the Spanish crown began allowing the use of registered ships or *navíos de registro* in the Pacific. These ships traveled solo, outside the convoy system of the galleons. While these solo voyages would not immediately replace the galleon system, they were more efficient and better able to avoid being captured by the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") of [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain").{{Cite book \|last1\=Burkholder \|first1\=Mark A. \|title\=Colonial Latin America \|last2\=Johnson \|first2\=Lyman L. \|date\=2019 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-064240\-2 \|edition\=10th \|location\=New York \|oclc\=1015274908}}
In 1813, the [Cortes of Cádiz](/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz "Cortes of Cádiz") decreed the suppression of the route and the following year, with the end of the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War"), [Ferdinand VII of Spain](/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain "Ferdinand VII of Spain") ratified the dissolution. The last ship to reach Manila was the *San Fernando* or *Magallanes*, which arrived empty, as its cargo had been requisitioned in Mexico.
The Manila–Acapulco galleon trade ended in 1815, a few years before Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821\. After this, the Spanish Crown took direct control of the Philippines, and governed directly from Madrid. Sea transport became easier in the mid\-19th century after the invention of steam powered ships and the opening of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal"), which reduced the travel time from Spain to the Philippines to 40 days.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Manila\\-Acapulco galleon trade route, showing onward route to Spain](/wiki/File:Manila-Accapulco_galleon_trade_route%2C_showing_onward_route_to_Spain.png \"Manila-Accapulco galleon trade route, showing onward route to Spain.png\")",
"### Discovery of the route",
"[thumb\\|Iberian *[mare clausum](/wiki/Mare_clausum \"Mare clausum\")* claims during the [Age of Discovery](/wiki/Age_of_Discovery \"Age of Discovery\")](/wiki/File:Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg \"Iberian mare clausum claims.svg\")",
"In 1521, a Spanish expedition led by [Ferdinand Magellan](/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan \"Ferdinand Magellan\") sailed west across the Pacific using the westward [trade winds](/wiki/Trade_winds \"Trade winds\"). The expedition discovered the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") and claimed them for Spain. Although Magellan was killed by natives commanded by [Lapulapu](/wiki/Lapulapu \"Lapulapu\") during the [battle of Mactan](/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan \"Battle of Mactan\") in the Philippines, one of his ships, the *Victoria*, made it back to Spain by continuing westward.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|[Acapulco](/wiki/Acapulco \"Acapulco\") in 1628, Mexican terminus of the Manila galleon](/wiki/File:Puerto_de_Acapulco_Boot_1628_%28cropped%29.png \"Puerto de Acapulco Boot 1628 (cropped).png\")\n[thumb\\|Northerly trade route as used by eastbound Manila galleons](/wiki/File:Andres_Urdaneta_Tornaviaje.jpg \"Andres Urdaneta Tornaviaje.jpg\")",
"To settle and trade with these islands from the Americas, an eastward maritime return path was necessary. The [Trinidad](/wiki/Trinidad_%28ship%29 \"Trinidad (ship)\"), which tried this a few years later, failed. In 1529, [Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Saavedra_Cer%C3%B3n \"Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón\") also tried sailing east from the Philippines, but could not find \"[westerlies](/wiki/Westerlies \"Westerlies\")\" across the Pacific. In 1543, [Bernardo de la Torre](/wiki/Bernardo_de_la_Torre \"Bernardo de la Torre\") also failed. In 1542, however, [Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo](/wiki/Juan_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Cabrillo \"Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo\") helped pave the way by sailing north from Mexico to explore the Pacific coast, reaching just north of the [38th parallel](/wiki/38th_parallel_north \"38th parallel north\") at the [Russian River](/wiki/Russian_River_%28California%29 \"Russian River (California)\"). The frustration of these failures is shown in a letter sent in 1552 from [Portuguese Goa](/wiki/Portuguese_Goa \"Portuguese Goa\") by the Spanish missionary [Francis Xavier](/wiki/Francis_Xavier \"Francis Xavier\") to [Simão Rodrigues](/wiki/Sim%C3%A3o_Rodrigues \"Simão Rodrigues\") asking that no more fleets attempt the New Spain–East Asia route, lest they be lost.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Pereira Fernández\\|first1\\=José Manuel\\|date\\=2008\\|title\\=Andrés de Urdaneta: ''In memoriam'' en el quinto centenario de su nacimiento\\|trans\\-title\\=Andrés de Urdaneta: ''In memoriam'' in the fifth centenary of his birthday\\|url\\=https://armada.defensa.gob.es/archivo/mardigitalrevistas/rhn/2008/2008102\\.pdf\\|journal\\=Revista de Historia Naval\\|language\\=es\\|location\\=Spain\\|publisher\\=Ministry of Defence (Spain)\\|issue\\=102\\|page\\=16\\|issn\\=0212\\-467\\-X\\|access\\-date\\=November 19, 2020}}\nThe letter is referenced as {{cite book\\|last1\\=Rodríguez Rodríguez\\|first1\\=I.\\|title\\=Andrés de Urdaneta, agustino. En carreta sobre el Pacífico\\|last2\\=Álvarez Fernández\\|first2\\=J.\\|date\\=1991\\|location\\=Zamora\\|page\\=181\\|language\\=es\\|trans\\-title\\=Andrés de Urdaneta, Augustinian. By cart over the Pacific}}",
"The Manila–Acapulco galleon trade finally began when Spanish navigators [Alonso de Arellano](/wiki/Alonso_de_Arellano \"Alonso de Arellano\") and [Andrés de Urdaneta](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta \"Andrés de Urdaneta\") discovered the eastward return route in 1565\\. Sailing as part of the expedition commanded by [Miguel López de Legazpi](/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi \"Miguel López de Legazpi\") to conquer the Philippines in 1564, Urdaneta was given the task of finding a return route.{{sfn\\|Osborne\\|2013\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oqFtdhdbt7UC\\&pg\\=PA30 30–31]}} Reasoning that the [trade winds](/wiki/Trade_winds \"Trade winds\") of the Pacific might move in a [gyre](/wiki/Gyre \"Gyre\") as the Atlantic winds did, they sailed north, going all the way to the [38th parallel north](/wiki/38th_parallel_north \"38th parallel north\"), off the east coast of Japan, before catching the westerlies that would take them back across the Pacific. He commanded a vessel which completed the eastward voyage in 129 days; this marked the opening of the Manila galleon trade.{{sfn\\|Osborne\\|2013\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oqFtdhdbt7UC\\&pg\\=PA31 31]}}",
"Reaching the [west coast of North America](/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America \"History of the west coast of North America\"), Urdaneta's ship, the *San Pedro*, hit the coast near [Santa Catalina Island](/wiki/Santa_Catalina_Island_%28California%29 \"Santa Catalina Island (California)\"), California, then followed the shoreline south to [San Blas](/wiki/San_Blas%2C_Nayarit \"San Blas, Nayarit\") and later to [Acapulco](/wiki/Acapulco \"Acapulco\"), arriving on October 8, 1565\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=Derek Hayes\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0Z26YL407SkC\\&pg\\=PA152\\|title\\=Historical atlas of the North Pacific Ocean: maps of discovery and scientific exploration, 1500–2000\\|publisher\\=Douglas \\& McIntyre\\|year\\=2001\\|isbn\\=9781550548655\\|page\\=18}} Most of his crew died on the long initial voyage, for which they had not sufficiently provisioned. Arellano, who had taken a more southerly route, had already arrived.",
"The English privateer [Francis Drake](/wiki/Francis_Drake \"Francis Drake\") also reached the California coast, in 1579\\. After capturing [a Spanish ship heading for Manila](/wiki/Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_la_Concepci%C3%B3n \"Nuestra Señora de la Concepción\"), Drake turned north, hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco. He failed in that regard, but staked [an English claim](/wiki/New_Albion \"New Albion\") somewhere on the northern California coast. Although the ship's log and other records were lost, the officially accepted location is now called [Drakes Bay](/wiki/Drakes_Bay \"Drakes Bay\"), on [Point Reyes](/wiki/Point_Reyes \"Point Reyes\") south of Cape Mendocino.{{efn\\|The Drakes Cove site began its review by the National Park Service (NPS) in 1994, thus starting an 18\\-year study of the suggested Drake sites. The first formal nomination to mark the Nova Albion site at Drake's Cove as a National Historic Landmark was provided to NPS on January 1, 1996\\. As part of its review, NPS obtained independent, confidential comments from professional historians. The NPS staff concluded that the Drake's Cove site is the \"most probable\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nps.gov/nhl/Fall11Noms/DrakesBayES.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222133454/http://www.nps.gov/nhl/Fall11Noms/DrakesBayES.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=February 22, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and \"most likely\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nps.gov/nhl/Fall11Noms/RedactedDrakesBay.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222133455/http://www.nps.gov/nhl/Fall11Noms/RedactedDrakesBay.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=February 22, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.winepi.com/NHLDrakesBay9\\-8\\-11\\.doc\\|format\\=DOC\\|title\\=University of California Archaeological Site Survey Record, Mrn\\-230\\|website\\=Winepi.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 23, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525082727/http://www.winepi.com/NHLDrakesBay9\\-8\\-11\\.doc\\|archive\\-date\\=May 25, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.winepi.com/NHLAppendices9\\-8\\-11\\.doc\\|format\\=DOC\\|title\\=A Brief History of Scholarship Relating to Drake's Port of Nova Albion\\|website\\=Winepi.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 24, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525082728/http://www.winepi.com/NHLAppendices9\\-8\\-11\\.doc\\|archive\\-date\\=May 25, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.winepi.com/NHLAppendices9\\-8\\-11a.doc\\|format\\=DOC\\|title\\=National Historic Landmarks Property Name: Drakes Bay Historic and Archeological District\\|website\\=Winepi.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 24, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525082730/http://www.winepi.com/NHLAppendices9\\-8\\-11a.doc\\|archive\\-date\\=May 25, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Drake landing site. The National Park System Advisory Board Landmarks Committee sought public comments on the Port of Nova Albion Historic and Archaeological District Nomination{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2011/09/08/2011\\-22904/landmarks\\-committee\\-of\\-the\\-national\\-park\\-system\\-advisory\\-board\\-meeting\\|title\\=Landmarks Committee of the National Park System Advisory Board Meeting\\|date\\=September 8, 2011\\|website\\=Federal Register\\|access\\-date\\=February 23, 2019}} and received more than two dozen letters of support and none in opposition. At the Committee's meeting of November 9, 2011, in Washington, DC, representatives of the government of Spain, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and Congresswoman Lynn Wolsey all spoke in favor of the nomination: there was no opposition. Staff and the Drake Navigators Guild's president, \\[\\[Edward Von der Porten]], gave the presentation. The Nomination was strongly endorsed by committee member Dr. James M. Allan, Archaeologist, and the Committee as a whole which approved the nomination unanimously. The National Park System Advisory Board sought further public comments on the Nomination,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Federal Register, Volume 76 Issue 189 (Thursday, September 29, 2011\\) \\|url\\=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR\\-2011\\-09\\-29/html/2011\\-25046\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=February 23, 2019 \\|website\\=Govinfo.gov}} but no additional comments were received. At the Board's meeting on December 1, 2011, in Florida, the nomination was further reviewed: the Board approved the nomination unanimously. On October 16, 2012, Secretary of the Interior \\[\\[Ken Salazar]] signed the nomination and on October 17, 2012, The Drakes Bay Historic and Archaeological District was formally announced as a new National Historic Landmark.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/Interior\\-Designates\\-27\\-New\\-National\\-Landmarks\\|title\\=Interior Designates 27 New National Landmarks\\|date\\=October 17, 2012\\|website\\=Doi.gov\\|access\\-date\\=February 23, 2019}}}}{{cite web\\|title\\=The Drake Navigators Guild Press Release\\|url\\=http://www.winepi.com/DNG8\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017021036/http://www.winepi.com/DNG8\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=October 17, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=February 21, 2013\\|website\\=Winepi.com}}",
"By the 18th century, it was understood that a less northerly track was sufficient when nearing the North American coast, and galleon navigators steered well clear of the rocky and often fogbound northern and central California coast. According to historian William Lytle Schurz, \"They generally made their landfall well down the coast, somewhere between [Point Conception](/wiki/Point_Conception \"Point Conception\") and [Cape San Lucas](/wiki/Cabo_San_Lucas \"Cabo San Lucas\") ... After all, these were preeminently merchant ships, and the business of exploration lay outside their field, though chance discoveries were welcomed\".Schurz 1917, p.107\\-108",
"The first motivation for land exploration of present\\-day California was to scout out possible way stations for the seaworn Manila galleons on the last leg of their journey. Early proposals came to little, but in 1769, the [Portola expedition](/wiki/Portola_expedition \"Portola expedition\") established ports at [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California \"San Diego, California\") and [Monterey](/wiki/Monterey%2C_California \"Monterey, California\") (which became the administrative center of [Alta California](/wiki/Alta_California \"Alta California\")), providing safe harbors for returning Manila galleons.{{clear}}",
"### The Manila galleon and California",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=January 2020}}\nMonterey, California, was about two months and three weeks out from Manila in the 18th century, and the galleon tended to stop there 40 days before arriving in Acapulco. Galleons stopped in Monterey prior to California's Spanish settlement in 1769; however, visits became regular between 1777 and 1794 because the Crown ordered the galleon to stop in Monterey.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Schurz \\|first\\=William Lytle \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4YRDAAAAIAAJ\\&q\\=%20california%20monterey \\|title\\=The Manila Galleon \\|date\\=1939 \\|publisher\\=E. P. Dutton \\|location\\=New York \\|language\\=en}}{{clarify\\|date\\=March 2021}}",
"### Trade",
"[left\\|thumb\\|White represents the route of the Manila galleons in the Pacific and the [flota](/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet \"Spanish treasure fleet\") in the Atlantic. (Blue represents [Portuguese routes.)](/wiki/Portuguese_India_Armadas \"Portuguese India Armadas\")](/wiki/File:16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png \"16th century Portuguese Spanish trade routes.png\")",
"Trade with [Ming China](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\") via Manila served as a major source of revenue for the [Spanish Empire](/wiki/Spanish_Empire \"Spanish Empire\") and as a fundamental source of income for Spanish colonists in the Philippine Islands. Galleons used for the trade between East and West were crafted by Filipino artisans.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Medillo \\|first\\=Robert Joseph P. \\|date\\=June 19, 2015 \\|title\\=Forgotten history? The polistas of the Galleon Trade \\|url\\=https://www.rappler.com/voices/ispeak/forgotten\\-history\\-polistas\\-galleon\\-trade \\|website\\=Rappler}} Until 1593, two or more ships would set sail annually from each port.Schurz, William Lytle (1939\\). *The Manila Galleon*, p. 193\\. The Manila trade became so lucrative that [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\") merchants petitioned king [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\") to protect the monopoly of the [Casa de Contratación](/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n \"Casa de Contratación\") based in Seville. This led to the passing of a decree in 1593 that set a limit of two ships sailing each year from either port, with one kept in reserve in Acapulco and one in Manila. An \"armada\", or armed escort of galleons, was also approved. Due to official attempts to control the galleon trade, contraband and understating of ships' cargoes became widespread.{{citation\\|author\\=Charles C. Mann\\|author\\-link\\=Charles C. Mann\\|title\\=1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=IqaMEWNvsJQC\\|pages\\=123–163\\|year\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Random House Digital\\|isbn\\=9780307596727}}",
"[thumb\\|The [Selden Map](/wiki/Selden_Map \"Selden Map\"), a merchant map showing trade routes with its epicenter from [Quanzhou](/wiki/Quanzhou \"Quanzhou\") to [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\") and the [Spanish Philippines](/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines \"Captaincy General of the Philippines\"), then across the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\")](/wiki/File:Selden_map.jpg \"Selden map.jpg\")\nThe galleon trade was supplied by merchants largely from port areas of [Fujian](/wiki/Fujian \"Fujian\"), such as [Quanzhou](/wiki/Quanzhou \"Quanzhou\"), as depicted in the [Selden Map](/wiki/Selden_Map \"Selden Map\"), and [Yuegang](/wiki/Yuegang \"Yuegang\") (the old port of [Haicheng](/wiki/Haicheng%2C_Fujian \"Haicheng, Fujian\") in [Zhangzhou](/wiki/Zhangzhou \"Zhangzhou\"), [Fujian](/wiki/Fujian \"Fujian\")),{{citation\\|last\\=Brook\\|first\\=Timothy\\|title\\=The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YuMcHWWbXqMC\\|pages\\=205\\|year\\=1998\\|location\\=Berkeley\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-520\\-21091\\-3\\|authorlink\\=Timothy Brook}}\n{{citation\\|author\\=\\[\\[Charles C. Mann]]\\|title\\=1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=IqaMEWNvsJQC\\|pages\\=149–150\\|year\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Random House Digital\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-307\\-59672\\-7}}* who traveled to Manila to sell the Spaniards spices, porcelain, ivory, [lacquerware](/wiki/Chinese_lacquerware \"Chinese lacquerware\"), processed silk cloth and other valuable commodities. Cargoes varied from one voyage to another but often included goods from all over Asia: jade, wax, gunpowder and silk from China; amber, cotton and rugs from India; spices from Indonesia and Malaysia; and a variety of goods from Japan, the Spanish part of the so\\-called [Nanban trade](/wiki/Nanban_trade \"Nanban trade\"), including [Japanese fans](/wiki/Japanese_fan \"Japanese fan\"), chests, [screens](/wiki/Byobu \"Byobu\"), porcelain and [lacquerware](/wiki/Japanese_lacquerware \"Japanese lacquerware\").",
"In addition, [slaves](/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America \"Slavery in colonial Spanish America\") of various origins, including East Africa, Portuguese India, the Muslim sultanates of Southeast Asia, and the Spanish Philippines, were transported from Manila and sold in New Spain. African slaves were categorized as *negros* or *cafres* while all slaves of Asian origin were called *chinos*. The lack of detailed records makes it difficult to estimate the total number of slaves transported or the proportions of slaves from each region.{{cite book\\|author\\=Tatiana Seijas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=d\\-DGAwAAQBAJ\\|title\\=Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians\\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-139\\-95285\\-9}}\n{{cite web\\|last1\\=Rose\\|first1\\=Christopher\\|date\\=January 13, 2016\\|title\\=Episode 76: The Trans\\-Pacific Slave Trade\\|url\\=https://15minutehistory.org/2016/01/13/episode\\-76\\-the\\-trans\\-pacific\\-slave\\-trade/\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2016\\|website\\=15 Minute History\\|publisher\\=University of Texas at Austin}}",
"* Galleons transported goods to be sold in the Americas, namely in [New Spain](/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain \"Viceroyalty of New Spain\") and [Peru](/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru \"Viceroyalty of Peru\"), as well as in European markets. [East Asia](/wiki/East_Asia \"East Asia\") trading primarily functioned on a [silver standard](/wiki/Silver_standard \"Silver standard\") due to Ming China's use of [silver ingots](/wiki/Sycee \"Sycee\") as a medium of exchange. As such, goods were mostly bought with [silver mined from New Spain](/wiki/Mexican_silver \"Mexican silver\") and [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD \"Potosí\").",
"The cargoes arrived in Acapulco and were transported by land across Mexico. Mule trains would carry the goods along the China Road from Acapulco first to the administrative center of Mexico City, then on to the port of [Veracruz](/wiki/Veracruz_%28city%29 \"Veracruz (city)\") on the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico \"Gulf of Mexico\"), where they were loaded onto the [Spanish treasure fleet](/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet \"Spanish treasure fleet\") bound for Spain. The transport of goods overland by porters, the housing of travelers and sailors at inns by innkeepers, and the stocking of long voyages with food and supplies provided by [haciendas](/wiki/Haciendas \"Haciendas\") before departing Acapulco helped to stimulate the economy of New Spain.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Seijas\\|first\\=Tatiana\\|date\\=2016\\|title\\=Inns, mules, and hardtack for the voyage: the local economy of the Manila Galleon in Mexico\\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/10609164\\.2016\\.1180787\\|journal\\=Colonial Latin American Review\\|volume\\=25\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=56–76\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/10609164\\.2016\\.1180787\\|s2cid\\=163214741\\|issn\\=1060\\-9164}}",
"The trade of goods and exchanges of people were not limited to Mexico and the Philippines, since Guatemala, Panama, Ecuador, and Peru also served as supplementary streams to the main one between Mexico and Philippines.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Schottenhammer \\|first\\=Angela \\|date\\=2019 \\|title\\=Connecting China with the Pacific World \\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/44625493 \\|journal\\=Orientierungen: Zeitschrift zur Kultur Asiens \\|volume\\=31 \\|pages\\=144–145 \\|via\\=Academia.edu}}",
"[right\\|thumb\\|200x200px\\|Sample of goods brought via Manila galleon in [Acapulco](/wiki/Acapulco \"Acapulco\")](/wiki/File:GoodsManilaGalleonSanDiego.JPG \"GoodsManilaGalleonSanDiego.JPG\")\nAround 80% of the goods shipped back from Acapulco to Manila were from the Americas – silver, [cochineal](/wiki/Cochineal \"Cochineal\"), seeds, sweet potato, corn, tomato, tobacco, chickpeas, chocolate and cocoa, watermelon seeds, vines, and fig trees. The remaining 20% were goods transshipped from Europe and North Africa such as wine and olive oil, and metal goods such as weapons, knobs and spurs.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Mejia \\|first1\\=Javier \\|title\\=The Economics of the Manila Galleon \\|url\\=https://nyuad.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyuad/academics/divisions/social\\-science/working\\-papers/2019/0023\\.pdf \\|journal\\=Working Paper \\|publisher\\=New York University, Abu Dhabi \\|volume\\=0023}}",
"This Pacific route was the alternative to the trip west across the Indian Ocean, and around the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope \"Cape of Good Hope\"), which was reserved to Portugal according to the [Treaty of Tordesillas](/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas \"Treaty of Tordesillas\"). It also avoided stopping over at ports controlled by competing powers such as Portugal and the Netherlands. From the early days of exploration, the Spanish knew that the American continent was much narrower across the [Panamanian isthmus](/wiki/Geography_of_Panama \"Geography of Panama\") than across Mexico. They tried to establish a regular land crossing there, but the thick jungle and tropical diseases such as [yellow fever](/wiki/Yellow_fever \"Yellow fever\") and [malaria](/wiki/Malaria \"Malaria\") made it impractical.{{cn\\|date\\=February 2024}}",
"It took at least four months to sail across the Pacific Ocean from Manila to Acapulco, and the galleons were the main link between the Philippines and the viceregal capital at [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City \"Mexico City\") and thence to Spain itself. Many of the so\\-called \"Kastilas\" or Spaniards in the Philippines were actually of Mexican descent, and the Hispanic culture of the Philippines is influenced by Spanish and Mexican culture in particular.Guevarra, Rudy P. (2007\\). *Mexipino: A History of Multiethnic Identity and the Formation of the Mexican and Filipino Communities of San Diego, 1900–1965*. University of California, Santa Barbara. {{ISBN\\|0549122869}} Soldiers and settlers recruited from Mexico and Peru also gathered in Acapulco before they were sent to settle at the [presidios](/wiki/Presidios \"Presidios\") of the Philippines.Mehl, Eva Maria (2016\\). *Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World*, p. 235\\. Cambridge University Press. Even after the galleon era, and at the time when Mexico finally gained its independence, the two nations still continued to trade, except for a brief lull during the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\").",
"In Manila, the safety of ocean crossings was commended to the virgin [Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga](/wiki/Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_la_Soledad_de_Porta_Vaga \"Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga\") in masses held by the Archbishop of Manila. If the expedition was successful the voyagers would go to La Ermita (the church) to pay homage, and offer gold and other precious gems or jewelries from Hispanic countries to the image of the virgin. So it came to be that the virgin was named the \"Queen of the Galleons\".",
"Economic shocks due to the arrival of Spanish\\-American silver in China were among the factors that led to the [end of the Ming dynasty](/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing \"Transition from Ming to Qing\").",
"### End of the galleons",
"In 1740, as part of the administrative changes of the [Bourbon Reforms](/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms \"Bourbon Reforms\"), the Spanish crown began allowing the use of registered ships or *navíos de registro* in the Pacific. These ships traveled solo, outside the convoy system of the galleons. While these solo voyages would not immediately replace the galleon system, they were more efficient and better able to avoid being captured by the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") of [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\").{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Burkholder \\|first1\\=Mark A. \\|title\\=Colonial Latin America \\|last2\\=Johnson \\|first2\\=Lyman L. \\|date\\=2019 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-064240\\-2 \\|edition\\=10th \\|location\\=New York \\|oclc\\=1015274908}}",
"In 1813, the [Cortes of Cádiz](/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz \"Cortes of Cádiz\") decreed the suppression of the route and the following year, with the end of the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\"), [Ferdinand VII of Spain](/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain \"Ferdinand VII of Spain\") ratified the dissolution. The last ship to reach Manila was the *San Fernando* or *Magallanes*, which arrived empty, as its cargo had been requisitioned in Mexico.",
"The Manila–Acapulco galleon trade ended in 1815, a few years before Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821\\. After this, the Spanish Crown took direct control of the Philippines, and governed directly from Madrid. Sea transport became easier in the mid\\-19th century after the invention of steam powered ships and the opening of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\"), which reduced the travel time from Spain to the Philippines to 40 days.",
""
] |
Plot
----
At an unnamed regional airport on [Leap Day](/wiki/February_29 "February 29"), ex\-lovers Wilhelmina "Willa" Davis and William "Bill" Davis run into each other and make small talk during their layovers.
Willa and Bill are about to get on their respective flights; Willa is on her way to Boston, and Bill is on his way to Austin. However, a storm, later identified as a bomb cyclone, causes flights at the airport to be delayed, leaving Willa and Bill to reconnect. Bill is married to his wife Beth\-Anne, and together they have a 15\-year\-old daughter, Rose, but Bill says that he and Beth\-Anne are “going through a thing.” Rose also wishes to be a dancer, which worries Bill. Meanwhile, Willa plans to visit her friend Ginny, who is splitting up with her husband.
While Willa and Bill reminisce about their past relationship, it is revealed that Willa suffered a miscarriage while she was with Bill. After Bill left, Willa had a little girl with a man who left as soon as he found out she was pregnant. Willa later gave her daughter up for adoption; she was able to find the perfect parents, but Willa does not know where her daughter is now.
Bill mentions that he saw Willa a year prior while she was changing planes in Dallas, but Bill did not say anything to her, stating that she looked lost. Bill obtains a hotel voucher but is unable to reserve a room. It is announced that Willa's flight to Boston is now boarding, but she ends up giving up her seat for a family. Willa tries to give Bill her ticket after upgrading to first class so he will not miss Rose's recital, as both Bill and Willa are “W. Davis”. Bill refuses. Willa mentions that Beth\-Anne called earlier, while Bill was grabbing coffee, to say that Rose does not want to stay with him but with Beth\-Anne instead for a few weeks. Bill then takes the ticket only for all flights to be suspended suddenly.
Rose calls Bill, and Bill encourages her to try her best at dancing; earlier, Bill told Willa that he had told Rose that she would not make it as a professional dancer, making her sad. Willa tells Bill that she is actually going to Boston to meet her daughter; Maggie, who just turned 20, called Willa and told her that she would like to meet. Earlier, Willa, using Bill's phone, texted Maggie, saying that she was not going to come. Maggie then replied, telling Willa to just try. Initially, this was seen as Willa texting Ginny.
The next day, all outbound flights are then announced to be departing shortly. Willa gifts Bill with her rainstick, and Bill gives Willa an old card, saying that he will write his number on the back. They then exchange a kiss before leaving to board their flights. Willa turns Bill's card over to discover that he only wrote "just try." Willa and Bill exchange final gestures through the windows of their planes, which are parked next to each other. Bill tries to sign his phone number to Willa, only for their flights to depart as the contrails from the planes form a heart.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"At an unnamed regional airport on [Leap Day](/wiki/February_29 \"February 29\"), ex\\-lovers Wilhelmina \"Willa\" Davis and William \"Bill\" Davis run into each other and make small talk during their layovers.",
"Willa and Bill are about to get on their respective flights; Willa is on her way to Boston, and Bill is on his way to Austin. However, a storm, later identified as a bomb cyclone, causes flights at the airport to be delayed, leaving Willa and Bill to reconnect. Bill is married to his wife Beth\\-Anne, and together they have a 15\\-year\\-old daughter, Rose, but Bill says that he and Beth\\-Anne are “going through a thing.” Rose also wishes to be a dancer, which worries Bill. Meanwhile, Willa plans to visit her friend Ginny, who is splitting up with her husband.",
"While Willa and Bill reminisce about their past relationship, it is revealed that Willa suffered a miscarriage while she was with Bill. After Bill left, Willa had a little girl with a man who left as soon as he found out she was pregnant. Willa later gave her daughter up for adoption; she was able to find the perfect parents, but Willa does not know where her daughter is now.",
"Bill mentions that he saw Willa a year prior while she was changing planes in Dallas, but Bill did not say anything to her, stating that she looked lost. Bill obtains a hotel voucher but is unable to reserve a room. It is announced that Willa's flight to Boston is now boarding, but she ends up giving up her seat for a family. Willa tries to give Bill her ticket after upgrading to first class so he will not miss Rose's recital, as both Bill and Willa are “W. Davis”. Bill refuses. Willa mentions that Beth\\-Anne called earlier, while Bill was grabbing coffee, to say that Rose does not want to stay with him but with Beth\\-Anne instead for a few weeks. Bill then takes the ticket only for all flights to be suspended suddenly.",
"Rose calls Bill, and Bill encourages her to try her best at dancing; earlier, Bill told Willa that he had told Rose that she would not make it as a professional dancer, making her sad. Willa tells Bill that she is actually going to Boston to meet her daughter; Maggie, who just turned 20, called Willa and told her that she would like to meet. Earlier, Willa, using Bill's phone, texted Maggie, saying that she was not going to come. Maggie then replied, telling Willa to just try. Initially, this was seen as Willa texting Ginny.",
"The next day, all outbound flights are then announced to be departing shortly. Willa gifts Bill with her rainstick, and Bill gives Willa an old card, saying that he will write his number on the back. They then exchange a kiss before leaving to board their flights. Willa turns Bill's card over to discover that he only wrote \"just try.\" Willa and Bill exchange final gestures through the windows of their planes, which are parked next to each other. Bill tries to sign his phone number to Willa, only for their flights to depart as the contrails from the planes form a heart.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### NBA G League
After going undrafted in the [2020 NBA draft](/wiki/2020_NBA_draft "2020 NBA draft"), Tyree signed with the [Miami Heat](/wiki/Miami_Heat "Miami Heat") on November 25, 2020\.{{cite web \|title\=Breein Tyree Signs With Heat \|url\=https://www.nba.com/heat/news/breein\-tyree\-signs\-with\-heat\-112520 \|website\=NBA.com \|access\-date\=November 27, 2020 \|date\=November 25, 2020}} On December 16, 2020, Tyree was waived by the Heat.{{cite web \|title\=Heat waive pair, move within one player of NBA regular\-season roster limit \|url\=https://www.sun\-sentinel.com/sports/miami\-heat/fl\-sp\-miami\-heat\-notebook\-wednesday\-20201216\-mu3kuqyisjbulo73iq4oljtrz4\-story.html \|website\=sun\-sentinel.com \|access\-date\=December 16, 2020 \|date\=December 16, 2020}} On December 19, he was signed and immediately waived by the [Toronto Raptors](/wiki/Toronto_Raptors "Toronto Raptors") for the purpose of joining their G\-League team, [Raptors 905](/wiki/Raptors_905 "Raptors 905"), as an affiliate player.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.raptorshq.com/2020/12/20/22191448/raptors\-905\-report\-add\-affliliate\-players\-dewan\-hernandez\|title\=Raptors 905 look to add affiliate players, including Dewan Hernandez\|date\=December 20, 2020\|first\=JD\|last\=Quirante\|work\=Raptors HQ}} On March 1, 2021, Tyree's contract with Raptors 905 ended. He finished his rookie season as a pro appearing in 9 games and averaging 9\.6 points, 3\.1 assists and 1\.1 rebounds a game.
Tyree re\-signed by the Raptors on October 16, 2021, and waived to join the [Raptors 905](/wiki/Raptors_905 "Raptors 905").{{Cite web\|last\=Gauruder\|first\=Dana\|title\=Raptors To Sign, Waive Ashton Hagans, Breein Tyree\|url\=https://www.hoopsrumors.com/2021/10/raptors\-to\-sign\-waive\-ashton\-hagans\-breein\-tyree.html\|access\-date\=October 21, 2021\|website\=Hoops Rumors\|language\=en\-US\|date\=October 16, 2021}} On January 23, 2022, he was suspended three games by the G League.{{cite news \|title\=Breein Tyree: Suspended by G League \|url\=https://www.cbssports.com/fantasy/basketball/news/breein\-tyree\-suspended\-by\-g\-league/ \|access\-date\=February 10, 2022 \|work\=\[\[CBS Sports]] \|date\=January 23, 2022}} Tyree was waived on February 7\.{{cite web\|url\=https://gleague.nba.com/transactions/\|website\=gleague.nba.com\|title\=2021\-22 NBA G League Transactions\|date\=February 7, 2022\|access\-date\=February 10, 2022}} On February 10, 2022, Tyree was reacquired and activated by the [Raptors 905](/wiki/Raptors_905 "Raptors 905").{{cite web\|url\=https://gleague.nba.com/transactions/\|website\=gleague.nba.com\|title\=2021\-22 NBA G League Transactions\|date\=February 10, 2022\|access\-date\=February 10, 2022}} Tyree averaged 13\.1 points, 3\.1 assists and 2\.8 rebounds in 36 games during the 2021\-2022 season.
### Indios de San Francisco
In the summer of 2022, Tyree signed in the Dominican top division [Liga Nacional de Baloncesto](/wiki/Liga_Nacional_de_Baloncesto "Liga Nacional de Baloncesto") with [Indios de San Francisco de Macorís](/wiki/Indios_de_San_Francisco_de_Macor%C3%ADs "Indios de San Francisco de Macorís") for the 2022 season. He averaged 20\.2 points, 2\.7 rebounds and 3\.2 assists per game leading the club to a 12\-7 record.
### Oostende
He signed with [Filou Oostende](/wiki/B.C._Oostende "B.C. Oostende") of the [BNXT League](/wiki/BNXT_League "BNXT League") on August 2\.{{cite web \|title\=Filou Oostende signs Vrenz Beijenberg and Breein Tyree \|url\=https://sportando.basketball/en/filou\-oostende\-signs\-vrenz\-beijenberg\-and\-breein\-tyree/ \|website\=Sportando \|access\-date\=August 2, 2022 \|date\=August 2, 2022}} On September 17, he won the [BNXT Supercup](/wiki/BNXT_Supercup "BNXT Supercup") with Oostende after scoring 35 points in his debut against [Heroes Den Bosch](/wiki/Heroes_Den_Bosch "Heroes Den Bosch").{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-09\-17 \|title\=Filou Oostende conquers second BNXT Supercup \|url\=https://bnxtleague.com/en/filou\-oostende\-conquers\-second\-bnxt\-supercup/ \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-19 \|website\=BNXT League \|language\=en\-US}} Tyree averaged 15\.6 points, 2\.0 rebounds and 2\.5 assists per in the 2022\-2023 season in the [BNXT League](/wiki/BNXT_League "BNXT League"). In the Champions League he averaged 17\.4 points, 3\.2 rebounds and 2\.8 assists per game. His team won the 2023 BNXT Championship for the 24th time and Tyree was named to the 2023 [BNXT League Dream Team](/wiki/BNXT_League_Dream_Team "BNXT League Dream Team").
### Dinamo Sassari
In the summer of 2023, Tyree signed with [Dinamo Sassari](/wiki/Dinamo_Sassari "Dinamo Sassari") of the first division Italian league [Lega Basket Serie A](/wiki/Lega_Basket_Serie_A "Lega Basket Serie A") and the Basketball [Champions League](/wiki/Basketball_Champions_League "Basketball Champions League").
### Petkim Spor
On June 21, 2024, he signed with [Petkim Spor](/wiki/Petkim_Spor "Petkim Spor") of the [Basketbol Süper Ligi](/wiki/Basketbol_S%C3%BCper_Ligi "Basketbol Süper Ligi") (BSL).{{Cite tweet \|user\=Petkimspor \|number\=1804112492785742066 \|title\=Ailemize hoş geldin Breein Tyree!}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### NBA G League",
"After going undrafted in the [2020 NBA draft](/wiki/2020_NBA_draft \"2020 NBA draft\"), Tyree signed with the [Miami Heat](/wiki/Miami_Heat \"Miami Heat\") on November 25, 2020\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Breein Tyree Signs With Heat \\|url\\=https://www.nba.com/heat/news/breein\\-tyree\\-signs\\-with\\-heat\\-112520 \\|website\\=NBA.com \\|access\\-date\\=November 27, 2020 \\|date\\=November 25, 2020}} On December 16, 2020, Tyree was waived by the Heat.{{cite web \\|title\\=Heat waive pair, move within one player of NBA regular\\-season roster limit \\|url\\=https://www.sun\\-sentinel.com/sports/miami\\-heat/fl\\-sp\\-miami\\-heat\\-notebook\\-wednesday\\-20201216\\-mu3kuqyisjbulo73iq4oljtrz4\\-story.html \\|website\\=sun\\-sentinel.com \\|access\\-date\\=December 16, 2020 \\|date\\=December 16, 2020}} On December 19, he was signed and immediately waived by the [Toronto Raptors](/wiki/Toronto_Raptors \"Toronto Raptors\") for the purpose of joining their G\\-League team, [Raptors 905](/wiki/Raptors_905 \"Raptors 905\"), as an affiliate player.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.raptorshq.com/2020/12/20/22191448/raptors\\-905\\-report\\-add\\-affliliate\\-players\\-dewan\\-hernandez\\|title\\=Raptors 905 look to add affiliate players, including Dewan Hernandez\\|date\\=December 20, 2020\\|first\\=JD\\|last\\=Quirante\\|work\\=Raptors HQ}} On March 1, 2021, Tyree's contract with Raptors 905 ended. He finished his rookie season as a pro appearing in 9 games and averaging 9\\.6 points, 3\\.1 assists and 1\\.1 rebounds a game.",
"Tyree re\\-signed by the Raptors on October 16, 2021, and waived to join the [Raptors 905](/wiki/Raptors_905 \"Raptors 905\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gauruder\\|first\\=Dana\\|title\\=Raptors To Sign, Waive Ashton Hagans, Breein Tyree\\|url\\=https://www.hoopsrumors.com/2021/10/raptors\\-to\\-sign\\-waive\\-ashton\\-hagans\\-breein\\-tyree.html\\|access\\-date\\=October 21, 2021\\|website\\=Hoops Rumors\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|date\\=October 16, 2021}} On January 23, 2022, he was suspended three games by the G League.{{cite news \\|title\\=Breein Tyree: Suspended by G League \\|url\\=https://www.cbssports.com/fantasy/basketball/news/breein\\-tyree\\-suspended\\-by\\-g\\-league/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 10, 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[CBS Sports]] \\|date\\=January 23, 2022}} Tyree was waived on February 7\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://gleague.nba.com/transactions/\\|website\\=gleague.nba.com\\|title\\=2021\\-22 NBA G League Transactions\\|date\\=February 7, 2022\\|access\\-date\\=February 10, 2022}} On February 10, 2022, Tyree was reacquired and activated by the [Raptors 905](/wiki/Raptors_905 \"Raptors 905\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://gleague.nba.com/transactions/\\|website\\=gleague.nba.com\\|title\\=2021\\-22 NBA G League Transactions\\|date\\=February 10, 2022\\|access\\-date\\=February 10, 2022}} Tyree averaged 13\\.1 points, 3\\.1 assists and 2\\.8 rebounds in 36 games during the 2021\\-2022 season.",
"### Indios de San Francisco",
"In the summer of 2022, Tyree signed in the Dominican top division [Liga Nacional de Baloncesto](/wiki/Liga_Nacional_de_Baloncesto \"Liga Nacional de Baloncesto\") with [Indios de San Francisco de Macorís](/wiki/Indios_de_San_Francisco_de_Macor%C3%ADs \"Indios de San Francisco de Macorís\") for the 2022 season. He averaged 20\\.2 points, 2\\.7 rebounds and 3\\.2 assists per game leading the club to a 12\\-7 record.",
"### Oostende",
"He signed with [Filou Oostende](/wiki/B.C._Oostende \"B.C. Oostende\") of the [BNXT League](/wiki/BNXT_League \"BNXT League\") on August 2\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Filou Oostende signs Vrenz Beijenberg and Breein Tyree \\|url\\=https://sportando.basketball/en/filou\\-oostende\\-signs\\-vrenz\\-beijenberg\\-and\\-breein\\-tyree/ \\|website\\=Sportando \\|access\\-date\\=August 2, 2022 \\|date\\=August 2, 2022}} On September 17, he won the [BNXT Supercup](/wiki/BNXT_Supercup \"BNXT Supercup\") with Oostende after scoring 35 points in his debut against [Heroes Den Bosch](/wiki/Heroes_Den_Bosch \"Heroes Den Bosch\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-17 \\|title\\=Filou Oostende conquers second BNXT Supercup \\|url\\=https://bnxtleague.com/en/filou\\-oostende\\-conquers\\-second\\-bnxt\\-supercup/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-19 \\|website\\=BNXT League \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Tyree averaged 15\\.6 points, 2\\.0 rebounds and 2\\.5 assists per in the 2022\\-2023 season in the [BNXT League](/wiki/BNXT_League \"BNXT League\"). In the Champions League he averaged 17\\.4 points, 3\\.2 rebounds and 2\\.8 assists per game. His team won the 2023 BNXT Championship for the 24th time and Tyree was named to the 2023 [BNXT League Dream Team](/wiki/BNXT_League_Dream_Team \"BNXT League Dream Team\").",
"### Dinamo Sassari",
"In the summer of 2023, Tyree signed with [Dinamo Sassari](/wiki/Dinamo_Sassari \"Dinamo Sassari\") of the first division Italian league [Lega Basket Serie A](/wiki/Lega_Basket_Serie_A \"Lega Basket Serie A\") and the Basketball [Champions League](/wiki/Basketball_Champions_League \"Basketball Champions League\").",
"### Petkim Spor",
"On June 21, 2024, he signed with [Petkim Spor](/wiki/Petkim_Spor \"Petkim Spor\") of the [Basketbol Süper Ligi](/wiki/Basketbol_S%C3%BCper_Ligi \"Basketbol Süper Ligi\") (BSL).{{Cite tweet \\|user\\=Petkimspor \\|number\\=1804112492785742066 \\|title\\=Ailemize hoş geldin Breein Tyree!}}",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
### Early life and education
Kenoth Govindan Adiyodi was born in 1937 at Karivelloor,{{Cite journal \|last\=Anilkumar \|first\=G. \|last2\=Hodgson \|first2\=Alan \|last3\=Primlani \|first3\=Mohan \|date\=2002 \|title\=Professor (Dr) K. G. Adiyodi 1938–2001 \|url\= \|journal\=Invertebrate Reproduction \& Development \|language\=en \|volume\=41 \|issue\=1\-3 \|pages\=v–vi \|doi\=10\.1080/07924259\.2002\.9652727 \|issn\=0792\-4259}} Peralam, a village in the [Kannur](/wiki/Kannur "Kannur") District of Kerala State, to Kavil Kambrath Govinda Poduval and Kenoth Lakshmi Pillayathiri Amma. After his initial schooling at [Payyanur](/wiki/Payyanur "Payyanur"), he completed his Intermediate (Pre\-University) from [St. Aloysius College](/wiki/St._Aloysius_College_%28Mangalore%29 "St. Aloysius College (Mangalore)"), Mangalore in 1955 and graduated with a B.Sc. (Hons) in Zoology from [Madras Christian College](/wiki/Madras_Christian_College "Madras Christian College") in 1958\. He completed his MA from [University of Madras](/wiki/University_of_Madras "University of Madras"). He moved to [Thiruvananthapuram](/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram "Thiruvananthapuram") in 1964 to work on a research project funded by the [Ford Foundation](/wiki/Ford_Foundation "Ford Foundation") and was awarded a doctorate degree by [Kerala University](/wiki/Kerala_University "Kerala University") in 1970 for his work on Insect Neuroendocrinology under the supervision of K. K. Nayar.
### Career
Adiyodi began his teaching career as lecturer at [St. Agnes College](/wiki/St._Agnes_College "St. Agnes College"), Karnataka University, Mangalore (1958–1959\). He was also Lecturer at [St. Joseph's College, Devagiri](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_College%2C_Devagiri "St. Joseph's College, Devagiri") (1959–1964\).
Adiyodi joined University of Calicut in 1970 where he served as Reader in Zoology (1970 to 1977\), Professor of Invertebrate Reproductive Physiology (1977 to 1994\), and Dean of Faculty of Science (1988 to 1991\).
Adiyodi was Vice\-Chancellor, Cochin University of Science and Technology (1994–1996\) and was the first [Malayali](/wiki/Malayali "Malayali") to serve as a member of the Union Public Service Commission of India (1996–2001\).
### Academic achievements
[thumb\|K. G. Adiyodi and Rita G. Adiyodi.](/wiki/File:Dr._K._G._Adiyodi_and_Dr._Rita_G._Adiyodi.png "Dr. K. G. Adiyodi and Dr. Rita G. Adiyodi.png")
Adiyodi began his research career in insect physiology. His research interests turned to crustacean reproduction and growth after his marriage to Rita Gomez in 1966 who was then doing research work on growth, regeneration, and reproduction in land crabs. Adiyodi published in many international journals including Journal of Insect Physiology, Journal of Morphology, Biological Bulletin, General \& Comparative Endocrinology, and Experientia (now Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences). His work “Endocrine Control of Reproduction in Decapod Crustacea” published in Biological Reviews, Cambridge Philosophical Society (1970\) was a notable landmark in his scientific career.
### International Society for Invertebrate Reproduction
It was while attending an international conference on comparative endocrinology in London in the early 1970s that K. G. Adiyodi felt the need to bring all areas of invertebrate reproductive biology into a comprehensive discipline of its own. Until then, studies on comparative endocrinology were mostly on vertebrates. His discussions with many like\-minded participants at the London conference motivated him to take the initial steps to organize an international symposium dedicated to invertebrate reproduction.
The first International Symposium on Reproductive Physiology of Invertebrates (ISIR) was organised by K. G. Adiyodi and Rita G. Adiyodi at University of Calicut (1975\). The International Society for Invertebrate Reproduction was founded at the Calicut symposium and ISIR was recognized as the first international symposium organized by the Society. Advances in Invertebrate Reproduction (Vol.I) published in 1977 was based on proceedings of the inaugural symposium.
The International Society of Invertebrate Reproduction held its second symposium at [University of California, Davis](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Davis "University of California, Davis") (1978\) where Adiyodi was honoured with an honorary plaque as the Society's Founder. K. G. Adiyodi was Founder Secretary General of the Society from 1975 to 1986\. The Society later expanded its scope to include invertebrate development and renamed itself as the International Society of Invertebrate Reproduction and Development. The Society's meetings are now called the International Congress of Invertebrate Reproduction and Development (ICIRD).
### International Journal for ISIR
The Adiyodis moved to [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford") when Rita Adiyodi won the [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes "Rhodes") Visiting Fellowship in 1976 and K. G. Adiyodi joined her on another assignment in 1977\.{{cite web \|url\=http://rhodesproject.com/list\-of\-scholars \|title\=List of Scholars \|website\=The Rhodes Project}} Adiyodi started work on launching an international journal for ISIR in 1977 while at Oxford and his efforts bore fruition when Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam agreed to publish the journal after a favourable feasibility study. The journal was named International Journal of Invertebrate Reproduction and went to print in 1979\. Adiyodi served as the editor\-in\-chief of the new publication with Prof. K. G. Davey of York University, Canada and K. C. Highnam of University of Sheffield, UK as associate editors. The journal was renamed the International Journal of Invertebrate Reproduction and Development in 1984, and then, the Invertebrate Reproduction and Development.
Balaban Press, Israel later took over the publication of the journal from Elsevier Biomedical Press. Volume 41, Numbers 1\-3 (September 2002\) issue of this journal, published by Balaban Press was dedicated to the memory of Adiyodi. The journal is currently published by [Taylor \& Francis](/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis "Taylor & Francis").
### Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates (RBI) – a multi\-volume treatise
The groundwork for putting together a multi\-volume treatise on the reproductive biology of invertebrates was made when the Adiyodis were at Oxford University. The treatise was originally planned in six volumes on a thematic basis. Boullin initiated this project at [John Wiley \& Sons, Inc.](/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons%2C_Inc. "John Wiley & Sons, Inc.") in 1978 and Stephen D. Thornton, helped with its work as Publishing Editor, Life Sciences. Volume I of the treatise was published in 1982\. Some operational changes following the release of Volume II in 1983 led to the signing of a partnership with Oxford \& IBH, New Delhi for the Indian Editions of the treatise from Volume III onwards. John Wiley \& Sons, Inc. continued to publish the international editions. With the release of Volume VI Part B (1994\), the Adiyodis completed all six planned volumes (eight books) of the original series. Subsequent volumes, collectively named as the Progress Series, were guest\-edited by scientists of international standing. A total of 18 books were published in the 12 volume, RBI series, the last in 2005\.
#### Titles of books in the treatise
{{div col\|colwidth\=35em}}
{{bulleted list \|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1982\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. I, Oogenesis, Oviposition and Oosorption. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1983\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.II Spermatogenesis and Sperm Function. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1988\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol..III, Accessory Sex Glands. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1989\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.IV Part A Fertilization, Development and Parental Care. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1990\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.IV Part B Fertilization, Development and Parental Care. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK .and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1992\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.V Sexual Differentiation \& Behaviour. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1993\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.VI Part A. Asexual Propagation and Reproductive Strategies. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1994\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. VI Part B. Asexual Propagation and Reproductive Strategies. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) J. R. Collier (Volume Editor) (1997\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. VII Progress in Developmental Biology. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) T. S. Adams (Volume Editor) (1997\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. VIII Progress in Reproductive Endocrinology. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) B. G. M. Jamieson (Volume Editor) (1999\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. IX Part A. Progress in Male Gamete Ultrastructure and Phylogeny. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) B. G. M. Jamieson (Volume Editor) (2000\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.IX Part B. Progress in Male Gamete Ultrastructure and Phylogeny. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, U. K. and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) B.G.M. Jamieson (Volume Editor) (2000\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.IX Part C. Progress in Male Gamete Ultrastructure and Phylogeny. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) August Dorn (Volume Editor) (2000\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.X Part A. Progress in Developmental Endocrinology. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) August Dorn (Volume Editor) (2000\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. X Part B. Progress in Developmental Endocrinology. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) Roger N. Hughes (Volume Editor) (2002\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.XI Progress in Asexual Reproduction. John Wiley \& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) Alexander S. Raikhel and Thomas W. Sappington (Volume Editors) (2002\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.XII Part A. Progress in Vitellogenesis. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield, USA and Plymouth, UK.
\|
Adiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) A. S. Raikhel (Volume Editor) (2005\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.XII Part B. Progress in Vitellogenesis. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
}}
{{div col end}}
### Popular scientific literature
Adiyodi was the Founder Secretary of the [Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad](/wiki/Kerala_Sastra_Sahitya_Parishad "Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad"), a not\-for\-profit organization and one of India's largest popular science organizations.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.keralawindow.net/news\_april.html \|title\='April' in Kerala History \|website\=Kerala Window}} He also served as the President of Deseeya Sastra Vedi (National Science Forum), a similar organization.
Adiyodi was a prolific writer in English and [Malayalam](/wiki/Malayalam "Malayalam"). His first book Theyyavum Thirayum was published when he was an intermediate student. Jeevante Udbhavavum Bhaviyum won him the [M.P. Paul](/wiki/M.P._Paul "M.P. Paul") Prize in 1965\. Adiyodi's Keralathile Vishapambukal, a book on the poisonous snakes of Kerala was published in the weekly edition of [Mathrubhumi](/wiki/Mathrubhumi "Mathrubhumi") in the early 1960s. Pradhamika Janthusastram written for teaching zoology at the undergraduate level was published by the [Kerala Sahitya Academy](/wiki/Kerala_Sahitya_Academy "Kerala Sahitya Academy") in 1967\.
### Vice\-Chancellor of Cochin University of Science \& Technology
Adiyodi served as Vice\-Chancellor of Cochin University of Science and Technology from 1994 to 1996\. Collaborative partnerships in teaching and research with reputed universities around the world during this time helped bring Cochin University into national and international focus. Adiyodi secured the prestigious MHO\-Partnership Programme of the Government of Netherlands for CUSAT which allowed the university to receive financial grants from the Dutch government. The Dutch government selects one University from each partner country.
### Leadership roles
[thumb\|K. G. Adiyodi speaking at the International Congress of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry in Kyoto, Japan, 1972\.\|300px](/wiki/File:Dr._K._G._Adiyodi_speaking.png "Dr. K. G. Adiyodi speaking.png")
Adiyodi served in various leadership roles, some of which are listed below:
{{bulleted list \|
Founder Secretary General, International Society of Invertebrate Reproduction, Tubingen, Germany (1975\-1986\)
\|
Founder President, Indian Society of Invertebrate Reproduction (1978\-1986\)
\|
Vice\-President, Indian Society of Comparative Endocrinology, 1974
\|
Vice\-President, Indian Society of Comparative Animal Physiology, 1994
\|
President, Calicut University Teachers Association
\|
Founder and Founder Secretary, Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (1962\-1965\)
\|
President, Desiya Sastra Vedi (1986\-1994\)
\|
President, Kerala Biotechnology Consortium, 1995
\|
Member, Science, Technology and Environment Committee of the Govt. of Kerala, 1993
\|
Member, Environment Research Council, Govt. of Kerala, 1993
\|
Chairman/Member of several other statutory committees of Govt. of Kerala
\|
Advisor, Swadeshi Science Movement of Kerala
\|
Member, Governing Council, Nuclear Centre (UGC), New Delhi, 1996
\|
Member, Board of studies in Engineering, AICTE, New Delhi (1994 to 1996\)
}}
### Visiting assignments
{{bulleted list \|
Visiting scientist/Professor, University of Oxford, 1973, 1977\-1978
\|
Guest scientist at Koln (1973\) and Paris (1973\) Universities
\|
Lectured at various Universities, chaired sessions at several international conferences and symposia in Japan, USA, and the EU.
}}
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"### Early life and education",
"Kenoth Govindan Adiyodi was born in 1937 at Karivelloor,{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Anilkumar \\|first\\=G. \\|last2\\=Hodgson \\|first2\\=Alan \\|last3\\=Primlani \\|first3\\=Mohan \\|date\\=2002 \\|title\\=Professor (Dr) K. G. Adiyodi 1938–2001 \\|url\\= \\|journal\\=Invertebrate Reproduction \\& Development \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=41 \\|issue\\=1\\-3 \\|pages\\=v–vi \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/07924259\\.2002\\.9652727 \\|issn\\=0792\\-4259}} Peralam, a village in the [Kannur](/wiki/Kannur \"Kannur\") District of Kerala State, to Kavil Kambrath Govinda Poduval and Kenoth Lakshmi Pillayathiri Amma. After his initial schooling at [Payyanur](/wiki/Payyanur \"Payyanur\"), he completed his Intermediate (Pre\\-University) from [St. Aloysius College](/wiki/St._Aloysius_College_%28Mangalore%29 \"St. Aloysius College (Mangalore)\"), Mangalore in 1955 and graduated with a B.Sc. (Hons) in Zoology from [Madras Christian College](/wiki/Madras_Christian_College \"Madras Christian College\") in 1958\\. He completed his MA from [University of Madras](/wiki/University_of_Madras \"University of Madras\"). He moved to [Thiruvananthapuram](/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram \"Thiruvananthapuram\") in 1964 to work on a research project funded by the [Ford Foundation](/wiki/Ford_Foundation \"Ford Foundation\") and was awarded a doctorate degree by [Kerala University](/wiki/Kerala_University \"Kerala University\") in 1970 for his work on Insect Neuroendocrinology under the supervision of K. K. Nayar.",
"### Career",
"Adiyodi began his teaching career as lecturer at [St. Agnes College](/wiki/St._Agnes_College \"St. Agnes College\"), Karnataka University, Mangalore (1958–1959\\). He was also Lecturer at [St. Joseph's College, Devagiri](/wiki/St._Joseph%27s_College%2C_Devagiri \"St. Joseph's College, Devagiri\") (1959–1964\\).",
"Adiyodi joined University of Calicut in 1970 where he served as Reader in Zoology (1970 to 1977\\), Professor of Invertebrate Reproductive Physiology (1977 to 1994\\), and Dean of Faculty of Science (1988 to 1991\\).",
"Adiyodi was Vice\\-Chancellor, Cochin University of Science and Technology (1994–1996\\) and was the first [Malayali](/wiki/Malayali \"Malayali\") to serve as a member of the Union Public Service Commission of India (1996–2001\\).",
"### Academic achievements",
"[thumb\\|K. G. Adiyodi and Rita G. Adiyodi.](/wiki/File:Dr._K._G._Adiyodi_and_Dr._Rita_G._Adiyodi.png \"Dr. K. G. Adiyodi and Dr. Rita G. Adiyodi.png\")\nAdiyodi began his research career in insect physiology. His research interests turned to crustacean reproduction and growth after his marriage to Rita Gomez in 1966 who was then doing research work on growth, regeneration, and reproduction in land crabs. Adiyodi published in many international journals including Journal of Insect Physiology, Journal of Morphology, Biological Bulletin, General \\& Comparative Endocrinology, and Experientia (now Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences). His work “Endocrine Control of Reproduction in Decapod Crustacea” published in Biological Reviews, Cambridge Philosophical Society (1970\\) was a notable landmark in his scientific career.",
"### International Society for Invertebrate Reproduction",
"It was while attending an international conference on comparative endocrinology in London in the early 1970s that K. G. Adiyodi felt the need to bring all areas of invertebrate reproductive biology into a comprehensive discipline of its own. Until then, studies on comparative endocrinology were mostly on vertebrates. His discussions with many like\\-minded participants at the London conference motivated him to take the initial steps to organize an international symposium dedicated to invertebrate reproduction.",
"The first International Symposium on Reproductive Physiology of Invertebrates (ISIR) was organised by K. G. Adiyodi and Rita G. Adiyodi at University of Calicut (1975\\). The International Society for Invertebrate Reproduction was founded at the Calicut symposium and ISIR was recognized as the first international symposium organized by the Society. Advances in Invertebrate Reproduction (Vol.I) published in 1977 was based on proceedings of the inaugural symposium.",
"The International Society of Invertebrate Reproduction held its second symposium at [University of California, Davis](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Davis \"University of California, Davis\") (1978\\) where Adiyodi was honoured with an honorary plaque as the Society's Founder. K. G. Adiyodi was Founder Secretary General of the Society from 1975 to 1986\\. The Society later expanded its scope to include invertebrate development and renamed itself as the International Society of Invertebrate Reproduction and Development. The Society's meetings are now called the International Congress of Invertebrate Reproduction and Development (ICIRD).",
"### International Journal for ISIR",
"The Adiyodis moved to [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford \"University of Oxford\") when Rita Adiyodi won the [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes \"Rhodes\") Visiting Fellowship in 1976 and K. G. Adiyodi joined her on another assignment in 1977\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://rhodesproject.com/list\\-of\\-scholars \\|title\\=List of Scholars \\|website\\=The Rhodes Project}} Adiyodi started work on launching an international journal for ISIR in 1977 while at Oxford and his efforts bore fruition when Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam agreed to publish the journal after a favourable feasibility study. The journal was named International Journal of Invertebrate Reproduction and went to print in 1979\\. Adiyodi served as the editor\\-in\\-chief of the new publication with Prof. K. G. Davey of York University, Canada and K. C. Highnam of University of Sheffield, UK as associate editors. The journal was renamed the International Journal of Invertebrate Reproduction and Development in 1984, and then, the Invertebrate Reproduction and Development.\nBalaban Press, Israel later took over the publication of the journal from Elsevier Biomedical Press. Volume 41, Numbers 1\\-3 (September 2002\\) issue of this journal, published by Balaban Press was dedicated to the memory of Adiyodi. The journal is currently published by [Taylor \\& Francis](/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis \"Taylor & Francis\").",
"### Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates (RBI) – a multi\\-volume treatise",
"The groundwork for putting together a multi\\-volume treatise on the reproductive biology of invertebrates was made when the Adiyodis were at Oxford University. The treatise was originally planned in six volumes on a thematic basis. Boullin initiated this project at [John Wiley \\& Sons, Inc.](/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons%2C_Inc. \"John Wiley & Sons, Inc.\") in 1978 and Stephen D. Thornton, helped with its work as Publishing Editor, Life Sciences. Volume I of the treatise was published in 1982\\. Some operational changes following the release of Volume II in 1983 led to the signing of a partnership with Oxford \\& IBH, New Delhi for the Indian Editions of the treatise from Volume III onwards. John Wiley \\& Sons, Inc. continued to publish the international editions. With the release of Volume VI Part B (1994\\), the Adiyodis completed all six planned volumes (eight books) of the original series. Subsequent volumes, collectively named as the Progress Series, were guest\\-edited by scientists of international standing. A total of 18 books were published in the 12 volume, RBI series, the last in 2005\\.",
"#### Titles of books in the treatise",
"{{div col\\|colwidth\\=35em}}\n{{bulleted list \\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1982\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. I, Oogenesis, Oviposition and Oosorption. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1983\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.II Spermatogenesis and Sperm Function. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1988\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol..III, Accessory Sex Glands. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1989\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.IV Part A Fertilization, Development and Parental Care. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1990\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.IV Part B Fertilization, Development and Parental Care. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK .and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1992\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.V Sexual Differentiation \\& Behaviour. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1993\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.VI Part A. Asexual Propagation and Reproductive Strategies. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Editors) (1994\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. VI Part B. Asexual Propagation and Reproductive Strategies. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) J. R. Collier (Volume Editor) (1997\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. VII Progress in Developmental Biology. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\| \nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) T. S. Adams (Volume Editor) (1997\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. VIII Progress in Reproductive Endocrinology. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) B. G. M. Jamieson (Volume Editor) (1999\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. IX Part A. Progress in Male Gamete Ultrastructure and Phylogeny. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) B. G. M. Jamieson (Volume Editor) (2000\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.IX Part B. Progress in Male Gamete Ultrastructure and Phylogeny. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, U. K. and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) B.G.M. Jamieson (Volume Editor) (2000\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.IX Part C. Progress in Male Gamete Ultrastructure and Phylogeny. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) August Dorn (Volume Editor) (2000\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.X Part A. Progress in Developmental Endocrinology. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) August Dorn (Volume Editor) (2000\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol. X Part B. Progress in Developmental Endocrinology. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) Roger N. Hughes (Volume Editor) (2002\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.XI Progress in Asexual Reproduction. John Wiley \\& Sons, Chichester, UK and Oxford \\& IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) Alexander S. Raikhel and Thomas W. Sappington (Volume Editors) (2002\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.XII Part A. Progress in Vitellogenesis. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield, USA and Plymouth, UK.\n\\|\nAdiyodi, K.G. and Adiyodi, R.G. (Series Editors) A. S. Raikhel (Volume Editor) (2005\\) Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Vol.XII Part B. Progress in Vitellogenesis. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.\n}}\n{{div col end}}",
"### Popular scientific literature",
"Adiyodi was the Founder Secretary of the [Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad](/wiki/Kerala_Sastra_Sahitya_Parishad \"Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad\"), a not\\-for\\-profit organization and one of India's largest popular science organizations.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.keralawindow.net/news\\_april.html \\|title\\='April' in Kerala History \\|website\\=Kerala Window}} He also served as the President of Deseeya Sastra Vedi (National Science Forum), a similar organization.",
"Adiyodi was a prolific writer in English and [Malayalam](/wiki/Malayalam \"Malayalam\"). His first book Theyyavum Thirayum was published when he was an intermediate student. Jeevante Udbhavavum Bhaviyum won him the [M.P. Paul](/wiki/M.P._Paul \"M.P. Paul\") Prize in 1965\\. Adiyodi's Keralathile Vishapambukal, a book on the poisonous snakes of Kerala was published in the weekly edition of [Mathrubhumi](/wiki/Mathrubhumi \"Mathrubhumi\") in the early 1960s. Pradhamika Janthusastram written for teaching zoology at the undergraduate level was published by the [Kerala Sahitya Academy](/wiki/Kerala_Sahitya_Academy \"Kerala Sahitya Academy\") in 1967\\.",
"### Vice\\-Chancellor of Cochin University of Science \\& Technology",
"Adiyodi served as Vice\\-Chancellor of Cochin University of Science and Technology from 1994 to 1996\\. Collaborative partnerships in teaching and research with reputed universities around the world during this time helped bring Cochin University into national and international focus. Adiyodi secured the prestigious MHO\\-Partnership Programme of the Government of Netherlands for CUSAT which allowed the university to receive financial grants from the Dutch government. The Dutch government selects one University from each partner country.",
"### Leadership roles",
"[thumb\\|K. G. Adiyodi speaking at the International Congress of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry in Kyoto, Japan, 1972\\.\\|300px](/wiki/File:Dr._K._G._Adiyodi_speaking.png \"Dr. K. G. Adiyodi speaking.png\")",
"Adiyodi served in various leadership roles, some of which are listed below:\n{{bulleted list \\|\nFounder Secretary General, International Society of Invertebrate Reproduction, Tubingen, Germany (1975\\-1986\\) \n\\|\nFounder President, Indian Society of Invertebrate Reproduction (1978\\-1986\\)\n\\|\nVice\\-President, Indian Society of Comparative Endocrinology, 1974\n\\|\nVice\\-President, Indian Society of Comparative Animal Physiology, 1994\n\\|\nPresident, Calicut University Teachers Association\n\\|\nFounder and Founder Secretary, Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (1962\\-1965\\)\n\\|\nPresident, Desiya Sastra Vedi (1986\\-1994\\)\n\\|\nPresident, Kerala Biotechnology Consortium, 1995\n\\|\nMember, Science, Technology and Environment Committee of the Govt. of Kerala, 1993\n\\|\nMember, Environment Research Council, Govt. of Kerala, 1993\n\\|\nChairman/Member of several other statutory committees of Govt. of Kerala\n\\|\nAdvisor, Swadeshi Science Movement of Kerala\n\\|\nMember, Governing Council, Nuclear Centre (UGC), New Delhi, 1996\n\\|\nMember, Board of studies in Engineering, AICTE, New Delhi (1994 to 1996\\)\n}}",
"### Visiting assignments",
"{{bulleted list \\|\nVisiting scientist/Professor, University of Oxford, 1973, 1977\\-1978\n\\|\nGuest scientist at Koln (1973\\) and Paris (1973\\) Universities\n\\|\nLectured at various Universities, chaired sessions at several international conferences and symposia in Japan, USA, and the EU. \n}}",
""
] |
Running career
--------------
### Elementary school
Blankenship attended St. Croix Catholic school in Stillwater, Minnesota. Classmates from his elementary recall Blankenship to be the fastest runner at St. Croix Catholic when running the mile run at the Old Athletic Field located near the elementary school.
### High school
At [Stillwater Area High School](/wiki/Stillwater_Area_High_School "Stillwater Area High School"), Blankenship was the [Minnesota State AA](/wiki/List_of_Minnesota_State_High_School_League_State_Championships_%28Spring%29%23Boys_Track_and_Field "List of Minnesota State High School League State Championships (Spring)#Boys Track and Field") Champion at 1600 meters in both 2006 and 2007\. Also in 2005, he led his team to second place in [Cross Country](/wiki/Cross_country_running "Cross country running"). His high school had previously molded other prolific distance runners such as Luke Watson and [Sean Graham](/wiki/Sean_Graham "Sean Graham").
### Collegiate
He began his collegiate career at [Mississippi State University](/wiki/Mississippi_State_University "Mississippi State University"). After a year there he transferred to his home state [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota "University of Minnesota"). By 2010, he became the first Golden Gopher to break the [4 minute mile](/wiki/4_minute_mile "4 minute mile"), when he ran 3:57\.83 at the indoor Washington Qualifier meet.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.gophersports.com/sports/m\-track/mtt/ben\_blankenship\_759811\.html \|title\=GOPHERSPORTS.COM Ben Blankenship Bio :: University of Minnesota Official Athletic Site :: Men's Track \|work\=gophersports.com \|access\-date\=11 July 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626205236/http://www.gophersports.com/sports/m\-track/mtt/ben\_blankenship\_759811\.html \|archive\-date\=26 June 2016 \|url\-status\=dead}} In December 2011, his [sacrum](/wiki/Sacrum "Sacrum") fractured from his training, and Blankenship made a decision to quit running during his junior year at Minnesota.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.runnersworld.com/elite\-runners/no\-fear\-of\-the\-unknown \|author\=Rachel Sturtz \|title\=Runner's World: ''No Fear of the Unknown'' \|date\=April 26, 2013 \|access\-date\=August 5, 2016}}
### Post\-collegiate
{{BLP sources section\|date\=June 2019}}
After graduating from Minnesota, he moved to Colorado and worked for a friend's excavation company. However, he traveled to [London](/wiki/London "London") to watch a friend participate in the [2012 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics "2012 Summer Olympics"), and became interested in returning to running after he felt his injuries were gone. He subsequently moved to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), where he lived for a year. After working out consistently for the first time since college, he won the 2013 Crystal City Twilighter, a 5K road race, in 15:10\.[http://www.zippyraceresults.com/search.php?ID\=3215](http://www.zippyraceresults.com/search.php?ID=3215) Crystal City Twilighter 5K \- Arlington, Virginia. July 27, 2013\. His agent, Stephen Haas, worked to convince [Oregon Track Club](/wiki/Oregon_Track_Club "Oregon Track Club") to invite Blankenship to train professionally in [Eugene](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon "Eugene, Oregon"), and eventually Blankenship accepted the offer.
Both his best [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters "1500 meters") and [mile](/wiki/Mile_run "Mile run") personal track records have been set indoors, his 3:53\.13 mile set while finishing second in a world class field at the [New Balance Indoor Grand Prix](/wiki/New_Balance_Indoor_Grand_Prix "New Balance Indoor Grand Prix") in 2015 ranks as the \#8 time by an American. His road mile personal best of 3:52\.7, set while winning the "Minnesota Mile" is the fastest mile in Minnesota state history.{{cite web \|url\=http://bringbackthemile.com/athletes/detail/benjamin\_blankenship \|title\=Ben Blankenship \|work\=bringbackthemile.com \|access\-date\=11 July 2016}}
At the [2015 IAAF World Relays](/wiki/2015_IAAF_World_Relays_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_distance_medley_relay "2015 IAAF World Relays – Men's distance medley relay") Blankenship put the weight of his team on his shoulders at the end of the distance medley relay. While he received the baton in first place, similar to a move in [track cycling](/wiki/Track_cycling "Track cycling") strategy, he immediately conceded the lead to Kenyan [Timothy Cheruiyot](/wiki/Timothy_Cheruiyot "Timothy Cheruiyot"), who in turn broke contact and attempted to run away with the race. Blankenship's even paced lack of aggression also let the Australian team anchor by [Collis Birmingham](/wiki/Collis_Birmingham "Collis Birmingham") back into contention. When Cheruiyot paid the price for his front running, Blankenship passed the tiring Cheruiyot. But Cheruiyot was not broken and stayed with in contact all the way to the final straightaway where Blankenship's speed put the race away. With the oddly strategic ending, the 0\.06 of a second improvement on the existing world record by a Kenyan team in 2006 was more of an accident than a plan.
A month and a half later, at the [2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships](/wiki/2015_USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships "2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships"), Blankenship finished a disappointing fourth place, .02 behind [Leo Manzano](/wiki/Leo_Manzano "Leo Manzano"), only 0\.03 behind second place [Robby Andrews](/wiki/Robby_Andrews "Robby Andrews") who finished with a late rush, to miss making the team for the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2015 World Championships in Athletics").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.usatf.tv/gprofile.php?mgroup\_id\=45365\&do\=videos\&video\_id\=150434 \|title\=USATF.TV \- Videos \- Men's 1500m Final \- USATF Outdoor Track and Field Championships 2015 \|work\=usatf.tv \|access\-date\=11 July 2016}}
He won the 2016 Medtronic TC 1 mile, setting a course record of 3:55\.8 and taking home the USATF Road Mile title.
On July 10, 2016, Blankenship finished third in the [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters "1500 meters") finals at the [2016 United States Olympic Trials](/wiki/2016_United_States_Olympic_Trials_%28track_and_field%29 "2016 United States Olympic Trials (track and field)"), qualifying him to compete in the 1500 meter race at the [2016 Olympic Games](/wiki/2016_Olympic_Games "2016 Olympic Games") in [Rio de Janeiro, Brazil](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro%2C_Brazil "Rio de Janeiro, Brazil"). Blankenship then finished 8th in the Olympic Final.
In September 2017, Blankenship set a record for the fastest 1 mile time in Alaska, achieving a time of 3:57\.85\. This makes Blankenship one of only two to run a mile in under 4 minutes in Alaska ever, along with [Kyle Merber](/wiki/Kyle_Merber "Kyle Merber").
Blankenship currently lives in [Eugene, Oregon](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon "Eugene, Oregon") and trains with the [Oregon Track Club](/wiki/Oregon_Track_Club "Oregon Track Club").
Blankenship won a US national xc title over 10 km in 29:21 at 2018 [USATF National Club Cross Country Championships](/wiki/USATF_National_Club_Cross_Country_Championships "USATF National Club Cross Country Championships").[2018 USATF National Club Cross Country Championships \- December 8, 2018 \- Plantes Ferry Sports Complex \- Spokane, WA](http://www.legacy.usatf.org/Events---Calendar/2018/USATF-National-Club-Cross-Country.aspx) [USATF](/wiki/USATF "USATF")
|
[
"Running career\n--------------",
"### Elementary school",
"Blankenship attended St. Croix Catholic school in Stillwater, Minnesota. Classmates from his elementary recall Blankenship to be the fastest runner at St. Croix Catholic when running the mile run at the Old Athletic Field located near the elementary school.",
"### High school",
"At [Stillwater Area High School](/wiki/Stillwater_Area_High_School \"Stillwater Area High School\"), Blankenship was the [Minnesota State AA](/wiki/List_of_Minnesota_State_High_School_League_State_Championships_%28Spring%29%23Boys_Track_and_Field \"List of Minnesota State High School League State Championships (Spring)#Boys Track and Field\") Champion at 1600 meters in both 2006 and 2007\\. Also in 2005, he led his team to second place in [Cross Country](/wiki/Cross_country_running \"Cross country running\"). His high school had previously molded other prolific distance runners such as Luke Watson and [Sean Graham](/wiki/Sean_Graham \"Sean Graham\").",
"### Collegiate",
"He began his collegiate career at [Mississippi State University](/wiki/Mississippi_State_University \"Mississippi State University\"). After a year there he transferred to his home state [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota \"University of Minnesota\"). By 2010, he became the first Golden Gopher to break the [4 minute mile](/wiki/4_minute_mile \"4 minute mile\"), when he ran 3:57\\.83 at the indoor Washington Qualifier meet.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gophersports.com/sports/m\\-track/mtt/ben\\_blankenship\\_759811\\.html \\|title\\=GOPHERSPORTS.COM Ben Blankenship Bio :: University of Minnesota Official Athletic Site :: Men's Track \\|work\\=gophersports.com \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626205236/http://www.gophersports.com/sports/m\\-track/mtt/ben\\_blankenship\\_759811\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=26 June 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In December 2011, his [sacrum](/wiki/Sacrum \"Sacrum\") fractured from his training, and Blankenship made a decision to quit running during his junior year at Minnesota.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.runnersworld.com/elite\\-runners/no\\-fear\\-of\\-the\\-unknown \\|author\\=Rachel Sturtz \\|title\\=Runner's World: ''No Fear of the Unknown'' \\|date\\=April 26, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=August 5, 2016}}",
"### Post\\-collegiate",
"{{BLP sources section\\|date\\=June 2019}}\nAfter graduating from Minnesota, he moved to Colorado and worked for a friend's excavation company. However, he traveled to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") to watch a friend participate in the [2012 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics \"2012 Summer Olympics\"), and became interested in returning to running after he felt his injuries were gone. He subsequently moved to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), where he lived for a year. After working out consistently for the first time since college, he won the 2013 Crystal City Twilighter, a 5K road race, in 15:10\\.[http://www.zippyraceresults.com/search.php?ID\\=3215](http://www.zippyraceresults.com/search.php?ID=3215) Crystal City Twilighter 5K \\- Arlington, Virginia. July 27, 2013\\. His agent, Stephen Haas, worked to convince [Oregon Track Club](/wiki/Oregon_Track_Club \"Oregon Track Club\") to invite Blankenship to train professionally in [Eugene](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon \"Eugene, Oregon\"), and eventually Blankenship accepted the offer.",
"Both his best [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters \"1500 meters\") and [mile](/wiki/Mile_run \"Mile run\") personal track records have been set indoors, his 3:53\\.13 mile set while finishing second in a world class field at the [New Balance Indoor Grand Prix](/wiki/New_Balance_Indoor_Grand_Prix \"New Balance Indoor Grand Prix\") in 2015 ranks as the \\#8 time by an American. His road mile personal best of 3:52\\.7, set while winning the \"Minnesota Mile\" is the fastest mile in Minnesota state history.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://bringbackthemile.com/athletes/detail/benjamin\\_blankenship \\|title\\=Ben Blankenship \\|work\\=bringbackthemile.com \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2016}}",
"At the [2015 IAAF World Relays](/wiki/2015_IAAF_World_Relays_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_distance_medley_relay \"2015 IAAF World Relays – Men's distance medley relay\") Blankenship put the weight of his team on his shoulders at the end of the distance medley relay. While he received the baton in first place, similar to a move in [track cycling](/wiki/Track_cycling \"Track cycling\") strategy, he immediately conceded the lead to Kenyan [Timothy Cheruiyot](/wiki/Timothy_Cheruiyot \"Timothy Cheruiyot\"), who in turn broke contact and attempted to run away with the race. Blankenship's even paced lack of aggression also let the Australian team anchor by [Collis Birmingham](/wiki/Collis_Birmingham \"Collis Birmingham\") back into contention. When Cheruiyot paid the price for his front running, Blankenship passed the tiring Cheruiyot. But Cheruiyot was not broken and stayed with in contact all the way to the final straightaway where Blankenship's speed put the race away. With the oddly strategic ending, the 0\\.06 of a second improvement on the existing world record by a Kenyan team in 2006 was more of an accident than a plan.",
"A month and a half later, at the [2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships](/wiki/2015_USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships \"2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships\"), Blankenship finished a disappointing fourth place, .02 behind [Leo Manzano](/wiki/Leo_Manzano \"Leo Manzano\"), only 0\\.03 behind second place [Robby Andrews](/wiki/Robby_Andrews \"Robby Andrews\") who finished with a late rush, to miss making the team for the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2015 World Championships in Athletics\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.usatf.tv/gprofile.php?mgroup\\_id\\=45365\\&do\\=videos\\&video\\_id\\=150434 \\|title\\=USATF.TV \\- Videos \\- Men's 1500m Final \\- USATF Outdoor Track and Field Championships 2015 \\|work\\=usatf.tv \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2016}}",
"He won the 2016 Medtronic TC 1 mile, setting a course record of 3:55\\.8 and taking home the USATF Road Mile title.",
"On July 10, 2016, Blankenship finished third in the [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters \"1500 meters\") finals at the [2016 United States Olympic Trials](/wiki/2016_United_States_Olympic_Trials_%28track_and_field%29 \"2016 United States Olympic Trials (track and field)\"), qualifying him to compete in the 1500 meter race at the [2016 Olympic Games](/wiki/2016_Olympic_Games \"2016 Olympic Games\") in [Rio de Janeiro, Brazil](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro%2C_Brazil \"Rio de Janeiro, Brazil\"). Blankenship then finished 8th in the Olympic Final.",
"In September 2017, Blankenship set a record for the fastest 1 mile time in Alaska, achieving a time of 3:57\\.85\\. This makes Blankenship one of only two to run a mile in under 4 minutes in Alaska ever, along with [Kyle Merber](/wiki/Kyle_Merber \"Kyle Merber\").",
"Blankenship currently lives in [Eugene, Oregon](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon \"Eugene, Oregon\") and trains with the [Oregon Track Club](/wiki/Oregon_Track_Club \"Oregon Track Club\").",
"Blankenship won a US national xc title over 10 km in 29:21 at 2018 [USATF National Club Cross Country Championships](/wiki/USATF_National_Club_Cross_Country_Championships \"USATF National Club Cross Country Championships\").[2018 USATF National Club Cross Country Championships \\- December 8, 2018 \\- Plantes Ferry Sports Complex \\- Spokane, WA](http://www.legacy.usatf.org/Events---Calendar/2018/USATF-National-Club-Cross-Country.aspx) [USATF](/wiki/USATF \"USATF\")",
""
] |
### Post\-collegiate
{{BLP sources section\|date\=June 2019}}
After graduating from Minnesota, he moved to Colorado and worked for a friend's excavation company. However, he traveled to [London](/wiki/London "London") to watch a friend participate in the [2012 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics "2012 Summer Olympics"), and became interested in returning to running after he felt his injuries were gone. He subsequently moved to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), where he lived for a year. After working out consistently for the first time since college, he won the 2013 Crystal City Twilighter, a 5K road race, in 15:10\.[http://www.zippyraceresults.com/search.php?ID\=3215](http://www.zippyraceresults.com/search.php?ID=3215) Crystal City Twilighter 5K \- Arlington, Virginia. July 27, 2013\. His agent, Stephen Haas, worked to convince [Oregon Track Club](/wiki/Oregon_Track_Club "Oregon Track Club") to invite Blankenship to train professionally in [Eugene](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon "Eugene, Oregon"), and eventually Blankenship accepted the offer.
Both his best [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters "1500 meters") and [mile](/wiki/Mile_run "Mile run") personal track records have been set indoors, his 3:53\.13 mile set while finishing second in a world class field at the [New Balance Indoor Grand Prix](/wiki/New_Balance_Indoor_Grand_Prix "New Balance Indoor Grand Prix") in 2015 ranks as the \#8 time by an American. His road mile personal best of 3:52\.7, set while winning the "Minnesota Mile" is the fastest mile in Minnesota state history.{{cite web \|url\=http://bringbackthemile.com/athletes/detail/benjamin\_blankenship \|title\=Ben Blankenship \|work\=bringbackthemile.com \|access\-date\=11 July 2016}}
At the [2015 IAAF World Relays](/wiki/2015_IAAF_World_Relays_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_distance_medley_relay "2015 IAAF World Relays – Men's distance medley relay") Blankenship put the weight of his team on his shoulders at the end of the distance medley relay. While he received the baton in first place, similar to a move in [track cycling](/wiki/Track_cycling "Track cycling") strategy, he immediately conceded the lead to Kenyan [Timothy Cheruiyot](/wiki/Timothy_Cheruiyot "Timothy Cheruiyot"), who in turn broke contact and attempted to run away with the race. Blankenship's even paced lack of aggression also let the Australian team anchor by [Collis Birmingham](/wiki/Collis_Birmingham "Collis Birmingham") back into contention. When Cheruiyot paid the price for his front running, Blankenship passed the tiring Cheruiyot. But Cheruiyot was not broken and stayed with in contact all the way to the final straightaway where Blankenship's speed put the race away. With the oddly strategic ending, the 0\.06 of a second improvement on the existing world record by a Kenyan team in 2006 was more of an accident than a plan.
A month and a half later, at the [2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships](/wiki/2015_USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships "2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships"), Blankenship finished a disappointing fourth place, .02 behind [Leo Manzano](/wiki/Leo_Manzano "Leo Manzano"), only 0\.03 behind second place [Robby Andrews](/wiki/Robby_Andrews "Robby Andrews") who finished with a late rush, to miss making the team for the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2015 World Championships in Athletics").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.usatf.tv/gprofile.php?mgroup\_id\=45365\&do\=videos\&video\_id\=150434 \|title\=USATF.TV \- Videos \- Men's 1500m Final \- USATF Outdoor Track and Field Championships 2015 \|work\=usatf.tv \|access\-date\=11 July 2016}}
He won the 2016 Medtronic TC 1 mile, setting a course record of 3:55\.8 and taking home the USATF Road Mile title.
On July 10, 2016, Blankenship finished third in the [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters "1500 meters") finals at the [2016 United States Olympic Trials](/wiki/2016_United_States_Olympic_Trials_%28track_and_field%29 "2016 United States Olympic Trials (track and field)"), qualifying him to compete in the 1500 meter race at the [2016 Olympic Games](/wiki/2016_Olympic_Games "2016 Olympic Games") in [Rio de Janeiro, Brazil](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro%2C_Brazil "Rio de Janeiro, Brazil"). Blankenship then finished 8th in the Olympic Final.
In September 2017, Blankenship set a record for the fastest 1 mile time in Alaska, achieving a time of 3:57\.85\. This makes Blankenship one of only two to run a mile in under 4 minutes in Alaska ever, along with [Kyle Merber](/wiki/Kyle_Merber "Kyle Merber").
Blankenship currently lives in [Eugene, Oregon](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon "Eugene, Oregon") and trains with the [Oregon Track Club](/wiki/Oregon_Track_Club "Oregon Track Club").
Blankenship won a US national xc title over 10 km in 29:21 at 2018 [USATF National Club Cross Country Championships](/wiki/USATF_National_Club_Cross_Country_Championships "USATF National Club Cross Country Championships").[2018 USATF National Club Cross Country Championships \- December 8, 2018 \- Plantes Ferry Sports Complex \- Spokane, WA](http://www.legacy.usatf.org/Events---Calendar/2018/USATF-National-Club-Cross-Country.aspx) [USATF](/wiki/USATF "USATF")
|
[
"### Post\\-collegiate",
"{{BLP sources section\\|date\\=June 2019}}\nAfter graduating from Minnesota, he moved to Colorado and worked for a friend's excavation company. However, he traveled to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") to watch a friend participate in the [2012 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics \"2012 Summer Olympics\"), and became interested in returning to running after he felt his injuries were gone. He subsequently moved to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), where he lived for a year. After working out consistently for the first time since college, he won the 2013 Crystal City Twilighter, a 5K road race, in 15:10\\.[http://www.zippyraceresults.com/search.php?ID\\=3215](http://www.zippyraceresults.com/search.php?ID=3215) Crystal City Twilighter 5K \\- Arlington, Virginia. July 27, 2013\\. His agent, Stephen Haas, worked to convince [Oregon Track Club](/wiki/Oregon_Track_Club \"Oregon Track Club\") to invite Blankenship to train professionally in [Eugene](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon \"Eugene, Oregon\"), and eventually Blankenship accepted the offer.",
"Both his best [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters \"1500 meters\") and [mile](/wiki/Mile_run \"Mile run\") personal track records have been set indoors, his 3:53\\.13 mile set while finishing second in a world class field at the [New Balance Indoor Grand Prix](/wiki/New_Balance_Indoor_Grand_Prix \"New Balance Indoor Grand Prix\") in 2015 ranks as the \\#8 time by an American. His road mile personal best of 3:52\\.7, set while winning the \"Minnesota Mile\" is the fastest mile in Minnesota state history.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://bringbackthemile.com/athletes/detail/benjamin\\_blankenship \\|title\\=Ben Blankenship \\|work\\=bringbackthemile.com \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2016}}",
"At the [2015 IAAF World Relays](/wiki/2015_IAAF_World_Relays_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_distance_medley_relay \"2015 IAAF World Relays – Men's distance medley relay\") Blankenship put the weight of his team on his shoulders at the end of the distance medley relay. While he received the baton in first place, similar to a move in [track cycling](/wiki/Track_cycling \"Track cycling\") strategy, he immediately conceded the lead to Kenyan [Timothy Cheruiyot](/wiki/Timothy_Cheruiyot \"Timothy Cheruiyot\"), who in turn broke contact and attempted to run away with the race. Blankenship's even paced lack of aggression also let the Australian team anchor by [Collis Birmingham](/wiki/Collis_Birmingham \"Collis Birmingham\") back into contention. When Cheruiyot paid the price for his front running, Blankenship passed the tiring Cheruiyot. But Cheruiyot was not broken and stayed with in contact all the way to the final straightaway where Blankenship's speed put the race away. With the oddly strategic ending, the 0\\.06 of a second improvement on the existing world record by a Kenyan team in 2006 was more of an accident than a plan.",
"A month and a half later, at the [2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships](/wiki/2015_USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships \"2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships\"), Blankenship finished a disappointing fourth place, .02 behind [Leo Manzano](/wiki/Leo_Manzano \"Leo Manzano\"), only 0\\.03 behind second place [Robby Andrews](/wiki/Robby_Andrews \"Robby Andrews\") who finished with a late rush, to miss making the team for the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2015 World Championships in Athletics\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.usatf.tv/gprofile.php?mgroup\\_id\\=45365\\&do\\=videos\\&video\\_id\\=150434 \\|title\\=USATF.TV \\- Videos \\- Men's 1500m Final \\- USATF Outdoor Track and Field Championships 2015 \\|work\\=usatf.tv \\|access\\-date\\=11 July 2016}}",
"He won the 2016 Medtronic TC 1 mile, setting a course record of 3:55\\.8 and taking home the USATF Road Mile title.",
"On July 10, 2016, Blankenship finished third in the [1500 meters](/wiki/1500_meters \"1500 meters\") finals at the [2016 United States Olympic Trials](/wiki/2016_United_States_Olympic_Trials_%28track_and_field%29 \"2016 United States Olympic Trials (track and field)\"), qualifying him to compete in the 1500 meter race at the [2016 Olympic Games](/wiki/2016_Olympic_Games \"2016 Olympic Games\") in [Rio de Janeiro, Brazil](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro%2C_Brazil \"Rio de Janeiro, Brazil\"). Blankenship then finished 8th in the Olympic Final.",
"In September 2017, Blankenship set a record for the fastest 1 mile time in Alaska, achieving a time of 3:57\\.85\\. This makes Blankenship one of only two to run a mile in under 4 minutes in Alaska ever, along with [Kyle Merber](/wiki/Kyle_Merber \"Kyle Merber\").",
"Blankenship currently lives in [Eugene, Oregon](/wiki/Eugene%2C_Oregon \"Eugene, Oregon\") and trains with the [Oregon Track Club](/wiki/Oregon_Track_Club \"Oregon Track Club\").",
"Blankenship won a US national xc title over 10 km in 29:21 at 2018 [USATF National Club Cross Country Championships](/wiki/USATF_National_Club_Cross_Country_Championships \"USATF National Club Cross Country Championships\").[2018 USATF National Club Cross Country Championships \\- December 8, 2018 \\- Plantes Ferry Sports Complex \\- Spokane, WA](http://www.legacy.usatf.org/Events---Calendar/2018/USATF-National-Club-Cross-Country.aspx) [USATF](/wiki/USATF \"USATF\")",
""
] |
Northern America
----------------
[thumb\|upright\=2\.5\|Proportion of Indigenous Americans in each county of the [fifty states](/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States "List of states and territories of the United States"), the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia "District of Columbia"), and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico") as of the [2020 United States Census](/wiki/2020_United_States_Census "2020 United States Census")](/wiki/File:Indigenous_Americans_by_county.png "Indigenous Americans by county.png")
There is no single mythology of the [Native Americans in the United States](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States"), the [Indigenous peoples in Canada](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada "Indigenous peoples in Canada") and other peoples, but numerous different canons of traditional [narratives](/wiki/Narrative "Narrative") associated with [religion](/wiki/Religion "Religion"), ethics and beliefs.{{sfn\|Pearce\|2012\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=OVtmDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA10 10–]}}{{sfn\|Kelley\|2005\|pp\=}} Such stories are deeply based in [Nature](/wiki/Mother_Nature "Mother Nature") and are rich with the symbolism of seasons, weather, plants, animals, earth, water, fire, sky, and the heavenly bodies. Common elements are the principle of an all\-embracing, universal and omniscient [Great Spirit](/wiki/Great_Spirit "Great Spirit"), a connection to the Earth and its landscapes, a belief in a parallel world in the sky (sometimes also underground and/or below the water), diverse creation narratives, visits to the 'land of the dead', and collective [memories](/wiki/Memory "Memory") of ancient sacred ancestors.{{sfn\|Kelley\|2005\|pp\=}}
A characteristic of many of the myths is the close relationship between human beings and animals (including birds and reptiles). They often feature shape\-shifting between animal and the human form. Marriage between people and different species (particularly bears) is a common theme. In some stories, animals foster human children.
Although most Native North American myths are profound and serious, some use light\-hearted humor – often in the form of tricksters – to entertain, as they subtly convey important spiritual and moral messages. The use of [allegory](/wiki/Allegory "Allegory") is common, exploring issues ranging from love and friendship to domestic violence and mental illness.
Some myths are connected to traditional religious rituals involving dance, music, songs, and trance (e.g. the [Sun Dance](/wiki/Sun_Dance "Sun Dance")).
Most of the myths from this region were first transcribed by ethnologists during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These sources were collected from Native American elders who still had strong connections to the traditions of their ancestors. They may be considered the most authentic surviving records of the ancient stories, and thus form the basis of the descriptions below.The sources quoted are available to read online through websites such as [archive.org](https://archive.org){{Better source needed\|reason \= The reference leaves readers to do the research required to cite this, thus failing to serve as a fully explanatory reference. Replacement with references to specific articles at archive.org should fix this problem.\|date\=July 2020}}
### Northeast (Southeastern Canada and Northeastern US, including the Great Lakes)
[thumb\|From the full moon fell [Nokomis](/wiki/Nokomis "Nokomis") – from The Story of Hiawatha, 1910[The Story of Hiawatha](http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31926)](/wiki/File:FROM_THE_FULL_MOON_FELL_NOKOMIS_-_from_The_Story_of_Hiawatha%2C_Adapted_from_Longfellow_by_Winston_Stokes_and_Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow_-_Illustrator_M._L._Kirk_-_1910.jpg "FROM THE FULL MOON FELL NOKOMIS - from The Story of Hiawatha, Adapted from Longfellow by Winston Stokes and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow - Illustrator M. L. Kirk - 1910.jpg")
Myths from this region feature female deities, such as the creator, Big Turtle;{{Cite book\|title\=Thwaites, Reuben Gold (ed.): The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France 1610 \- 1791\. Hurons, Vol. X, 1636 and Vol. XII, Quebec1637 (Cleveland: The Burrows Brothers Company, 1898\)\|pages\=What the Hurons Think of their Origin}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Barbeau\|first\=C M\|date\=1915\|title\=Huron and Wyandot mythology, with appendix containing earlier published records\|pages\=The Origin of the World\|doi\=10\.4095/103488\|hdl\=2027/uc1\.32106000740347\|hdl\-access\=free}} and First Mother, from whose body grew the first corn and tobacco.{{Cite book\|title\=Curtis, Natalie: The Indians' Book (New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1907\)}} The two great divine culture heroes are [Glooskap](/wiki/Glooskap "Glooskap"){{Cite book\|title\=Leland, Charles Godfrey \& Prince, John Dyneley: Kulóskap the Master, and other Algonkin Poems (New York: Funk \& Wagnalls Company, 1902\)}}{{Cite book\|title\=Leland, Charles G.: The Algonquin Legends of New England (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin \& Co., 1884\)}} and Manabus.{{Cite book\|title\=Skinner, Alanson \& Satterlee, John V.: Folklore of the Menomini Indians (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1915\)}}
Other stories explore the complex relationships between animals and human beings. Some myths were originally recited as verse narratives.
* [Anishinaabe traditional beliefs](/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs "Anishinaabe traditional beliefs") \- The Anishinaabeg peoples (Algonquin/Nipissing, Ojibwa/Chippewa/Saulteaux/Mississaugas, Odawa, Potawatomi and Oji\-Cree)
* [Ho\-Chunk mythology](/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology "Ho-Chunk mythology") \- A North American tribe located in now eastern Wisconsin.
* [Iroquois mythology](/wiki/Iroquois_mythology "Iroquois mythology") \- A confederacy of tribes located in the New York state area.
* [Lenape mythology](/wiki/Lenape_mythology "Lenape mythology")
* [Seneca mythology](/wiki/Seneca_mythology "Seneca mythology") \- A North American tribe located south of Lake Ontario.
* [Wyandot religion](/wiki/Wyandot_religion "Wyandot religion") \- A North American tribe located around the northern shore of Lake Ontario.
### Great Plains
Stories unique to the [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains "Great Plains") feature [buffalo](/wiki/American_bison "American bison"), which provided the [Plains peoples](/wiki/Plains_Indians "Plains Indians") with food, clothing, housing and utensils. In some myths they are benign, in others fearsome and malevolent.{{Cite book\|title\=Lowie, Robert H.: Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians (American Museum of Natural History, 1918\)}} The Sun is an important deity;{{Cite book\|title\=Wissler, Clark \& Duvall, D.: Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1908\)}}{{Cite book\|title\=Grinnell, George Bird: Blackfoot Lodge Tales – The Story of a Prairie People (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1892\)}} other supernatural characters include Morning Star and the Thunderbirds.{{Cite book\|title\=Dorsey, George A.: Wichita Tales, 1, 2 and 3 (Journal of American Folklore, 1902, 1903 and 1904\)}}{{Cite book\|title\=Dorsey, James Owen: The Cehiga Language (Washington: Contributions to North American Ethnology, Government Printing Office, 1890\)}}
A common theme is the making of a journey, often to a supernatural place across the landscape or up to the parallel world in the sky.{{Cite book\|title\=Eastman, Charles A. \& Eastman, Elaine Goodale: Wigwam Evenings – Sioux Folk Tales Retold (Boston: Little Brown,1909\)}}
One of the most dominant trickster stories of the Plains is Old Man, about whom numerous humorous stories are told.{{Cite book\|title\=Michelson, Truman: Piegan Tales (Journal of American Folklore, 1911\)}} The Old Man, known as Waziya, lived beneath the earth with his wife, and they had a daughter. Their daughter married the wind and had four sons: North, East, South, and West. The sun, moon and winds then ruled the universe together.{{Cite web\|last\=Gunther\|first\=Erna\|date\=14 September 2016\|title\=Native American literature\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/art/Native\-American\-literature/Plains\|access\-date\=2 August 2020\|website\=Encyclopedia Britannica}}
An important supernatural hero is the Blood Clot Boy, transformed from a clot of blood.{{Cite book\|title\=McLaughlin, Marie L.: Myths and Legends of the Sioux (publisher unknown, 1916\)}}{{Cite book\|title\=Kroeber, A. L.: Gros Ventre Myths and Tales (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1907\)}}
* [Ho\-Chunk mythology](/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology "Ho-Chunk mythology")
* [Lakota mythology](/wiki/Lakota_mythology "Lakota mythology")
* [Pawnee mythology](/wiki/Pawnee_mythology "Pawnee mythology")
### Southeastern US
Important myths of this region deal with the origin of hunting and farming,{{Cite book\|title\=Mooney, James: Myths of the Cherokees (Journal of American Folklore, 1888\)}}{{Cite book\|title\=Mooney, James: Myths of the Cherokee (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1902\)}} and the origin of sickness and medicine.
An important practice of this region was [animism](/wiki/Animism "Animism"), the belief that all objects, places, and creatures have a soul.{{Cite web\|last1\=Pauls\|first1\=Elizabeth\|last2\=Fogelson\|first2\=Raymond\|date\=27 May 2019\|title\=Southeast Indian\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Southeast\-Indian/Cultural\-continuity\-and\-change\|access\-date\=5 August 2020\|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Most death, disease, or misfortune would be associated with the failure to put the soul of a slain animal to rest. When this happens, the animal could get vengeance through their "species chief". Large amounts of rare materials found with this regions dead suggest strong evidence that they believed in a sort of afterlife. It is thought that when a member of a tribe died, their soul would hover over their communities, trying to get their friends and relatives to join them, so their funeral ceremonies were not just to commemorate the dead, but to protect the living.
The [Green Corn ceremony](/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony "Green Corn Ceremony"), also known as Busk, was an annual celebration of a successful corn crop. Their fires were put out and rekindled, grudges are forgiven, and materials are thrown out or broken to then be replaced. It was essentially a renewing of life and community for these tribes.{{Cite web\|date\=5 May 2011\|title\=The Green Corn Ceremony\|url\=http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/951\|access\-date\=5 August 2020\|website\=Native American Netroots}}
#### Cherokee Myth of Creation
There was a time when there was no earth, and all creatures lived in a place above the sky called Galvlo’i. Everything below was only water, but when Galvlo’i got too crowded, the creatures decided to send down [Water Beetle](/wiki/Water_beetle "Water beetle") to see if he could find them a new place to live. He obliged and dove down into the water, all the way to the bottom of the sea, where he picked up a bit of mud and brought it to the surface. Once above the water, the mud spread out in all directions and became an island. The Great Spirit secured the island by attaching cords to it and tying it to the vault in the sky.
Though the land was now stable, the ground was too soft for any of the animals to stand on, so they sent down Buzzard to scope it out. He flew around for some time until he could find a dry enough spot to land, and when he did the flapping of his wings caused the mud to shift. It went down in some places and up in others, creating the peaks, valleys, hills, and mountains of the earth. The rest of the creatures were now able to come down, but they soon realized it was very dark, so they invited the sun to come with them. Everyone was happy except [Crawfish](/wiki/Crayfish "Crayfish"), who said his shell turned a bright red because the sun was too close, so they raised the sun seven different times until Crawfish was satisfied.
The Great Spirit then created plants for this new land, after which he told the animals to stay awake for seven days. Only Owl was able to do so, and as a reward, the Great Spirit gave him the gift of sight in the dark. The plants tried as well, but only the pines, firs, holly, and a select few others were able to stay awake, so he gave them the gift of keeping their leaves year\-round. Great Spirit then decided he wanted to have people live on this island, so he created one man and one woman. The pair did not yet know how to make children, so the man took a fish and pressed it against the woman's stomach, after which she gave birth. They did this for seven days until Great Spirit felt there was enough humans for the time being, and made it so a woman could only give birth once a year.{{Cite book\|last\=Clayton\|first\=Matt\|title\=Native American Mythology: Captivating Myths of Indigenous Peoples from North America\|publisher\=Independently Published\|year\=2019\|isbn\=9781696130752\|pages\=6–7}}
See also:
* [Cherokee mythology](/wiki/Cherokee_mythology "Cherokee mythology"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe that migrated from the great lakes area to the southeastern woodlands.
* [Choctaw mythology](/wiki/Choctaw_mythology "Choctaw mythology"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe from the area of modern\-day Alabama, Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana.
* [Creek mythology](/wiki/Creek_mythology "Creek mythology"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe from the area of modern\-day Georgia and Alabama.
### Caribbean US
* [Taíno mythology](/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_mythology "Taíno mythology"){{spaced ndash}}This mythology and philosophy expresses the spiritual beliefs of the maritime Maipurean island settlers from the Amazon and/or Arawakan group of peoples. Their lineage and mythologies include having a creator deity as well as endless cyclical spontaneous birth. Immigrating from North East South America, their stories include gods and deity veneration as well as a view beyond that. Some of the philosophies include a concept of reality as illusion; and also that this world is a dream. Some petroglyphs on the islands include references interpreted to suggest galactic or alien life. Today's members of the community have established several views of mythology; some indicating ancestor veneration while others focus on deity and spirit veneration. The belief sets indicate the lineage rather than pointing to one absolute truth. A commonality between lineages includes honoring ancestors through cemi/zemi stones; spiritual homes of the lineage, as well as respecting sun and moon spirits. Weather spirits and spirits of the honored dead are also respectfully acknowledged.
### California and Great Basin
Myths of this region are dominated by the sacred creator/trickster [Coyote](/wiki/Coyote_%28mythology%29 "Coyote (mythology)"). Other significant characters include the Sun People,{{Cite book\|title\=Barrett, S. A.: A Composite Myth of the Pomo Indians (Journal of American Folklore, 1906\)}} the Star Women{{Cite book\|title\=Merriam, C. Hart: The Dawn of the World: Myths and Weird Tales Told by the Mewan (Miwok) Indians of California (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke Co., 1910\)}} and Darkness.{{Cite book\|title\=Dixon, Roland B.: Achomawi and Atsugewi Tales (Journal of American Folklore, 1908 and 1909\)}}
A few of the most distinctive ceremonies of this region were their funeral customs and their commemoration of the dead. When a death occurred, the house in which it happened would be burnt down, and there would sometimes be bans on speaking the name of the dead. Widows would be smeared with pitch and their hair would be cut until the annual mourning releases them. This mourning came to be known as the "burning", the "cry", or the "dance of the dead". During these ceremonies, multiple properties are burned while the tribe dances, chants, and wails, in order to appease the ghosts.{{Cite book\|last\=Alexander\|first\=Hartley\|title\=Native American Mythology\|publisher\=Dover Publications\|year\=2012\|isbn\=9780486122793\|pages\=239–241}}
Another common ceremony is one that takes place when adolescents hit puberty. Girls go through a series of grueling [tabus](/wiki/Taboo "Taboo") when her first period starts but is followed by a celebratory dance when it ends. Boys will undergo an official initiation into the tribe by participating in ceremonies that recount the tribes' mysteries and myths.{{Cite book\|last\=Kroeber\|first\=A.\|title\=Handbook of the Indians of California\|publisher\=G.P.O.\|year\=1925\|pages\=609}}
See also:
* [Earth\-maker myth](/wiki/Earth-maker_myth "Earth-maker myth")
* [Kuksu](/wiki/Kuksu_%28religion%29 "Kuksu (religion)"){{spaced ndash}}a religion in Northern California practiced by members within several [Indigenous peoples of California](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California "Indigenous peoples of California").
* [Miwok mythology](/wiki/Miwok_mythology "Miwok mythology"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in Northern California.
* [Ohlone mythology](/wiki/Ohlone_mythology "Ohlone mythology"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in Northern California.
* [Pomo religion](/wiki/Pomo_religion "Pomo religion"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in Northern California.
### Southwest
Myths of the [Navajo](/wiki/Navajo "Navajo"), [Apache](/wiki/Apache "Apache"), and [Pueblo](/wiki/Puebloans "Puebloans") peoples tell how the first human beings emerged from an underworld to the Earth. According to the Hopi Pueblo people, the first beings were the Sun, two goddesses known as Hard Being Woman *(Huruing Wuhti)*{{Cite book\|title\=Voth, H. R.: The Traditions of the Hopi (Field Columbian Museum Publication, 190}} and Spider Woman.{{Cite book\|title\=Goddard, Pliny Earle: Myths and Tales from the White Mountain Apache (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1919}} It was the goddesses who created living creatures and human beings. Other themes include the origin of tobacco and corn,{{Cite book\|title\=Lloyd, J. William: Aw\-aw\-tam Indian Nights, Being the Myths and Legends of the Pimas of Arizona (Westfield, N.J: The Lloyd Group, 1911\)}} and horses; and a battle between summer and winter. Some stories describe parallel worlds in the sky{{Cite book\|title\=Cushing, Frank Hamilton: Zuni Folk Tales (New York: G.P. Putman's Sons, 1901\)}} and underwater. These peoples went on to kill each other due to Zuni tales.
Multi\-sensory experiences also are prominent in Ancestral Pueblo ceremonial rituals; for example, to evoke a paradisiacal realm, Chacoan people would perform sensorial ceremonies by use of exotic artifacts such as turquoise, shell, cacao, copper bells, and macaws.{{Cite journal \|last\=Weiner \|first\=Robert S. \|date\=2015 \|title\=A Sensory Approach to Exotica, Ritual Practice, and Cosmology at Chaco Canyon \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/00231940\.2016\.1147681 \|journal\=KIVA \|volume\=81 \|pages\=3\-4, 220\-24\|doi\=10\.1080/00231940\.2016\.1147681 \|s2cid\=133336351 }}
See also:
* [Ute mythology](/wiki/Ute_mythology "Ute mythology"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe located in both the [Northwestern](/wiki/Northwestern_United_States "Northwestern United States") and [Southwestern United States](/wiki/Southwestern_United_States "Southwestern United States").
* [Diné Bahaneʼ](/wiki/Din%C3%A9_Bahane%CA%BC "Diné Bahaneʼ") ([Navajo](/wiki/Navajo "Navajo")){{spaced ndash}}a North American nation from the Southwestern United States.
* [Hopi mythology](/wiki/Hopi_mythology "Hopi mythology"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona").
* [Zuni mythology](/wiki/Zuni_mythology "Zuni mythology"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico "New Mexico").
### Plateau
Myths of the [Plateau region](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau "Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau") express the people's intense spiritual feeling for their landscapes and emphasize the importance of treating with respect the animals that they depend upon for food.{{Cite book\|title\=Boas, Franz (Ed): Folk\-Tales of Salishan and Sahaptin Tribes (New York: American Folklore Society, 1917\)}}{{Cite book\|title\=Sapir, Edward \& Curtin, Jeremiah: Wishram Texts, Together with Wasco Tales and Myths (Publications of the American Ethnological Society, 1909\)}} Sacred tricksters here include Coyote{{Cite book\|title\=Teit, James: Traditions of the Thompson River Indians of British Columbia (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin \& Co. / London: David Nutt 1898\)}} and Fox.{{Cite book\|title\=Curtin, Jeremiah: Myths of the Modocs (Boston: Little, Brown, 1912\)}}
See also:
* [Salish mythology](/wiki/Salishan_oral_narratives "Salishan oral narratives"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe or band in Montana, [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho "Idaho"), Washington and [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia"), Canada
### Arctic (coastal Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland)
The myths of this region are strongly set in the landscape of tundra, snow, and ice. Memorable stories feature the winds, the moon, and the giants. Some accounts say that Anguta is the supreme being, who created the Earth, sea and heavenly bodies. His daughter, [Sedna](/wiki/Sedna_%28mythology%29 "Sedna (mythology)") created all living things – animals and plants. Sedna is also regarded as the protecting divinity of the Inuit.{{cite book\| title\=The Central Eskimo\| author\=Boas, F.\| publisher\=Read Books\| date\=2013\| isbn\=1473310792}}
### Subarctic (inland northern Canada and Alaska)
Here some myths reflect the extreme climate{{Cite book\|title\=Bell, Robert: Legends of the Slavey Indians of the Mackenzie River (Journal of American Folklore, 1901\)}} and the people's dependence on salmon as a major food resource.{{Cite book\|title\=Teit, James A.: Tahltan Tales 1 and 2 (Journal of American Folklore,1921\)}} In imagination, the landscape is populated by both benign and malevolent giants.{{Cite book\|title\=Teit, James A.: Kaska Tales (Journal of American Folklore, 1917\)}}
### Northwest
In this region, the dominant sacred trickster is Raven, who brought daylight to the world{{Cite book\|title\=Swanton, John R.: Tlingit Myths and Texts (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1909\)}} and appears in many other stories. Myths explore the people's relationship with the coast and the rivers along which they traditionally built their towns. There are stories of visits to parallel worlds beneath the sea{{Cite book\|title\=Boas, Franz: Tsimshian Mythology (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1916\)}} and up in the sky.{{Cite book\|title\=Swanton, John R.: Tlingit Myths and Texts (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1909\)}}
See also:
* [Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology](/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology "Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology"){{spaced ndash}}an Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.
* [Lummi](/wiki/Lummi_Nation "Lummi Nation"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe from the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest "Pacific Northwest"), [Washington state](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)") area.
* [Nuu\-chah\-nulth mythology](/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology "Nuu-chah-nulth mythology"){{spaced ndash}}a group of indigenous peoples living on [Vancouver Island](/wiki/Vancouver_Island "Vancouver Island") in British Columbia.
* [Haida mythology](/wiki/Haida_mythology "Haida mythology"){{spaced ndash}}a nation living in [Haida Gwaii](/wiki/Haida_Gwaii "Haida Gwaii") and the [Alaska Panhandle](/wiki/Southeast_Alaska "Southeast Alaska").
* [Tsimshian mythology](/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology "Tsimshian mythology"){{spaced ndash}}an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast living on the [British Columbia Coast](/wiki/British_Columbia_Coast "British Columbia Coast") and Alaska's [Annette Islands](/wiki/Annette_Island "Annette Island").
### Aztecs
The [Aztecs](/wiki/Aztecs "Aztecs"), who predominantly inhabited modern\-day central Mexico, had a complex system of beliefs based on deities who directly affected the lives of humans, including those who controlled rain, the rising Sun, and fertility. Voluntary human sacrifice was a central piece to the order of the universe and human survival.
The Aztecs viewed people as servants and warriors of the gods, whom were not merciful or generous, but all\-powerful beings that needed to be fed and appeased in order to avoid disaster and punishment.{{Cite web\|last\=Roos\|first\=Dave\|date\=11 October 2018\|title\=Human Sacrifice: Why the Aztecs Practiced This Gory Ritual\|url\=https://www.history.com/news/aztec\-human\-sacrifice\-religion\|access\-date\=5 August 2020\|website\=History.com\|publisher\=A\&E Television Networks}} Thus, the concept of human sacrifice emerged. This practice was not new and had been used in other cultures such as the [Mayans](/wiki/Maya_peoples "Maya peoples"), but the Aztecs made this their main event, so to speak, in their ceremonies. These sacrifices were mainly to appease the sun god.
#### Creation Myth
According to the Aztecs, the creation of the earth started with a god called [Ometeotl](/wiki/%C5%8Cmete%C5%8Dtl "Ōmeteōtl"), otherwise known as the dual god, as they were made from the union of [Tonacatecuhtli](/wiki/T%C5%8Dnac%C4%81t%C4%93cuhtli "Tōnacātēcuhtli") and [Tonacacihuatl](/wiki/T%C5%8Dnac%C4%81cihu%C4%81tl "Tōnacācihuātl"), whom the Aztecs believed were the lord and lady of their sustenance. Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl had four children: [Xipe Totec](/wiki/Xipe_Totec "Xipe Totec"), which translates to "the flayed god" in [Nahuatl](/wiki/Nahuatl "Nahuatl"), is associated with the color red. He is the god of the seasons and all things that grow on the earth. [Tezcatlipoca](/wiki/Tezcatlipoca "Tezcatlipoca"), which translates to "smoking mirror", is associated with the color black. He is the god of the earth and the most powerful of the four children. [Quetzalcoatl](/wiki/Quetzalcoatl "Quetzalcoatl"), which translates to "plumed serpent", is associated with the color white. He is the god of air. Finally, [Huitzilopochtli](/wiki/Hu%C4%ABtzil%C5%8Dp%C5%8Dchtli "Huītzilōpōchtli"), which translates to "hummingbird of the south", is associated with the color blue. He is the god of war.{{Cite book\|last\=Clayton\|first\=Matt\|title\=Aztec Mythology: Captivating Aztec Myths of Gods, Goddesses, and Legendary Creatures\|publisher\=Independently published\|year\=2018\|isbn\=9781952191275\|pages\=14–22}}
[thumb\|Quetzalcoatl (The Plumed Serpent), the god of the air. And Tezcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror), the god of the earth.](/wiki/File:Quetzalcoatl_and_Tezcatlipoca.jpg "Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca.jpg")
The four children decided they wanted to create a world with people to live in it. Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli made the first attempt, starting by making fire. This fire became the sun, but only half a sun, because it was not big or bright enough to light their entire world. They then made the first man and woman, which they called Cipactonal and Oxomoco respectively. Their many children were called macehuales, and were to be the farmers of the land. From there they created time, and then the underworld known as
There are many stories of how the age of the fifth and final sun came to be. One story tells of how Tezcatlipoca took flint and used it to make fires to light the world again, before discussing with his brothers what should be done. They decided to make a new sun that feeds on the hearts and blood of humans. To feed it, they made four hundred men and five women. This is where the story goes into different directions. Some say that both Quetzalcoatl and Tlaloc wanted their sons to become the new sun, so they each threw their sons into one of the fires created by Tezcatlipoca. Tlaloc waited for the fire to burn out before throwing his son into the embers, so his son became the moon. Quetzalcoatl elected to throw his son directly into the fiery blaze, so he became the fifth and final sun that we see in the sky today. Another story tells of the gathering of the gods at the ancient city of [Teotihuacan](/wiki/Teotihuacan "Teotihuacan"), to discuss how to make a new sun. A god by the name of [Nanahuatzin](/wiki/Nanahuatzin "Nanahuatzin"), god of disease, offered to throw himself into the fire and become the new sun. Being a weak and sickly god, the others thought he should not be the one to do it, and that a stronger and more powerful god should be the sun.
[Tecuciztecatl](/wiki/T%C4%93ccizt%C4%93catl "Tēcciztēcatl"), a very wealthy god, stepped forward and said he would do it, but was not able to find the courage to jump into the flames. Nanahuatzin, with little hesitation, then threw himself into the fire. Seeing his bravery, Tecuciztecatl decided to jump in too. They were both transformed into suns, but the light was now too bright to see anything, so one of the other gods threw a rabbit at Tecuciztecatl, dimming his light and turning him into the moon. Nanahuatzin, now the new sun, was essentially reborn as [Ollin Tonatiuh](/wiki/T%C5%8Dnatiuh "Tōnatiuh"). The problem they now had was that he would not move from his position in the sky unless the other gods sacrificed their blood for him. So a god by the name of [Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli](/wiki/Tl%C4%81huizcalpantecuhtli "Tlāhuizcalpantecuhtli"), lord of dawn, threw a dart at Tonatiuh, but missed. Tonatiuh then threw one back at Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, hitting him in the head and turning him into [Itzlacoliuhqui](/wiki/Itztlacoliuhqui "Itztlacoliuhqui"), god of coldness, frost, and obsidian. Realizing that they could not refuse, the other gods offered their bare chests to him, and Quetzalcoatl cut out their hearts with a sacrificial knife. With the blood of the gods, Tonatiuh began to move across the sky in the same pattern that we see to this day. Quetzalcoatl took the clothing and ornaments of the sacrificed gods and wrapped them in bundles, which the people then worshipped.
|
[
"Northern America\n----------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=2\\.5\\|Proportion of Indigenous Americans in each county of the [fifty states](/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States \"List of states and territories of the United States\"), the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia \"District of Columbia\"), and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") as of the [2020 United States Census](/wiki/2020_United_States_Census \"2020 United States Census\")](/wiki/File:Indigenous_Americans_by_county.png \"Indigenous Americans by county.png\")\nThere is no single mythology of the [Native Americans in the United States](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\"), the [Indigenous peoples in Canada](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada \"Indigenous peoples in Canada\") and other peoples, but numerous different canons of traditional [narratives](/wiki/Narrative \"Narrative\") associated with [religion](/wiki/Religion \"Religion\"), ethics and beliefs.{{sfn\\|Pearce\\|2012\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OVtmDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA10 10–]}}{{sfn\\|Kelley\\|2005\\|pp\\=}} Such stories are deeply based in [Nature](/wiki/Mother_Nature \"Mother Nature\") and are rich with the symbolism of seasons, weather, plants, animals, earth, water, fire, sky, and the heavenly bodies. Common elements are the principle of an all\\-embracing, universal and omniscient [Great Spirit](/wiki/Great_Spirit \"Great Spirit\"), a connection to the Earth and its landscapes, a belief in a parallel world in the sky (sometimes also underground and/or below the water), diverse creation narratives, visits to the 'land of the dead', and collective [memories](/wiki/Memory \"Memory\") of ancient sacred ancestors.{{sfn\\|Kelley\\|2005\\|pp\\=}}",
"A characteristic of many of the myths is the close relationship between human beings and animals (including birds and reptiles). They often feature shape\\-shifting between animal and the human form. Marriage between people and different species (particularly bears) is a common theme. In some stories, animals foster human children.",
"Although most Native North American myths are profound and serious, some use light\\-hearted humor – often in the form of tricksters – to entertain, as they subtly convey important spiritual and moral messages. The use of [allegory](/wiki/Allegory \"Allegory\") is common, exploring issues ranging from love and friendship to domestic violence and mental illness.",
"Some myths are connected to traditional religious rituals involving dance, music, songs, and trance (e.g. the [Sun Dance](/wiki/Sun_Dance \"Sun Dance\")).",
"Most of the myths from this region were first transcribed by ethnologists during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These sources were collected from Native American elders who still had strong connections to the traditions of their ancestors. They may be considered the most authentic surviving records of the ancient stories, and thus form the basis of the descriptions below.The sources quoted are available to read online through websites such as [archive.org](https://archive.org){{Better source needed\\|reason \\= The reference leaves readers to do the research required to cite this, thus failing to serve as a fully explanatory reference. Replacement with references to specific articles at archive.org should fix this problem.\\|date\\=July 2020}}",
"### Northeast (Southeastern Canada and Northeastern US, including the Great Lakes)",
"[thumb\\|From the full moon fell [Nokomis](/wiki/Nokomis \"Nokomis\") – from The Story of Hiawatha, 1910[The Story of Hiawatha](http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31926)](/wiki/File:FROM_THE_FULL_MOON_FELL_NOKOMIS_-_from_The_Story_of_Hiawatha%2C_Adapted_from_Longfellow_by_Winston_Stokes_and_Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow_-_Illustrator_M._L._Kirk_-_1910.jpg \"FROM THE FULL MOON FELL NOKOMIS - from The Story of Hiawatha, Adapted from Longfellow by Winston Stokes and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow - Illustrator M. L. Kirk - 1910.jpg\")",
"Myths from this region feature female deities, such as the creator, Big Turtle;{{Cite book\\|title\\=Thwaites, Reuben Gold (ed.): The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France 1610 \\- 1791\\. Hurons, Vol. X, 1636 and Vol. XII, Quebec1637 (Cleveland: The Burrows Brothers Company, 1898\\)\\|pages\\=What the Hurons Think of their Origin}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Barbeau\\|first\\=C M\\|date\\=1915\\|title\\=Huron and Wyandot mythology, with appendix containing earlier published records\\|pages\\=The Origin of the World\\|doi\\=10\\.4095/103488\\|hdl\\=2027/uc1\\.32106000740347\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} and First Mother, from whose body grew the first corn and tobacco.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Curtis, Natalie: The Indians' Book (New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1907\\)}} The two great divine culture heroes are [Glooskap](/wiki/Glooskap \"Glooskap\"){{Cite book\\|title\\=Leland, Charles Godfrey \\& Prince, John Dyneley: Kulóskap the Master, and other Algonkin Poems (New York: Funk \\& Wagnalls Company, 1902\\)}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Leland, Charles G.: The Algonquin Legends of New England (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin \\& Co., 1884\\)}} and Manabus.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Skinner, Alanson \\& Satterlee, John V.: Folklore of the Menomini Indians (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1915\\)}}",
"Other stories explore the complex relationships between animals and human beings. Some myths were originally recited as verse narratives.",
"* [Anishinaabe traditional beliefs](/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs \"Anishinaabe traditional beliefs\") \\- The Anishinaabeg peoples (Algonquin/Nipissing, Ojibwa/Chippewa/Saulteaux/Mississaugas, Odawa, Potawatomi and Oji\\-Cree)\n* [Ho\\-Chunk mythology](/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology \"Ho-Chunk mythology\") \\- A North American tribe located in now eastern Wisconsin.\n* [Iroquois mythology](/wiki/Iroquois_mythology \"Iroquois mythology\") \\- A confederacy of tribes located in the New York state area.\n* [Lenape mythology](/wiki/Lenape_mythology \"Lenape mythology\")\n* [Seneca mythology](/wiki/Seneca_mythology \"Seneca mythology\") \\- A North American tribe located south of Lake Ontario.\n* [Wyandot religion](/wiki/Wyandot_religion \"Wyandot religion\") \\- A North American tribe located around the northern shore of Lake Ontario.",
"### Great Plains",
"Stories unique to the [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains \"Great Plains\") feature [buffalo](/wiki/American_bison \"American bison\"), which provided the [Plains peoples](/wiki/Plains_Indians \"Plains Indians\") with food, clothing, housing and utensils. In some myths they are benign, in others fearsome and malevolent.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Lowie, Robert H.: Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians (American Museum of Natural History, 1918\\)}} The Sun is an important deity;{{Cite book\\|title\\=Wissler, Clark \\& Duvall, D.: Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1908\\)}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Grinnell, George Bird: Blackfoot Lodge Tales – The Story of a Prairie People (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1892\\)}} other supernatural characters include Morning Star and the Thunderbirds.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Dorsey, George A.: Wichita Tales, 1, 2 and 3 (Journal of American Folklore, 1902, 1903 and 1904\\)}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Dorsey, James Owen: The Cehiga Language (Washington: Contributions to North American Ethnology, Government Printing Office, 1890\\)}}",
"A common theme is the making of a journey, often to a supernatural place across the landscape or up to the parallel world in the sky.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Eastman, Charles A. \\& Eastman, Elaine Goodale: Wigwam Evenings – Sioux Folk Tales Retold (Boston: Little Brown,1909\\)}}",
"One of the most dominant trickster stories of the Plains is Old Man, about whom numerous humorous stories are told.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Michelson, Truman: Piegan Tales (Journal of American Folklore, 1911\\)}} The Old Man, known as Waziya, lived beneath the earth with his wife, and they had a daughter. Their daughter married the wind and had four sons: North, East, South, and West. The sun, moon and winds then ruled the universe together.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gunther\\|first\\=Erna\\|date\\=14 September 2016\\|title\\=Native American literature\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/art/Native\\-American\\-literature/Plains\\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2020\\|website\\=Encyclopedia Britannica}}",
"An important supernatural hero is the Blood Clot Boy, transformed from a clot of blood.{{Cite book\\|title\\=McLaughlin, Marie L.: Myths and Legends of the Sioux (publisher unknown, 1916\\)}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Kroeber, A. L.: Gros Ventre Myths and Tales (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1907\\)}}",
"* [Ho\\-Chunk mythology](/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology \"Ho-Chunk mythology\")\n* [Lakota mythology](/wiki/Lakota_mythology \"Lakota mythology\")\n* [Pawnee mythology](/wiki/Pawnee_mythology \"Pawnee mythology\")",
"### Southeastern US",
"Important myths of this region deal with the origin of hunting and farming,{{Cite book\\|title\\=Mooney, James: Myths of the Cherokees (Journal of American Folklore, 1888\\)}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Mooney, James: Myths of the Cherokee (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1902\\)}} and the origin of sickness and medicine.",
"An important practice of this region was [animism](/wiki/Animism \"Animism\"), the belief that all objects, places, and creatures have a soul.{{Cite web\\|last1\\=Pauls\\|first1\\=Elizabeth\\|last2\\=Fogelson\\|first2\\=Raymond\\|date\\=27 May 2019\\|title\\=Southeast Indian\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Southeast\\-Indian/Cultural\\-continuity\\-and\\-change\\|access\\-date\\=5 August 2020\\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Most death, disease, or misfortune would be associated with the failure to put the soul of a slain animal to rest. When this happens, the animal could get vengeance through their \"species chief\". Large amounts of rare materials found with this regions dead suggest strong evidence that they believed in a sort of afterlife. It is thought that when a member of a tribe died, their soul would hover over their communities, trying to get their friends and relatives to join them, so their funeral ceremonies were not just to commemorate the dead, but to protect the living.",
"The [Green Corn ceremony](/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony \"Green Corn Ceremony\"), also known as Busk, was an annual celebration of a successful corn crop. Their fires were put out and rekindled, grudges are forgiven, and materials are thrown out or broken to then be replaced. It was essentially a renewing of life and community for these tribes.{{Cite web\\|date\\=5 May 2011\\|title\\=The Green Corn Ceremony\\|url\\=http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/951\\|access\\-date\\=5 August 2020\\|website\\=Native American Netroots}}",
"#### Cherokee Myth of Creation",
"There was a time when there was no earth, and all creatures lived in a place above the sky called Galvlo’i. Everything below was only water, but when Galvlo’i got too crowded, the creatures decided to send down [Water Beetle](/wiki/Water_beetle \"Water beetle\") to see if he could find them a new place to live. He obliged and dove down into the water, all the way to the bottom of the sea, where he picked up a bit of mud and brought it to the surface. Once above the water, the mud spread out in all directions and became an island. The Great Spirit secured the island by attaching cords to it and tying it to the vault in the sky.",
"Though the land was now stable, the ground was too soft for any of the animals to stand on, so they sent down Buzzard to scope it out. He flew around for some time until he could find a dry enough spot to land, and when he did the flapping of his wings caused the mud to shift. It went down in some places and up in others, creating the peaks, valleys, hills, and mountains of the earth. The rest of the creatures were now able to come down, but they soon realized it was very dark, so they invited the sun to come with them. Everyone was happy except [Crawfish](/wiki/Crayfish \"Crayfish\"), who said his shell turned a bright red because the sun was too close, so they raised the sun seven different times until Crawfish was satisfied.",
"The Great Spirit then created plants for this new land, after which he told the animals to stay awake for seven days. Only Owl was able to do so, and as a reward, the Great Spirit gave him the gift of sight in the dark. The plants tried as well, but only the pines, firs, holly, and a select few others were able to stay awake, so he gave them the gift of keeping their leaves year\\-round. Great Spirit then decided he wanted to have people live on this island, so he created one man and one woman. The pair did not yet know how to make children, so the man took a fish and pressed it against the woman's stomach, after which she gave birth. They did this for seven days until Great Spirit felt there was enough humans for the time being, and made it so a woman could only give birth once a year.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Clayton\\|first\\=Matt\\|title\\=Native American Mythology: Captivating Myths of Indigenous Peoples from North America\\|publisher\\=Independently Published\\|year\\=2019\\|isbn\\=9781696130752\\|pages\\=6–7}}",
"See also: \n* [Cherokee mythology](/wiki/Cherokee_mythology \"Cherokee mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe that migrated from the great lakes area to the southeastern woodlands.\n* [Choctaw mythology](/wiki/Choctaw_mythology \"Choctaw mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe from the area of modern\\-day Alabama, Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana.\n* [Creek mythology](/wiki/Creek_mythology \"Creek mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe from the area of modern\\-day Georgia and Alabama.",
"### Caribbean US",
"* [Taíno mythology](/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_mythology \"Taíno mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}This mythology and philosophy expresses the spiritual beliefs of the maritime Maipurean island settlers from the Amazon and/or Arawakan group of peoples. Their lineage and mythologies include having a creator deity as well as endless cyclical spontaneous birth. Immigrating from North East South America, their stories include gods and deity veneration as well as a view beyond that. Some of the philosophies include a concept of reality as illusion; and also that this world is a dream. Some petroglyphs on the islands include references interpreted to suggest galactic or alien life. Today's members of the community have established several views of mythology; some indicating ancestor veneration while others focus on deity and spirit veneration. The belief sets indicate the lineage rather than pointing to one absolute truth. A commonality between lineages includes honoring ancestors through cemi/zemi stones; spiritual homes of the lineage, as well as respecting sun and moon spirits. Weather spirits and spirits of the honored dead are also respectfully acknowledged.",
"### California and Great Basin",
"Myths of this region are dominated by the sacred creator/trickster [Coyote](/wiki/Coyote_%28mythology%29 \"Coyote (mythology)\"). Other significant characters include the Sun People,{{Cite book\\|title\\=Barrett, S. A.: A Composite Myth of the Pomo Indians (Journal of American Folklore, 1906\\)}} the Star Women{{Cite book\\|title\\=Merriam, C. Hart: The Dawn of the World: Myths and Weird Tales Told by the Mewan (Miwok) Indians of California (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke Co., 1910\\)}} and Darkness.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Dixon, Roland B.: Achomawi and Atsugewi Tales (Journal of American Folklore, 1908 and 1909\\)}}",
"A few of the most distinctive ceremonies of this region were their funeral customs and their commemoration of the dead. When a death occurred, the house in which it happened would be burnt down, and there would sometimes be bans on speaking the name of the dead. Widows would be smeared with pitch and their hair would be cut until the annual mourning releases them. This mourning came to be known as the \"burning\", the \"cry\", or the \"dance of the dead\". During these ceremonies, multiple properties are burned while the tribe dances, chants, and wails, in order to appease the ghosts.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Alexander\\|first\\=Hartley\\|title\\=Native American Mythology\\|publisher\\=Dover Publications\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=9780486122793\\|pages\\=239–241}}",
"Another common ceremony is one that takes place when adolescents hit puberty. Girls go through a series of grueling [tabus](/wiki/Taboo \"Taboo\") when her first period starts but is followed by a celebratory dance when it ends. Boys will undergo an official initiation into the tribe by participating in ceremonies that recount the tribes' mysteries and myths.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Kroeber\\|first\\=A.\\|title\\=Handbook of the Indians of California\\|publisher\\=G.P.O.\\|year\\=1925\\|pages\\=609}}",
"See also:\n* [Earth\\-maker myth](/wiki/Earth-maker_myth \"Earth-maker myth\")\n* [Kuksu](/wiki/Kuksu_%28religion%29 \"Kuksu (religion)\"){{spaced ndash}}a religion in Northern California practiced by members within several [Indigenous peoples of California](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California \"Indigenous peoples of California\").\n* [Miwok mythology](/wiki/Miwok_mythology \"Miwok mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in Northern California.\n* [Ohlone mythology](/wiki/Ohlone_mythology \"Ohlone mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in Northern California.\n* [Pomo religion](/wiki/Pomo_religion \"Pomo religion\"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in Northern California.",
"### Southwest",
"Myths of the [Navajo](/wiki/Navajo \"Navajo\"), [Apache](/wiki/Apache \"Apache\"), and [Pueblo](/wiki/Puebloans \"Puebloans\") peoples tell how the first human beings emerged from an underworld to the Earth. According to the Hopi Pueblo people, the first beings were the Sun, two goddesses known as Hard Being Woman *(Huruing Wuhti)*{{Cite book\\|title\\=Voth, H. R.: The Traditions of the Hopi (Field Columbian Museum Publication, 190}} and Spider Woman.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Goddard, Pliny Earle: Myths and Tales from the White Mountain Apache (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1919}} It was the goddesses who created living creatures and human beings. Other themes include the origin of tobacco and corn,{{Cite book\\|title\\=Lloyd, J. William: Aw\\-aw\\-tam Indian Nights, Being the Myths and Legends of the Pimas of Arizona (Westfield, N.J: The Lloyd Group, 1911\\)}} and horses; and a battle between summer and winter. Some stories describe parallel worlds in the sky{{Cite book\\|title\\=Cushing, Frank Hamilton: Zuni Folk Tales (New York: G.P. Putman's Sons, 1901\\)}} and underwater. These peoples went on to kill each other due to Zuni tales.",
"Multi\\-sensory experiences also are prominent in Ancestral Pueblo ceremonial rituals; for example, to evoke a paradisiacal realm, Chacoan people would perform sensorial ceremonies by use of exotic artifacts such as turquoise, shell, cacao, copper bells, and macaws.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Weiner \\|first\\=Robert S. \\|date\\=2015 \\|title\\=A Sensory Approach to Exotica, Ritual Practice, and Cosmology at Chaco Canyon \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/00231940\\.2016\\.1147681 \\|journal\\=KIVA \\|volume\\=81 \\|pages\\=3\\-4, 220\\-24\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00231940\\.2016\\.1147681 \\|s2cid\\=133336351 }}",
"See also:\n* [Ute mythology](/wiki/Ute_mythology \"Ute mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe located in both the [Northwestern](/wiki/Northwestern_United_States \"Northwestern United States\") and [Southwestern United States](/wiki/Southwestern_United_States \"Southwestern United States\").\n* [Diné Bahaneʼ](/wiki/Din%C3%A9_Bahane%CA%BC \"Diné Bahaneʼ\") ([Navajo](/wiki/Navajo \"Navajo\")){{spaced ndash}}a North American nation from the Southwestern United States.\n* [Hopi mythology](/wiki/Hopi_mythology \"Hopi mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\").\n* [Zuni mythology](/wiki/Zuni_mythology \"Zuni mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe in [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico \"New Mexico\").",
"### Plateau",
"Myths of the [Plateau region](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau \"Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau\") express the people's intense spiritual feeling for their landscapes and emphasize the importance of treating with respect the animals that they depend upon for food.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Boas, Franz (Ed): Folk\\-Tales of Salishan and Sahaptin Tribes (New York: American Folklore Society, 1917\\)}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Sapir, Edward \\& Curtin, Jeremiah: Wishram Texts, Together with Wasco Tales and Myths (Publications of the American Ethnological Society, 1909\\)}} Sacred tricksters here include Coyote{{Cite book\\|title\\=Teit, James: Traditions of the Thompson River Indians of British Columbia (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin \\& Co. / London: David Nutt 1898\\)}} and Fox.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Curtin, Jeremiah: Myths of the Modocs (Boston: Little, Brown, 1912\\)}}",
"See also:\n* [Salish mythology](/wiki/Salishan_oral_narratives \"Salishan oral narratives\"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe or band in Montana, [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho \"Idaho\"), Washington and [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\"), Canada",
"### Arctic (coastal Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland)",
"The myths of this region are strongly set in the landscape of tundra, snow, and ice. Memorable stories feature the winds, the moon, and the giants. Some accounts say that Anguta is the supreme being, who created the Earth, sea and heavenly bodies. His daughter, [Sedna](/wiki/Sedna_%28mythology%29 \"Sedna (mythology)\") created all living things – animals and plants. Sedna is also regarded as the protecting divinity of the Inuit.{{cite book\\| title\\=The Central Eskimo\\| author\\=Boas, F.\\| publisher\\=Read Books\\| date\\=2013\\| isbn\\=1473310792}}",
"### Subarctic (inland northern Canada and Alaska)",
"Here some myths reflect the extreme climate{{Cite book\\|title\\=Bell, Robert: Legends of the Slavey Indians of the Mackenzie River (Journal of American Folklore, 1901\\)}} and the people's dependence on salmon as a major food resource.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Teit, James A.: Tahltan Tales 1 and 2 (Journal of American Folklore,1921\\)}} In imagination, the landscape is populated by both benign and malevolent giants.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Teit, James A.: Kaska Tales (Journal of American Folklore, 1917\\)}}",
"### Northwest",
"In this region, the dominant sacred trickster is Raven, who brought daylight to the world{{Cite book\\|title\\=Swanton, John R.: Tlingit Myths and Texts (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1909\\)}} and appears in many other stories. Myths explore the people's relationship with the coast and the rivers along which they traditionally built their towns. There are stories of visits to parallel worlds beneath the sea{{Cite book\\|title\\=Boas, Franz: Tsimshian Mythology (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1916\\)}} and up in the sky.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Swanton, John R.: Tlingit Myths and Texts (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1909\\)}}",
"See also:\n* [Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology](/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology \"Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}an Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.\n* [Lummi](/wiki/Lummi_Nation \"Lummi Nation\"){{spaced ndash}}a North American tribe from the [Pacific Northwest](/wiki/Pacific_Northwest \"Pacific Northwest\"), [Washington state](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\") area.\n* [Nuu\\-chah\\-nulth mythology](/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology \"Nuu-chah-nulth mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}a group of indigenous peoples living on [Vancouver Island](/wiki/Vancouver_Island \"Vancouver Island\") in British Columbia.\n* [Haida mythology](/wiki/Haida_mythology \"Haida mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}a nation living in [Haida Gwaii](/wiki/Haida_Gwaii \"Haida Gwaii\") and the [Alaska Panhandle](/wiki/Southeast_Alaska \"Southeast Alaska\").\n* [Tsimshian mythology](/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology \"Tsimshian mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast living on the [British Columbia Coast](/wiki/British_Columbia_Coast \"British Columbia Coast\") and Alaska's [Annette Islands](/wiki/Annette_Island \"Annette Island\").",
"### Aztecs",
"The [Aztecs](/wiki/Aztecs \"Aztecs\"), who predominantly inhabited modern\\-day central Mexico, had a complex system of beliefs based on deities who directly affected the lives of humans, including those who controlled rain, the rising Sun, and fertility. Voluntary human sacrifice was a central piece to the order of the universe and human survival.",
"The Aztecs viewed people as servants and warriors of the gods, whom were not merciful or generous, but all\\-powerful beings that needed to be fed and appeased in order to avoid disaster and punishment.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Roos\\|first\\=Dave\\|date\\=11 October 2018\\|title\\=Human Sacrifice: Why the Aztecs Practiced This Gory Ritual\\|url\\=https://www.history.com/news/aztec\\-human\\-sacrifice\\-religion\\|access\\-date\\=5 August 2020\\|website\\=History.com\\|publisher\\=A\\&E Television Networks}} Thus, the concept of human sacrifice emerged. This practice was not new and had been used in other cultures such as the [Mayans](/wiki/Maya_peoples \"Maya peoples\"), but the Aztecs made this their main event, so to speak, in their ceremonies. These sacrifices were mainly to appease the sun god.",
"#### Creation Myth",
"According to the Aztecs, the creation of the earth started with a god called [Ometeotl](/wiki/%C5%8Cmete%C5%8Dtl \"Ōmeteōtl\"), otherwise known as the dual god, as they were made from the union of [Tonacatecuhtli](/wiki/T%C5%8Dnac%C4%81t%C4%93cuhtli \"Tōnacātēcuhtli\") and [Tonacacihuatl](/wiki/T%C5%8Dnac%C4%81cihu%C4%81tl \"Tōnacācihuātl\"), whom the Aztecs believed were the lord and lady of their sustenance. Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl had four children: [Xipe Totec](/wiki/Xipe_Totec \"Xipe Totec\"), which translates to \"the flayed god\" in [Nahuatl](/wiki/Nahuatl \"Nahuatl\"), is associated with the color red. He is the god of the seasons and all things that grow on the earth. [Tezcatlipoca](/wiki/Tezcatlipoca \"Tezcatlipoca\"), which translates to \"smoking mirror\", is associated with the color black. He is the god of the earth and the most powerful of the four children. [Quetzalcoatl](/wiki/Quetzalcoatl \"Quetzalcoatl\"), which translates to \"plumed serpent\", is associated with the color white. He is the god of air. Finally, [Huitzilopochtli](/wiki/Hu%C4%ABtzil%C5%8Dp%C5%8Dchtli \"Huītzilōpōchtli\"), which translates to \"hummingbird of the south\", is associated with the color blue. He is the god of war.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Clayton\\|first\\=Matt\\|title\\=Aztec Mythology: Captivating Aztec Myths of Gods, Goddesses, and Legendary Creatures\\|publisher\\=Independently published\\|year\\=2018\\|isbn\\=9781952191275\\|pages\\=14–22}}\n[thumb\\|Quetzalcoatl (The Plumed Serpent), the god of the air. And Tezcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror), the god of the earth.](/wiki/File:Quetzalcoatl_and_Tezcatlipoca.jpg \"Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca.jpg\")\nThe four children decided they wanted to create a world with people to live in it. Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli made the first attempt, starting by making fire. This fire became the sun, but only half a sun, because it was not big or bright enough to light their entire world. They then made the first man and woman, which they called Cipactonal and Oxomoco respectively. Their many children were called macehuales, and were to be the farmers of the land. From there they created time, and then the underworld known as\nThere are many stories of how the age of the fifth and final sun came to be. One story tells of how Tezcatlipoca took flint and used it to make fires to light the world again, before discussing with his brothers what should be done. They decided to make a new sun that feeds on the hearts and blood of humans. To feed it, they made four hundred men and five women. This is where the story goes into different directions. Some say that both Quetzalcoatl and Tlaloc wanted their sons to become the new sun, so they each threw their sons into one of the fires created by Tezcatlipoca. Tlaloc waited for the fire to burn out before throwing his son into the embers, so his son became the moon. Quetzalcoatl elected to throw his son directly into the fiery blaze, so he became the fifth and final sun that we see in the sky today. Another story tells of the gathering of the gods at the ancient city of [Teotihuacan](/wiki/Teotihuacan \"Teotihuacan\"), to discuss how to make a new sun. A god by the name of [Nanahuatzin](/wiki/Nanahuatzin \"Nanahuatzin\"), god of disease, offered to throw himself into the fire and become the new sun. Being a weak and sickly god, the others thought he should not be the one to do it, and that a stronger and more powerful god should be the sun. \n[Tecuciztecatl](/wiki/T%C4%93ccizt%C4%93catl \"Tēcciztēcatl\"), a very wealthy god, stepped forward and said he would do it, but was not able to find the courage to jump into the flames. Nanahuatzin, with little hesitation, then threw himself into the fire. Seeing his bravery, Tecuciztecatl decided to jump in too. They were both transformed into suns, but the light was now too bright to see anything, so one of the other gods threw a rabbit at Tecuciztecatl, dimming his light and turning him into the moon. Nanahuatzin, now the new sun, was essentially reborn as [Ollin Tonatiuh](/wiki/T%C5%8Dnatiuh \"Tōnatiuh\"). The problem they now had was that he would not move from his position in the sky unless the other gods sacrificed their blood for him. So a god by the name of [Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli](/wiki/Tl%C4%81huizcalpantecuhtli \"Tlāhuizcalpantecuhtli\"), lord of dawn, threw a dart at Tonatiuh, but missed. Tonatiuh then threw one back at Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, hitting him in the head and turning him into [Itzlacoliuhqui](/wiki/Itztlacoliuhqui \"Itztlacoliuhqui\"), god of coldness, frost, and obsidian. Realizing that they could not refuse, the other gods offered their bare chests to him, and Quetzalcoatl cut out their hearts with a sacrificial knife. With the blood of the gods, Tonatiuh began to move across the sky in the same pattern that we see to this day. Quetzalcoatl took the clothing and ornaments of the sacrificed gods and wrapped them in bundles, which the people then worshipped.",
""
] |
### Southeastern US
Important myths of this region deal with the origin of hunting and farming,{{Cite book\|title\=Mooney, James: Myths of the Cherokees (Journal of American Folklore, 1888\)}}{{Cite book\|title\=Mooney, James: Myths of the Cherokee (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1902\)}} and the origin of sickness and medicine.
An important practice of this region was [animism](/wiki/Animism "Animism"), the belief that all objects, places, and creatures have a soul.{{Cite web\|last1\=Pauls\|first1\=Elizabeth\|last2\=Fogelson\|first2\=Raymond\|date\=27 May 2019\|title\=Southeast Indian\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Southeast\-Indian/Cultural\-continuity\-and\-change\|access\-date\=5 August 2020\|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Most death, disease, or misfortune would be associated with the failure to put the soul of a slain animal to rest. When this happens, the animal could get vengeance through their "species chief". Large amounts of rare materials found with this regions dead suggest strong evidence that they believed in a sort of afterlife. It is thought that when a member of a tribe died, their soul would hover over their communities, trying to get their friends and relatives to join them, so their funeral ceremonies were not just to commemorate the dead, but to protect the living.
The [Green Corn ceremony](/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony "Green Corn Ceremony"), also known as Busk, was an annual celebration of a successful corn crop. Their fires were put out and rekindled, grudges are forgiven, and materials are thrown out or broken to then be replaced. It was essentially a renewing of life and community for these tribes.{{Cite web\|date\=5 May 2011\|title\=The Green Corn Ceremony\|url\=http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/951\|access\-date\=5 August 2020\|website\=Native American Netroots}}
#### Cherokee Myth of Creation
There was a time when there was no earth, and all creatures lived in a place above the sky called Galvlo’i. Everything below was only water, but when Galvlo’i got too crowded, the creatures decided to send down [Water Beetle](/wiki/Water_beetle "Water beetle") to see if he could find them a new place to live. He obliged and dove down into the water, all the way to the bottom of the sea, where he picked up a bit of mud and brought it to the surface. Once above the water, the mud spread out in all directions and became an island. The Great Spirit secured the island by attaching cords to it and tying it to the vault in the sky.
Though the land was now stable, the ground was too soft for any of the animals to stand on, so they sent down Buzzard to scope it out. He flew around for some time until he could find a dry enough spot to land, and when he did the flapping of his wings caused the mud to shift. It went down in some places and up in others, creating the peaks, valleys, hills, and mountains of the earth. The rest of the creatures were now able to come down, but they soon realized it was very dark, so they invited the sun to come with them. Everyone was happy except [Crawfish](/wiki/Crayfish "Crayfish"), who said his shell turned a bright red because the sun was too close, so they raised the sun seven different times until Crawfish was satisfied.
The Great Spirit then created plants for this new land, after which he told the animals to stay awake for seven days. Only Owl was able to do so, and as a reward, the Great Spirit gave him the gift of sight in the dark. The plants tried as well, but only the pines, firs, holly, and a select few others were able to stay awake, so he gave them the gift of keeping their leaves year\-round. Great Spirit then decided he wanted to have people live on this island, so he created one man and one woman. The pair did not yet know how to make children, so the man took a fish and pressed it against the woman's stomach, after which she gave birth. They did this for seven days until Great Spirit felt there was enough humans for the time being, and made it so a woman could only give birth once a year.{{Cite book\|last\=Clayton\|first\=Matt\|title\=Native American Mythology: Captivating Myths of Indigenous Peoples from North America\|publisher\=Independently Published\|year\=2019\|isbn\=9781696130752\|pages\=6–7}}
See also:
* [Cherokee mythology](/wiki/Cherokee_mythology "Cherokee mythology"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe that migrated from the great lakes area to the southeastern woodlands.
* [Choctaw mythology](/wiki/Choctaw_mythology "Choctaw mythology"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe from the area of modern\-day Alabama, Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana.
* [Creek mythology](/wiki/Creek_mythology "Creek mythology"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe from the area of modern\-day Georgia and Alabama.
|
[
"### Southeastern US",
"Important myths of this region deal with the origin of hunting and farming,{{Cite book\\|title\\=Mooney, James: Myths of the Cherokees (Journal of American Folklore, 1888\\)}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Mooney, James: Myths of the Cherokee (Bureau of American Ethnology, 1902\\)}} and the origin of sickness and medicine.",
"An important practice of this region was [animism](/wiki/Animism \"Animism\"), the belief that all objects, places, and creatures have a soul.{{Cite web\\|last1\\=Pauls\\|first1\\=Elizabeth\\|last2\\=Fogelson\\|first2\\=Raymond\\|date\\=27 May 2019\\|title\\=Southeast Indian\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Southeast\\-Indian/Cultural\\-continuity\\-and\\-change\\|access\\-date\\=5 August 2020\\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Most death, disease, or misfortune would be associated with the failure to put the soul of a slain animal to rest. When this happens, the animal could get vengeance through their \"species chief\". Large amounts of rare materials found with this regions dead suggest strong evidence that they believed in a sort of afterlife. It is thought that when a member of a tribe died, their soul would hover over their communities, trying to get their friends and relatives to join them, so their funeral ceremonies were not just to commemorate the dead, but to protect the living.",
"The [Green Corn ceremony](/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony \"Green Corn Ceremony\"), also known as Busk, was an annual celebration of a successful corn crop. Their fires were put out and rekindled, grudges are forgiven, and materials are thrown out or broken to then be replaced. It was essentially a renewing of life and community for these tribes.{{Cite web\\|date\\=5 May 2011\\|title\\=The Green Corn Ceremony\\|url\\=http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/951\\|access\\-date\\=5 August 2020\\|website\\=Native American Netroots}}",
"#### Cherokee Myth of Creation",
"There was a time when there was no earth, and all creatures lived in a place above the sky called Galvlo’i. Everything below was only water, but when Galvlo’i got too crowded, the creatures decided to send down [Water Beetle](/wiki/Water_beetle \"Water beetle\") to see if he could find them a new place to live. He obliged and dove down into the water, all the way to the bottom of the sea, where he picked up a bit of mud and brought it to the surface. Once above the water, the mud spread out in all directions and became an island. The Great Spirit secured the island by attaching cords to it and tying it to the vault in the sky.",
"Though the land was now stable, the ground was too soft for any of the animals to stand on, so they sent down Buzzard to scope it out. He flew around for some time until he could find a dry enough spot to land, and when he did the flapping of his wings caused the mud to shift. It went down in some places and up in others, creating the peaks, valleys, hills, and mountains of the earth. The rest of the creatures were now able to come down, but they soon realized it was very dark, so they invited the sun to come with them. Everyone was happy except [Crawfish](/wiki/Crayfish \"Crayfish\"), who said his shell turned a bright red because the sun was too close, so they raised the sun seven different times until Crawfish was satisfied.",
"The Great Spirit then created plants for this new land, after which he told the animals to stay awake for seven days. Only Owl was able to do so, and as a reward, the Great Spirit gave him the gift of sight in the dark. The plants tried as well, but only the pines, firs, holly, and a select few others were able to stay awake, so he gave them the gift of keeping their leaves year\\-round. Great Spirit then decided he wanted to have people live on this island, so he created one man and one woman. The pair did not yet know how to make children, so the man took a fish and pressed it against the woman's stomach, after which she gave birth. They did this for seven days until Great Spirit felt there was enough humans for the time being, and made it so a woman could only give birth once a year.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Clayton\\|first\\=Matt\\|title\\=Native American Mythology: Captivating Myths of Indigenous Peoples from North America\\|publisher\\=Independently Published\\|year\\=2019\\|isbn\\=9781696130752\\|pages\\=6–7}}",
"See also: \n* [Cherokee mythology](/wiki/Cherokee_mythology \"Cherokee mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe that migrated from the great lakes area to the southeastern woodlands.\n* [Choctaw mythology](/wiki/Choctaw_mythology \"Choctaw mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe from the area of modern\\-day Alabama, Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana.\n* [Creek mythology](/wiki/Creek_mythology \"Creek mythology\"){{spaced ndash}}A North American tribe from the area of modern\\-day Georgia and Alabama.",
""
] |
The siege of Corfu
------------------
On 4 November 1798 Ushakov's Russian\-Turkish squadron, consisting of three [ships of the line](/wiki/Ships_of_the_line "Ships of the line"), three frigates and a number of small ships, began the siege of Corfu. They were joined shortly afterwards by a [Turkish](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") squadron and another Russian squadron under the command of Captain [Dmitry Senyavin](/wiki/Dmitry_Senyavin "Dmitry Senyavin"). Given the strong fortifications of the island and the lack of strength for a landing, it was initially decided to wait for Turkish reinforcements for a landing force. However, on the first day the French abandoned their fortifications on Lazaretto island, which the Russians immediately occupied.
On 13 November a small force of Russians landed without opposition and took the small port of Gouvia about five miles along the coast. From then on the Russians began building batteries and shelling the French\-held forts. In December, another Russian squadron, this one under Rear\-Admiral Pavel Pustoshkin, augmented the besieging forces. The combined fleet now consisted of 12 ships of the line, 11 frigates and many smaller vessels.
On the night of January 26 the *Généreux*, with her sails painted black, and the brig escaped from the harbour and sailed to Ancona.
In February, about 4,000 Ottoman troops arrived and it was decided to make a landing on the island of Vido – the key to the defense of Corfu – using naval artillery against its shore batteries.
### Capture of Vido
[thumb\|300px\|Vido island](/wiki/Image:Vido-on-Vidovdan-pano.jpg "Vido-on-Vidovdan-pano.jpg")
The assault on Vido began early in the morning of 28 February 1799\. After a four\-hour bombardment by several ships, all five shore batteries on the island had been suppressed. The *Leander* and *Brune* tried to intervene but were damaged and forced to retreat to the protection of the batteries of Corfu. The allied fleet then landed over 2000 men on Vido and after a two\-hour battle the island was taken. Of the 800 men defending the island, 200 were killed and 400 were taken prisoner, including the commandant of the island, Brigadier\-General Pivron. About 150 men managed to swim to Corfu. Russian losses were 31 killed and 100 wounded. The Ottomans lost 180 killed and wounded.
### Capture of Corfu city
After the fall of Vido, the key to Corfu was in the hands of Ushakov. On March 1 the captured batteries on the island opened fire on the city's forts, supported by the Russians' shore batteries and some of the Russian and Turkish warships. The allied forces stormed and captured the outlying forts of San Rocco, San Salvatore and San Abraham.
On 2 March Ushakov planned to assault the main forts, but in the morning the French sent envoys to request a forty\-eight\-hour armistice, and on 3 March they surrendered.
|
[
"The siege of Corfu\n------------------",
"On 4 November 1798 Ushakov's Russian\\-Turkish squadron, consisting of three [ships of the line](/wiki/Ships_of_the_line \"Ships of the line\"), three frigates and a number of small ships, began the siege of Corfu. They were joined shortly afterwards by a [Turkish](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") squadron and another Russian squadron under the command of Captain [Dmitry Senyavin](/wiki/Dmitry_Senyavin \"Dmitry Senyavin\"). Given the strong fortifications of the island and the lack of strength for a landing, it was initially decided to wait for Turkish reinforcements for a landing force. However, on the first day the French abandoned their fortifications on Lazaretto island, which the Russians immediately occupied.",
"On 13 November a small force of Russians landed without opposition and took the small port of Gouvia about five miles along the coast. From then on the Russians began building batteries and shelling the French\\-held forts. In December, another Russian squadron, this one under Rear\\-Admiral Pavel Pustoshkin, augmented the besieging forces. The combined fleet now consisted of 12 ships of the line, 11 frigates and many smaller vessels.",
"On the night of January 26 the *Généreux*, with her sails painted black, and the brig escaped from the harbour and sailed to Ancona.",
"In February, about 4,000 Ottoman troops arrived and it was decided to make a landing on the island of Vido – the key to the defense of Corfu – using naval artillery against its shore batteries.",
"### Capture of Vido",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Vido island](/wiki/Image:Vido-on-Vidovdan-pano.jpg \"Vido-on-Vidovdan-pano.jpg\")\nThe assault on Vido began early in the morning of 28 February 1799\\. After a four\\-hour bombardment by several ships, all five shore batteries on the island had been suppressed. The *Leander* and *Brune* tried to intervene but were damaged and forced to retreat to the protection of the batteries of Corfu. The allied fleet then landed over 2000 men on Vido and after a two\\-hour battle the island was taken. Of the 800 men defending the island, 200 were killed and 400 were taken prisoner, including the commandant of the island, Brigadier\\-General Pivron. About 150 men managed to swim to Corfu. Russian losses were 31 killed and 100 wounded. The Ottomans lost 180 killed and wounded.",
"### Capture of Corfu city",
"After the fall of Vido, the key to Corfu was in the hands of Ushakov. On March 1 the captured batteries on the island opened fire on the city's forts, supported by the Russians' shore batteries and some of the Russian and Turkish warships. The allied forces stormed and captured the outlying forts of San Rocco, San Salvatore and San Abraham.",
"On 2 March Ushakov planned to assault the main forts, but in the morning the French sent envoys to request a forty\\-eight\\-hour armistice, and on 3 March they surrendered.",
""
] |
History
-------
### World War II
[thumb\|upright\|Primary views of an [R\-7 Semyorka](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka "R-7 Semyorka"), the world's first ICBM and satellite launch vehicle](/wiki/File:R-7_%287A%29_misil.svg "R-7 (7A) misil.svg")
The first practical design for an ICBM grew out of [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany")'s [V\-2 rocket](/wiki/V-2_rocket "V-2 rocket") program. The liquid\-fueled V\-2, designed by [Wernher von Braun](/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun "Wernher von Braun") and his team, was then widely used by Nazi Germany from mid\-1944 until March 1945 to bomb British and Belgian cities, particularly Antwerp and London.
Under *Projekt Amerika,* von Braun's team developed the [A9/10](/wiki/Aggregate_%28rocket_family%29%23A9/A10 "Aggregate (rocket family)#A9/A10") ICBM, intended for use in bombing New York and other American cities. Initially intended to be guided by radio, it was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of [Operation Elster](/wiki/Operation_Elster "Operation Elster"). The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945\.
After the war, the US executed [Operation Paperclip](/wiki/Operation_Paperclip "Operation Paperclip"), which took von Braun and hundreds of other leading Nazi scientists to the United States to develop [IRBMs](/wiki/IRBM "IRBM"), ICBMs, and [launchers](/wiki/Launch_vehicle "Launch vehicle") for the US Army.
This technology was predicted by US General of the Army [Hap Arnold](/wiki/Hap_Arnold "Hap Arnold"), who wrote in 1943:
{{Blockquote \| Someday, not too distant, there can come streaking out of somewhere – we won't be able to hear it, it will come so fast – some kind of gadget with an explosive so powerful that one projectile will be able to wipe out completely this city of Washington.{{cite book \|url\=http://www.ndu.edu/press/spacepower.html \|chapter\-url\=http://www.ndu.edu/press/space\-Ch19\.html \|title\=Toward a Theory of Space Power \|chapter\=19: Increasing the Military Uses of Space \|first1\=Everett C. \|last1\=Dolman \|first2\=Henry F. Jr \|last2\=Cooper \|publisher\=NDU Press \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215061633/http://www.ndu.edu/press/spacepower.html \|archive\-date\=15 February 2012}}{{cite journal \|last\=Correll \|first\=John T. \|url\=https://www.gkpadho.com/current\-affairs\-20\-feb\-2018/ \|title\=World's most powerful ballistic missile \|journal\=GK Padho \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222044758/https://www.gkpadho.com/current\-affairs\-20\-feb\-2018/ \|archive\-date\=22 February 2018 }}}}
### Cold War
After World War II, the Americans and the Soviets started rocket research programs based on the V\-2 and other German wartime designs. Each branch of the US military started its own programs, leading to considerable duplication of effort. In the Soviet Union, rocket research was centrally organized although several teams worked on different designs.
The US initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the [RTV\-A\-2 Hiroc](/wiki/RTV-A-2_Hiroc "RTV-A-2 Hiroc") project. This was a three\-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut in 1948 after only three partially successful launches of the second stage design, that was used to test variations of the V\-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly formed [US Air Force](/wiki/US_Air_Force "US Air Force") did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of [their first](/wiki/Joe_4 "Joe 4") [thermonuclear weapon](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon "Thermonuclear weapon"), but it was not until 1954 that the [Atlas missile](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas "SM-65 Atlas") program was given the highest national priority. The Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957; the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket exploded. The first successful flight of an Atlas missile to full range occurred 28 November 1958\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.century\-of\-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm \|title\=Atlas \|publisher\=Century of Flight \|work\=The Exploration of Space \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011002749/http://century\-of\-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm \|archive\-date\=11 October 2011 \|url\-status\=live }} The first armed version of the Atlas, the Atlas D, was declared operational in January 1959 at Vandenberg, although it had not yet flown. The first test flight was carried out on 9 July 1959,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.missilethreat.com/missilesoftheworld/id.15/missile\_detail.asp \|title\=Atlas D \|publisher\=Missile Threat \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210160153/http://www.missilethreat.com/missilesoftheworld/id.15/missile\_detail.asp \|archive\-date\=10 February 2012 }} and the missile was accepted for service on 1 September. The [Titan I](/wiki/HGM-25A_Titan_I "HGM-25A Titan I") was another US multistage ICBM, with a successful launch February 5, 1959, with Titan I A3\. Unlike the Atlas, the Titan I was a two\-stage missile, rather than three. The Titan was larger, yet lighter, than the Atlas. Due to the improvements in engine technology and guidance systems the Titan I overtook the Atlas.{{cite web \|title\=Air Force Space \& Missile Museum \|url\=https://afspacemuseum.org/artifacts/titan\-i/ \|access\-date\=29 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=21 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021074042/https://afspacemuseum.org/artifacts/titan\-i/ }}
[thumb\|upright\|An [SM\-65 Atlas](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas "SM-65 Atlas"), the first US ICBM, first launched in 1957](/wiki/File:Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg "Atlas-B ICBM.jpg")
In the Soviet Union, early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. That changed in 1953, when [Sergei Korolyov](/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov "Sergei Korolyov") was directed to start development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the [R\-7](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka "R-7 Semyorka") developed with some speed. The first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash {{convert\|400\|km\|abbr\=on}} from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957; the R\-7 flew over {{convert\|6000\|km\|abbr\=on}} and became the world's first ICBM.{{cite book \|last1\=Siddiqi \|first1\=Asif \|title\=Challenge to Apollo: the Soviet Union and the space race, 1945–1974 \|date\=2000 \|publisher\=National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div \|pages\=160–161 \|url\=https://history.nasa.gov/SP\-4408pt1\.pdf \|access\-date\=17 August 2023}} The first strategic\-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at [Plesetsk](/wiki/Plesetsk_Cosmodrome "Plesetsk Cosmodrome") in north\-west Russia.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eucom.mil/article/23076/this\-week\-in\-eucom\-history\-february\-6\-12\-1959 \|title\=This Week in EUCOM History: February 6–12, 1959 \|date\=6 February 2012 \|publisher\=\[\[EUCOM]] \|access\-date\=2012\-02\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921003453/http://www.eucom.mil/article/23076/this\-week\-in\-eucom\-history\-february\-6\-12\-1959 \|archive\-date\=21 September 2012}}
It was the same [R\-7](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka "R-7 Semyorka") [launch vehicle](/wiki/Launch_vehicle "Launch vehicle") that placed the first artificial satellite in space, [Sputnik](/wiki/Sputnik_1 "Sputnik 1"), on 4 October 1957\. The first [human spaceflight](/wiki/Human_spaceflight "Human spaceflight") in history was accomplished on a derivative of R\-7, [Vostok](/wiki/Vostok_%28rocket_family%29 "Vostok (rocket family)"), on [12 April 1961](/wiki/Cosmonautics_Day "Cosmonautics Day"), by [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") [cosmonaut](/wiki/Cosmonaut "Cosmonaut") [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin "Yuri Gagarin"). A heavily modernized version of the R\-7 is still used as the [launch vehicle](/wiki/Launch_vehicle "Launch vehicle") for the Soviet/Russian [Soyuz spacecraft](/wiki/Soyuz_%28spacecraft%29 "Soyuz (spacecraft)"), marking more than 60 years of operational history of [Sergei Korolyov](/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov "Sergei Korolyov")'s original rocket design.
The R\-7 and Atlas each required a large launch facility, making them vulnerable to attack, and could not be kept in a ready state. Failure rates were very high throughout the early years of ICBM technology. Human spaceflight programs ([Vostok](/wiki/Vostok_programme "Vostok programme"), [Mercury](/wiki/Project_Mercury "Project Mercury"), [Voskhod](/wiki/Voskhod_programme "Voskhod programme"), [Gemini](/wiki/Project_Gemini "Project Gemini"), etc.) served as a highly visible means of demonstrating confidence in reliability, with successes translating directly to national defense implications. The US was well behind the Soviets in the [Space Race](/wiki/Space_Race "Space Race") and so US President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") increased the stakes with the [Apollo program](/wiki/Apollo_program "Apollo program"), which used [Saturn rocket](/wiki/Saturn_%28rocket_family%29 "Saturn (rocket family)") technology that had been funded by President [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower").
[thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|1965 graph of USAF [Atlas](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas "SM-65 Atlas") and Titan ICBM launches, cumulative by month with failures highlighted (pink), showing how [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA")'s use of ICBM boosters for Projects Mercury and Gemini (blue) served as a visible demonstration of reliability at a time when failure rates had been substantial.](/wiki/File:USAF_ICBM_and_NASA_Launch_Vehicle_Flight_Test_Successes_and_Failures_%28highlighted%29.png "USAF ICBM and NASA Launch Vehicle Flight Test Successes and Failures (highlighted).png")
These early ICBMs also formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include [R\-7](/wiki/R-7_%28rocket_family%29 "R-7 (rocket family)"), [Atlas](/wiki/Atlas_%28rocket_family%29 "Atlas (rocket family)"), [Redstone](/wiki/Redstone_%28rocket_family%29 "Redstone (rocket family)"), [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28rocket_family%29 "Titan (rocket family)"), and [Proton](/wiki/Proton_%28rocket%29 "Proton (rocket)"), which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The Eisenhower administration supported the development of solid\-fueled missiles such as the [LGM\-30 Minuteman](/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman "LGM-30 Minuteman"), [Polaris](/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris "UGM-27 Polaris") and [Skybolt](/wiki/GAM-87_Skybolt "GAM-87 Skybolt"). Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors, due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads, and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles.
The Western view of the deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of [mutual assured destruction](/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction "Mutual assured destruction"). In the 1950s and 1960s, development began on [anti\-ballistic missile](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile "Anti-ballistic missile") systems by both the Americans and Soviets. Such systems were restricted by the 1972 [Anti\-Ballistic Missile Treaty](/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty "Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty"). The first successful ABM test was conducted by the Soviets in 1961, which later deployed a fully operational system defending Moscow in the 1970s (see [Moscow ABM system](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile%23Moscow_ABM_system "Anti-ballistic missile#Moscow ABM system")).
The 1972 [SALT](/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks "Strategic Arms Limitation Talks") treaty froze the number of ICBM launchers of both the Americans and the Soviets at existing levels and allowed new [submarine](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine")\-based [SLBM](/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile "Submarine-launched ballistic missile") launchers only if an equal number of land\-based ICBM launchers were dismantled. Subsequent talks, called SALT II, were held from 1972 to 1979 and actually reduced the number of nuclear warheads held by the US and Soviets. SALT II was never ratified by the [US Senate](/wiki/US_Senate "US Senate"), but its terms were honored by both sides until 1986, when the Reagan administration "withdrew" after it had accused the Soviets of violating the pact.
In the 1980s, President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") launched the [Strategic Defense Initiative](/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative "Strategic Defense Initiative") as well as the [MX](/wiki/LGM-118_Peacekeeper "LGM-118 Peacekeeper") and [Midgetman](/wiki/MGM-134_Midgetman "MGM-134 Midgetman") ICBM programs.
China developed a minimal independent nuclear deterrent entering its own cold war after an [ideological split](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split "Sino-Soviet split") with the Soviet Union beginning in the early 1960s. After first testing a domestic built [nuclear weapon](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon") in 1964, it went on to develop various warheads and missiles. Beginning in the early 1970s, the liquid fuelled [DF\-5](/wiki/DF-5 "DF-5") ICBM was developed and used as a satellite launch vehicle in 1975\. The DF\-5, with a range of {{convert\|10000\|to\|12000\|km\|abbr\=on}}—long enough to strike the Western United States and the Soviet Union—was silo deployed, with the first pair in service by 1981 and possibly twenty missiles in service by the late 1990s.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/icbm/df\-5\.htm \|title\=DF\-5 \|publisher\=\[\[Federation of American Scientists]] \|work\=Weapons of Mass Destruction / WMD Around the World \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416025855/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/icbm/df\-5\.htm \|archive\-date\=16 April 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} China also deployed the [JL\-1](/wiki/JL-1 "JL-1") [Medium\-range ballistic missile](/wiki/Medium-range_ballistic_missile "Medium-range ballistic missile") with a reach of {{convert\|1700\|km}} aboard the ultimately unsuccessful [Type 092 submarine](/wiki/Type_092_submarine "Type 092 submarine").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/slbm/type\_92\.htm \|title\=Type 92 Xia \|publisher\=\[\[Federation of American Scientists]] \|work\=Weapons of Mass Destruction Around the World \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219175846/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/slbm/type\_92\.htm \|archive\-date\=19 February 2012 \|url\-status\=live }}
### Post–Cold War
[thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|Deployment history of land\-based ICBM, 1959–2014](/wiki/File:Icbm-hist-en.png "Icbm-hist-en.png")
In 1991, the United States and the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") agreed in the [START I](/wiki/START_I "START I") treaty to reduce their deployed ICBMs and attributed warheads.
{{As of\|2016}}, all five of the nations with permanent seats on the [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council") have fully operational long\-range ballistic missile systems; Russia, the United States, and China also have land\-based ICBMs (the US missiles are silo\-based, while China and Russia have both silo and road\-mobile ([DF\-31](/wiki/DF-31 "DF-31"), [RT\-2PM2 Topol\-M](/wiki/RT-2PM2_Topol-M "RT-2PM2 Topol-M") missiles).
Israel is believed to have deployed a road mobile nuclear ICBM, the [Jericho III](/wiki/Jericho_%28missile%29%23Jericho_III "Jericho (missile)#Jericho III"), which entered service in 2008; an upgraded version is in development.{{cite report \|url\=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30427\.pdf \|title\=Missile Survey: Ballistic and Cruise Missiles of Foreign Countries\|first\=Andrew \|last\=Feickert \|work\=\[\[Congressional Research Service]] \|publisher\=\[\[Library of Congress]] \|date\=5 March 2004 \|id\=RL30427 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301060149/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30427\.pdf \|archive\-date\=1 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite news \|last\=Pfeffer \|first\=Anshel \|title\=IDF test\-fires ballistic missile in central Israel \|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy\-defense/idf\-test\-fires\-ballistic\-missile\-in\-central\-israel\-1\.393306 \|date\=2 November 2011 \|work\=\[\[Haaretz]] \|agency\=\[\[Reuters]] \|access\-date\=2011\-11\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103045910/http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy\-defense/idf\-test\-fires\-ballistic\-missile\-in\-central\-israel\-1\.393306 \|archive\-date\=3 November 2011 \|url\-status\=live }}
[India](/wiki/India "India") successfully test fired [Agni V](/wiki/Agni-V "Agni-V"), with a strike range of more than {{convert\|5000\|km\|abbr\=on}} on 19 April 2012, claiming entry into the ICBM club.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3330921\.ece \|title\=Agni\-V successfully test\-fired \|first1\=Y \|last1\=Mallikarjun \|first2\=TS \|last2\=Subramanian \|work\=\[\[The Hindu]] \|date\=19 April 2012 \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424030303/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3330921\.ece \|archive\-date\=24 April 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} The missile's actual range is speculated by foreign researchers to be up to {{convert\|8000\|km\|abbr\=on}} with India having downplayed its capabilities to avoid causing concern to other countries.{{cite news\|title\=India downplayed Agni\-V's capacity: Chinese experts \|url\=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world\-news/india\-downplayed\-agni\-v\-s\-capacity\-chinese\-experts/article1\-843359\.aspx \|location\=Beijing, China \|newspaper\=Hindustan Times\|agency\=Indo\-Asian News Service \|date\=20 April 2012 \|access\-date\=13 July 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607123640/http://www.hindustantimes.com/world\-news/india\-downplayed\-agni\-v\-s\-capacity\-chinese\-experts/article1\-843359\.aspx \|archive\-date\=7 June 2014}} On 15 December 2022, first night trial of Agni\-V was successfully carried out by SFC from Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha. The missile is now 20 percent lighter because the use of composite materials rather than steel material. The range has been increased to 7,000 km.{{Cite web\|date\=17 December 2022 \|title\=If India wants, Agni missiles can now strike targets beyond 7,000 kms\|url\=https://aninews.in/news/national/general\-news/if\-india\-wants\-agni\-missiles\-can\-now\-strike\-targets\-beyond\-7000\-kms20221217161534/\|website\=ANI News}}
By 2012 there was speculation by some [intelligence agencies](/wiki/Intelligence_agency "Intelligence agency") that [North Korea](/wiki/North_Korea "North Korea") is developing an ICBM.{{cite web \|url\=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/dprk/missile/td\-2\.htm \|title\=North Korea's Taepodong and Unha Missiles \|publisher\=\[\[Federation of American Scientists]] \|work\=Programs \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126101747/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/dprk/missile/td\-2\.htm \|archive\-date\=26 November 2015 \|url\-status\=live }} North Korea successfully put a [satellite](/wiki/Kwangmy%C5%8Fngs%C5%8Fng-3_Unit_2 "Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2") into space on 12 December 2012 using the {{convert\|32\|m\|ft\| adj \=mid\|\-tall}} [Unha\-3](/wiki/Unha-3 "Unha-3") rocket. The United States claimed that the launch was in fact a way to test an ICBM.{{cite news \|url \= https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna50167891 \|title \= North Korea says it successfully launched satellite into orbit \|work \= \[\[NBC News]] \|date \= 12 December 2012 \|access\-date \= 2013\-04\-13 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20130414182253/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/50167891/ns/technology\_and\_science\-space/ \|archive\-date \= 14 April 2013 \|url\-status \= live }} (See [Timeline of first orbital launches by country](/wiki/Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country "Timeline of first orbital launches by country").) In early July 2017, North Korea claimed for the first time to have tested successfully an ICBM capable of carrying a large thermonuclear warhead.
In July 2014, China announced the development of its newest generation of ICBM, the Dongfeng\-41 ([DF\-41](/wiki/DF-41 "DF-41")), which has a range of {{convert\|12,000\|km\|mi\|abbr\=off}}, capable of reaching the United States, and which analysts believe is capable of being outfitted with [MIRV](/wiki/Multiple_independently_targetable_reentry_vehicle "Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle") technology.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/11005061/China\-confirms\-new\-generation\-long\-range\-missiles.html\|title\=China 'confirms new generation long range missiles'\|date\=1 August 2014\|work\=The Telegraph\|access\-date\=1 April 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319160902/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/11005061/China\-confirms\-new\-generation\-long\-range\-missiles.html\|archive\-date\=19 March 2015\|url\-status\=live}}
Most countries in the early stages of developing ICBMs have used liquid propellants, with the known exceptions being the [Indian](/wiki/India "India") [Agni\-V](/wiki/Agni-V "Agni-V"), the planned but cancelled{{cite web \|url\=http://www.astronautix.com/s/southafrica.html \|title\=South Africa \|publisher\=Encyclopedia Astronautica \|access\-date\=2016\-07\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820010737/http://www.astronautix.com/s/southafrica.html \|archive\-date\=20 August 2016 \|url\-status\=live }} South African RSA\-4 ICBM, and the now in service Israeli [Jericho III](/wiki/Jericho_missile%23Jericho_III "Jericho missile#Jericho III").{{cite encyclopedia \| publisher \= Astronautix \| url \= http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/jericho.htm \| title \= Jericho \| encyclopedia \= Encyclopedia Astronautica \| access\-date \= 2012\-12\-14 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20121022200536/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/jericho.htm \| archive\-date \= 22 October 2012}}
The [RS\-28 Sarmat](/wiki/RS-28_Sarmat "RS-28 Sarmat")[Новую тяжелую ракету "Сармат" будут делать в Красноярске](http://www.rg.ru/2015/02/02/raketa-site-anons.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906185817/https://rg.ru/2015/02/02/raketa\-site\-anons.html \|date\=6 September 2017 }} *[Rossiyskaya Gazeta](/wiki/Rossiyskaya_Gazeta "Rossiyskaya Gazeta")*, 2 February 2015\. (Russian: РС\-28 Сармат; [NATO reporting name](/wiki/NATO_reporting_name "NATO reporting name"): SATAN 2\), is a Russian [liquid\-fueled](/wiki/Liquid-propellant_rocket "Liquid-propellant rocket"), [MIRV](/wiki/Multiple_independently_targetable_reentry_vehicle "Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle")\-equipped, [super\-heavy](/wiki/Heavy_ICBM "Heavy ICBM") [thermonuclear](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon "Thermonuclear weapon") armed intercontinental ballistic missile in development by the [Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau](/wiki/Makeyev_Rocket_Design_Bureau "Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau") from 2009,{{cite web\|url\=http://militaryrussia.ru/blog/topic\-435\.html\|title\=РС\-28 / ОКР Сармат, ракета 15А28 – SS\-X\-30 (проект) – MilitaryRussia.Ru – отечественная военная техника (после 1945г.)\|website\=militaryrussia.ru\|access\-date\=20 February 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915095810/http://militaryrussia.ru/blog/topic\-435\.html\|archive\-date\=15 September 2013\|url\-status\=live}} intended to replace the previous [R\-36 missile](/wiki/R-36_%28missile%29 "R-36 (missile)"). Its large payload would allow for up to 10 heavy [warheads](/wiki/Warhead "Warhead") or 15 lighter ones or up to 24 hypersonic glide vehicles [Yu\-74](/wiki/Yu-74 "Yu-74"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.express.co.uk/news/world/680167/Russia\-tests\-Yu74\-hypersonic\-nuclear\-glider\-capable\-carrying\-24\-atomic\-warheads\|title\=Russia testing hypersonic nuclear glider that holds 24 warheads and travels at 7,000mph\|first\=Tom\|last\=Batchelor\|date\=15 June 2016\|access\-date\=20 February 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330214447/https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/680167/Russia\-tests\-Yu74\-hypersonic\-nuclear\-glider\-capable\-carrying\-24\-atomic\-warheads\|archive\-date\=30 March 2018\|url\-status\=live}} or a combination of warheads and massive amounts of [countermeasures](/wiki/Countermeasure "Countermeasure") designed to defeat [anti\-missile systems](/wiki/Missile_defense "Missile defense");{{cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-russia\-missiles\-idUSBRE9BG0SH20131217\|title\=Russia plans new ICBM to replace Cold War 'Satan' missile\|work\=Reuters\|date\=17 December 2013\|access\-date\=17 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118070339/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/17/us\-russia\-missiles\-idUSBRE9BG0SH20131217\|archive\-date\=18 January 2015\|url\-status\=live}} it was announced by the Russian military as a response to the US [Prompt Global Strike](/wiki/Prompt_Global_Strike "Prompt Global Strike").{{cite web\|url\=http://newsru.com/arch/russia/31may2014/sarmat.html\|title\=Минобороны рассказало о тяжелой баллистической ракете – неуязвимом для ПРО ответе США\|date\=31 May 2014 \|access\-date\=20 February 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915003631/http://www.newsru.com/arch/russia/31may2014/sarmat.html\|archive\-date\=15 September 2017\|url\-status\=live}}
In July 2023, North Korea fired a suspected intercontinental ballistic missile that was expected to land short of Japanese waters. The launch follows North Korea's threat to retaliate against the US for alleged spy plane incursions.{{cite news \|title\=North Korea fires intercontinental ballistic missile after threatening US \|work\=BBC News \|date\=12 July 2023 \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-asia\-66172284 \|access\-date\=12 July 2023 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### World War II",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Primary views of an [R\\-7 Semyorka](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka \"R-7 Semyorka\"), the world's first ICBM and satellite launch vehicle](/wiki/File:R-7_%287A%29_misil.svg \"R-7 (7A) misil.svg\")\nThe first practical design for an ICBM grew out of [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\")'s [V\\-2 rocket](/wiki/V-2_rocket \"V-2 rocket\") program. The liquid\\-fueled V\\-2, designed by [Wernher von Braun](/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun \"Wernher von Braun\") and his team, was then widely used by Nazi Germany from mid\\-1944 until March 1945 to bomb British and Belgian cities, particularly Antwerp and London.",
"Under *Projekt Amerika,* von Braun's team developed the [A9/10](/wiki/Aggregate_%28rocket_family%29%23A9/A10 \"Aggregate (rocket family)#A9/A10\") ICBM, intended for use in bombing New York and other American cities. Initially intended to be guided by radio, it was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of [Operation Elster](/wiki/Operation_Elster \"Operation Elster\"). The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945\\.",
"After the war, the US executed [Operation Paperclip](/wiki/Operation_Paperclip \"Operation Paperclip\"), which took von Braun and hundreds of other leading Nazi scientists to the United States to develop [IRBMs](/wiki/IRBM \"IRBM\"), ICBMs, and [launchers](/wiki/Launch_vehicle \"Launch vehicle\") for the US Army.",
"This technology was predicted by US General of the Army [Hap Arnold](/wiki/Hap_Arnold \"Hap Arnold\"), who wrote in 1943:\n{{Blockquote \\| Someday, not too distant, there can come streaking out of somewhere – we won't be able to hear it, it will come so fast – some kind of gadget with an explosive so powerful that one projectile will be able to wipe out completely this city of Washington.{{cite book \\|url\\=http://www.ndu.edu/press/spacepower.html \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.ndu.edu/press/space\\-Ch19\\.html \\|title\\=Toward a Theory of Space Power \\|chapter\\=19: Increasing the Military Uses of Space \\|first1\\=Everett C. \\|last1\\=Dolman \\|first2\\=Henry F. Jr \\|last2\\=Cooper \\|publisher\\=NDU Press \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215061633/http://www.ndu.edu/press/spacepower.html \\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2012}}{{cite journal \\|last\\=Correll \\|first\\=John T. \\|url\\=https://www.gkpadho.com/current\\-affairs\\-20\\-feb\\-2018/ \\|title\\=World's most powerful ballistic missile \\|journal\\=GK Padho \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222044758/https://www.gkpadho.com/current\\-affairs\\-20\\-feb\\-2018/ \\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2018 }}}}",
"### Cold War",
"After World War II, the Americans and the Soviets started rocket research programs based on the V\\-2 and other German wartime designs. Each branch of the US military started its own programs, leading to considerable duplication of effort. In the Soviet Union, rocket research was centrally organized although several teams worked on different designs.",
"The US initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the [RTV\\-A\\-2 Hiroc](/wiki/RTV-A-2_Hiroc \"RTV-A-2 Hiroc\") project. This was a three\\-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut in 1948 after only three partially successful launches of the second stage design, that was used to test variations of the V\\-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly formed [US Air Force](/wiki/US_Air_Force \"US Air Force\") did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of [their first](/wiki/Joe_4 \"Joe 4\") [thermonuclear weapon](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon \"Thermonuclear weapon\"), but it was not until 1954 that the [Atlas missile](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas \"SM-65 Atlas\") program was given the highest national priority. The Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957; the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket exploded. The first successful flight of an Atlas missile to full range occurred 28 November 1958\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.century\\-of\\-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm \\|title\\=Atlas \\|publisher\\=Century of Flight \\|work\\=The Exploration of Space \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011002749/http://century\\-of\\-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The first armed version of the Atlas, the Atlas D, was declared operational in January 1959 at Vandenberg, although it had not yet flown. The first test flight was carried out on 9 July 1959,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.missilethreat.com/missilesoftheworld/id.15/missile\\_detail.asp \\|title\\=Atlas D \\|publisher\\=Missile Threat \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210160153/http://www.missilethreat.com/missilesoftheworld/id.15/missile\\_detail.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=10 February 2012 }} and the missile was accepted for service on 1 September. The [Titan I](/wiki/HGM-25A_Titan_I \"HGM-25A Titan I\") was another US multistage ICBM, with a successful launch February 5, 1959, with Titan I A3\\. Unlike the Atlas, the Titan I was a two\\-stage missile, rather than three. The Titan was larger, yet lighter, than the Atlas. Due to the improvements in engine technology and guidance systems the Titan I overtook the Atlas.{{cite web \\|title\\=Air Force Space \\& Missile Museum \\|url\\=https://afspacemuseum.org/artifacts/titan\\-i/ \\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021074042/https://afspacemuseum.org/artifacts/titan\\-i/ }}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|An [SM\\-65 Atlas](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas \"SM-65 Atlas\"), the first US ICBM, first launched in 1957](/wiki/File:Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg \"Atlas-B ICBM.jpg\")",
"In the Soviet Union, early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. That changed in 1953, when [Sergei Korolyov](/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov \"Sergei Korolyov\") was directed to start development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the [R\\-7](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka \"R-7 Semyorka\") developed with some speed. The first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash {{convert\\|400\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957; the R\\-7 flew over {{convert\\|6000\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} and became the world's first ICBM.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Siddiqi \\|first1\\=Asif \\|title\\=Challenge to Apollo: the Soviet Union and the space race, 1945–1974 \\|date\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div \\|pages\\=160–161 \\|url\\=https://history.nasa.gov/SP\\-4408pt1\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2023}} The first strategic\\-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at [Plesetsk](/wiki/Plesetsk_Cosmodrome \"Plesetsk Cosmodrome\") in north\\-west Russia.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eucom.mil/article/23076/this\\-week\\-in\\-eucom\\-history\\-february\\-6\\-12\\-1959 \\|title\\=This Week in EUCOM History: February 6–12, 1959 \\|date\\=6 February 2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[EUCOM]] \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921003453/http://www.eucom.mil/article/23076/this\\-week\\-in\\-eucom\\-history\\-february\\-6\\-12\\-1959 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2012}}",
"It was the same [R\\-7](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka \"R-7 Semyorka\") [launch vehicle](/wiki/Launch_vehicle \"Launch vehicle\") that placed the first artificial satellite in space, [Sputnik](/wiki/Sputnik_1 \"Sputnik 1\"), on 4 October 1957\\. The first [human spaceflight](/wiki/Human_spaceflight \"Human spaceflight\") in history was accomplished on a derivative of R\\-7, [Vostok](/wiki/Vostok_%28rocket_family%29 \"Vostok (rocket family)\"), on [12 April 1961](/wiki/Cosmonautics_Day \"Cosmonautics Day\"), by [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") [cosmonaut](/wiki/Cosmonaut \"Cosmonaut\") [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin \"Yuri Gagarin\"). A heavily modernized version of the R\\-7 is still used as the [launch vehicle](/wiki/Launch_vehicle \"Launch vehicle\") for the Soviet/Russian [Soyuz spacecraft](/wiki/Soyuz_%28spacecraft%29 \"Soyuz (spacecraft)\"), marking more than 60 years of operational history of [Sergei Korolyov](/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov \"Sergei Korolyov\")'s original rocket design.",
"The R\\-7 and Atlas each required a large launch facility, making them vulnerable to attack, and could not be kept in a ready state. Failure rates were very high throughout the early years of ICBM technology. Human spaceflight programs ([Vostok](/wiki/Vostok_programme \"Vostok programme\"), [Mercury](/wiki/Project_Mercury \"Project Mercury\"), [Voskhod](/wiki/Voskhod_programme \"Voskhod programme\"), [Gemini](/wiki/Project_Gemini \"Project Gemini\"), etc.) served as a highly visible means of demonstrating confidence in reliability, with successes translating directly to national defense implications. The US was well behind the Soviets in the [Space Race](/wiki/Space_Race \"Space Race\") and so US President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") increased the stakes with the [Apollo program](/wiki/Apollo_program \"Apollo program\"), which used [Saturn rocket](/wiki/Saturn_%28rocket_family%29 \"Saturn (rocket family)\") technology that had been funded by President [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\").",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|1965 graph of USAF [Atlas](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas \"SM-65 Atlas\") and Titan ICBM launches, cumulative by month with failures highlighted (pink), showing how [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s use of ICBM boosters for Projects Mercury and Gemini (blue) served as a visible demonstration of reliability at a time when failure rates had been substantial.](/wiki/File:USAF_ICBM_and_NASA_Launch_Vehicle_Flight_Test_Successes_and_Failures_%28highlighted%29.png \"USAF ICBM and NASA Launch Vehicle Flight Test Successes and Failures (highlighted).png\")",
"These early ICBMs also formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include [R\\-7](/wiki/R-7_%28rocket_family%29 \"R-7 (rocket family)\"), [Atlas](/wiki/Atlas_%28rocket_family%29 \"Atlas (rocket family)\"), [Redstone](/wiki/Redstone_%28rocket_family%29 \"Redstone (rocket family)\"), [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28rocket_family%29 \"Titan (rocket family)\"), and [Proton](/wiki/Proton_%28rocket%29 \"Proton (rocket)\"), which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The Eisenhower administration supported the development of solid\\-fueled missiles such as the [LGM\\-30 Minuteman](/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman \"LGM-30 Minuteman\"), [Polaris](/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris \"UGM-27 Polaris\") and [Skybolt](/wiki/GAM-87_Skybolt \"GAM-87 Skybolt\"). Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors, due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads, and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles.",
"The Western view of the deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of [mutual assured destruction](/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction \"Mutual assured destruction\"). In the 1950s and 1960s, development began on [anti\\-ballistic missile](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile \"Anti-ballistic missile\") systems by both the Americans and Soviets. Such systems were restricted by the 1972 [Anti\\-Ballistic Missile Treaty](/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty \"Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty\"). The first successful ABM test was conducted by the Soviets in 1961, which later deployed a fully operational system defending Moscow in the 1970s (see [Moscow ABM system](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile%23Moscow_ABM_system \"Anti-ballistic missile#Moscow ABM system\")).",
"The 1972 [SALT](/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks \"Strategic Arms Limitation Talks\") treaty froze the number of ICBM launchers of both the Americans and the Soviets at existing levels and allowed new [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\")\\-based [SLBM](/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile \"Submarine-launched ballistic missile\") launchers only if an equal number of land\\-based ICBM launchers were dismantled. Subsequent talks, called SALT II, were held from 1972 to 1979 and actually reduced the number of nuclear warheads held by the US and Soviets. SALT II was never ratified by the [US Senate](/wiki/US_Senate \"US Senate\"), but its terms were honored by both sides until 1986, when the Reagan administration \"withdrew\" after it had accused the Soviets of violating the pact.",
"In the 1980s, President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") launched the [Strategic Defense Initiative](/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative \"Strategic Defense Initiative\") as well as the [MX](/wiki/LGM-118_Peacekeeper \"LGM-118 Peacekeeper\") and [Midgetman](/wiki/MGM-134_Midgetman \"MGM-134 Midgetman\") ICBM programs.",
"China developed a minimal independent nuclear deterrent entering its own cold war after an [ideological split](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split \"Sino-Soviet split\") with the Soviet Union beginning in the early 1960s. After first testing a domestic built [nuclear weapon](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") in 1964, it went on to develop various warheads and missiles. Beginning in the early 1970s, the liquid fuelled [DF\\-5](/wiki/DF-5 \"DF-5\") ICBM was developed and used as a satellite launch vehicle in 1975\\. The DF\\-5, with a range of {{convert\\|10000\\|to\\|12000\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}}—long enough to strike the Western United States and the Soviet Union—was silo deployed, with the first pair in service by 1981 and possibly twenty missiles in service by the late 1990s.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/icbm/df\\-5\\.htm \\|title\\=DF\\-5 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federation of American Scientists]] \\|work\\=Weapons of Mass Destruction / WMD Around the World \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416025855/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/icbm/df\\-5\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=16 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} China also deployed the [JL\\-1](/wiki/JL-1 \"JL-1\") [Medium\\-range ballistic missile](/wiki/Medium-range_ballistic_missile \"Medium-range ballistic missile\") with a reach of {{convert\\|1700\\|km}} aboard the ultimately unsuccessful [Type 092 submarine](/wiki/Type_092_submarine \"Type 092 submarine\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/slbm/type\\_92\\.htm \\|title\\=Type 92 Xia \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federation of American Scientists]] \\|work\\=Weapons of Mass Destruction Around the World \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219175846/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/slbm/type\\_92\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Post–Cold War",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|Deployment history of land\\-based ICBM, 1959–2014](/wiki/File:Icbm-hist-en.png \"Icbm-hist-en.png\")\nIn 1991, the United States and the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") agreed in the [START I](/wiki/START_I \"START I\") treaty to reduce their deployed ICBMs and attributed warheads.",
"{{As of\\|2016}}, all five of the nations with permanent seats on the [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council \"United Nations Security Council\") have fully operational long\\-range ballistic missile systems; Russia, the United States, and China also have land\\-based ICBMs (the US missiles are silo\\-based, while China and Russia have both silo and road\\-mobile ([DF\\-31](/wiki/DF-31 \"DF-31\"), [RT\\-2PM2 Topol\\-M](/wiki/RT-2PM2_Topol-M \"RT-2PM2 Topol-M\") missiles).",
"Israel is believed to have deployed a road mobile nuclear ICBM, the [Jericho III](/wiki/Jericho_%28missile%29%23Jericho_III \"Jericho (missile)#Jericho III\"), which entered service in 2008; an upgraded version is in development.{{cite report \\|url\\=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30427\\.pdf \\|title\\=Missile Survey: Ballistic and Cruise Missiles of Foreign Countries\\|first\\=Andrew \\|last\\=Feickert \\|work\\=\\[\\[Congressional Research Service]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Library of Congress]] \\|date\\=5 March 2004 \\|id\\=RL30427 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301060149/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30427\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=1 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite news \\|last\\=Pfeffer \\|first\\=Anshel \\|title\\=IDF test\\-fires ballistic missile in central Israel \\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy\\-defense/idf\\-test\\-fires\\-ballistic\\-missile\\-in\\-central\\-israel\\-1\\.393306 \\|date\\=2 November 2011 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Haaretz]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103045910/http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy\\-defense/idf\\-test\\-fires\\-ballistic\\-missile\\-in\\-central\\-israel\\-1\\.393306 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 November 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"[India](/wiki/India \"India\") successfully test fired [Agni V](/wiki/Agni-V \"Agni-V\"), with a strike range of more than {{convert\\|5000\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} on 19 April 2012, claiming entry into the ICBM club.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3330921\\.ece \\|title\\=Agni\\-V successfully test\\-fired \\|first1\\=Y \\|last1\\=Mallikarjun \\|first2\\=TS \\|last2\\=Subramanian \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hindu]] \\|date\\=19 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424030303/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3330921\\.ece \\|archive\\-date\\=24 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The missile's actual range is speculated by foreign researchers to be up to {{convert\\|8000\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} with India having downplayed its capabilities to avoid causing concern to other countries.{{cite news\\|title\\=India downplayed Agni\\-V's capacity: Chinese experts \\|url\\=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world\\-news/india\\-downplayed\\-agni\\-v\\-s\\-capacity\\-chinese\\-experts/article1\\-843359\\.aspx \\|location\\=Beijing, China \\|newspaper\\=Hindustan Times\\|agency\\=Indo\\-Asian News Service \\|date\\=20 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607123640/http://www.hindustantimes.com/world\\-news/india\\-downplayed\\-agni\\-v\\-s\\-capacity\\-chinese\\-experts/article1\\-843359\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2014}} On 15 December 2022, first night trial of Agni\\-V was successfully carried out by SFC from Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha. The missile is now 20 percent lighter because the use of composite materials rather than steel material. The range has been increased to 7,000 km.{{Cite web\\|date\\=17 December 2022 \\|title\\=If India wants, Agni missiles can now strike targets beyond 7,000 kms\\|url\\=https://aninews.in/news/national/general\\-news/if\\-india\\-wants\\-agni\\-missiles\\-can\\-now\\-strike\\-targets\\-beyond\\-7000\\-kms20221217161534/\\|website\\=ANI News}}",
"By 2012 there was speculation by some [intelligence agencies](/wiki/Intelligence_agency \"Intelligence agency\") that [North Korea](/wiki/North_Korea \"North Korea\") is developing an ICBM.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/dprk/missile/td\\-2\\.htm \\|title\\=North Korea's Taepodong and Unha Missiles \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federation of American Scientists]] \\|work\\=Programs \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126101747/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/dprk/missile/td\\-2\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=26 November 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} North Korea successfully put a [satellite](/wiki/Kwangmy%C5%8Fngs%C5%8Fng-3_Unit_2 \"Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2\") into space on 12 December 2012 using the {{convert\\|32\\|m\\|ft\\| adj \\=mid\\|\\-tall}} [Unha\\-3](/wiki/Unha-3 \"Unha-3\") rocket. The United States claimed that the launch was in fact a way to test an ICBM.{{cite news \\|url \\= https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna50167891 \\|title \\= North Korea says it successfully launched satellite into orbit \\|work \\= \\[\\[NBC News]] \\|date \\= 12 December 2012 \\|access\\-date \\= 2013\\-04\\-13 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130414182253/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/50167891/ns/technology\\_and\\_science\\-space/ \\|archive\\-date \\= 14 April 2013 \\|url\\-status \\= live }} (See [Timeline of first orbital launches by country](/wiki/Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country \"Timeline of first orbital launches by country\").) In early July 2017, North Korea claimed for the first time to have tested successfully an ICBM capable of carrying a large thermonuclear warhead.",
"In July 2014, China announced the development of its newest generation of ICBM, the Dongfeng\\-41 ([DF\\-41](/wiki/DF-41 \"DF-41\")), which has a range of {{convert\\|12,000\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=off}}, capable of reaching the United States, and which analysts believe is capable of being outfitted with [MIRV](/wiki/Multiple_independently_targetable_reentry_vehicle \"Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle\") technology.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/11005061/China\\-confirms\\-new\\-generation\\-long\\-range\\-missiles.html\\|title\\=China 'confirms new generation long range missiles'\\|date\\=1 August 2014\\|work\\=The Telegraph\\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319160902/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/11005061/China\\-confirms\\-new\\-generation\\-long\\-range\\-missiles.html\\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Most countries in the early stages of developing ICBMs have used liquid propellants, with the known exceptions being the [Indian](/wiki/India \"India\") [Agni\\-V](/wiki/Agni-V \"Agni-V\"), the planned but cancelled{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.astronautix.com/s/southafrica.html \\|title\\=South Africa \\|publisher\\=Encyclopedia Astronautica \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820010737/http://www.astronautix.com/s/southafrica.html \\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} South African RSA\\-4 ICBM, and the now in service Israeli [Jericho III](/wiki/Jericho_missile%23Jericho_III \"Jericho missile#Jericho III\").{{cite encyclopedia \\| publisher \\= Astronautix \\| url \\= http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/jericho.htm \\| title \\= Jericho \\| encyclopedia \\= Encyclopedia Astronautica \\| access\\-date \\= 2012\\-12\\-14 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121022200536/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/jericho.htm \\| archive\\-date \\= 22 October 2012}}",
"The [RS\\-28 Sarmat](/wiki/RS-28_Sarmat \"RS-28 Sarmat\")[Новую тяжелую ракету \"Сармат\" будут делать в Красноярске](http://www.rg.ru/2015/02/02/raketa-site-anons.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906185817/https://rg.ru/2015/02/02/raketa\\-site\\-anons.html \\|date\\=6 September 2017 }} *[Rossiyskaya Gazeta](/wiki/Rossiyskaya_Gazeta \"Rossiyskaya Gazeta\")*, 2 February 2015\\. (Russian: РС\\-28 Сармат; [NATO reporting name](/wiki/NATO_reporting_name \"NATO reporting name\"): SATAN 2\\), is a Russian [liquid\\-fueled](/wiki/Liquid-propellant_rocket \"Liquid-propellant rocket\"), [MIRV](/wiki/Multiple_independently_targetable_reentry_vehicle \"Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle\")\\-equipped, [super\\-heavy](/wiki/Heavy_ICBM \"Heavy ICBM\") [thermonuclear](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon \"Thermonuclear weapon\") armed intercontinental ballistic missile in development by the [Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau](/wiki/Makeyev_Rocket_Design_Bureau \"Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau\") from 2009,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://militaryrussia.ru/blog/topic\\-435\\.html\\|title\\=РС\\-28 / ОКР Сармат, ракета 15А28 – SS\\-X\\-30 (проект) – MilitaryRussia.Ru – отечественная военная техника (после 1945г.)\\|website\\=militaryrussia.ru\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915095810/http://militaryrussia.ru/blog/topic\\-435\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=15 September 2013\\|url\\-status\\=live}} intended to replace the previous [R\\-36 missile](/wiki/R-36_%28missile%29 \"R-36 (missile)\"). Its large payload would allow for up to 10 heavy [warheads](/wiki/Warhead \"Warhead\") or 15 lighter ones or up to 24 hypersonic glide vehicles [Yu\\-74](/wiki/Yu-74 \"Yu-74\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.express.co.uk/news/world/680167/Russia\\-tests\\-Yu74\\-hypersonic\\-nuclear\\-glider\\-capable\\-carrying\\-24\\-atomic\\-warheads\\|title\\=Russia testing hypersonic nuclear glider that holds 24 warheads and travels at 7,000mph\\|first\\=Tom\\|last\\=Batchelor\\|date\\=15 June 2016\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330214447/https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/680167/Russia\\-tests\\-Yu74\\-hypersonic\\-nuclear\\-glider\\-capable\\-carrying\\-24\\-atomic\\-warheads\\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}} or a combination of warheads and massive amounts of [countermeasures](/wiki/Countermeasure \"Countermeasure\") designed to defeat [anti\\-missile systems](/wiki/Missile_defense \"Missile defense\");{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-russia\\-missiles\\-idUSBRE9BG0SH20131217\\|title\\=Russia plans new ICBM to replace Cold War 'Satan' missile\\|work\\=Reuters\\|date\\=17 December 2013\\|access\\-date\\=17 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118070339/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/17/us\\-russia\\-missiles\\-idUSBRE9BG0SH20131217\\|archive\\-date\\=18 January 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} it was announced by the Russian military as a response to the US [Prompt Global Strike](/wiki/Prompt_Global_Strike \"Prompt Global Strike\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://newsru.com/arch/russia/31may2014/sarmat.html\\|title\\=Минобороны рассказало о тяжелой баллистической ракете – неуязвимом для ПРО ответе США\\|date\\=31 May 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915003631/http://www.newsru.com/arch/russia/31may2014/sarmat.html\\|archive\\-date\\=15 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In July 2023, North Korea fired a suspected intercontinental ballistic missile that was expected to land short of Japanese waters. The launch follows North Korea's threat to retaliate against the US for alleged spy plane incursions.{{cite news \\|title\\=North Korea fires intercontinental ballistic missile after threatening US \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=12 July 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-asia\\-66172284 \\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2023 }}",
""
] |
### Cold War
After World War II, the Americans and the Soviets started rocket research programs based on the V\-2 and other German wartime designs. Each branch of the US military started its own programs, leading to considerable duplication of effort. In the Soviet Union, rocket research was centrally organized although several teams worked on different designs.
The US initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the [RTV\-A\-2 Hiroc](/wiki/RTV-A-2_Hiroc "RTV-A-2 Hiroc") project. This was a three\-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut in 1948 after only three partially successful launches of the second stage design, that was used to test variations of the V\-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly formed [US Air Force](/wiki/US_Air_Force "US Air Force") did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of [their first](/wiki/Joe_4 "Joe 4") [thermonuclear weapon](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon "Thermonuclear weapon"), but it was not until 1954 that the [Atlas missile](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas "SM-65 Atlas") program was given the highest national priority. The Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957; the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket exploded. The first successful flight of an Atlas missile to full range occurred 28 November 1958\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.century\-of\-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm \|title\=Atlas \|publisher\=Century of Flight \|work\=The Exploration of Space \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011002749/http://century\-of\-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm \|archive\-date\=11 October 2011 \|url\-status\=live }} The first armed version of the Atlas, the Atlas D, was declared operational in January 1959 at Vandenberg, although it had not yet flown. The first test flight was carried out on 9 July 1959,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.missilethreat.com/missilesoftheworld/id.15/missile\_detail.asp \|title\=Atlas D \|publisher\=Missile Threat \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210160153/http://www.missilethreat.com/missilesoftheworld/id.15/missile\_detail.asp \|archive\-date\=10 February 2012 }} and the missile was accepted for service on 1 September. The [Titan I](/wiki/HGM-25A_Titan_I "HGM-25A Titan I") was another US multistage ICBM, with a successful launch February 5, 1959, with Titan I A3\. Unlike the Atlas, the Titan I was a two\-stage missile, rather than three. The Titan was larger, yet lighter, than the Atlas. Due to the improvements in engine technology and guidance systems the Titan I overtook the Atlas.{{cite web \|title\=Air Force Space \& Missile Museum \|url\=https://afspacemuseum.org/artifacts/titan\-i/ \|access\-date\=29 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=21 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021074042/https://afspacemuseum.org/artifacts/titan\-i/ }}
[thumb\|upright\|An [SM\-65 Atlas](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas "SM-65 Atlas"), the first US ICBM, first launched in 1957](/wiki/File:Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg "Atlas-B ICBM.jpg")
In the Soviet Union, early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. That changed in 1953, when [Sergei Korolyov](/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov "Sergei Korolyov") was directed to start development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the [R\-7](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka "R-7 Semyorka") developed with some speed. The first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash {{convert\|400\|km\|abbr\=on}} from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957; the R\-7 flew over {{convert\|6000\|km\|abbr\=on}} and became the world's first ICBM.{{cite book \|last1\=Siddiqi \|first1\=Asif \|title\=Challenge to Apollo: the Soviet Union and the space race, 1945–1974 \|date\=2000 \|publisher\=National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div \|pages\=160–161 \|url\=https://history.nasa.gov/SP\-4408pt1\.pdf \|access\-date\=17 August 2023}} The first strategic\-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at [Plesetsk](/wiki/Plesetsk_Cosmodrome "Plesetsk Cosmodrome") in north\-west Russia.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eucom.mil/article/23076/this\-week\-in\-eucom\-history\-february\-6\-12\-1959 \|title\=This Week in EUCOM History: February 6–12, 1959 \|date\=6 February 2012 \|publisher\=\[\[EUCOM]] \|access\-date\=2012\-02\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921003453/http://www.eucom.mil/article/23076/this\-week\-in\-eucom\-history\-february\-6\-12\-1959 \|archive\-date\=21 September 2012}}
It was the same [R\-7](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka "R-7 Semyorka") [launch vehicle](/wiki/Launch_vehicle "Launch vehicle") that placed the first artificial satellite in space, [Sputnik](/wiki/Sputnik_1 "Sputnik 1"), on 4 October 1957\. The first [human spaceflight](/wiki/Human_spaceflight "Human spaceflight") in history was accomplished on a derivative of R\-7, [Vostok](/wiki/Vostok_%28rocket_family%29 "Vostok (rocket family)"), on [12 April 1961](/wiki/Cosmonautics_Day "Cosmonautics Day"), by [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") [cosmonaut](/wiki/Cosmonaut "Cosmonaut") [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin "Yuri Gagarin"). A heavily modernized version of the R\-7 is still used as the [launch vehicle](/wiki/Launch_vehicle "Launch vehicle") for the Soviet/Russian [Soyuz spacecraft](/wiki/Soyuz_%28spacecraft%29 "Soyuz (spacecraft)"), marking more than 60 years of operational history of [Sergei Korolyov](/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov "Sergei Korolyov")'s original rocket design.
The R\-7 and Atlas each required a large launch facility, making them vulnerable to attack, and could not be kept in a ready state. Failure rates were very high throughout the early years of ICBM technology. Human spaceflight programs ([Vostok](/wiki/Vostok_programme "Vostok programme"), [Mercury](/wiki/Project_Mercury "Project Mercury"), [Voskhod](/wiki/Voskhod_programme "Voskhod programme"), [Gemini](/wiki/Project_Gemini "Project Gemini"), etc.) served as a highly visible means of demonstrating confidence in reliability, with successes translating directly to national defense implications. The US was well behind the Soviets in the [Space Race](/wiki/Space_Race "Space Race") and so US President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") increased the stakes with the [Apollo program](/wiki/Apollo_program "Apollo program"), which used [Saturn rocket](/wiki/Saturn_%28rocket_family%29 "Saturn (rocket family)") technology that had been funded by President [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower").
[thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|1965 graph of USAF [Atlas](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas "SM-65 Atlas") and Titan ICBM launches, cumulative by month with failures highlighted (pink), showing how [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA")'s use of ICBM boosters for Projects Mercury and Gemini (blue) served as a visible demonstration of reliability at a time when failure rates had been substantial.](/wiki/File:USAF_ICBM_and_NASA_Launch_Vehicle_Flight_Test_Successes_and_Failures_%28highlighted%29.png "USAF ICBM and NASA Launch Vehicle Flight Test Successes and Failures (highlighted).png")
These early ICBMs also formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include [R\-7](/wiki/R-7_%28rocket_family%29 "R-7 (rocket family)"), [Atlas](/wiki/Atlas_%28rocket_family%29 "Atlas (rocket family)"), [Redstone](/wiki/Redstone_%28rocket_family%29 "Redstone (rocket family)"), [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28rocket_family%29 "Titan (rocket family)"), and [Proton](/wiki/Proton_%28rocket%29 "Proton (rocket)"), which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The Eisenhower administration supported the development of solid\-fueled missiles such as the [LGM\-30 Minuteman](/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman "LGM-30 Minuteman"), [Polaris](/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris "UGM-27 Polaris") and [Skybolt](/wiki/GAM-87_Skybolt "GAM-87 Skybolt"). Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors, due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads, and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles.
The Western view of the deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of [mutual assured destruction](/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction "Mutual assured destruction"). In the 1950s and 1960s, development began on [anti\-ballistic missile](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile "Anti-ballistic missile") systems by both the Americans and Soviets. Such systems were restricted by the 1972 [Anti\-Ballistic Missile Treaty](/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty "Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty"). The first successful ABM test was conducted by the Soviets in 1961, which later deployed a fully operational system defending Moscow in the 1970s (see [Moscow ABM system](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile%23Moscow_ABM_system "Anti-ballistic missile#Moscow ABM system")).
The 1972 [SALT](/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks "Strategic Arms Limitation Talks") treaty froze the number of ICBM launchers of both the Americans and the Soviets at existing levels and allowed new [submarine](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine")\-based [SLBM](/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile "Submarine-launched ballistic missile") launchers only if an equal number of land\-based ICBM launchers were dismantled. Subsequent talks, called SALT II, were held from 1972 to 1979 and actually reduced the number of nuclear warheads held by the US and Soviets. SALT II was never ratified by the [US Senate](/wiki/US_Senate "US Senate"), but its terms were honored by both sides until 1986, when the Reagan administration "withdrew" after it had accused the Soviets of violating the pact.
In the 1980s, President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") launched the [Strategic Defense Initiative](/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative "Strategic Defense Initiative") as well as the [MX](/wiki/LGM-118_Peacekeeper "LGM-118 Peacekeeper") and [Midgetman](/wiki/MGM-134_Midgetman "MGM-134 Midgetman") ICBM programs.
China developed a minimal independent nuclear deterrent entering its own cold war after an [ideological split](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split "Sino-Soviet split") with the Soviet Union beginning in the early 1960s. After first testing a domestic built [nuclear weapon](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon") in 1964, it went on to develop various warheads and missiles. Beginning in the early 1970s, the liquid fuelled [DF\-5](/wiki/DF-5 "DF-5") ICBM was developed and used as a satellite launch vehicle in 1975\. The DF\-5, with a range of {{convert\|10000\|to\|12000\|km\|abbr\=on}}—long enough to strike the Western United States and the Soviet Union—was silo deployed, with the first pair in service by 1981 and possibly twenty missiles in service by the late 1990s.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/icbm/df\-5\.htm \|title\=DF\-5 \|publisher\=\[\[Federation of American Scientists]] \|work\=Weapons of Mass Destruction / WMD Around the World \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416025855/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/icbm/df\-5\.htm \|archive\-date\=16 April 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} China also deployed the [JL\-1](/wiki/JL-1 "JL-1") [Medium\-range ballistic missile](/wiki/Medium-range_ballistic_missile "Medium-range ballistic missile") with a reach of {{convert\|1700\|km}} aboard the ultimately unsuccessful [Type 092 submarine](/wiki/Type_092_submarine "Type 092 submarine").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/slbm/type\_92\.htm \|title\=Type 92 Xia \|publisher\=\[\[Federation of American Scientists]] \|work\=Weapons of Mass Destruction Around the World \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219175846/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/slbm/type\_92\.htm \|archive\-date\=19 February 2012 \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"### Cold War",
"After World War II, the Americans and the Soviets started rocket research programs based on the V\\-2 and other German wartime designs. Each branch of the US military started its own programs, leading to considerable duplication of effort. In the Soviet Union, rocket research was centrally organized although several teams worked on different designs.",
"The US initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the [RTV\\-A\\-2 Hiroc](/wiki/RTV-A-2_Hiroc \"RTV-A-2 Hiroc\") project. This was a three\\-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut in 1948 after only three partially successful launches of the second stage design, that was used to test variations of the V\\-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly formed [US Air Force](/wiki/US_Air_Force \"US Air Force\") did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of [their first](/wiki/Joe_4 \"Joe 4\") [thermonuclear weapon](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon \"Thermonuclear weapon\"), but it was not until 1954 that the [Atlas missile](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas \"SM-65 Atlas\") program was given the highest national priority. The Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957; the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket exploded. The first successful flight of an Atlas missile to full range occurred 28 November 1958\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.century\\-of\\-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm \\|title\\=Atlas \\|publisher\\=Century of Flight \\|work\\=The Exploration of Space \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011002749/http://century\\-of\\-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The first armed version of the Atlas, the Atlas D, was declared operational in January 1959 at Vandenberg, although it had not yet flown. The first test flight was carried out on 9 July 1959,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.missilethreat.com/missilesoftheworld/id.15/missile\\_detail.asp \\|title\\=Atlas D \\|publisher\\=Missile Threat \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210160153/http://www.missilethreat.com/missilesoftheworld/id.15/missile\\_detail.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=10 February 2012 }} and the missile was accepted for service on 1 September. The [Titan I](/wiki/HGM-25A_Titan_I \"HGM-25A Titan I\") was another US multistage ICBM, with a successful launch February 5, 1959, with Titan I A3\\. Unlike the Atlas, the Titan I was a two\\-stage missile, rather than three. The Titan was larger, yet lighter, than the Atlas. Due to the improvements in engine technology and guidance systems the Titan I overtook the Atlas.{{cite web \\|title\\=Air Force Space \\& Missile Museum \\|url\\=https://afspacemuseum.org/artifacts/titan\\-i/ \\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021074042/https://afspacemuseum.org/artifacts/titan\\-i/ }}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|An [SM\\-65 Atlas](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas \"SM-65 Atlas\"), the first US ICBM, first launched in 1957](/wiki/File:Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg \"Atlas-B ICBM.jpg\")",
"In the Soviet Union, early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. That changed in 1953, when [Sergei Korolyov](/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov \"Sergei Korolyov\") was directed to start development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the [R\\-7](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka \"R-7 Semyorka\") developed with some speed. The first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash {{convert\\|400\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957; the R\\-7 flew over {{convert\\|6000\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} and became the world's first ICBM.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Siddiqi \\|first1\\=Asif \\|title\\=Challenge to Apollo: the Soviet Union and the space race, 1945–1974 \\|date\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div \\|pages\\=160–161 \\|url\\=https://history.nasa.gov/SP\\-4408pt1\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2023}} The first strategic\\-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at [Plesetsk](/wiki/Plesetsk_Cosmodrome \"Plesetsk Cosmodrome\") in north\\-west Russia.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eucom.mil/article/23076/this\\-week\\-in\\-eucom\\-history\\-february\\-6\\-12\\-1959 \\|title\\=This Week in EUCOM History: February 6–12, 1959 \\|date\\=6 February 2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[EUCOM]] \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921003453/http://www.eucom.mil/article/23076/this\\-week\\-in\\-eucom\\-history\\-february\\-6\\-12\\-1959 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2012}}",
"It was the same [R\\-7](/wiki/R-7_Semyorka \"R-7 Semyorka\") [launch vehicle](/wiki/Launch_vehicle \"Launch vehicle\") that placed the first artificial satellite in space, [Sputnik](/wiki/Sputnik_1 \"Sputnik 1\"), on 4 October 1957\\. The first [human spaceflight](/wiki/Human_spaceflight \"Human spaceflight\") in history was accomplished on a derivative of R\\-7, [Vostok](/wiki/Vostok_%28rocket_family%29 \"Vostok (rocket family)\"), on [12 April 1961](/wiki/Cosmonautics_Day \"Cosmonautics Day\"), by [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") [cosmonaut](/wiki/Cosmonaut \"Cosmonaut\") [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin \"Yuri Gagarin\"). A heavily modernized version of the R\\-7 is still used as the [launch vehicle](/wiki/Launch_vehicle \"Launch vehicle\") for the Soviet/Russian [Soyuz spacecraft](/wiki/Soyuz_%28spacecraft%29 \"Soyuz (spacecraft)\"), marking more than 60 years of operational history of [Sergei Korolyov](/wiki/Sergei_Korolyov \"Sergei Korolyov\")'s original rocket design.",
"The R\\-7 and Atlas each required a large launch facility, making them vulnerable to attack, and could not be kept in a ready state. Failure rates were very high throughout the early years of ICBM technology. Human spaceflight programs ([Vostok](/wiki/Vostok_programme \"Vostok programme\"), [Mercury](/wiki/Project_Mercury \"Project Mercury\"), [Voskhod](/wiki/Voskhod_programme \"Voskhod programme\"), [Gemini](/wiki/Project_Gemini \"Project Gemini\"), etc.) served as a highly visible means of demonstrating confidence in reliability, with successes translating directly to national defense implications. The US was well behind the Soviets in the [Space Race](/wiki/Space_Race \"Space Race\") and so US President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") increased the stakes with the [Apollo program](/wiki/Apollo_program \"Apollo program\"), which used [Saturn rocket](/wiki/Saturn_%28rocket_family%29 \"Saturn (rocket family)\") technology that had been funded by President [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\").",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|1965 graph of USAF [Atlas](/wiki/SM-65_Atlas \"SM-65 Atlas\") and Titan ICBM launches, cumulative by month with failures highlighted (pink), showing how [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s use of ICBM boosters for Projects Mercury and Gemini (blue) served as a visible demonstration of reliability at a time when failure rates had been substantial.](/wiki/File:USAF_ICBM_and_NASA_Launch_Vehicle_Flight_Test_Successes_and_Failures_%28highlighted%29.png \"USAF ICBM and NASA Launch Vehicle Flight Test Successes and Failures (highlighted).png\")",
"These early ICBMs also formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include [R\\-7](/wiki/R-7_%28rocket_family%29 \"R-7 (rocket family)\"), [Atlas](/wiki/Atlas_%28rocket_family%29 \"Atlas (rocket family)\"), [Redstone](/wiki/Redstone_%28rocket_family%29 \"Redstone (rocket family)\"), [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28rocket_family%29 \"Titan (rocket family)\"), and [Proton](/wiki/Proton_%28rocket%29 \"Proton (rocket)\"), which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The Eisenhower administration supported the development of solid\\-fueled missiles such as the [LGM\\-30 Minuteman](/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman \"LGM-30 Minuteman\"), [Polaris](/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris \"UGM-27 Polaris\") and [Skybolt](/wiki/GAM-87_Skybolt \"GAM-87 Skybolt\"). Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors, due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads, and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles.",
"The Western view of the deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of [mutual assured destruction](/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction \"Mutual assured destruction\"). In the 1950s and 1960s, development began on [anti\\-ballistic missile](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile \"Anti-ballistic missile\") systems by both the Americans and Soviets. Such systems were restricted by the 1972 [Anti\\-Ballistic Missile Treaty](/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty \"Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty\"). The first successful ABM test was conducted by the Soviets in 1961, which later deployed a fully operational system defending Moscow in the 1970s (see [Moscow ABM system](/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile%23Moscow_ABM_system \"Anti-ballistic missile#Moscow ABM system\")).",
"The 1972 [SALT](/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks \"Strategic Arms Limitation Talks\") treaty froze the number of ICBM launchers of both the Americans and the Soviets at existing levels and allowed new [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\")\\-based [SLBM](/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile \"Submarine-launched ballistic missile\") launchers only if an equal number of land\\-based ICBM launchers were dismantled. Subsequent talks, called SALT II, were held from 1972 to 1979 and actually reduced the number of nuclear warheads held by the US and Soviets. SALT II was never ratified by the [US Senate](/wiki/US_Senate \"US Senate\"), but its terms were honored by both sides until 1986, when the Reagan administration \"withdrew\" after it had accused the Soviets of violating the pact.",
"In the 1980s, President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") launched the [Strategic Defense Initiative](/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative \"Strategic Defense Initiative\") as well as the [MX](/wiki/LGM-118_Peacekeeper \"LGM-118 Peacekeeper\") and [Midgetman](/wiki/MGM-134_Midgetman \"MGM-134 Midgetman\") ICBM programs.",
"China developed a minimal independent nuclear deterrent entering its own cold war after an [ideological split](/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split \"Sino-Soviet split\") with the Soviet Union beginning in the early 1960s. After first testing a domestic built [nuclear weapon](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") in 1964, it went on to develop various warheads and missiles. Beginning in the early 1970s, the liquid fuelled [DF\\-5](/wiki/DF-5 \"DF-5\") ICBM was developed and used as a satellite launch vehicle in 1975\\. The DF\\-5, with a range of {{convert\\|10000\\|to\\|12000\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}}—long enough to strike the Western United States and the Soviet Union—was silo deployed, with the first pair in service by 1981 and possibly twenty missiles in service by the late 1990s.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/icbm/df\\-5\\.htm \\|title\\=DF\\-5 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federation of American Scientists]] \\|work\\=Weapons of Mass Destruction / WMD Around the World \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416025855/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/icbm/df\\-5\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=16 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} China also deployed the [JL\\-1](/wiki/JL-1 \"JL-1\") [Medium\\-range ballistic missile](/wiki/Medium-range_ballistic_missile \"Medium-range ballistic missile\") with a reach of {{convert\\|1700\\|km}} aboard the ultimately unsuccessful [Type 092 submarine](/wiki/Type_092_submarine \"Type 092 submarine\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/slbm/type\\_92\\.htm \\|title\\=Type 92 Xia \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federation of American Scientists]] \\|work\\=Weapons of Mass Destruction Around the World \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219175846/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/slbm/type\\_92\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
Political career
----------------
### Prince George's county
Menes first became involved in politics in 1953, when she helped organize a voter registration drive in the University Hills area of [Prince George's County](/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County "Prince George's County"). She remained active in county politics, and in 1962 ran for county Register of Wills, losing the election by a hundred votes. She served as County Board of Elections Chief Clerk in 1963 and Secretary for the Democratic Steering Committee in 1966\. In the mid\-1960s she also worked as a substitute teacher in county public high schools.
### House of Delegates
She first won a seat in the Maryland House of Delegates in 1966, and was continually reelected until she retired in 2007\. She represented the 21st District, a section of northern Prince George's County which included [College Park](/wiki/College_Park%2C_Maryland "College Park, Maryland"), [Beltsville](/wiki/Beltsville%2C_Maryland "Beltsville, Maryland"), and [Laurel](/wiki/Laurel%2C_Maryland "Laurel, Maryland").{{cite web \|website\=Gazette.net \|title\=Longtime delegate mourned by family, colleagues: Lawmaker championed women's rights during her 40 years of service \|date\=May 21, 2009 \|url\=http://www.gazette.net/stories/05212009/landnew181321\_32522\.shtml}} During her tenure she focused on education, healthcare, criminal justice, aging, the arts, and women's issues, helping to pass over 2,000 bills and policy changes.
During her first term she was appointed to her first leadership position by Governor [Spiro Agnew](/wiki/Spiro_Agnew "Spiro Agnew"). As chair of the Commission on the Public Library Laws, she organized legislation to improve the state's library system.
In 1971, Menes was the subject of a notorious joke by [Thomas Hunter Lowe](/wiki/Thomas_Hunter_Lowe "Thomas Hunter Lowe"), then the [Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Maryland_House_of_Delegates "Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates"). At the time, she was one of only eleven female lawmakers in Maryland. The House building in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland "Annapolis, Maryland"), did not have a women's restroom; the women had to walk across a crowded concourse to use a public restroom. The delay was serious enough to cause women lawmakers to miss an occasional vote. After Menes complained, Lowe appointed her "chairman" of the women's restroom committee and, in front of all the delegates, presented her with a fur\-covered toilet seat. Menes later claimed the incident as a victory of sorts, noting that it was the first time a woman had appeared on the rostrum. The following year she co\-founded the Maryland women's legislative caucus, notably the first of its kind in the United States, and served as its president until 1979\. The women got their own restroom in 1973\.
In the mid\-1970s, she worked to change a state law that prohibited a woman from filing a civil lawsuit against her husband. She said at the time that the changes would "go a long way to helping Maryland women protect themselves...Just the threat of financial responsibility will stay many a husband's hand." She successfully sponsored bills to require [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS "AIDS") testing of prisoners, create [needle\-exchange programs](/wiki/Needle-exchange_programs "Needle-exchange programs"), and require medical personnel, teachers, and social workers to report suspected child abuse.
Menes was active in many committees and advisory boards. She founded the Women's Network of the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) in 1977 and served as its president until 1979\. She led the Maryland delegation to the [National Women's Conference](/wiki/National_Women%27s_Conference "National Women's Conference") in 1977 and served as president of the [National Order of Women Legislators](/wiki/National_Order_of_Women_Legislators "National Order of Women Legislators") from 1979 to 1980\. In 1979 she became the first female member of the state Judiciary Committee, on which she served until the end of her career. She chaired the Special Committee on Drug and Alcohol Abuse from 1987 to 2006\.{{cite web \|website\=General Assembly of Maryland \|title\=Former Delegate Pauline H. Menes \|url\=http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/webmga/frmMain.aspx?stab\=03\&pid\=sponpage\&id\=menes01\&tab\=subject6\&ys\=2019RS}} At various times she was a member of the Rules and Executive Nominations Committee, the Legislative Policy Committee, the Joint Committee on Legislative Ethics, the Joint Oversight Committee on Corrections, the Maryland State Arts Council, the Maryland Commission on Aging, and the Prince George's County Domestic Violence Task Force, among others. During her last few years in office she served as Maryland's House parliamentarian.
|
[
"Political career\n----------------",
"### Prince George's county",
"Menes first became involved in politics in 1953, when she helped organize a voter registration drive in the University Hills area of [Prince George's County](/wiki/Prince_George%27s_County \"Prince George's County\"). She remained active in county politics, and in 1962 ran for county Register of Wills, losing the election by a hundred votes. She served as County Board of Elections Chief Clerk in 1963 and Secretary for the Democratic Steering Committee in 1966\\. In the mid\\-1960s she also worked as a substitute teacher in county public high schools.",
"### House of Delegates",
"She first won a seat in the Maryland House of Delegates in 1966, and was continually reelected until she retired in 2007\\. She represented the 21st District, a section of northern Prince George's County which included [College Park](/wiki/College_Park%2C_Maryland \"College Park, Maryland\"), [Beltsville](/wiki/Beltsville%2C_Maryland \"Beltsville, Maryland\"), and [Laurel](/wiki/Laurel%2C_Maryland \"Laurel, Maryland\").{{cite web \\|website\\=Gazette.net \\|title\\=Longtime delegate mourned by family, colleagues: Lawmaker championed women's rights during her 40 years of service \\|date\\=May 21, 2009 \\|url\\=http://www.gazette.net/stories/05212009/landnew181321\\_32522\\.shtml}} During her tenure she focused on education, healthcare, criminal justice, aging, the arts, and women's issues, helping to pass over 2,000 bills and policy changes.",
"During her first term she was appointed to her first leadership position by Governor [Spiro Agnew](/wiki/Spiro_Agnew \"Spiro Agnew\"). As chair of the Commission on the Public Library Laws, she organized legislation to improve the state's library system.",
"In 1971, Menes was the subject of a notorious joke by [Thomas Hunter Lowe](/wiki/Thomas_Hunter_Lowe \"Thomas Hunter Lowe\"), then the [Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Maryland_House_of_Delegates \"Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates\"). At the time, she was one of only eleven female lawmakers in Maryland. The House building in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland \"Annapolis, Maryland\"), did not have a women's restroom; the women had to walk across a crowded concourse to use a public restroom. The delay was serious enough to cause women lawmakers to miss an occasional vote. After Menes complained, Lowe appointed her \"chairman\" of the women's restroom committee and, in front of all the delegates, presented her with a fur\\-covered toilet seat. Menes later claimed the incident as a victory of sorts, noting that it was the first time a woman had appeared on the rostrum. The following year she co\\-founded the Maryland women's legislative caucus, notably the first of its kind in the United States, and served as its president until 1979\\. The women got their own restroom in 1973\\.",
"In the mid\\-1970s, she worked to change a state law that prohibited a woman from filing a civil lawsuit against her husband. She said at the time that the changes would \"go a long way to helping Maryland women protect themselves...Just the threat of financial responsibility will stay many a husband's hand.\" She successfully sponsored bills to require [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS \"AIDS\") testing of prisoners, create [needle\\-exchange programs](/wiki/Needle-exchange_programs \"Needle-exchange programs\"), and require medical personnel, teachers, and social workers to report suspected child abuse.",
"Menes was active in many committees and advisory boards. She founded the Women's Network of the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) in 1977 and served as its president until 1979\\. She led the Maryland delegation to the [National Women's Conference](/wiki/National_Women%27s_Conference \"National Women's Conference\") in 1977 and served as president of the [National Order of Women Legislators](/wiki/National_Order_of_Women_Legislators \"National Order of Women Legislators\") from 1979 to 1980\\. In 1979 she became the first female member of the state Judiciary Committee, on which she served until the end of her career. She chaired the Special Committee on Drug and Alcohol Abuse from 1987 to 2006\\.{{cite web \\|website\\=General Assembly of Maryland \\|title\\=Former Delegate Pauline H. Menes \\|url\\=http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/webmga/frmMain.aspx?stab\\=03\\&pid\\=sponpage\\&id\\=menes01\\&tab\\=subject6\\&ys\\=2019RS}} At various times she was a member of the Rules and Executive Nominations Committee, the Legislative Policy Committee, the Joint Committee on Legislative Ethics, the Joint Oversight Committee on Corrections, the Maryland State Arts Council, the Maryland Commission on Aging, and the Prince George's County Domestic Violence Task Force, among others. During her last few years in office she served as Maryland's House parliamentarian.",
""
] |
### House of Delegates
She first won a seat in the Maryland House of Delegates in 1966, and was continually reelected until she retired in 2007\. She represented the 21st District, a section of northern Prince George's County which included [College Park](/wiki/College_Park%2C_Maryland "College Park, Maryland"), [Beltsville](/wiki/Beltsville%2C_Maryland "Beltsville, Maryland"), and [Laurel](/wiki/Laurel%2C_Maryland "Laurel, Maryland").{{cite web \|website\=Gazette.net \|title\=Longtime delegate mourned by family, colleagues: Lawmaker championed women's rights during her 40 years of service \|date\=May 21, 2009 \|url\=http://www.gazette.net/stories/05212009/landnew181321\_32522\.shtml}} During her tenure she focused on education, healthcare, criminal justice, aging, the arts, and women's issues, helping to pass over 2,000 bills and policy changes.
During her first term she was appointed to her first leadership position by Governor [Spiro Agnew](/wiki/Spiro_Agnew "Spiro Agnew"). As chair of the Commission on the Public Library Laws, she organized legislation to improve the state's library system.
In 1971, Menes was the subject of a notorious joke by [Thomas Hunter Lowe](/wiki/Thomas_Hunter_Lowe "Thomas Hunter Lowe"), then the [Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Maryland_House_of_Delegates "Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates"). At the time, she was one of only eleven female lawmakers in Maryland. The House building in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland "Annapolis, Maryland"), did not have a women's restroom; the women had to walk across a crowded concourse to use a public restroom. The delay was serious enough to cause women lawmakers to miss an occasional vote. After Menes complained, Lowe appointed her "chairman" of the women's restroom committee and, in front of all the delegates, presented her with a fur\-covered toilet seat. Menes later claimed the incident as a victory of sorts, noting that it was the first time a woman had appeared on the rostrum. The following year she co\-founded the Maryland women's legislative caucus, notably the first of its kind in the United States, and served as its president until 1979\. The women got their own restroom in 1973\.
In the mid\-1970s, she worked to change a state law that prohibited a woman from filing a civil lawsuit against her husband. She said at the time that the changes would "go a long way to helping Maryland women protect themselves...Just the threat of financial responsibility will stay many a husband's hand." She successfully sponsored bills to require [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS "AIDS") testing of prisoners, create [needle\-exchange programs](/wiki/Needle-exchange_programs "Needle-exchange programs"), and require medical personnel, teachers, and social workers to report suspected child abuse.
Menes was active in many committees and advisory boards. She founded the Women's Network of the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) in 1977 and served as its president until 1979\. She led the Maryland delegation to the [National Women's Conference](/wiki/National_Women%27s_Conference "National Women's Conference") in 1977 and served as president of the [National Order of Women Legislators](/wiki/National_Order_of_Women_Legislators "National Order of Women Legislators") from 1979 to 1980\. In 1979 she became the first female member of the state Judiciary Committee, on which she served until the end of her career. She chaired the Special Committee on Drug and Alcohol Abuse from 1987 to 2006\.{{cite web \|website\=General Assembly of Maryland \|title\=Former Delegate Pauline H. Menes \|url\=http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/webmga/frmMain.aspx?stab\=03\&pid\=sponpage\&id\=menes01\&tab\=subject6\&ys\=2019RS}} At various times she was a member of the Rules and Executive Nominations Committee, the Legislative Policy Committee, the Joint Committee on Legislative Ethics, the Joint Oversight Committee on Corrections, the Maryland State Arts Council, the Maryland Commission on Aging, and the Prince George's County Domestic Violence Task Force, among others. During her last few years in office she served as Maryland's House parliamentarian.
|
[
"### House of Delegates",
"She first won a seat in the Maryland House of Delegates in 1966, and was continually reelected until she retired in 2007\\. She represented the 21st District, a section of northern Prince George's County which included [College Park](/wiki/College_Park%2C_Maryland \"College Park, Maryland\"), [Beltsville](/wiki/Beltsville%2C_Maryland \"Beltsville, Maryland\"), and [Laurel](/wiki/Laurel%2C_Maryland \"Laurel, Maryland\").{{cite web \\|website\\=Gazette.net \\|title\\=Longtime delegate mourned by family, colleagues: Lawmaker championed women's rights during her 40 years of service \\|date\\=May 21, 2009 \\|url\\=http://www.gazette.net/stories/05212009/landnew181321\\_32522\\.shtml}} During her tenure she focused on education, healthcare, criminal justice, aging, the arts, and women's issues, helping to pass over 2,000 bills and policy changes.",
"During her first term she was appointed to her first leadership position by Governor [Spiro Agnew](/wiki/Spiro_Agnew \"Spiro Agnew\"). As chair of the Commission on the Public Library Laws, she organized legislation to improve the state's library system.",
"In 1971, Menes was the subject of a notorious joke by [Thomas Hunter Lowe](/wiki/Thomas_Hunter_Lowe \"Thomas Hunter Lowe\"), then the [Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Maryland_House_of_Delegates \"Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates\"). At the time, she was one of only eleven female lawmakers in Maryland. The House building in [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland \"Annapolis, Maryland\"), did not have a women's restroom; the women had to walk across a crowded concourse to use a public restroom. The delay was serious enough to cause women lawmakers to miss an occasional vote. After Menes complained, Lowe appointed her \"chairman\" of the women's restroom committee and, in front of all the delegates, presented her with a fur\\-covered toilet seat. Menes later claimed the incident as a victory of sorts, noting that it was the first time a woman had appeared on the rostrum. The following year she co\\-founded the Maryland women's legislative caucus, notably the first of its kind in the United States, and served as its president until 1979\\. The women got their own restroom in 1973\\.",
"In the mid\\-1970s, she worked to change a state law that prohibited a woman from filing a civil lawsuit against her husband. She said at the time that the changes would \"go a long way to helping Maryland women protect themselves...Just the threat of financial responsibility will stay many a husband's hand.\" She successfully sponsored bills to require [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS \"AIDS\") testing of prisoners, create [needle\\-exchange programs](/wiki/Needle-exchange_programs \"Needle-exchange programs\"), and require medical personnel, teachers, and social workers to report suspected child abuse.",
"Menes was active in many committees and advisory boards. She founded the Women's Network of the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) in 1977 and served as its president until 1979\\. She led the Maryland delegation to the [National Women's Conference](/wiki/National_Women%27s_Conference \"National Women's Conference\") in 1977 and served as president of the [National Order of Women Legislators](/wiki/National_Order_of_Women_Legislators \"National Order of Women Legislators\") from 1979 to 1980\\. In 1979 she became the first female member of the state Judiciary Committee, on which she served until the end of her career. She chaired the Special Committee on Drug and Alcohol Abuse from 1987 to 2006\\.{{cite web \\|website\\=General Assembly of Maryland \\|title\\=Former Delegate Pauline H. Menes \\|url\\=http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/webmga/frmMain.aspx?stab\\=03\\&pid\\=sponpage\\&id\\=menes01\\&tab\\=subject6\\&ys\\=2019RS}} At various times she was a member of the Rules and Executive Nominations Committee, the Legislative Policy Committee, the Joint Committee on Legislative Ethics, the Joint Oversight Committee on Corrections, the Maryland State Arts Council, the Maryland Commission on Aging, and the Prince George's County Domestic Violence Task Force, among others. During her last few years in office she served as Maryland's House parliamentarian.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### 2016–2018: Maiden ATP title in doubles, Masters 1000 debut and first win
He made his Masters 1000 debut at the [2017 Miami Open](/wiki/2017_Miami_Open "2017 Miami Open") as a wildcard and won his first match at this level in the [2018 edition](/wiki/2018_Miami_Open "2018 Miami Open") of the same tournament after also receiving a wildcard.
### 2019–2021: Major \& Masters \& Top 70 debuts, Two Majors \& Masters third rounds, Maiden final
He made his Grand Slam main draw debut through qualifying at the [2019 French Open](/wiki/2019_French_Open "2019 French Open") where he recorded his first Major win against fellow qualifier [Blaž Rola](/wiki/Bla%C5%BE_Rola "Blaž Rola") in straight sets.
He finished year 2019 ranked No. 74 in the singles rankings.
He made his debut at the [2020 Australian Open](/wiki/2020_Australian_Open "2020 Australian Open") and defeated [Yasutaka Uchiyama](/wiki/Yasutaka_Uchiyama "Yasutaka Uchiyama") in the first round. He reached a new career\-high ranking of No. 67 on 2 March 2020\.
Ymer reached the third round of a Grand Slam tournament for the first time in his career at the [2021 Australian Open](/wiki/2021_Australian_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles "2021 Australian Open – Men's singles"). He did so by defeating 26th seed [Hubert Hurkacz](/wiki/Hubert_Hurkacz "Hubert Hurkacz") and qualifier [Carlos Alcaraz](/wiki/Carlos_Alcaraz "Carlos Alcaraz"), before losing to fifth seed [Stefanos Tsitsipas](/wiki/Stefanos_Tsitsipas "Stefanos Tsitsipas").{{Cite web \|url\=https://ausopen.com/players/sweden/mikael\-ymer\#!matches \|title\=Mikael Ymer \[SWE] \| Australian Open}} At the [2021 Miami Open](/wiki/2021_Miami_Open "2021 Miami Open") he reached also the third round for the first time at a Masters 1000 defeating 27th seed [Nikoloz Basilashvili](/wiki/Nikoloz_Basilashvili "Nikoloz Basilashvili").
As world No. 105 at the [2021 French Open](/wiki/2021_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles "2021 French Open – Men's singles"), Ymer achieved the biggest win of his career by defeating world No. 15 [Gaël Monfils](/wiki/Ga%C3%ABl_Monfils "Gaël Monfils") in the second round.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.essentiallysports.com/gael\-monfils\-fails\-to\-win\-consecutive\-matches\-for\-the\-past\-16\-months\-shattered\-by\-world\-no\-105\-michael\-ymer\-at\-french\-open\-2021\-r2\-atp\-tennis\-news/ \|title\=Monfils Fails to Win Consecutive Matches Again, Shattered by World No.105 Ymer at French Open \|date\=3 June 2021}} With this victory, he once again reached the third round of a major, this time losing to [Jannik Sinner](/wiki/Jannik_Sinner "Jannik Sinner").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/sinner\-ymer\-roland\-garros\-2021\-friday \|title\=Jannik Sinner Shines, Sets Rafael Nadal Rematch at Roland Garros\|website\=ATP Tour}}
At the [2021 Winston\-Salem Open](/wiki/2021_Winston-Salem_Open "2021 Winston-Salem Open"), Ymer beat eleventh seed [Albert Ramos Viñolas](/wiki/Albert_Ramos_Vi%C3%B1olas "Albert Ramos Viñolas"), lucky loser [Max Purcell](/wiki/Max_Purcell "Max Purcell"), and thirteenth seed [Frances Tiafoe](/wiki/Frances_Tiafoe "Frances Tiafoe") to reach his first ATP semi\-final.{{Cite web \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/sports\-tennis\-us\-open\-tennis\-championships\-winston\-salem\-36e3b51a216b02e05d6f75949ef77779 \|title\=Ivashka, Ruusuvuori, Ymer advance in Winston\-Salem Open \|website\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| date\=27 August 2021}} He continued with a win over fifteenth seed [Carlos Alcaraz](/wiki/Carlos_Alcaraz "Carlos Alcaraz") to reach his first ATP final, making him the first Swedish tour\-level finalist since [Robin Söderling](/wiki/Robin_S%C3%B6derling "Robin Söderling") at the [2011 Swedish Open](/wiki/2011_Swedish_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles "2011 Swedish Open – Men's singles").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/ymer\-alcaraz\-winston\-salem\-2021 \|title\=Mikael Ymer Beats Carlos Alcaraz to Reach Winston\-Salem Final\|website\=ATP Tour}} Ymer lost the final to [Ilya Ivashka](/wiki/Ilya_Ivashka "Ilya Ivashka") in straight sets in 56 minutes.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/ivashka\-ymer\-winston\-salem\-2021\-final\-saturday \|title\=Ilya Ivashka Clinches First Title in Winston\-Salem\|website\=ATP Tour}}
In August, Ymer played at the [2021 US Open](/wiki/2021_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2021 US Open (tennis)"), losing to [Jenson Brooksby](/wiki/Jenson_Brooksby "Jenson Brooksby") in the first round.{{Cite web \|url\=https://lastwordonsports.com/tennis/2021/09/05/jenson\-brooksby\-breakthrough\-season\-us\-open/ \|title\=Jenson Brooksby Continues Breakthrough at US Open \|date\=5 September 2021}}
He finished year 2021 ranked No. 93 in the singles rankings.
### 2022: French Open third round, Maiden ATP 500 semifinal
Ymer was not able to defend his third round showing at the [2022 Australian Open](/wiki/2022_Australian_Open "2022 Australian Open"), losing to [Stefanos Tsitsipas](/wiki/Stefanos_Tsitsipas "Stefanos Tsitsipas") in the opening round.
In February, at the [2022 Open Sud de France](/wiki/2022_Open_Sud_de_France "2022 Open Sud de France"), Ymer reached the semi\-finals, defeating three French players [Corentin Moutet](/wiki/Corentin_Moutet "Corentin Moutet"), third seed [Gaël Monfils](/wiki/Ga%C3%ABl_Monfils "Gaël Monfils") (his second top\-20 win) and [Richard Gasquet](/wiki/Richard_Gasquet "Richard Gasquet").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.tennis\-tourtalk.com/85077/memorable\-day\-and\-night\-for\-ymer\-brothers\-on\-separate\-continents \|title\=Memorable Day and Night for Ymer Brothers on Separate Continents \|date\=4 February 2022}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/ymer\-brothers\-montpellier\-pune\-2022\-feature \|title\=Ymer Brothers Tasting Success on Tour\|website\=ATP Tour}}
At the [2022 French Open](/wiki/2022_French_Open "2022 French Open") he reached the third round at this Major for the second consecutive time in his career defeating [James Duckworth](/wiki/James_Duckworth_%28tennis%29 "James Duckworth (tennis)") and 29th seed [Dan Evans](/wiki/Dan_Evans_%28tennis%29 "Dan Evans (tennis)"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2022/may/26/iga\-swiatek\-carves\-her\-way\-through\-draw\-as\-french\-open\-rivals\-falter \|title\=Simona Halep suffers panic attack during French Open defeat \|website\=\[\[TheGuardian.com]] \| date\=26 May 2022}} before losing to 4th seed [Stefanos Tsitsipas](/wiki/Stefanos_Tsitsipas "Stefanos Tsitsipas").
[thumb\|Ymer in 2nd round match at Citi Open, August 3, 2022](/wiki/File:Mikael_Ymer%2C_Citi_Open%2C_Aug_3%2C_2022.jpg "Mikael Ymer, Citi Open, Aug 3, 2022.jpg")
At [2022 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2022_Wimbledon_Championships "2022 Wimbledon Championships") he reached the second round defeating [Daniel Altmaier](/wiki/Daniel_Altmaier "Daniel Altmaier").
At the [2022 Citi Open](/wiki/2022_Citi_Open "2022 Citi Open") he defeated [Andy Murray](/wiki/Andy_Murray "Andy Murray"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/murray\-ymer\-washington\-2022\-monday \|title\=Mikael Ymer Battles Past Andy Murray in Washington\|website\=ATP Tour}} and 15th seed [Aslan Karatsev](/wiki/Aslan_Karatsev "Aslan Karatsev") to reach the round of 16\. Next he defeated [Emil Ruusuvuori](/wiki/Emil_Ruusuvuori "Emil Ruusuvuori") to reach the quarterfinals of an ATP 500 tournament for the first time. In the quarterfinals, he defeated [Sebastian Korda](/wiki/Sebastian_Korda "Sebastian Korda") in three sets to advance to his first ATP 500 semi\-final in his career. As a result, he moved close to 40 positions up the rankings back into the top 80 to No. 77 on 8 August 2022\.
At the [2022 Winston\-Salem Open](/wiki/2022_Winston-Salem_Open "2022 Winston-Salem Open"), Ymer received a wildcard but lost in the second to qualifier [Marc\-Andrea Huesler](/wiki/Marc-Andrea_Huesler "Marc-Andrea Huesler"). As a result, his ranking fell to No. 99 on 29 August 2022\. At the [US Open](/wiki/2022_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2022 US Open (tennis)") he lost in the first round.
At the [2022 Firenze Open](/wiki/2022_Firenze_Open "2022 Firenze Open") he reached the semi\-finals as a qualifier defeating again fifth seed Aslan Karatsev{{cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/berrettini\-carballes\-baena\-florence\-2022\-wednesday \|title\=Roberto Carballés Baena Stuns Matteo Berrettini in Florence\|website\=ATP Tour}} and [Roberto Carballés Baena](/wiki/Roberto_Carball%C3%A9s_Baena "Roberto Carballés Baena") but lost to [JJ Wolf](/wiki/JJ_Wolf "JJ Wolf").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/wolf\-felix\-musetti\-florence\-2022\-saturday \|title\=JJ Wolf Powers into Florence Final\|website\=ATP Tour}} As a result, he moved 20 positions up in the rankings back into the top 80 on 17 October 2022\.
At his home tournament in [Stockholm](/wiki/2022_Stockholm_Open "2022 Stockholm Open") using a special exempt status, he reached the quarterfinals where he lost to top seed [Stefanos Tsitsipas](/wiki/Stefanos_Tsitsipas "Stefanos Tsitsipas").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/tsitsipas\-ymer\-stockholm\-2022\-friday \|title\=Tsitsipas Emerges Unscathed in Dramatic Stockholm QF\|website\=ATP Tour}} As a result, he moved up to No. 76 on 24 October 2022\.
He continued his good form qualifying for the main draw of the [2022 Rolex Paris Masters](/wiki/2022_Rolex_Paris_Masters "2022 Rolex Paris Masters") for the second year in a row. He won his first round match defeating [Alexander Bublik](/wiki/Alexander_Bublik "Alexander Bublik"). He lost to world No. 8 [Félix Auger\-Aliassime](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Auger-Aliassime "Félix Auger-Aliassime") in a three tight set match with two tiebreaks that lasted 3 hours and 30 minutes.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/auger\-aliassime\-ymer\-paris\-2022\-wednesday \|title\=Félix Auger\-Aliassime Takes Paris Epic for 14th Win in a Row\|website\=ATP Tour}}
### 2023: Top 50 debut, Wimbledon third round, suspension
Ymer started his 2023 season in [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_International_%28tennis%29 "Adelaide International (tennis)"). At the [first tournament](/wiki/2023_Adelaide_International_1_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles "2023 Adelaide International 1 – Men's singles"), he lost in the first round to qualifier [Roman Safiullin](/wiki/Roman_Safiullin "Roman Safiullin").{{cite news \|title\=Adelaide International 1: Khachanov moves into second round \|url\=https://www.tennismajors.com/atp/adelaide\-international\-1\-khachanov\-moves\-into\-second\-round\-651200\.html \|access\-date\=8 July 2023 \|date\=3 January 2023}} Getting past qualifying at the [second tournament](/wiki/2023_Adelaide_International_2_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles "2023 Adelaide International 2 – Men's singles"), he reached the quarterfinals where he was defeated by eventual champion, [Kwon Soon\-woo](/wiki/Kwon_Soon-woo "Kwon Soon-woo").{{cite news \|last1\=BULLEY \|first1\=JIM \|last2\=JEONG\-WON \|first2\=LIM \|title\=Kwon Soon\-woo beats Mikael Ymer to reach Adelaide International 2 semifinals \|url\=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2023/01/12/sports/more/Kwon\-Soonwoo\-Adelaide\-International\-2\-Mikael\-Ymer/20230112142843969\.html \|access\-date\=8 July 2023 \|date\=12 January 2023}} He lost in the first round of the [Australian Open](/wiki/2023_Australian_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles "2023 Australian Open – Men's singles") to 31st seed [Yoshihito Nishioka](/wiki/Yoshihito_Nishioka "Yoshihito Nishioka").{{cite news \|title\=Japan's Yoshihito Nishioka beats Mikael Ymer to advance in Australian Open \|url\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2023/01/16/tennis/yoshihito\-nishioka\-advances\-australian\-open/ \|access\-date\=8 July 2023 \|date\=16 January 2023}}
Making it past qualifying at the first edition of the [BW Open](/wiki/2023_BW_Open_%E2%80%93_Singles "2023 BW Open – Singles"), Ymer made it to the final where he lost to top seed [David Goffin](/wiki/David_Goffin "David Goffin").{{cite news \|title\=David Goffin dominates Mikael Ymer and wins the Louvain\-la\-Neuve BW Open \|url\=https://www.lesoir.be/491864/article/2023\-01\-29/david\-goffin\-domine\-mikael\-ymer\-et\-remporte\-le\-bw\-open\-de\-louvain\-la\-neuve \|access\-date\=8 July 2023 \|date\=29 January 2023}} As a result, he reached the top 60 in the rankings on 30 January 2023\. Representing Sweden in the [Davis Cup](/wiki/2023_Davis_Cup_qualifying_round "2023 Davis Cup qualifying round") tie against Bosnia and Herzegovina, he won both of his matches beating [Mirza Bašić](/wiki/Mirza_Ba%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Mirza Bašić") and [Damir Džumhur](/wiki/Damir_D%C5%BEumhur "Damir Džumhur").{{cite news \|title\=INSPIRED YMER BROTHERS GIVE SWEDEN PERFECT START \|url\=https://www.daviscup.com/en/news/328964\.aspx \|access\-date\=8 July 2023 \|publisher\=www.daviscup.com \|date\=3 February 2023}}{{cite news \|title\=U.S. sweeps Uzbekistan, advances to group stage in Davis Cup \|url\=https://www.espn.com/tennis/story/\_/id/35588021/us\-sweeps\-uzbekistan\-advances\-group\-stage\-davis\-cup \|access\-date\=8 July 2023 \|work\=www.espn.com \|date\=4 February 2023}} Sweden ended up winning the tie over Bosnia and Herzegovina 3–1 to advance to the Davis Cup Finals.{{cite news \|title\=YMERS DELIVER ALL THREE POINTS TO SEE SWEDEN THROUGH TO THE FINALS \|url\=https://www.daviscup.com/en/news/329169\.aspx \|access\-date\=8 July 2023 \|publisher\=www.daviscup.com \|date\=4 February 2023}} At the [Open Sud de France](/wiki/2023_Open_Sud_de_France_%E2%80%93_Singles "2023 Open Sud de France – Singles"), he lost in the first round to seventh seed [Emil Ruusuvuori](/wiki/Emil_Ruusuvuori "Emil Ruusuvuori").{{cite news \|title\=\#NextGenATP Fils Flies Past Bautista Agut In Montpellier \|url\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/bautista\-agut\-fils\-montpellier\-2023\-wednesday \|access\-date\=8 July 2023 \|publisher\=www.atptour.com \|date\=8 February 2023}} At the [Rotterdam Open](/wiki/2023_ABN_AMRO_Open "2023 ABN AMRO Open") he qualified again for the main draw but lost to wildcard [Tallon Griekspoor](/wiki/Tallon_Griekspoor "Tallon Griekspoor"). At the [2023 Open 13 Provence](/wiki/2023_Open_13_Provence "2023 Open 13 Provence") he reached the quarterfinals after a walkover from sixth seed [David Goffin](/wiki/David_Goffin "David Goffin") in the second round. He lost to top seed and eventual champion [Hubert Hurkacz](/wiki/Hubert_Hurkacz "Hubert Hurkacz"). He reached a new career high of world No. 51 on 10 April 2023 and the top 50 a week later.
Ymer was disqualified from his match at the [2023 ATP Lyon Open](/wiki/2023_ATP_Lyon_Open "2023 ATP Lyon Open") against [Arthur Fils](/wiki/Arthur_Fils "Arthur Fils") after smashing a racquet against the umpire's chair.{{Cite news\|title\=Ymer disqualified in Lyon after destroying umpire's chair\|url\=https://tennis\-infinity.com/atp/watch\-ymer\-disqualified\-in\-lyon\-after\-destroying\-umpires\-chair\|date\=2023\-05\-24\|access\-date\=2023\-05\-25\|website\=Tennis Infinity\|first\=Kadir\|last\=Macar}}
He reached the quarterfinals at the [2023 Eastbourne International](/wiki/2023_Eastbourne_International "2023 Eastbourne International"). At the [2023 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2023_Wimbledon_Championships "2023 Wimbledon Championships") he reached the third round for the first time at this Major defeating world No. 9 [Taylor Fritz](/wiki/Taylor_Fritz "Taylor Fritz") in five sets after being two sets to love down.
On 17 July 2023, [CAS](/wiki/Court_of_Arbitration_for_Sport "Court of Arbitration for Sport") announced that Ymer will be suspended for 18 months after having missed three out\-of\-competition doping test attempts in a 12\-month period.{{cite web\|title\=Mikael Ymer stängs av i 18 månader för dopningsöverträdelse. Aftonbladet, läst 18 juli 2023\|date\=18 July 2023 \|url\=https://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/a/wApRqM/mikael\-ymer\-stangs\-av\-i\-18\-manader\-efter\-dopingovertadelse}}{{cite web\|title\=CAS pressmeddelande.\|url\=https://www.tas\-cas.org/fileadmin/user\_upload/CAS\_Media\_Release\_9033\.pdf}} Ymer said he was innocent and launched an appeal.{{cite tweet\|number\=1681220636495036416\|user\=MikaelYmer\|title\=In January 2022, the ITF charged me with a potential anti\-doping rule violation for having 3 missed out of competition test attempts in a 12\-month period. I fought that charge at a hearing, and was cleared by an independent tribunal of 3 arbitrators in June of 2022\. The ITF appealed that decision despite the fact that the 3 independent arbitrators who cleared me were appointed under its own rules, and asked the Court of Arbitration for Sport to reach a different decision on the same facts under which I had already been cleared. Yesterday, I learned that the Court of Arbitration for Sports has suspended me from professional tennis for 18 months, despite never having used nor been accused of using banned substances. Having already been cleared once, and wholeheartedly standing by the fact that I do not feel that the 3rd offence was committed, I find their decision to try me again and subsequently find me guilty, unfair. On top of that, I find it difficult to comprehend that they found an 18 month suspension to be a just punishment. I understand that these rules have been put in place to protect the integrity of our sport, and that they are there for a reason. However, I do not believe I broke those rules, and my conscience is clear with God as my witness.\|author\=Mikael Ymer\|date\=July 18, 2023\|access\-date\=July 18, 2023}} The suspension was upheld on appeal, with the CAS also making public that Mikael had stated he missed a drug test due to sleeping in after staying up all night to care for his younger brother [https://www.doping.nl/media/kb/8931/CAS%202022\_A\_9033%20ITF%20vs%20Mikael%20Ymer%20%28S%29\.pdf](https://www.doping.nl/media/kb/8931/CAS%202022_A_9033%20ITF%20vs%20Mikael%20Ymer%20%28S%29.pdf) (presumably Rafael), who Mikael claimed was sick. The CAS reported that the younger brother was at a junior tennis tournament in Finland at the time so Mikael's version of events could not be true.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-09\-01 \|title\=Ymer reported to have lied to CAS about reasons for missing doping tests \|url\=https://tennisuptodate.com/tennis\-news/ymer\-reported\-to\-have\-lied\-to\-cas\-about\-reasons\-for\-missing\-doping\-tests \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-04 \|website\=Tennisuptodate.com }}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### 2016–2018: Maiden ATP title in doubles, Masters 1000 debut and first win",
"He made his Masters 1000 debut at the [2017 Miami Open](/wiki/2017_Miami_Open \"2017 Miami Open\") as a wildcard and won his first match at this level in the [2018 edition](/wiki/2018_Miami_Open \"2018 Miami Open\") of the same tournament after also receiving a wildcard.",
"### 2019–2021: Major \\& Masters \\& Top 70 debuts, Two Majors \\& Masters third rounds, Maiden final",
"He made his Grand Slam main draw debut through qualifying at the [2019 French Open](/wiki/2019_French_Open \"2019 French Open\") where he recorded his first Major win against fellow qualifier [Blaž Rola](/wiki/Bla%C5%BE_Rola \"Blaž Rola\") in straight sets.",
"He finished year 2019 ranked No. 74 in the singles rankings.",
"He made his debut at the [2020 Australian Open](/wiki/2020_Australian_Open \"2020 Australian Open\") and defeated [Yasutaka Uchiyama](/wiki/Yasutaka_Uchiyama \"Yasutaka Uchiyama\") in the first round. He reached a new career\\-high ranking of No. 67 on 2 March 2020\\.",
"Ymer reached the third round of a Grand Slam tournament for the first time in his career at the [2021 Australian Open](/wiki/2021_Australian_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles \"2021 Australian Open – Men's singles\"). He did so by defeating 26th seed [Hubert Hurkacz](/wiki/Hubert_Hurkacz \"Hubert Hurkacz\") and qualifier [Carlos Alcaraz](/wiki/Carlos_Alcaraz \"Carlos Alcaraz\"), before losing to fifth seed [Stefanos Tsitsipas](/wiki/Stefanos_Tsitsipas \"Stefanos Tsitsipas\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://ausopen.com/players/sweden/mikael\\-ymer\\#!matches \\|title\\=Mikael Ymer \\[SWE] \\| Australian Open}} At the [2021 Miami Open](/wiki/2021_Miami_Open \"2021 Miami Open\") he reached also the third round for the first time at a Masters 1000 defeating 27th seed [Nikoloz Basilashvili](/wiki/Nikoloz_Basilashvili \"Nikoloz Basilashvili\").",
"As world No. 105 at the [2021 French Open](/wiki/2021_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles \"2021 French Open – Men's singles\"), Ymer achieved the biggest win of his career by defeating world No. 15 [Gaël Monfils](/wiki/Ga%C3%ABl_Monfils \"Gaël Monfils\") in the second round.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.essentiallysports.com/gael\\-monfils\\-fails\\-to\\-win\\-consecutive\\-matches\\-for\\-the\\-past\\-16\\-months\\-shattered\\-by\\-world\\-no\\-105\\-michael\\-ymer\\-at\\-french\\-open\\-2021\\-r2\\-atp\\-tennis\\-news/ \\|title\\=Monfils Fails to Win Consecutive Matches Again, Shattered by World No.105 Ymer at French Open \\|date\\=3 June 2021}} With this victory, he once again reached the third round of a major, this time losing to [Jannik Sinner](/wiki/Jannik_Sinner \"Jannik Sinner\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/sinner\\-ymer\\-roland\\-garros\\-2021\\-friday \\|title\\=Jannik Sinner Shines, Sets Rafael Nadal Rematch at Roland Garros\\|website\\=ATP Tour}}",
"At the [2021 Winston\\-Salem Open](/wiki/2021_Winston-Salem_Open \"2021 Winston-Salem Open\"), Ymer beat eleventh seed [Albert Ramos Viñolas](/wiki/Albert_Ramos_Vi%C3%B1olas \"Albert Ramos Viñolas\"), lucky loser [Max Purcell](/wiki/Max_Purcell \"Max Purcell\"), and thirteenth seed [Frances Tiafoe](/wiki/Frances_Tiafoe \"Frances Tiafoe\") to reach his first ATP semi\\-final.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/sports\\-tennis\\-us\\-open\\-tennis\\-championships\\-winston\\-salem\\-36e3b51a216b02e05d6f75949ef77779 \\|title\\=Ivashka, Ruusuvuori, Ymer advance in Winston\\-Salem Open \\|website\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| date\\=27 August 2021}} He continued with a win over fifteenth seed [Carlos Alcaraz](/wiki/Carlos_Alcaraz \"Carlos Alcaraz\") to reach his first ATP final, making him the first Swedish tour\\-level finalist since [Robin Söderling](/wiki/Robin_S%C3%B6derling \"Robin Söderling\") at the [2011 Swedish Open](/wiki/2011_Swedish_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles \"2011 Swedish Open – Men's singles\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/ymer\\-alcaraz\\-winston\\-salem\\-2021 \\|title\\=Mikael Ymer Beats Carlos Alcaraz to Reach Winston\\-Salem Final\\|website\\=ATP Tour}} Ymer lost the final to [Ilya Ivashka](/wiki/Ilya_Ivashka \"Ilya Ivashka\") in straight sets in 56 minutes.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/ivashka\\-ymer\\-winston\\-salem\\-2021\\-final\\-saturday \\|title\\=Ilya Ivashka Clinches First Title in Winston\\-Salem\\|website\\=ATP Tour}}",
"In August, Ymer played at the [2021 US Open](/wiki/2021_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2021 US Open (tennis)\"), losing to [Jenson Brooksby](/wiki/Jenson_Brooksby \"Jenson Brooksby\") in the first round.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://lastwordonsports.com/tennis/2021/09/05/jenson\\-brooksby\\-breakthrough\\-season\\-us\\-open/ \\|title\\=Jenson Brooksby Continues Breakthrough at US Open \\|date\\=5 September 2021}}",
"He finished year 2021 ranked No. 93 in the singles rankings.",
"### 2022: French Open third round, Maiden ATP 500 semifinal",
"Ymer was not able to defend his third round showing at the [2022 Australian Open](/wiki/2022_Australian_Open \"2022 Australian Open\"), losing to [Stefanos Tsitsipas](/wiki/Stefanos_Tsitsipas \"Stefanos Tsitsipas\") in the opening round.",
"In February, at the [2022 Open Sud de France](/wiki/2022_Open_Sud_de_France \"2022 Open Sud de France\"), Ymer reached the semi\\-finals, defeating three French players [Corentin Moutet](/wiki/Corentin_Moutet \"Corentin Moutet\"), third seed [Gaël Monfils](/wiki/Ga%C3%ABl_Monfils \"Gaël Monfils\") (his second top\\-20 win) and [Richard Gasquet](/wiki/Richard_Gasquet \"Richard Gasquet\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.tennis\\-tourtalk.com/85077/memorable\\-day\\-and\\-night\\-for\\-ymer\\-brothers\\-on\\-separate\\-continents \\|title\\=Memorable Day and Night for Ymer Brothers on Separate Continents \\|date\\=4 February 2022}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/ymer\\-brothers\\-montpellier\\-pune\\-2022\\-feature \\|title\\=Ymer Brothers Tasting Success on Tour\\|website\\=ATP Tour}}",
"At the [2022 French Open](/wiki/2022_French_Open \"2022 French Open\") he reached the third round at this Major for the second consecutive time in his career defeating [James Duckworth](/wiki/James_Duckworth_%28tennis%29 \"James Duckworth (tennis)\") and 29th seed [Dan Evans](/wiki/Dan_Evans_%28tennis%29 \"Dan Evans (tennis)\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2022/may/26/iga\\-swiatek\\-carves\\-her\\-way\\-through\\-draw\\-as\\-french\\-open\\-rivals\\-falter \\|title\\=Simona Halep suffers panic attack during French Open defeat \\|website\\=\\[\\[TheGuardian.com]] \\| date\\=26 May 2022}} before losing to 4th seed [Stefanos Tsitsipas](/wiki/Stefanos_Tsitsipas \"Stefanos Tsitsipas\").\n[thumb\\|Ymer in 2nd round match at Citi Open, August 3, 2022](/wiki/File:Mikael_Ymer%2C_Citi_Open%2C_Aug_3%2C_2022.jpg \"Mikael Ymer, Citi Open, Aug 3, 2022.jpg\")",
"At [2022 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2022_Wimbledon_Championships \"2022 Wimbledon Championships\") he reached the second round defeating [Daniel Altmaier](/wiki/Daniel_Altmaier \"Daniel Altmaier\").",
"At the [2022 Citi Open](/wiki/2022_Citi_Open \"2022 Citi Open\") he defeated [Andy Murray](/wiki/Andy_Murray \"Andy Murray\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/murray\\-ymer\\-washington\\-2022\\-monday \\|title\\=Mikael Ymer Battles Past Andy Murray in Washington\\|website\\=ATP Tour}} and 15th seed [Aslan Karatsev](/wiki/Aslan_Karatsev \"Aslan Karatsev\") to reach the round of 16\\. Next he defeated [Emil Ruusuvuori](/wiki/Emil_Ruusuvuori \"Emil Ruusuvuori\") to reach the quarterfinals of an ATP 500 tournament for the first time. In the quarterfinals, he defeated [Sebastian Korda](/wiki/Sebastian_Korda \"Sebastian Korda\") in three sets to advance to his first ATP 500 semi\\-final in his career. As a result, he moved close to 40 positions up the rankings back into the top 80 to No. 77 on 8 August 2022\\.",
"At the [2022 Winston\\-Salem Open](/wiki/2022_Winston-Salem_Open \"2022 Winston-Salem Open\"), Ymer received a wildcard but lost in the second to qualifier [Marc\\-Andrea Huesler](/wiki/Marc-Andrea_Huesler \"Marc-Andrea Huesler\"). As a result, his ranking fell to No. 99 on 29 August 2022\\. At the [US Open](/wiki/2022_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2022 US Open (tennis)\") he lost in the first round.",
"At the [2022 Firenze Open](/wiki/2022_Firenze_Open \"2022 Firenze Open\") he reached the semi\\-finals as a qualifier defeating again fifth seed Aslan Karatsev{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/berrettini\\-carballes\\-baena\\-florence\\-2022\\-wednesday \\|title\\=Roberto Carballés Baena Stuns Matteo Berrettini in Florence\\|website\\=ATP Tour}} and [Roberto Carballés Baena](/wiki/Roberto_Carball%C3%A9s_Baena \"Roberto Carballés Baena\") but lost to [JJ Wolf](/wiki/JJ_Wolf \"JJ Wolf\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/wolf\\-felix\\-musetti\\-florence\\-2022\\-saturday \\|title\\=JJ Wolf Powers into Florence Final\\|website\\=ATP Tour}} As a result, he moved 20 positions up in the rankings back into the top 80 on 17 October 2022\\.\nAt his home tournament in [Stockholm](/wiki/2022_Stockholm_Open \"2022 Stockholm Open\") using a special exempt status, he reached the quarterfinals where he lost to top seed [Stefanos Tsitsipas](/wiki/Stefanos_Tsitsipas \"Stefanos Tsitsipas\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/tsitsipas\\-ymer\\-stockholm\\-2022\\-friday \\|title\\=Tsitsipas Emerges Unscathed in Dramatic Stockholm QF\\|website\\=ATP Tour}} As a result, he moved up to No. 76 on 24 October 2022\\.\nHe continued his good form qualifying for the main draw of the [2022 Rolex Paris Masters](/wiki/2022_Rolex_Paris_Masters \"2022 Rolex Paris Masters\") for the second year in a row. He won his first round match defeating [Alexander Bublik](/wiki/Alexander_Bublik \"Alexander Bublik\"). He lost to world No. 8 [Félix Auger\\-Aliassime](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Auger-Aliassime \"Félix Auger-Aliassime\") in a three tight set match with two tiebreaks that lasted 3 hours and 30 minutes.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/auger\\-aliassime\\-ymer\\-paris\\-2022\\-wednesday \\|title\\=Félix Auger\\-Aliassime Takes Paris Epic for 14th Win in a Row\\|website\\=ATP Tour}}",
"### 2023: Top 50 debut, Wimbledon third round, suspension",
"Ymer started his 2023 season in [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_International_%28tennis%29 \"Adelaide International (tennis)\"). At the [first tournament](/wiki/2023_Adelaide_International_1_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles \"2023 Adelaide International 1 – Men's singles\"), he lost in the first round to qualifier [Roman Safiullin](/wiki/Roman_Safiullin \"Roman Safiullin\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Adelaide International 1: Khachanov moves into second round \\|url\\=https://www.tennismajors.com/atp/adelaide\\-international\\-1\\-khachanov\\-moves\\-into\\-second\\-round\\-651200\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|date\\=3 January 2023}} Getting past qualifying at the [second tournament](/wiki/2023_Adelaide_International_2_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles \"2023 Adelaide International 2 – Men's singles\"), he reached the quarterfinals where he was defeated by eventual champion, [Kwon Soon\\-woo](/wiki/Kwon_Soon-woo \"Kwon Soon-woo\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=BULLEY \\|first1\\=JIM \\|last2\\=JEONG\\-WON \\|first2\\=LIM \\|title\\=Kwon Soon\\-woo beats Mikael Ymer to reach Adelaide International 2 semifinals \\|url\\=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2023/01/12/sports/more/Kwon\\-Soonwoo\\-Adelaide\\-International\\-2\\-Mikael\\-Ymer/20230112142843969\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|date\\=12 January 2023}} He lost in the first round of the [Australian Open](/wiki/2023_Australian_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles \"2023 Australian Open – Men's singles\") to 31st seed [Yoshihito Nishioka](/wiki/Yoshihito_Nishioka \"Yoshihito Nishioka\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Japan's Yoshihito Nishioka beats Mikael Ymer to advance in Australian Open \\|url\\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2023/01/16/tennis/yoshihito\\-nishioka\\-advances\\-australian\\-open/ \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|date\\=16 January 2023}}",
"Making it past qualifying at the first edition of the [BW Open](/wiki/2023_BW_Open_%E2%80%93_Singles \"2023 BW Open – Singles\"), Ymer made it to the final where he lost to top seed [David Goffin](/wiki/David_Goffin \"David Goffin\").{{cite news \\|title\\=David Goffin dominates Mikael Ymer and wins the Louvain\\-la\\-Neuve BW Open \\|url\\=https://www.lesoir.be/491864/article/2023\\-01\\-29/david\\-goffin\\-domine\\-mikael\\-ymer\\-et\\-remporte\\-le\\-bw\\-open\\-de\\-louvain\\-la\\-neuve \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|date\\=29 January 2023}} As a result, he reached the top 60 in the rankings on 30 January 2023\\. Representing Sweden in the [Davis Cup](/wiki/2023_Davis_Cup_qualifying_round \"2023 Davis Cup qualifying round\") tie against Bosnia and Herzegovina, he won both of his matches beating [Mirza Bašić](/wiki/Mirza_Ba%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Mirza Bašić\") and [Damir Džumhur](/wiki/Damir_D%C5%BEumhur \"Damir Džumhur\").{{cite news \\|title\\=INSPIRED YMER BROTHERS GIVE SWEDEN PERFECT START \\|url\\=https://www.daviscup.com/en/news/328964\\.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|publisher\\=www.daviscup.com \\|date\\=3 February 2023}}{{cite news \\|title\\=U.S. sweeps Uzbekistan, advances to group stage in Davis Cup \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/tennis/story/\\_/id/35588021/us\\-sweeps\\-uzbekistan\\-advances\\-group\\-stage\\-davis\\-cup \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|work\\=www.espn.com \\|date\\=4 February 2023}} Sweden ended up winning the tie over Bosnia and Herzegovina 3–1 to advance to the Davis Cup Finals.{{cite news \\|title\\=YMERS DELIVER ALL THREE POINTS TO SEE SWEDEN THROUGH TO THE FINALS \\|url\\=https://www.daviscup.com/en/news/329169\\.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|publisher\\=www.daviscup.com \\|date\\=4 February 2023}} At the [Open Sud de France](/wiki/2023_Open_Sud_de_France_%E2%80%93_Singles \"2023 Open Sud de France – Singles\"), he lost in the first round to seventh seed [Emil Ruusuvuori](/wiki/Emil_Ruusuvuori \"Emil Ruusuvuori\").{{cite news \\|title\\=\\#NextGenATP Fils Flies Past Bautista Agut In Montpellier \\|url\\=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/bautista\\-agut\\-fils\\-montpellier\\-2023\\-wednesday \\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2023 \\|publisher\\=www.atptour.com \\|date\\=8 February 2023}} At the [Rotterdam Open](/wiki/2023_ABN_AMRO_Open \"2023 ABN AMRO Open\") he qualified again for the main draw but lost to wildcard [Tallon Griekspoor](/wiki/Tallon_Griekspoor \"Tallon Griekspoor\"). At the [2023 Open 13 Provence](/wiki/2023_Open_13_Provence \"2023 Open 13 Provence\") he reached the quarterfinals after a walkover from sixth seed [David Goffin](/wiki/David_Goffin \"David Goffin\") in the second round. He lost to top seed and eventual champion [Hubert Hurkacz](/wiki/Hubert_Hurkacz \"Hubert Hurkacz\"). He reached a new career high of world No. 51 on 10 April 2023 and the top 50 a week later.",
"Ymer was disqualified from his match at the [2023 ATP Lyon Open](/wiki/2023_ATP_Lyon_Open \"2023 ATP Lyon Open\") against [Arthur Fils](/wiki/Arthur_Fils \"Arthur Fils\") after smashing a racquet against the umpire's chair.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Ymer disqualified in Lyon after destroying umpire's chair\\|url\\=https://tennis\\-infinity.com/atp/watch\\-ymer\\-disqualified\\-in\\-lyon\\-after\\-destroying\\-umpires\\-chair\\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-24\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-25\\|website\\=Tennis Infinity\\|first\\=Kadir\\|last\\=Macar}}",
"He reached the quarterfinals at the [2023 Eastbourne International](/wiki/2023_Eastbourne_International \"2023 Eastbourne International\"). At the [2023 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2023_Wimbledon_Championships \"2023 Wimbledon Championships\") he reached the third round for the first time at this Major defeating world No. 9 [Taylor Fritz](/wiki/Taylor_Fritz \"Taylor Fritz\") in five sets after being two sets to love down.",
"On 17 July 2023, [CAS](/wiki/Court_of_Arbitration_for_Sport \"Court of Arbitration for Sport\") announced that Ymer will be suspended for 18 months after having missed three out\\-of\\-competition doping test attempts in a 12\\-month period.{{cite web\\|title\\=Mikael Ymer stängs av i 18 månader för dopningsöverträdelse. Aftonbladet, läst 18 juli 2023\\|date\\=18 July 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/a/wApRqM/mikael\\-ymer\\-stangs\\-av\\-i\\-18\\-manader\\-efter\\-dopingovertadelse}}{{cite web\\|title\\=CAS pressmeddelande.\\|url\\=https://www.tas\\-cas.org/fileadmin/user\\_upload/CAS\\_Media\\_Release\\_9033\\.pdf}} Ymer said he was innocent and launched an appeal.{{cite tweet\\|number\\=1681220636495036416\\|user\\=MikaelYmer\\|title\\=In January 2022, the ITF charged me with a potential anti\\-doping rule violation for having 3 missed out of competition test attempts in a 12\\-month period. I fought that charge at a hearing, and was cleared by an independent tribunal of 3 arbitrators in June of 2022\\. The ITF appealed that decision despite the fact that the 3 independent arbitrators who cleared me were appointed under its own rules, and asked the Court of Arbitration for Sport to reach a different decision on the same facts under which I had already been cleared. Yesterday, I learned that the Court of Arbitration for Sports has suspended me from professional tennis for 18 months, despite never having used nor been accused of using banned substances. Having already been cleared once, and wholeheartedly standing by the fact that I do not feel that the 3rd offence was committed, I find their decision to try me again and subsequently find me guilty, unfair. On top of that, I find it difficult to comprehend that they found an 18 month suspension to be a just punishment. I understand that these rules have been put in place to protect the integrity of our sport, and that they are there for a reason. However, I do not believe I broke those rules, and my conscience is clear with God as my witness.\\|author\\=Mikael Ymer\\|date\\=July 18, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=July 18, 2023}} The suspension was upheld on appeal, with the CAS also making public that Mikael had stated he missed a drug test due to sleeping in after staying up all night to care for his younger brother [https://www.doping.nl/media/kb/8931/CAS%202022\\_A\\_9033%20ITF%20vs%20Mikael%20Ymer%20%28S%29\\.pdf](https://www.doping.nl/media/kb/8931/CAS%202022_A_9033%20ITF%20vs%20Mikael%20Ymer%20%28S%29.pdf) (presumably Rafael), who Mikael claimed was sick. The CAS reported that the younger brother was at a junior tennis tournament in Finland at the time so Mikael's version of events could not be true.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-01 \\|title\\=Ymer reported to have lied to CAS about reasons for missing doping tests \\|url\\=https://tennisuptodate.com/tennis\\-news/ymer\\-reported\\-to\\-have\\-lied\\-to\\-cas\\-about\\-reasons\\-for\\-missing\\-doping\\-tests \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-04 \\|website\\=Tennisuptodate.com }}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
His first art lessons came from his father, the painter {{ill\|Aleksander Sleńdziński\|ru\|Слендзинский, Александр}}. Later, when the family moved to Vilnius, he received piano lessons from [Stanisław Moniuszko](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko "Stanisław Moniuszko"). In exchange, his father gave drawing lessons to Moniuszko's daughter.[Brief biography](http://www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl/index.php/a/wincenty-leopold-slendzinski-slendzinski-slendzinski) @ Internetowy Polski Słownik Biograficzny. His first formal painting instruction came from [Kanuty Rusiecki](/wiki/Kanuty_Rusiecki "Kanuty Rusiecki").
In 1856, when admission to the [Imperial Academy of Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Arts "Imperial Academy of Arts") proved too difficult, he enrolled at the [Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture](/wiki/Moscow_School_of_Painting%2C_Sculpture_and_Architecture "Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture"). Three years later, he was able to enter the Academy, where he was awarded a silver medal for his depiction of [Daniel in the lions' den](/wiki/Daniel_in_the_lions%27_den "Daniel in the lions' den").[Brief biography](http://galeriaslendzinskich.pl/index.php?id=107) @ the Galeria Sleńdzińkich. In 1861, he received the title of "Artist", 3rd degree.
Shortly after, he joined a secret movement associated with the "Lithuanian Provincial Committee", an organization seeking independence for Lithuania. Following his participation in the [January Uprising](/wiki/January_Uprising "January Uprising"), he was arrested. After a short trial, he was sentenced to internal exile in [Knyaginino](/wiki/Knyaginino%2C_Nizhny_Novgorod_Oblast "Knyaginino, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast"), under strict police surveillance.
In 1867, he was given permission to live in [Kharkov](/wiki/Kharkov "Kharkov"), where he stayed until he was allowed to leave in 1872\. He then went to Kraków, where he made the acquaintance of [Jan Matejko](/wiki/Jan_Matejko "Jan Matejko"). Later, he went to [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden "Dresden"), where he lived with [Józef Ignacy Kraszewski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski "Józef Ignacy Kraszewski") and his family. It was then that he first made a name for himself as a portrait painter. He also helped restore the paintings at [Kórnik Castle](/wiki/K%C3%B3rnik_Castle "Kórnik Castle"). In 1875, after accidentally crossing the Austro\-Hungarian border while hiking, he was ordered back to Kharkov.
In 1883, thanks to an Imperial amnesty, he was able to return to Vilnius and married the widow of a local photographer. Once again, in addition to his customary portraits, he engaged in restorative work. He also created religious [frescoes](/wiki/Fresco "Fresco") at the [Church of St. Casimir](/wiki/Church_of_St._Casimir%2C_Vilnius "Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius") and several other notable churches, as well as the chapel of [Rasos Cemetery](/wiki/Rasos_Cemetery "Rasos Cemetery").
His son, [Ludomir Sleńdziński](/wiki/Ludomir_Sle%C5%84dzi%C5%84ski "Ludomir Sleńdziński"), also became a well\-known painter and art professor.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"His first art lessons came from his father, the painter {{ill\\|Aleksander Sleńdziński\\|ru\\|Слендзинский, Александр}}. Later, when the family moved to Vilnius, he received piano lessons from [Stanisław Moniuszko](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko \"Stanisław Moniuszko\"). In exchange, his father gave drawing lessons to Moniuszko's daughter.[Brief biography](http://www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl/index.php/a/wincenty-leopold-slendzinski-slendzinski-slendzinski) @ Internetowy Polski Słownik Biograficzny. His first formal painting instruction came from [Kanuty Rusiecki](/wiki/Kanuty_Rusiecki \"Kanuty Rusiecki\").",
"In 1856, when admission to the [Imperial Academy of Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Arts \"Imperial Academy of Arts\") proved too difficult, he enrolled at the [Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture](/wiki/Moscow_School_of_Painting%2C_Sculpture_and_Architecture \"Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture\"). Three years later, he was able to enter the Academy, where he was awarded a silver medal for his depiction of [Daniel in the lions' den](/wiki/Daniel_in_the_lions%27_den \"Daniel in the lions' den\").[Brief biography](http://galeriaslendzinskich.pl/index.php?id=107) @ the Galeria Sleńdzińkich. In 1861, he received the title of \"Artist\", 3rd degree.",
"Shortly after, he joined a secret movement associated with the \"Lithuanian Provincial Committee\", an organization seeking independence for Lithuania. Following his participation in the [January Uprising](/wiki/January_Uprising \"January Uprising\"), he was arrested. After a short trial, he was sentenced to internal exile in [Knyaginino](/wiki/Knyaginino%2C_Nizhny_Novgorod_Oblast \"Knyaginino, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast\"), under strict police surveillance.",
"In 1867, he was given permission to live in [Kharkov](/wiki/Kharkov \"Kharkov\"), where he stayed until he was allowed to leave in 1872\\. He then went to Kraków, where he made the acquaintance of [Jan Matejko](/wiki/Jan_Matejko \"Jan Matejko\"). Later, he went to [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden \"Dresden\"), where he lived with [Józef Ignacy Kraszewski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski \"Józef Ignacy Kraszewski\") and his family. It was then that he first made a name for himself as a portrait painter. He also helped restore the paintings at [Kórnik Castle](/wiki/K%C3%B3rnik_Castle \"Kórnik Castle\"). In 1875, after accidentally crossing the Austro\\-Hungarian border while hiking, he was ordered back to Kharkov.",
"In 1883, thanks to an Imperial amnesty, he was able to return to Vilnius and married the widow of a local photographer. Once again, in addition to his customary portraits, he engaged in restorative work. He also created religious [frescoes](/wiki/Fresco \"Fresco\") at the [Church of St. Casimir](/wiki/Church_of_St._Casimir%2C_Vilnius \"Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius\") and several other notable churches, as well as the chapel of [Rasos Cemetery](/wiki/Rasos_Cemetery \"Rasos Cemetery\").",
"His son, [Ludomir Sleńdziński](/wiki/Ludomir_Sle%C5%84dzi%C5%84ski \"Ludomir Sleńdziński\"), also became a well\\-known painter and art professor.",
""
] |
Skating career
--------------
{{BLP sources section\|date\=January 2016}}
Flack began skating at age 5\. At age 13, she met the pioneer for African Americans in figure skating, [Mabel Fairbanks](/wiki/Mabel_Fairbanks "Mabel Fairbanks"). Fairbanks inspired Flack to continue skating after wanting to stop at an early age due to racism. Two years later, [Debi Thomas](/wiki/Debi_Thomas "Debi Thomas"), [Bobby Beauchamp](/wiki/Bobby_Beauchamp "Bobby Beauchamp") and Rory Flack skated to three medals at the US National Championships. This was the first time three African Americans competed at the Nationals, and they all earned spots on the international team.
In 1986, Flack won the junior bronze medal at the [U.S. Championships](/wiki/U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships "U.S. Figure Skating Championships"). She also competed internationally, winning the silver medal at the 1987 [Grand Prix International St. Gervais](/wiki/Grand_Prix_International_St._Gervais "Grand Prix International St. Gervais"). Her performance at the 1987 U.S. Championships attracted national attention and earned her an appearance with footage on [Saturday Night Live](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live "Saturday Night Live"). It was the first time a figure skater was on the show. Two months before the qualifying event for the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, she injured her back and could not compete. She retired from competitive skating in the winter of 1991\.
Flack became a Competitive World Professional, 1991 and 1994 US Open Professional Champion, the 2002 American Open Artistic Champion and competed for Team USA in the 2006 CBS Ice Wars. In 1991, Flack started her career as a professional figure skater. She moved from California to Cincinnati and skated in the production *Broadway on Ice*. She choreographed a routine, auditioned, and was selected for a solo spot.
She heard from fellow skaters about an open professional competition, the US Open Challenge Cup. Despite being advised not to compete by the show producer because she would lose her next gig, Flack entered the competition with her friends' support. She had a close childhood friend Doug Mattis who taught her to do a back flip on ice, making her the first black woman in the world with this ability. The US Open competition had two parts for the skaters without a world title. The winner of the Challenge round would advance to the Championship round. The Championship round was filled with Olympic Champions and world medalists. Performing to [Ella Fitzgerald](/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald") and [Louis Armstrong](/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong")'s “Summertime”, she not only won the Challenge Cup, but also placed third in the Championship round, won the inaugural Golden Blade Award (given to the most artistic skater of the entire competition) and became the star of *Ice Capades*.
In 1992, while starring in *Ice Capades*, Flack took time off from the tour to compete once again at the US Open. She skated to “Fever” and a 5\-minute version of “Am I Blue”, and won the silver medal.
In September 1993, Rory gave birth to her first son, Rendell. Two weeks later she skated as a pair team with her then\-husband in the opening of the [Rockefeller Center](/wiki/Rockefeller_Center "Rockefeller Center").
In 1994, Flack was invited to join *The Nutcracker on Ice*. She co\-starred as the Sugar Plum Fairy alongside Olympic champions [Oksana Baiul](/wiki/Oksana_Baiul "Oksana Baiul") and [Brian Boitano](/wiki/Brian_Boitano "Brian Boitano").
Still driven to win the [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 "US Open (tennis)"), she trained daily from 2 am to 4 am. Flack entered the US Open, where the reigning world champion [Yuka Sato](/wiki/Yuka_Sato "Yuka Sato") also planned to compete. Performing to [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin "Aretha Franklin")'s "Think", Flack took first place after the Technical Program and went on to win the title.
Shortly after, she opened a figure skating school in Alaska, the Artistry Of Movement Ice Skating Academy. The academy was created to train grassroots skaters from learning to fall to winning championships. She also continued to perform on national and world television in professional competitions and shows in her free time.
In 2001, Flack appeared with [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin "Aretha Franklin"), choreographing one production number and two solos for the event. One week later, Flack accepted the Lifetime Achievement Award from the [Women's Sports Foundation](/wiki/Women%27s_Sports_Foundation "Women's Sports Foundation") on behalf of [Mabel Fairbanks](/wiki/Mabel_Fairbanks "Mabel Fairbanks"). Inspired once again by Fairbanks, Flack founded her production company, The Color of Ice Production Inc.
In January 2002, she created, produced and choreographed the first all African American ice skating production, *[Ebony on Ice](/wiki/Ebony_on_Ice "Ebony on Ice")*. The production ran for ten weeks at the Legacy Theater in Chicago. Flack appeared as the headliner and had guest artist [Savion Glover](/wiki/Savion_Glover "Savion Glover"), [Kenny Gambel](/wiki/Kenny_Gambel "Kenny Gambel") and [Howard Hewitt](/wiki/Howard_Hewitt "Howard Hewitt"). Later that year she won her second professional title at the American Open Professional Championships.
In 2003, Flack launched her revised production of "Soul Spectacular On Ice", also known as "Ebony On Ice", in Florida and Washington, D.C., with sold\-out performances at the [Lincoln Theater](/wiki/Lincoln_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "Lincoln Theatre (Washington, D.C.)"). The show received rave reviews from the Washington Post with the article "On Ice, Black Music And Dance Catch Fire", by Natalie Hopkinson, with the opening statement, "The ancestors couldn't have foreseen this." It sold out performances, and a national tour was scheduled.
Later the same year, Flack appeared as a guest star in [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles")' last performance, *A Tribute to Ray Charles on Ice* at the Staples Arena in Los Angeles, California. In 2004, Flack was an assistant choreographer for a television production of *A Tribute to Earth Wind and Fire on Ice*. She was also the lead choreographer for two production numbers, two personal solos and a number for [Brian Boitano](/wiki/Brian_Boitano "Brian Boitano") and [Brian Orser](/wiki/Brian_Orser "Brian Orser"). In 2006, she skated in *A Tribute to Wynona Judd* while Wynona and Naomi Judd sang a duet. She also skated in the last aired professional skating championships, *[Ice Wars](/wiki/Ice_Wars "Ice Wars") USA Versus the World*.
In the fall of 2007, Flack took a hiatus from performing due to health issues that brought on the loss of some speech and movements in her arms and legs. She began working with a team of doctors on the east coast while living in Utah, then relocated to Philadelphia in the spring of 2013\. In winter 2014, Flack was diagnosed with [peripheral neuropathy](/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy "Peripheral neuropathy"). Flack\-Mitchell currently lives in Texas and is overcoming the complications of her illness to perform at the 2016 US Open Professional Figure Skating Championships on May 31 in [Las Vegas, Nevada](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada "Las Vegas, Nevada").
### Coaching and choreography career
Flack began choreographing her programs as a senior competitor. 1991 Rory began coaching in Kentucky and Ohio. After signing her first show contract for a show in King Island in Cincinnati, Ohio. she was then approached by Indiana World Skating Academy to coach. Shortly after taking the position in 1992, she began studying under Brian Wright. Later that summer Flack took over the choreography department in Wright's absence for his illness. In 1993, she was sought out by the Seattle Skating Club and was hired as Program Director to build their Basic Skills Program, as well as to develop the new Olympic View Training rink in Lynnwood, Washington.
From 1993, she worked in Alaska after being hired by the Anchorage FSC to direct and head their Learn to Skate program. One year later Flack founded Artistry Of Movement ISA. In 2009, she relocated Artistry of Movement Academy to Provo, Utah, where she served as head coach for three years. In April 2012, Flack started dividing her time coaching between Alaska; Houston, TX; Provo, Utah; Washington, D.C.; Chicago; and New Jersey, and offered clinics worldwide.
|
[
"Skating career\n--------------",
"{{BLP sources section\\|date\\=January 2016}}\nFlack began skating at age 5\\. At age 13, she met the pioneer for African Americans in figure skating, [Mabel Fairbanks](/wiki/Mabel_Fairbanks \"Mabel Fairbanks\"). Fairbanks inspired Flack to continue skating after wanting to stop at an early age due to racism. Two years later, [Debi Thomas](/wiki/Debi_Thomas \"Debi Thomas\"), [Bobby Beauchamp](/wiki/Bobby_Beauchamp \"Bobby Beauchamp\") and Rory Flack skated to three medals at the US National Championships. This was the first time three African Americans competed at the Nationals, and they all earned spots on the international team.",
"In 1986, Flack won the junior bronze medal at the [U.S. Championships](/wiki/U.S._Figure_Skating_Championships \"U.S. Figure Skating Championships\"). She also competed internationally, winning the silver medal at the 1987 [Grand Prix International St. Gervais](/wiki/Grand_Prix_International_St._Gervais \"Grand Prix International St. Gervais\"). Her performance at the 1987 U.S. Championships attracted national attention and earned her an appearance with footage on [Saturday Night Live](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live \"Saturday Night Live\"). It was the first time a figure skater was on the show. Two months before the qualifying event for the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, she injured her back and could not compete. She retired from competitive skating in the winter of 1991\\.",
"Flack became a Competitive World Professional, 1991 and 1994 US Open Professional Champion, the 2002 American Open Artistic Champion and competed for Team USA in the 2006 CBS Ice Wars. In 1991, Flack started her career as a professional figure skater. She moved from California to Cincinnati and skated in the production *Broadway on Ice*. She choreographed a routine, auditioned, and was selected for a solo spot.",
"She heard from fellow skaters about an open professional competition, the US Open Challenge Cup. Despite being advised not to compete by the show producer because she would lose her next gig, Flack entered the competition with her friends' support. She had a close childhood friend Doug Mattis who taught her to do a back flip on ice, making her the first black woman in the world with this ability. The US Open competition had two parts for the skaters without a world title. The winner of the Challenge round would advance to the Championship round. The Championship round was filled with Olympic Champions and world medalists. Performing to [Ella Fitzgerald](/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald \"Ella Fitzgerald\") and [Louis Armstrong](/wiki/Louis_Armstrong \"Louis Armstrong\")'s “Summertime”, she not only won the Challenge Cup, but also placed third in the Championship round, won the inaugural Golden Blade Award (given to the most artistic skater of the entire competition) and became the star of *Ice Capades*.",
"In 1992, while starring in *Ice Capades*, Flack took time off from the tour to compete once again at the US Open. She skated to “Fever” and a 5\\-minute version of “Am I Blue”, and won the silver medal.",
"In September 1993, Rory gave birth to her first son, Rendell. Two weeks later she skated as a pair team with her then\\-husband in the opening of the [Rockefeller Center](/wiki/Rockefeller_Center \"Rockefeller Center\").",
"In 1994, Flack was invited to join *The Nutcracker on Ice*. She co\\-starred as the Sugar Plum Fairy alongside Olympic champions [Oksana Baiul](/wiki/Oksana_Baiul \"Oksana Baiul\") and [Brian Boitano](/wiki/Brian_Boitano \"Brian Boitano\").",
"Still driven to win the [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"US Open (tennis)\"), she trained daily from 2 am to 4 am. Flack entered the US Open, where the reigning world champion [Yuka Sato](/wiki/Yuka_Sato \"Yuka Sato\") also planned to compete. Performing to [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\")'s \"Think\", Flack took first place after the Technical Program and went on to win the title.",
"Shortly after, she opened a figure skating school in Alaska, the Artistry Of Movement Ice Skating Academy. The academy was created to train grassroots skaters from learning to fall to winning championships. She also continued to perform on national and world television in professional competitions and shows in her free time.",
"In 2001, Flack appeared with [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\"), choreographing one production number and two solos for the event. One week later, Flack accepted the Lifetime Achievement Award from the [Women's Sports Foundation](/wiki/Women%27s_Sports_Foundation \"Women's Sports Foundation\") on behalf of [Mabel Fairbanks](/wiki/Mabel_Fairbanks \"Mabel Fairbanks\"). Inspired once again by Fairbanks, Flack founded her production company, The Color of Ice Production Inc.",
"In January 2002, she created, produced and choreographed the first all African American ice skating production, *[Ebony on Ice](/wiki/Ebony_on_Ice \"Ebony on Ice\")*. The production ran for ten weeks at the Legacy Theater in Chicago. Flack appeared as the headliner and had guest artist [Savion Glover](/wiki/Savion_Glover \"Savion Glover\"), [Kenny Gambel](/wiki/Kenny_Gambel \"Kenny Gambel\") and [Howard Hewitt](/wiki/Howard_Hewitt \"Howard Hewitt\"). Later that year she won her second professional title at the American Open Professional Championships.",
"In 2003, Flack launched her revised production of \"Soul Spectacular On Ice\", also known as \"Ebony On Ice\", in Florida and Washington, D.C., with sold\\-out performances at the [Lincoln Theater](/wiki/Lincoln_Theatre_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"Lincoln Theatre (Washington, D.C.)\"). The show received rave reviews from the Washington Post with the article \"On Ice, Black Music And Dance Catch Fire\", by Natalie Hopkinson, with the opening statement, \"The ancestors couldn't have foreseen this.\" It sold out performances, and a national tour was scheduled.",
"Later the same year, Flack appeared as a guest star in [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles \"Ray Charles\")' last performance, *A Tribute to Ray Charles on Ice* at the Staples Arena in Los Angeles, California. In 2004, Flack was an assistant choreographer for a television production of *A Tribute to Earth Wind and Fire on Ice*. She was also the lead choreographer for two production numbers, two personal solos and a number for [Brian Boitano](/wiki/Brian_Boitano \"Brian Boitano\") and [Brian Orser](/wiki/Brian_Orser \"Brian Orser\"). In 2006, she skated in *A Tribute to Wynona Judd* while Wynona and Naomi Judd sang a duet. She also skated in the last aired professional skating championships, *[Ice Wars](/wiki/Ice_Wars \"Ice Wars\") USA Versus the World*.",
"In the fall of 2007, Flack took a hiatus from performing due to health issues that brought on the loss of some speech and movements in her arms and legs. She began working with a team of doctors on the east coast while living in Utah, then relocated to Philadelphia in the spring of 2013\\. In winter 2014, Flack was diagnosed with [peripheral neuropathy](/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy \"Peripheral neuropathy\"). Flack\\-Mitchell currently lives in Texas and is overcoming the complications of her illness to perform at the 2016 US Open Professional Figure Skating Championships on May 31 in [Las Vegas, Nevada](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada \"Las Vegas, Nevada\").",
"### Coaching and choreography career",
"Flack began choreographing her programs as a senior competitor. 1991 Rory began coaching in Kentucky and Ohio. After signing her first show contract for a show in King Island in Cincinnati, Ohio. she was then approached by Indiana World Skating Academy to coach. Shortly after taking the position in 1992, she began studying under Brian Wright. Later that summer Flack took over the choreography department in Wright's absence for his illness. In 1993, she was sought out by the Seattle Skating Club and was hired as Program Director to build their Basic Skills Program, as well as to develop the new Olympic View Training rink in Lynnwood, Washington.",
"From 1993, she worked in Alaska after being hired by the Anchorage FSC to direct and head their Learn to Skate program. One year later Flack founded Artistry Of Movement ISA. In 2009, she relocated Artistry of Movement Academy to Provo, Utah, where she served as head coach for three years. In April 2012, Flack started dividing her time coaching between Alaska; Houston, TX; Provo, Utah; Washington, D.C.; Chicago; and New Jersey, and offered clinics worldwide.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Laura Hall takes her own life after her estranged husband Richard informs her he plans to marry Grace Marshall, a woman he met while researching a book about an [extremist](/wiki/Religious_fanaticism "Religious fanaticism") [cult](/wiki/Cult "Cult"). Raised in the cult, Grace was the sole survivor of their [mass suicide](/wiki/Mass_suicide "Mass suicide"), led by her father. Laura's death devastates her and Richard's children, teenage Aiden and young Mia.
Six months later, Richard announces that they will spend [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") with Grace at the family's remote [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") lodge to get to know each other. Aiden and Mia uncover Grace's past, including video footage of the cult, showing the deceased followers draped in purple silk with duct tape across their mouths reading "sin." At the lodge, the children act hostile toward Grace and refuse efforts to bond with her, even after Richard departs back to the city for a work obligation. Grace's unease is compounded by the abundance of [Catholic iconography](/wiki/Iconography%23Christian_iconography "Iconography#Christian iconography") (including a reproduction of the *[Virgin Annunciate](/wiki/Virgin_Annunciate_%28Antonello_da_Messina%2C_Palermo%29 "Virgin Annunciate (Antonello da Messina, Palermo)")* by [Antonello da Messina](/wiki/Antonello_da_Messina "Antonello da Messina")) in the cabin, which causes her to have nightmares about her father. After being rebuked for watching her shower, Aiden prepares Grace a cup of cocoa and the group watches a movie; during which the siblings decide to use a gas heater indoors and Grace wonders whether it is safe.
In the morning, Grace awakens to discover that her belongings{{spaced ndash}}including her clothing, psychiatric medication, and pet dog{{spaced ndash}}are missing, as well as all the food and Christmas decorations. The generator has gone out, leaving all of their cell phones dead. Grace suspects the children have pranked her but finds their belongings missing as well. She notices the clocks have advanced to January 9\. Aiden tells Grace he dreamed the gas heater malfunctioned and they all suffocated and expresses fear that they may be in the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife").
Over the next several days, Grace succumbs to anxiety, [medication withdrawal](/wiki/Drug_withdrawal "Drug withdrawal"), hunger, and cold. She begins sleepwalking and is tormented by disturbing visions and dreams, including the recurrent voice of her father sermonizing. She attempts to walk to the nearest town, discovering a cross\-shaped cabin where she sees her father beckoning to her. She eventually travels in a circle, taking her back to the lodge. Buried in the snow, she discovers a photo of Aiden and Mia in a memorial frame, and inside, finds the children praying over a newspaper article detailing the deaths of all three from [carbon monoxide poisoning](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning "Carbon monoxide poisoning") on December 22, 2019\. Aiden insists they are in [purgatory](/wiki/Purgatory "Purgatory"), and hangs himself in the attic as proof that they are dead, only to inexplicably survive.
Grace suffers a [nervous breakdown](/wiki/Nervous_breakdown "Nervous breakdown"), which intensifies when she finds her dog frozen to death outside. She enters a [catatonic](/wiki/Catatonia "Catatonia") state on the porch. Worried she might die of exposure, the children finally admit that they have been [gaslighting](/wiki/Gaslighting "Gaslighting") her the entire time, having drugged her, hidden their possessions in a crawlspace, faked the hanging, and played recordings of her father's sermons via a wireless speaker. With their own phones dead at last, the children unsuccessfully attempt to start the generator and bring Grace her medication, but find her convinced that they are in purgatory and must do [penance](/wiki/Penance "Penance") to be accepted by God and ascend to [heaven](/wiki/Heaven "Heaven").
That night, the children witness Grace [self\-flagellating](/wiki/Mortification_of_the_flesh "Mortification of the flesh") by burning herself on the hearth. They hide in the attic but Grace confronts them in the morning, insisting they must "sacrifice something for the Lord" and "free themselves from idols" before setting Mia's doll on fire. Richard returns to discover an inconsolable Grace holding his [revolver](/wiki/Revolver "Revolver"). In an attempt to prove her belief that they are in purgatory, she first fires the gun at herself, however no bullet is fired. Convinced its a sign of her incapacity of dying for being in the afterlife, she turns the gun and opens fire at Richard, shooting him in the head and killing him. Aiden and Mia attempt to flee in the car, but get stuck in the snow. Grace forces the children back into the lodge, where she seats them at the dinner table with their father's corpse and sings *[Nearer, My God, to Thee](/wiki/Nearer%2C_My_God%2C_to_Thee "Nearer, My God, to Thee").* She affixes duct tape reading "sin" over each of their mouths while a loaded gun rests on the table.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Laura Hall takes her own life after her estranged husband Richard informs her he plans to marry Grace Marshall, a woman he met while researching a book about an [extremist](/wiki/Religious_fanaticism \"Religious fanaticism\") [cult](/wiki/Cult \"Cult\"). Raised in the cult, Grace was the sole survivor of their [mass suicide](/wiki/Mass_suicide \"Mass suicide\"), led by her father. Laura's death devastates her and Richard's children, teenage Aiden and young Mia.",
"Six months later, Richard announces that they will spend [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") with Grace at the family's remote [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\") lodge to get to know each other. Aiden and Mia uncover Grace's past, including video footage of the cult, showing the deceased followers draped in purple silk with duct tape across their mouths reading \"sin.\" At the lodge, the children act hostile toward Grace and refuse efforts to bond with her, even after Richard departs back to the city for a work obligation. Grace's unease is compounded by the abundance of [Catholic iconography](/wiki/Iconography%23Christian_iconography \"Iconography#Christian iconography\") (including a reproduction of the *[Virgin Annunciate](/wiki/Virgin_Annunciate_%28Antonello_da_Messina%2C_Palermo%29 \"Virgin Annunciate (Antonello da Messina, Palermo)\")* by [Antonello da Messina](/wiki/Antonello_da_Messina \"Antonello da Messina\")) in the cabin, which causes her to have nightmares about her father. After being rebuked for watching her shower, Aiden prepares Grace a cup of cocoa and the group watches a movie; during which the siblings decide to use a gas heater indoors and Grace wonders whether it is safe.",
"In the morning, Grace awakens to discover that her belongings{{spaced ndash}}including her clothing, psychiatric medication, and pet dog{{spaced ndash}}are missing, as well as all the food and Christmas decorations. The generator has gone out, leaving all of their cell phones dead. Grace suspects the children have pranked her but finds their belongings missing as well. She notices the clocks have advanced to January 9\\. Aiden tells Grace he dreamed the gas heater malfunctioned and they all suffocated and expresses fear that they may be in the [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife \"Afterlife\").",
"Over the next several days, Grace succumbs to anxiety, [medication withdrawal](/wiki/Drug_withdrawal \"Drug withdrawal\"), hunger, and cold. She begins sleepwalking and is tormented by disturbing visions and dreams, including the recurrent voice of her father sermonizing. She attempts to walk to the nearest town, discovering a cross\\-shaped cabin where she sees her father beckoning to her. She eventually travels in a circle, taking her back to the lodge. Buried in the snow, she discovers a photo of Aiden and Mia in a memorial frame, and inside, finds the children praying over a newspaper article detailing the deaths of all three from [carbon monoxide poisoning](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning \"Carbon monoxide poisoning\") on December 22, 2019\\. Aiden insists they are in [purgatory](/wiki/Purgatory \"Purgatory\"), and hangs himself in the attic as proof that they are dead, only to inexplicably survive.",
"Grace suffers a [nervous breakdown](/wiki/Nervous_breakdown \"Nervous breakdown\"), which intensifies when she finds her dog frozen to death outside. She enters a [catatonic](/wiki/Catatonia \"Catatonia\") state on the porch. Worried she might die of exposure, the children finally admit that they have been [gaslighting](/wiki/Gaslighting \"Gaslighting\") her the entire time, having drugged her, hidden their possessions in a crawlspace, faked the hanging, and played recordings of her father's sermons via a wireless speaker. With their own phones dead at last, the children unsuccessfully attempt to start the generator and bring Grace her medication, but find her convinced that they are in purgatory and must do [penance](/wiki/Penance \"Penance\") to be accepted by God and ascend to [heaven](/wiki/Heaven \"Heaven\").",
"That night, the children witness Grace [self\\-flagellating](/wiki/Mortification_of_the_flesh \"Mortification of the flesh\") by burning herself on the hearth. They hide in the attic but Grace confronts them in the morning, insisting they must \"sacrifice something for the Lord\" and \"free themselves from idols\" before setting Mia's doll on fire. Richard returns to discover an inconsolable Grace holding his [revolver](/wiki/Revolver \"Revolver\"). In an attempt to prove her belief that they are in purgatory, she first fires the gun at herself, however no bullet is fired. Convinced its a sign of her incapacity of dying for being in the afterlife, she turns the gun and opens fire at Richard, shooting him in the head and killing him. Aiden and Mia attempt to flee in the car, but get stuck in the snow. Grace forces the children back into the lodge, where she seats them at the dinner table with their father's corpse and sings *[Nearer, My God, to Thee](/wiki/Nearer%2C_My_God%2C_to_Thee \"Nearer, My God, to Thee\").* She affixes duct tape reading \"sin\" over each of their mouths while a loaded gun rests on the table.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Life
Edwards was a native [Houstonian](/wiki/Houston "Houston"). He was the sixth child out of the sixteen children of Reverend E. L. Edwards Sr. and Josephine Radford Edwards.
Edwards graduated from [Wheatley High School](/wiki/Wheatley_High_School_%28Houston%29 "Wheatley High School (Houston)") in Houston.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.houstonisd.org/HISDConnectDS/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid\=c3783acb02efc010VgnVCM10000052147fa6RCRD \|title\=Distinguished HISD Alumni \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515061020/http://www.houstonisd.org/HISDConnectDS/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid\=c3783acb02efc010VgnVCM10000052147fa6RCRD \|archivedate\=2012\-05\-15 \|website\=\[\[Houston Independent School District]]}} Edwards was a member of [Alpha Phi Alpha](/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha "Alpha Phi Alpha") fraternity.
He received a bachelor's degree from [Texas Southern University](/wiki/Texas_Southern_University "Texas Southern University") in 1966 and a Certificate in Corrective Therapy at [Tuskegee Institute](/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute "Tuskegee Institute") in Alabama. He became a realtor and mortgage broker.
### Career
He was involved in the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement"), where he participated in peaceful marches and demonstrations throughout the United States of America with Dr. [Martin Luther King Jr.](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. "Martin Luther King Jr."), Reverend [Jesse Jackson](/wiki/Jesse_Jackson "Jesse Jackson"), Mr. [Carl Stocks](/wiki/Carl_Stocks "Carl Stocks"), Reverend William (Bill) Lawson, and others.
Edwards was a thirteen\-term elected member of the [Texas House of Representatives](/wiki/Texas_House_of_Representatives "Texas House of Representatives"), serving in that capacity from 1978 to 2007\. In 1979, he authored and sponsored House Bill 1016, making June 19 ("[Juneteenth](/wiki/Juneteenth "Juneteenth")") a state\-paid holiday in Texas. He founded Juneteenth, U.S.A., in 1979 along with Al Edwards Real Estate and Mortgage Company.
### 1980s
He served as a member of the board of Push International Trade Bureau of [Chicago, Illinois](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") from 1983 to 1989\. Al Edwards served as the State Chairman for [Reverend Jesse Jackson's](/wiki/Jesse_Jackson "Jesse Jackson") campaign for President of the United States in both 1984 and 1988\.
In 1986, he founded "Operation Justus", a community\-based organization that serves as a referral service for persons with social problems and concerns.
In 1987, he was arrested in Houston and went to jail for peacefully demonstrating against [apartheid in South Africa](/wiki/Apartheid "Apartheid"). Others demonstrating on the national level included [Reverend Jesse Jackson](/wiki/Jesse_Jackson "Jesse Jackson"), [Dick Gregory](/wiki/Dick_Gregory "Dick Gregory"), [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin "Aretha Franklin"), [Harry Belafonte](/wiki/Harry_Belafonte "Harry Belafonte") along with many others.
In 1989, he traveled to [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique"), [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola"), and [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") on a peace\-seeking mission.
### 1990s
Representative Edwards served as Chairman of the Texas Legislative Black Caucus from 1991 to 1997\.
Al Edwards was called to ministry in April 1993\. Revered Al Edwards is a member of Progressive New Hope Church.
During the [Clinton administration](/wiki/Clinton_administration "Clinton administration"), Al Edwards was often invited to the White House as the guest of [Bill](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") and [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"). In May 1994, he was inducted into the Hall of Fame of the African American Biographic Association in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta"). Al Edwards was elected Chairman of the Democratic National Committee Black Caucus and held that position for six years. He was Vice\-Chairman for ten years.
Edwards received his Doctorate of Divinity from World Bible Christian University in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio "San Antonio"). In 1999, Edwards was appointed Chairman of the Texas Emancipation Juneteenth Cultural and Historical Commission by Governor [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush").
### 2004
On January 15, 2004, Al Edwards helped to lead a successful march of over 5000 people in [Waller County](/wiki/Waller_County%2C_Texas "Waller County, Texas") in order for the students of [Prairie View A \& M University](/wiki/Prairie_View_A%26M_University "Prairie View A&M University") to be able to vote. As a senior member of the State Legislature, Al Edwards served on three of the most influential Committees. He was the Chairman of the Rules and Resolutions Committee, Chairman of Budget and Oversight of the Ways and Means Committee and a member of the Appropriations Committee.
### Awards
He was inducted into "Who's Who in America" in 1989 and "Who's Who of Global Decision Makers" in 2006\. In 1983, he received an honorary doctoral degree from the [University of Belize](/wiki/University_of_Belize "University of Belize"). Edwards is memorialized with a statute near [Ashton Villa](/wiki/Ashton_Villa "Ashton Villa") in [Galveston](/wiki/Galveston "Galveston"), depicting him holding up a copy of the Juneteenth legislation.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Life",
"Edwards was a native [Houstonian](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\"). He was the sixth child out of the sixteen children of Reverend E. L. Edwards Sr. and Josephine Radford Edwards.",
"Edwards graduated from [Wheatley High School](/wiki/Wheatley_High_School_%28Houston%29 \"Wheatley High School (Houston)\") in Houston.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.houstonisd.org/HISDConnectDS/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid\\=c3783acb02efc010VgnVCM10000052147fa6RCRD \\|title\\=Distinguished HISD Alumni \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515061020/http://www.houstonisd.org/HISDConnectDS/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid\\=c3783acb02efc010VgnVCM10000052147fa6RCRD \\|archivedate\\=2012\\-05\\-15 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Houston Independent School District]]}} Edwards was a member of [Alpha Phi Alpha](/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha \"Alpha Phi Alpha\") fraternity.",
"He received a bachelor's degree from [Texas Southern University](/wiki/Texas_Southern_University \"Texas Southern University\") in 1966 and a Certificate in Corrective Therapy at [Tuskegee Institute](/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute \"Tuskegee Institute\") in Alabama. He became a realtor and mortgage broker.",
"### Career",
"He was involved in the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement \"Civil rights movement\"), where he participated in peaceful marches and demonstrations throughout the United States of America with Dr. [Martin Luther King Jr.](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. \"Martin Luther King Jr.\"), Reverend [Jesse Jackson](/wiki/Jesse_Jackson \"Jesse Jackson\"), Mr. [Carl Stocks](/wiki/Carl_Stocks \"Carl Stocks\"), Reverend William (Bill) Lawson, and others.",
"Edwards was a thirteen\\-term elected member of the [Texas House of Representatives](/wiki/Texas_House_of_Representatives \"Texas House of Representatives\"), serving in that capacity from 1978 to 2007\\. In 1979, he authored and sponsored House Bill 1016, making June 19 (\"[Juneteenth](/wiki/Juneteenth \"Juneteenth\")\") a state\\-paid holiday in Texas. He founded Juneteenth, U.S.A., in 1979 along with Al Edwards Real Estate and Mortgage Company.",
"### 1980s",
"He served as a member of the board of Push International Trade Bureau of [Chicago, Illinois](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") from 1983 to 1989\\. Al Edwards served as the State Chairman for [Reverend Jesse Jackson's](/wiki/Jesse_Jackson \"Jesse Jackson\") campaign for President of the United States in both 1984 and 1988\\.",
"In 1986, he founded \"Operation Justus\", a community\\-based organization that serves as a referral service for persons with social problems and concerns. \nIn 1987, he was arrested in Houston and went to jail for peacefully demonstrating against [apartheid in South Africa](/wiki/Apartheid \"Apartheid\"). Others demonstrating on the national level included [Reverend Jesse Jackson](/wiki/Jesse_Jackson \"Jesse Jackson\"), [Dick Gregory](/wiki/Dick_Gregory \"Dick Gregory\"), [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\"), [Harry Belafonte](/wiki/Harry_Belafonte \"Harry Belafonte\") along with many others. \nIn 1989, he traveled to [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique \"Mozambique\"), [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\"), and [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") on a peace\\-seeking mission.",
"### 1990s",
"Representative Edwards served as Chairman of the Texas Legislative Black Caucus from 1991 to 1997\\. \nAl Edwards was called to ministry in April 1993\\. Revered Al Edwards is a member of Progressive New Hope Church.",
"During the [Clinton administration](/wiki/Clinton_administration \"Clinton administration\"), Al Edwards was often invited to the White House as the guest of [Bill](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") and [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"). In May 1994, he was inducted into the Hall of Fame of the African American Biographic Association in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\"). Al Edwards was elected Chairman of the Democratic National Committee Black Caucus and held that position for six years. He was Vice\\-Chairman for ten years.",
"Edwards received his Doctorate of Divinity from World Bible Christian University in [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\"). In 1999, Edwards was appointed Chairman of the Texas Emancipation Juneteenth Cultural and Historical Commission by Governor [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\").",
"### 2004",
"On January 15, 2004, Al Edwards helped to lead a successful march of over 5000 people in [Waller County](/wiki/Waller_County%2C_Texas \"Waller County, Texas\") in order for the students of [Prairie View A \\& M University](/wiki/Prairie_View_A%26M_University \"Prairie View A&M University\") to be able to vote. As a senior member of the State Legislature, Al Edwards served on three of the most influential Committees. He was the Chairman of the Rules and Resolutions Committee, Chairman of Budget and Oversight of the Ways and Means Committee and a member of the Appropriations Committee.",
"### Awards",
"He was inducted into \"Who's Who in America\" in 1989 and \"Who's Who of Global Decision Makers\" in 2006\\. In 1983, he received an honorary doctoral degree from the [University of Belize](/wiki/University_of_Belize \"University of Belize\"). Edwards is memorialized with a statute near [Ashton Villa](/wiki/Ashton_Villa \"Ashton Villa\") in [Galveston](/wiki/Galveston \"Galveston\"), depicting him holding up a copy of the Juneteenth legislation.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early career
McCulloch commenced performing publicly at the age of eleven, playing [skiffle music](/wiki/Skiffle_music "Skiffle music"). His first band was The Avro Boys, from Shepherd's Bush, who became Tony Craven \& The Casuals in the late 1950s. In 1960, The Casuals linked up with new singer Frankie Reid and McCulloch remained with the group until October 1962\. During his time with Frankie Reid \& The Casuals, one of the band's drummers was [Mitch Mitchell](/wiki/Mitch_Mitchell "Mitch Mitchell").
McCulloch and drummer Derek Sirmon next joined [Screaming Lord Sutch \& The Savages](/wiki/Screaming_Lord_Sutch_%26_The_Savages "Screaming Lord Sutch & The Savages") and stayed until May 1963\. In 1964, McCullough and Sirmon joined [Woking](/wiki/Woking "Woking") band, The Plebs, who recorded a lone single.Two members of The Plebs, Michael Dunford and Terry Crowe, would have later success as members of the [Nashville Teens](/wiki/Nashville_Teens "Nashville Teens") and as members of [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_%28band%29 "Renaissance (band)"). During mid\-1966, McCulloch worked briefly with The [Carl Douglas](/wiki/Carl_Douglas "Carl Douglas") Set, until he was approached by Eric Burdon to join Burdon's new band.[Nick Warburton](/wiki/Nick_Warburton "Nick Warburton"), [Carl Douglas \- The Early Years](http://www.nickwarburton.com/wordpress/). 29 May 2014\. Retrieved 2017\-03\-07\.
### The Animals
In late 1966, after the breakup of the original incarnation of [The Animals](/wiki/The_Animals "The Animals"), McCulloch joined the "New Animals", being the first "new" Animal hired by Eric Burdon.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2024}} McCulloch in turn introduced Burdon to guitarist and violinist [John Weider](/wiki/John_Weider "John Weider"), who in turn introduced Burdon to guitarist [Vic Briggs](/wiki/Vic_Briggs "Vic Briggs"). [thumb\|McCulloch (centre) in 1967](/wiki/File:Fanclub1967Animals5.jpg "Fanclub1967Animals5.jpg")
The reconstituted group released three albums and a series of hit singles, including "[San Franciscan Nights](/wiki/San_Franciscan_Nights "San Franciscan Nights")", "[Monterey](/wiki/Monterey_%28Eric_Burdon_and_the_Animals_song%29 "Monterey (Eric Burdon and the Animals song)")" and "[Sky Pilot](/wiki/Sky_Pilot_%28song%29 "Sky Pilot (song)")". All band members were credited as co\-authors on the two albums from which these singles were released. It was only as of the third album of the reconstituted group, *[Every One of Us](/wiki/Every_One_of_Us "Every One of Us")*, that songwriting credit was primarily that of Eric Burdon. Keyboardist [Zoot Money](/wiki/Zoot_Money "Zoot Money") also joined the band at that time.
Shortly prior to the release of this third album, McCulloch and Briggs were both fired from the band. McCulloch was replaced by Weider switching from guitar to bass, while Briggs was replaced by [Andy Summers](/wiki/Andy_Summers "Andy Summers"), later of [The Police](/wiki/The_Police "The Police").
### Solo and With Others
McCulloch and Briggs worked together thereafter. In 1969, with Briggs acting as producer and arranger, McCulloch released the album *Wings of a Man*.
In 1971, McCulloch was the bassist on the solo album of [Reg King](/wiki/Reg_King "Reg King"), former lead singer of [The Action](/wiki/The_Action "The Action"). Other musicians included [Mick Taylor](/wiki/Mick_Taylor "Mick Taylor"), [Steve Winwood](/wiki/Steve_Winwood "Steve Winwood") and [Brian Auger](/wiki/Brian_Auger "Brian Auger"). Also in 1971, he joined [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_%28band%29 "Renaissance (band)") as a bassist for a short period, playing with former Plebs bandmate Michael Dunford, who was a composer and guitarist with Renaissance.
In the 1980s, McCulloch worked as a psychiatric nurse in [Rauceby Hospital](/wiki/Rauceby_Hospital "Rauceby Hospital"), the south [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire "Lincolnshire") psychiatric hospital located in [Sleaford](/wiki/Sleaford "Sleaford"), Lincolnshire.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2019}}
In 1992, McCulloch joined as the bass player and a vocalist of a reconstituted Animals, including Vic Briggs and drummer [Barry Jenkins](/wiki/Barry_Jenkins_%28musician%29 "Barry Jenkins (musician)").Who succeeded [John Steel](/wiki/John_Steel_%28drummer%29 "John Steel (drummer)"), prior to the formation of the "New Animals", and remained with the band until it was dissolved by Eric Burdon. At the time, Briggs asserted that he had a right to call the band "The Animals", having trademarked the name in the United States. With [Phil Ryan](/wiki/Phil_Ryan_%28entrepreneur%29 "Phil Ryan (entrepreneur)") on lead vocals,Such as on "[House of the Rising Sun](/wiki/House_of_the_Rising_Sun "House of the Rising Sun")". McCulloch sang lead vocals on "[When I Was Young](/wiki/When_I_Was_Young_%28song%29 "When I Was Young (song)")". instead of Eric Burdon, the band played the first rock concert held in [Red Square](/wiki/Red_Square "Red Square"), Moscow, as part of a benefit concert for the victims of the [Chernobyl nuclear disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_nuclear_disaster "Chernobyl nuclear disaster").George Varga, [Animals reuniting onstage in Moscow](http://www.antionmusic.com/articlesaboutantion/sandiegounion.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309064402/http://www.antionmusic.com/articlesaboutantion/sandiegounion.html \|date\=9 March 2016 }}. *[San Diego Union](/wiki/San_Diego_Union_Tribune "San Diego Union Tribune")*, 27 May 1992, via antionmusic.com. Retrieved 2017\-03\-06\.
In 1993, following the Red Square performance, McCulloch put together a new Animals group, which rerecorded the old hits of the band, plus others, including originals by McCulloch.For example, *The Animals*, released in 1999 in England by Hallmark Music \& Entertainment. See [Particulars of *The Animals*](https://www.discogs.com/Animals-The-Animals/release/3594004), where five of the twelve songs are by McCulloch and a sixth is by McCulloch and Chapman, and where none of the six songs is associated with recordings by the original Animals: [Discogs](/wiki/Discogs "Discogs"). Retrieved 2017\-03\-10\.Steve King, [History of The Animals](http://www.ukblues.org/history-of-british-blues-biographies-the-animals/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312051424/http://www.ukblues.org/history\-of\-british\-blues\-biographies\-the\-animals/ \|date\=12 March 2017 }}; History of British Blues, 2015\. Retrieved 2017\-03\-10\. The material received mixed reviews, including some involving confusion and inaccurate assumptions that Eric Burdon was singing on the album.Matt Fink, [Review of *The Best of The Animals*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-best-of-the-animals-k-tel-mw0000593045); Allmusic. Retrieved 2017\-03\-12\. Some purchasers, upon discovery that Burdon was not involved, felt that they had been misled.[User reviews \- *The Best of The Animals*](https://www.amazon.com/Best-Animals/dp/B000000RIZ); [Amazon.com](/wiki/Amazon.com "Amazon.com"). Retrieved 2017\-03\-12\.
In 1995, as "Danny McCulloch's Friends", he released a second album, *Beowulf*. The songs on the album were generally co\-written with [Steve Rowland](/wiki/Steve_Rowland_%28record_producer%29 "Steve Rowland (record producer)"), who also produced the album, and also included one co\-written with former Fleetwood Mac guitarist [Danny Kirwan](/wiki/Danny_Kirwan "Danny Kirwan").[Allmusic](/wiki/Allmusic "Allmusic"), [Particulars of *Beowolf*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/beowulf-mw0000080082). Retrieved 2017\-03\-09\. The "Friends" included [Gary Wright](/wiki/Gary_Wright "Gary Wright"), [Chris Spedding](/wiki/Chris_Spedding "Chris Spedding"), [Herbie Flowers](/wiki/Herbie_Flowers "Herbie Flowers"), [Ray Cooper](/wiki/Ray_Cooper "Ray Cooper"), [Steve Gregory](/wiki/Steve_Gregory "Steve Gregory"), [Chas Hodges](/wiki/Chas_Hodges "Chas Hodges") and [Chris Mercer](/wiki/Juicy_Lucy_%28band%29 "Juicy Lucy (band)").Allmusic, [Credits \- *Beowolf*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/beowulf-mw0000080082/credits). Retrieved 2017\-03\-09\.
### Legal issues
Between 1996 and 1998, McCulloch was involved in controversy concerning re\-recordings alleged to have been made by certain artists, in particular [Mott the Hoople](/wiki/Mott_the_Hoople "Mott the Hoople"), involving an alleged reformation of the band by [Ian Hunter](/wiki/Ian_Hunter_%28musician%29 "Ian Hunter (musician)") and [Mick Ronson](/wiki/Mick_Ronson "Mick Ronson") in 1993\. With musician and music promoter [Gerry Chapman](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerry-chapman-a09b1144/), McCulloch had formed McCulloch Chapman Music, which marketed to [K\-Tel International](/wiki/K-Tel_International "K-Tel International") what were represented to be new recordings by original artists, such as Mott The Hoople, "The New Animals", [Paper Lace](/wiki/Paper_Lace "Paper Lace") and [The Byrds](/wiki/The_Byrds "The Byrds"). The recordings represented by McCulloch to be new recordings by Hunter and Ronson were in fact by a [sound\-alike](/wiki/Sound-alike "Sound-alike"), asserted to be McCulloch and Chapman, operating under the band name The Trybe. Five of the twelve songs on the alleged Mott The Hoople "greatest hits" recording were credited to McCulloch and Chapman, and had never previously been recorded by Mott The Hoople. K\-Tel stated that it had dealt with McCulloch successfully in the past, and had paid $75,000 for the tapes. McCulloch claimed that Ian Hunter's voice had been remixed along with a soundalike voice in order to strengthen it, and that the remixing had been done with Ian Hunter's knowledge and permission. Hunter categorically denied the assertions, stating that he had not recorded with Ronson since 1989\.
The K\-Tel album, *The Best of Mott The Hoople*, was accordingly withdrawn in 1997, having been released in 1996\. In 1998, further to a complaint by Ian Hunter's management, K\-Tel admitted guilt to two charges under the *[Trade Descriptions Act](/wiki/Trade_Descriptions_Act "Trade Descriptions Act")* of Great Britain and was accordingly fined. The false Mott The Hoople recordings had been licensed to other companies by McCulloch Chapman Music, resulting in multiple releases of the misrepresented content, including *All The Young Dudes* (Denmark Digimode, 1996; Ireland, Eagle Rock Pegasus, 1997\),Uncredited, [Comments on history of *All The Young Dudes* false Mott The Hoople release](https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B01N6HP2P7); [Amazon.com](/wiki/Amazon.com "Amazon.com"). Retrieved 2017\-03\-11\. *Dudes* (UK Going For A Song, 1997\)) and *The Magic Collection* (Holland ARC MEC, 1997\)Glen D. Rudolf, [K\-Tel ordered to pay 8,000 GBP](http://www.siliconinvestor.com/readmsgs.aspx?subjectid=20279&msgnum=2663&batchsize=10&batchtype=Previous). Silicon Investor, 13 November 1998\. Retrieved 2017\-03\-10\.Mott The Hoople Archive, [Mott The Hoople discography \- the fake Mott The Hoople albums](http://home.lyse.net/mott/covers_mthfake.html){{Dead link\|date\=July 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}. Retrieved 2017\-03\-11\. Some of the false Mott The Hoople releases included historic cover pictures of the band or band members. In 2002, the recordings were again released, under the title *I Can't Believe It's Not Mott The Hoople*, and credited to The Trybe. These recordings were also subsequently released on [ITunes](/wiki/ITunes "ITunes").ITunes, *[The Trybe Play Mott The Hoople and Others](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/the-trybe-play-mott-the-hoople-and-others/id320527384)* (2009\)ITunes, *[The Trybe Perform Mott The Hoople](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/the-trybe-perform-mott-the-hoople/id437105470)* (2011\). Retrieved 2017\-03\-11\. Similar releases by The Trybe covered [Steppenwolf](/wiki/Steppenwolf_%28band%29 "Steppenwolf (band)") songs, while again including songs by McCulloch and Chapman.ITunes, *[The Trybe Play Steppenwolf and Others](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/the-trybe-play-steppenwolf-and-others/id320639453)* (2009\). Retrieved 2017\-03\-11\.ITunes, *[Magic Carpet Ride](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/magic-carpet-ride/id434849984)* (2010\). Retrieved 2017\-03\-11\.
### Later works
In the 2000s, McCulloch was touring with a new Animals formation, called Animals and Friends, led by original drummer [John Steel](/wiki/John_Steel_%28drummer%29 "John Steel (drummer)") and organist [Dave Rowberry](/wiki/Dave_Rowberry "Dave Rowberry"), though McCulloch was not a regular member of the group.
In 2012, McCulloch released a digital biography on [Amazon Digital Services](/wiki/Amazon_Digital_Services "Amazon Digital Services"), *[When I Was Young](https://www.amazon.com/When-Was-Young-Danny-McCulloch-ebook/dp/B00AP5C4OK)*, in which he describes joining and playing with The Animals as "the biggest mistake of my life". The book is described as "tell(ing) the truth of the big rip off to musicians in the 60's and 70's".Amazon Digital Services, [Particulars of *When I Was Young*](https://www.amazon.com/When-Was-Young-Danny-McCulloch-ebook/dp/B00AP5C4OK). Retrieved 2017\-03\-09\. In 2013, McCulloch released the album *Back Again, Just For A Bit*.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early career",
"McCulloch commenced performing publicly at the age of eleven, playing [skiffle music](/wiki/Skiffle_music \"Skiffle music\"). His first band was The Avro Boys, from Shepherd's Bush, who became Tony Craven \\& The Casuals in the late 1950s. In 1960, The Casuals linked up with new singer Frankie Reid and McCulloch remained with the group until October 1962\\. During his time with Frankie Reid \\& The Casuals, one of the band's drummers was [Mitch Mitchell](/wiki/Mitch_Mitchell \"Mitch Mitchell\").",
"McCulloch and drummer Derek Sirmon next joined [Screaming Lord Sutch \\& The Savages](/wiki/Screaming_Lord_Sutch_%26_The_Savages \"Screaming Lord Sutch & The Savages\") and stayed until May 1963\\. In 1964, McCullough and Sirmon joined [Woking](/wiki/Woking \"Woking\") band, The Plebs, who recorded a lone single.Two members of The Plebs, Michael Dunford and Terry Crowe, would have later success as members of the [Nashville Teens](/wiki/Nashville_Teens \"Nashville Teens\") and as members of [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_%28band%29 \"Renaissance (band)\"). During mid\\-1966, McCulloch worked briefly with The [Carl Douglas](/wiki/Carl_Douglas \"Carl Douglas\") Set, until he was approached by Eric Burdon to join Burdon's new band.[Nick Warburton](/wiki/Nick_Warburton \"Nick Warburton\"), [Carl Douglas \\- The Early Years](http://www.nickwarburton.com/wordpress/). 29 May 2014\\. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-07\\.",
"### The Animals",
"In late 1966, after the breakup of the original incarnation of [The Animals](/wiki/The_Animals \"The Animals\"), McCulloch joined the \"New Animals\", being the first \"new\" Animal hired by Eric Burdon.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2024}} McCulloch in turn introduced Burdon to guitarist and violinist [John Weider](/wiki/John_Weider \"John Weider\"), who in turn introduced Burdon to guitarist [Vic Briggs](/wiki/Vic_Briggs \"Vic Briggs\"). [thumb\\|McCulloch (centre) in 1967](/wiki/File:Fanclub1967Animals5.jpg \"Fanclub1967Animals5.jpg\")\nThe reconstituted group released three albums and a series of hit singles, including \"[San Franciscan Nights](/wiki/San_Franciscan_Nights \"San Franciscan Nights\")\", \"[Monterey](/wiki/Monterey_%28Eric_Burdon_and_the_Animals_song%29 \"Monterey (Eric Burdon and the Animals song)\")\" and \"[Sky Pilot](/wiki/Sky_Pilot_%28song%29 \"Sky Pilot (song)\")\". All band members were credited as co\\-authors on the two albums from which these singles were released. It was only as of the third album of the reconstituted group, *[Every One of Us](/wiki/Every_One_of_Us \"Every One of Us\")*, that songwriting credit was primarily that of Eric Burdon. Keyboardist [Zoot Money](/wiki/Zoot_Money \"Zoot Money\") also joined the band at that time.",
"Shortly prior to the release of this third album, McCulloch and Briggs were both fired from the band. McCulloch was replaced by Weider switching from guitar to bass, while Briggs was replaced by [Andy Summers](/wiki/Andy_Summers \"Andy Summers\"), later of [The Police](/wiki/The_Police \"The Police\").",
"### Solo and With Others",
"McCulloch and Briggs worked together thereafter. In 1969, with Briggs acting as producer and arranger, McCulloch released the album *Wings of a Man*.",
"In 1971, McCulloch was the bassist on the solo album of [Reg King](/wiki/Reg_King \"Reg King\"), former lead singer of [The Action](/wiki/The_Action \"The Action\"). Other musicians included [Mick Taylor](/wiki/Mick_Taylor \"Mick Taylor\"), [Steve Winwood](/wiki/Steve_Winwood \"Steve Winwood\") and [Brian Auger](/wiki/Brian_Auger \"Brian Auger\"). Also in 1971, he joined [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_%28band%29 \"Renaissance (band)\") as a bassist for a short period, playing with former Plebs bandmate Michael Dunford, who was a composer and guitarist with Renaissance.",
"In the 1980s, McCulloch worked as a psychiatric nurse in [Rauceby Hospital](/wiki/Rauceby_Hospital \"Rauceby Hospital\"), the south [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire \"Lincolnshire\") psychiatric hospital located in [Sleaford](/wiki/Sleaford \"Sleaford\"), Lincolnshire.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2019}}",
"In 1992, McCulloch joined as the bass player and a vocalist of a reconstituted Animals, including Vic Briggs and drummer [Barry Jenkins](/wiki/Barry_Jenkins_%28musician%29 \"Barry Jenkins (musician)\").Who succeeded [John Steel](/wiki/John_Steel_%28drummer%29 \"John Steel (drummer)\"), prior to the formation of the \"New Animals\", and remained with the band until it was dissolved by Eric Burdon. At the time, Briggs asserted that he had a right to call the band \"The Animals\", having trademarked the name in the United States. With [Phil Ryan](/wiki/Phil_Ryan_%28entrepreneur%29 \"Phil Ryan (entrepreneur)\") on lead vocals,Such as on \"[House of the Rising Sun](/wiki/House_of_the_Rising_Sun \"House of the Rising Sun\")\". McCulloch sang lead vocals on \"[When I Was Young](/wiki/When_I_Was_Young_%28song%29 \"When I Was Young (song)\")\". instead of Eric Burdon, the band played the first rock concert held in [Red Square](/wiki/Red_Square \"Red Square\"), Moscow, as part of a benefit concert for the victims of the [Chernobyl nuclear disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_nuclear_disaster \"Chernobyl nuclear disaster\").George Varga, [Animals reuniting onstage in Moscow](http://www.antionmusic.com/articlesaboutantion/sandiegounion.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309064402/http://www.antionmusic.com/articlesaboutantion/sandiegounion.html \\|date\\=9 March 2016 }}. *[San Diego Union](/wiki/San_Diego_Union_Tribune \"San Diego Union Tribune\")*, 27 May 1992, via antionmusic.com. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-06\\.",
"In 1993, following the Red Square performance, McCulloch put together a new Animals group, which rerecorded the old hits of the band, plus others, including originals by McCulloch.For example, *The Animals*, released in 1999 in England by Hallmark Music \\& Entertainment. See [Particulars of *The Animals*](https://www.discogs.com/Animals-The-Animals/release/3594004), where five of the twelve songs are by McCulloch and a sixth is by McCulloch and Chapman, and where none of the six songs is associated with recordings by the original Animals: [Discogs](/wiki/Discogs \"Discogs\"). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-10\\.Steve King, [History of The Animals](http://www.ukblues.org/history-of-british-blues-biographies-the-animals/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312051424/http://www.ukblues.org/history\\-of\\-british\\-blues\\-biographies\\-the\\-animals/ \\|date\\=12 March 2017 }}; History of British Blues, 2015\\. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-10\\. The material received mixed reviews, including some involving confusion and inaccurate assumptions that Eric Burdon was singing on the album.Matt Fink, [Review of *The Best of The Animals*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-best-of-the-animals-k-tel-mw0000593045); Allmusic. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-12\\. Some purchasers, upon discovery that Burdon was not involved, felt that they had been misled.[User reviews \\- *The Best of The Animals*](https://www.amazon.com/Best-Animals/dp/B000000RIZ); [Amazon.com](/wiki/Amazon.com \"Amazon.com\"). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-12\\.",
"In 1995, as \"Danny McCulloch's Friends\", he released a second album, *Beowulf*. The songs on the album were generally co\\-written with [Steve Rowland](/wiki/Steve_Rowland_%28record_producer%29 \"Steve Rowland (record producer)\"), who also produced the album, and also included one co\\-written with former Fleetwood Mac guitarist [Danny Kirwan](/wiki/Danny_Kirwan \"Danny Kirwan\").[Allmusic](/wiki/Allmusic \"Allmusic\"), [Particulars of *Beowolf*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/beowulf-mw0000080082). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-09\\. The \"Friends\" included [Gary Wright](/wiki/Gary_Wright \"Gary Wright\"), [Chris Spedding](/wiki/Chris_Spedding \"Chris Spedding\"), [Herbie Flowers](/wiki/Herbie_Flowers \"Herbie Flowers\"), [Ray Cooper](/wiki/Ray_Cooper \"Ray Cooper\"), [Steve Gregory](/wiki/Steve_Gregory \"Steve Gregory\"), [Chas Hodges](/wiki/Chas_Hodges \"Chas Hodges\") and [Chris Mercer](/wiki/Juicy_Lucy_%28band%29 \"Juicy Lucy (band)\").Allmusic, [Credits \\- *Beowolf*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/beowulf-mw0000080082/credits). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-09\\.",
"### Legal issues",
"Between 1996 and 1998, McCulloch was involved in controversy concerning re\\-recordings alleged to have been made by certain artists, in particular [Mott the Hoople](/wiki/Mott_the_Hoople \"Mott the Hoople\"), involving an alleged reformation of the band by [Ian Hunter](/wiki/Ian_Hunter_%28musician%29 \"Ian Hunter (musician)\") and [Mick Ronson](/wiki/Mick_Ronson \"Mick Ronson\") in 1993\\. With musician and music promoter [Gerry Chapman](https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerry-chapman-a09b1144/), McCulloch had formed McCulloch Chapman Music, which marketed to [K\\-Tel International](/wiki/K-Tel_International \"K-Tel International\") what were represented to be new recordings by original artists, such as Mott The Hoople, \"The New Animals\", [Paper Lace](/wiki/Paper_Lace \"Paper Lace\") and [The Byrds](/wiki/The_Byrds \"The Byrds\"). The recordings represented by McCulloch to be new recordings by Hunter and Ronson were in fact by a [sound\\-alike](/wiki/Sound-alike \"Sound-alike\"), asserted to be McCulloch and Chapman, operating under the band name The Trybe. Five of the twelve songs on the alleged Mott The Hoople \"greatest hits\" recording were credited to McCulloch and Chapman, and had never previously been recorded by Mott The Hoople. K\\-Tel stated that it had dealt with McCulloch successfully in the past, and had paid $75,000 for the tapes. McCulloch claimed that Ian Hunter's voice had been remixed along with a soundalike voice in order to strengthen it, and that the remixing had been done with Ian Hunter's knowledge and permission. Hunter categorically denied the assertions, stating that he had not recorded with Ronson since 1989\\.",
"The K\\-Tel album, *The Best of Mott The Hoople*, was accordingly withdrawn in 1997, having been released in 1996\\. In 1998, further to a complaint by Ian Hunter's management, K\\-Tel admitted guilt to two charges under the *[Trade Descriptions Act](/wiki/Trade_Descriptions_Act \"Trade Descriptions Act\")* of Great Britain and was accordingly fined. The false Mott The Hoople recordings had been licensed to other companies by McCulloch Chapman Music, resulting in multiple releases of the misrepresented content, including *All The Young Dudes* (Denmark Digimode, 1996; Ireland, Eagle Rock Pegasus, 1997\\),Uncredited, [Comments on history of *All The Young Dudes* false Mott The Hoople release](https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B01N6HP2P7); [Amazon.com](/wiki/Amazon.com \"Amazon.com\"). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-11\\. *Dudes* (UK Going For A Song, 1997\\)) and *The Magic Collection* (Holland ARC MEC, 1997\\)Glen D. Rudolf, [K\\-Tel ordered to pay 8,000 GBP](http://www.siliconinvestor.com/readmsgs.aspx?subjectid=20279&msgnum=2663&batchsize=10&batchtype=Previous). Silicon Investor, 13 November 1998\\. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-10\\.Mott The Hoople Archive, [Mott The Hoople discography \\- the fake Mott The Hoople albums](http://home.lyse.net/mott/covers_mthfake.html){{Dead link\\|date\\=July 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-11\\. Some of the false Mott The Hoople releases included historic cover pictures of the band or band members. In 2002, the recordings were again released, under the title *I Can't Believe It's Not Mott The Hoople*, and credited to The Trybe. These recordings were also subsequently released on [ITunes](/wiki/ITunes \"ITunes\").ITunes, *[The Trybe Play Mott The Hoople and Others](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/the-trybe-play-mott-the-hoople-and-others/id320527384)* (2009\\)ITunes, *[The Trybe Perform Mott The Hoople](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/the-trybe-perform-mott-the-hoople/id437105470)* (2011\\). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-11\\. Similar releases by The Trybe covered [Steppenwolf](/wiki/Steppenwolf_%28band%29 \"Steppenwolf (band)\") songs, while again including songs by McCulloch and Chapman.ITunes, *[The Trybe Play Steppenwolf and Others](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/the-trybe-play-steppenwolf-and-others/id320639453)* (2009\\). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-11\\.ITunes, *[Magic Carpet Ride](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/magic-carpet-ride/id434849984)* (2010\\). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-11\\.",
"### Later works",
"In the 2000s, McCulloch was touring with a new Animals formation, called Animals and Friends, led by original drummer [John Steel](/wiki/John_Steel_%28drummer%29 \"John Steel (drummer)\") and organist [Dave Rowberry](/wiki/Dave_Rowberry \"Dave Rowberry\"), though McCulloch was not a regular member of the group.",
"In 2012, McCulloch released a digital biography on [Amazon Digital Services](/wiki/Amazon_Digital_Services \"Amazon Digital Services\"), *[When I Was Young](https://www.amazon.com/When-Was-Young-Danny-McCulloch-ebook/dp/B00AP5C4OK)*, in which he describes joining and playing with The Animals as \"the biggest mistake of my life\". The book is described as \"tell(ing) the truth of the big rip off to musicians in the 60's and 70's\".Amazon Digital Services, [Particulars of *When I Was Young*](https://www.amazon.com/When-Was-Young-Danny-McCulloch-ebook/dp/B00AP5C4OK). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-09\\. In 2013, McCulloch released the album *Back Again, Just For A Bit*.",
""
] |
### Solo and With Others
McCulloch and Briggs worked together thereafter. In 1969, with Briggs acting as producer and arranger, McCulloch released the album *Wings of a Man*.
In 1971, McCulloch was the bassist on the solo album of [Reg King](/wiki/Reg_King "Reg King"), former lead singer of [The Action](/wiki/The_Action "The Action"). Other musicians included [Mick Taylor](/wiki/Mick_Taylor "Mick Taylor"), [Steve Winwood](/wiki/Steve_Winwood "Steve Winwood") and [Brian Auger](/wiki/Brian_Auger "Brian Auger"). Also in 1971, he joined [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_%28band%29 "Renaissance (band)") as a bassist for a short period, playing with former Plebs bandmate Michael Dunford, who was a composer and guitarist with Renaissance.
In the 1980s, McCulloch worked as a psychiatric nurse in [Rauceby Hospital](/wiki/Rauceby_Hospital "Rauceby Hospital"), the south [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire "Lincolnshire") psychiatric hospital located in [Sleaford](/wiki/Sleaford "Sleaford"), Lincolnshire.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2019}}
In 1992, McCulloch joined as the bass player and a vocalist of a reconstituted Animals, including Vic Briggs and drummer [Barry Jenkins](/wiki/Barry_Jenkins_%28musician%29 "Barry Jenkins (musician)").Who succeeded [John Steel](/wiki/John_Steel_%28drummer%29 "John Steel (drummer)"), prior to the formation of the "New Animals", and remained with the band until it was dissolved by Eric Burdon. At the time, Briggs asserted that he had a right to call the band "The Animals", having trademarked the name in the United States. With [Phil Ryan](/wiki/Phil_Ryan_%28entrepreneur%29 "Phil Ryan (entrepreneur)") on lead vocals,Such as on "[House of the Rising Sun](/wiki/House_of_the_Rising_Sun "House of the Rising Sun")". McCulloch sang lead vocals on "[When I Was Young](/wiki/When_I_Was_Young_%28song%29 "When I Was Young (song)")". instead of Eric Burdon, the band played the first rock concert held in [Red Square](/wiki/Red_Square "Red Square"), Moscow, as part of a benefit concert for the victims of the [Chernobyl nuclear disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_nuclear_disaster "Chernobyl nuclear disaster").George Varga, [Animals reuniting onstage in Moscow](http://www.antionmusic.com/articlesaboutantion/sandiegounion.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309064402/http://www.antionmusic.com/articlesaboutantion/sandiegounion.html \|date\=9 March 2016 }}. *[San Diego Union](/wiki/San_Diego_Union_Tribune "San Diego Union Tribune")*, 27 May 1992, via antionmusic.com. Retrieved 2017\-03\-06\.
In 1993, following the Red Square performance, McCulloch put together a new Animals group, which rerecorded the old hits of the band, plus others, including originals by McCulloch.For example, *The Animals*, released in 1999 in England by Hallmark Music \& Entertainment. See [Particulars of *The Animals*](https://www.discogs.com/Animals-The-Animals/release/3594004), where five of the twelve songs are by McCulloch and a sixth is by McCulloch and Chapman, and where none of the six songs is associated with recordings by the original Animals: [Discogs](/wiki/Discogs "Discogs"). Retrieved 2017\-03\-10\.Steve King, [History of The Animals](http://www.ukblues.org/history-of-british-blues-biographies-the-animals/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312051424/http://www.ukblues.org/history\-of\-british\-blues\-biographies\-the\-animals/ \|date\=12 March 2017 }}; History of British Blues, 2015\. Retrieved 2017\-03\-10\. The material received mixed reviews, including some involving confusion and inaccurate assumptions that Eric Burdon was singing on the album.Matt Fink, [Review of *The Best of The Animals*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-best-of-the-animals-k-tel-mw0000593045); Allmusic. Retrieved 2017\-03\-12\. Some purchasers, upon discovery that Burdon was not involved, felt that they had been misled.[User reviews \- *The Best of The Animals*](https://www.amazon.com/Best-Animals/dp/B000000RIZ); [Amazon.com](/wiki/Amazon.com "Amazon.com"). Retrieved 2017\-03\-12\.
In 1995, as "Danny McCulloch's Friends", he released a second album, *Beowulf*. The songs on the album were generally co\-written with [Steve Rowland](/wiki/Steve_Rowland_%28record_producer%29 "Steve Rowland (record producer)"), who also produced the album, and also included one co\-written with former Fleetwood Mac guitarist [Danny Kirwan](/wiki/Danny_Kirwan "Danny Kirwan").[Allmusic](/wiki/Allmusic "Allmusic"), [Particulars of *Beowolf*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/beowulf-mw0000080082). Retrieved 2017\-03\-09\. The "Friends" included [Gary Wright](/wiki/Gary_Wright "Gary Wright"), [Chris Spedding](/wiki/Chris_Spedding "Chris Spedding"), [Herbie Flowers](/wiki/Herbie_Flowers "Herbie Flowers"), [Ray Cooper](/wiki/Ray_Cooper "Ray Cooper"), [Steve Gregory](/wiki/Steve_Gregory "Steve Gregory"), [Chas Hodges](/wiki/Chas_Hodges "Chas Hodges") and [Chris Mercer](/wiki/Juicy_Lucy_%28band%29 "Juicy Lucy (band)").Allmusic, [Credits \- *Beowolf*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/beowulf-mw0000080082/credits). Retrieved 2017\-03\-09\.
|
[
"### Solo and With Others",
"McCulloch and Briggs worked together thereafter. In 1969, with Briggs acting as producer and arranger, McCulloch released the album *Wings of a Man*.",
"In 1971, McCulloch was the bassist on the solo album of [Reg King](/wiki/Reg_King \"Reg King\"), former lead singer of [The Action](/wiki/The_Action \"The Action\"). Other musicians included [Mick Taylor](/wiki/Mick_Taylor \"Mick Taylor\"), [Steve Winwood](/wiki/Steve_Winwood \"Steve Winwood\") and [Brian Auger](/wiki/Brian_Auger \"Brian Auger\"). Also in 1971, he joined [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_%28band%29 \"Renaissance (band)\") as a bassist for a short period, playing with former Plebs bandmate Michael Dunford, who was a composer and guitarist with Renaissance.",
"In the 1980s, McCulloch worked as a psychiatric nurse in [Rauceby Hospital](/wiki/Rauceby_Hospital \"Rauceby Hospital\"), the south [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire \"Lincolnshire\") psychiatric hospital located in [Sleaford](/wiki/Sleaford \"Sleaford\"), Lincolnshire.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2019}}",
"In 1992, McCulloch joined as the bass player and a vocalist of a reconstituted Animals, including Vic Briggs and drummer [Barry Jenkins](/wiki/Barry_Jenkins_%28musician%29 \"Barry Jenkins (musician)\").Who succeeded [John Steel](/wiki/John_Steel_%28drummer%29 \"John Steel (drummer)\"), prior to the formation of the \"New Animals\", and remained with the band until it was dissolved by Eric Burdon. At the time, Briggs asserted that he had a right to call the band \"The Animals\", having trademarked the name in the United States. With [Phil Ryan](/wiki/Phil_Ryan_%28entrepreneur%29 \"Phil Ryan (entrepreneur)\") on lead vocals,Such as on \"[House of the Rising Sun](/wiki/House_of_the_Rising_Sun \"House of the Rising Sun\")\". McCulloch sang lead vocals on \"[When I Was Young](/wiki/When_I_Was_Young_%28song%29 \"When I Was Young (song)\")\". instead of Eric Burdon, the band played the first rock concert held in [Red Square](/wiki/Red_Square \"Red Square\"), Moscow, as part of a benefit concert for the victims of the [Chernobyl nuclear disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_nuclear_disaster \"Chernobyl nuclear disaster\").George Varga, [Animals reuniting onstage in Moscow](http://www.antionmusic.com/articlesaboutantion/sandiegounion.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309064402/http://www.antionmusic.com/articlesaboutantion/sandiegounion.html \\|date\\=9 March 2016 }}. *[San Diego Union](/wiki/San_Diego_Union_Tribune \"San Diego Union Tribune\")*, 27 May 1992, via antionmusic.com. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-06\\.",
"In 1993, following the Red Square performance, McCulloch put together a new Animals group, which rerecorded the old hits of the band, plus others, including originals by McCulloch.For example, *The Animals*, released in 1999 in England by Hallmark Music \\& Entertainment. See [Particulars of *The Animals*](https://www.discogs.com/Animals-The-Animals/release/3594004), where five of the twelve songs are by McCulloch and a sixth is by McCulloch and Chapman, and where none of the six songs is associated with recordings by the original Animals: [Discogs](/wiki/Discogs \"Discogs\"). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-10\\.Steve King, [History of The Animals](http://www.ukblues.org/history-of-british-blues-biographies-the-animals/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312051424/http://www.ukblues.org/history\\-of\\-british\\-blues\\-biographies\\-the\\-animals/ \\|date\\=12 March 2017 }}; History of British Blues, 2015\\. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-10\\. The material received mixed reviews, including some involving confusion and inaccurate assumptions that Eric Burdon was singing on the album.Matt Fink, [Review of *The Best of The Animals*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-best-of-the-animals-k-tel-mw0000593045); Allmusic. Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-12\\. Some purchasers, upon discovery that Burdon was not involved, felt that they had been misled.[User reviews \\- *The Best of The Animals*](https://www.amazon.com/Best-Animals/dp/B000000RIZ); [Amazon.com](/wiki/Amazon.com \"Amazon.com\"). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-12\\.",
"In 1995, as \"Danny McCulloch's Friends\", he released a second album, *Beowulf*. The songs on the album were generally co\\-written with [Steve Rowland](/wiki/Steve_Rowland_%28record_producer%29 \"Steve Rowland (record producer)\"), who also produced the album, and also included one co\\-written with former Fleetwood Mac guitarist [Danny Kirwan](/wiki/Danny_Kirwan \"Danny Kirwan\").[Allmusic](/wiki/Allmusic \"Allmusic\"), [Particulars of *Beowolf*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/beowulf-mw0000080082). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-09\\. The \"Friends\" included [Gary Wright](/wiki/Gary_Wright \"Gary Wright\"), [Chris Spedding](/wiki/Chris_Spedding \"Chris Spedding\"), [Herbie Flowers](/wiki/Herbie_Flowers \"Herbie Flowers\"), [Ray Cooper](/wiki/Ray_Cooper \"Ray Cooper\"), [Steve Gregory](/wiki/Steve_Gregory \"Steve Gregory\"), [Chas Hodges](/wiki/Chas_Hodges \"Chas Hodges\") and [Chris Mercer](/wiki/Juicy_Lucy_%28band%29 \"Juicy Lucy (band)\").Allmusic, [Credits \\- *Beowolf*](https://www.allmusic.com/album/beowulf-mw0000080082/credits). Retrieved 2017\\-03\\-09\\.",
""
] |
Models
------
File:Assembled Prusa Mendel.jpg\|Prusa Mendel
File:Prusa Mendel (iteration 2\).jpg\|Prusa Mendel (iteration 2\)
File:RepRap Mendel90 Front View.jpg\|alt\=A Cartesian filament\-based 3D printer with a large flat wooden base, wooden vertical gantry with an opening in the center for the moving bed, and wooden braces behind that.\|Mendel90 gantry\-frame printer, 2011
File:Prusa i3 metal frame.jpg\|Prusa i3
File:Prusa i3 MK2\.jpg\|Prusa i3 MK2
### RepRap Mendel
First conceived in 2009, RepRap Mendel 3D printers were designed to be assembled from 3D printed parts and commonly available off\-the\-shelf components (referred to as "vitamins," as they cannot be produced by the printer itself).{{cite web\|title\=Mendel \- RepRap\|url\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Mendel\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-12\|website\=reprap.org}}{{cite web\|title\=Distributing 3DP Parts — and Vitamins — With Passion\|url\=http://3dprintingindustry.com/news/distributing\-3dp\-parts\-and\-vitamins\-with\-passion\-15476/\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-15\|website\=3D Printing Industry\|date\=August 12, 2013 }} These parts include [threaded rods](/wiki/Threaded_rod "Threaded rod"), [leadscrews](/wiki/Leadscrews "Leadscrews"), smooth rods and bearings, screws, nuts, [stepper motors](/wiki/Stepper_motor "Stepper motor"), [control circuit boards](/wiki/Embedded_system "Embedded system"), and a "hot end" to melt and place thermoplastic materials.{{cite web\|title\=Hot End Design Theory \- RepRap\|url\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Hot\_End\_Design\_Theory\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-12\|website\=reprap.org}} A [Cartesian mechanism](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_robot "Cartesian coordinate robot") permits placement of material anywhere in a cubic volume; this design has continued throughout development of the i3 series. The flat "print bed" (the surface on which parts are printed) is movable in one axis (Y), while two horizontal and two vertical rods permit tool motion in two axes, designated X and Z respectively.
### Prusa Mendel
Josef Průša was a core developer of the RepRap project who had previously developed a [PCB](/wiki/Printed_circuit_board "Printed circuit board") heated "print bed". He adapted and simplified the RepRap Mendel design, reducing the time to print 3D plastic parts from 20 to 10 hours, changing to the use of two Z\-axis motors to simplify the frame, and including 3D printed bushings in place of regular bearings.{{cite web\|last\=Thingiverse.com\|title\=PCB heated print bed by josefprusa\|url\=http://www.thingiverse.com/thing:2172\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-19\|website\=www.thingiverse.com}}{{cite web\|title\=first commit · josefprusa/PrusaMendel@6ed4480\|url\=https://github.com/josefprusa/PrusaMendel/commit/6ed4480bd708121c18f67fc6903092e7dbaecb5f\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-13\|website\=GitHub}} First announced in September 2010, the printer was dubbed Prusa Mendel by Průša himself.{[https://www.reprap.org/mediawiki/index.php?title\=Prusa\_Mendel\&oldid\=19530}](https://www.reprap.org/mediawiki/index.php?title=Prusa_Mendel&oldid=19530}) According to the RepRap wiki, "Prusa Mendel is the [Ford Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T "Ford Model T") of 3D printers."{{cite web\|last\=Prusa\|first\=Josef\|date\=2010\-10\-04\|title\=RepRap: Blog: Story of simpler Mendel: PLA bushings and X\-axis\|url\=http://blog.reprap.org/2010/10/story\-of\-simpler\-mendel\-pla\-bushings.html\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-18}}{{cite web\|last1\=User "Scwimbush"\|last2\=User "Prusajr"\|date\=2011\-04\-12\|title\=Prusa Mendel \- RepRap\|url\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Prusa\_Mendel\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-09\|website\=reprap.org}}
### Prusa Mendel (Iteration 2\)
Průša streamlined his Mendel design, releasing "Prusa Iteration 2" in November 2011\. Parts changes allowed for snap\-fit assembly (no glue required); fewer tools were needed to construct and maintain this version. Although not required, fine\-pitch manufactured pulleys and LM8UU linear bearings were recommended over printed equivalents for "professional" results.{{cite web\|title\=Hobbyist Weekend – With Prusa Mendel 3D Printer\|url\=http://3dprintingindustry.com/news/hobbyist\-weekend\-with\-prusa\-mendel\-3d\-printer\-2594/\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-15\|website\=3D Printing Industry\|date\=November 3, 2012}}{{cite web\|last\=Průša\|first\=Joseph\|date\=2011\-11\-11\|title\=RepRap: Blog: Prusa Iteration 2\|url\=http://blog.reprap.org/2011/11/prusa\-iteration\-2\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-19}}
### Mendel90
It was clear to the RepRap community that the threaded\-rod, triangular Z axis frame construction was limited in strength and stability, and that it would be necessary for the printer's footprint to grow substantially for the maximum printing height to increase. Chris Palmer (posting as "Nophead") created "Mendel90" in December 2011, a printer using a gantry\-style [MDF](/wiki/Medium-density_fibreboard "Medium-density fibreboard") frame.{{Cite web \|last\=Palmer \|first\=Chris "Nophead" \|date\=2011\-12\-25 \|title\=Mendel90 \|url\=https://hydraraptor.blogspot.com/2011/12/mendel90\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=HydraRaptor}}{{Cite web \|title\=Mendel90 \- RepRap \|url\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Mendel90 \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=reprap.org}}{{Cite web \|last\=Petch \|first\=Michael \|date\=2018\-06\-13 \|title\=Interview: Chris Palmer aka Nop Head on the RepRap 10th Anniversary \|url\=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/interview\-chris\-palmer\-aka\-nop\-head\-reprap\-10th\-anniversary\-134590/ \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-21 \|website\=3D Printing Industry \|language\=en\-US}} It improved printing speed and accuracy by replacing the upper supports on the Mendel frame (which were easily skewed or twisted out of alignment if not properly tightened) with a rigid frame cut from solid sheet material, assembled as one structural and two mechanical planes at 90 degree angles from one another. Prusa's two Z\-axis motors were moved from floating mounts at the top to being fixed to the bottom of the vertical frame, and a [Dibond composite panel](/wiki/Sandwich_panel "Sandwich panel") made for a rigid mounting plate for the heated bed.
### Prusa i3 and i3 1\.75 mm
In May 2012, Průša released a major redesign, focused on ease of construction and use, and no longer structured around the simplest available common hardware as previous RepRap printers were.{{cite web\|title\=initial commit · josefprusa/Prusa3@d3618a6\|url\=https://github.com/josefprusa/Prusa3/commit/d3618a65684dae11b45e364b28529af3ea1782e5\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-13\|website\=GitHub}} The Prusa i3 used a rigid, single\-piece [water jet cut](/wiki/Water_jet_cutter "Water jet cutter") [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium") vertical frame with a large opening for the printing area and hard mounting points for the Z\-axis components, similar to the Mendel90\. A second frame piece served as a lightweight mount for the heated bed. Rather than having a baseplate, Prusa retained the M10 threaded rods to support the heated bed Y\-axis. It used a single piece, food safe stainless steel hot end called the Prusa Nozzle which printed with 3 mm filament, and used M5 threaded rods as lead screws instead of M8\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.open\-electronics.org/interview\-to\-josef\-prusa/\|title\=Open Source 3D printing: an Interview with Josef Prusa\|website\=Open Electronics\|date\=February 5, 2013\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-16}}{{cite web\|last\=By\|title\=Interview With A Printer\|url\=https://hackaday.com/2014/11/19/interview\-with\-a\-printer/\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-17\|website\=Hackaday\|date\=November 19, 2014}}{{cite web\|title\=Prusa Nozzle: All metal food safe RepRap hot\-end\|url\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20130930\-prusa\-nozzle\-all\-metal\-food\-safe\-reprap\-hot\-end\-with\-one\-piece\-design.html\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-19\|website\=3ders.org\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|last\=By\|title\=Fail Of The Week: My 3D Printer Upgrade\|url\=http://hackaday.com/2016/04/29/fail\-of\-the\-week\-my\-3d\-printer\-upgrade/\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-15\|website\=Hackaday\|date\=April 29, 2016}}{{cite web\|last\=Research\|first\=Josef Prusa / Prusa\|title\=Prusa Nozzle\|url\=http://prusanozzle.org/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-12\|website\=prusanozzle.org\|language\=en}}
In May 2015, Průša released an i3 full kit under the brand name "Original Prusa i3". After finding that 1\.75 mm filament was far more common than 3 mm, Průša dropped the Prusa Nozzle and redesigned the extruder around a third\-party hot end, the E3D V6\-Lite. Noting that print quality was much improved, he introduced the new **i3 1\.75 mm** version in August 2015\.{{Cite web \|last\=Průša \|first\=Josef \|date\=2015\-08\-26 \|title\=Original Prusa i3 is now 1\.75 mm! \|url\=https://blog.prusa3d.com/prusa\-i3\-is\-now\-1\-75\-mm\_3863/ \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-26 \|website\=Original Prusa 3D Printers \|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|title\=About Josef Prusa and Prusa Research\|url\=https://www.prusa3d.com/about\-us/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-12\|website\=Prusa3D \- 3D Printers from Josef Průša\|language\=en\-US}} The original model was retrospectively dubbed MK0 or "mark zero," while the new model came to be known as the "MK1\."
### Prusa i3 MK2 and MK2S
Průša released the **Prusa i3 MK2** in May 2016\. It was the first hobby 3D printer with mesh bed leveling and automatic geometry skew correction for all three axes. Features included a larger build volume, custom stepper motors with integrated lead screws, a non\-contact [inductive sensor](/wiki/Inductive_sensor "Inductive sensor") for auto\-leveling, and a rewritten version of the Marlin [firmware](/wiki/Firmware "Firmware").{{cite web\|author\=Gerrit Coetzee\|date\=June 15, 2016\|title\=Prusa Shows Us the New i3 MK2 3D Printer and Where the Community is Headed\|url\=http://hackaday.com/2016/06/15/prusa\-shows\-us\-the\-new\-i3\-mk2\-3d\-printer\-and\-where\-the\-community\-is\-headed/\|access\-date\=December 24, 2019\|website\=\[\[Hackaday]]}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/0517\-prusa\-research\-unveils\-original\-prusa\-i3\-mk2\-3d\-printer.html\|title\=Josef Prusa unveils $699 Original Prusa i3 MK2 3D printer\|website\=3ders.org\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=December 24, 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=http://prusaprinters.org/first\-printer\-to\-correct\-geometry\-in\-all\-axes/\|title\=The first printer to correct its geometry in all axes \- Prusa Printers\|date\=2016\-08\-11\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-13}} Other new features include a [polyetherimide](/wiki/Polyetherimide "Polyetherimide") print surface, Rambo controller board and an E3D V6 Full hotend.{{cite web\|url\=https://3dprint.com/134786/prusa\-i3\-mk2\-new\-features/\|title\=The All New Original Prusa i3 MK2 Kit Has a Ton of New Features\|date\=2016\-05\-18\|website\=3DPrint.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-19}}{{cite web\|url\=http://3dprintingindustry.com/news/interview\-josef\-prusa\-ceo\-founder\-prusa\-research\-81650/\|title\=Interview with Josef Prusa, CEO and Founder of Prusa Research\|website\=3D Printing Industry\|date\=June 9, 2016\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-12}} The Prusa MK2 became the first RepRap printer to be supported by [Windows 10](/wiki/Windows_10 "Windows 10") [Plug\-and\-Play](/wiki/Plug_and_play "Plug and play") [USB](/wiki/USB "USB") ID.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20160523\-microsoft\-adds\-network\-3d\-printing\-support\-with\-windows\-10\-iot\-core\-app\-for\-raspberry\-pi\-3\.html\|title\=Microsoft adds network 3D printing support with Windows 10 IoT Core app for Raspberry Pi 3\|website\=3ders.org\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-12}}
In March 2017, Průša announced on his blog that the revised **Prusa i3 MK2S** would ship in place of the Prusa i3 MK2\.{{cite web\|title\=Original Prusa I3 MK2S Release\|url\=http://www.prusaprinters.org/original\-prusa\-i3\-mk2s\-release/\|access\-date\=2017\-04\-13\|website\=Official Prusa 3D printers community\|date\=March 10, 2017\|language\=en\-US}} Enhancements cited include U\-bolts to hold the LM8UU bearings where [cable ties](/wiki/Cable_tie "Cable tie") had been used, higher quality bearings and rods, an improved mount for the inductance sensor, improved cable management, and a new electronics cover. An upgrade kit was offered to owners of the MK2 to add these improvements.
### Prusa i3 MK3 and MK2\.5
In September 2017, **Prusa i3 MK3** was released, marketed as "bloody smart."{{cite web\|date\=2017\-09\-22\|title\=Original Prusa i3 MK3 is out! And it's bloody smart!\|url\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/original\-prusa\-i3\-mk3\-bloody\-smart\_7201/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-27\|website\=Prusa Printers\|language\=en\-US}} Starting with this model, the base and Y axis were assembled with aluminum extrusion, eliminating the last of the structural threaded rods from the Mendel design. Included were a new [extruder](/wiki/3D_printer_extruder "3D printer extruder") with dual Bondtech drive\-gears, quieter fans with [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute "Revolutions per minute") monitoring, faster print speeds, an updated bed [leveling](/wiki/Leveling "Leveling") sensor, a new electronics board named "Einsy", quieter [stepper motors](/wiki/Stepper_motor "Stepper motor") with 128 step [microstepping](/wiki/Stepper_motor%23Microstepping "Stepper motor#Microstepping") drivers and a magnetic heatbed with interchangeable [PEI](/wiki/Polyetherimide "Polyetherimide")\-coated steel sheets.{{cite web\|date\=25 September 2017\|title\=New Original Prusa i3 MK3: Review the Facts Here! {{!}} All3DP\|url\=https://all3dp.com/original\-prusa\-i3\-mk3\-review/\|access\-date\=24 October 2017\|website\=All3DP\|ref\=mk3\-review}} Electrical components were updated to work with the new 24 [volt](/wiki/Volt "Volt") [power supply](/wiki/Power_supply "Power supply"). The printer also offers dedicated sockets to connect [Raspberry Pi Zero W](/wiki/Raspberry_Pi_Zero "Raspberry Pi Zero") running a fork of the [open source](/wiki/Open_source "Open source") [OctoPrint](/wiki/OctoPrint "OctoPrint") software for wireless printing.
Ease\-of\-use features included a filament detector, allowing the printer to load filament when it is inserted, and to pause printing if the filament is jammed or runs out; error\-correcting stepper motor drivers preventing layer shifts due to skipped steps; and recovery after [power outages](/wiki/Power_outage "Power outage"). The ambient temperature sensor both confirms suitable environment temperature and detects overheated electrical connections on the main board.
Existing MK2 and MK2S users were offered a $199 partial upgrade named MK2\.5, limited to features which are cheaper to upgrade.{{cite web\|date\=2017\-03\-27\|title\=Upgrade Your Prusa i3 MK2 with the "MK2S" Kit\|url\=https://all3dp.com/prusa\-i3\-mk2s\-upgrade/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-27\|website\=All3DP\|language\=en}} After negative feedback from the community, Prusa made available a more expensive $500 MK2S to MK3 full upgrade.{{cite web\|date\=2017\-10\-19\|title\=Prusa Research Offers MK3 Upgrade Kit for Older MK2/S Models\|url\=https://all3dp.com/prusa\-research\-offers\-mk3\-upgrade\-kit\-older\-mk2s\-models/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-27\|website\=All3DP\|language\=en}}
### Prusa i3 MK3S and MK3S\+
In February 2019, **Prusa i3 MK3S** was released, along with the Multi Material Upgrade 2S (MMU2S), which allows selecting any of 5 different materials for printing together automatically.{{cite web\|date\=2019\-02\-12\|title\=Original Prusa i3 MK3S and MMU2S release, SL1 and powder\-coated sheets update\|url\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/original\-prusa\-i3\-mk3s\-and\-mmu2s\-release\-sl1\-and\-powder\-coated\-sheets\-update\_29599/\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-09\|website\=Prusa Printers\|language\=en\-US}} MK3S changes include a simplified opto\-mechanical filament sensor, improved print cooling, and easier access to service the extruder.{{cite web\|last\=May 2019\|first\=Ali Jennings\|title\=Original Prusa i3 MK3S review\|url\=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/original\-prusa\-i3\-mk3s\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-27\|website\=TechRadar\|date\=May 31, 2019\|language\=en}}
Prusa made a running change starting November, 2020 to the **Prusa i3 MK3S\+**.{{cite web\|last\=Průša\|first\=Josef\|date\=2020\-11\-24\|title\=November 2020 Update: Original Prusa i3 MK3S\+ and MINI\+ now shipping, MINI\+ kit in the works, new steel sheet available\|url\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/november2020\_update\_original\_prusa\_i3\_mk3splus\_miniplus\_mini\_kit\_satin\_steel\_sheet\_40870/\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-15\|website\=Prusa Printers\|language\=en\-US}} This model has a revised bed leveling sensor and minor parts changes.
### Prusa MK4 and MK4S
[thumb\|Original Prusa MK4](/wiki/File:Prusa_MK4.jpg "Prusa MK4.jpg")
In March 2023 the company announced the **Prusa MK4** and the Multi Material Unit version 3 (MMU3\).{{Cite web \|author1\=Les Pounder \|date\=2023\-03\-29 \|title\=Prusa Announces Next\-Gen, MK4 3D Printer \|url\=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/prusa\-mk4\-announced \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|website\=Tom's Hardware \|language\=en}} This model features a new version of their "Nextruder" extruder system first seen on the Prusa XL, no\-adjustment load cell bed leveling, a modular replaceable all\-metal hot end, a color [touchscreen](/wiki/Touchscreen "Touchscreen"), and die\-cast{{Cite web \|last\=Prusa \|first\=Josef \|date\=2023\-03\-29 \|title\=Original Prusa MK4 is here: Always perfect first layer, high\-speed printing with Input shaper, 32\-bit platform, Nextruder, MMU3\. SHIPPING NOW! \|url\=https://blog.prusa3d.com/announcing\-original\-prusa\-mk4\_76585/ \|website\=prusa3d.com}} aluminum frame, Y\-carriage (heat bed support), and extruder frame.{{Citation \|title\=Everything you need to know about the new Prusa MK4! \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=F7ETSVu04ao \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|language\=en}} The [32\-bit](/wiki/32-bit_computing "32-bit computing") main processor board includes additional safety and monitoring circuits, a network connector, a port for the MMU3, and a [Wi\-fi](/wiki/Wi-Fi "Wi-Fi") module. This is Prusa's first Mendel\-based design to include support for local and cloud monitoring and support.
Switching to 0\.9 degree stepping motors, and the addition of input shaping and pressure advance, allow the Mendel\-style design to print faster while avoiding [ringing artifacts](/wiki/Ringing_artifacts "Ringing artifacts") and other undesirable patterns imposed on the object being made, even though it does not have the advantages of the box\-like structure of [CoreXY](/wiki/CoreXY "CoreXY") printers.{{Cite web \|last\=Harter \|first\=Kevin \|date\=2021\-03\-05 \|title\=What is a CoreXY 3D Printer? Find the Advantages \& Disadvantages (2023\) \|url\=https://www.3dtechvalley.com/what\-is\-a\-corexy\-3d\-printer/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|language\=en\-US}} However, Průša has stated that print quality, not maximum speed, is their design goal. There is a provision for an accelerometer, often used in 3D printing for self\-tuning of input shaping, but that component is not included in the final design.
When announced, software for input shaping, and sensor data collection were not finished, and the Multi Material Unit was not ready for release. Upgrade kits for earlier models likewise were not available for shipping. On February 5th, 2024 upgrade kits to MK3\.5 for the MK3 began shipping.{{Cite web \|last\=3Printr.com \|date\=2024\-02\-08 \|title\=Prusa introduces MK3\.5 upgrade for faster 3D printing \|url\=https://www.3printr.com/prusa\-introduces\-mk3\-5\-upgrade\-for\-faster\-3d\-printing\-4668912/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=3Printr.com \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Průša \|first\=Josef \|date\=2024\-02\-07 \|title\=Original Prusa MK3\.5 Upgrade is here: Make your MK3S/\+ two times faster! \|url\=https://blog.prusa3d.com/prusa\-mk35\-upgrade\-is\-here\_92040/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-27 \|website\=Original Prusa 3D Printers \|language\=en\-US}} Touch screen operation was not formally enabled until April 2024\.{{Cite web \|title\=New Firmware 6\.0\.0 Introduces Advanced Features for Prusa's Latest 3D Printers « Fabbaloo \|url\=https://www.fabbaloo.com/news/new\-firmware\-6\-0\-0\-introduces\-advanced\-features\-for\-prusas\-latest\-3d\-printers \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-26 \|website\=Fabbaloo \|language\=en\-US}}
In August 2024 Prusa released the **Prusa MK4S** along with upgrade kits for owners of previous Prusa i3 printers.{{Cite web \|last\=Kohut \|first\=Adam \|date\=August 12, 2024 \|title\=Prusa Releases MK4S 3D Printer and MK4 Upgrade Kit \|url\=https://all3dp.com/4/prusa\-releases\-mk4s\-3d\-printer\-and\-mk4\-upgrade\-kit/ \|url\-status\=live \|website\=All3DP}} The MK4S brought marginal improvement over the previous MK4, with improved part cooling, faster print speeds, and more.
|
[
"Models\n------",
"",
"File:Assembled Prusa Mendel.jpg\\|Prusa Mendel\nFile:Prusa Mendel (iteration 2\\).jpg\\|Prusa Mendel (iteration 2\\)\nFile:RepRap Mendel90 Front View.jpg\\|alt\\=A Cartesian filament\\-based 3D printer with a large flat wooden base, wooden vertical gantry with an opening in the center for the moving bed, and wooden braces behind that.\\|Mendel90 gantry\\-frame printer, 2011\nFile:Prusa i3 metal frame.jpg\\|Prusa i3\nFile:Prusa i3 MK2\\.jpg\\|Prusa i3 MK2",
"",
"### RepRap Mendel",
"First conceived in 2009, RepRap Mendel 3D printers were designed to be assembled from 3D printed parts and commonly available off\\-the\\-shelf components (referred to as \"vitamins,\" as they cannot be produced by the printer itself).{{cite web\\|title\\=Mendel \\- RepRap\\|url\\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Mendel\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12\\|website\\=reprap.org}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Distributing 3DP Parts — and Vitamins — With Passion\\|url\\=http://3dprintingindustry.com/news/distributing\\-3dp\\-parts\\-and\\-vitamins\\-with\\-passion\\-15476/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-15\\|website\\=3D Printing Industry\\|date\\=August 12, 2013 }} These parts include [threaded rods](/wiki/Threaded_rod \"Threaded rod\"), [leadscrews](/wiki/Leadscrews \"Leadscrews\"), smooth rods and bearings, screws, nuts, [stepper motors](/wiki/Stepper_motor \"Stepper motor\"), [control circuit boards](/wiki/Embedded_system \"Embedded system\"), and a \"hot end\" to melt and place thermoplastic materials.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hot End Design Theory \\- RepRap\\|url\\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Hot\\_End\\_Design\\_Theory\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12\\|website\\=reprap.org}} A [Cartesian mechanism](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_robot \"Cartesian coordinate robot\") permits placement of material anywhere in a cubic volume; this design has continued throughout development of the i3 series. The flat \"print bed\" (the surface on which parts are printed) is movable in one axis (Y), while two horizontal and two vertical rods permit tool motion in two axes, designated X and Z respectively.",
"### Prusa Mendel",
"Josef Průša was a core developer of the RepRap project who had previously developed a [PCB](/wiki/Printed_circuit_board \"Printed circuit board\") heated \"print bed\". He adapted and simplified the RepRap Mendel design, reducing the time to print 3D plastic parts from 20 to 10 hours, changing to the use of two Z\\-axis motors to simplify the frame, and including 3D printed bushings in place of regular bearings.{{cite web\\|last\\=Thingiverse.com\\|title\\=PCB heated print bed by josefprusa\\|url\\=http://www.thingiverse.com/thing:2172\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-19\\|website\\=www.thingiverse.com}}{{cite web\\|title\\=first commit · josefprusa/PrusaMendel@6ed4480\\|url\\=https://github.com/josefprusa/PrusaMendel/commit/6ed4480bd708121c18f67fc6903092e7dbaecb5f\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-13\\|website\\=GitHub}} First announced in September 2010, the printer was dubbed Prusa Mendel by Průša himself.{[https://www.reprap.org/mediawiki/index.php?title\\=Prusa\\_Mendel\\&oldid\\=19530}](https://www.reprap.org/mediawiki/index.php?title=Prusa_Mendel&oldid=19530}) According to the RepRap wiki, \"Prusa Mendel is the [Ford Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T \"Ford Model T\") of 3D printers.\"{{cite web\\|last\\=Prusa\\|first\\=Josef\\|date\\=2010\\-10\\-04\\|title\\=RepRap: Blog: Story of simpler Mendel: PLA bushings and X\\-axis\\|url\\=http://blog.reprap.org/2010/10/story\\-of\\-simpler\\-mendel\\-pla\\-bushings.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-18}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=User \"Scwimbush\"\\|last2\\=User \"Prusajr\"\\|date\\=2011\\-04\\-12\\|title\\=Prusa Mendel \\- RepRap\\|url\\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Prusa\\_Mendel\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-09\\|website\\=reprap.org}}",
"### Prusa Mendel (Iteration 2\\)",
"Průša streamlined his Mendel design, releasing \"Prusa Iteration 2\" in November 2011\\. Parts changes allowed for snap\\-fit assembly (no glue required); fewer tools were needed to construct and maintain this version. Although not required, fine\\-pitch manufactured pulleys and LM8UU linear bearings were recommended over printed equivalents for \"professional\" results.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hobbyist Weekend – With Prusa Mendel 3D Printer\\|url\\=http://3dprintingindustry.com/news/hobbyist\\-weekend\\-with\\-prusa\\-mendel\\-3d\\-printer\\-2594/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-15\\|website\\=3D Printing Industry\\|date\\=November 3, 2012}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Průša\\|first\\=Joseph\\|date\\=2011\\-11\\-11\\|title\\=RepRap: Blog: Prusa Iteration 2\\|url\\=http://blog.reprap.org/2011/11/prusa\\-iteration\\-2\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-19}}",
"### Mendel90",
"It was clear to the RepRap community that the threaded\\-rod, triangular Z axis frame construction was limited in strength and stability, and that it would be necessary for the printer's footprint to grow substantially for the maximum printing height to increase. Chris Palmer (posting as \"Nophead\") created \"Mendel90\" in December 2011, a printer using a gantry\\-style [MDF](/wiki/Medium-density_fibreboard \"Medium-density fibreboard\") frame.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Palmer \\|first\\=Chris \"Nophead\" \\|date\\=2011\\-12\\-25 \\|title\\=Mendel90 \\|url\\=https://hydraraptor.blogspot.com/2011/12/mendel90\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=HydraRaptor}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mendel90 \\- RepRap \\|url\\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Mendel90 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=reprap.org}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Petch \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-13 \\|title\\=Interview: Chris Palmer aka Nop Head on the RepRap 10th Anniversary \\|url\\=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/interview\\-chris\\-palmer\\-aka\\-nop\\-head\\-reprap\\-10th\\-anniversary\\-134590/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-21 \\|website\\=3D Printing Industry \\|language\\=en\\-US}} It improved printing speed and accuracy by replacing the upper supports on the Mendel frame (which were easily skewed or twisted out of alignment if not properly tightened) with a rigid frame cut from solid sheet material, assembled as one structural and two mechanical planes at 90 degree angles from one another. Prusa's two Z\\-axis motors were moved from floating mounts at the top to being fixed to the bottom of the vertical frame, and a [Dibond composite panel](/wiki/Sandwich_panel \"Sandwich panel\") made for a rigid mounting plate for the heated bed.",
"### Prusa i3 and i3 1\\.75 mm",
"In May 2012, Průša released a major redesign, focused on ease of construction and use, and no longer structured around the simplest available common hardware as previous RepRap printers were.{{cite web\\|title\\=initial commit · josefprusa/Prusa3@d3618a6\\|url\\=https://github.com/josefprusa/Prusa3/commit/d3618a65684dae11b45e364b28529af3ea1782e5\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-13\\|website\\=GitHub}} The Prusa i3 used a rigid, single\\-piece [water jet cut](/wiki/Water_jet_cutter \"Water jet cutter\") [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\") vertical frame with a large opening for the printing area and hard mounting points for the Z\\-axis components, similar to the Mendel90\\. A second frame piece served as a lightweight mount for the heated bed. Rather than having a baseplate, Prusa retained the M10 threaded rods to support the heated bed Y\\-axis. It used a single piece, food safe stainless steel hot end called the Prusa Nozzle which printed with 3 mm filament, and used M5 threaded rods as lead screws instead of M8\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.open\\-electronics.org/interview\\-to\\-josef\\-prusa/\\|title\\=Open Source 3D printing: an Interview with Josef Prusa\\|website\\=Open Electronics\\|date\\=February 5, 2013\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-16}}{{cite web\\|last\\=By\\|title\\=Interview With A Printer\\|url\\=https://hackaday.com/2014/11/19/interview\\-with\\-a\\-printer/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-17\\|website\\=Hackaday\\|date\\=November 19, 2014}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Prusa Nozzle: All metal food safe RepRap hot\\-end\\|url\\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20130930\\-prusa\\-nozzle\\-all\\-metal\\-food\\-safe\\-reprap\\-hot\\-end\\-with\\-one\\-piece\\-design.html\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-19\\|website\\=3ders.org\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|last\\=By\\|title\\=Fail Of The Week: My 3D Printer Upgrade\\|url\\=http://hackaday.com/2016/04/29/fail\\-of\\-the\\-week\\-my\\-3d\\-printer\\-upgrade/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-15\\|website\\=Hackaday\\|date\\=April 29, 2016}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Research\\|first\\=Josef Prusa / Prusa\\|title\\=Prusa Nozzle\\|url\\=http://prusanozzle.org/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12\\|website\\=prusanozzle.org\\|language\\=en}}",
"In May 2015, Průša released an i3 full kit under the brand name \"Original Prusa i3\". After finding that 1\\.75 mm filament was far more common than 3 mm, Průša dropped the Prusa Nozzle and redesigned the extruder around a third\\-party hot end, the E3D V6\\-Lite. Noting that print quality was much improved, he introduced the new **i3 1\\.75 mm** version in August 2015\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Průša \\|first\\=Josef \\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-26 \\|title\\=Original Prusa i3 is now 1\\.75 mm! \\|url\\=https://blog.prusa3d.com/prusa\\-i3\\-is\\-now\\-1\\-75\\-mm\\_3863/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-26 \\|website\\=Original Prusa 3D Printers \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|title\\=About Josef Prusa and Prusa Research\\|url\\=https://www.prusa3d.com/about\\-us/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12\\|website\\=Prusa3D \\- 3D Printers from Josef Průša\\|language\\=en\\-US}} The original model was retrospectively dubbed MK0 or \"mark zero,\" while the new model came to be known as the \"MK1\\.\"",
"### Prusa i3 MK2 and MK2S",
"Průša released the **Prusa i3 MK2** in May 2016\\. It was the first hobby 3D printer with mesh bed leveling and automatic geometry skew correction for all three axes. Features included a larger build volume, custom stepper motors with integrated lead screws, a non\\-contact [inductive sensor](/wiki/Inductive_sensor \"Inductive sensor\") for auto\\-leveling, and a rewritten version of the Marlin [firmware](/wiki/Firmware \"Firmware\").{{cite web\\|author\\=Gerrit Coetzee\\|date\\=June 15, 2016\\|title\\=Prusa Shows Us the New i3 MK2 3D Printer and Where the Community is Headed\\|url\\=http://hackaday.com/2016/06/15/prusa\\-shows\\-us\\-the\\-new\\-i3\\-mk2\\-3d\\-printer\\-and\\-where\\-the\\-community\\-is\\-headed/\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2019\\|website\\=\\[\\[Hackaday]]}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/0517\\-prusa\\-research\\-unveils\\-original\\-prusa\\-i3\\-mk2\\-3d\\-printer.html\\|title\\=Josef Prusa unveils $699 Original Prusa i3 MK2 3D printer\\|website\\=3ders.org\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://prusaprinters.org/first\\-printer\\-to\\-correct\\-geometry\\-in\\-all\\-axes/\\|title\\=The first printer to correct its geometry in all axes \\- Prusa Printers\\|date\\=2016\\-08\\-11\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-13}} Other new features include a [polyetherimide](/wiki/Polyetherimide \"Polyetherimide\") print surface, Rambo controller board and an E3D V6 Full hotend.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://3dprint.com/134786/prusa\\-i3\\-mk2\\-new\\-features/\\|title\\=The All New Original Prusa i3 MK2 Kit Has a Ton of New Features\\|date\\=2016\\-05\\-18\\|website\\=3DPrint.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-19}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://3dprintingindustry.com/news/interview\\-josef\\-prusa\\-ceo\\-founder\\-prusa\\-research\\-81650/\\|title\\=Interview with Josef Prusa, CEO and Founder of Prusa Research\\|website\\=3D Printing Industry\\|date\\=June 9, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-12}} The Prusa MK2 became the first RepRap printer to be supported by [Windows 10](/wiki/Windows_10 \"Windows 10\") [Plug\\-and\\-Play](/wiki/Plug_and_play \"Plug and play\") [USB](/wiki/USB \"USB\") ID.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20160523\\-microsoft\\-adds\\-network\\-3d\\-printing\\-support\\-with\\-windows\\-10\\-iot\\-core\\-app\\-for\\-raspberry\\-pi\\-3\\.html\\|title\\=Microsoft adds network 3D printing support with Windows 10 IoT Core app for Raspberry Pi 3\\|website\\=3ders.org\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-12}}",
"In March 2017, Průša announced on his blog that the revised **Prusa i3 MK2S** would ship in place of the Prusa i3 MK2\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Original Prusa I3 MK2S Release\\|url\\=http://www.prusaprinters.org/original\\-prusa\\-i3\\-mk2s\\-release/\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-13\\|website\\=Official Prusa 3D printers community\\|date\\=March 10, 2017\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Enhancements cited include U\\-bolts to hold the LM8UU bearings where [cable ties](/wiki/Cable_tie \"Cable tie\") had been used, higher quality bearings and rods, an improved mount for the inductance sensor, improved cable management, and a new electronics cover. An upgrade kit was offered to owners of the MK2 to add these improvements.",
"### Prusa i3 MK3 and MK2\\.5",
"In September 2017, **Prusa i3 MK3** was released, marketed as \"bloody smart.\"{{cite web\\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-22\\|title\\=Original Prusa i3 MK3 is out! And it's bloody smart!\\|url\\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/original\\-prusa\\-i3\\-mk3\\-bloody\\-smart\\_7201/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-27\\|website\\=Prusa Printers\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Starting with this model, the base and Y axis were assembled with aluminum extrusion, eliminating the last of the structural threaded rods from the Mendel design. Included were a new [extruder](/wiki/3D_printer_extruder \"3D printer extruder\") with dual Bondtech drive\\-gears, quieter fans with [RPM](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute \"Revolutions per minute\") monitoring, faster print speeds, an updated bed [leveling](/wiki/Leveling \"Leveling\") sensor, a new electronics board named \"Einsy\", quieter [stepper motors](/wiki/Stepper_motor \"Stepper motor\") with 128 step [microstepping](/wiki/Stepper_motor%23Microstepping \"Stepper motor#Microstepping\") drivers and a magnetic heatbed with interchangeable [PEI](/wiki/Polyetherimide \"Polyetherimide\")\\-coated steel sheets.{{cite web\\|date\\=25 September 2017\\|title\\=New Original Prusa i3 MK3: Review the Facts Here! {{!}} All3DP\\|url\\=https://all3dp.com/original\\-prusa\\-i3\\-mk3\\-review/\\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2017\\|website\\=All3DP\\|ref\\=mk3\\-review}} Electrical components were updated to work with the new 24 [volt](/wiki/Volt \"Volt\") [power supply](/wiki/Power_supply \"Power supply\"). The printer also offers dedicated sockets to connect [Raspberry Pi Zero W](/wiki/Raspberry_Pi_Zero \"Raspberry Pi Zero\") running a fork of the [open source](/wiki/Open_source \"Open source\") [OctoPrint](/wiki/OctoPrint \"OctoPrint\") software for wireless printing.",
"Ease\\-of\\-use features included a filament detector, allowing the printer to load filament when it is inserted, and to pause printing if the filament is jammed or runs out; error\\-correcting stepper motor drivers preventing layer shifts due to skipped steps; and recovery after [power outages](/wiki/Power_outage \"Power outage\"). The ambient temperature sensor both confirms suitable environment temperature and detects overheated electrical connections on the main board.",
"Existing MK2 and MK2S users were offered a $199 partial upgrade named MK2\\.5, limited to features which are cheaper to upgrade.{{cite web\\|date\\=2017\\-03\\-27\\|title\\=Upgrade Your Prusa i3 MK2 with the \"MK2S\" Kit\\|url\\=https://all3dp.com/prusa\\-i3\\-mk2s\\-upgrade/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-27\\|website\\=All3DP\\|language\\=en}} After negative feedback from the community, Prusa made available a more expensive $500 MK2S to MK3 full upgrade.{{cite web\\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-19\\|title\\=Prusa Research Offers MK3 Upgrade Kit for Older MK2/S Models\\|url\\=https://all3dp.com/prusa\\-research\\-offers\\-mk3\\-upgrade\\-kit\\-older\\-mk2s\\-models/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-27\\|website\\=All3DP\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Prusa i3 MK3S and MK3S\\+",
"In February 2019, **Prusa i3 MK3S** was released, along with the Multi Material Upgrade 2S (MMU2S), which allows selecting any of 5 different materials for printing together automatically.{{cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-02\\-12\\|title\\=Original Prusa i3 MK3S and MMU2S release, SL1 and powder\\-coated sheets update\\|url\\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/original\\-prusa\\-i3\\-mk3s\\-and\\-mmu2s\\-release\\-sl1\\-and\\-powder\\-coated\\-sheets\\-update\\_29599/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-09\\|website\\=Prusa Printers\\|language\\=en\\-US}} MK3S changes include a simplified opto\\-mechanical filament sensor, improved print cooling, and easier access to service the extruder.{{cite web\\|last\\=May 2019\\|first\\=Ali Jennings\\|title\\=Original Prusa i3 MK3S review\\|url\\=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/original\\-prusa\\-i3\\-mk3s\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-27\\|website\\=TechRadar\\|date\\=May 31, 2019\\|language\\=en}}",
"Prusa made a running change starting November, 2020 to the **Prusa i3 MK3S\\+**.{{cite web\\|last\\=Průša\\|first\\=Josef\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-24\\|title\\=November 2020 Update: Original Prusa i3 MK3S\\+ and MINI\\+ now shipping, MINI\\+ kit in the works, new steel sheet available\\|url\\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/november2020\\_update\\_original\\_prusa\\_i3\\_mk3splus\\_miniplus\\_mini\\_kit\\_satin\\_steel\\_sheet\\_40870/\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-15\\|website\\=Prusa Printers\\|language\\=en\\-US}} This model has a revised bed leveling sensor and minor parts changes.",
"### Prusa MK4 and MK4S",
"[thumb\\|Original Prusa MK4](/wiki/File:Prusa_MK4.jpg \"Prusa MK4.jpg\")",
"In March 2023 the company announced the **Prusa MK4** and the Multi Material Unit version 3 (MMU3\\).{{Cite web \\|author1\\=Les Pounder \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-29 \\|title\\=Prusa Announces Next\\-Gen, MK4 3D Printer \\|url\\=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/prusa\\-mk4\\-announced \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|website\\=Tom's Hardware \\|language\\=en}} This model features a new version of their \"Nextruder\" extruder system first seen on the Prusa XL, no\\-adjustment load cell bed leveling, a modular replaceable all\\-metal hot end, a color [touchscreen](/wiki/Touchscreen \"Touchscreen\"), and die\\-cast{{Cite web \\|last\\=Prusa \\|first\\=Josef \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-29 \\|title\\=Original Prusa MK4 is here: Always perfect first layer, high\\-speed printing with Input shaper, 32\\-bit platform, Nextruder, MMU3\\. SHIPPING NOW! \\|url\\=https://blog.prusa3d.com/announcing\\-original\\-prusa\\-mk4\\_76585/ \\|website\\=prusa3d.com}} aluminum frame, Y\\-carriage (heat bed support), and extruder frame.{{Citation \\|title\\=Everything you need to know about the new Prusa MK4! \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=F7ETSVu04ao \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|language\\=en}} The [32\\-bit](/wiki/32-bit_computing \"32-bit computing\") main processor board includes additional safety and monitoring circuits, a network connector, a port for the MMU3, and a [Wi\\-fi](/wiki/Wi-Fi \"Wi-Fi\") module. This is Prusa's first Mendel\\-based design to include support for local and cloud monitoring and support.",
"Switching to 0\\.9 degree stepping motors, and the addition of input shaping and pressure advance, allow the Mendel\\-style design to print faster while avoiding [ringing artifacts](/wiki/Ringing_artifacts \"Ringing artifacts\") and other undesirable patterns imposed on the object being made, even though it does not have the advantages of the box\\-like structure of [CoreXY](/wiki/CoreXY \"CoreXY\") printers.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Harter \\|first\\=Kevin \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-05 \\|title\\=What is a CoreXY 3D Printer? Find the Advantages \\& Disadvantages (2023\\) \\|url\\=https://www.3dtechvalley.com/what\\-is\\-a\\-corexy\\-3d\\-printer/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} However, Průša has stated that print quality, not maximum speed, is their design goal. There is a provision for an accelerometer, often used in 3D printing for self\\-tuning of input shaping, but that component is not included in the final design.",
"When announced, software for input shaping, and sensor data collection were not finished, and the Multi Material Unit was not ready for release. Upgrade kits for earlier models likewise were not available for shipping. On February 5th, 2024 upgrade kits to MK3\\.5 for the MK3 began shipping.{{Cite web \\|last\\=3Printr.com \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-08 \\|title\\=Prusa introduces MK3\\.5 upgrade for faster 3D printing \\|url\\=https://www.3printr.com/prusa\\-introduces\\-mk3\\-5\\-upgrade\\-for\\-faster\\-3d\\-printing\\-4668912/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=3Printr.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Průša \\|first\\=Josef \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-07 \\|title\\=Original Prusa MK3\\.5 Upgrade is here: Make your MK3S/\\+ two times faster! \\|url\\=https://blog.prusa3d.com/prusa\\-mk35\\-upgrade\\-is\\-here\\_92040/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Original Prusa 3D Printers \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Touch screen operation was not formally enabled until April 2024\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=New Firmware 6\\.0\\.0 Introduces Advanced Features for Prusa's Latest 3D Printers « Fabbaloo \\|url\\=https://www.fabbaloo.com/news/new\\-firmware\\-6\\-0\\-0\\-introduces\\-advanced\\-features\\-for\\-prusas\\-latest\\-3d\\-printers \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-26 \\|website\\=Fabbaloo \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"In August 2024 Prusa released the **Prusa MK4S** along with upgrade kits for owners of previous Prusa i3 printers.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kohut \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=August 12, 2024 \\|title\\=Prusa Releases MK4S 3D Printer and MK4 Upgrade Kit \\|url\\=https://all3dp.com/4/prusa\\-releases\\-mk4s\\-3d\\-printer\\-and\\-mk4\\-upgrade\\-kit/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|website\\=All3DP}} The MK4S brought marginal improvement over the previous MK4, with improved part cooling, faster print speeds, and more.",
""
] |
Components and materials
------------------------
[thumb\|Josef Průša inside an early Prusa i3 MK2 print farm producing 3D printed parts at Prusa Research in Prague, Czech Republic.](/wiki/File:Josef_Prusa_in_Prusa_Research_offices_inside_MK2_printfarm.jpg "Josef Prusa in Prusa Research offices inside MK2 printfarm.jpg")
### Plastic parts
All Prusa i3 models use [3D printing filament](/wiki/3D_printing_filament "3D printing filament") as feedstock to make parts.
Like other RepRap printers the Prusa i3 is capable of creating many of its own parts, with the designs freely available for repairs, replication, and redesign. Formerly these were printed in [ABS](/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene "Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene") plastic; Prusa Research now uses mostly [PETG](/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate "Polyethylene terephthalate") instead.{{cite web\|title\=Original Prusa i3 Mk3 after 2 months\|url\=https://www.prusaprinters.org/original\-prusa\-i3\-mk3\-2\-months/\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-14\|website\=prusaprinters.org\|date\=January 22, 2018}} Prusa Research maintains a "print farm" of 600 3D printers (as of October 2021\) to manufacture the plastic parts for Original Prusa branded products.{{cite web\|date\=2021\-01\-14\|title\=The great recap of 2020 in Prusa Research and plans for 2021\|url\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/the\-great\-recap\-of\-2020\-prusa\-research\_43456/\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-31\|website\=Prusa Printers\|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web\|last\=Sertoglu\|first\=Kubi\|date\=2021\-10\-04\|title\=Prusa showcases its new modular 3D printer farm at Dubai's Expo 2020\|url\=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/prusa\-showcases\-its\-new\-modular\-3d\-printer\-farm\-at\-dubais\-expo\-2020\-197091/\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-13\|website\=3D Printing Industry\|language\=en\-US}}
File:Prusa i3 Printer frame and Y axis.jpg\|Metal frame and constructed X axis, printed parts in yellow.
File:Prusa i3 Printer \- Y axis assembled.jpg\|Assembled Y axis, printed parts in yellow.
File:Prusa i3 Printer \- Assembled extruder.jpg\|The original Prusa i3 MK0 extruder and hot end with yellow printed parts.
File:Prusa i3 3D Printer \- Reprap \- Completed.jpg\|Completed Prusa i3, printed parts in yellow.
### Control system
When the Prusa i3 design was first introduced in 2012, RepRap printers frequently used Open Hardware controllers such as an [Arduino Mega](/wiki/Arduino "Arduino") combined with an Arduino shield providing the remaining circuitry, such as the RAMPS board.{{Cite web \|title\=Arduino Mega Pololu Shield \- RepRap \|url\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Arduino\_Mega\_Pololu\_Shield \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=reprap.org}} All\-in\-one versions such as the RAMBo board were becoming available.{{Cite web \|title\=Rambo \- RepRap \|url\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Rambo \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=reprap.org}} As a commercial product, Original Prusa i3 up to MK2 used Mini\-Rambo. MK3 versions switched to Einsy Rambo boards to provide desired features such as quieter operation.{{Cite web \|title\=EinsyRambo \- RepRap \|url\=https://reprap.org/wiki/EinsyRambo \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=reprap.org}} The MK4 uses xBuddy, the first 32\-bit board used in the i3 series.{{Cite web \|title\=Prusa MK4 vs MK3S\+ \|url\=https://4dfiltration.com/resources/fdm\-faq/prusa\-mk4\-vs\-mk3s.html \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=4dfiltration.com \|language\=en\-us}}
All Original Prusa products use Marlin 3D printing firmware.{{Cite web \|last\=jbrazio \|date\=2023\-05\-09 \|title\=What is Marlin? \|url\=https://marlinfw.org/docs/basics/introduction.html \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=Marlin Firmware \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=Introduction {{!}} Prusa Knowledge Base \|url\=https://help.prusa3d.com/guide/introduction\_132425 \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=help.prusa3d.com \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=Release 3\.0\.12\-RC2 firmware for Prusa i3 MK2 · prusa3d/Prusa\-Firmware \|url\=https://github.com/prusa3d/Prusa\-Firmware/releases/tag/v3\.0\.12\_RC2 \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=GitHub \|language\=en}}
### First layer control and bed leveling
When extruding the first layer, the print head must be a precise distance away from the print bed for proper adhesion. Many 3D printers rely on the user to complete this process by adjusting the height of the bed at several locations ("bed leveling"). To automate this process, Prusa i3 models from the MK2 in 2016 have sensor called PINDA (Prusa INDuction Autoleveling{{cite web\|title\=P.I.N.D.A./SuperPINDA Sensor testing \|url\=https://help.prusa3d.com/article/p\-i\-n\-d\-a\-superpinda\-sensor\-testing\_2091 \|publisher\=Prusa Research \|accessdate\=2024\-06\-16}}) to detect the height of the printbed at different locations, and then adjust for it when printing ("auto\-leveling").{{cite web\|date\=2021\-05\-30\|title\=Inductive Sensor (3D Printer): All You Need to Know\|url\=https://all3dp.com/2/inductive\-sensor\-3d\-printer\-ender\-3\-inductive\-sensor/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-05\|website\=All3DP\|language\=en}}
* PINDA V1 \- A non\-contact inductive sensor used on MK2/S and MINI.
* PINDA V2 \- A thermally compensated inductive sensor used on MK2\.5, MK2\.5S, MK3, and MK3S.
* SuperPINDA \- A thermally insensitive sensor used with MK2\.5/S, and MK3/S/\+.[PINDA/SuperPINDA Sensor testing](https://help.prusa3d.com/en/article/P-I-N-D-A-SENSOR-TESTING_2091/) January 2022
* Load cell sensor \- A contact sensor used on the MK4\.
The PINDA series requires an electronic Z\-height adjustment that may vary for different heat bed surfaces or different nozzles. The load cell sensor automatically compensates for variations in nozzle size, and thickness and expansion of the heated bed surface, eliminating stored settings for the purpose.
### Frames
The distinguishing feature of the i3 from its predecessors is the vertical frame, which can take many forms. These include single sheet frames cut from steel or acrylic, box frames from [plywood](/wiki/Plywood "Plywood") or [medium\-density fibreboard](/wiki/Medium-density_fibreboard "Medium-density fibreboard"), and [Lego](/wiki/Lego "Lego").{{cite web\|last\=O'Neal\|first\=Bridget\|date\=2016\-06\-06\|title\=Portugal's Reprapalgarve Team Shows Us How to Make a Steel Framed Color 3D Printer for Around $600\|url\=https://3dprint.com/137348/reprapalgarve\-color\-3d\-printer/\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-06\|website\=3DPrint.com\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|last\=O'Neal\|first\=Bridget\|date\=2014\-12\-18\|title\=RepRap iTopie Emerges as Improvement on Prusa i3\|url\=https://3dprint.com/31942/reprap\-itopie\-improves\-prusai3/\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-16\|website\=3DPrint.com\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|last\=Sweatman\|first\=Will\|date\=2015\-06\-08\|title\=Lego Printer Prints Lego\|url\=https://hackaday.com/2015/06/08/lego\-printer\-prints\-lego/\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-16\|website\=Hackaday}}{{cite web\|last\=Buren\|first\=Alec\|date\=2015\-06\-03\|title\=Build your very own Prusa l3 LEGO 3D printer using (almost) nothing but LEGO bricks\|url\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20150603\-build\-your\-very\-own\-prusa\-l3\-3d\-printer\-using\-almost\-nothing\-but\-lego\-bricks.html\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-16\|website\=3ders.org\|language\=en\-US}} Inexpensive [aluminum extrusion](/wiki/Aluminium_extrusion "Aluminium extrusion") is commonly used, both by printer enthusiasts and by manufacturers of "clone" i3 printers.{{cite web\|date\=2017\-09\-18\|title\=Creality CR\-10 S5 Review\|url\=https://makerhacks.com/creality\-cr\-10\-s5\-review/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-12\|website\=Maker Hacks\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|date\=2020\-11\-24\|title\=Prusa Bear (Full) Upgrade – Is It Worth it?\|url\=https://all3dp.com/2/prusa\-bear\-upgrade\-buyers\-guide/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-12\|website\=All3DP\|language\=en}} Some mass market i3 derivatives, such as the [Creality](/wiki/Creality "Creality") Ender 3, use rollers against the extruded frame itself instead of precision rods and bearings to reduce cost and complexity.
File:Prusa i3 with metal frame.jpg\|A Prusa i3 with a standard metal frame.
File:Reprap Prusa Xi3 with acrylic frame.jpg\|A Prusa i3 with an acrylic frame.
File:A box frame Prusa i3\.png\|A Prusa i3 with a plywood box frame.
File:Prusa\-i3\-wood\-in\-melamime.jpg\|A Prusa i3 with a \[\[Melamine resin\|melamine\-resin]] \[\[particle board]] frame.
### Extruders
Beyond the standard Prusa i3 filament extruders, others have created aftermarket extruders and enthusiast tool heads, including a [MIG welder](/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding "Gas metal arc welding") and a laser cutter.{{cite web\|title\=Dutch students build DIY metal 3D printer using Prusa i3 printer and a MIG welder\|url\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20141117\-dutch\-students\-build\-diy\-metal\-3d\-printer\-using\-prusa\-i3\-printer\-and\-a\-mig\-welder.html\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-19\|website\=3ders.org\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|date\=2014\-11\-17\|title\=Students Combine Prusa i3 Printer with a MIG Welder to Create an Affordable Metal 3D Printer\|url\=https://3dprint.com/23868/cheap\-metal\-3d\-printer\-welder/\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-19\|website\=3DPrint.com\|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web\|title\=DIY 3D Printing: Laser cutting with Prusa Mendel i2\|url\=http://diy3dprinting.blogspot.co.uk/2013/07/laser\-cutting\-with\-prusa\-mendel\-i2\.html\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-19\|website\=diy3dprinting.blogspot.co.uk\|date\=August 2013\|archive\-date\=July 19, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719190900/http://diy3dprinting.blogspot.co.uk/2013/07/laser\-cutting\-with\-prusa\-mendel\-i2\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} Prusa offered a collection of functional cooking tools and programs under the name "MK3 Master Chef Upgrade" as an [April Fools' Day](/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day "April Fools' Day") gag in 2018\.{{cite web\|date\=2018\-04\-01\|title\=New upgrade for the Original Prusa i3 MK3 is here to change your life\|url\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/new\-upgrade\-for\-original\-prusa\-i3\-mk3\-is\-here\_7955/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-12\|website\=Prusa Printers\|language\=en\-US}}
File:3D Printed RFB cell frame printed on Prusa i3\.jpg\|A partially printed single\-colour object showing the infill created to increase rigidity and reduce the amount of plastic used.
File:3DBenchy created using color mixing on an FDM printer.jpg\|A \[\[3DBenchy]] created on a Prusa i3 using a color\-mixing hot end.
|
[
"Components and materials\n------------------------",
"[thumb\\|Josef Průša inside an early Prusa i3 MK2 print farm producing 3D printed parts at Prusa Research in Prague, Czech Republic.](/wiki/File:Josef_Prusa_in_Prusa_Research_offices_inside_MK2_printfarm.jpg \"Josef Prusa in Prusa Research offices inside MK2 printfarm.jpg\")",
"### Plastic parts",
"All Prusa i3 models use [3D printing filament](/wiki/3D_printing_filament \"3D printing filament\") as feedstock to make parts.",
"Like other RepRap printers the Prusa i3 is capable of creating many of its own parts, with the designs freely available for repairs, replication, and redesign. Formerly these were printed in [ABS](/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene \"Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene\") plastic; Prusa Research now uses mostly [PETG](/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate \"Polyethylene terephthalate\") instead.{{cite web\\|title\\=Original Prusa i3 Mk3 after 2 months\\|url\\=https://www.prusaprinters.org/original\\-prusa\\-i3\\-mk3\\-2\\-months/\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-14\\|website\\=prusaprinters.org\\|date\\=January 22, 2018}} Prusa Research maintains a \"print farm\" of 600 3D printers (as of October 2021\\) to manufacture the plastic parts for Original Prusa branded products.{{cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-14\\|title\\=The great recap of 2020 in Prusa Research and plans for 2021\\|url\\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/the\\-great\\-recap\\-of\\-2020\\-prusa\\-research\\_43456/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-31\\|website\\=Prusa Printers\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Sertoglu\\|first\\=Kubi\\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-04\\|title\\=Prusa showcases its new modular 3D printer farm at Dubai's Expo 2020\\|url\\=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/prusa\\-showcases\\-its\\-new\\-modular\\-3d\\-printer\\-farm\\-at\\-dubais\\-expo\\-2020\\-197091/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-13\\|website\\=3D Printing Industry\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"",
"File:Prusa i3 Printer frame and Y axis.jpg\\|Metal frame and constructed X axis, printed parts in yellow.\nFile:Prusa i3 Printer \\- Y axis assembled.jpg\\|Assembled Y axis, printed parts in yellow.\nFile:Prusa i3 Printer \\- Assembled extruder.jpg\\|The original Prusa i3 MK0 extruder and hot end with yellow printed parts.\nFile:Prusa i3 3D Printer \\- Reprap \\- Completed.jpg\\|Completed Prusa i3, printed parts in yellow.",
"",
"### Control system",
"When the Prusa i3 design was first introduced in 2012, RepRap printers frequently used Open Hardware controllers such as an [Arduino Mega](/wiki/Arduino \"Arduino\") combined with an Arduino shield providing the remaining circuitry, such as the RAMPS board.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Arduino Mega Pololu Shield \\- RepRap \\|url\\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Arduino\\_Mega\\_Pololu\\_Shield \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=reprap.org}} All\\-in\\-one versions such as the RAMBo board were becoming available.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Rambo \\- RepRap \\|url\\=https://reprap.org/wiki/Rambo \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=reprap.org}} As a commercial product, Original Prusa i3 up to MK2 used Mini\\-Rambo. MK3 versions switched to Einsy Rambo boards to provide desired features such as quieter operation.{{Cite web \\|title\\=EinsyRambo \\- RepRap \\|url\\=https://reprap.org/wiki/EinsyRambo \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=reprap.org}} The MK4 uses xBuddy, the first 32\\-bit board used in the i3 series.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Prusa MK4 vs MK3S\\+ \\|url\\=https://4dfiltration.com/resources/fdm\\-faq/prusa\\-mk4\\-vs\\-mk3s.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=4dfiltration.com \\|language\\=en\\-us}}",
"All Original Prusa products use Marlin 3D printing firmware.{{Cite web \\|last\\=jbrazio \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-09 \\|title\\=What is Marlin? \\|url\\=https://marlinfw.org/docs/basics/introduction.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=Marlin Firmware \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Introduction {{!}} Prusa Knowledge Base \\|url\\=https://help.prusa3d.com/guide/introduction\\_132425 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=help.prusa3d.com \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Release 3\\.0\\.12\\-RC2 firmware for Prusa i3 MK2 · prusa3d/Prusa\\-Firmware \\|url\\=https://github.com/prusa3d/Prusa\\-Firmware/releases/tag/v3\\.0\\.12\\_RC2 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=GitHub \\|language\\=en}}",
"### First layer control and bed leveling",
"When extruding the first layer, the print head must be a precise distance away from the print bed for proper adhesion. Many 3D printers rely on the user to complete this process by adjusting the height of the bed at several locations (\"bed leveling\"). To automate this process, Prusa i3 models from the MK2 in 2016 have sensor called PINDA (Prusa INDuction Autoleveling{{cite web\\|title\\=P.I.N.D.A./SuperPINDA Sensor testing \\|url\\=https://help.prusa3d.com/article/p\\-i\\-n\\-d\\-a\\-superpinda\\-sensor\\-testing\\_2091 \\|publisher\\=Prusa Research \\|accessdate\\=2024\\-06\\-16}}) to detect the height of the printbed at different locations, and then adjust for it when printing (\"auto\\-leveling\").{{cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-05\\-30\\|title\\=Inductive Sensor (3D Printer): All You Need to Know\\|url\\=https://all3dp.com/2/inductive\\-sensor\\-3d\\-printer\\-ender\\-3\\-inductive\\-sensor/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-05\\|website\\=All3DP\\|language\\=en}}\n* PINDA V1 \\- A non\\-contact inductive sensor used on MK2/S and MINI.\n* PINDA V2 \\- A thermally compensated inductive sensor used on MK2\\.5, MK2\\.5S, MK3, and MK3S.\n* SuperPINDA \\- A thermally insensitive sensor used with MK2\\.5/S, and MK3/S/\\+.[PINDA/SuperPINDA Sensor testing](https://help.prusa3d.com/en/article/P-I-N-D-A-SENSOR-TESTING_2091/) January 2022\n* Load cell sensor \\- A contact sensor used on the MK4\\.",
"The PINDA series requires an electronic Z\\-height adjustment that may vary for different heat bed surfaces or different nozzles. The load cell sensor automatically compensates for variations in nozzle size, and thickness and expansion of the heated bed surface, eliminating stored settings for the purpose.",
"### Frames",
"The distinguishing feature of the i3 from its predecessors is the vertical frame, which can take many forms. These include single sheet frames cut from steel or acrylic, box frames from [plywood](/wiki/Plywood \"Plywood\") or [medium\\-density fibreboard](/wiki/Medium-density_fibreboard \"Medium-density fibreboard\"), and [Lego](/wiki/Lego \"Lego\").{{cite web\\|last\\=O'Neal\\|first\\=Bridget\\|date\\=2016\\-06\\-06\\|title\\=Portugal's Reprapalgarve Team Shows Us How to Make a Steel Framed Color 3D Printer for Around $600\\|url\\=https://3dprint.com/137348/reprapalgarve\\-color\\-3d\\-printer/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-06\\|website\\=3DPrint.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|last\\=O'Neal\\|first\\=Bridget\\|date\\=2014\\-12\\-18\\|title\\=RepRap iTopie Emerges as Improvement on Prusa i3\\|url\\=https://3dprint.com/31942/reprap\\-itopie\\-improves\\-prusai3/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-16\\|website\\=3DPrint.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Sweatman\\|first\\=Will\\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-08\\|title\\=Lego Printer Prints Lego\\|url\\=https://hackaday.com/2015/06/08/lego\\-printer\\-prints\\-lego/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-16\\|website\\=Hackaday}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Buren\\|first\\=Alec\\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-03\\|title\\=Build your very own Prusa l3 LEGO 3D printer using (almost) nothing but LEGO bricks\\|url\\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20150603\\-build\\-your\\-very\\-own\\-prusa\\-l3\\-3d\\-printer\\-using\\-almost\\-nothing\\-but\\-lego\\-bricks.html\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-16\\|website\\=3ders.org\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Inexpensive [aluminum extrusion](/wiki/Aluminium_extrusion \"Aluminium extrusion\") is commonly used, both by printer enthusiasts and by manufacturers of \"clone\" i3 printers.{{cite web\\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-18\\|title\\=Creality CR\\-10 S5 Review\\|url\\=https://makerhacks.com/creality\\-cr\\-10\\-s5\\-review/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12\\|website\\=Maker Hacks\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-24\\|title\\=Prusa Bear (Full) Upgrade – Is It Worth it?\\|url\\=https://all3dp.com/2/prusa\\-bear\\-upgrade\\-buyers\\-guide/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12\\|website\\=All3DP\\|language\\=en}} Some mass market i3 derivatives, such as the [Creality](/wiki/Creality \"Creality\") Ender 3, use rollers against the extruded frame itself instead of precision rods and bearings to reduce cost and complexity.\nFile:Prusa i3 with metal frame.jpg\\|A Prusa i3 with a standard metal frame.\nFile:Reprap Prusa Xi3 with acrylic frame.jpg\\|A Prusa i3 with an acrylic frame.\nFile:A box frame Prusa i3\\.png\\|A Prusa i3 with a plywood box frame.\nFile:Prusa\\-i3\\-wood\\-in\\-melamime.jpg\\|A Prusa i3 with a \\[\\[Melamine resin\\|melamine\\-resin]] \\[\\[particle board]] frame.",
"",
"### Extruders",
"Beyond the standard Prusa i3 filament extruders, others have created aftermarket extruders and enthusiast tool heads, including a [MIG welder](/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding \"Gas metal arc welding\") and a laser cutter.{{cite web\\|title\\=Dutch students build DIY metal 3D printer using Prusa i3 printer and a MIG welder\\|url\\=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20141117\\-dutch\\-students\\-build\\-diy\\-metal\\-3d\\-printer\\-using\\-prusa\\-i3\\-printer\\-and\\-a\\-mig\\-welder.html\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-19\\|website\\=3ders.org\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-17\\|title\\=Students Combine Prusa i3 Printer with a MIG Welder to Create an Affordable Metal 3D Printer\\|url\\=https://3dprint.com/23868/cheap\\-metal\\-3d\\-printer\\-welder/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-19\\|website\\=3DPrint.com\\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web\\|title\\=DIY 3D Printing: Laser cutting with Prusa Mendel i2\\|url\\=http://diy3dprinting.blogspot.co.uk/2013/07/laser\\-cutting\\-with\\-prusa\\-mendel\\-i2\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-19\\|website\\=diy3dprinting.blogspot.co.uk\\|date\\=August 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=July 19, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719190900/http://diy3dprinting.blogspot.co.uk/2013/07/laser\\-cutting\\-with\\-prusa\\-mendel\\-i2\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Prusa offered a collection of functional cooking tools and programs under the name \"MK3 Master Chef Upgrade\" as an [April Fools' Day](/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day \"April Fools' Day\") gag in 2018\\.{{cite web\\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-01\\|title\\=New upgrade for the Original Prusa i3 MK3 is here to change your life\\|url\\=https://blog.prusaprinters.org/new\\-upgrade\\-for\\-original\\-prusa\\-i3\\-mk3\\-is\\-here\\_7955/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12\\|website\\=Prusa Printers\\|language\\=en\\-US}}\nFile:3D Printed RFB cell frame printed on Prusa i3\\.jpg\\|A partially printed single\\-colour object showing the infill created to increase rigidity and reduce the amount of plastic used.\nFile:3DBenchy created using color mixing on an FDM printer.jpg\\|A \\[\\[3DBenchy]] created on a Prusa i3 using a color\\-mixing hot end.",
"",
""
] |
Construction
------------
Gas supply is carried in a 5l 200bar aluminium cylinder mounted horizontally at the bottom of the unit with the valve to the diver's left. The reserve valve and bypass valve are also on the left.
The fairing case holding the components is clipped to the tubular harness frame and can be released by pulling a knob on the lower right.
The scrubber is a radial flow cylindrical design, with inward flow. It carries a 2\.5 kg charge of absorbent.
The counterlung is a wedge shaped bellows, hinged on the lower edge, and the angle between the top and bottom covers is proportional to the internal volume. The change in top plate angle, as the diver breathes, controls the gas addition mechanism.
The top plate of the bellows is ballasted, so that the lifting force of the air inside is balanced by the weights: when the diver is trimmed horizontally, face down, the weights create a slight positive pressure relative to ambient. This compensates for the depth difference between the counterlung and the diver's lungs, reducing the effort required to breathe. When the diver is upright the effect of the weights is cancelled as the weight is carried by the hinge, and when the diver is horizontal, face up, the weight causes a slight negative pressure in the bellows, which compensates for the increased hydrostatic pressure on the counterlung compared with the lungs.
The dump valve for the loop and also functions as a drain for water. The counterlung is in the exhalation side of the loop. Water from condensate and leakage is trapped in the bellows before it can reach the scrubber, and can be discharged through the exhaust valve for the loop, which is mounted on the lower plate of the bellows.
Volume of the bellows is about 4\.5 litres, and total loop volume is about 7 litres.
Gas circulation: Exhalation hose to the right, inhalation from the left.
Approved operating depth range is from 0 to 57m. Nitrox 28% is used for depths below about 30m. and 46% for shallower depths.
Dimensions
Mass approximately 33kg
|
[
"Construction\n------------",
"Gas supply is carried in a 5l 200bar aluminium cylinder mounted horizontally at the bottom of the unit with the valve to the diver's left. The reserve valve and bypass valve are also on the left.",
"The fairing case holding the components is clipped to the tubular harness frame and can be released by pulling a knob on the lower right.",
"The scrubber is a radial flow cylindrical design, with inward flow. It carries a 2\\.5 kg charge of absorbent.",
"The counterlung is a wedge shaped bellows, hinged on the lower edge, and the angle between the top and bottom covers is proportional to the internal volume. The change in top plate angle, as the diver breathes, controls the gas addition mechanism.",
"The top plate of the bellows is ballasted, so that the lifting force of the air inside is balanced by the weights: when the diver is trimmed horizontally, face down, the weights create a slight positive pressure relative to ambient. This compensates for the depth difference between the counterlung and the diver's lungs, reducing the effort required to breathe. When the diver is upright the effect of the weights is cancelled as the weight is carried by the hinge, and when the diver is horizontal, face up, the weight causes a slight negative pressure in the bellows, which compensates for the increased hydrostatic pressure on the counterlung compared with the lungs.",
"The dump valve for the loop and also functions as a drain for water. The counterlung is in the exhalation side of the loop. Water from condensate and leakage is trapped in the bellows before it can reach the scrubber, and can be discharged through the exhaust valve for the loop, which is mounted on the lower plate of the bellows.",
"Volume of the bellows is about 4\\.5 litres, and total loop volume is about 7 litres.",
"Gas circulation: Exhalation hose to the right, inhalation from the left.",
"Approved operating depth range is from 0 to 57m. Nitrox 28% is used for depths below about 30m. and 46% for shallower depths.",
"Dimensions\nMass approximately 33kg"
] |
Operating principle
-------------------
The DCSC is an active addition semi\-closed circuit rebreather, but has more in common with the passive addition systems, in that the amount of feed gas supplied is a function of the breathing rate of the diver. Unlike most passive addition rebreathers, the gas feed mass flow rate is independent of depth, and unlike most active addition systems, it is not constant mass flow.
### Demand controlled semi\-closed circuit
The Interspiro DCSC is the only rebreather using this gas mixture control principle that has been marketed.
The principle of operation is to add a mass of oxygen that is proportional to the volume of each breath. This approach is based on the assumption that the volumetric breathing rate of a diver is directly proportional to metabolic oxygen consumption, which experimental evidence indicates is close enough to work.
The fresh gas addition is made by controlling the pressure in a dosage chamber proportional to the counterlung bellows volume. The dosage chamber is filled with fresh gas to a pressure proportional to bellows volume, with the highest pressure when the bellows is in the empty position. When the bellows fills during exhalation, the gas is released from the dosage chamber into the breathing circuit, proportional to the volume in the bellows during exhalation, and is fully released when the bellows is full. Excess gas is dumped to the environment through the overpressure valve after the bellows is full.
The result is the addition of a mass of gas proportional to ventilation volume.
The volume of the dosage chamber is matched to a specific supply gas mixture, and is changed when the gas is changed. The DCSC uses two standard mixtures of nitrox: 28% and 46%, and has two corresponding dosage chambers.
The DCSC controls the feed gas pressure in the dosage chamber by changes of bellows angle, which is proportional to the change in volume in the loop. A mechanical linkage connects the bellows cover plate to an oscillating cam which controls loading of the diaphragm spring. The spring force controls a diaphragm in the dosage regulator which actuates the inlet and outlet valves.
Exhalation will increase of bellows angle and will increase loading on the control spring, pushing the dosage inlet valve open and allowing gas to flow into the dosage chamber until the increased pressure lifts the diaphragm and closes the valve again.
Inhalation will decrease the bellows angle, which reduces the spring loading, and the internal pressure in the dosage chamber will lift the diaphragm against the spring, opening the dosage outlet valve and allowing the gas to flow into the breathing circuit until the pressure in the dosage chamber is matched by the spring force, and the diaphragm is pushed back against the outlet valve to close it.
The feed gas is supplied by a depth compensated first stage regulator which takes gas from the cylinder and reduces the pressure to 3 bar above ambient pressure.
A linkage connected to the bellows rotates a cam against the control spring in the dosage regulator, to adjust the spring force on the dosage regulator diaphragm.
### Alarms and warnings
If the gas supply to the dosage mechanism were to fail without warning, the gas addition would stop and the diver would use up the oxygen in the loop gas until it became hypoxic and the diver lost consciousness. To prevent this, there is a controllable flow restriction in the inhalation side of the loop, which is operated by pressure from the supply gas in the dosage mechanism. This is open when there is suitable operating pressure in the dosage mechanism, but if this falls, the flow warning system imposes a restriction to the inhalation gas flow, similar to the effect of a low supply pressure on an open circuit demand valve, which warns the diver that there is a feed gas supply failure. The diver can then activate the reserve mechanism on the cylinder valve, which allows the last 25 bar from the cylinder to be used, which will de\-activate the warning restriction. If the gas supply remains inadequate, the diver must take other action, such as bailing out to an independent open circuit gas supply.
|
[
"Operating principle\n-------------------",
"The DCSC is an active addition semi\\-closed circuit rebreather, but has more in common with the passive addition systems, in that the amount of feed gas supplied is a function of the breathing rate of the diver. Unlike most passive addition rebreathers, the gas feed mass flow rate is independent of depth, and unlike most active addition systems, it is not constant mass flow.",
"### Demand controlled semi\\-closed circuit",
"The Interspiro DCSC is the only rebreather using this gas mixture control principle that has been marketed. \nThe principle of operation is to add a mass of oxygen that is proportional to the volume of each breath. This approach is based on the assumption that the volumetric breathing rate of a diver is directly proportional to metabolic oxygen consumption, which experimental evidence indicates is close enough to work.\nThe fresh gas addition is made by controlling the pressure in a dosage chamber proportional to the counterlung bellows volume. The dosage chamber is filled with fresh gas to a pressure proportional to bellows volume, with the highest pressure when the bellows is in the empty position. When the bellows fills during exhalation, the gas is released from the dosage chamber into the breathing circuit, proportional to the volume in the bellows during exhalation, and is fully released when the bellows is full. Excess gas is dumped to the environment through the overpressure valve after the bellows is full.",
"The result is the addition of a mass of gas proportional to ventilation volume.",
"The volume of the dosage chamber is matched to a specific supply gas mixture, and is changed when the gas is changed. The DCSC uses two standard mixtures of nitrox: 28% and 46%, and has two corresponding dosage chambers.",
"The DCSC controls the feed gas pressure in the dosage chamber by changes of bellows angle, which is proportional to the change in volume in the loop. A mechanical linkage connects the bellows cover plate to an oscillating cam which controls loading of the diaphragm spring. The spring force controls a diaphragm in the dosage regulator which actuates the inlet and outlet valves.",
"Exhalation will increase of bellows angle and will increase loading on the control spring, pushing the dosage inlet valve open and allowing gas to flow into the dosage chamber until the increased pressure lifts the diaphragm and closes the valve again.",
"Inhalation will decrease the bellows angle, which reduces the spring loading, and the internal pressure in the dosage chamber will lift the diaphragm against the spring, opening the dosage outlet valve and allowing the gas to flow into the breathing circuit until the pressure in the dosage chamber is matched by the spring force, and the diaphragm is pushed back against the outlet valve to close it.",
"The feed gas is supplied by a depth compensated first stage regulator which takes gas from the cylinder and reduces the pressure to 3 bar above ambient pressure.\nA linkage connected to the bellows rotates a cam against the control spring in the dosage regulator, to adjust the spring force on the dosage regulator diaphragm.",
"### Alarms and warnings",
"If the gas supply to the dosage mechanism were to fail without warning, the gas addition would stop and the diver would use up the oxygen in the loop gas until it became hypoxic and the diver lost consciousness. To prevent this, there is a controllable flow restriction in the inhalation side of the loop, which is operated by pressure from the supply gas in the dosage mechanism. This is open when there is suitable operating pressure in the dosage mechanism, but if this falls, the flow warning system imposes a restriction to the inhalation gas flow, similar to the effect of a low supply pressure on an open circuit demand valve, which warns the diver that there is a feed gas supply failure. The diver can then activate the reserve mechanism on the cylinder valve, which allows the last 25 bar from the cylinder to be used, which will de\\-activate the warning restriction. If the gas supply remains inadequate, the diver must take other action, such as bailing out to an independent open circuit gas supply.",
""
] |
### Demand controlled semi\-closed circuit
The Interspiro DCSC is the only rebreather using this gas mixture control principle that has been marketed.
The principle of operation is to add a mass of oxygen that is proportional to the volume of each breath. This approach is based on the assumption that the volumetric breathing rate of a diver is directly proportional to metabolic oxygen consumption, which experimental evidence indicates is close enough to work.
The fresh gas addition is made by controlling the pressure in a dosage chamber proportional to the counterlung bellows volume. The dosage chamber is filled with fresh gas to a pressure proportional to bellows volume, with the highest pressure when the bellows is in the empty position. When the bellows fills during exhalation, the gas is released from the dosage chamber into the breathing circuit, proportional to the volume in the bellows during exhalation, and is fully released when the bellows is full. Excess gas is dumped to the environment through the overpressure valve after the bellows is full.
The result is the addition of a mass of gas proportional to ventilation volume.
The volume of the dosage chamber is matched to a specific supply gas mixture, and is changed when the gas is changed. The DCSC uses two standard mixtures of nitrox: 28% and 46%, and has two corresponding dosage chambers.
The DCSC controls the feed gas pressure in the dosage chamber by changes of bellows angle, which is proportional to the change in volume in the loop. A mechanical linkage connects the bellows cover plate to an oscillating cam which controls loading of the diaphragm spring. The spring force controls a diaphragm in the dosage regulator which actuates the inlet and outlet valves.
Exhalation will increase of bellows angle and will increase loading on the control spring, pushing the dosage inlet valve open and allowing gas to flow into the dosage chamber until the increased pressure lifts the diaphragm and closes the valve again.
Inhalation will decrease the bellows angle, which reduces the spring loading, and the internal pressure in the dosage chamber will lift the diaphragm against the spring, opening the dosage outlet valve and allowing the gas to flow into the breathing circuit until the pressure in the dosage chamber is matched by the spring force, and the diaphragm is pushed back against the outlet valve to close it.
The feed gas is supplied by a depth compensated first stage regulator which takes gas from the cylinder and reduces the pressure to 3 bar above ambient pressure.
A linkage connected to the bellows rotates a cam against the control spring in the dosage regulator, to adjust the spring force on the dosage regulator diaphragm.
|
[
"### Demand controlled semi\\-closed circuit",
"The Interspiro DCSC is the only rebreather using this gas mixture control principle that has been marketed. \nThe principle of operation is to add a mass of oxygen that is proportional to the volume of each breath. This approach is based on the assumption that the volumetric breathing rate of a diver is directly proportional to metabolic oxygen consumption, which experimental evidence indicates is close enough to work.\nThe fresh gas addition is made by controlling the pressure in a dosage chamber proportional to the counterlung bellows volume. The dosage chamber is filled with fresh gas to a pressure proportional to bellows volume, with the highest pressure when the bellows is in the empty position. When the bellows fills during exhalation, the gas is released from the dosage chamber into the breathing circuit, proportional to the volume in the bellows during exhalation, and is fully released when the bellows is full. Excess gas is dumped to the environment through the overpressure valve after the bellows is full.",
"The result is the addition of a mass of gas proportional to ventilation volume.",
"The volume of the dosage chamber is matched to a specific supply gas mixture, and is changed when the gas is changed. The DCSC uses two standard mixtures of nitrox: 28% and 46%, and has two corresponding dosage chambers.",
"The DCSC controls the feed gas pressure in the dosage chamber by changes of bellows angle, which is proportional to the change in volume in the loop. A mechanical linkage connects the bellows cover plate to an oscillating cam which controls loading of the diaphragm spring. The spring force controls a diaphragm in the dosage regulator which actuates the inlet and outlet valves.",
"Exhalation will increase of bellows angle and will increase loading on the control spring, pushing the dosage inlet valve open and allowing gas to flow into the dosage chamber until the increased pressure lifts the diaphragm and closes the valve again.",
"Inhalation will decrease the bellows angle, which reduces the spring loading, and the internal pressure in the dosage chamber will lift the diaphragm against the spring, opening the dosage outlet valve and allowing the gas to flow into the breathing circuit until the pressure in the dosage chamber is matched by the spring force, and the diaphragm is pushed back against the outlet valve to close it.",
"The feed gas is supplied by a depth compensated first stage regulator which takes gas from the cylinder and reduces the pressure to 3 bar above ambient pressure.\nA linkage connected to the bellows rotates a cam against the control spring in the dosage regulator, to adjust the spring force on the dosage regulator diaphragm.",
""
] |
Oxygen partial pressure in the breathing loop
---------------------------------------------
The gas calculation differs from other semi\-closed circuit rebreathers.
A diver with a constant workload during aerobic working conditions will use an approximately constant amount of oxygen V\_{O\_2} as a fraction of the respiratory minute volume V\_{RM}. This ratio of minute ventilation and oxygen uptake is the extraction ratio K\_E, and usually falls in the range of 17 to 25 with a normal value of about 20 for healthy humans. Values as low as 10 and as high as 30 have been measured. Variations may be caused by the diet of the diver and the dead space of the diver and equipment, raised levels of carbon dioxide, or raised work of breathing and tolerance to carbon dioxide.
K\_E\=\\frac{V\_{RM}}{V\_{O\_2}} (approximately 20\)
Therefore, the respiratory minute volume may be expressed as a function of the extraction ratio and oxygen uptake:
V\_{RM}\=K\_E\*V\_{O\_2}
The volume of gas in the breathing circuit can be described as approximately constant, and the fresh gas addition must balance the sum of the dumped volume, the metabolically removed oxygen, and the volume change due to depth change. (metabolic carbon dioxide added to the mixture is removed by the scrubber and therefore does not affect the equation)
Oxygen partial pressure in the DCSC is controlled by the flow rate of feed gas through the dosage regulator and the oxygen consumption of the diver. Dump rate is equal to feed rate minus oxygen consumption for this case.
The change in the fraction of oxygen dF\_{O\_2loop} in the breathing circuit may be described by the following equation:
V\_{loop}\*dF\_{O\_2loop}\=(Q\_{feed}\*F\_{O\_2feed}\-V\_{O\_2}\-(Q\_{feed}\-V\_{O\_2})\*F\_{O\_2loop})dt
Where:
V\_{loop} \= volume of the breathing circuit
Q\_{feed} \= flow rate of the fresh gas supplied by the orifice
F\_{O\_2feed} \= oxygen fraction of the supply gas
V\_{O\_2} \= oxygen uptake flow rate of the diver
This leads to the differential equation:
\\frac{dF\_{O\_2loop}}{dt}\=\\frac{(Q\_{feed}\*F\_{O\_2feed}\-V\_{O\_2}(t)\-(Q\_{feed}\-V\_{O\_2})\*F\_{O\_2loop}(t))}{V\_{loop}}
With solution:
F\_{O\_2loop}(t)\=\\frac{Q\_{feed}\*F\_{O\_2feed}\-V\_{O\_2}}{Q\_{feed}\-V\_{O\_2}}\+(F\_{O\_2loop}^{start}\-\\frac{Q\_{feed}\*F\_{O\_2feed}\-V\_{O\_2}}{Q\_{feed}\-V\_{O\_2}})\*e^{\-\\frac{Q\_{feed}\-V\_{O\_2}}{V\_{loop}}t}
Which comprises a steady state and a transient term.
The steady state term is sufficient for most calculations:
The steady state oxygen fraction in the breathing circuit, F\_{O\_2loop}, can be calculated from the formula:Larsson, A. (2000\) *Åke’s Constant Mass Flow Rebreather Technical Page* <http://www.teknosofen.com/cmf_scr_tech.htm> Access date 2 May 2013
F\_{O\_2loop}\=\\frac{(Q\_{feed}\*F\_{O\_2feed}\-V\_{O\_2})}{(Q\_{feed}\-V\_{O\_2})}
Where:
Q\_{feed} \= Flow rate of fresh gas supplied by the orifice
V\_{O\_2} \= Oxygen uptake flow rate of the diver
F\_{O\_2feed} \= Oxygen fraction of the supply gas
in a consistent system of units.
As oxygen consumption is an independent variable, a fixed feed rate will give a range of possible oxygen fractions for any given depth. In the interests of safety, the range can be determined by calculating oxygen fraction for maximum and minimum oxygen consumption as well as the expected rate.
Feed gas flow is a function of respiratory minute volume at surface pressure and the dosage ratio based on the dosage chamber volume. The values for dosage ratio are 60% for the large chamber and 30% for the small chamber.
Q\_{feed}\=K\_{dosage}\*V\_{RM}
Substitution of the first equation into this yields:
Q\_{feed}\=K\_{dosage}\*K\_E\*V\_{O\_2}
This may be substituted into the steady state term to give:
F\_{O\_2loop}\=\\frac{(K\_{dosage}\*K\_E\*V\_{O\_2}\*F\_{O\_2feed}\-V\_{O\_2})}{(K\_{dosage}\*K\_E\*V\_{O\_2}\-V\_{O\_2})}
Which simplifies to:
F\_{O\_2loop}\=\\frac{(K\_{dosage}\*K\_E\*F\_{O\_2feed}\-1\)}{(K\_{dosage}\*K\_E\*\-1\)}
This shows that there is no dependency depth or on oxygen uptake, and since the dosage ratio is constant once the gas has been selected, it is clear that the variations remaining are due to variations in the extraction ratio. This means that the DCSC has theoretically the most stable oxygen fraction of the semi\-closed rebreathers and is a reasonable approximation of open circuit for decompression purposes. The unit has been used by the Swedish armed forces for over 15 years with a good safety record. However a large decompression stress when using air tables for decompression on dives using a 28% nitrox supply gas has been indicated by the presence of high venous gas emboli (VGE) scores post\-dive. Oxygen fraction in the loop was not monitored during these tests.
|
[
"Oxygen partial pressure in the breathing loop\n---------------------------------------------",
"The gas calculation differs from other semi\\-closed circuit rebreathers.\nA diver with a constant workload during aerobic working conditions will use an approximately constant amount of oxygen V\\_{O\\_2} as a fraction of the respiratory minute volume V\\_{RM}. This ratio of minute ventilation and oxygen uptake is the extraction ratio K\\_E, and usually falls in the range of 17 to 25 with a normal value of about 20 for healthy humans. Values as low as 10 and as high as 30 have been measured. Variations may be caused by the diet of the diver and the dead space of the diver and equipment, raised levels of carbon dioxide, or raised work of breathing and tolerance to carbon dioxide.",
"K\\_E\\=\\\\frac{V\\_{RM}}{V\\_{O\\_2}} (approximately 20\\)\nTherefore, the respiratory minute volume may be expressed as a function of the extraction ratio and oxygen uptake:",
"V\\_{RM}\\=K\\_E\\*V\\_{O\\_2}\nThe volume of gas in the breathing circuit can be described as approximately constant, and the fresh gas addition must balance the sum of the dumped volume, the metabolically removed oxygen, and the volume change due to depth change. (metabolic carbon dioxide added to the mixture is removed by the scrubber and therefore does not affect the equation)",
"Oxygen partial pressure in the DCSC is controlled by the flow rate of feed gas through the dosage regulator and the oxygen consumption of the diver. Dump rate is equal to feed rate minus oxygen consumption for this case.",
"The change in the fraction of oxygen dF\\_{O\\_2loop} in the breathing circuit may be described by the following equation:",
"V\\_{loop}\\*dF\\_{O\\_2loop}\\=(Q\\_{feed}\\*F\\_{O\\_2feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2}\\-(Q\\_{feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2})\\*F\\_{O\\_2loop})dt\nWhere:\nV\\_{loop} \\= volume of the breathing circuit\nQ\\_{feed} \\= flow rate of the fresh gas supplied by the orifice\nF\\_{O\\_2feed} \\= oxygen fraction of the supply gas\nV\\_{O\\_2} \\= oxygen uptake flow rate of the diver",
"This leads to the differential equation:",
"\\\\frac{dF\\_{O\\_2loop}}{dt}\\=\\\\frac{(Q\\_{feed}\\*F\\_{O\\_2feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2}(t)\\-(Q\\_{feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2})\\*F\\_{O\\_2loop}(t))}{V\\_{loop}}\nWith solution:",
"F\\_{O\\_2loop}(t)\\=\\\\frac{Q\\_{feed}\\*F\\_{O\\_2feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2}}{Q\\_{feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2}}\\+(F\\_{O\\_2loop}^{start}\\-\\\\frac{Q\\_{feed}\\*F\\_{O\\_2feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2}}{Q\\_{feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2}})\\*e^{\\-\\\\frac{Q\\_{feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2}}{V\\_{loop}}t}\nWhich comprises a steady state and a transient term.",
"The steady state term is sufficient for most calculations:",
"The steady state oxygen fraction in the breathing circuit, F\\_{O\\_2loop}, can be calculated from the formula:Larsson, A. (2000\\) *Åke’s Constant Mass Flow Rebreather Technical Page* <http://www.teknosofen.com/cmf_scr_tech.htm> Access date 2 May 2013",
"F\\_{O\\_2loop}\\=\\\\frac{(Q\\_{feed}\\*F\\_{O\\_2feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2})}{(Q\\_{feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2})}\nWhere:\nQ\\_{feed} \\= Flow rate of fresh gas supplied by the orifice\nV\\_{O\\_2} \\= Oxygen uptake flow rate of the diver \nF\\_{O\\_2feed} \\= Oxygen fraction of the supply gas\nin a consistent system of units.",
"As oxygen consumption is an independent variable, a fixed feed rate will give a range of possible oxygen fractions for any given depth. In the interests of safety, the range can be determined by calculating oxygen fraction for maximum and minimum oxygen consumption as well as the expected rate.",
"Feed gas flow is a function of respiratory minute volume at surface pressure and the dosage ratio based on the dosage chamber volume. The values for dosage ratio are 60% for the large chamber and 30% for the small chamber.",
"Q\\_{feed}\\=K\\_{dosage}\\*V\\_{RM}\nSubstitution of the first equation into this yields:",
"Q\\_{feed}\\=K\\_{dosage}\\*K\\_E\\*V\\_{O\\_2}\nThis may be substituted into the steady state term to give:",
"F\\_{O\\_2loop}\\=\\\\frac{(K\\_{dosage}\\*K\\_E\\*V\\_{O\\_2}\\*F\\_{O\\_2feed}\\-V\\_{O\\_2})}{(K\\_{dosage}\\*K\\_E\\*V\\_{O\\_2}\\-V\\_{O\\_2})}\nWhich simplifies to:",
"F\\_{O\\_2loop}\\=\\\\frac{(K\\_{dosage}\\*K\\_E\\*F\\_{O\\_2feed}\\-1\\)}{(K\\_{dosage}\\*K\\_E\\*\\-1\\)}\nThis shows that there is no dependency depth or on oxygen uptake, and since the dosage ratio is constant once the gas has been selected, it is clear that the variations remaining are due to variations in the extraction ratio. This means that the DCSC has theoretically the most stable oxygen fraction of the semi\\-closed rebreathers and is a reasonable approximation of open circuit for decompression purposes. The unit has been used by the Swedish armed forces for over 15 years with a good safety record. However a large decompression stress when using air tables for decompression on dives using a 28% nitrox supply gas has been indicated by the presence of high venous gas emboli (VGE) scores post\\-dive. Oxygen fraction in the loop was not monitored during these tests.",
""
] |
Storylines
----------
Seven\-year\-old Phillip Spaulding's world would change forever in 1977 when his mother befriended Jackie Marler; only he wouldn't know it yet. The son of wealthy [Alan Spaulding](/wiki/Alan_Spaulding "Alan Spaulding") and Elizabeth Granville, Phillip had his every wish catered to and was exceptionally close to his mother. While his parents were going through a nasty divorce in 1978, Phillip was having chest pains and started receiving treatment from Dr. Justin Marler, Jackie's ex\-husband. Phillip bonded with Justin and after his parents divorced, he encouraged his mother to marry Justin in 1979\. At about the same time, Alan married Jackie. Phillip was content to have Justin and Jackie as stepparents and became close to both. However, in 1980, Justin and Jackie would divorce their prospective spouses and find love again with each other. In 1981, Elizabeth would unexpectedly leave Springfield for Switzerland and left Phillip in the care of the Marlers. Though confused as to why his mother left and why he was living with his "Aunt Jackie" and "Uncle Justin" instead of his father, Alan, Phillip accepted the situation and soon left Springfield to attend Lincoln Prep School. Late that year, while Phillip was on Christmas break from Lincoln Prep, he finally apologized to Mike Bauer about his treatment of Mike during the time Mike and Elizabeth were lovers.
Thrown out of Lincoln Prep School at 17 ([SORAS](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Rapid_Aging_Syndrome "Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome")), Phillip returned to Springfield in 1982 to attend Springfield High. He and Freddie \[later calling himself Rick] Bauer became best friends when Phillip covered for Freddie after Freddie, who was driving with Phillip in his car, was pulled over for speeding and didn't have his driver's license. By this time, Jackie had died in a plane crash and Justin was seeing an Italian woman named Helena Manzini, a relationship Phillip disapproved of because he felt it was too soon after Jackie's death. Meanwhile, Phillip was hanging out with a rough crowd. When Phillip and Freddie were nearly involved in an accident, they realized perhaps the crowd they were hanging out with really weren't their friends and they stopped associating with them. Not long afterwards, Phillip met his first love, Melinda "Mindy" Sue Lewis, who in 1983, out of insecurity, staged a rather dramatic accident while riding her horse and was consequently hospitalized. During his visits to Mindy in the hospital, he developed a strong attraction to her roommate, [Beth Raines](/wiki/Beth_Raines "Beth Raines").
Both Phillip and Rick were attracted to Beth, but Phillip backed off and continued to endure Mindy's spoiled behavior in deference to Rick's attraction to Beth. At the senior prom Rick and Beth went together, as did Mindy and Phillip but it was Phillip and Beth who were named King and Queen. Finally on the night of Mindy's 18th birthday party at the Country Club, Phillip and Beth finally confessed their true feelings for each other in the stables. However, Beth's stepfather Bradley found them and shocked Phillip by telling him the truth about his parentage: Alan and Elizabeth weren't his real parents; the Marlers were. Apparently, Alan felt his wife was too fragile to handle the fact their baby was stillborn and he bought the child Jackie was giving up. After Phillip learned the truth, he was not only furious at Justin and Alan, but also at Mindy and Rick, who both knew the truth before he did and didn't tell him. Angry and hurt, Phillip told Rick he was in love with Beth. Though he had initially rejected both his fathers, Phillip, upon learning Justin was flying out of town, tracked him down at the airport and not only forgave him for keeping his parentage a secret, but also gave his blessing for Justin and Helena to marry.[GL's Phillip Spaulding Timeline \| Soap Opera Digest](http://www.soapoperadigest.com/content/gls-phillip-spaulding-timeline-0)
It was at this point Beth was raped by Bradley. Ashamed of what happened, she told no one and rejected Phillip. Phillip turned to Mindy for comfort and she seduced him without using birth control. Alan was also relieved to see Phillip and Beth growing apart since as far as he was concerned Beth was from a lower class and didn't deserve his son. Beth soon moved into the boarding house to try to get away from Bradley, but he got a court order and forced her to return home. When Beth returned home, Phillip was waiting, and they jumped out of a window and ran away to New York. After they had been running for a while they found themselves near Central Park and nearly out of money, Beth was working on some artistic sketches when both came upon a sidewalk Santa Claus (who preferred to be called Nick) who asked if they needed help. Though Phillip rudely tried to decline, Beth told the man they were nearly broke and had nowhere to stay and perhaps could not afford a hotel. Nick being the Good Samaritan he was, took pity on the young teenage couple and urged them to follow him through Central Park. Nick had led them to a place where he had led many people who were lost and homeless or poor or down on their luck. Nick turned them over to the others staying there and asked them to watch over Beth and Phillip. Eventually with Nick (Santa's) help, Beth told Phillip about the rape. Phillip promised to protect her and they pledged to never let anything come between them again. Meanwhile, Mindy and Rick had raced to New York to find the pair and the four friends took odd jobs in order to survive and they enjoyed the sights and sounds of New York. Eventually, in January 1984, Bradley tracked them down and in order to evade him they dressed up as clowns and engaged in a mime act in the park. Bradley saw through their disguise and got in a violent struggle with Phillip in Central Park that ended when Bradley almost fell off a cliff. Beth and Phillip saved him though and warned him to back off. With Bradley apparently no longer a threat, Phillip and Beth returned to Springfield.
Back in Springfield, Alan hired Bradley with the intent of transferring him out of town in order to separate Phillip and Beth. Meanwhile, Phillip's Aunt Alex discovered Alan's schemes and revealed it to Phillip. Alex had become extremely protective of Phillip and Beth and when she found out about the rape, she made sure Bradley was arrested. At this time, Beth began to tutor Lujack, the leader of a street gang named the Galahads. Beth hoped this would help Lujack separate himself from his gang. But Darcy, Lujack's jealous girlfriend, had other ideas. Phillip was jealous but he and Beth still planned to marry. At the same time, Mindy was pregnant and told everyone Rick was the father. Then the day of Beth's wedding, Mindy's father, Billy, went to the church where Beth and Phillip were about to be married and confronted Mindy. He wanted to know if it was true the father of her baby was really Phillip. Beth overheard everything and at the altar she slapped Phillip and called off the wedding. Phillip wanted to be part of the baby's life. Mindy agreed but only if Phillip married her. Phillip married Mindy and they spent their honeymoon at Cross Creek. However, the pair divorced after Mindy miscarried.
Once again, Phillip focused his attention on Beth, who by now was in love with Lujack. Feeling very rejected and angry, Phillip then discovered Lujack and Floyd Parker were turning the Galahads old garage into a night club. Phillip hired a crooked tradesman named Andy Ferris to sabotage the construction of the club but Andy went too far, and when the building blew up Beth was injured and blinded. Phillip felt very guilty but he could not bring himself to admit his wrongdoing so he enrolled Beth in a school for the blind. However, India von Halkein learned of the nightclub incident and threatened to tell Beth, thereby blackmailing her way into becoming his second wife. Phillip complied with India's demand but refused to consummate the union. However, when India started to notice Phillip and Beth renewing their friendship, she told Beth how Phillip had caused her blindness. Beth angrily rejected Phillip, but didn't tell Lujack the reason because she did not want to cause any more bad blood between them. At Lujack and Beth's engagement party in February 1985, Phillip, having grown to appreciate India's tenacity and wanting to gain control of Spaulding, announced India was pregnant (untrue, Phillip lied). Meanwhile, Lujack brought Andy to the party to play the blackmail tape and expose Phillip as the one who caused the accident. A scuffle over the tape occurred and Andy was shot and killed, and the tape was stolen. A lengthy murder mystery ensued with Lujack being erroneously convicted. By this time Phillip and India had consummated their marriage and India had faked a pregnancy test to make Phillip believe she was actually pregnant with his child. With the demands of the trial out of the way and Alex more determined than ever to run her out of town, India was more desperate than ever to cement her bond with Phillip. Conveniently an old family friend, Dr. Lyon, came visiting, and India employed the services of his never\-fail love potion (sort of a gypsy version of Viagra). India began to mega\-dose Phillip with the potion in hopes of making their previous baby announcement come true. But before India's desires came true, Phillip became ill from the potion and India was exposed for drugging Phillip. Eventually Beth convinced Phillip to come clean about his deal with Andy and they became friends again. Ironically the police didn't believe Phillip's story but by now plenty of people shared the suspicion India had murdered Andy. In the end, the real culprit turned out to be Floyd, who was holding India in a cabin where he forced her to sign a [false confession](/wiki/False_confession "False confession"). Luckily, Lujack and Beth eventually tracked them down and Floyd went to jail. Feeling a great deal of compassion for India, Phillip discovered they really did have a lot in common and agreed to remain married.
Still jealous of Phillip's relationship with Beth and mistakenly believing that Phillip was ready to end their marriage, India began an affair with Simon Hall and when Phillip caught them kissing in early 1986, he quickly divorced India. After Phillip wrote a novel based on his and Beth's love, he and Beth found their way back to one another since Lujack was by now deceased. The couple's lives would be forever changed when Beth began working at a local museum for a Professor Blackburn, who had gotten his hands on the cornerstone of the Von Halkein estate in Andorra. India knew it contained gold and tried to steal it back from him. But the Professor protected the cornerstone until his death. He knocked India unconscious, shot Phillip, and held Beth hostage on a boat in Stony Lake. Some time later Blackburn's dead body turned up, Beth's shoe and some fabric from her dress were found but she was nowhere to be found. Phillip was devastated and vowed to find her, but Alan fabricated some evidence to make it look like Beth was really dead.
In 1987, Phillip had a relationship with his assistant Chelsea Reardon and they investigated the black art scene. During their investigation, Chelsea learned Alan was also involved in the black art market but only told her sister, Maureen about this since she feared bad blood between father and son. Though Alan secretly burnt down Phillip's house to stop the investigation, Phillip finally learned about it. When Chelsea and Jackson Freemont discovered Warren Andrews killed the head of the black art market, Paul Valère, Warren kidnapped them and Alan, but luckily Phillip saved them and Warren was arrested. Though Phillip was shot by Warren's hit man and left in critical condition, he survived with Rick's help. Chelsea then quit as Phillip's assistant and began to work for Alan at Spaulding while she and Phillip remained as lovers. There was just one problem. Phillip was still obsessed with the love of his life, the late Beth, and that made Chelsea frustrated. At this time, Jackson, noticing Chelsea's singing talent, became her business manager and began to vie with Phillip for her affections. When Chelsea realized they were fighting an old rivalry for Beth rather than a rivalry for her, she lost interest in both men. Phillip wrote her a letter telling her his true feelings for her, but Jackson intercepted it. When Chelsea found out about the letter, she and Phillip got back together and when Phillip forgave Chelsea for her affair with a married man in New York years ago they became engaged However, at this time Phillip was obsessed with wresting power away from Alan and sought the help of Alexandra and the Lewis's to help him. Finally, in 1988, when Chelsea (who wanted Phillip to reconcile with his father) found out about Phillip's plans to wrest control of Spaulding from Alan, she tried to warn Alan, and Phillip locked her up in the Towers. Disgusted, Chelsea bitterly broke up with Phillip.['Guiding Light': Top 10 Moments in Series History](http://www.aoltv.com/2009/09/14/guiding-light-top-10-moments-in-series-history/)
Not long after, Phillip had an affair with Rick's girlfriend, Meredith Reade after the couple had broken up. Distraught, Phillip agreed not to tell Rick about it and was genuinely relieved when the couple patched things up and got married. Later Meredith found herself pregnant and although Rick knew he wasn't the father, agreed to raise the child as his own without knowing whom the father was. Along came Blake Lindsey, Phillip's PR\-agent at Spaulding. Phillip fell in love with her but didn't know Blake was actually paid by Alan to spy on him. After Alex revealed Blake's schemes and her true identity as the daughter of presumed dead Roger Thorpe, Phillip bitterly left Blake but, later, he forgave her and the couple reconciled. Then tragedy struck in April 1989, when during the delivery of Meredith's baby, Rick was forced to choose between Meredith's life and that of the unborn child. Rick chose Meredith. Later, Rick learned from a letter from Alan that Phillip was the father. Though Phillip tried to explain it happened before the couple had married and after they had temporarily broken up, Rick still felt betrayed and it took him a long time to forgive Phillip. Prior to Phillip and Blake's wedding, a series of accidents started occurring. The trouble came to a climax at their wedding when gunfire rang out and Phillip was shot! It was then that the truth came out: Alan was behind the accidents in order to keep Blake from marrying Phillip and accidentally shot Phillip after having a struggle with a very much alive Roger. While Roger was exposed to everyone, Alan wasn't exposed immediately as the shooter. Roger was first suspected but finally convinced Ross, Phillip and Alan\-Michael of Alan's crimes so the three decided to trick Alan into walking again. While Alex was in Europe, Roger appeared into the Spaulding mansion and appeared to shoot Phillip and Alan\-Michael. Shocked, Alan stood up from his wheelchair, was exposed of all crimes and went to jail. Immediately after his arrest Alan told Phillip he'd forged Beth's death certificate: there was no proof Beth was dead.
Though Phillip tried to reassure Blake he was over Beth, he became convinced she was alive. Not long after, a man arrived in town claiming to have kidnapped Beth and demanded a $1 million ransom. Hoping it was true, Phillip paid the money only to learn he'd been lied to by Dana Jones and her lover, Bruce Daly. At this time Bradley was released from prison. Learning the plot, he confronted Dana's lover and was knocked unconscious. Though Phillip suspected Bradley of swindling him first, he later learned the truth. Though Daly was caught, he escaped, and the money (unknowingly pocketed by Roger) was never recovered. Meanwhile, Phillip was becoming obsessed with finding Beth. Unbeknownst to Phillip, Blake discovered an amnesiac and mute Beth was living with Spaulding employee Neil Everest just outside town. Fearing Phillip would leave her for Beth, when Blake learned Phillip had Beth's grave exhumed, she had him committed in the Willow Hills mental institution for his "delusions" about Beth. For Phillip, he seemed to prove Blake right when he reacted violently towards her. Both Gary Swanson and Neil were please with this development: Gary because Blake now had Phillip's power of attorney, and Neil, because the field was clear for him to marry Beth. Of course as with any plans devious, Blake's attempt to take over Phillip's life was about to hit major snags and fall apart and Neil contributed to it.
While Blake had Phillip committed for having defied a court order to exhume Beth Raines's grave, Neil decided to tell Beth about her past and accompanied her to Lillian's house. But, Beth, seeing her childhood home and remembering Bradley refused to go in and then ran away when she saw Bradley. Beth ran away to Clayton where the Willow Hills Sanitarium was and with her aphasia checked herself her into the sanitarium! Eventually, Phillip ended up seeing Beth, as did Lillian and Rick. Later, Blake tried to keep Phillip in Willow Hills, but Rick and Lillian told the court that Phillip was as sane as they were and he was released. But Blake still had his power of attorney. That was until Blake did one more really stupid thing in her plan to retain control. Phillip had the Spaulding mansion phones wired to monitor every call Blake took. Blake took a call from Neil about the upcoming marriage of him and Beth at the courthouse and Blake lied to Phillip saying the phone call was not from Neil! On Christmas Eve, Neil and Beth were about to marry, at the courthouse, with Blake in attendance, when Phillip and Rick on to Blake's plan crashed the ceremony and whisked Beth away! Although Beth tried to explain otherwise, Phillip was convinced Neil had been involved in Beth's kidnapping and fired him from Spaulding Enterprises. Phillip also found out Neil was suspected of causing the death of his wife and stepchildren in Pittsburgh, when the building they were in Neil had helped build collapsed. He also accused Neil of raping Beth! Neil's cause was not helped when WSPR\-TV talk show host, Johnny Bauer accused Neil, over the holiday season, of being the mysterious person buying up property along Fifth Street for dubious ends. Determined to prove his innocence, on January 11, 1990, Neil helped Beth relive her kidnapping at the hands of Professor Blackburn. Beth recalled killing Blackburn when he tried to attack her, and she realized her aphasia stemmed from her lack of guilt over his death. At this point, Phillip found Neil and Beth and when the men began fighting, Beth finally spoke, yelling at them to stop.
As the year continued, Neil's true past came to light when he was able to prove the collapse was due not to his design, but to the faulty materials Spaulding had purchased. Grateful to Neil for helping Beth, Phillip voted for him to be rehired. Anxious to have a future with Beth, Phillip ended his calamitous marriage to Blake. She convinced Gary to spy on Phillip and Beth for her, hoping to get evidence of Phillip's unfaithfulness. A devious Gary agreed, and then tried to score points with Phillip by telling him Blake was having an affair. Despite her extracurricular activities with both Gary and Alan\-Michael, Blake vehemently refused when Beth asked her to give Phillip an amicable divorce. Phillip asked Beth to marry him anyway. Not wanting to rush into anything, Beth said no, but their feelings ran deep and on Valentine's Day they made love. Meanwhile, one day in March, when Blake and Gary were rummaging through Neil's trailer to find a way to force Beth to stay with Neil, Beth caught them and after having a major verbal fight with Blake over Blake destroying some of her art sketches, Beth collapsed. When Gary and Blake took Beth to Cedars, they were all shocked to learn from Rick that Beth was pregnant! Beth assumed the baby was Neil's and told Phillip, who suggested they pass the child off as his. Unaware the baby really was Phillip's, Beth decided to be honest with Neil, but Blake, who stole Beth's file from the doctor's office, told Neil before Beth could.! A furious Neil refused to allow Phillip to raise his child. In April, Beth was ecstatic when Dr. Sedgwick showed her a sonogram revealing her child had been conceived in February 1990, and not in December 1989, which meant the child was Phillip's! In the meantime, trying to get back on Alan\-Michael's good side, Blake agreed to give Phillip a divorce, no strings attached. However, things were about to get very bad for Phillip. The day he was to meet Neil, Neil knocked him out and left him to die. As Neil was leaving up the stairs, a double\-crossing Gary confronted Neil and pushed down a flight of stairs into the garage. Blake showed up to see Gary and Neil fighting, and Gary convinced her Neil had to be subdued when he showed her the bomb Neil had set.
After tying up Neil, Blake saw Phillip also unconscious and was sure Gary had knocked him out. Blake then tricked Gary and was able to tie him up next to Neil. Blake called Roger who set Gary free. Meanwhile, Neil mumbled “Phillip”, leading Roger to suspect that was who hit him. Roger tried and failed to defuse the bomb and Neil died in the explosion. With the audiotape of Neil murmuring "Phillip" as the one who knocked him out, Phillip's wallet being found in the wreckage of the garage, and threats Phillip had made against Neil's life, this was all enough to get Phillip arrested for Neil's murder. Trying to avoid prosecution and find out who the real murderer was, Phillip faked his own death, stealing a corpse (with Rick's help) in order to do so. Phillip fled to the island of Capria, near Mexico, and was shocked to meet India there. He promised India his Spaulding stock if she would keep quiet about his being alive and went to Springfield to discover what happened to Beth since she didn't follow him out of town. After trying to get Phillip's assets from Alan and Alex, India finally gave up and helped Phillip. When Phillip returned to town, he was shocked to discover that Beth and Rick had married to throw the police off track. After Phillip threatened Gary whom he suspected was Neil's murderer, Gary paid a killer to kill Phillip. The plan failed and finally Det. A.C. Mallet and Roger discovered Gary was Neil's accomplice and murderer. At the same time, Phillip revealed himself alive after the birth of his daughter, Lizzie. Though innocent, Phillip, Beth and Rick were sentenced to perform community service out of town for fraud. After marrying in February 1991, Phillip and Beth moved to Arizona with Lizzie to carry out their community service.
Over the next few years, Phillip avoided any contact with the Spauldings when suddenly in April 1996, Alex called him to ask him to attend Alan\-Michael's wedding to Lucy Cooper in Orlando, Florida. Although Phillip told Alex he wouldn't come, he indeed had plans to attend the wedding to Beth's dismay. Phillip arrived early and exposed himself to only Rick and told him he had plans to find the one who had cost him five years of his life. Phillip had found out someone else was involved in the incident which left him accused of Neil's murder. Gary had asked Phillip to visit him in prison where he gave him note that he had once found in Neil's trailer, which proved Neil had been paid by an "A. Spaulding" to get Phillip's fingerprints on the bomb. Although Rick advised him to drop his investigation, Phillip refused. During the wedding ceremony, Phillip wore a mask and when Alan was about to make a toast, Phillip stopped him and unmasked himself to the shock of all of the guests. Though Amanda, Alan and Alan\-Michael weren't happy to see him, Phillip decided to return to Springfield anyway. While conducting his investigation, Phillip then visited Beth in Arizona but she left him for good since he'd refused to drop his vendetta and return home. Meanwhile, Alan\-Michael was trying to prevent Phillip's return to Spaulding and, to set him up, he pretended to make up with his brother and tried to send him to a fake business trip to California so that he could spread lies about Phillip to the board. Phillip didn't leave but arrived during a board meeting to see Alan\-Michael's actions against him. Not long after, Amanda exposed Alan\-Michael as "A. Spaulding" through a letter from Neil to him. After Phillip asked Alan to support him during his fight against Alan\-Michael Alan collapsed due to intense pain in his back and was rushed to Cedars. While recovering in his bed, he confessed to the family he was actually "A. Spaulding" and had hired Neil to set Phillip up since he had been disappointed in Phillip.
Furious, Phillip disowned Alan and later made up with Alan\-Michael and made plans to move to New York. As for Alan, he was suffering from paralysis, and giving up, refused to attend physical therapy sessions. Although Phillip arranged for him to be transferred to a rehabilitation clinic, he could not be persuaded by Alan to stay in town. However, Alan still would not admit the seriousness of his injury and refused to heed the doctor's warning he would have to relearn how to use his body. Phillip dropped by the clinic on his way out of town, where Alex tried to convince him of the seriousness of his father's injury. Though Phillip refused to visit Alan, he relented when Alex begged him to stay to see him. The doctor explained to Alan he had a long, arduous journey ahead of him. When Alex and Phillip entered his room, Alan ordered them to leave. Alex left, but Phillip stayed behind and when he saw how resistant Alan was to his physical therapy, Phillip told him how pathetic he was for giving up so easily and he still blamed him for ruining his life. Although Alan\-Michael tried to convince Phillip to just leave town and write Alan off for good, Phillip found that he couldn't and remained, staying for a while at the Bauers. Not long after, Phillip was shocked to learn Rick was the father of one of Blake's babies! Although Phillip demanded Ross be told the truth, or else he'd do it, he found he couldn't hurt Ross like that and kept quiet. Meanwhile, Phillip's anger at Alan softened as he sympathized with Alan's physical condition. Knowing Alan was giving up on himself, Phillip and Alan\-Michael concocted a plan with Roger and Amanda to make Alan think they were selling Alan's company Advantage Systems to Roger with the hope Alan would get the urge to fight Roger and thus, get the urge to walk again. Their plan was a success. Meanwhile, after Lizzie had visited Phillip on Christmas, Phillip realized how much he missed Beth. It was too late because Lillian had given him divorce papers from Beth. At this time, Roger and Amanda plotted to take Spaulding over while the family tried to stop them. When Alan\-Michael and Lucy left town, Phillip became president again.
That spring, Phillip was surprised to see his former sister\-in\-law, Harley Cooper at the Country Club masquerading as a woman named Starla. In the process of conducting the sting, Phillip and Harley started having feelings for one another which culminated into a kiss. Later, the pair left for New York to trap Jeffrey. Making it seem like "Starla" was going to get money from Phillip, the pair acted as though she was trying to seduce him, proving it by showing Jeffrey a surveillance tape of Phillip and Starla "making love". However, once the camera was shut off, the fake lovemaking became real as Phillip and Harley gave in to their passion. Later Phillip lied to Jeffrey stating he killed Harley during wild sex and when Jeffrey was ready to turn him to the police and to flee with Jenna, he was arrested for fraud when Harley and Jenna exposed him. Meanwhile, Harley and Phillip agreed to forget about happened that night and remain just friends. Then Harley and Jenna decided to join forces and began a detective agency. Their first assignment was to help Reva to find her long\-lost sister. Not long after, Harley received a call from Mallet telling her he wanted a divorce since he was in love with another woman. Hurt and angry, Harley was consoled by Phillip. Meanwhile, Jenna and Harley learned Reva's nemesis, Annie Dutton, may have information on Reva's sister, and so they went to the mental hospital where Annie was staying. But when Security caught them snooping around, Jenna passed Harley off as her sister, Caitlin, and, to Harley's dismay, checked her into the mental institution. "Caitlin" then became Annie's roommate and apparently befriended her. Although Phillip tried to get Harley out of there, Harley was determined to follow through with the plan. Annie discovered who her new "friend" was and with help of the guards, drugged Harley with a psychotic drug. Luckily Phillip came to her rescue and admitted he too was falling in love with her.
Just then, Beth returned to town with Lizzie determined to win Phillip. Anxious to get Phillip back, Beth used Lizzie by getting her hopes up and having her lie that she wanted to stay at home rather than go with Phillip for the night. That same evening, Lizzie held up the mistletoe for the pair to kiss; as Phillip leaned in to kiss Beth's cheek, Beth turned and kissed him passionately on the lips. Later, Beth warned Harley she wanted Phillip back, to which Harley responded that would never happen. While pining for Phillip, Beth became friends with attorney Ben Warren, who was far from reputable. When Phillip warned Beth about how unscrupulous Ben was, she told him to mind his own business. However, Ben soon realized Beth was just using him to make Phillip jealous and offered to help. Later, to make Phillip jealous, Beth faked receiving a phone call from Ben, and made New Year's plans with him. Phillip made it known that he didn't want Ben in his house, but Beth said she will go out somewhere with him anyway. She got herself into more trouble by deciding to stay in Springfield and accept a job. Harley, meanwhile, wasn't happy to see Beth either, especially since she was insecure over Phillip's feelings for Beth. Her fears compounded when Phillip expressed his displeasure at Beth's new friendship with Ben Warren. Although Phillip tried to assure Harley his heart belonged to her, Harley couldn't quite be sure. In 1998, Phillip proved his love for Harley by asking her to move in with him. Elated, Harley accepted the offer but was still disconcerted over the bond Phillip and Beth shared. When Beth thanked Harley for finding a lost Lizzie, she antagonized Harley by telling her to give Phillip some time to be with his family and continued to provoke her by mentioning the phone call she made to Mallet. Angry, Harley attacked Beth but was pulled off by Eleni. To Harley's relief, Phillip wasn't angry but instead understood.
Their relationship took a step back when Beth attempted suicide by throwing herself in front of a car. Guilt\-ridden, Phillip offered to stay at the mansion to take care of a rattled Lizzie. After overhearing Lizzie ask Phillip not to make her take care of her mommy alone, Harley got suspicious and starting investigating Beth's past in Arizona. In the process she learned Beth had accidents before. She also discovered Beth had a boyfriend in Arizona named Carl. Harley decided to find him in order to ask him about Beth. Learning she was being investigated, Beth blasted Harley, who remained undeterred. Finally, Beth admitted to Harley about her abusive relationship with Carl but left insulted when Harley continued to interrogate her. Beth then told Phillip about Carl and Harley's meddling before Harley got to tell him her side of it. When Harley finally got to Phillip, he knew the whole story and yelled at Harley for interfering and jumped to Beth's defense. Not long after, Carl, upon learning Harley was asking about him, arrived in town threatening Harley to stay out of his business. Although Carl denied hurting Beth, Harley is soon able to trick him into admitting it. Later, she convinced Beth to help her arrest Carl. Using Beth as bait, the plan was for Harley to tape record Carl admitting his abusiveness. Harley, realizing she forgot her gun, left the scene before Carl got there. When she returned, Carl was dead and Beth was the prime suspect. During the investigation, Harley became unnerved at Phillip's attempts to protect Beth, even going as far as him suppressing evidence. Later, when Beth confessed to killing Carl in self\-defense, both Harley and Phillip were unconvinced and investigated further. They soon discovered the true killer was Phillip's daughter, Lizzie! Worried about Lizzie, Harley left Phillip so that he could be with his daughter in her time of need. But Phillip wouldn't have it and convinced Harley he could be with her and be a part of his daughter's life at the same time. When Phillip proposed, Harley happily accepted and the couple made plans to marry, however when the wedding plans seemed to get out of hand, the couple decided to elope in New York. However, to their surprise, their elopement wasn't quite the secret they thought it was and they found Buzz and Phillip's Aunt Alex arranged a beautiful wedding for them at City Hall.
Trouble began to brew again with the arrival of Harley's daughter Daisy, now called Susan, who was in search of her real mother now that her adoptive mother had died. In 1999, after telling Harley and Phillip her father had "changed" after her mother's death, Harley allowed Susan to stay the night at her place, to Phillip's disapproval. After calling Susan's father, Jim, Harley suggested they stay in Springfield for the holidays. Pleased to have a mother figure again, Susan was determined to fix Harley up with Jim and kept manipulating them to be alone together. Determined to stay in Springfield, Susan overdosed on medication. The plan worked with a guilt\-ridden Harley wishing she could have seen the signs and suggesting that Susan should stay in town. However, Phillip disagreed and tried to encourage Harley to let go and allow Susan and Jim to go on with their lives. As Phillip and Harley continued to debate about Susan's presence in their lives, Harley learned she was pregnant.[GL's Phillip Spaulding Timeline Page 3 \| Soap Opera Digest](http://www.soapoperadigest.com/content/gls-phillip-spaulding-timeline-page-3-0) After learning of Harley's pregnancy, a hurt Susan left Springfield to live with Jim but later corresponded with Harley by phone. Later, Susan called Harley asking for help after she shoplifted a dress, telling her she was at a strange bus station outside Springfield. So, Harley has arrived at the bus station outside of Springfield to collect Susan. While there, a creepy man who had been eyeing Susan turned his attention to Harley. The two of them struggled, and Harley managed to kick him in the groin. Meanwhile, Jim arrived and flattened the perpetrator. When Phillip showed up, he and Jim argued about Harley's involvement in Susan's life with Jim complaining Susan was envious of the life Phillip and Harley lead. Phillip offered to solve the problem by moving the two of them to Springfield and gave Jim a job at Spaulding. Harley was forced to mediate between Phillip and Jim who did not get along with Jim even ended up quitting Spaulding to work at Lewis Construction. However, Phillip continued to grate on Jim, and when Jim threatened to leave town, Harley convinced Phillip to give him a reason to stay. So, to please Harley, Phillip bribed Jim to stay (although by now Jim was dating Beth so he was already planning on staying anyway).
That summer, Harley finally gave birth to a son, who was named Alan Cooper Spaulding, with Harley deciding to nickname him "Zach" after the lead in Phillip's novel. Things couldn't have been better when Harley and her new family agreed to join her best friend, Cassie Layne, and her new fiancé, Prince Richard for a Thanksgiving celebration in San Cristobel. After the celebration, Phillip, Beth and Jim were forced to leave early for business reasons, however, their plane crashed into the mountains. All three were o.k., but Jim opted to leave and brave the cold on his own in an attempt to bring help back. Believing that they were going to die, Phillip and Beth prepared a videotape to be made for Lizzie. Emotions high, they started reminiscing about the past and sought comfort in each other's arms with the video still recording. After being rescued, both decided to keep their lovemaking a secret and go on with their separate lives.
In 2000, the unexpected happened: Beth found herself pregnant with Phillip's child. Convinced Phillip would leave Harley to marry her again, Beth told him about the child. When Phillip refused to marry her, she became afraid Jim would leave her and threatened to have an abortion if Phillip told anyone the child was his. And so worried about Beth's state of mind (as well as his own marriage), Phillip reluctantly agreed to keep the child's true paternity a secret while Beth married Jim, Phillip giving the bride away. Their tryst wasn't a complete secret: the missing video was found by Prince Edmund Winslow who used it to blackmail Phillip when Phillip threatened to fire him from Spaulding. Phillip's hatred of Edmund wasn't lost on Harley and when she demanded to know the cause, Rick covered by saying Edmund was blackmailing him. At the same time, the Spauldings were dismayed when Lizzie was diagnosed with leukemia.. With Lizzie's condition worsening, her only chance of surviving was a bone marrow transfusion from the baby Beth was carrying. When Jim refused to have his child delivered prematurely in order to save Lizzie, Phillip blurted out the horrible truth: the child Beth was carrying wasn't Jim's; it was his. In the end, Harley refused to forgive Phillip and asked for a divorce.
At the same time, Jim died heroically in a fire at Christmastime. Almost immediately after, Beth accepted the friendship and support of Edmund. In 2001, against everyone's advice, Beth became his sole champion and encouraged him to secure the crown for himself when he discovered he was the true heir to the throne. Though Phillip tried to show Beth that Edmund couldn't be trusted by telling her Edmund was fixing the island's election, she went to Edmund who immediately used the information to his advantage and went to the press himself, calling the election invalid and declaring himself ruler of San Cristobel. Edmund had Richard arrested and Phillip talked his way past the prison guard and into Richard's cell. When the guard returned, Richard was gone and Phillip was in his place. When Edmund learned what Phillip had done, he had him shackled in the jail. Although Beth was able to save Phillip by convincing Edmund to simply deport him, Phillip told Beth he was seeking sole custody of their children to keep them away from Edmund. Phillip returned weeks later though when Beth asked that the children come for her and Edmund's coronation. Not long after the coronation, he married Beth who became his princess. Mere weeks later, Beth would learn everything people had been saying about Edmund was true when she learned he was holding Cassie captive! Confronted by Beth, a desperate Edmund locked her away but Beth was able to escape from the tower. Luckily, Phillip and Noah saw what Beth was doing and when she fell to the ground, Luckily, Beth was alright and returned to Springfield. After all those months of intrigue, Phillip returned to Springfield in time to see a very pregnant Harley. Instantly assuming she was pregnant with his child, Phillip railed at her that he was the last to know. On the defensive, Harley pointed out he had spent the better part of the winter consumed with Beth in San Cristobel and then informed him he was not the father of her baby. Weeks later, Phillip would be shocked to learn from Edmund just who was the baby's father: Rick.
Furious, Phillip accused Rick of doing this purposely to hurt him (out of revenge for what happened with Meredith Reade) and refused to forgive him. Not long after, Beth ran to Mexico to get a quickie divorce. Edmund caught up with her and again begged her to go back to him. But Beth refused and ran off. While trying to get away from Edmund, Beth was caught in a flash flood and presumed dead. That fall, Phillip was able to get testimony from two witnesses that Edmund had been chasing after Beth when she died, however, the point became moot when Beth suddenly turned up in Springfield alive! Though she claimed to be suffering from memory lapses, Phillip was increasingly suspicious of her strange behavior and personality change. Not long after Beth's return, Phillip learned Harley had Rick's baby, but refused to see the child. However, around Thanksgiving, when the pair was looking for a lost Lizzie and James, Phillip and Rick talked things over and resumed their friendship. Meanwhile, after doing some digging, in early 2002, Phillip learned the woman in town was an imposter named Lorelei Hills. Though Alan wanted her arrested, Phillip was afraid that would traumatize Lizzie and simply asked Lorelei to leave. Though Alan went against Phillip's wishes and had her arrested anyway, when she became ill, Phillip, against his better judgment, allowed her to be cared for at the mansion. The trouble was, she was now insisting she was Beth! Skeptical at first, the more time he spent with her the more he realized this was truly Beth Raines. Beth was the imposter! By the time Phillip realized this, Beth had left Springfield with Edmund! Tracking her down at an old silver mine, Phillip became trapped. Though Beth reasserted herself and raced to the mine to free Phillip, the mine entrance shut while she was inside, trapping them both. Edmund arrived, causing another split between Beth/Lorelei. Edmund accidentally trapped them in the mine a second time, but Beth managed to free Phillip and they found another exit. After getting Beth, who'd taken on the Lorelei personality to deal with her trauma, the help she needed, the pair reunited.
While Beth and Phillip reunited was a good idea in concept, the reality was more difficult. Phillip was cold and distant, confused by Beth's changes in personality while Beth was skittish and irritated by Phillip's pompous and patriarchal attitude in taking his son Zach away from Harley because of her relationship with Gus Aitoro. Frustrated by Beth, Phillip found himself susceptible to the charms of Olivia Spencer, Alan's fiancée. Then suddenly, a scandal rocked the household: Lorelei's diary was published! Though Beth immediately suspected Olivia, the publisher stated Lorelei had done the deed. Lizzie, Phillip, everyone, including Beth herself, blamed Beth. Confused, Beth went to Alan's lake cottage to clear her head, and ran into Bill Lewis. In an attempt to remember the past, she kissed him passionately. Phillip walked in at just that moment and railed out her. Later, Olivia told Phillip that it was Alan who published Lorelei's diary. To get revenge on Alan, the couple placed themselves on the bed, waiting for him to arrive. Once again they got carried away and began making out. Alan walked in, took one look at them, and had a heart attack. Later when Beth learned the circumstances of Alan's heart attack, she and Phillip agreed they had both changed far too much to be together, and gracefully parted ways.
Though now free, Phillip was too guilty over his father's heart attack and vowed to stay away from Olivia, who agreed to marry Alan as well as sign an extreme prenuptial agreement which said she would lose her half of the Beacon Hotel if she cheated before the wedding. But she and Phillip kissed in the elevator moments before the ceremony, and Alex pocketed the security tape. On Thanksgiving Day, Alexandra revealed Olivia had published Lorelei's Diary. Meanwhile, Alex eventually gave Olivia the security tape. Alan found the tape and saw Olivia and Phillip's smooch was right in front of his eyes. Alan threw her out of the house and into the cold, days before Christmas. Later, after finding out Alan faked his earlier heart attack, Phillip and Olivia saw no reason to deny their feelings now, they wildly made love. The couple's happiness didn't last long. Confused about whether to end her marriage, Olivia went out of town in early 2003 to visit her sister and clear her head. While away, she made her choice and sent Phillip a priority letter saying she wanted to be with him and for him to meet her at the Beacon. Alan intercepted the letter and kept it from Phillip. When Olivia arrived at the Beacon, Alan and not Phillip was there to greet her. Hurt and vulnerable, Olivia let herself be seduced by Alan only to have Phillip arrive at the Beacon the next morning and find the two together. Disgusted that she'd fall into Alan's arms so soon, Phillip walked away. When Olivia tried to explain the situation, Phillip revealed he never got the letter. Though the pair figured out Alan intercepted the letter, that didn't matter to Phillip who decided he'd be better off not chasing after his father's wife. However, when Olivia revealed to Phillip she was pregnant and the child might be his, Phillip agreed to stand by her no matter what. Meanwhile, Phillip swore off Spaulding but was pulled back into the company when Alex informed him Alan was acting erratically.
Faced with a mentally disturbed Alan, Phillip agreed to come back to the company. Not long after, an angry but well Alan was termed innocent of Reva's stalking and informed Phillip he was handing control of Spaulding over to his real son—Gus Aitoro! In addition to his troubles with Alan, Alex's schemes to break up Olivia and Phillip seemed to work after Alex paid someone to doctor the paternity test Phillip had secretly done without Olivia's knowledge which showed Alan was the father. However, Olivia had had her own tests done which proved otherwise. Olivia couldn't forgive Phillip's mistrust and asked him to stay away from her. Weeks later, Olivia would fall down the stairs at the Beacon. Although she and the baby were okay, she refused to see Phillip. Later, Phillip was shocked to learn she thought Lizzie was responsible for her fall. Incredulous, Phillip was dismayed to learn Beth and Lillian shared the fear and spirited the girl away to a cabin without his knowledge. In denial for months over Lizzie's emotional state, Phillip was later horrified when Lizzie threatened to kill herself after being confronted by Beth and Lillian. Though Harley was able to defuse the situation and bring Lizzie home, Phillip finally realized his daughter needed help. The situation with Lizzie brought Phillip to the breaking point and he began making plans for his soon\-to\-be\-born daughter and suffering from panic attacks. Though an anxious Phillip tried to convince Olivia to marry him, she saw he was only asking because he wanted to provide a home for the child she was carrying, not because he loved her. Not long after she gave Phillip a non\-answer to his marriage proposal, things finally came to a head with Lizzie. The night of Olivia's baby shower, Lizzie sneaked out of the house on the pretense of giving Olivia a gift. When a frightened Olivia refused the gift and asked Lizzie to leave, Lizzie continued to push the gift on Olivia and finally was escorted home by Christopher. That night, Olivia found something in her baby crib—a doll's head. Though Lizzie tried to deny it and pleaded with her family to believe her, she was unable to convince her family of her innocence.
A horrified Olivia decided she had to get as far away from Lizzie as possible and left Springfield. Convinced he was a horrible father because he couldn't help Lizzie, Phillip's mental state would only get worse. Though agreeing to check himself into Cedars in order to have tests done, Phillip discharged himself early after doctors said there was nothing physically wrong with him. However, those close to Phillip could tell there was something seriously wrong. Phillip finally lost his grip on reality, seeing visions of Olivia everywhere. Finally, Phillip began stalking a pregnant woman and broke into her home, thinking she was Olivia. After that incident, Phillip's family decided to arrange an intervention, the same as they had with Lizzie, in order to convince Phillip to get himself help. By now Phillip had grown increasingly paranoid and delusional, but when he realized that his deteriorating condition was scaring Lizzie, Phillip agreed to go to the hospital for tests. After seeing yet another vision of Olivia (though unbeknownst to him, this one was real), Phillip checked himself into Ravenwood Mental Hospital. By now the family knew Olivia was in town, and believing she could help Phillip, they persuaded her to visit him. Phillip's condition had worsened greatly and unsure of his own sanity, he tried to strangle Olivia, thinking she was an hallucination. Unnerved, days later Olivia returned and told Phillip why she'd come back—their baby had died. Instead of the truth snapping Phillip back into reality, it only made him draw deeper into himself, becoming almost catatonic, and to Olivia's horror Phillip started blaming himself.
As time went by, Phillip seemed trapped in his shell, unaware of what was going on around him. Then in January 2004, his condition seemed to improve somewhat. Although he remained silent, he started responding to people. Meanwhile, Olivia hurriedly got a minister to marry her and Phillip at the institution. Olivia's position as Phillip's wife secure, she set out to solidify her power base at Spaulding and more by having Phillip change his will. Meanwhile, she kept a firm hold on Phillip, limiting his visitors, and often answering questions posed to Phillip herself. Finally, weeks later, Phillip received a shock when Olivia showed Phillip their daughter, Emma, who hadn't died after all. Although Phillip agreed to Olivia's demand of telling no one of Emma's existence, in order to protect the child from Lizzie, in private a vengeful Phillip vowed to make Olivia pay and take the child from her. For Olivia, Phillip proved to be a loose cannon and revealed to others Emma was alive. Although Beth and Rick dismissed Phillip's claims as denial, Lizzie was very suspicious and eventually presented Emma to Phillip. Soon after, Phillip decided he had to take drastic measures to get his life back on track and, on Rick's recommendation, he underwent ECT therapy. Meanwhile, Phillip and Olivia started playing a dangerous game with each other, with Olivia playing the concerned, dutiful wife and with Phillip physically intimidating her. Finally after weeks of therapy, Phillip was released from the hospital and returned home where he and Olivia continued their cat and mouse game. Although Alan suggested Phillip simply get rid of Olivia, Phillip had something devious in mind for his wife. His plan was to frame her for the Antimonious drug scandal that Spaulding was being investigated for. Phillip's plan was foiled with the Feds dropped the investigation before they discovered the evidence. Not long after Phillip got his revenge on Olivia by blackmailing her with the knowledge she had illegally purchased Spaulding stock. With the choice between prison and staying married, Olivia was forced to bow down to Phillip's wishes. cold and calculating, Phillip to set out to embarrass Olivia and keep her under his thumb. In addition, he had Olivia trailed and cut off access to her bank accounts, in the event she'd try to leave. For his final act of revenge, he demanded Olivia resign from Spaulding, giving her a prepared speech on what to say. Finally, on the day of Harley's almost wedding to Gus, Phillip finally gave Olivia what she wanted—a divorce.
That was the only good thing that would happen that day. For on that day, Harley discovered not only was Alexandra an accomplice in the Antimonious drug deal, but Gus knew. In short order, Harley called the wedding off, Frank (framed for the crime) held a gun on Alan, and Buzz turned Alex in to the police. Seeing a grave injustice to his family, Phillip went after the Coopers, specifically Company. Deciding to rebuild the city of Springfield, Phillip, in a cold and calculating manner worthy of Alan, went through the government and secured permission to go forth with his plans. When Harley and Buzz learned who was behind the takeover of Company, they were furious. However, Phillip remained cold and unapologetic stating it was just business and offered to compensate Buzz fairly. But Buzz refused to give up and decided to fight. Phillip refused to make it easy on the Coopers, visiting Company at every turn and basically rubbing salt in the wound. However, the Coopers weren't the only family Phillip was after. In order to create his own version of Springfield, Phillip needed to acquire more property and made it appear as if he wanted to take over Cross Creek in order to distract them from their other properties. Meanwhile, very soon after, Phillip overheard Bill pleading with one of his employees, to reconsider resigning. Impressed with this middle\-aged woman, named Ruth Karloff, Phillip interviewed her and found her to be no\-nonsense, efficient and loyal and he hired her as his personal assistant. As the days went by, Phillip was growing more and more callous with each passing day. When he learned Lizzie had drugged her boyfriend, Joey Lupo, he inexplicably took Lizzie's side and blackmailed Joey into leaving town by threatening to foreclose on Mrs. Lupo's house. Days later, Phillip was enraged when his plans for Company were foiled when it was discovered the area was a nesting place for a rare bird. Angry that he'd lost, Phillip vindictively tore down Harley's house. Phillip's malice towards the Coopers wasn't lost on Zach, who distanced himself from Phillip. Although the Coopers denied it, Phillip was certain they were poisoning Zach's mind against him. In the meantime, Lizzie was having her own problems and confessed to Phillip she believed she'd hit Sandy Foster with her car. Desperate to protect his daughter, Phillip urged her to keep quiet while he took care of everything. Meanwhile, Phillip was becoming paranoid that someone at Spaulding was working against him and asked Gus to run a background check on all key employees. In the meantime, Gus was becoming concerned the mole was actually Ruth, Phillip's now trusted assistant. Phillip expressed his doubts.
When Ruth began asking questions about the hit and run, he quickly realized Gus was right and decided Ruth needed to be neutralized to protect Lizzie. To accomplish this, he arranged for a man to run Ruth down! His plan failed however, when Gus ended up saving her life. In the midst of all this, Phillip's diabolical behavior concerned everyone, including those closest to him. In an effort to get through to Phillip, Rick arranged for Phillip to be kidnapped so they could talk. Although Rick tried reasoning, he only succeeded in making Phillip angry. That same day, Phillip learned something startling from Zach—Ruth was Harley in disguise! Still dealing with that revelation, Phillip was shocked to learn Lizzie was at the police station, about to confess to the hit and run! Although he tried to demand she keep quiet, Lizzie openly defied her father and admitted the truth. Believing everyone was against him, Phillip decided to leave Springfield with the only people he cared about—his children. After luring all the children to his private jet, Phillip informed everyone he had the children. Harley attempted to appeal to the human side of him, but to no avail. Not long after, Phillip arranged for Lizzie to be brought to him, however when she refused to go with him, he became enraged and vowed to destroy the people who have cost him his daughter's love. That same night, he asked several people to meet him at Company at 9 pm, telling each person if they came, and told no one else of the meeting, their children would be returned to them. At 9 pm, various citizens of Springfield converged at Company to find Phillip shot. Although he was rushed to the hospital, it was too late and Phillip was declared dead.
After a short investigation, Harley was arrested, and the spring of 2005, convicted of Phillip's murder. Months after her conviction, Phillip's real shooter was revealed—it was Alan. However, that wasn't the end of the story. Having been revealed to be Phillip's killer, Alan knew he had to leave town and paid a visit to an abandoned warehouse where he met with none other than Phillip. Apparently Alan's concerns about Phillip's state of mind caused him to take drastic action in order to protect his son and his grandchildren: he shot Phillip and faked his death. Unknown to everyone else in Springfield, a completely delusional Phillip was living out his life as CEO of Spaulding in an abandoned warehouse office made to look like his Spaulding office. When Alan was arrested no one believed his story about Philip being alive. Not only that, but the medical staff stopped looking after Phillip because Alan couldn't pay. Phillip disappeared and later called Rick, stating he needed his help. Despite Rick's reluctance, Phillip pleaded with his friend to keep his situation a secret. Phillip was almost discovered by Mallet the day Harley married Gus but managed to escape. Meanwhile, frantic that a mentally disturbed Phillip was a danger to himself as well as to others, Alan went to desperate lengths to lure him into the open. To draw Phillip out, Alan married none other than Beth.{{cite web \|url\=http://blogs.knoxnews.com/telebuddy/archives/2009/02/phillip\-spauldi.shtml \|title\=Welcome to nginx! \|access\-date\=2011\-10\-18 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120708161250/http://blogs.knoxnews.com/telebuddy/archives/2009/02/phillip\-spauldi.shtml \|archive\-date\=July 8, 2012 \|df\=mdy\-all }}
In the Spring of 2006, Phillip's Uncle Ross was apparently killed when his plane went down on the way to San Gabriel. After some investigating, Harley learned Alan was telling the truth—Phillip was alive. Rick confirmed it and admitted Ross suspected the truth and set out to find him. Determined not to be found, Phillip asked Rick to have the plane sabotaged so Ross couldn't take off. Tragically, the plane went up anyway and Ross was killed. In late 2007, the specter of Phillip continued to loom over Springfield. It started at Emma's seventh birthday party where she received a gift apparently from her father. Panicked, Olivia went to Alan for protection, unaware it was Alan who sent the gift as a way to manipulate Olivia into helping him. When Olivia tried to bow out, Alan upped the ante by hiring someone to break into her room and trash it. Not long after, Alan unexpectedly hired Harley to find Phillip. Though distressed at the thought of him returning, Harley decided it might be best to know his whereabouts and took the case. It didn't take long to learn Beth had received a gift from Phillip for her unborn baby. However, it came from a courier and she had no clue where Phillip was. At one point, Phillip sent Harley a card telling her to stop looking for him; she'll see him when he is ready. Afterwards, Harley spotted Zach's new sneakers and the boy was forced to admit they came from Phillip. Told Phillip would be at his ballgame, Harley and her partner Cyrus Foley waited and Cyrus tackled a hooded man they thought was Phillip. It was Remy who claimed to have run into Phillip after losing some gambling money in Clayton. Remy claimed Phillip paid him to deliver this package (which contained Phillip's old high school sports jersey) to Zach. Remy told the duo he didn't know where Phillip was, but doubted he was returning to town.
Sometime later, [Bill Lewis](/wiki/Bill_Lewis_III "Bill Lewis III") became involved with Lizzie, and was falsely accused of being responsible for Lizzie's kidnapping (orchestrated by [Dinah Marler](/wiki/Dinah_Marler "Dinah Marler") and executed by [Grady Foley](/wiki/Grady_Foley "Grady Foley")). Despite her insistence that she believed Bill was not responsible for her kidnapping, Lizzie's faith in Bill began to wain and she slowly turned into Alan's pawn, distancing herself from Bill. In an effort to make Lizzie see reason, Bill (along with his father, [Billy](/wiki/Billy_Lewis_II "Billy Lewis II")), set out to find Phillip in an effort to get him to help her. Bill was unsuccessful in his search, but things would work out in a way he never expected.
On February 9, 2009, in an effort to prevent Beth from marrying Alan, [Coop Bradshaw](/wiki/Henry_Cooper_Bradshaw "Henry Cooper Bradshaw") was involved in a car accident on his way to the church. Badly injured, Coop was pulled from the wreckage by Phillip. In the following episode, Phillip spoke with Alan alone, at Phillip's mock grave site. He then pulled a gun on Alan, but told him he had no intention of shooting him. He even thanked Alan for straightening him out during his time of mental illness. Later that day, he stopped an enraged Buzz Cooper from physically attacking Alan.
Phillip's return jolted the entire Spaulding family, and they barely had time to adjust when Beth's and Phillip's 19\-year\-old son, James, returned from boarding school. James was running a Ponzi scheme and even when Phillip helped clear the charges against him, he resented Phillip's return. Beth was torn between the love of her life and the son who had only known the worst of his father. During this time Beth also helped her daughter Lizzie marry Bill Lewis.
Eventually, Phillip learned he was dying. He didn't tell anyone, aside from Lillian, and tried to repair the relationships in his life with the time he had left.['Guiding Light' Extinguished After 72 Years On Air : NPR](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=112816770) Beth found out in what were supposed to be Phillip's last days, and she felt devastated as well as betrayed by Phillip and by her mother. Fortunately for Phillip, Alan agreed to a bone marrow transplant, and saved his son's life, but a few days later, Alan quietly died after attending the double wedding of Lillian and Buzz Cooper and Vanessa Chamberlain and Billy Lewis. Beth was forced to break the news to her young daughter Peyton. Shortly before Alan's death, Phillip had proposed to Beth, and she had happily accepted. James and Phillip were now reconciled and Lizzie was trying for a baby. Beth also decided to return to her first love, drawing. A year later, Beth and Phillip were happily married, and were celebrating the upcoming nuptials of their best friends Rick and Mindy.[We Love Soaps: The GUIDING LIGHT Finale](http://www.welovesoaps.net/2009/09/guiding-light-finale.html)
|
[
"Storylines\n----------",
"Seven\\-year\\-old Phillip Spaulding's world would change forever in 1977 when his mother befriended Jackie Marler; only he wouldn't know it yet. The son of wealthy [Alan Spaulding](/wiki/Alan_Spaulding \"Alan Spaulding\") and Elizabeth Granville, Phillip had his every wish catered to and was exceptionally close to his mother. While his parents were going through a nasty divorce in 1978, Phillip was having chest pains and started receiving treatment from Dr. Justin Marler, Jackie's ex\\-husband. Phillip bonded with Justin and after his parents divorced, he encouraged his mother to marry Justin in 1979\\. At about the same time, Alan married Jackie. Phillip was content to have Justin and Jackie as stepparents and became close to both. However, in 1980, Justin and Jackie would divorce their prospective spouses and find love again with each other. In 1981, Elizabeth would unexpectedly leave Springfield for Switzerland and left Phillip in the care of the Marlers. Though confused as to why his mother left and why he was living with his \"Aunt Jackie\" and \"Uncle Justin\" instead of his father, Alan, Phillip accepted the situation and soon left Springfield to attend Lincoln Prep School. Late that year, while Phillip was on Christmas break from Lincoln Prep, he finally apologized to Mike Bauer about his treatment of Mike during the time Mike and Elizabeth were lovers.",
"Thrown out of Lincoln Prep School at 17 ([SORAS](/wiki/Soap_Opera_Rapid_Aging_Syndrome \"Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome\")), Phillip returned to Springfield in 1982 to attend Springfield High. He and Freddie \\[later calling himself Rick] Bauer became best friends when Phillip covered for Freddie after Freddie, who was driving with Phillip in his car, was pulled over for speeding and didn't have his driver's license. By this time, Jackie had died in a plane crash and Justin was seeing an Italian woman named Helena Manzini, a relationship Phillip disapproved of because he felt it was too soon after Jackie's death. Meanwhile, Phillip was hanging out with a rough crowd. When Phillip and Freddie were nearly involved in an accident, they realized perhaps the crowd they were hanging out with really weren't their friends and they stopped associating with them. Not long afterwards, Phillip met his first love, Melinda \"Mindy\" Sue Lewis, who in 1983, out of insecurity, staged a rather dramatic accident while riding her horse and was consequently hospitalized. During his visits to Mindy in the hospital, he developed a strong attraction to her roommate, [Beth Raines](/wiki/Beth_Raines \"Beth Raines\").",
"Both Phillip and Rick were attracted to Beth, but Phillip backed off and continued to endure Mindy's spoiled behavior in deference to Rick's attraction to Beth. At the senior prom Rick and Beth went together, as did Mindy and Phillip but it was Phillip and Beth who were named King and Queen. Finally on the night of Mindy's 18th birthday party at the Country Club, Phillip and Beth finally confessed their true feelings for each other in the stables. However, Beth's stepfather Bradley found them and shocked Phillip by telling him the truth about his parentage: Alan and Elizabeth weren't his real parents; the Marlers were. Apparently, Alan felt his wife was too fragile to handle the fact their baby was stillborn and he bought the child Jackie was giving up. After Phillip learned the truth, he was not only furious at Justin and Alan, but also at Mindy and Rick, who both knew the truth before he did and didn't tell him. Angry and hurt, Phillip told Rick he was in love with Beth. Though he had initially rejected both his fathers, Phillip, upon learning Justin was flying out of town, tracked him down at the airport and not only forgave him for keeping his parentage a secret, but also gave his blessing for Justin and Helena to marry.[GL's Phillip Spaulding Timeline \\| Soap Opera Digest](http://www.soapoperadigest.com/content/gls-phillip-spaulding-timeline-0)",
"It was at this point Beth was raped by Bradley. Ashamed of what happened, she told no one and rejected Phillip. Phillip turned to Mindy for comfort and she seduced him without using birth control. Alan was also relieved to see Phillip and Beth growing apart since as far as he was concerned Beth was from a lower class and didn't deserve his son. Beth soon moved into the boarding house to try to get away from Bradley, but he got a court order and forced her to return home. When Beth returned home, Phillip was waiting, and they jumped out of a window and ran away to New York. After they had been running for a while they found themselves near Central Park and nearly out of money, Beth was working on some artistic sketches when both came upon a sidewalk Santa Claus (who preferred to be called Nick) who asked if they needed help. Though Phillip rudely tried to decline, Beth told the man they were nearly broke and had nowhere to stay and perhaps could not afford a hotel. Nick being the Good Samaritan he was, took pity on the young teenage couple and urged them to follow him through Central Park. Nick had led them to a place where he had led many people who were lost and homeless or poor or down on their luck. Nick turned them over to the others staying there and asked them to watch over Beth and Phillip. Eventually with Nick (Santa's) help, Beth told Phillip about the rape. Phillip promised to protect her and they pledged to never let anything come between them again. Meanwhile, Mindy and Rick had raced to New York to find the pair and the four friends took odd jobs in order to survive and they enjoyed the sights and sounds of New York. Eventually, in January 1984, Bradley tracked them down and in order to evade him they dressed up as clowns and engaged in a mime act in the park. Bradley saw through their disguise and got in a violent struggle with Phillip in Central Park that ended when Bradley almost fell off a cliff. Beth and Phillip saved him though and warned him to back off. With Bradley apparently no longer a threat, Phillip and Beth returned to Springfield.",
"Back in Springfield, Alan hired Bradley with the intent of transferring him out of town in order to separate Phillip and Beth. Meanwhile, Phillip's Aunt Alex discovered Alan's schemes and revealed it to Phillip. Alex had become extremely protective of Phillip and Beth and when she found out about the rape, she made sure Bradley was arrested. At this time, Beth began to tutor Lujack, the leader of a street gang named the Galahads. Beth hoped this would help Lujack separate himself from his gang. But Darcy, Lujack's jealous girlfriend, had other ideas. Phillip was jealous but he and Beth still planned to marry. At the same time, Mindy was pregnant and told everyone Rick was the father. Then the day of Beth's wedding, Mindy's father, Billy, went to the church where Beth and Phillip were about to be married and confronted Mindy. He wanted to know if it was true the father of her baby was really Phillip. Beth overheard everything and at the altar she slapped Phillip and called off the wedding. Phillip wanted to be part of the baby's life. Mindy agreed but only if Phillip married her. Phillip married Mindy and they spent their honeymoon at Cross Creek. However, the pair divorced after Mindy miscarried.",
"Once again, Phillip focused his attention on Beth, who by now was in love with Lujack. Feeling very rejected and angry, Phillip then discovered Lujack and Floyd Parker were turning the Galahads old garage into a night club. Phillip hired a crooked tradesman named Andy Ferris to sabotage the construction of the club but Andy went too far, and when the building blew up Beth was injured and blinded. Phillip felt very guilty but he could not bring himself to admit his wrongdoing so he enrolled Beth in a school for the blind. However, India von Halkein learned of the nightclub incident and threatened to tell Beth, thereby blackmailing her way into becoming his second wife. Phillip complied with India's demand but refused to consummate the union. However, when India started to notice Phillip and Beth renewing their friendship, she told Beth how Phillip had caused her blindness. Beth angrily rejected Phillip, but didn't tell Lujack the reason because she did not want to cause any more bad blood between them. At Lujack and Beth's engagement party in February 1985, Phillip, having grown to appreciate India's tenacity and wanting to gain control of Spaulding, announced India was pregnant (untrue, Phillip lied). Meanwhile, Lujack brought Andy to the party to play the blackmail tape and expose Phillip as the one who caused the accident. A scuffle over the tape occurred and Andy was shot and killed, and the tape was stolen. A lengthy murder mystery ensued with Lujack being erroneously convicted. By this time Phillip and India had consummated their marriage and India had faked a pregnancy test to make Phillip believe she was actually pregnant with his child. With the demands of the trial out of the way and Alex more determined than ever to run her out of town, India was more desperate than ever to cement her bond with Phillip. Conveniently an old family friend, Dr. Lyon, came visiting, and India employed the services of his never\\-fail love potion (sort of a gypsy version of Viagra). India began to mega\\-dose Phillip with the potion in hopes of making their previous baby announcement come true. But before India's desires came true, Phillip became ill from the potion and India was exposed for drugging Phillip. Eventually Beth convinced Phillip to come clean about his deal with Andy and they became friends again. Ironically the police didn't believe Phillip's story but by now plenty of people shared the suspicion India had murdered Andy. In the end, the real culprit turned out to be Floyd, who was holding India in a cabin where he forced her to sign a [false confession](/wiki/False_confession \"False confession\"). Luckily, Lujack and Beth eventually tracked them down and Floyd went to jail. Feeling a great deal of compassion for India, Phillip discovered they really did have a lot in common and agreed to remain married.",
"Still jealous of Phillip's relationship with Beth and mistakenly believing that Phillip was ready to end their marriage, India began an affair with Simon Hall and when Phillip caught them kissing in early 1986, he quickly divorced India. After Phillip wrote a novel based on his and Beth's love, he and Beth found their way back to one another since Lujack was by now deceased. The couple's lives would be forever changed when Beth began working at a local museum for a Professor Blackburn, who had gotten his hands on the cornerstone of the Von Halkein estate in Andorra. India knew it contained gold and tried to steal it back from him. But the Professor protected the cornerstone until his death. He knocked India unconscious, shot Phillip, and held Beth hostage on a boat in Stony Lake. Some time later Blackburn's dead body turned up, Beth's shoe and some fabric from her dress were found but she was nowhere to be found. Phillip was devastated and vowed to find her, but Alan fabricated some evidence to make it look like Beth was really dead.",
"In 1987, Phillip had a relationship with his assistant Chelsea Reardon and they investigated the black art scene. During their investigation, Chelsea learned Alan was also involved in the black art market but only told her sister, Maureen about this since she feared bad blood between father and son. Though Alan secretly burnt down Phillip's house to stop the investigation, Phillip finally learned about it. When Chelsea and Jackson Freemont discovered Warren Andrews killed the head of the black art market, Paul Valère, Warren kidnapped them and Alan, but luckily Phillip saved them and Warren was arrested. Though Phillip was shot by Warren's hit man and left in critical condition, he survived with Rick's help. Chelsea then quit as Phillip's assistant and began to work for Alan at Spaulding while she and Phillip remained as lovers. There was just one problem. Phillip was still obsessed with the love of his life, the late Beth, and that made Chelsea frustrated. At this time, Jackson, noticing Chelsea's singing talent, became her business manager and began to vie with Phillip for her affections. When Chelsea realized they were fighting an old rivalry for Beth rather than a rivalry for her, she lost interest in both men. Phillip wrote her a letter telling her his true feelings for her, but Jackson intercepted it. When Chelsea found out about the letter, she and Phillip got back together and when Phillip forgave Chelsea for her affair with a married man in New York years ago they became engaged However, at this time Phillip was obsessed with wresting power away from Alan and sought the help of Alexandra and the Lewis's to help him. Finally, in 1988, when Chelsea (who wanted Phillip to reconcile with his father) found out about Phillip's plans to wrest control of Spaulding from Alan, she tried to warn Alan, and Phillip locked her up in the Towers. Disgusted, Chelsea bitterly broke up with Phillip.['Guiding Light': Top 10 Moments in Series History](http://www.aoltv.com/2009/09/14/guiding-light-top-10-moments-in-series-history/)",
"Not long after, Phillip had an affair with Rick's girlfriend, Meredith Reade after the couple had broken up. Distraught, Phillip agreed not to tell Rick about it and was genuinely relieved when the couple patched things up and got married. Later Meredith found herself pregnant and although Rick knew he wasn't the father, agreed to raise the child as his own without knowing whom the father was. Along came Blake Lindsey, Phillip's PR\\-agent at Spaulding. Phillip fell in love with her but didn't know Blake was actually paid by Alan to spy on him. After Alex revealed Blake's schemes and her true identity as the daughter of presumed dead Roger Thorpe, Phillip bitterly left Blake but, later, he forgave her and the couple reconciled. Then tragedy struck in April 1989, when during the delivery of Meredith's baby, Rick was forced to choose between Meredith's life and that of the unborn child. Rick chose Meredith. Later, Rick learned from a letter from Alan that Phillip was the father. Though Phillip tried to explain it happened before the couple had married and after they had temporarily broken up, Rick still felt betrayed and it took him a long time to forgive Phillip. Prior to Phillip and Blake's wedding, a series of accidents started occurring. The trouble came to a climax at their wedding when gunfire rang out and Phillip was shot! It was then that the truth came out: Alan was behind the accidents in order to keep Blake from marrying Phillip and accidentally shot Phillip after having a struggle with a very much alive Roger. While Roger was exposed to everyone, Alan wasn't exposed immediately as the shooter. Roger was first suspected but finally convinced Ross, Phillip and Alan\\-Michael of Alan's crimes so the three decided to trick Alan into walking again. While Alex was in Europe, Roger appeared into the Spaulding mansion and appeared to shoot Phillip and Alan\\-Michael. Shocked, Alan stood up from his wheelchair, was exposed of all crimes and went to jail. Immediately after his arrest Alan told Phillip he'd forged Beth's death certificate: there was no proof Beth was dead.",
"Though Phillip tried to reassure Blake he was over Beth, he became convinced she was alive. Not long after, a man arrived in town claiming to have kidnapped Beth and demanded a $1 million ransom. Hoping it was true, Phillip paid the money only to learn he'd been lied to by Dana Jones and her lover, Bruce Daly. At this time Bradley was released from prison. Learning the plot, he confronted Dana's lover and was knocked unconscious. Though Phillip suspected Bradley of swindling him first, he later learned the truth. Though Daly was caught, he escaped, and the money (unknowingly pocketed by Roger) was never recovered. Meanwhile, Phillip was becoming obsessed with finding Beth. Unbeknownst to Phillip, Blake discovered an amnesiac and mute Beth was living with Spaulding employee Neil Everest just outside town. Fearing Phillip would leave her for Beth, when Blake learned Phillip had Beth's grave exhumed, she had him committed in the Willow Hills mental institution for his \"delusions\" about Beth. For Phillip, he seemed to prove Blake right when he reacted violently towards her. Both Gary Swanson and Neil were please with this development: Gary because Blake now had Phillip's power of attorney, and Neil, because the field was clear for him to marry Beth. Of course as with any plans devious, Blake's attempt to take over Phillip's life was about to hit major snags and fall apart and Neil contributed to it.",
"While Blake had Phillip committed for having defied a court order to exhume Beth Raines's grave, Neil decided to tell Beth about her past and accompanied her to Lillian's house. But, Beth, seeing her childhood home and remembering Bradley refused to go in and then ran away when she saw Bradley. Beth ran away to Clayton where the Willow Hills Sanitarium was and with her aphasia checked herself her into the sanitarium! Eventually, Phillip ended up seeing Beth, as did Lillian and Rick. Later, Blake tried to keep Phillip in Willow Hills, but Rick and Lillian told the court that Phillip was as sane as they were and he was released. But Blake still had his power of attorney. That was until Blake did one more really stupid thing in her plan to retain control. Phillip had the Spaulding mansion phones wired to monitor every call Blake took. Blake took a call from Neil about the upcoming marriage of him and Beth at the courthouse and Blake lied to Phillip saying the phone call was not from Neil! On Christmas Eve, Neil and Beth were about to marry, at the courthouse, with Blake in attendance, when Phillip and Rick on to Blake's plan crashed the ceremony and whisked Beth away! Although Beth tried to explain otherwise, Phillip was convinced Neil had been involved in Beth's kidnapping and fired him from Spaulding Enterprises. Phillip also found out Neil was suspected of causing the death of his wife and stepchildren in Pittsburgh, when the building they were in Neil had helped build collapsed. He also accused Neil of raping Beth! Neil's cause was not helped when WSPR\\-TV talk show host, Johnny Bauer accused Neil, over the holiday season, of being the mysterious person buying up property along Fifth Street for dubious ends. Determined to prove his innocence, on January 11, 1990, Neil helped Beth relive her kidnapping at the hands of Professor Blackburn. Beth recalled killing Blackburn when he tried to attack her, and she realized her aphasia stemmed from her lack of guilt over his death. At this point, Phillip found Neil and Beth and when the men began fighting, Beth finally spoke, yelling at them to stop.",
"As the year continued, Neil's true past came to light when he was able to prove the collapse was due not to his design, but to the faulty materials Spaulding had purchased. Grateful to Neil for helping Beth, Phillip voted for him to be rehired. Anxious to have a future with Beth, Phillip ended his calamitous marriage to Blake. She convinced Gary to spy on Phillip and Beth for her, hoping to get evidence of Phillip's unfaithfulness. A devious Gary agreed, and then tried to score points with Phillip by telling him Blake was having an affair. Despite her extracurricular activities with both Gary and Alan\\-Michael, Blake vehemently refused when Beth asked her to give Phillip an amicable divorce. Phillip asked Beth to marry him anyway. Not wanting to rush into anything, Beth said no, but their feelings ran deep and on Valentine's Day they made love. Meanwhile, one day in March, when Blake and Gary were rummaging through Neil's trailer to find a way to force Beth to stay with Neil, Beth caught them and after having a major verbal fight with Blake over Blake destroying some of her art sketches, Beth collapsed. When Gary and Blake took Beth to Cedars, they were all shocked to learn from Rick that Beth was pregnant! Beth assumed the baby was Neil's and told Phillip, who suggested they pass the child off as his. Unaware the baby really was Phillip's, Beth decided to be honest with Neil, but Blake, who stole Beth's file from the doctor's office, told Neil before Beth could.! A furious Neil refused to allow Phillip to raise his child. In April, Beth was ecstatic when Dr. Sedgwick showed her a sonogram revealing her child had been conceived in February 1990, and not in December 1989, which meant the child was Phillip's! In the meantime, trying to get back on Alan\\-Michael's good side, Blake agreed to give Phillip a divorce, no strings attached. However, things were about to get very bad for Phillip. The day he was to meet Neil, Neil knocked him out and left him to die. As Neil was leaving up the stairs, a double\\-crossing Gary confronted Neil and pushed down a flight of stairs into the garage. Blake showed up to see Gary and Neil fighting, and Gary convinced her Neil had to be subdued when he showed her the bomb Neil had set.",
"After tying up Neil, Blake saw Phillip also unconscious and was sure Gary had knocked him out. Blake then tricked Gary and was able to tie him up next to Neil. Blake called Roger who set Gary free. Meanwhile, Neil mumbled “Phillip”, leading Roger to suspect that was who hit him. Roger tried and failed to defuse the bomb and Neil died in the explosion. With the audiotape of Neil murmuring \"Phillip\" as the one who knocked him out, Phillip's wallet being found in the wreckage of the garage, and threats Phillip had made against Neil's life, this was all enough to get Phillip arrested for Neil's murder. Trying to avoid prosecution and find out who the real murderer was, Phillip faked his own death, stealing a corpse (with Rick's help) in order to do so. Phillip fled to the island of Capria, near Mexico, and was shocked to meet India there. He promised India his Spaulding stock if she would keep quiet about his being alive and went to Springfield to discover what happened to Beth since she didn't follow him out of town. After trying to get Phillip's assets from Alan and Alex, India finally gave up and helped Phillip. When Phillip returned to town, he was shocked to discover that Beth and Rick had married to throw the police off track. After Phillip threatened Gary whom he suspected was Neil's murderer, Gary paid a killer to kill Phillip. The plan failed and finally Det. A.C. Mallet and Roger discovered Gary was Neil's accomplice and murderer. At the same time, Phillip revealed himself alive after the birth of his daughter, Lizzie. Though innocent, Phillip, Beth and Rick were sentenced to perform community service out of town for fraud. After marrying in February 1991, Phillip and Beth moved to Arizona with Lizzie to carry out their community service.",
"Over the next few years, Phillip avoided any contact with the Spauldings when suddenly in April 1996, Alex called him to ask him to attend Alan\\-Michael's wedding to Lucy Cooper in Orlando, Florida. Although Phillip told Alex he wouldn't come, he indeed had plans to attend the wedding to Beth's dismay. Phillip arrived early and exposed himself to only Rick and told him he had plans to find the one who had cost him five years of his life. Phillip had found out someone else was involved in the incident which left him accused of Neil's murder. Gary had asked Phillip to visit him in prison where he gave him note that he had once found in Neil's trailer, which proved Neil had been paid by an \"A. Spaulding\" to get Phillip's fingerprints on the bomb. Although Rick advised him to drop his investigation, Phillip refused. During the wedding ceremony, Phillip wore a mask and when Alan was about to make a toast, Phillip stopped him and unmasked himself to the shock of all of the guests. Though Amanda, Alan and Alan\\-Michael weren't happy to see him, Phillip decided to return to Springfield anyway. While conducting his investigation, Phillip then visited Beth in Arizona but she left him for good since he'd refused to drop his vendetta and return home. Meanwhile, Alan\\-Michael was trying to prevent Phillip's return to Spaulding and, to set him up, he pretended to make up with his brother and tried to send him to a fake business trip to California so that he could spread lies about Phillip to the board. Phillip didn't leave but arrived during a board meeting to see Alan\\-Michael's actions against him. Not long after, Amanda exposed Alan\\-Michael as \"A. Spaulding\" through a letter from Neil to him. After Phillip asked Alan to support him during his fight against Alan\\-Michael Alan collapsed due to intense pain in his back and was rushed to Cedars. While recovering in his bed, he confessed to the family he was actually \"A. Spaulding\" and had hired Neil to set Phillip up since he had been disappointed in Phillip.",
"Furious, Phillip disowned Alan and later made up with Alan\\-Michael and made plans to move to New York. As for Alan, he was suffering from paralysis, and giving up, refused to attend physical therapy sessions. Although Phillip arranged for him to be transferred to a rehabilitation clinic, he could not be persuaded by Alan to stay in town. However, Alan still would not admit the seriousness of his injury and refused to heed the doctor's warning he would have to relearn how to use his body. Phillip dropped by the clinic on his way out of town, where Alex tried to convince him of the seriousness of his father's injury. Though Phillip refused to visit Alan, he relented when Alex begged him to stay to see him. The doctor explained to Alan he had a long, arduous journey ahead of him. When Alex and Phillip entered his room, Alan ordered them to leave. Alex left, but Phillip stayed behind and when he saw how resistant Alan was to his physical therapy, Phillip told him how pathetic he was for giving up so easily and he still blamed him for ruining his life. Although Alan\\-Michael tried to convince Phillip to just leave town and write Alan off for good, Phillip found that he couldn't and remained, staying for a while at the Bauers. Not long after, Phillip was shocked to learn Rick was the father of one of Blake's babies! Although Phillip demanded Ross be told the truth, or else he'd do it, he found he couldn't hurt Ross like that and kept quiet. Meanwhile, Phillip's anger at Alan softened as he sympathized with Alan's physical condition. Knowing Alan was giving up on himself, Phillip and Alan\\-Michael concocted a plan with Roger and Amanda to make Alan think they were selling Alan's company Advantage Systems to Roger with the hope Alan would get the urge to fight Roger and thus, get the urge to walk again. Their plan was a success. Meanwhile, after Lizzie had visited Phillip on Christmas, Phillip realized how much he missed Beth. It was too late because Lillian had given him divorce papers from Beth. At this time, Roger and Amanda plotted to take Spaulding over while the family tried to stop them. When Alan\\-Michael and Lucy left town, Phillip became president again.",
"That spring, Phillip was surprised to see his former sister\\-in\\-law, Harley Cooper at the Country Club masquerading as a woman named Starla. In the process of conducting the sting, Phillip and Harley started having feelings for one another which culminated into a kiss. Later, the pair left for New York to trap Jeffrey. Making it seem like \"Starla\" was going to get money from Phillip, the pair acted as though she was trying to seduce him, proving it by showing Jeffrey a surveillance tape of Phillip and Starla \"making love\". However, once the camera was shut off, the fake lovemaking became real as Phillip and Harley gave in to their passion. Later Phillip lied to Jeffrey stating he killed Harley during wild sex and when Jeffrey was ready to turn him to the police and to flee with Jenna, he was arrested for fraud when Harley and Jenna exposed him. Meanwhile, Harley and Phillip agreed to forget about happened that night and remain just friends. Then Harley and Jenna decided to join forces and began a detective agency. Their first assignment was to help Reva to find her long\\-lost sister. Not long after, Harley received a call from Mallet telling her he wanted a divorce since he was in love with another woman. Hurt and angry, Harley was consoled by Phillip. Meanwhile, Jenna and Harley learned Reva's nemesis, Annie Dutton, may have information on Reva's sister, and so they went to the mental hospital where Annie was staying. But when Security caught them snooping around, Jenna passed Harley off as her sister, Caitlin, and, to Harley's dismay, checked her into the mental institution. \"Caitlin\" then became Annie's roommate and apparently befriended her. Although Phillip tried to get Harley out of there, Harley was determined to follow through with the plan. Annie discovered who her new \"friend\" was and with help of the guards, drugged Harley with a psychotic drug. Luckily Phillip came to her rescue and admitted he too was falling in love with her.",
"Just then, Beth returned to town with Lizzie determined to win Phillip. Anxious to get Phillip back, Beth used Lizzie by getting her hopes up and having her lie that she wanted to stay at home rather than go with Phillip for the night. That same evening, Lizzie held up the mistletoe for the pair to kiss; as Phillip leaned in to kiss Beth's cheek, Beth turned and kissed him passionately on the lips. Later, Beth warned Harley she wanted Phillip back, to which Harley responded that would never happen. While pining for Phillip, Beth became friends with attorney Ben Warren, who was far from reputable. When Phillip warned Beth about how unscrupulous Ben was, she told him to mind his own business. However, Ben soon realized Beth was just using him to make Phillip jealous and offered to help. Later, to make Phillip jealous, Beth faked receiving a phone call from Ben, and made New Year's plans with him. Phillip made it known that he didn't want Ben in his house, but Beth said she will go out somewhere with him anyway. She got herself into more trouble by deciding to stay in Springfield and accept a job. Harley, meanwhile, wasn't happy to see Beth either, especially since she was insecure over Phillip's feelings for Beth. Her fears compounded when Phillip expressed his displeasure at Beth's new friendship with Ben Warren. Although Phillip tried to assure Harley his heart belonged to her, Harley couldn't quite be sure. In 1998, Phillip proved his love for Harley by asking her to move in with him. Elated, Harley accepted the offer but was still disconcerted over the bond Phillip and Beth shared. When Beth thanked Harley for finding a lost Lizzie, she antagonized Harley by telling her to give Phillip some time to be with his family and continued to provoke her by mentioning the phone call she made to Mallet. Angry, Harley attacked Beth but was pulled off by Eleni. To Harley's relief, Phillip wasn't angry but instead understood.",
"Their relationship took a step back when Beth attempted suicide by throwing herself in front of a car. Guilt\\-ridden, Phillip offered to stay at the mansion to take care of a rattled Lizzie. After overhearing Lizzie ask Phillip not to make her take care of her mommy alone, Harley got suspicious and starting investigating Beth's past in Arizona. In the process she learned Beth had accidents before. She also discovered Beth had a boyfriend in Arizona named Carl. Harley decided to find him in order to ask him about Beth. Learning she was being investigated, Beth blasted Harley, who remained undeterred. Finally, Beth admitted to Harley about her abusive relationship with Carl but left insulted when Harley continued to interrogate her. Beth then told Phillip about Carl and Harley's meddling before Harley got to tell him her side of it. When Harley finally got to Phillip, he knew the whole story and yelled at Harley for interfering and jumped to Beth's defense. Not long after, Carl, upon learning Harley was asking about him, arrived in town threatening Harley to stay out of his business. Although Carl denied hurting Beth, Harley is soon able to trick him into admitting it. Later, she convinced Beth to help her arrest Carl. Using Beth as bait, the plan was for Harley to tape record Carl admitting his abusiveness. Harley, realizing she forgot her gun, left the scene before Carl got there. When she returned, Carl was dead and Beth was the prime suspect. During the investigation, Harley became unnerved at Phillip's attempts to protect Beth, even going as far as him suppressing evidence. Later, when Beth confessed to killing Carl in self\\-defense, both Harley and Phillip were unconvinced and investigated further. They soon discovered the true killer was Phillip's daughter, Lizzie! Worried about Lizzie, Harley left Phillip so that he could be with his daughter in her time of need. But Phillip wouldn't have it and convinced Harley he could be with her and be a part of his daughter's life at the same time. When Phillip proposed, Harley happily accepted and the couple made plans to marry, however when the wedding plans seemed to get out of hand, the couple decided to elope in New York. However, to their surprise, their elopement wasn't quite the secret they thought it was and they found Buzz and Phillip's Aunt Alex arranged a beautiful wedding for them at City Hall.",
"Trouble began to brew again with the arrival of Harley's daughter Daisy, now called Susan, who was in search of her real mother now that her adoptive mother had died. In 1999, after telling Harley and Phillip her father had \"changed\" after her mother's death, Harley allowed Susan to stay the night at her place, to Phillip's disapproval. After calling Susan's father, Jim, Harley suggested they stay in Springfield for the holidays. Pleased to have a mother figure again, Susan was determined to fix Harley up with Jim and kept manipulating them to be alone together. Determined to stay in Springfield, Susan overdosed on medication. The plan worked with a guilt\\-ridden Harley wishing she could have seen the signs and suggesting that Susan should stay in town. However, Phillip disagreed and tried to encourage Harley to let go and allow Susan and Jim to go on with their lives. As Phillip and Harley continued to debate about Susan's presence in their lives, Harley learned she was pregnant.[GL's Phillip Spaulding Timeline Page 3 \\| Soap Opera Digest](http://www.soapoperadigest.com/content/gls-phillip-spaulding-timeline-page-3-0) After learning of Harley's pregnancy, a hurt Susan left Springfield to live with Jim but later corresponded with Harley by phone. Later, Susan called Harley asking for help after she shoplifted a dress, telling her she was at a strange bus station outside Springfield. So, Harley has arrived at the bus station outside of Springfield to collect Susan. While there, a creepy man who had been eyeing Susan turned his attention to Harley. The two of them struggled, and Harley managed to kick him in the groin. Meanwhile, Jim arrived and flattened the perpetrator. When Phillip showed up, he and Jim argued about Harley's involvement in Susan's life with Jim complaining Susan was envious of the life Phillip and Harley lead. Phillip offered to solve the problem by moving the two of them to Springfield and gave Jim a job at Spaulding. Harley was forced to mediate between Phillip and Jim who did not get along with Jim even ended up quitting Spaulding to work at Lewis Construction. However, Phillip continued to grate on Jim, and when Jim threatened to leave town, Harley convinced Phillip to give him a reason to stay. So, to please Harley, Phillip bribed Jim to stay (although by now Jim was dating Beth so he was already planning on staying anyway).",
"That summer, Harley finally gave birth to a son, who was named Alan Cooper Spaulding, with Harley deciding to nickname him \"Zach\" after the lead in Phillip's novel. Things couldn't have been better when Harley and her new family agreed to join her best friend, Cassie Layne, and her new fiancé, Prince Richard for a Thanksgiving celebration in San Cristobel. After the celebration, Phillip, Beth and Jim were forced to leave early for business reasons, however, their plane crashed into the mountains. All three were o.k., but Jim opted to leave and brave the cold on his own in an attempt to bring help back. Believing that they were going to die, Phillip and Beth prepared a videotape to be made for Lizzie. Emotions high, they started reminiscing about the past and sought comfort in each other's arms with the video still recording. After being rescued, both decided to keep their lovemaking a secret and go on with their separate lives.",
"In 2000, the unexpected happened: Beth found herself pregnant with Phillip's child. Convinced Phillip would leave Harley to marry her again, Beth told him about the child. When Phillip refused to marry her, she became afraid Jim would leave her and threatened to have an abortion if Phillip told anyone the child was his. And so worried about Beth's state of mind (as well as his own marriage), Phillip reluctantly agreed to keep the child's true paternity a secret while Beth married Jim, Phillip giving the bride away. Their tryst wasn't a complete secret: the missing video was found by Prince Edmund Winslow who used it to blackmail Phillip when Phillip threatened to fire him from Spaulding. Phillip's hatred of Edmund wasn't lost on Harley and when she demanded to know the cause, Rick covered by saying Edmund was blackmailing him. At the same time, the Spauldings were dismayed when Lizzie was diagnosed with leukemia.. With Lizzie's condition worsening, her only chance of surviving was a bone marrow transfusion from the baby Beth was carrying. When Jim refused to have his child delivered prematurely in order to save Lizzie, Phillip blurted out the horrible truth: the child Beth was carrying wasn't Jim's; it was his. In the end, Harley refused to forgive Phillip and asked for a divorce.",
"At the same time, Jim died heroically in a fire at Christmastime. Almost immediately after, Beth accepted the friendship and support of Edmund. In 2001, against everyone's advice, Beth became his sole champion and encouraged him to secure the crown for himself when he discovered he was the true heir to the throne. Though Phillip tried to show Beth that Edmund couldn't be trusted by telling her Edmund was fixing the island's election, she went to Edmund who immediately used the information to his advantage and went to the press himself, calling the election invalid and declaring himself ruler of San Cristobel. Edmund had Richard arrested and Phillip talked his way past the prison guard and into Richard's cell. When the guard returned, Richard was gone and Phillip was in his place. When Edmund learned what Phillip had done, he had him shackled in the jail. Although Beth was able to save Phillip by convincing Edmund to simply deport him, Phillip told Beth he was seeking sole custody of their children to keep them away from Edmund. Phillip returned weeks later though when Beth asked that the children come for her and Edmund's coronation. Not long after the coronation, he married Beth who became his princess. Mere weeks later, Beth would learn everything people had been saying about Edmund was true when she learned he was holding Cassie captive! Confronted by Beth, a desperate Edmund locked her away but Beth was able to escape from the tower. Luckily, Phillip and Noah saw what Beth was doing and when she fell to the ground, Luckily, Beth was alright and returned to Springfield. After all those months of intrigue, Phillip returned to Springfield in time to see a very pregnant Harley. Instantly assuming she was pregnant with his child, Phillip railed at her that he was the last to know. On the defensive, Harley pointed out he had spent the better part of the winter consumed with Beth in San Cristobel and then informed him he was not the father of her baby. Weeks later, Phillip would be shocked to learn from Edmund just who was the baby's father: Rick.",
"Furious, Phillip accused Rick of doing this purposely to hurt him (out of revenge for what happened with Meredith Reade) and refused to forgive him. Not long after, Beth ran to Mexico to get a quickie divorce. Edmund caught up with her and again begged her to go back to him. But Beth refused and ran off. While trying to get away from Edmund, Beth was caught in a flash flood and presumed dead. That fall, Phillip was able to get testimony from two witnesses that Edmund had been chasing after Beth when she died, however, the point became moot when Beth suddenly turned up in Springfield alive! Though she claimed to be suffering from memory lapses, Phillip was increasingly suspicious of her strange behavior and personality change. Not long after Beth's return, Phillip learned Harley had Rick's baby, but refused to see the child. However, around Thanksgiving, when the pair was looking for a lost Lizzie and James, Phillip and Rick talked things over and resumed their friendship. Meanwhile, after doing some digging, in early 2002, Phillip learned the woman in town was an imposter named Lorelei Hills. Though Alan wanted her arrested, Phillip was afraid that would traumatize Lizzie and simply asked Lorelei to leave. Though Alan went against Phillip's wishes and had her arrested anyway, when she became ill, Phillip, against his better judgment, allowed her to be cared for at the mansion. The trouble was, she was now insisting she was Beth! Skeptical at first, the more time he spent with her the more he realized this was truly Beth Raines. Beth was the imposter! By the time Phillip realized this, Beth had left Springfield with Edmund! Tracking her down at an old silver mine, Phillip became trapped. Though Beth reasserted herself and raced to the mine to free Phillip, the mine entrance shut while she was inside, trapping them both. Edmund arrived, causing another split between Beth/Lorelei. Edmund accidentally trapped them in the mine a second time, but Beth managed to free Phillip and they found another exit. After getting Beth, who'd taken on the Lorelei personality to deal with her trauma, the help she needed, the pair reunited.",
"While Beth and Phillip reunited was a good idea in concept, the reality was more difficult. Phillip was cold and distant, confused by Beth's changes in personality while Beth was skittish and irritated by Phillip's pompous and patriarchal attitude in taking his son Zach away from Harley because of her relationship with Gus Aitoro. Frustrated by Beth, Phillip found himself susceptible to the charms of Olivia Spencer, Alan's fiancée. Then suddenly, a scandal rocked the household: Lorelei's diary was published! Though Beth immediately suspected Olivia, the publisher stated Lorelei had done the deed. Lizzie, Phillip, everyone, including Beth herself, blamed Beth. Confused, Beth went to Alan's lake cottage to clear her head, and ran into Bill Lewis. In an attempt to remember the past, she kissed him passionately. Phillip walked in at just that moment and railed out her. Later, Olivia told Phillip that it was Alan who published Lorelei's diary. To get revenge on Alan, the couple placed themselves on the bed, waiting for him to arrive. Once again they got carried away and began making out. Alan walked in, took one look at them, and had a heart attack. Later when Beth learned the circumstances of Alan's heart attack, she and Phillip agreed they had both changed far too much to be together, and gracefully parted ways.",
"Though now free, Phillip was too guilty over his father's heart attack and vowed to stay away from Olivia, who agreed to marry Alan as well as sign an extreme prenuptial agreement which said she would lose her half of the Beacon Hotel if she cheated before the wedding. But she and Phillip kissed in the elevator moments before the ceremony, and Alex pocketed the security tape. On Thanksgiving Day, Alexandra revealed Olivia had published Lorelei's Diary. Meanwhile, Alex eventually gave Olivia the security tape. Alan found the tape and saw Olivia and Phillip's smooch was right in front of his eyes. Alan threw her out of the house and into the cold, days before Christmas. Later, after finding out Alan faked his earlier heart attack, Phillip and Olivia saw no reason to deny their feelings now, they wildly made love. The couple's happiness didn't last long. Confused about whether to end her marriage, Olivia went out of town in early 2003 to visit her sister and clear her head. While away, she made her choice and sent Phillip a priority letter saying she wanted to be with him and for him to meet her at the Beacon. Alan intercepted the letter and kept it from Phillip. When Olivia arrived at the Beacon, Alan and not Phillip was there to greet her. Hurt and vulnerable, Olivia let herself be seduced by Alan only to have Phillip arrive at the Beacon the next morning and find the two together. Disgusted that she'd fall into Alan's arms so soon, Phillip walked away. When Olivia tried to explain the situation, Phillip revealed he never got the letter. Though the pair figured out Alan intercepted the letter, that didn't matter to Phillip who decided he'd be better off not chasing after his father's wife. However, when Olivia revealed to Phillip she was pregnant and the child might be his, Phillip agreed to stand by her no matter what. Meanwhile, Phillip swore off Spaulding but was pulled back into the company when Alex informed him Alan was acting erratically.",
"Faced with a mentally disturbed Alan, Phillip agreed to come back to the company. Not long after, an angry but well Alan was termed innocent of Reva's stalking and informed Phillip he was handing control of Spaulding over to his real son—Gus Aitoro! In addition to his troubles with Alan, Alex's schemes to break up Olivia and Phillip seemed to work after Alex paid someone to doctor the paternity test Phillip had secretly done without Olivia's knowledge which showed Alan was the father. However, Olivia had had her own tests done which proved otherwise. Olivia couldn't forgive Phillip's mistrust and asked him to stay away from her. Weeks later, Olivia would fall down the stairs at the Beacon. Although she and the baby were okay, she refused to see Phillip. Later, Phillip was shocked to learn she thought Lizzie was responsible for her fall. Incredulous, Phillip was dismayed to learn Beth and Lillian shared the fear and spirited the girl away to a cabin without his knowledge. In denial for months over Lizzie's emotional state, Phillip was later horrified when Lizzie threatened to kill herself after being confronted by Beth and Lillian. Though Harley was able to defuse the situation and bring Lizzie home, Phillip finally realized his daughter needed help. The situation with Lizzie brought Phillip to the breaking point and he began making plans for his soon\\-to\\-be\\-born daughter and suffering from panic attacks. Though an anxious Phillip tried to convince Olivia to marry him, she saw he was only asking because he wanted to provide a home for the child she was carrying, not because he loved her. Not long after she gave Phillip a non\\-answer to his marriage proposal, things finally came to a head with Lizzie. The night of Olivia's baby shower, Lizzie sneaked out of the house on the pretense of giving Olivia a gift. When a frightened Olivia refused the gift and asked Lizzie to leave, Lizzie continued to push the gift on Olivia and finally was escorted home by Christopher. That night, Olivia found something in her baby crib—a doll's head. Though Lizzie tried to deny it and pleaded with her family to believe her, she was unable to convince her family of her innocence.",
"A horrified Olivia decided she had to get as far away from Lizzie as possible and left Springfield. Convinced he was a horrible father because he couldn't help Lizzie, Phillip's mental state would only get worse. Though agreeing to check himself into Cedars in order to have tests done, Phillip discharged himself early after doctors said there was nothing physically wrong with him. However, those close to Phillip could tell there was something seriously wrong. Phillip finally lost his grip on reality, seeing visions of Olivia everywhere. Finally, Phillip began stalking a pregnant woman and broke into her home, thinking she was Olivia. After that incident, Phillip's family decided to arrange an intervention, the same as they had with Lizzie, in order to convince Phillip to get himself help. By now Phillip had grown increasingly paranoid and delusional, but when he realized that his deteriorating condition was scaring Lizzie, Phillip agreed to go to the hospital for tests. After seeing yet another vision of Olivia (though unbeknownst to him, this one was real), Phillip checked himself into Ravenwood Mental Hospital. By now the family knew Olivia was in town, and believing she could help Phillip, they persuaded her to visit him. Phillip's condition had worsened greatly and unsure of his own sanity, he tried to strangle Olivia, thinking she was an hallucination. Unnerved, days later Olivia returned and told Phillip why she'd come back—their baby had died. Instead of the truth snapping Phillip back into reality, it only made him draw deeper into himself, becoming almost catatonic, and to Olivia's horror Phillip started blaming himself.",
"As time went by, Phillip seemed trapped in his shell, unaware of what was going on around him. Then in January 2004, his condition seemed to improve somewhat. Although he remained silent, he started responding to people. Meanwhile, Olivia hurriedly got a minister to marry her and Phillip at the institution. Olivia's position as Phillip's wife secure, she set out to solidify her power base at Spaulding and more by having Phillip change his will. Meanwhile, she kept a firm hold on Phillip, limiting his visitors, and often answering questions posed to Phillip herself. Finally, weeks later, Phillip received a shock when Olivia showed Phillip their daughter, Emma, who hadn't died after all. Although Phillip agreed to Olivia's demand of telling no one of Emma's existence, in order to protect the child from Lizzie, in private a vengeful Phillip vowed to make Olivia pay and take the child from her. For Olivia, Phillip proved to be a loose cannon and revealed to others Emma was alive. Although Beth and Rick dismissed Phillip's claims as denial, Lizzie was very suspicious and eventually presented Emma to Phillip. Soon after, Phillip decided he had to take drastic measures to get his life back on track and, on Rick's recommendation, he underwent ECT therapy. Meanwhile, Phillip and Olivia started playing a dangerous game with each other, with Olivia playing the concerned, dutiful wife and with Phillip physically intimidating her. Finally after weeks of therapy, Phillip was released from the hospital and returned home where he and Olivia continued their cat and mouse game. Although Alan suggested Phillip simply get rid of Olivia, Phillip had something devious in mind for his wife. His plan was to frame her for the Antimonious drug scandal that Spaulding was being investigated for. Phillip's plan was foiled with the Feds dropped the investigation before they discovered the evidence. Not long after Phillip got his revenge on Olivia by blackmailing her with the knowledge she had illegally purchased Spaulding stock. With the choice between prison and staying married, Olivia was forced to bow down to Phillip's wishes. cold and calculating, Phillip to set out to embarrass Olivia and keep her under his thumb. In addition, he had Olivia trailed and cut off access to her bank accounts, in the event she'd try to leave. For his final act of revenge, he demanded Olivia resign from Spaulding, giving her a prepared speech on what to say. Finally, on the day of Harley's almost wedding to Gus, Phillip finally gave Olivia what she wanted—a divorce.",
"That was the only good thing that would happen that day. For on that day, Harley discovered not only was Alexandra an accomplice in the Antimonious drug deal, but Gus knew. In short order, Harley called the wedding off, Frank (framed for the crime) held a gun on Alan, and Buzz turned Alex in to the police. Seeing a grave injustice to his family, Phillip went after the Coopers, specifically Company. Deciding to rebuild the city of Springfield, Phillip, in a cold and calculating manner worthy of Alan, went through the government and secured permission to go forth with his plans. When Harley and Buzz learned who was behind the takeover of Company, they were furious. However, Phillip remained cold and unapologetic stating it was just business and offered to compensate Buzz fairly. But Buzz refused to give up and decided to fight. Phillip refused to make it easy on the Coopers, visiting Company at every turn and basically rubbing salt in the wound. However, the Coopers weren't the only family Phillip was after. In order to create his own version of Springfield, Phillip needed to acquire more property and made it appear as if he wanted to take over Cross Creek in order to distract them from their other properties. Meanwhile, very soon after, Phillip overheard Bill pleading with one of his employees, to reconsider resigning. Impressed with this middle\\-aged woman, named Ruth Karloff, Phillip interviewed her and found her to be no\\-nonsense, efficient and loyal and he hired her as his personal assistant. As the days went by, Phillip was growing more and more callous with each passing day. When he learned Lizzie had drugged her boyfriend, Joey Lupo, he inexplicably took Lizzie's side and blackmailed Joey into leaving town by threatening to foreclose on Mrs. Lupo's house. Days later, Phillip was enraged when his plans for Company were foiled when it was discovered the area was a nesting place for a rare bird. Angry that he'd lost, Phillip vindictively tore down Harley's house. Phillip's malice towards the Coopers wasn't lost on Zach, who distanced himself from Phillip. Although the Coopers denied it, Phillip was certain they were poisoning Zach's mind against him. In the meantime, Lizzie was having her own problems and confessed to Phillip she believed she'd hit Sandy Foster with her car. Desperate to protect his daughter, Phillip urged her to keep quiet while he took care of everything. Meanwhile, Phillip was becoming paranoid that someone at Spaulding was working against him and asked Gus to run a background check on all key employees. In the meantime, Gus was becoming concerned the mole was actually Ruth, Phillip's now trusted assistant. Phillip expressed his doubts.",
"When Ruth began asking questions about the hit and run, he quickly realized Gus was right and decided Ruth needed to be neutralized to protect Lizzie. To accomplish this, he arranged for a man to run Ruth down! His plan failed however, when Gus ended up saving her life. In the midst of all this, Phillip's diabolical behavior concerned everyone, including those closest to him. In an effort to get through to Phillip, Rick arranged for Phillip to be kidnapped so they could talk. Although Rick tried reasoning, he only succeeded in making Phillip angry. That same day, Phillip learned something startling from Zach—Ruth was Harley in disguise! Still dealing with that revelation, Phillip was shocked to learn Lizzie was at the police station, about to confess to the hit and run! Although he tried to demand she keep quiet, Lizzie openly defied her father and admitted the truth. Believing everyone was against him, Phillip decided to leave Springfield with the only people he cared about—his children. After luring all the children to his private jet, Phillip informed everyone he had the children. Harley attempted to appeal to the human side of him, but to no avail. Not long after, Phillip arranged for Lizzie to be brought to him, however when she refused to go with him, he became enraged and vowed to destroy the people who have cost him his daughter's love. That same night, he asked several people to meet him at Company at 9 pm, telling each person if they came, and told no one else of the meeting, their children would be returned to them. At 9 pm, various citizens of Springfield converged at Company to find Phillip shot. Although he was rushed to the hospital, it was too late and Phillip was declared dead.",
"After a short investigation, Harley was arrested, and the spring of 2005, convicted of Phillip's murder. Months after her conviction, Phillip's real shooter was revealed—it was Alan. However, that wasn't the end of the story. Having been revealed to be Phillip's killer, Alan knew he had to leave town and paid a visit to an abandoned warehouse where he met with none other than Phillip. Apparently Alan's concerns about Phillip's state of mind caused him to take drastic action in order to protect his son and his grandchildren: he shot Phillip and faked his death. Unknown to everyone else in Springfield, a completely delusional Phillip was living out his life as CEO of Spaulding in an abandoned warehouse office made to look like his Spaulding office. When Alan was arrested no one believed his story about Philip being alive. Not only that, but the medical staff stopped looking after Phillip because Alan couldn't pay. Phillip disappeared and later called Rick, stating he needed his help. Despite Rick's reluctance, Phillip pleaded with his friend to keep his situation a secret. Phillip was almost discovered by Mallet the day Harley married Gus but managed to escape. Meanwhile, frantic that a mentally disturbed Phillip was a danger to himself as well as to others, Alan went to desperate lengths to lure him into the open. To draw Phillip out, Alan married none other than Beth.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://blogs.knoxnews.com/telebuddy/archives/2009/02/phillip\\-spauldi.shtml \\|title\\=Welcome to nginx! \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-18 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120708161250/http://blogs.knoxnews.com/telebuddy/archives/2009/02/phillip\\-spauldi.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2012 \\|df\\=mdy\\-all }}",
"In the Spring of 2006, Phillip's Uncle Ross was apparently killed when his plane went down on the way to San Gabriel. After some investigating, Harley learned Alan was telling the truth—Phillip was alive. Rick confirmed it and admitted Ross suspected the truth and set out to find him. Determined not to be found, Phillip asked Rick to have the plane sabotaged so Ross couldn't take off. Tragically, the plane went up anyway and Ross was killed. In late 2007, the specter of Phillip continued to loom over Springfield. It started at Emma's seventh birthday party where she received a gift apparently from her father. Panicked, Olivia went to Alan for protection, unaware it was Alan who sent the gift as a way to manipulate Olivia into helping him. When Olivia tried to bow out, Alan upped the ante by hiring someone to break into her room and trash it. Not long after, Alan unexpectedly hired Harley to find Phillip. Though distressed at the thought of him returning, Harley decided it might be best to know his whereabouts and took the case. It didn't take long to learn Beth had received a gift from Phillip for her unborn baby. However, it came from a courier and she had no clue where Phillip was. At one point, Phillip sent Harley a card telling her to stop looking for him; she'll see him when he is ready. Afterwards, Harley spotted Zach's new sneakers and the boy was forced to admit they came from Phillip. Told Phillip would be at his ballgame, Harley and her partner Cyrus Foley waited and Cyrus tackled a hooded man they thought was Phillip. It was Remy who claimed to have run into Phillip after losing some gambling money in Clayton. Remy claimed Phillip paid him to deliver this package (which contained Phillip's old high school sports jersey) to Zach. Remy told the duo he didn't know where Phillip was, but doubted he was returning to town.",
"Sometime later, [Bill Lewis](/wiki/Bill_Lewis_III \"Bill Lewis III\") became involved with Lizzie, and was falsely accused of being responsible for Lizzie's kidnapping (orchestrated by [Dinah Marler](/wiki/Dinah_Marler \"Dinah Marler\") and executed by [Grady Foley](/wiki/Grady_Foley \"Grady Foley\")). Despite her insistence that she believed Bill was not responsible for her kidnapping, Lizzie's faith in Bill began to wain and she slowly turned into Alan's pawn, distancing herself from Bill. In an effort to make Lizzie see reason, Bill (along with his father, [Billy](/wiki/Billy_Lewis_II \"Billy Lewis II\")), set out to find Phillip in an effort to get him to help her. Bill was unsuccessful in his search, but things would work out in a way he never expected.",
"On February 9, 2009, in an effort to prevent Beth from marrying Alan, [Coop Bradshaw](/wiki/Henry_Cooper_Bradshaw \"Henry Cooper Bradshaw\") was involved in a car accident on his way to the church. Badly injured, Coop was pulled from the wreckage by Phillip. In the following episode, Phillip spoke with Alan alone, at Phillip's mock grave site. He then pulled a gun on Alan, but told him he had no intention of shooting him. He even thanked Alan for straightening him out during his time of mental illness. Later that day, he stopped an enraged Buzz Cooper from physically attacking Alan.",
"Phillip's return jolted the entire Spaulding family, and they barely had time to adjust when Beth's and Phillip's 19\\-year\\-old son, James, returned from boarding school. James was running a Ponzi scheme and even when Phillip helped clear the charges against him, he resented Phillip's return. Beth was torn between the love of her life and the son who had only known the worst of his father. During this time Beth also helped her daughter Lizzie marry Bill Lewis.",
"Eventually, Phillip learned he was dying. He didn't tell anyone, aside from Lillian, and tried to repair the relationships in his life with the time he had left.['Guiding Light' Extinguished After 72 Years On Air : NPR](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=112816770) Beth found out in what were supposed to be Phillip's last days, and she felt devastated as well as betrayed by Phillip and by her mother. Fortunately for Phillip, Alan agreed to a bone marrow transplant, and saved his son's life, but a few days later, Alan quietly died after attending the double wedding of Lillian and Buzz Cooper and Vanessa Chamberlain and Billy Lewis. Beth was forced to break the news to her young daughter Peyton. Shortly before Alan's death, Phillip had proposed to Beth, and she had happily accepted. James and Phillip were now reconciled and Lizzie was trying for a baby. Beth also decided to return to her first love, drawing. A year later, Beth and Phillip were happily married, and were celebrating the upcoming nuptials of their best friends Rick and Mindy.[We Love Soaps: The GUIDING LIGHT Finale](http://www.welovesoaps.net/2009/09/guiding-light-finale.html)",
""
] |
Notable relationships
---------------------
Phillip is known for having many wives.{{cite web \|last1\=Purvis \|first1\=Matt \|title\=On the Anniversary of Guiding Light's Final Episode, We Revisit 10 of the Much\-Missed Soap's Most Memorable Moments \|url\=https://soaps.sheknows.com/soaps/news/578424/guiding\-light\-finale\-anniversary\-celebrating\-memorable\-moments/ \|website\=Soaps She Knows \|date\=September 18, 2022 \|access\-date\=6 May 2023}}
### Mindy Lewis
Phillip's first wife was [Mindy Lewis](/wiki/Mindy_Lewis "Mindy Lewis"), daughter of [Billy Lewis](/wiki/Billy_Lewis_II "Billy Lewis II") and his deceased first wife Diana. Mindy originally was the lover of [Rick Bauer](/wiki/Rick_Bauer_%28Guiding_Light%29 "Rick Bauer (Guiding Light)") and Phillip was engaged to [Beth Raines](/wiki/Beth_Raines "Beth Raines"). However, after Phillip and Mindy had a one\-night stand (because they thought Rick and Beth slept together), Mindy became pregnant. Phillip decided to do the right thing by marrying Mindy in 1984\. Not long after, Mindy suffered a miscarriage and the marriage crumbled. Phillip maintained his feelings for Beth, while Mindy still longed for Rick. Within six months, the couple opted for an amicable divorce in 1985\.
### India von Halkein
India, Alexandra's stepdaughter from her marriage to the Baron Leo von Halkein, arrived in town in 1984\. India's homeland was [Andorra](/wiki/Andorra "Andorra"), where she and her father lived. Phillip became smitten with the worldly India. Soon after arriving in Springfield, India began a vendetta against the Spaulding family. She blackmailed Phillip into marriage in 1984, and became a member of the board of directors at Spaulding Enterprises. Phillip and India's wedding is regarded as one of the most memorable nuptials in soap opera history.[Top 20 Most Memorable Soap Weddings of All Time](http://www.aoltv.com/2011/02/17/best-soap-weddings/) After India's affair with Simon Hall, she and Phillip divorced in early 1986\. India remained on the Spaulding Enterprises board of directors indefinitely. Later, India helped Phillip fake his death and go on the run to discover who killed Neil Everest.
### Christina "Blake" Thorpe
Phillip believed Beth to be dead, so he moved on with the scheming [Blake Thorpe](/wiki/Blake_Marler "Blake Marler"). They married in mid 1989\. Blake and Phillip's marriage immediately began to crumble when it appeared that Beth was in fact alive. Thereafter, Beth and Phillip consummated their relationship. Phillip divorced Blake later that year, and Blake sought revenge by romantically pursuing his brother, [Alan\-Michael Spaulding](/wiki/Alan-Michael_Spaulding "Alan-Michael Spaulding").
### Elizabeth "Beth" Raines
Phillip married the love of his life, [Beth Raines](/wiki/Beth_Raines "Beth Raines") in 1991\. Phillip's wedding to Beth is also considered to be memorable, in that it featured one of the show's most popular couples to finally say their "I do's." The couple's first dance as man and wife was to [Lionel Richie's](/wiki/Lionel_Richie "Lionel Richie") 1982 debut solo "[Truly](/wiki/Truly_%28Lionel_Richie_song%29 "Truly (Lionel Richie song)")," which is also remembered as the song Phillip and Beth danced to at their high school prom where they were named king and queen. In later years, Beth had already given birth to a healthy baby girl named [Lizzie Spaulding](/wiki/Lizzie_Spaulding "Lizzie Spaulding") and together she and Phillip left Springfield. They were happy offscreen for quite a while and Phillip returned to Springfield in 1994 to find out who framed him for a number of criminal acts. Phillip moved on with Harley Cooper, but Beth returned. She and Phillip tried to reconnect, but eventually the marriage failed because of the time apart. They separated in 1995\. Beth continued to try to separate Phillip from his attachment to Harley, but their divorce was finalized in 1997 after Beth coaxed Lizzie into trying to interfere with Phillip's newfound happiness.
At the end of the series Phillip and Beth found happiness.
### Harley Cooper
Phillip married Harley in a surprise family ceremony officiated by the mayor of New York, Rudy Gulliani, in 1997\. The wedding was organized by Phillip's Best Friend, Rick; Harley's stepmother, Jenna and Phillip's Aunt Alexandra. In a surprise moment, Phillip asked Alan to be his best man. Harley gave birth to their son, Alan Cooper "Zach" Spaulding. The marriage had its share of ups and downs; and ultimately, the couple divorced in 2001 after Phillip had lied about his unborn child resulting from an affair with Beth.
### Olivia Spencer
[Olivia Spencer](/wiki/Olivia_Spencer "Olivia Spencer") was married to Phillip's father Alan, but after an affair and a pregnancy, Alan kidnapped Olivia and held her away on an island. Phillip rescued her and ultimately, with the use of blackmail, Alan gave Olivia a divorce in 2003\. Olivia and Phillip continued to court each other until they ultimately married in 2004 when she gave birth to [Emma Spaulding](/wiki/Emma_Spaulding "Emma Spaulding"). Eventually, thanks to Harley, [Buzz Cooper](/wiki/Buzz_Cooper "Buzz Cooper"), and [Frank Cooper](/wiki/Frank_Cooper_Jr. "Frank Cooper Jr."), Phillip developed a vendetta against the Cooper family and literally went insane. After having him committed, Olivia divorced him and ran away with her daughter Emma.
|
[
"Notable relationships\n---------------------",
"Phillip is known for having many wives.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Purvis \\|first1\\=Matt \\|title\\=On the Anniversary of Guiding Light's Final Episode, We Revisit 10 of the Much\\-Missed Soap's Most Memorable Moments \\|url\\=https://soaps.sheknows.com/soaps/news/578424/guiding\\-light\\-finale\\-anniversary\\-celebrating\\-memorable\\-moments/ \\|website\\=Soaps She Knows \\|date\\=September 18, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2023}}",
"### Mindy Lewis",
"Phillip's first wife was [Mindy Lewis](/wiki/Mindy_Lewis \"Mindy Lewis\"), daughter of [Billy Lewis](/wiki/Billy_Lewis_II \"Billy Lewis II\") and his deceased first wife Diana. Mindy originally was the lover of [Rick Bauer](/wiki/Rick_Bauer_%28Guiding_Light%29 \"Rick Bauer (Guiding Light)\") and Phillip was engaged to [Beth Raines](/wiki/Beth_Raines \"Beth Raines\"). However, after Phillip and Mindy had a one\\-night stand (because they thought Rick and Beth slept together), Mindy became pregnant. Phillip decided to do the right thing by marrying Mindy in 1984\\. Not long after, Mindy suffered a miscarriage and the marriage crumbled. Phillip maintained his feelings for Beth, while Mindy still longed for Rick. Within six months, the couple opted for an amicable divorce in 1985\\.",
"### India von Halkein",
"India, Alexandra's stepdaughter from her marriage to the Baron Leo von Halkein, arrived in town in 1984\\. India's homeland was [Andorra](/wiki/Andorra \"Andorra\"), where she and her father lived. Phillip became smitten with the worldly India. Soon after arriving in Springfield, India began a vendetta against the Spaulding family. She blackmailed Phillip into marriage in 1984, and became a member of the board of directors at Spaulding Enterprises. Phillip and India's wedding is regarded as one of the most memorable nuptials in soap opera history.[Top 20 Most Memorable Soap Weddings of All Time](http://www.aoltv.com/2011/02/17/best-soap-weddings/) After India's affair with Simon Hall, she and Phillip divorced in early 1986\\. India remained on the Spaulding Enterprises board of directors indefinitely. Later, India helped Phillip fake his death and go on the run to discover who killed Neil Everest.",
"### Christina \"Blake\" Thorpe",
"Phillip believed Beth to be dead, so he moved on with the scheming [Blake Thorpe](/wiki/Blake_Marler \"Blake Marler\"). They married in mid 1989\\. Blake and Phillip's marriage immediately began to crumble when it appeared that Beth was in fact alive. Thereafter, Beth and Phillip consummated their relationship. Phillip divorced Blake later that year, and Blake sought revenge by romantically pursuing his brother, [Alan\\-Michael Spaulding](/wiki/Alan-Michael_Spaulding \"Alan-Michael Spaulding\").",
"### Elizabeth \"Beth\" Raines",
"Phillip married the love of his life, [Beth Raines](/wiki/Beth_Raines \"Beth Raines\") in 1991\\. Phillip's wedding to Beth is also considered to be memorable, in that it featured one of the show's most popular couples to finally say their \"I do's.\" The couple's first dance as man and wife was to [Lionel Richie's](/wiki/Lionel_Richie \"Lionel Richie\") 1982 debut solo \"[Truly](/wiki/Truly_%28Lionel_Richie_song%29 \"Truly (Lionel Richie song)\"),\" which is also remembered as the song Phillip and Beth danced to at their high school prom where they were named king and queen. In later years, Beth had already given birth to a healthy baby girl named [Lizzie Spaulding](/wiki/Lizzie_Spaulding \"Lizzie Spaulding\") and together she and Phillip left Springfield. They were happy offscreen for quite a while and Phillip returned to Springfield in 1994 to find out who framed him for a number of criminal acts. Phillip moved on with Harley Cooper, but Beth returned. She and Phillip tried to reconnect, but eventually the marriage failed because of the time apart. They separated in 1995\\. Beth continued to try to separate Phillip from his attachment to Harley, but their divorce was finalized in 1997 after Beth coaxed Lizzie into trying to interfere with Phillip's newfound happiness.\nAt the end of the series Phillip and Beth found happiness.",
"### Harley Cooper",
"Phillip married Harley in a surprise family ceremony officiated by the mayor of New York, Rudy Gulliani, in 1997\\. The wedding was organized by Phillip's Best Friend, Rick; Harley's stepmother, Jenna and Phillip's Aunt Alexandra. In a surprise moment, Phillip asked Alan to be his best man. Harley gave birth to their son, Alan Cooper \"Zach\" Spaulding. The marriage had its share of ups and downs; and ultimately, the couple divorced in 2001 after Phillip had lied about his unborn child resulting from an affair with Beth.",
"### Olivia Spencer",
"[Olivia Spencer](/wiki/Olivia_Spencer \"Olivia Spencer\") was married to Phillip's father Alan, but after an affair and a pregnancy, Alan kidnapped Olivia and held her away on an island. Phillip rescued her and ultimately, with the use of blackmail, Alan gave Olivia a divorce in 2003\\. Olivia and Phillip continued to court each other until they ultimately married in 2004 when she gave birth to [Emma Spaulding](/wiki/Emma_Spaulding \"Emma Spaulding\"). Eventually, thanks to Harley, [Buzz Cooper](/wiki/Buzz_Cooper \"Buzz Cooper\"), and [Frank Cooper](/wiki/Frank_Cooper_Jr. \"Frank Cooper Jr.\"), Phillip developed a vendetta against the Cooper family and literally went insane. After having him committed, Olivia divorced him and ran away with her daughter Emma.",
""
] |
History
-------
The first written reference to the town comes from 1244\. However, it is assumed that for the three hundred years before that Báhoň was owned by the Hungarian kings, attached to the [Bratislava Castle](/wiki/Bratislava_Castle "Bratislava Castle") estate. In the middle of the 16th century the town has experienced an influx of German colonists, who soon became dominant. Their dominance was defused half a century later when Croatian colonists moved in. The town became fully Slovak after the 1918 founding of Czechoslovakia.
In 1580, the ruling Jazernický family built a mansion, which was expanded and rebuilt in 1759\-1765\. The manor was rebuilt again in 1816 in [Neoclassical style](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture"). The final renovation came in 1935\-1936\.
In 1845, the [horse](/wiki/Horse "Horse") railway that connected [Trnava](/wiki/Trnava "Trnava") with [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava "Bratislava") opened, with a stop in Báhoň. This positively impacted the town's social and industrial development. After the electrified rail line between [Žilina](/wiki/%C5%BDilina "Žilina") and [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava "Bratislava") opened, Báhoň retained its train station.
Between 1914 and 1921, the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") church of [Saint Francis of Assisi](/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi "Francis of Assisi") was built by the renowned Slovak architect [Milan Michal Harminc](/wiki/Milan_Michal_Harminc "Milan Michal Harminc"). In 1930, a manor house became a care home for the blind, and after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") an electrical manufacturing facility customized for blind workers was opened.
Between 1974 and 1990, Báhoň was much larger than it is today, as it also included the villages of [Kaplna](/wiki/Kaplna "Kaplna") and [Igram](/wiki/Igram "Igram").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The first written reference to the town comes from 1244\\. However, it is assumed that for the three hundred years before that Báhoň was owned by the Hungarian kings, attached to the [Bratislava Castle](/wiki/Bratislava_Castle \"Bratislava Castle\") estate. In the middle of the 16th century the town has experienced an influx of German colonists, who soon became dominant. Their dominance was defused half a century later when Croatian colonists moved in. The town became fully Slovak after the 1918 founding of Czechoslovakia.",
"In 1580, the ruling Jazernický family built a mansion, which was expanded and rebuilt in 1759\\-1765\\. The manor was rebuilt again in 1816 in [Neoclassical style](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\"). The final renovation came in 1935\\-1936\\.",
"In 1845, the [horse](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\") railway that connected [Trnava](/wiki/Trnava \"Trnava\") with [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava \"Bratislava\") opened, with a stop in Báhoň. This positively impacted the town's social and industrial development. After the electrified rail line between [Žilina](/wiki/%C5%BDilina \"Žilina\") and [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava \"Bratislava\") opened, Báhoň retained its train station.",
"Between 1914 and 1921, the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") church of [Saint Francis of Assisi](/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi \"Francis of Assisi\") was built by the renowned Slovak architect [Milan Michal Harminc](/wiki/Milan_Michal_Harminc \"Milan Michal Harminc\"). In 1930, a manor house became a care home for the blind, and after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") an electrical manufacturing facility customized for blind workers was opened.",
"Between 1974 and 1990, Báhoň was much larger than it is today, as it also included the villages of [Kaplna](/wiki/Kaplna \"Kaplna\") and [Igram](/wiki/Igram \"Igram\").",
""
] |
Sentencing of the seven accused
-------------------------------
For a period of more than four years, the seven accused were taken to court between March 2020 and April 2024 for the charges preferred against them over the Orchard Towers incident.
### Joel Tan and Ang Da Yuan
In their trial, the first two members \- 26\-year\-old Joel Tan Yun Sheng and 26\-year\-old Ang Da Yuan \- pleaded guilty to lower charges of voluntarily causing hurt to the victim. Additionally, Ang also pleaded guilty to consorting with a person possessing an offensive weapon. As a result, on 4 March 2020, Joel Tan was sentenced to four weeks' imprisonment, while Ang was sentenced to eight months' imprisonment and six [strokes of the cane](/wiki/Caning_in_Singapore "Caning in Singapore").
The district court also took into consideration the decision by Joel Tan to convince the other members to surrender to the police, which was argued by Tan's lawyer [Josephus Tan](/wiki/Josephus_Tan "Josephus Tan"). Ang's lawyers \- Anil Sandhu and Mohamed Arshad \- also submitted that their client was remorseful of causing the death of Satheesh, and Ang stated he want to repent for what he did and take good care of his family after his release.{{Cite web \|last\=Tamilsilvam \|first\=Arvin \|date\=6 March 2020 \|title\=Jail for two involved in Orchard Towers killing \|url\=https://theindependent.sg/jail\-for\-two\-involved\-in\-orchard\-towers\-killing/ \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=The Independent}}{{cite news \|last\=Alkhatib \|first\=Shaffiq \|date\=4 March 2020 \|title\=Jail for two assailants in Orchard Towers brawl which left one man dead \|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/jail\-for\-two\-in\-orchard\-towers\-brawl\-which\-left\-one\-man\-dead \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=The Straits Times}}
### Natalie Siow
On 9 October 2020, for assault and consorting an armed individual, 24\-year\-old Natalie Siow Yu Zhen was sentenced to five months' imprisonment with no caning on 9 October 2020 (as females are not allowed to be caned under Singapore law). Siow's lawyer Amarick Gill reportedly stated that Siow, who felt sorry for the death of Satheesh (which she did not expect to happen), had learnt her lesson after her "harrowing" experience of facing the gallows and a capital charge.{{Cite web \|last\=Alkhatib \|first\=Shaffiq \|date\=10 October 2020 \|title\=Orchard Towers murder: Woman gets 5 months' jail \|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/orchard\-towers\-murder\-woman\-gets\-5\-months\-jail \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=The Straits Times}}
Siow was granted [parole](/wiki/Parole "Parole") and released on 18 January 2021 after serving over 200 days out of her five\-month jail term due to good behaviour, for which her sentence did not include the three and a half months (specifically 107 days) she spent in remand.{{cite news \|last\=Romero \|first\=Anna Maria \|date\=19 January 2021 \|title\=Orchard Towers murder: Natalie Siow released from jail \|url\=https://theindependent.sg/orchard\-towers\-murder\-natalie\-siow\-released\-from\-jail/ \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=The Independent}}{{cite news \|last\=Lay \|first\=Belmont \|date\=18 January 2021 \|title\=Natalie Siow released from prison \|url\=https://mothership.sg/2021/01/natalie\-siow\-released\-prison/ \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=Mothership}}
### Chan Jia Xing
The fourth member Chan Jia Xing, who originally faced a reduced charge of consorting an armed person, was issued a conditional warning and the prosecution decided to withdraw the criminal charges against Chan, after they took into consideration that he tried to stop the fight and he also did not participate in the fatal assault of Satheesh either, as well as his full cooperation with the police during the investigations.
However, the prosecution warned Chan that if he re\-offend within the next 12 months, Chan would be brought back to court to face charges for both the new offence and his role in the 2019 Orchard Towers murder. 27\-year\-old Chan Jia Xing was thus set free on 17 October 2020\. According to Josephus Tan, Chan's lawyer, Chan was grateful for the decision and anticipated the birth of his first child (later revealed to be a son) in the following month. Chan also expressed he would never be involved in another crime again for life after the case of Satheesh's death.{{cite news \|last\=Teh \|first\=Cheryl \|date\=17 October 2020 \|title\=Man linked to Orchard Towers murder given conditional warning \|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/man\-linked\-to\-orchard\-towers\-murder\-given\-conditional\-warning \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=The Straits Times}}{{cite news \|last\=Lay \|first\=Belmont \|date\=15 October 2020 \|title\=Orchard Tower murder accused given conditional warning: His parents told him 'don't do stupid things ah' \|url\=https://mothership.sg/2020/10/chan\-jia\-xing\-orchard\-towers/ \|access\-date\=1 January 2022 \|website\=Mothership}}
### Loo Boon Chong
The fifth member, Loo Boon Chong pleaded guilty to the charges of obstructing justice and consorting an armed person on 14 December 2020\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/orchard\-towers\-killing\-man\-pleads\-guilty\-to\-consorting\-with\-knife\-carrying\|title\=Orchard Towers killing: Man pleads guilty to obstructing justice by disposing of bloodied T\-shirt\|website\=The Straits Times\|date\=14 December 2020\|access\-date\=31 December 2021}} The prosecution sought a sentence of at least six months' jail and a fine of [S$](/wiki/S%24 "S$")1,000 for Loo, while Loo's three lawyers \- [Sunil Sudheesan](/wiki/Sunil_Sudheesan "Sunil Sudheesan"), [Diana Ngiam](/wiki/Diana_Ngiam "Diana Ngiam") and [Sujesh Anandan](/wiki/Sujesh_Anandan "Sujesh Anandan") \- argued for two months in jail on account of his remorse over the incident and with Lawyer Ngiam having highlighted that Loo could not afford to pay the fine, he should be given an additional five days in jail instead.
On 15 January 2021, 27\-year\-old Loo was sentenced to five months in jail, as well as a [S$](/wiki/S%24 "S$")1,000 fine for an unrelated gambling offence.{{cite news \|last\=Low \|first\=Dominic \|date\=15 January 2021 \|title\=Orchard Towers murder: Man who threw away bloodstained shirt jailed for 5 months \|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/orchard\-towers\-murder\-man\-who\-threw\-away\-bloodstained\-shirt\-jailed\-for\-five \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=The Straits Times}} While sentencing Loo, District judge [Ng Cheng Thiam](/wiki/Ng_Cheng_Thiam "Ng Cheng Thiam") also took note that Loo had been in remand for a short period before being released on bail and that he had surrendered himself to the police hours after Tan Sen Yang murdered Satheesh Noel Gobidass.
### Tan Hong Sheng
On 5 February 2021, the sixth man Tan Hong Sheng, who was remanded without bail since his recapture in September 2019, pleaded guilty to a single charge of consorting an armed person and two unrelated charges of rioting, which he committed on 18 November 2018 and 25 February 2019 respectively. It was further revealed that Tan was out on bail for the second rioting offence when he became involved in the 2019 Orchard Towers murder case. Tan also faced five other similar charges, but these will be taken into consideration during sentencing.
The prosecution sought a sentence of at least five years in prison with 12 strokes of the cane after emphasising that Tan had committed two earlier rioting offences and the viciousness of the attack, as well as his criminal record. On the other hand, the defence counsel, led by [Josephus Tan](/wiki/Josephus_Tan "Josephus Tan"), argued for a lighter sentence of between 45 and 50 months' jail and between nine and 12 strokes of the cane on account that their client was merely trying to stop the fight and not taking part in it.{{cite news \|last\=Alkhatib \|first\=Shaffiq \|date\=5 February 2021 \|title\=Man linked to 2019 Orchard Towers murder pleads guilty to offences including 2 counts of rioting \|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/man\-linked\-to\-2019\-orchard\-towers\-murder\-pleads\-guilty\-to\-offences\-including \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=The Straits Times}}
On 5 March 2021, Tan, then 24 years old, was sentenced to a total of four years and nine months' jail (57 months) and 12 [strokes of the cane](/wiki/Caning_in_Singapore "Caning in Singapore").{{cite news \|last\=Alkhatib \|first\=Shaffiq \|date\=5 March 2021 \|title\=Orchard Towers murder: Man sentenced to jail, caning after pleading guilty to reduced charge \|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/orchard\-towers\-murder\-man\-sentenced\-to\-jail\-caning\-after\-pleading\-guilty\-to \|access\-date\=31 December 2021 \|website\=The Straits Times}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.zaobao.com.sg/realtime/singapore/story20210305\-1128938\|title\=豪杰大厦命案 一被告判监57个月 鞭刑12下\|trans\-title\=Orchard Towers murder: One suspect sentenced to 57 months in prison and 12 strokes of the cane\|language\=Chinese\|website\=Lianhe Zaobao\|date\=5 March 2021\|access\-date\=1 January 2022}}
### Tan Sen Yang
On 3 October 2023, more than four years after the Orchard Towers incident, 32\-year\-old Tan Sen Yang officially stood trial for one count of murdering Satheesh Noel Gobidass. Tan was represented by a counsel of three lawyers \- Teo Choo Kee, Subir Singh Grewal and Nichol Yeo. Justice Aedit Abdullah of the High Court presided the hearing while the prosecution was led by Deputy Public Prosecutors (DPP) Hay Hung Chun, Lim Shin Hui and Benedict Yeo of the [Attorney\-General's Chambers](/wiki/Attorney-General_of_Singapore "Attorney-General of Singapore") (AGC). The trial itself was expected to last for around two weeks, and 47 witnesses, including Tan's six accomplices (who were all dealt with earlier on), were summoned to testify in court.{{cite news \|date\=3 October 2023 \|title\=乌节豪杰大厦谋杀案 被告用爪刀攻击死者至少三次 \|url\=https://www.8world.com/singapore/orchard\-towers\-tan\-sen\-yang\-first\-trial\-2256821 \|work\=8World News \|language\=zh}}
The prosecution's case was that after Tan attacked two men \- patron Muhammad Fairus Muhammad Ali and security officer B. Barathkrishnan \- with a karambit knife, Satheesh confronted the accused, resulting in Tan using the same weapon to attack Satheesh thrice, and based on the prosecutors' arguments, Tan had committed murder by intentionally inflicting the stab wounds on Satheesh's neck, such that one of the injuries was sufficient to cause death in the ordinary course of nature, which was supported by the autopsy report of Satheesh's case.{{cite news \|last\=Lum \|first\=Selina \|date\=3 October 2023 \|title\=Orchard Towers brawl: Man on trial for murder punched victim while holding knife \|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/orchard\-towers\-brawl\-man\-on\-trial\-for\-murder\-punched\-victim\-while\-holding\-knife \|work\=\[\[The Straits Times]] \|location\=\[\[Singapore]]}}{{cite news \|date\=3 October 2023 \|title\=乌节豪杰大厦谋杀案 被告手握爪刀两秒三拳打死者 \|url\=https://www.zaobao.com.sg/realtime/singapore/story20231003\-1439159 \|work\=Lianhe Zaobao \|language\=zh}} It was further revealed during the first day of Tan's trial that Tan Sen Yang had alcohol use disorder, and a history of adjustment disorder and depressed mood, according to a psychiatric report tendered during his psychiatric remand. However, Tan was deemed mentally fit to plead and stand trial as these conditions did not have any contributory link to his alleged offences, and he also did not have an unsound mind at the time of the killing. It was reported that despite extensive investigations, the murder weapon was never found.{{cite news \|last\=Tham \|first\=Davina \|date\=3 October 2023 \|title\=Last suspect in Orchard Towers fatal fight goes on trial for murder \|url\=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/orchard\-towers\-murder\-trial\-fatal\-fight\-last\-suspect\-3816736 \|work\=CNA}}
On 25 April 2024, Tan was found guilty of [murder](/wiki/Murder "Murder") under section 300(c) of the [Penal Code](/wiki/Penal_Code_%28Singapore%29 "Penal Code (Singapore)") and was sentenced to [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment_in_Singapore "Life imprisonment in Singapore") with 12 strokes of the [cane](/wiki/Caning_in_Singapore "Caning in Singapore"). Justice Abdullah stated in his verdict that he was satisfied that Tan indeed intentionally inflicted the fatal injury on Satheesh and it thus constituted as an act of murder, and the defence of diminished responsibility was also rejected in light of the absence of any contributory link between the conditions and his offence. He also rejected the possibility that the fatal wound was caused by other members of Tan's group as what the defence tried to argue in court; the defence pinned the blame on Chan Jia Xing especially since the CCTV evidence captured Chan holding a black object at the time of the fight, but it was refuted by the judge who found it likely to be an [e\-cigarette](/wiki/Electronic_cigarette "Electronic cigarette"). At the time of the judgement, Tan's father was present in court and Tan was given permission to speak to his father and four other relatives.{{cite news \|date\=26 April 2024 \|title\=Orchard Towers case: Man, 32, convicted of murder, gets life imprisonment \& 12 strokes of the cane\|url\=https://mothership.sg/2024/04/tan\-sen\-yang\-orchard\-towers\-murder\-life\-imprisonment/ \|work\=Mothership}}{{cite news \|date\=25 April 2024 \|title\=豪杰大厦砍人脖子夺命 男子谋杀罪成监终身鞭12下\|url\=https://www.zaobao.com.sg/realtime/singapore/story20240425\-3499183 \|work\=Lianhe Zaobao\|language\=zh}}{{cite news \|date\=25 April 2024 \|title\=豪杰大厦命案最后一名嫌犯罪名成立 被判终身监禁和12下鞭刑\|url\=https://www.8world.com/singapore/last\-accused\-person\-in\-orchard\-towers\-fatal\-fight\-gets\-life\-imprisonment\-for\-murder \|work\=8World News\|language\=zh}}
Prior to Tan's sentencing, the prosecution, having expressed their intention to not seek the death penalty, cited the precedent case of the 2020 [Punggol Field murder](/wiki/Punggol_Field_murder "Punggol Field murder") and thus proposed for Tan to receive a life sentence and at least 15 strokes of the cane, while the defence asked for Tan to receive 12 strokes of the cane on top of a life term. Justice Abdullah agreed with the prosecution that the offence and circumstances revolving around it did not warrant the death sentence. Justice Abdullah also touched on the need to consider Tan's previous convictions, including voluntarily causing hurt in 2011 as well as affray and criminal intimidation in 2014, but he found no initiative to have them taken into account during sentencing, given the length of time that had passed and the difference in severity with the present murder charge. Due to Tan's conviction for murder, the other charges pending against him were all withdrawn by the prosecution.{{cite news \|date\=25 April 2024 \|title\=Orchard Towers murder: Man who punched victim while holding knife gets life in prison, caning\|url\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\-crime/orchard\-towers\-murder\-man\-who\-punched\-victim\-while\-holding\-knife\-gets\-life\-in\-prison\-caning \|work\=The Straits Times}}{{cite news \|date\=25 April 2024 \|title\=Last accused person in Orchard Towers fatal fight gets life imprisonment for murder\|url\=https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/last\-accused\-person\-orchard\-towers\-fatal\-fight\-gets\-life\-imprisonment\-murder\-2410981 \|work\=TODAY}}
In his full grounds of decision released on 8 August 2024, Justice Abdullah further stated his reasons to convict Tan of murder. He stated that the actions of Tan deliberately attacking Satheesh and his admission of fearing possible legal retribution etc. were demonstrative of him not acting irrationally under any impaired mental responsibility. Justice Abdullah also referred to the case of [Muhammad Salihin Ismail](/wiki/Muhammad_Salihin_Ismail "Muhammad Salihin Ismail"), who was originally jailed nine years for causing grievous hurt to his stepdaughter (who died from abdominal injuries) before being convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison by the Court of Appeal; the judge noted that with reference to Salihin's case, Tan had no legal basis to claim he never intend to inflict fatal wounds specifically on the neck, as he had the intent to stab and slash Satheesh on whichever part of the body the knife was bound to land onto during the stabbing, which still constituted as an act of murder.{{cite web\|date\=8 August 2024\|access\-date\=13 August 2024 \|title\=Public Prosecutor v Tan Sen Yang \[2024] SGHC 201\|url\=https://www.singaporelawwatch.sg/Portals/0/Docs/Judgments/2024/\[2024]%20SGHC%20201\.pdf \|work\=Singapore Law Watch}}
With regards to the sentence, Justice Abdullah noted that the prosecution had taken the death penalty off the table prior to Tan's sentencing, and agreed that it was not appropriate for Tan to be executed since his actions did not sufficiently outrage the feelings of the community and it was not exceptionally vicious or carried a blatant disregard for human life when compared to the precedent case of [Kho Jabing](/wiki/Kho_Jabing "Kho Jabing"), a Malaysian man who was hanged in 2016 for murdering a construction worker from China, and hence he exercised his rights of discretion to hand down a life sentence for Tan, and added 12 strokes of the cane before ordering the sentence to be backdated to 4 July 2019, the date of Tan's arrest.{{cite web\|date\=8 August 2024 \|title\=Public Prosecutor v Tan Sen Yang \[2024] SGHC 201\|url\=https://www.elitigation.sg/gd/s/2024\_SGHC\_201 \|work\=Supreme Court judgements}}
|
[
"Sentencing of the seven accused\n-------------------------------",
"For a period of more than four years, the seven accused were taken to court between March 2020 and April 2024 for the charges preferred against them over the Orchard Towers incident.",
"### Joel Tan and Ang Da Yuan",
"In their trial, the first two members \\- 26\\-year\\-old Joel Tan Yun Sheng and 26\\-year\\-old Ang Da Yuan \\- pleaded guilty to lower charges of voluntarily causing hurt to the victim. Additionally, Ang also pleaded guilty to consorting with a person possessing an offensive weapon. As a result, on 4 March 2020, Joel Tan was sentenced to four weeks' imprisonment, while Ang was sentenced to eight months' imprisonment and six [strokes of the cane](/wiki/Caning_in_Singapore \"Caning in Singapore\").",
"The district court also took into consideration the decision by Joel Tan to convince the other members to surrender to the police, which was argued by Tan's lawyer [Josephus Tan](/wiki/Josephus_Tan \"Josephus Tan\"). Ang's lawyers \\- Anil Sandhu and Mohamed Arshad \\- also submitted that their client was remorseful of causing the death of Satheesh, and Ang stated he want to repent for what he did and take good care of his family after his release.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Tamilsilvam \\|first\\=Arvin \\|date\\=6 March 2020 \\|title\\=Jail for two involved in Orchard Towers killing \\|url\\=https://theindependent.sg/jail\\-for\\-two\\-involved\\-in\\-orchard\\-towers\\-killing/ \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=The Independent}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Alkhatib \\|first\\=Shaffiq \\|date\\=4 March 2020 \\|title\\=Jail for two assailants in Orchard Towers brawl which left one man dead \\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/jail\\-for\\-two\\-in\\-orchard\\-towers\\-brawl\\-which\\-left\\-one\\-man\\-dead \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=The Straits Times}}",
"### Natalie Siow",
"On 9 October 2020, for assault and consorting an armed individual, 24\\-year\\-old Natalie Siow Yu Zhen was sentenced to five months' imprisonment with no caning on 9 October 2020 (as females are not allowed to be caned under Singapore law). Siow's lawyer Amarick Gill reportedly stated that Siow, who felt sorry for the death of Satheesh (which she did not expect to happen), had learnt her lesson after her \"harrowing\" experience of facing the gallows and a capital charge.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Alkhatib \\|first\\=Shaffiq \\|date\\=10 October 2020 \\|title\\=Orchard Towers murder: Woman gets 5 months' jail \\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-woman\\-gets\\-5\\-months\\-jail \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=The Straits Times}}",
"Siow was granted [parole](/wiki/Parole \"Parole\") and released on 18 January 2021 after serving over 200 days out of her five\\-month jail term due to good behaviour, for which her sentence did not include the three and a half months (specifically 107 days) she spent in remand.{{cite news \\|last\\=Romero \\|first\\=Anna Maria \\|date\\=19 January 2021 \\|title\\=Orchard Towers murder: Natalie Siow released from jail \\|url\\=https://theindependent.sg/orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-natalie\\-siow\\-released\\-from\\-jail/ \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=The Independent}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Lay \\|first\\=Belmont \\|date\\=18 January 2021 \\|title\\=Natalie Siow released from prison \\|url\\=https://mothership.sg/2021/01/natalie\\-siow\\-released\\-prison/ \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=Mothership}}",
"### Chan Jia Xing",
"The fourth member Chan Jia Xing, who originally faced a reduced charge of consorting an armed person, was issued a conditional warning and the prosecution decided to withdraw the criminal charges against Chan, after they took into consideration that he tried to stop the fight and he also did not participate in the fatal assault of Satheesh either, as well as his full cooperation with the police during the investigations.",
"However, the prosecution warned Chan that if he re\\-offend within the next 12 months, Chan would be brought back to court to face charges for both the new offence and his role in the 2019 Orchard Towers murder. 27\\-year\\-old Chan Jia Xing was thus set free on 17 October 2020\\. According to Josephus Tan, Chan's lawyer, Chan was grateful for the decision and anticipated the birth of his first child (later revealed to be a son) in the following month. Chan also expressed he would never be involved in another crime again for life after the case of Satheesh's death.{{cite news \\|last\\=Teh \\|first\\=Cheryl \\|date\\=17 October 2020 \\|title\\=Man linked to Orchard Towers murder given conditional warning \\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/man\\-linked\\-to\\-orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-given\\-conditional\\-warning \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=The Straits Times}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Lay \\|first\\=Belmont \\|date\\=15 October 2020 \\|title\\=Orchard Tower murder accused given conditional warning: His parents told him 'don't do stupid things ah' \\|url\\=https://mothership.sg/2020/10/chan\\-jia\\-xing\\-orchard\\-towers/ \\|access\\-date\\=1 January 2022 \\|website\\=Mothership}}",
"### Loo Boon Chong",
"The fifth member, Loo Boon Chong pleaded guilty to the charges of obstructing justice and consorting an armed person on 14 December 2020\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/orchard\\-towers\\-killing\\-man\\-pleads\\-guilty\\-to\\-consorting\\-with\\-knife\\-carrying\\|title\\=Orchard Towers killing: Man pleads guilty to obstructing justice by disposing of bloodied T\\-shirt\\|website\\=The Straits Times\\|date\\=14 December 2020\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021}} The prosecution sought a sentence of at least six months' jail and a fine of [S$](/wiki/S%24 \"S$\")1,000 for Loo, while Loo's three lawyers \\- [Sunil Sudheesan](/wiki/Sunil_Sudheesan \"Sunil Sudheesan\"), [Diana Ngiam](/wiki/Diana_Ngiam \"Diana Ngiam\") and [Sujesh Anandan](/wiki/Sujesh_Anandan \"Sujesh Anandan\") \\- argued for two months in jail on account of his remorse over the incident and with Lawyer Ngiam having highlighted that Loo could not afford to pay the fine, he should be given an additional five days in jail instead.",
"On 15 January 2021, 27\\-year\\-old Loo was sentenced to five months in jail, as well as a [S$](/wiki/S%24 \"S$\")1,000 fine for an unrelated gambling offence.{{cite news \\|last\\=Low \\|first\\=Dominic \\|date\\=15 January 2021 \\|title\\=Orchard Towers murder: Man who threw away bloodstained shirt jailed for 5 months \\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-man\\-who\\-threw\\-away\\-bloodstained\\-shirt\\-jailed\\-for\\-five \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=The Straits Times}} While sentencing Loo, District judge [Ng Cheng Thiam](/wiki/Ng_Cheng_Thiam \"Ng Cheng Thiam\") also took note that Loo had been in remand for a short period before being released on bail and that he had surrendered himself to the police hours after Tan Sen Yang murdered Satheesh Noel Gobidass.",
"### Tan Hong Sheng",
"On 5 February 2021, the sixth man Tan Hong Sheng, who was remanded without bail since his recapture in September 2019, pleaded guilty to a single charge of consorting an armed person and two unrelated charges of rioting, which he committed on 18 November 2018 and 25 February 2019 respectively. It was further revealed that Tan was out on bail for the second rioting offence when he became involved in the 2019 Orchard Towers murder case. Tan also faced five other similar charges, but these will be taken into consideration during sentencing.",
"The prosecution sought a sentence of at least five years in prison with 12 strokes of the cane after emphasising that Tan had committed two earlier rioting offences and the viciousness of the attack, as well as his criminal record. On the other hand, the defence counsel, led by [Josephus Tan](/wiki/Josephus_Tan \"Josephus Tan\"), argued for a lighter sentence of between 45 and 50 months' jail and between nine and 12 strokes of the cane on account that their client was merely trying to stop the fight and not taking part in it.{{cite news \\|last\\=Alkhatib \\|first\\=Shaffiq \\|date\\=5 February 2021 \\|title\\=Man linked to 2019 Orchard Towers murder pleads guilty to offences including 2 counts of rioting \\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/man\\-linked\\-to\\-2019\\-orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-pleads\\-guilty\\-to\\-offences\\-including \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=The Straits Times}}",
"On 5 March 2021, Tan, then 24 years old, was sentenced to a total of four years and nine months' jail (57 months) and 12 [strokes of the cane](/wiki/Caning_in_Singapore \"Caning in Singapore\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Alkhatib \\|first\\=Shaffiq \\|date\\=5 March 2021 \\|title\\=Orchard Towers murder: Man sentenced to jail, caning after pleading guilty to reduced charge \\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-man\\-sentenced\\-to\\-jail\\-caning\\-after\\-pleading\\-guilty\\-to \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2021 \\|website\\=The Straits Times}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.zaobao.com.sg/realtime/singapore/story20210305\\-1128938\\|title\\=豪杰大厦命案 一被告判监57个月 鞭刑12下\\|trans\\-title\\=Orchard Towers murder: One suspect sentenced to 57 months in prison and 12 strokes of the cane\\|language\\=Chinese\\|website\\=Lianhe Zaobao\\|date\\=5 March 2021\\|access\\-date\\=1 January 2022}}",
"### Tan Sen Yang",
"On 3 October 2023, more than four years after the Orchard Towers incident, 32\\-year\\-old Tan Sen Yang officially stood trial for one count of murdering Satheesh Noel Gobidass. Tan was represented by a counsel of three lawyers \\- Teo Choo Kee, Subir Singh Grewal and Nichol Yeo. Justice Aedit Abdullah of the High Court presided the hearing while the prosecution was led by Deputy Public Prosecutors (DPP) Hay Hung Chun, Lim Shin Hui and Benedict Yeo of the [Attorney\\-General's Chambers](/wiki/Attorney-General_of_Singapore \"Attorney-General of Singapore\") (AGC). The trial itself was expected to last for around two weeks, and 47 witnesses, including Tan's six accomplices (who were all dealt with earlier on), were summoned to testify in court.{{cite news \\|date\\=3 October 2023 \\|title\\=乌节豪杰大厦谋杀案 被告用爪刀攻击死者至少三次 \\|url\\=https://www.8world.com/singapore/orchard\\-towers\\-tan\\-sen\\-yang\\-first\\-trial\\-2256821 \\|work\\=8World News \\|language\\=zh}}",
"The prosecution's case was that after Tan attacked two men \\- patron Muhammad Fairus Muhammad Ali and security officer B. Barathkrishnan \\- with a karambit knife, Satheesh confronted the accused, resulting in Tan using the same weapon to attack Satheesh thrice, and based on the prosecutors' arguments, Tan had committed murder by intentionally inflicting the stab wounds on Satheesh's neck, such that one of the injuries was sufficient to cause death in the ordinary course of nature, which was supported by the autopsy report of Satheesh's case.{{cite news \\|last\\=Lum \\|first\\=Selina \\|date\\=3 October 2023 \\|title\\=Orchard Towers brawl: Man on trial for murder punched victim while holding knife \\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/orchard\\-towers\\-brawl\\-man\\-on\\-trial\\-for\\-murder\\-punched\\-victim\\-while\\-holding\\-knife \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Straits Times]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[Singapore]]}}{{cite news \\|date\\=3 October 2023 \\|title\\=乌节豪杰大厦谋杀案 被告手握爪刀两秒三拳打死者 \\|url\\=https://www.zaobao.com.sg/realtime/singapore/story20231003\\-1439159 \\|work\\=Lianhe Zaobao \\|language\\=zh}} It was further revealed during the first day of Tan's trial that Tan Sen Yang had alcohol use disorder, and a history of adjustment disorder and depressed mood, according to a psychiatric report tendered during his psychiatric remand. However, Tan was deemed mentally fit to plead and stand trial as these conditions did not have any contributory link to his alleged offences, and he also did not have an unsound mind at the time of the killing. It was reported that despite extensive investigations, the murder weapon was never found.{{cite news \\|last\\=Tham \\|first\\=Davina \\|date\\=3 October 2023 \\|title\\=Last suspect in Orchard Towers fatal fight goes on trial for murder \\|url\\=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-trial\\-fatal\\-fight\\-last\\-suspect\\-3816736 \\|work\\=CNA}}",
"On 25 April 2024, Tan was found guilty of [murder](/wiki/Murder \"Murder\") under section 300(c) of the [Penal Code](/wiki/Penal_Code_%28Singapore%29 \"Penal Code (Singapore)\") and was sentenced to [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment_in_Singapore \"Life imprisonment in Singapore\") with 12 strokes of the [cane](/wiki/Caning_in_Singapore \"Caning in Singapore\"). Justice Abdullah stated in his verdict that he was satisfied that Tan indeed intentionally inflicted the fatal injury on Satheesh and it thus constituted as an act of murder, and the defence of diminished responsibility was also rejected in light of the absence of any contributory link between the conditions and his offence. He also rejected the possibility that the fatal wound was caused by other members of Tan's group as what the defence tried to argue in court; the defence pinned the blame on Chan Jia Xing especially since the CCTV evidence captured Chan holding a black object at the time of the fight, but it was refuted by the judge who found it likely to be an [e\\-cigarette](/wiki/Electronic_cigarette \"Electronic cigarette\"). At the time of the judgement, Tan's father was present in court and Tan was given permission to speak to his father and four other relatives.{{cite news \\|date\\=26 April 2024 \\|title\\=Orchard Towers case: Man, 32, convicted of murder, gets life imprisonment \\& 12 strokes of the cane\\|url\\=https://mothership.sg/2024/04/tan\\-sen\\-yang\\-orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-life\\-imprisonment/ \\|work\\=Mothership}}{{cite news \\|date\\=25 April 2024 \\|title\\=豪杰大厦砍人脖子夺命 男子谋杀罪成监终身鞭12下\\|url\\=https://www.zaobao.com.sg/realtime/singapore/story20240425\\-3499183 \\|work\\=Lianhe Zaobao\\|language\\=zh}}{{cite news \\|date\\=25 April 2024 \\|title\\=豪杰大厦命案最后一名嫌犯罪名成立 被判终身监禁和12下鞭刑\\|url\\=https://www.8world.com/singapore/last\\-accused\\-person\\-in\\-orchard\\-towers\\-fatal\\-fight\\-gets\\-life\\-imprisonment\\-for\\-murder \\|work\\=8World News\\|language\\=zh}}",
"Prior to Tan's sentencing, the prosecution, having expressed their intention to not seek the death penalty, cited the precedent case of the 2020 [Punggol Field murder](/wiki/Punggol_Field_murder \"Punggol Field murder\") and thus proposed for Tan to receive a life sentence and at least 15 strokes of the cane, while the defence asked for Tan to receive 12 strokes of the cane on top of a life term. Justice Abdullah agreed with the prosecution that the offence and circumstances revolving around it did not warrant the death sentence. Justice Abdullah also touched on the need to consider Tan's previous convictions, including voluntarily causing hurt in 2011 as well as affray and criminal intimidation in 2014, but he found no initiative to have them taken into account during sentencing, given the length of time that had passed and the difference in severity with the present murder charge. Due to Tan's conviction for murder, the other charges pending against him were all withdrawn by the prosecution.{{cite news \\|date\\=25 April 2024 \\|title\\=Orchard Towers murder: Man who punched victim while holding knife gets life in prison, caning\\|url\\=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts\\-crime/orchard\\-towers\\-murder\\-man\\-who\\-punched\\-victim\\-while\\-holding\\-knife\\-gets\\-life\\-in\\-prison\\-caning \\|work\\=The Straits Times}}{{cite news \\|date\\=25 April 2024 \\|title\\=Last accused person in Orchard Towers fatal fight gets life imprisonment for murder\\|url\\=https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/last\\-accused\\-person\\-orchard\\-towers\\-fatal\\-fight\\-gets\\-life\\-imprisonment\\-murder\\-2410981 \\|work\\=TODAY}}",
"In his full grounds of decision released on 8 August 2024, Justice Abdullah further stated his reasons to convict Tan of murder. He stated that the actions of Tan deliberately attacking Satheesh and his admission of fearing possible legal retribution etc. were demonstrative of him not acting irrationally under any impaired mental responsibility. Justice Abdullah also referred to the case of [Muhammad Salihin Ismail](/wiki/Muhammad_Salihin_Ismail \"Muhammad Salihin Ismail\"), who was originally jailed nine years for causing grievous hurt to his stepdaughter (who died from abdominal injuries) before being convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison by the Court of Appeal; the judge noted that with reference to Salihin's case, Tan had no legal basis to claim he never intend to inflict fatal wounds specifically on the neck, as he had the intent to stab and slash Satheesh on whichever part of the body the knife was bound to land onto during the stabbing, which still constituted as an act of murder.{{cite web\\|date\\=8 August 2024\\|access\\-date\\=13 August 2024 \\|title\\=Public Prosecutor v Tan Sen Yang \\[2024] SGHC 201\\|url\\=https://www.singaporelawwatch.sg/Portals/0/Docs/Judgments/2024/\\[2024]%20SGHC%20201\\.pdf \\|work\\=Singapore Law Watch}}",
"With regards to the sentence, Justice Abdullah noted that the prosecution had taken the death penalty off the table prior to Tan's sentencing, and agreed that it was not appropriate for Tan to be executed since his actions did not sufficiently outrage the feelings of the community and it was not exceptionally vicious or carried a blatant disregard for human life when compared to the precedent case of [Kho Jabing](/wiki/Kho_Jabing \"Kho Jabing\"), a Malaysian man who was hanged in 2016 for murdering a construction worker from China, and hence he exercised his rights of discretion to hand down a life sentence for Tan, and added 12 strokes of the cane before ordering the sentence to be backdated to 4 July 2019, the date of Tan's arrest.{{cite web\\|date\\=8 August 2024 \\|title\\=Public Prosecutor v Tan Sen Yang \\[2024] SGHC 201\\|url\\=https://www.elitigation.sg/gd/s/2024\\_SGHC\\_201 \\|work\\=Supreme Court judgements}}",
""
] |
Treatment
---------
Complete immobilization of the head and neck should be done as early as possible and before moving the patient. Immobilization should remain in place until movement of the head and neck is proven safe. *In the presence of severe head trauma, cervical fracture must be presumed until ruled out.* Immobilization is imperative to minimize or prevent further [spinal cord injury](/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury "Spinal cord injury"). The only exceptions are when there is imminent danger from an external cause, such as becoming trapped in a burning building.
[Non\-steroidal anti\-inflammatory drugs](/wiki/NSAIDs "NSAIDs"), such as [Aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin "Aspirin") or [Ibuprofen](/wiki/Ibuprofen "Ibuprofen"), are contraindicated because they interfere with bone healing. [Paracetamol](/wiki/Paracetamol "Paracetamol") is a better option. Patients with cervical fractures will likely be prescribed medication for pain control.
In the long term, [physical therapy](/wiki/Physical_therapy "Physical therapy") will be given to build strength in the muscles of the neck to increase stability and better protect the cervical spine.
[Collars](/wiki/Cervical_collar "Cervical collar"), traction and surgery can be used to immobilize and stabilize the neck after a cervical fracture.
### Cervical collar
Minor fractures can be immobilized with a [cervical collar](/wiki/Cervical_collar "Cervical collar") without need for traction or surgery. A soft collar is fairly flexible and is the least limiting but can carry a high risk of further neck damage in patients with [osteoporosis](/wiki/Osteoporosis "Osteoporosis"). It can be used for minor injuries or after healing has allowed the neck to become more stable.
A range of manufactured rigid collars are also used, usually comprising a firm plastic bi\-valved shell secured with [Velcro](/wiki/Velcro "Velcro") straps and removable padded liners. The most frequently prescribed are the [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen_collar "Aspen collar"), Malibu, Miami J, and Philadelphia collars. All these can be used with additional chest and head extension pieces to increase stability.
### Rigid braces
Rigid braces that support the head and chest are also prescribed.{{URL \| http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/314921\-overview \| Shantanu S Kulkarni, DO and Robert H Meier III, "Spinal Orthotics", '''Medscape Reference'''}}. Examples include the Sterno\-Occipital Mandibular Immobilization Device (SOMI), Lerman Minerva and Yale types. Special patients, such as very young children or non\-cooperative adults, are sometimes still immobilized in medical plaster of paris casts, such as the [Minerva cast](/wiki/Orthopedic_cast%23Other_casts "Orthopedic cast#Other casts").
### Traction
[Traction](/wiki/Traction_%28orthopedics%29 "Traction (orthopedics)") can be applied by free weights on a pulley or a halo type brace. The [halo brace](/wiki/Orthotics%23Spinal_orthoses "Orthotics#Spinal orthoses") is the most rigid cervical brace, used when limiting motion to the minimum that is essential, especially with unstable cervical fractures. It can provide stability and support during the time (typically 8–12 weeks) needed for the cervical bones to heal.
### Surgery
Surgery may be needed to stabilize the neck and relieve pressure on the spinal cord. A variety of surgeries are available depending on the injury. Surgery to remove a damaged [intervertebral disc](/wiki/Intervertebral_disc "Intervertebral disc") may be done to relieve pressure on the spinal cord. The discs are cushions between the vertebrae. After the disc is removed, the vertebrae may be fused together to provide stability. Metal plates, screws, or wires may be needed to hold vertebrae or pieces in place.
|
[
"Treatment\n---------",
"Complete immobilization of the head and neck should be done as early as possible and before moving the patient. Immobilization should remain in place until movement of the head and neck is proven safe. *In the presence of severe head trauma, cervical fracture must be presumed until ruled out.* Immobilization is imperative to minimize or prevent further [spinal cord injury](/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury \"Spinal cord injury\"). The only exceptions are when there is imminent danger from an external cause, such as becoming trapped in a burning building.",
"[Non\\-steroidal anti\\-inflammatory drugs](/wiki/NSAIDs \"NSAIDs\"), such as [Aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin \"Aspirin\") or [Ibuprofen](/wiki/Ibuprofen \"Ibuprofen\"), are contraindicated because they interfere with bone healing. [Paracetamol](/wiki/Paracetamol \"Paracetamol\") is a better option. Patients with cervical fractures will likely be prescribed medication for pain control.",
"In the long term, [physical therapy](/wiki/Physical_therapy \"Physical therapy\") will be given to build strength in the muscles of the neck to increase stability and better protect the cervical spine.",
"[Collars](/wiki/Cervical_collar \"Cervical collar\"), traction and surgery can be used to immobilize and stabilize the neck after a cervical fracture.",
"### Cervical collar",
"Minor fractures can be immobilized with a [cervical collar](/wiki/Cervical_collar \"Cervical collar\") without need for traction or surgery. A soft collar is fairly flexible and is the least limiting but can carry a high risk of further neck damage in patients with [osteoporosis](/wiki/Osteoporosis \"Osteoporosis\"). It can be used for minor injuries or after healing has allowed the neck to become more stable.",
"A range of manufactured rigid collars are also used, usually comprising a firm plastic bi\\-valved shell secured with [Velcro](/wiki/Velcro \"Velcro\") straps and removable padded liners. The most frequently prescribed are the [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen_collar \"Aspen collar\"), Malibu, Miami J, and Philadelphia collars. All these can be used with additional chest and head extension pieces to increase stability.",
"### Rigid braces",
"Rigid braces that support the head and chest are also prescribed.{{URL \\| http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/314921\\-overview \\| Shantanu S Kulkarni, DO and Robert H Meier III, \"Spinal Orthotics\", '''Medscape Reference'''}}. Examples include the Sterno\\-Occipital Mandibular Immobilization Device (SOMI), Lerman Minerva and Yale types. Special patients, such as very young children or non\\-cooperative adults, are sometimes still immobilized in medical plaster of paris casts, such as the [Minerva cast](/wiki/Orthopedic_cast%23Other_casts \"Orthopedic cast#Other casts\").",
"### Traction",
"[Traction](/wiki/Traction_%28orthopedics%29 \"Traction (orthopedics)\") can be applied by free weights on a pulley or a halo type brace. The [halo brace](/wiki/Orthotics%23Spinal_orthoses \"Orthotics#Spinal orthoses\") is the most rigid cervical brace, used when limiting motion to the minimum that is essential, especially with unstable cervical fractures. It can provide stability and support during the time (typically 8–12 weeks) needed for the cervical bones to heal.",
"### Surgery",
"Surgery may be needed to stabilize the neck and relieve pressure on the spinal cord. A variety of surgeries are available depending on the injury. Surgery to remove a damaged [intervertebral disc](/wiki/Intervertebral_disc \"Intervertebral disc\") may be done to relieve pressure on the spinal cord. The discs are cushions between the vertebrae. After the disc is removed, the vertebrae may be fused together to provide stability. Metal plates, screws, or wires may be needed to hold vertebrae or pieces in place.",
""
] |
History
-------
The [Jagera](/wiki/Jagera_%28tribe%29 "Jagera (tribe)") [Indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians "Indigenous Australians") people were the first to inhabit the area well over 20,000 years ago.{{cite web \|title\=Map of Indigenous Australia \|url\=https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/map\-indigenous\-australia \|website\=The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies \|publisher\=Commonwealth of Australia (The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies) \|access\-date\=1 April 2024 \|date\=1996 \|archive\-date\=4 October 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004060643/https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/map\-indigenous\-australia \|url\-status\=live }}
Early settlers noticed that the Sunnybank district had good rainfall and a beautiful loamy soil, somewhat sandy in character, that produced beautiful displays of natural wild flowers. From the mid\-19th century it developed into a farming area with prosperous fruit and poultry farms and gardens of every kind.
The Town of Sunnybank was surveyed in 1886\.{{cite book \|last\=Roberts \|first\=Beryl \|date\=2013 \|title\=Naming Brisbane: Origins of Brisbane's Suburb \& Locality Names \|url\=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/6385507/Details \|page\=96 \|isbn\=9780987231529 \|access\-date\=23 December 2021 \|archive\-date\=23 December 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223004007/https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/6385507/Details \|url\-status\=live }} The name came from a property called Sunny Brae Estate owned by the Gillespie family. In the 19th century it was part of a much larger area known as the Parish of Yeerongpilly, but a distinct town outside of the area known as Brisbane. In 1885, the railway line was extended from Yeerongpilly, and names had to be given to the railway stations along the line.{{cite book \|title\=Stories of the Southside \|last\=Roberts \|first\=Beryl \|year\=1991 \|publisher\=Aussie Books \|location\=Archerfield, Queensland \|isbn\=0\-947336\-01\-X \|page\=16 }} Sunnybank got its name from a local farm, Sunnybrae, owned by the Gillespies, when {{convert\|2\|acre\|m2}} of land were taken over for the railway. *Brae* is Scottish for the English word *bank*, so the area was given boundaries and named Sunnybank.
The present suburb much reduced in size from the previous suburb of Sunnybank. The separate town of Sunnybank was absorbed into the City of Brisbane in 1925\. This older Sunnybank area is still known locally as Sunnybank. Rolling hills and the headwaters for both Stable Swamp Creek and [Bulimba Creek](/wiki/Bulimba_Creek%2C_Queensland "Bulimba Creek, Queensland") have drawn people and wildlife to the Sunnybank area.
### Development
By the first part of the 20th century, farmland increasingly gave way to suburbia. General Motors Holden established a car manufacturing plant on Bradman Street at [Acacia Ridge](/wiki/Acacia_Ridge%2C_Queensland "Acacia Ridge, Queensland"), creating a major source of employment for the entire city of Brisbane.
On 21 June 1914 a group of adherents of the [Church of Christ](/wiki/Churches_of_Christ_in_Australia "Churches of Christ in Australia") began holding services in private homes. The group purchased a block of land and cleared it. The congregation was formally established in April 1915 with 18 foundation members. The first church was erected in 1918 and moved to a more central location in 1922\. By 1975 the church relocated to its present chapel and hall at 105 Station Road ({{Coord\|\-27\.5756\|153\.0552\|type:landmark\_region:AU\-QLD\|name\=Sunnybank Church of Christ}}).{{Citation\|author1\=Haigh, George\|title\=Churches of Christ in Queensland : 100 years venturing in faith\|pages\=119–122\|publication\-date\=1983\|publisher\=Historical Committee, Conference of Churches of Christ in Queensland\|isbn\=978\-0\-909116\-38\-5\|author2\=Churches of Christ in Queensland\|year\=1983 }}{{Cite book\|title\=Gregory's Street Directory of Brisbane and Suburbs and Metropolitan Road Guide\|year\=1975\|edition\=11\|pages\=105–112\|chapter\=Index to Churches}}
[thumb\|left\|Oasis gardens and poolsOpening](/wiki/File:StateLibQld_2_67444_Oasis_complex_in_Sunnybank%2C_Brisbane.jpg "StateLibQld 2 67444 Oasis complex in Sunnybank, Brisbane.jpg") in 1938, The Oasis, with lush gardens, swimming pools and a mini zoo became Brisbane's most popular tourist attraction. The tropical gardens themselves attracted national and international attention. The Oasis's popularity really took off in 1942 when, during the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), thousands of American military personnel stationed in Brisbane used the Oasis as a rest and recreation venue.{{Cite SLQ\-CC\-BY\|url\=https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/suburban\-oasis\-sunnybanks\-oasis\-swimming\-pool\-gardens\|title\=A Suburban Oasis: Sunnybank's Oasis Swimming Pool \& Gardens\|author\=Troy Keith\|date\=24 May 2021\|website\=John Oxley Library Blog\|access\-date\=24 May 2021}}{{Cite web \|last\=Keith \|first\=Troy \|date\=2021\-05\-24 \|title\=A Suburban Oasis: Sunnybank's Oasis Swimming Pool \& Gardens \|url\=https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/suburban\-oasis\-sunnybanks\-oasis\-swimming\-pool\-gardens \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-23 \|website\=John Oxley Library \|publisher\=\[\[State Library of Queensland]] \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=24 May 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524042249/https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/suburban\-oasis\-sunnybanks\-oasis\-swimming\-pool\-gardens \|url\-status\=live }} The Oasis was located at 141 Station Road ({{Coord\|\-27\.5736\|153\.0563\|type:landmark\_region:AU\-QLD\|name\=The Oasis (former)}}).
With the [1982 Commonwealth Games](/wiki/1982_Commonwealth_Games "1982 Commonwealth Games") being held at the Queen Elizabeth II sporting complex (QE II), now known as the [Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre](/wiki/Queensland_Sport_and_Athletics_Centre "Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre") (QSAC), and [Expo 88](/wiki/Expo_88 "Expo 88") years later, Brisbane and its suburbs like Sunnybank were shown to the world. With new land releases rare in the region, developers have turned to building higher density residential and commercial projects.
{{Clear\|left}}
### Asian influence on culture
In the late 1980s, an increasing number of Asian immigrants began to settle in Sunnybank and neighbouring suburbs.{{cn\|date\=June 2023}} The influx of Asian immigrants caused the look of the area to change, especially in the primary business district of Sunnybank at the intersection of Mains Road and McCullough Street, where Asian restaurants and businesses are numerous.
Sunnybank is today a thriving multicultural suburb, with strong Asian influences in design, food and culture.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/greater\-brisbanes\-multicultural\-hubs\-20140729\-zy0yk.html\|title\=Greater Brisbane's multicultural hubs\|last\=Moore\|first\=Tony\|date\=30 July 2014\|work\=\[\[Brisbane Times]]\|access\-date\=23 November 2018\|archive\-date\=23 November 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123154140/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/greater\-brisbanes\-multicultural\-hubs\-20140729\-zy0yk.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|last\=Panayotov\|first\=Jodi\|title\=Sunnybank: Brisbanes Little Asia\|url\=https://www.mustdobrisbane.com/features/sunnybank\-brisbanes\-little\-asia\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-09\|website\=Must Do Brisbane\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=9 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190211/https://www.mustdobrisbane.com/features/sunnybank\-brisbanes\-little\-asia}}{{Cite web\|title\=Sunnybank: Asian takeaway restaurants, gyms and more\|url\=https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/brisbetter/explore/sunnybank\-asian\-takeaway\-restaurants\-gyms\-and\-more\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-09\|website\=\[\[Brisbane City Council]]\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=9 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184612/https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/brisbetter/explore/sunnybank\-asian\-takeaway\-restaurants\-gyms\-and\-more}}{{Cite news\|last\=Riga\|first\=Rachel\|date\=6 March 2020\|title\='No\-one is here': Coronavirus fears causing trade to plummet at Chinese restaurants\|language\=en\-AU\|publisher\=\[\[ABC News (Australia)\|ABC News]]\|location\=Australia\|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020\-03\-06/coronavirus\-queensland\-businesses\-reporting\-sunnybank\-slowdown/12021778\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-09\|archive\-date\=25 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425065734/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020\-03\-06/coronavirus\-queensland\-businesses\-reporting\-sunnybank\-slowdown/12021778\|url\-status\=live}} Many of the suburb's shops and businesses are owned and run by people of Asian descent who call Australia home, with many bilingual business signs written in Chinese and English.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The [Jagera](/wiki/Jagera_%28tribe%29 \"Jagera (tribe)\") [Indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians \"Indigenous Australians\") people were the first to inhabit the area well over 20,000 years ago.{{cite web \\|title\\=Map of Indigenous Australia \\|url\\=https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/map\\-indigenous\\-australia \\|website\\=The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies \\|publisher\\=Commonwealth of Australia (The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies) \\|access\\-date\\=1 April 2024 \\|date\\=1996 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 October 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004060643/https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/map\\-indigenous\\-australia \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Early settlers noticed that the Sunnybank district had good rainfall and a beautiful loamy soil, somewhat sandy in character, that produced beautiful displays of natural wild flowers. From the mid\\-19th century it developed into a farming area with prosperous fruit and poultry farms and gardens of every kind.",
"The Town of Sunnybank was surveyed in 1886\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=Beryl \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=Naming Brisbane: Origins of Brisbane's Suburb \\& Locality Names \\|url\\=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/6385507/Details \\|page\\=96 \\|isbn\\=9780987231529 \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223004007/https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/6385507/Details \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The name came from a property called Sunny Brae Estate owned by the Gillespie family. In the 19th century it was part of a much larger area known as the Parish of Yeerongpilly, but a distinct town outside of the area known as Brisbane. In 1885, the railway line was extended from Yeerongpilly, and names had to be given to the railway stations along the line.{{cite book \\|title\\=Stories of the Southside \\|last\\=Roberts \\|first\\=Beryl \\|year\\=1991 \\|publisher\\=Aussie Books \\|location\\=Archerfield, Queensland \\|isbn\\=0\\-947336\\-01\\-X \\|page\\=16 }} Sunnybank got its name from a local farm, Sunnybrae, owned by the Gillespies, when {{convert\\|2\\|acre\\|m2}} of land were taken over for the railway. *Brae* is Scottish for the English word *bank*, so the area was given boundaries and named Sunnybank.",
"The present suburb much reduced in size from the previous suburb of Sunnybank. The separate town of Sunnybank was absorbed into the City of Brisbane in 1925\\. This older Sunnybank area is still known locally as Sunnybank. Rolling hills and the headwaters for both Stable Swamp Creek and [Bulimba Creek](/wiki/Bulimba_Creek%2C_Queensland \"Bulimba Creek, Queensland\") have drawn people and wildlife to the Sunnybank area.",
"### Development",
"By the first part of the 20th century, farmland increasingly gave way to suburbia. General Motors Holden established a car manufacturing plant on Bradman Street at [Acacia Ridge](/wiki/Acacia_Ridge%2C_Queensland \"Acacia Ridge, Queensland\"), creating a major source of employment for the entire city of Brisbane.",
"On 21 June 1914 a group of adherents of the [Church of Christ](/wiki/Churches_of_Christ_in_Australia \"Churches of Christ in Australia\") began holding services in private homes. The group purchased a block of land and cleared it. The congregation was formally established in April 1915 with 18 foundation members. The first church was erected in 1918 and moved to a more central location in 1922\\. By 1975 the church relocated to its present chapel and hall at 105 Station Road ({{Coord\\|\\-27\\.5756\\|153\\.0552\\|type:landmark\\_region:AU\\-QLD\\|name\\=Sunnybank Church of Christ}}).{{Citation\\|author1\\=Haigh, George\\|title\\=Churches of Christ in Queensland : 100 years venturing in faith\\|pages\\=119–122\\|publication\\-date\\=1983\\|publisher\\=Historical Committee, Conference of Churches of Christ in Queensland\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-909116\\-38\\-5\\|author2\\=Churches of Christ in Queensland\\|year\\=1983 }}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Gregory's Street Directory of Brisbane and Suburbs and Metropolitan Road Guide\\|year\\=1975\\|edition\\=11\\|pages\\=105–112\\|chapter\\=Index to Churches}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Oasis gardens and poolsOpening](/wiki/File:StateLibQld_2_67444_Oasis_complex_in_Sunnybank%2C_Brisbane.jpg \"StateLibQld 2 67444 Oasis complex in Sunnybank, Brisbane.jpg\") in 1938, The Oasis, with lush gardens, swimming pools and a mini zoo became Brisbane's most popular tourist attraction. The tropical gardens themselves attracted national and international attention. The Oasis's popularity really took off in 1942 when, during the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), thousands of American military personnel stationed in Brisbane used the Oasis as a rest and recreation venue.{{Cite SLQ\\-CC\\-BY\\|url\\=https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/suburban\\-oasis\\-sunnybanks\\-oasis\\-swimming\\-pool\\-gardens\\|title\\=A Suburban Oasis: Sunnybank's Oasis Swimming Pool \\& Gardens\\|author\\=Troy Keith\\|date\\=24 May 2021\\|website\\=John Oxley Library Blog\\|access\\-date\\=24 May 2021}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keith \\|first\\=Troy \\|date\\=2021\\-05\\-24 \\|title\\=A Suburban Oasis: Sunnybank's Oasis Swimming Pool \\& Gardens \\|url\\=https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/suburban\\-oasis\\-sunnybanks\\-oasis\\-swimming\\-pool\\-gardens \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-23 \\|website\\=John Oxley Library \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[State Library of Queensland]] \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=24 May 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524042249/https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/blog/suburban\\-oasis\\-sunnybanks\\-oasis\\-swimming\\-pool\\-gardens \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Oasis was located at 141 Station Road ({{Coord\\|\\-27\\.5736\\|153\\.0563\\|type:landmark\\_region:AU\\-QLD\\|name\\=The Oasis (former)}}).",
"With the [1982 Commonwealth Games](/wiki/1982_Commonwealth_Games \"1982 Commonwealth Games\") being held at the Queen Elizabeth II sporting complex (QE II), now known as the [Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre](/wiki/Queensland_Sport_and_Athletics_Centre \"Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre\") (QSAC), and [Expo 88](/wiki/Expo_88 \"Expo 88\") years later, Brisbane and its suburbs like Sunnybank were shown to the world. With new land releases rare in the region, developers have turned to building higher density residential and commercial projects.",
"{{Clear\\|left}}",
"### Asian influence on culture",
"In the late 1980s, an increasing number of Asian immigrants began to settle in Sunnybank and neighbouring suburbs.{{cn\\|date\\=June 2023}} The influx of Asian immigrants caused the look of the area to change, especially in the primary business district of Sunnybank at the intersection of Mains Road and McCullough Street, where Asian restaurants and businesses are numerous.",
"Sunnybank is today a thriving multicultural suburb, with strong Asian influences in design, food and culture.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/greater\\-brisbanes\\-multicultural\\-hubs\\-20140729\\-zy0yk.html\\|title\\=Greater Brisbane's multicultural hubs\\|last\\=Moore\\|first\\=Tony\\|date\\=30 July 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[Brisbane Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=23 November 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=23 November 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123154140/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/greater\\-brisbanes\\-multicultural\\-hubs\\-20140729\\-zy0yk.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Panayotov\\|first\\=Jodi\\|title\\=Sunnybank: Brisbanes Little Asia\\|url\\=https://www.mustdobrisbane.com/features/sunnybank\\-brisbanes\\-little\\-asia\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-09\\|website\\=Must Do Brisbane\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190211/https://www.mustdobrisbane.com/features/sunnybank\\-brisbanes\\-little\\-asia}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Sunnybank: Asian takeaway restaurants, gyms and more\\|url\\=https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/brisbetter/explore/sunnybank\\-asian\\-takeaway\\-restaurants\\-gyms\\-and\\-more\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-09\\|website\\=\\[\\[Brisbane City Council]]\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184612/https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/brisbetter/explore/sunnybank\\-asian\\-takeaway\\-restaurants\\-gyms\\-and\\-more}}{{Cite news\\|last\\=Riga\\|first\\=Rachel\\|date\\=6 March 2020\\|title\\='No\\-one is here': Coronavirus fears causing trade to plummet at Chinese restaurants\\|language\\=en\\-AU\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ABC News (Australia)\\|ABC News]]\\|location\\=Australia\\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020\\-03\\-06/coronavirus\\-queensland\\-businesses\\-reporting\\-sunnybank\\-slowdown/12021778\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-09\\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425065734/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020\\-03\\-06/coronavirus\\-queensland\\-businesses\\-reporting\\-sunnybank\\-slowdown/12021778\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Many of the suburb's shops and businesses are owned and run by people of Asian descent who call Australia home, with many bilingual business signs written in Chinese and English.",
""
] |
Priesthood
----------
### Arrival and ordination
[thumb\|Johann Stephen Raffeiner](/wiki/File:Johann_Stephen_Raffeiner.JPG "Johann Stephen Raffeiner.JPG")
The passengers came within sight of land on May 28, 1836, which was the eve of [Trinity Sunday](/wiki/Trinity_Sunday "Trinity Sunday"). The ship remained outside New York Harbor for another three days waiting for bad weather to abate and for some sick people aboard to recover lest quarantine officials require the captain to transport them back to Europe. Neumann, anxious to get ashore, was refused permission to disembark by the captain six times before he was finally let off in a rowboat on which he went to [Staten Island](/wiki/Staten_Island "Staten Island"). Several hours later, he took the small steamer *Hercules* to lower [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan"). An hour before noon on the feast of [Corpus Christi](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_%28feast%29 "Corpus Christi (feast)"), Neumann stepped ashore with one tattered suit of clothes and one dollar in his pocket. Neumann immediately sought out a Catholic church, and a Swiss innkeeper directed him to one where the pastor, Joseph A. Schneller, gave him the address of Bishop Dubois and John Raffeiner, the vicar\-general of the Germans in New York, to whom Neumann went straightaway.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=54\-55}}
Neumann was glad to learn from Raffeiner that a note had been sent to Canon Räss three weeks before saying he had been accepted as a priest for the Diocese of New York. Together, they went to the home of Bishop Dubois, who was urgently in need of German pastors. Dubois greeted Neumann and, having sufficient guarantees of Neumann's education in Europe, told him to immediately prepare for ordination. Neumann asked for some time for immediate preparation, which the bishop granted, as he was set to leave for a visitation. When Neumann told the bishop that he had no dimissorial letters, Dubois swept that difficulty aside, saying, "I can and must ordain you quickly for I need you." Raffeiner took Neumann to his parish, [St. Nicholas Kirche](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Kirche_%28New_York_City%29 "St. Nicholas Kirche (New York City)"), and put him to work teaching catechism to the children preparing for their First Communion.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|p\=55}}
Dubois called Neumann for ordination seventeen days after his arrival, ordaining him at [St. Patrick's Old Cathedral](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Old_Cathedral "St. Patrick's Old Cathedral") to the [subdiaconate](/wiki/Subdeacon%23subdeacons_in_the_Catholic_Church "Subdeacon#subdeacons in the Catholic Church") on June 19, the [diaconate](/wiki/Deacon%23Latin_Catholicism "Deacon#Latin Catholicism") on Friday, June 24, and the priesthood on June 25\. Neumann celebrated his first Mass the next morning, Sunday, June 26, at St. Nicholas. "Oh Jesus, You poured out the fullness of your grace over me yesterday. You made me a priest and gave me the power to offer You up to God. Ah! God! This is too much for my soul! Angels of God, all you saints of heaven, come down and adore my Jesus because what my heart says is only the imperfect echo of what Holy Church tells me to say." He resolved, "I will pray to You that You may give to me holiness, and to all the living and the dead, pardon, that someday we may all be together with You, our dearest God!"{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|p\=57}}
### Diocesan priest in New York
The Diocese of New York at that time encompassed all of the State of [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)") and the upper third of [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey").{{cite web\|url\=http://stjohnneumann.org/our\-st\-john\-neumann/about\-st\-john\-neumann/\|title\=About St. John Neumann\|work\=The National Shrine of St. John Neumann\|access\-date\=January 5, 2018}} The diocese at that time was home to 200,000 Catholics whose numbers were rapidly being swelled by immigrants, for whom sufficient churches and priests were lacking. The diocese had thirty\-three churches and several oratories, while fifty private homes served as temporary places of worship for lack of more suitable buildings. The diocese had thirty\-six priests, of whom thirty\-one were [Irish](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") and only three German, and needed at least fifteen priests more. Dubois, who Räss had informed that Neumann and his friends Adalbert Schmidt and John Savel all wanted to go to the American missions, was disappointed when only one man arrived. Still, his German parishes were growing quickly, and one was better than nothing.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=59\-60}}
The Catholic hierarchy had been established in the United States only five decades earlier with the appointment of [John Carroll](/wiki/John_Carroll_%28archbishop_of_Baltimore%29 "John Carroll (archbishop of Baltimore)") as [prefect\-apostolic](/wiki/Apostolic_prefecture "Apostolic prefecture") and then [Bishop of Baltimore](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Baltimore "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Baltimore"),{{cite book \| last \= Guilday \| first \= Peter \| date \= 1932 \| title \= A History of the Councils of Baltimore, 1791–1884 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/historyofcouncil0000guil\_p6k4 \| location \= New York \| publisher \= Macmillan \| pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/historyofcouncil0000guil\_p6k4/page/55 55]–59}} and until 1908, all of the United States was still regarded in the Catholic Church as [mission](/wiki/Christian_mission "Christian mission") territory under the jurisdiction of the [Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith](/wiki/Congregation_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Faith "Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith") (or Propaganda). There were no [parishes](/wiki/Parish_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Parish (Catholic Church)") in the strict sense, and in his own writings, Neumann always observed correct technical usage in referring to a portion of a [diocese](/wiki/Diocese "Diocese") as a "mission," "congregation," or "quasi\-parish."{{cite journal \|last\= Rush\|first\= Alfred C.\|date\= 1984\|title\= Saint John Neumann, C.SS.R.: Catechist and Writer of Catechisms\|url\= http://www.santalfonsoedintorni.it/Spicilegium/32/SH\-32\-1984(I)185\-232\.pdf\|journal\= Spicilegium Historicum\|volume\= 32\|issue\= I\|page\= 210\|access\-date\= December 30, 2020}} However, places where he worked are often described by more recent writers as parishes.
After his ordination, Dubois assigned Neumann to assist Alexander Pax in serving recent German immigrants in the [Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York "Buffalo, New York") area.[" St. John Neumann", Pennsylvania Center for the Book, The Pennsylvania State University](https://www.pabook.libraries.psu.edu/literary-cultural-heritage-map-pa/bios/Neumann__Saint_John) The more senior priest there, John Nicholas Mertz, was in Europe raising funds. Neumann departed on a [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River") liner with new clothes given to him by Raffeiner and the bishop's funds for his travel expenses on June 28\. Dubois wished Neumann to stop at [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York") before continuing to Buffalo. The German Catholics in Rochester were then holding services in the basement of St. Patrick's Church under the direction of [Bernard O'Reilly](/wiki/Bernard_O%27Reilly_%28bishop_of_Hartford%29 "Bernard O'Reilly (bishop of Hartford)"). Still, as most of the Catholics in that area were Irish, they raised funds to build a separate church where they could be served in their native language.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=61\-62}}
The German Catholics in Rochester were delighted by a German\-speaking priest's arrival, and some planned to write to Bishop Dubois asking him to assign Neumann there permanently. Neumann began to teach the children, whom he found sadly neglected and unable to speak either German or English correctly and celebrate the sacraments. After administering his first baptism, he wrote in his journal, "If the child I baptized today dies in the grace of this sacrament, then my journey to America has been repaid a million times, even though I do nothing for the rest of my life." On the evening of Neumann's first Sunday in Rochester, he was relieved by the German [Redemptorist](/wiki/Redemptorists "Redemptorists") Joseph Prost's arrival. The encounter with Prost first excited a desire in him to join the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer himself, although it was then only a passing thought. Neumann continued on to Buffalo on July 11\.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=62\-64}}
The missions in Buffalo were headquartered at a small church established by Mertz in 1829 known as the Church of the Lamb of God. There were four unfinished churches in the surrounding area at North Bush (the present\-day parish of St. John the Baptist, now part of [Tonawanda](/wiki/Tonawanda%2C_New_York "Tonawanda, New York")) eight miles to the north, at [Williamsville](/wiki/Williamsville%2C_New_York "Williamsville, New York") eight miles to the northeast (now the parish of Ss. Peter and Paul), at [Cayuga Creek](/wiki/Cayuga_Creek "Cayuga Creek"), and thirty miles to the south at [Eden](/wiki/Eden%2C_New_York "Eden, New York"). Pax was so grateful to have another priest to assist him in caring for the extensive territory that he offered Neumann any share of the work he desired, whether he preferred to work in the city where many of the faithful were concentrated or in the rural areas where Catholics were more dispersed. Neumann chose to station himself at Williamsville, from which he cared for an area of some twelve to fifteen miles around it where four hundred Catholic families lived, of whom three hundred were German. Because no pastoral residence had been constructed, Neumann took a room in the home of a wealthy benefactor of the mission, Jacob Philip Wirtz.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=65\-66}}
The partially built church at Williamsville had been founded on land that had been donated to the Catholics on the condition that they would build a stone church, 115 feet long, thirty feet high, and twenty feet wide, a stipulation that was difficult to fulfill because the Catholics in the area were largely poor immigrants who were capable of giving little to the church. Mertz had been able to collect or borrow enough money, stone, and volunteer labor to erect four walls, but that was as far as construction had progressed. While Neumann said Mass for the first time in the roofless structure, some non\-Catholics from the area threw stones into the church, one of which landed on the altar. Neumann completed this structure, inducing Wirtz to remit a loan he had made of $400 on the condition that a memorial Mass be said for him every year after his death.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|p\=67}}
A little school was conducted in a neighboring house by a lay teacher appointed by Mertz. Still, Neumann, finding the man's conduct unsatisfactory, dismissed him and took up the task of teaching himself, two hours in the morning and two hours in the afternoon, until securing the services of another teacher seven months later. Neumann was a gifted teacher, and his students fondly remembered his stories in catechism class years later. He would often reward good students with small gifts, and when teaching the children to sing in the liturgy, he would induce those who complained of sore throats to return to singing with [rock candy](/wiki/Rock_candy "Rock candy"), of which he seemed to have an inexhaustible supply. Neumann again had a school after moving his headquarters to North Bush in 1837 and was erecting a third schoolhouse at [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_New_York "Lancaster, New York") by December 1839\.
Although Neumann's principal missions were Williamsville, Lancaster, and North Bush, he was soon caring for Transit, [Sheldon](/wiki/Sheldon%2C_New_York "Sheldon, New York"), [Batavia](/wiki/Batavia%2C_New_York "Batavia, New York"), [Pendleton](/wiki/Pendleton%2C_New_York "Pendleton, New York"), and Tonawanda. For over four years, he was always on the move, traveling on foot often over swampy ground, from station to station, from house to house, in the biting cold of winter and the heat of summer, visiting the sick, aiding the dying, baptizing the newborn, instilling faith and zeal into the backsliders. In the three main churches under his care, the baptisms averaged sixty\-five a year and the marriages eight. Still, Neumann's workload was heavy, particularly in virtue of the considerable distances to be traversed on foot, with a heavy pack on his back containing his vestments. The nearest out\-mission was two hours away, the furthest twelve hours, and it was necessary to return home to North Bush almost every night, as there were no accommodations at the outposts, and besides, Neumann needed to be at home to teach every day.
The figure of the short\-statured man of God was familiar to all the countryside. Out of pity for his exhausting labors, they soon induced him to take a [horse](/wiki/Horse "Horse"). People laughed at the clumsy way Neumann rode; because he was only {{height\|ft\=5\|in\=2\+1/2}}, his feet did not reach the stirrups. Once, Neumann found himself thrown off the horse's back. On several other occasions when the horse wanted to rid himself of his rider, the animal made for the nearby fences and brushed Neumann's legs against them so that the cleric fell ignominiously to the ground. After that, Neumann led the horse along by the bridle instead of riding until he learned to control the stubborn creature. But Neumann did learn to ride, not in the manner of an expert but as a fair horseman. He and his horse eventually became great friends, even though on one occasion the voracious animal ate a precious quantity of botanical specimens the missionary had collected to send home to Bohemia.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|p\=69}}
Here, Neumann had his first difficulties with [lay trusteeism](/wiki/Lay_trusteeism "Lay trusteeism"). In many American Catholic congregations, the title to the church property was placed in the hands of lay members who formed a majority of the parish corporation and often sought to act independently of the pastor and contrary to the traditional administration of parish concerns. It took the ecclesiastical hierarchy many years to eradicate the disturbances caused by this system. In Neumann's day, the trustees were *the* important people in a parish, and it was vitally important for a pastor to get along well with them. Neumann refrained from open arguments with contentious trustees, and no matter what they said, he would smile and say nothing, which more than one trustee regarded as disrespectful. One of these resentful trustees once spread gossip concerning the propriety of Neumann's lodging in the home of Wirtz, which was over a tavern and in a room that could only be entered by going through the room of a young servant girl. One day, Neumann was called down to a meeting of the trustees in the tavern below Wirtz's house and informed that the meeting's purpose was to decide whether Wirtz should be obliged to dismiss the servant girl. Neumann, astounded though he was, responded with only a wry smile and a quiet disavowal. The trustees were convinced the bashful and holy priest was entirely innocent and blamed the jealous neighbor who wanted Neumann to lodge with his family instead of Wirtz's. Soon the man lost prestige in the neighborhood. Nevertheless, the danger of such gossip was not lost on Neumann, and he quietly changed his residence in 1837 to North Bush, though the church was not nearly so good as the one in Williamsville. He accepted free lodgings from a friendly Catholic, John Schmidt, who lived a mile and a half from the church, which Neumann had to walk every morning over an almost impassable road to say his daily Mass.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=69\-71}}
The move from Williamsville to North Bush came when the entire region was sunk in the direst poverty by the depression that followed upon the [Panic of 1837](/wiki/Panic_of_1837 "Panic of 1837"). Many of the area's Catholics were without work and often without food and could give little or nothing to support the church. Neumann wrote to a fellow priest in Europe, "If you want to be a missionary, you have to love poverty and be entirely disinterested." Though he found himself $80 in debt at the end of the first year, he was satisfied that thanks to the people's gifts of [corn](/wiki/Corn "Corn") and [potatoes](/wiki/Potato "Potato"); he did not starve. Shortly after the move to North Bush, Bishop Dubois arrived on a visitation tour of the district. He expressed his pleasure upon seeing the more advanced stage of the buildings, the schools, the careful attention to the sick and the dying, and the weekly, even daily rounds made by the young pastor.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=71\-72}}
[thumb\|Wenzel Neumann, who followed his brother to America](/wiki/File:SJN_brother_Wenceslaus_Neumann.jpg "SJN brother Wenceslaus Neumann.jpg")
In North Bush, the people got together and bought five acres of land close to the church on which Neumann could build a house and grow some vegetables for his support. Neumann worked at times on this and other buildings with his own hands and rejoiced when he moved into the two\-room [log cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin "Log cabin"). After Neumann had his own house, he cooked his meals, and often he missed meals; observers noticed smoke rarely rose from Neumann's chimney, meaning the stove was not being used. Once, he lived only on bread for four weeks. People also noticed that when he visited the homes of the faithful, he never asked for a meal. Although Neumann's efforts to recruit additional priests from Europe were unsuccessful, in September 1839, Neumann's brother Wenzel came from Bohemia to assist him, taking over the cooking and teaching in the school, as well as helping with the construction of the churches, schoolhouses, and rectories. Wenzel brought Neumann the first news he'd had of his family in three years, for no letter of theirs had reached him since he left Europe. Neumann loved his family intensely, and Wenzel's coming to help him was a godsend.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=72\-75}}
Neumann began to experience spiritual aridity and feared his love for God was growing less fervent. Neumann saw pride in himself though everyone else said he was humble and thought he was slothful. Still, people around Buffalo said long after that he burned himself out making the rounds of his parish. After Neumann discussed his spiritual difficulties with Prost, Prost wrote to him that living alone is difficult, quoting [Ecclesiastes](/wiki/Ecclesiastes "Ecclesiastes"), "woe to him who is alone!" Neumann often revolved that thought in his mind, especially in the summer of 1840 when his health broke down completely, and he was unable to do any pastoral work for three months. Neumann declared that he had an intense longing for the company of other priests.["Who was the first American man to become a saint?", The Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception](https://www.nationalshrine.org/blog/who-was-the-first-american-man-to-become-a-saint/) Frequent consultations with his confessor, Pax, followed, and after a long time, Pax advised Neumann that it was his vocation to become a [religious](/wiki/Religious_%28Western_Christianity%29 "Religious (Western Christianity)").
On September 4, 1840, Neumann wrote to Prost, the Redemptorists' superior in America, asking for admission to the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer. Receiving a favorable reply from Prost on September 16, Neumann immediately wrote to Bishop [John Hughes](/wiki/John_Hughes_%28archbishop%29 "John Hughes (archbishop)"), acquainting him with his desire to enter the Redemptorists and asking him to send one or more priests to take over the churches outside Buffalo. Unbeknownst to Neumann, the bishop was on visitation, so no reply was forthcoming. Still, leaving the negotiations with Hughes in Pax and Prost's hands as they advised, Neumann left the Buffalo area on October 8 or 9, 1840\. When Hughes learned of the matter, he was not at all inclined to allow a pastor of Neumann's caliber to depart from his diocese, but Prost later wrote, "I appealed to canon law and pointed out that I could not refuse to accept him, even if I wished to. The Most Reverend Bishop was obliged to yield." His brother, Wenzel, stayed to gather up the few belongings that Neumann possessed in the various mission stations and resolved to follow his brother and become a lay brother of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer.{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=79\-80}}
### Redemptorist novitiate
[thumb\|Modernization of the Late 19th Century Photograph of St. John Neumann](/wiki/File:Modernization_of_the_Late_19th_Century_Photograph_of_St._John_Neumann.png "Modernization of the Late 19th Century Photograph of St. John Neumann.png")
The Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, popularly known as the [Redemptorists](/wiki/Redemptorists "Redemptorists"), had been founded in [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples") in 1732 by [Alphonsus Liguori](/wiki/Alphonsus_Liguori "Alphonsus Liguori"), and had grown only slowly during its founder's lifetime. [Clement Hofbauer](/wiki/Clement_Hofbauer "Clement Hofbauer") established the Congregation north of the Alps. [Joseph Passerat](/wiki/Joseph_Passerat "Joseph Passerat"), who ran the Congregation from 1820 to 1848, dispatched the first Redemptorist missionaries to America in 1832\. They had secured their first foundation in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh") in April 1839, taking over [St. Philomena's Church](/wiki/St._Philomena%27s_Church_%28Pittsburgh%29 "St. Philomena's Church (Pittsburgh)"). When Neumann joined them, they had four foundations: St. Philomena's in Pittsburgh, St. John's in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"), St. Joseph's in Rochester, and St. Alphonsus' in [Norwalk, Ohio](/wiki/Norwalk%2C_Ohio "Norwalk, Ohio").{{sfn\|Curley\|1952\|pp\=81\-84}}
Neumann arrived in Pittsburgh and presented himself to the Redemptorists on the morning of Sunday, October 18, 1840, where he was invited on the first day to sing the High Mass and preach, which he did despite the fatigue of his long journey from Buffalo. The matter of dimissorial letters having been straightened out with Bishop Hughes, Prost hurried to Pittsburgh to invest Neumann with the Redemptorist habit. As this was the first investiture of a Redemptorist in the [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World"), the Fathers wished to make it a solemn occasion. Unfortunately, they lacked the ritual of the prescribed ceremonies and prayers, as their only copies of these had been destroyed in a fire in New York. Drawing on their memories of their investitures, they devised a suitable ceremony and proceeded to clothe him in the Redemptorist habit.
He took his [religious vows](/wiki/Religious_vows%23In_the_Catholic_Church "Religious vows#In the Catholic Church") as a member of the congregation in Baltimore, in January 1842\. While a novice for the Redemptorists, he served at St. Alphonsus Church in [Peru Township, Huron County, Ohio](/wiki/Peru_Township%2C_Huron_County%2C_Ohio "Peru Township, Huron County, Ohio") for five months before returning to New York.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.historicstalphonsus.org/history/11\.htm\|title\=History \|work\=historicalalphonsus.org\|access\-date\=May 2, 2016}} He was [naturalized](/wiki/United_States_nationality_law "United States nationality law") as a United States citizen in Baltimore on February 10, 1848\. He served as the pastor of St. Augustine Church in [Elkridge, Maryland](/wiki/Elkridge%2C_Maryland "Elkridge, Maryland"), from 1849 to 1851\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.staugustinechurch.org/index.php/history3 \|title\=History \|work\=staugustinechurch.org\|access\-date\=September 19, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919073454/http://www.staugustinechurch.org/index.php/history3 \|archive\-date\=September 19, 2015 \|df\=mdy\-all}}
### Redemptorist superior
After six years of difficult but fruitful work in Maryland, Neumann became the [Provincial Superior](/wiki/Provincial_Superior "Provincial Superior") for the United States. He also served as parish priest at [St. Alphonsus Church](/wiki/National_Shrine_of_St._Alphonsus_Liguori "National Shrine of St. Alphonsus Liguori") in Baltimore.["St. John Neumann", The Redemptorists of the Baltimore Province](http://www.redemptorists.net/saints-neumann.cfm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419143044/http://www.redemptorists.net/saints\-neumann.cfm \|date\=April 19, 2014 }}
|
[
"Priesthood\n----------",
"### Arrival and ordination",
"[thumb\\|Johann Stephen Raffeiner](/wiki/File:Johann_Stephen_Raffeiner.JPG \"Johann Stephen Raffeiner.JPG\")\nThe passengers came within sight of land on May 28, 1836, which was the eve of [Trinity Sunday](/wiki/Trinity_Sunday \"Trinity Sunday\"). The ship remained outside New York Harbor for another three days waiting for bad weather to abate and for some sick people aboard to recover lest quarantine officials require the captain to transport them back to Europe. Neumann, anxious to get ashore, was refused permission to disembark by the captain six times before he was finally let off in a rowboat on which he went to [Staten Island](/wiki/Staten_Island \"Staten Island\"). Several hours later, he took the small steamer *Hercules* to lower [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\"). An hour before noon on the feast of [Corpus Christi](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_%28feast%29 \"Corpus Christi (feast)\"), Neumann stepped ashore with one tattered suit of clothes and one dollar in his pocket. Neumann immediately sought out a Catholic church, and a Swiss innkeeper directed him to one where the pastor, Joseph A. Schneller, gave him the address of Bishop Dubois and John Raffeiner, the vicar\\-general of the Germans in New York, to whom Neumann went straightaway.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=54\\-55}}",
"Neumann was glad to learn from Raffeiner that a note had been sent to Canon Räss three weeks before saying he had been accepted as a priest for the Diocese of New York. Together, they went to the home of Bishop Dubois, who was urgently in need of German pastors. Dubois greeted Neumann and, having sufficient guarantees of Neumann's education in Europe, told him to immediately prepare for ordination. Neumann asked for some time for immediate preparation, which the bishop granted, as he was set to leave for a visitation. When Neumann told the bishop that he had no dimissorial letters, Dubois swept that difficulty aside, saying, \"I can and must ordain you quickly for I need you.\" Raffeiner took Neumann to his parish, [St. Nicholas Kirche](/wiki/St._Nicholas_Kirche_%28New_York_City%29 \"St. Nicholas Kirche (New York City)\"), and put him to work teaching catechism to the children preparing for their First Communion.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|p\\=55}}",
"Dubois called Neumann for ordination seventeen days after his arrival, ordaining him at [St. Patrick's Old Cathedral](/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Old_Cathedral \"St. Patrick's Old Cathedral\") to the [subdiaconate](/wiki/Subdeacon%23subdeacons_in_the_Catholic_Church \"Subdeacon#subdeacons in the Catholic Church\") on June 19, the [diaconate](/wiki/Deacon%23Latin_Catholicism \"Deacon#Latin Catholicism\") on Friday, June 24, and the priesthood on June 25\\. Neumann celebrated his first Mass the next morning, Sunday, June 26, at St. Nicholas. \"Oh Jesus, You poured out the fullness of your grace over me yesterday. You made me a priest and gave me the power to offer You up to God. Ah! God! This is too much for my soul! Angels of God, all you saints of heaven, come down and adore my Jesus because what my heart says is only the imperfect echo of what Holy Church tells me to say.\" He resolved, \"I will pray to You that You may give to me holiness, and to all the living and the dead, pardon, that someday we may all be together with You, our dearest God!\"{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|p\\=57}}",
"### Diocesan priest in New York",
"The Diocese of New York at that time encompassed all of the State of [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\") and the upper third of [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://stjohnneumann.org/our\\-st\\-john\\-neumann/about\\-st\\-john\\-neumann/\\|title\\=About St. John Neumann\\|work\\=The National Shrine of St. John Neumann\\|access\\-date\\=January 5, 2018}} The diocese at that time was home to 200,000 Catholics whose numbers were rapidly being swelled by immigrants, for whom sufficient churches and priests were lacking. The diocese had thirty\\-three churches and several oratories, while fifty private homes served as temporary places of worship for lack of more suitable buildings. The diocese had thirty\\-six priests, of whom thirty\\-one were [Irish](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") and only three German, and needed at least fifteen priests more. Dubois, who Räss had informed that Neumann and his friends Adalbert Schmidt and John Savel all wanted to go to the American missions, was disappointed when only one man arrived. Still, his German parishes were growing quickly, and one was better than nothing.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=59\\-60}}",
"The Catholic hierarchy had been established in the United States only five decades earlier with the appointment of [John Carroll](/wiki/John_Carroll_%28archbishop_of_Baltimore%29 \"John Carroll (archbishop of Baltimore)\") as [prefect\\-apostolic](/wiki/Apostolic_prefecture \"Apostolic prefecture\") and then [Bishop of Baltimore](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Baltimore \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Baltimore\"),{{cite book \\| last \\= Guilday \\| first \\= Peter \\| date \\= 1932 \\| title \\= A History of the Councils of Baltimore, 1791–1884 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/historyofcouncil0000guil\\_p6k4 \\| location \\= New York \\| publisher \\= Macmillan \\| pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/historyofcouncil0000guil\\_p6k4/page/55 55]–59}} and until 1908, all of the United States was still regarded in the Catholic Church as [mission](/wiki/Christian_mission \"Christian mission\") territory under the jurisdiction of the [Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith](/wiki/Congregation_for_the_Propagation_of_the_Faith \"Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith\") (or Propaganda). There were no [parishes](/wiki/Parish_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Parish (Catholic Church)\") in the strict sense, and in his own writings, Neumann always observed correct technical usage in referring to a portion of a [diocese](/wiki/Diocese \"Diocese\") as a \"mission,\" \"congregation,\" or \"quasi\\-parish.\"{{cite journal \\|last\\= Rush\\|first\\= Alfred C.\\|date\\= 1984\\|title\\= Saint John Neumann, C.SS.R.: Catechist and Writer of Catechisms\\|url\\= http://www.santalfonsoedintorni.it/Spicilegium/32/SH\\-32\\-1984(I)185\\-232\\.pdf\\|journal\\= Spicilegium Historicum\\|volume\\= 32\\|issue\\= I\\|page\\= 210\\|access\\-date\\= December 30, 2020}} However, places where he worked are often described by more recent writers as parishes.",
"After his ordination, Dubois assigned Neumann to assist Alexander Pax in serving recent German immigrants in the [Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York \"Buffalo, New York\") area.[\" St. John Neumann\", Pennsylvania Center for the Book, The Pennsylvania State University](https://www.pabook.libraries.psu.edu/literary-cultural-heritage-map-pa/bios/Neumann__Saint_John) The more senior priest there, John Nicholas Mertz, was in Europe raising funds. Neumann departed on a [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\") liner with new clothes given to him by Raffeiner and the bishop's funds for his travel expenses on June 28\\. Dubois wished Neumann to stop at [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\") before continuing to Buffalo. The German Catholics in Rochester were then holding services in the basement of St. Patrick's Church under the direction of [Bernard O'Reilly](/wiki/Bernard_O%27Reilly_%28bishop_of_Hartford%29 \"Bernard O'Reilly (bishop of Hartford)\"). Still, as most of the Catholics in that area were Irish, they raised funds to build a separate church where they could be served in their native language.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=61\\-62}}",
"The German Catholics in Rochester were delighted by a German\\-speaking priest's arrival, and some planned to write to Bishop Dubois asking him to assign Neumann there permanently. Neumann began to teach the children, whom he found sadly neglected and unable to speak either German or English correctly and celebrate the sacraments. After administering his first baptism, he wrote in his journal, \"If the child I baptized today dies in the grace of this sacrament, then my journey to America has been repaid a million times, even though I do nothing for the rest of my life.\" On the evening of Neumann's first Sunday in Rochester, he was relieved by the German [Redemptorist](/wiki/Redemptorists \"Redemptorists\") Joseph Prost's arrival. The encounter with Prost first excited a desire in him to join the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer himself, although it was then only a passing thought. Neumann continued on to Buffalo on July 11\\.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=62\\-64}}",
"The missions in Buffalo were headquartered at a small church established by Mertz in 1829 known as the Church of the Lamb of God. There were four unfinished churches in the surrounding area at North Bush (the present\\-day parish of St. John the Baptist, now part of [Tonawanda](/wiki/Tonawanda%2C_New_York \"Tonawanda, New York\")) eight miles to the north, at [Williamsville](/wiki/Williamsville%2C_New_York \"Williamsville, New York\") eight miles to the northeast (now the parish of Ss. Peter and Paul), at [Cayuga Creek](/wiki/Cayuga_Creek \"Cayuga Creek\"), and thirty miles to the south at [Eden](/wiki/Eden%2C_New_York \"Eden, New York\"). Pax was so grateful to have another priest to assist him in caring for the extensive territory that he offered Neumann any share of the work he desired, whether he preferred to work in the city where many of the faithful were concentrated or in the rural areas where Catholics were more dispersed. Neumann chose to station himself at Williamsville, from which he cared for an area of some twelve to fifteen miles around it where four hundred Catholic families lived, of whom three hundred were German. Because no pastoral residence had been constructed, Neumann took a room in the home of a wealthy benefactor of the mission, Jacob Philip Wirtz.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=65\\-66}}",
"The partially built church at Williamsville had been founded on land that had been donated to the Catholics on the condition that they would build a stone church, 115 feet long, thirty feet high, and twenty feet wide, a stipulation that was difficult to fulfill because the Catholics in the area were largely poor immigrants who were capable of giving little to the church. Mertz had been able to collect or borrow enough money, stone, and volunteer labor to erect four walls, but that was as far as construction had progressed. While Neumann said Mass for the first time in the roofless structure, some non\\-Catholics from the area threw stones into the church, one of which landed on the altar. Neumann completed this structure, inducing Wirtz to remit a loan he had made of $400 on the condition that a memorial Mass be said for him every year after his death.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|p\\=67}}",
"A little school was conducted in a neighboring house by a lay teacher appointed by Mertz. Still, Neumann, finding the man's conduct unsatisfactory, dismissed him and took up the task of teaching himself, two hours in the morning and two hours in the afternoon, until securing the services of another teacher seven months later. Neumann was a gifted teacher, and his students fondly remembered his stories in catechism class years later. He would often reward good students with small gifts, and when teaching the children to sing in the liturgy, he would induce those who complained of sore throats to return to singing with [rock candy](/wiki/Rock_candy \"Rock candy\"), of which he seemed to have an inexhaustible supply. Neumann again had a school after moving his headquarters to North Bush in 1837 and was erecting a third schoolhouse at [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_New_York \"Lancaster, New York\") by December 1839\\.",
"Although Neumann's principal missions were Williamsville, Lancaster, and North Bush, he was soon caring for Transit, [Sheldon](/wiki/Sheldon%2C_New_York \"Sheldon, New York\"), [Batavia](/wiki/Batavia%2C_New_York \"Batavia, New York\"), [Pendleton](/wiki/Pendleton%2C_New_York \"Pendleton, New York\"), and Tonawanda. For over four years, he was always on the move, traveling on foot often over swampy ground, from station to station, from house to house, in the biting cold of winter and the heat of summer, visiting the sick, aiding the dying, baptizing the newborn, instilling faith and zeal into the backsliders. In the three main churches under his care, the baptisms averaged sixty\\-five a year and the marriages eight. Still, Neumann's workload was heavy, particularly in virtue of the considerable distances to be traversed on foot, with a heavy pack on his back containing his vestments. The nearest out\\-mission was two hours away, the furthest twelve hours, and it was necessary to return home to North Bush almost every night, as there were no accommodations at the outposts, and besides, Neumann needed to be at home to teach every day.",
"The figure of the short\\-statured man of God was familiar to all the countryside. Out of pity for his exhausting labors, they soon induced him to take a [horse](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\"). People laughed at the clumsy way Neumann rode; because he was only {{height\\|ft\\=5\\|in\\=2\\+1/2}}, his feet did not reach the stirrups. Once, Neumann found himself thrown off the horse's back. On several other occasions when the horse wanted to rid himself of his rider, the animal made for the nearby fences and brushed Neumann's legs against them so that the cleric fell ignominiously to the ground. After that, Neumann led the horse along by the bridle instead of riding until he learned to control the stubborn creature. But Neumann did learn to ride, not in the manner of an expert but as a fair horseman. He and his horse eventually became great friends, even though on one occasion the voracious animal ate a precious quantity of botanical specimens the missionary had collected to send home to Bohemia.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|p\\=69}}",
"Here, Neumann had his first difficulties with [lay trusteeism](/wiki/Lay_trusteeism \"Lay trusteeism\"). In many American Catholic congregations, the title to the church property was placed in the hands of lay members who formed a majority of the parish corporation and often sought to act independently of the pastor and contrary to the traditional administration of parish concerns. It took the ecclesiastical hierarchy many years to eradicate the disturbances caused by this system. In Neumann's day, the trustees were *the* important people in a parish, and it was vitally important for a pastor to get along well with them. Neumann refrained from open arguments with contentious trustees, and no matter what they said, he would smile and say nothing, which more than one trustee regarded as disrespectful. One of these resentful trustees once spread gossip concerning the propriety of Neumann's lodging in the home of Wirtz, which was over a tavern and in a room that could only be entered by going through the room of a young servant girl. One day, Neumann was called down to a meeting of the trustees in the tavern below Wirtz's house and informed that the meeting's purpose was to decide whether Wirtz should be obliged to dismiss the servant girl. Neumann, astounded though he was, responded with only a wry smile and a quiet disavowal. The trustees were convinced the bashful and holy priest was entirely innocent and blamed the jealous neighbor who wanted Neumann to lodge with his family instead of Wirtz's. Soon the man lost prestige in the neighborhood. Nevertheless, the danger of such gossip was not lost on Neumann, and he quietly changed his residence in 1837 to North Bush, though the church was not nearly so good as the one in Williamsville. He accepted free lodgings from a friendly Catholic, John Schmidt, who lived a mile and a half from the church, which Neumann had to walk every morning over an almost impassable road to say his daily Mass.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=69\\-71}}",
"The move from Williamsville to North Bush came when the entire region was sunk in the direst poverty by the depression that followed upon the [Panic of 1837](/wiki/Panic_of_1837 \"Panic of 1837\"). Many of the area's Catholics were without work and often without food and could give little or nothing to support the church. Neumann wrote to a fellow priest in Europe, \"If you want to be a missionary, you have to love poverty and be entirely disinterested.\" Though he found himself $80 in debt at the end of the first year, he was satisfied that thanks to the people's gifts of [corn](/wiki/Corn \"Corn\") and [potatoes](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\"); he did not starve. Shortly after the move to North Bush, Bishop Dubois arrived on a visitation tour of the district. He expressed his pleasure upon seeing the more advanced stage of the buildings, the schools, the careful attention to the sick and the dying, and the weekly, even daily rounds made by the young pastor.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=71\\-72}}",
"[thumb\\|Wenzel Neumann, who followed his brother to America](/wiki/File:SJN_brother_Wenceslaus_Neumann.jpg \"SJN brother Wenceslaus Neumann.jpg\")",
"In North Bush, the people got together and bought five acres of land close to the church on which Neumann could build a house and grow some vegetables for his support. Neumann worked at times on this and other buildings with his own hands and rejoiced when he moved into the two\\-room [log cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin \"Log cabin\"). After Neumann had his own house, he cooked his meals, and often he missed meals; observers noticed smoke rarely rose from Neumann's chimney, meaning the stove was not being used. Once, he lived only on bread for four weeks. People also noticed that when he visited the homes of the faithful, he never asked for a meal. Although Neumann's efforts to recruit additional priests from Europe were unsuccessful, in September 1839, Neumann's brother Wenzel came from Bohemia to assist him, taking over the cooking and teaching in the school, as well as helping with the construction of the churches, schoolhouses, and rectories. Wenzel brought Neumann the first news he'd had of his family in three years, for no letter of theirs had reached him since he left Europe. Neumann loved his family intensely, and Wenzel's coming to help him was a godsend.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=72\\-75}}",
"Neumann began to experience spiritual aridity and feared his love for God was growing less fervent. Neumann saw pride in himself though everyone else said he was humble and thought he was slothful. Still, people around Buffalo said long after that he burned himself out making the rounds of his parish. After Neumann discussed his spiritual difficulties with Prost, Prost wrote to him that living alone is difficult, quoting [Ecclesiastes](/wiki/Ecclesiastes \"Ecclesiastes\"), \"woe to him who is alone!\" Neumann often revolved that thought in his mind, especially in the summer of 1840 when his health broke down completely, and he was unable to do any pastoral work for three months. Neumann declared that he had an intense longing for the company of other priests.[\"Who was the first American man to become a saint?\", The Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception](https://www.nationalshrine.org/blog/who-was-the-first-american-man-to-become-a-saint/) Frequent consultations with his confessor, Pax, followed, and after a long time, Pax advised Neumann that it was his vocation to become a [religious](/wiki/Religious_%28Western_Christianity%29 \"Religious (Western Christianity)\").",
"On September 4, 1840, Neumann wrote to Prost, the Redemptorists' superior in America, asking for admission to the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer. Receiving a favorable reply from Prost on September 16, Neumann immediately wrote to Bishop [John Hughes](/wiki/John_Hughes_%28archbishop%29 \"John Hughes (archbishop)\"), acquainting him with his desire to enter the Redemptorists and asking him to send one or more priests to take over the churches outside Buffalo. Unbeknownst to Neumann, the bishop was on visitation, so no reply was forthcoming. Still, leaving the negotiations with Hughes in Pax and Prost's hands as they advised, Neumann left the Buffalo area on October 8 or 9, 1840\\. When Hughes learned of the matter, he was not at all inclined to allow a pastor of Neumann's caliber to depart from his diocese, but Prost later wrote, \"I appealed to canon law and pointed out that I could not refuse to accept him, even if I wished to. The Most Reverend Bishop was obliged to yield.\" His brother, Wenzel, stayed to gather up the few belongings that Neumann possessed in the various mission stations and resolved to follow his brother and become a lay brother of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer.{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=79\\-80}}",
"### Redemptorist novitiate",
"[thumb\\|Modernization of the Late 19th Century Photograph of St. John Neumann](/wiki/File:Modernization_of_the_Late_19th_Century_Photograph_of_St._John_Neumann.png \"Modernization of the Late 19th Century Photograph of St. John Neumann.png\")\nThe Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, popularly known as the [Redemptorists](/wiki/Redemptorists \"Redemptorists\"), had been founded in [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\") in 1732 by [Alphonsus Liguori](/wiki/Alphonsus_Liguori \"Alphonsus Liguori\"), and had grown only slowly during its founder's lifetime. [Clement Hofbauer](/wiki/Clement_Hofbauer \"Clement Hofbauer\") established the Congregation north of the Alps. [Joseph Passerat](/wiki/Joseph_Passerat \"Joseph Passerat\"), who ran the Congregation from 1820 to 1848, dispatched the first Redemptorist missionaries to America in 1832\\. They had secured their first foundation in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\") in April 1839, taking over [St. Philomena's Church](/wiki/St._Philomena%27s_Church_%28Pittsburgh%29 \"St. Philomena's Church (Pittsburgh)\"). When Neumann joined them, they had four foundations: St. Philomena's in Pittsburgh, St. John's in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"), St. Joseph's in Rochester, and St. Alphonsus' in [Norwalk, Ohio](/wiki/Norwalk%2C_Ohio \"Norwalk, Ohio\").{{sfn\\|Curley\\|1952\\|pp\\=81\\-84}}",
"Neumann arrived in Pittsburgh and presented himself to the Redemptorists on the morning of Sunday, October 18, 1840, where he was invited on the first day to sing the High Mass and preach, which he did despite the fatigue of his long journey from Buffalo. The matter of dimissorial letters having been straightened out with Bishop Hughes, Prost hurried to Pittsburgh to invest Neumann with the Redemptorist habit. As this was the first investiture of a Redemptorist in the [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\"), the Fathers wished to make it a solemn occasion. Unfortunately, they lacked the ritual of the prescribed ceremonies and prayers, as their only copies of these had been destroyed in a fire in New York. Drawing on their memories of their investitures, they devised a suitable ceremony and proceeded to clothe him in the Redemptorist habit.",
"He took his [religious vows](/wiki/Religious_vows%23In_the_Catholic_Church \"Religious vows#In the Catholic Church\") as a member of the congregation in Baltimore, in January 1842\\. While a novice for the Redemptorists, he served at St. Alphonsus Church in [Peru Township, Huron County, Ohio](/wiki/Peru_Township%2C_Huron_County%2C_Ohio \"Peru Township, Huron County, Ohio\") for five months before returning to New York.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.historicstalphonsus.org/history/11\\.htm\\|title\\=History \\|work\\=historicalalphonsus.org\\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2016}} He was [naturalized](/wiki/United_States_nationality_law \"United States nationality law\") as a United States citizen in Baltimore on February 10, 1848\\. He served as the pastor of St. Augustine Church in [Elkridge, Maryland](/wiki/Elkridge%2C_Maryland \"Elkridge, Maryland\"), from 1849 to 1851\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.staugustinechurch.org/index.php/history3 \\|title\\=History \\|work\\=staugustinechurch.org\\|access\\-date\\=September 19, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919073454/http://www.staugustinechurch.org/index.php/history3 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 19, 2015 \\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}",
"### Redemptorist superior",
"After six years of difficult but fruitful work in Maryland, Neumann became the [Provincial Superior](/wiki/Provincial_Superior \"Provincial Superior\") for the United States. He also served as parish priest at [St. Alphonsus Church](/wiki/National_Shrine_of_St._Alphonsus_Liguori \"National Shrine of St. Alphonsus Liguori\") in Baltimore.[\"St. John Neumann\", The Redemptorists of the Baltimore Province](http://www.redemptorists.net/saints-neumann.cfm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419143044/http://www.redemptorists.net/saints\\-neumann.cfm \\|date\\=April 19, 2014 }}",
""
] |
Bishop of Philadelphia
----------------------
[thumb\|Bishop Neumann, Neumanneum, Prachatice](/wiki/File:SJN_Portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg "SJN Portrait (cropped).jpg")
On February 5, 1852, the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See "Holy See") appointed Neumann Bishop of Philadelphia. His predecessor in that office, [Francis Kenrick](/wiki/Francis_Kenrick "Francis Kenrick") (who had become [Archbishop of Baltimore](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Baltimore "Archbishop of Baltimore")), presided over the [consecration](/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church%23Bishops "Holy orders in the Catholic Church#Bishops") on March 28, and Bishop [Bernard O'Reilly](/wiki/Bernard_O%27Reilly_%28bishop_of_Hartford%29 "Bernard O'Reilly (bishop of Hartford)") assisted. The consecration was held in St. Alphonsus Church, Baltimore.According to a plaque located in the Baltimore Basilica
Philadelphia had a large and expanding Catholic immigrant population; Germans who fled the Napoleonic and other Continental wars had been followed by Irish fleeing the [Great Famine](/wiki/Great_Famine_%28Ireland%29 "Great Famine (Ireland)") caused by the potato blight and wars. Soon Italians and other southern and eastern European Catholics would arrive. Some settled in the diocese's rural parts, similar to the rural areas of New York state where Neumann had begun his ministry, but many stayed in the city.{{cite web\|last\=Coval\|first\=Jennifer\|author2\=Kathryn Wilson\|title\=City of Unbrotherly Love: Violence in Nineteenth\-Century Philadelphia\|work\=Exploring Diversity in Pennsylvania History\|publisher\=The Historical Society of Pennsylvania\|url\=http://www.hsp.org/files/thephiladelphiariotsof1844\.pdf\|access\-date\=2008\-05\-08}} At the time, Philadelphia was one of the largest cities in the country.
It was an industrializing mercantile hub with many jobs for people with little command of the English language. The waves of immigration resulted in tensions in the city with native\-born residents, who had to compete for work in difficult economic times. Anti\-Catholic riots took place in the 1830s and 1844, in the [Philadelphia Nativist Riots](/wiki/Philadelphia_Nativist_Riots "Philadelphia Nativist Riots"), occurring as Irish Catholics began to arrive in significant numbers in the city. Soon more riots occurred, mainly since the town was a stronghold of the [Know\-Nothing](/wiki/Know-Nothing "Know-Nothing") political party, known for its anti\-immigrant and anti\-Catholic prejudices. Bishop Neumann introduced the first Forty Hours Devotion at the Church of St. Philip Neri on May 26, 1853, the Feast of Corpus Christi, in honor of the church's patron, despite the hostility of the Know Nothings.[St. Philip Neri Church](https://queenvillagecatholic.com/mission-heritage/st-philip-neri-church/)
During Neumann's administration, new parish churches were completed at the rate of nearly one per month. To encourage savings and to support the financial needs of the Catholic community in Philadelphia, he directed the creation of a mutual savings bank, [Beneficial Bank](/wiki/Beneficial_Bank "Beneficial Bank"), in 1853\. As many immigrants settled in close communities from their hometowns and with speakers of the same language, churches became associated with immigrants from particular regions. They were known as [national parishes](/wiki/National_parish "National parish"). Their parishioners often did not speak English or know how to obtain needed social services.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.saintjn.org/welcome\-3/history/st\-john\-neumann/\|title\=Saint John Neumann\|work\=saintjn.org\|access\-date\=September 19, 2015}}
Neumann was particularly committed to providing educational opportunities to immigrant children. He became the first bishop to organize a [diocesan](/wiki/Diocese "Diocese") school system, as Catholic parents wanted their children taught in the Catholic tradition. They feared Protestant influence and discrimination in public schools.[Foley, O.F.M., Leonard. "St. John Neumann," *Saint of the Day, Lives, Lessons, and Feast*, Franciscan Media](https://www.franciscanmedia.org/saint-of-the-day/saint-john-neumann/)
Under his administration, the number of [parochial schools](/wiki/Parochial_school "Parochial school") in his diocese increased from one to 200\. His 1852 catechisms became standard texts.
Neumann's fluency in several languages endeared him to the many new immigrant communities in Philadelphia. As well as ministering to newcomers in his native German, Neumann also spoke Italian fluently. A growing congregation of Italian\-speakers received pastoral care in his private chapel, and Neumann eventually established in Philadelphia the first Italian national parishes in the country.
Neumann actively invited [religious institutes](/wiki/Religious_institute "Religious institute") to establish new houses within the diocese to provide necessary social services. In 1855, Neumann supported the foundation of a congregation of [religious sisters](/wiki/Religious_sisters "Religious sisters") in the city, the [Sisters of St. Francis of Philadelphia](/wiki/Sisters_of_St._Francis_of_Philadelphia "Sisters of St. Francis of Philadelphia"). He brought the [School Sisters of Notre Dame](/wiki/School_Sisters_of_Notre_Dame "School Sisters of Notre Dame") from Germany to assist in religious instruction and staff an orphanage. He also intervened to save the [Oblate Sisters of Providence](/wiki/Oblate_Sisters_of_Providence "Oblate Sisters of Providence") from dissolution; this congregation of African\-American women was founded by [Haitian](/wiki/Haitian_people "Haitian people") refugees in Baltimore.
The large diocese was not wealthy, and Neumann became known for his personal [frugality](/wiki/Frugality "Frugality"). He kept and wore only one pair of boots throughout his residence in the United States. When given a new set of [vestments](/wiki/Vestment "Vestment") as a gift, he would often use them to outfit the newest ordained priest in the diocese. Discouraged by conflict as well as anti\-Catholic riots and arson of religious buildings, Neumann wrote to Rome asking to be replaced as bishop, but [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX "Pope Pius IX") insisted that he continue.
### Trip to Rome and Bohemia
In 1854, Neumann traveled to Rome and was present at [St. Peter's Basilica](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica "St. Peter's Basilica") on December 8, when Pius IX solemnly defined, *[ex cathedra](/wiki/Ex_cathedra "Ex cathedra")*, the [dogma](/wiki/Dogma "Dogma") of the [Immaculate Conception](/wiki/Immaculate_Conception "Immaculate Conception") of the [Blessed Virgin Mary](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary "Blessed Virgin Mary"). He visited Prachatice for a week from February 3, 1855\. Although he wanted this to be done quietly, the citizens greeted him lavishly on arrival. The visit is noted next to his baptismal record in the parish register alongside a later pencil note about his canonisation in 1977\.
### Death
While doing errands on Thursday, January 5, 1860, Neumann collapsed and died on a Philadelphia street. He was 48 years old. He was buried, per his request, at St. Peter's Church beneath the undercroft floor directly below the high altar.
Bishop [James Frederick Wood](/wiki/James_Frederick_Wood "James Frederick Wood"), a Philadelphia native who converted to Catholicism in [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati") in 1836 and who had been appointed Neumann's [coadjutor](/wiki/Coadjutor_bishop "Coadjutor bishop") with right of succession in 1857, succeeded Neumann as Bishop of Philadelphia.
|
[
"Bishop of Philadelphia\n----------------------",
"[thumb\\|Bishop Neumann, Neumanneum, Prachatice](/wiki/File:SJN_Portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg \"SJN Portrait (cropped).jpg\")\nOn February 5, 1852, the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See \"Holy See\") appointed Neumann Bishop of Philadelphia. His predecessor in that office, [Francis Kenrick](/wiki/Francis_Kenrick \"Francis Kenrick\") (who had become [Archbishop of Baltimore](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Baltimore \"Archbishop of Baltimore\")), presided over the [consecration](/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church%23Bishops \"Holy orders in the Catholic Church#Bishops\") on March 28, and Bishop [Bernard O'Reilly](/wiki/Bernard_O%27Reilly_%28bishop_of_Hartford%29 \"Bernard O'Reilly (bishop of Hartford)\") assisted. The consecration was held in St. Alphonsus Church, Baltimore.According to a plaque located in the Baltimore Basilica",
"Philadelphia had a large and expanding Catholic immigrant population; Germans who fled the Napoleonic and other Continental wars had been followed by Irish fleeing the [Great Famine](/wiki/Great_Famine_%28Ireland%29 \"Great Famine (Ireland)\") caused by the potato blight and wars. Soon Italians and other southern and eastern European Catholics would arrive. Some settled in the diocese's rural parts, similar to the rural areas of New York state where Neumann had begun his ministry, but many stayed in the city.{{cite web\\|last\\=Coval\\|first\\=Jennifer\\|author2\\=Kathryn Wilson\\|title\\=City of Unbrotherly Love: Violence in Nineteenth\\-Century Philadelphia\\|work\\=Exploring Diversity in Pennsylvania History\\|publisher\\=The Historical Society of Pennsylvania\\|url\\=http://www.hsp.org/files/thephiladelphiariotsof1844\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-08}} At the time, Philadelphia was one of the largest cities in the country.",
"It was an industrializing mercantile hub with many jobs for people with little command of the English language. The waves of immigration resulted in tensions in the city with native\\-born residents, who had to compete for work in difficult economic times. Anti\\-Catholic riots took place in the 1830s and 1844, in the [Philadelphia Nativist Riots](/wiki/Philadelphia_Nativist_Riots \"Philadelphia Nativist Riots\"), occurring as Irish Catholics began to arrive in significant numbers in the city. Soon more riots occurred, mainly since the town was a stronghold of the [Know\\-Nothing](/wiki/Know-Nothing \"Know-Nothing\") political party, known for its anti\\-immigrant and anti\\-Catholic prejudices. Bishop Neumann introduced the first Forty Hours Devotion at the Church of St. Philip Neri on May 26, 1853, the Feast of Corpus Christi, in honor of the church's patron, despite the hostility of the Know Nothings.[St. Philip Neri Church](https://queenvillagecatholic.com/mission-heritage/st-philip-neri-church/)",
"During Neumann's administration, new parish churches were completed at the rate of nearly one per month. To encourage savings and to support the financial needs of the Catholic community in Philadelphia, he directed the creation of a mutual savings bank, [Beneficial Bank](/wiki/Beneficial_Bank \"Beneficial Bank\"), in 1853\\. As many immigrants settled in close communities from their hometowns and with speakers of the same language, churches became associated with immigrants from particular regions. They were known as [national parishes](/wiki/National_parish \"National parish\"). Their parishioners often did not speak English or know how to obtain needed social services.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.saintjn.org/welcome\\-3/history/st\\-john\\-neumann/\\|title\\=Saint John Neumann\\|work\\=saintjn.org\\|access\\-date\\=September 19, 2015}}",
"Neumann was particularly committed to providing educational opportunities to immigrant children. He became the first bishop to organize a [diocesan](/wiki/Diocese \"Diocese\") school system, as Catholic parents wanted their children taught in the Catholic tradition. They feared Protestant influence and discrimination in public schools.[Foley, O.F.M., Leonard. \"St. John Neumann,\" *Saint of the Day, Lives, Lessons, and Feast*, Franciscan Media](https://www.franciscanmedia.org/saint-of-the-day/saint-john-neumann/) \nUnder his administration, the number of [parochial schools](/wiki/Parochial_school \"Parochial school\") in his diocese increased from one to 200\\. His 1852 catechisms became standard texts.",
"Neumann's fluency in several languages endeared him to the many new immigrant communities in Philadelphia. As well as ministering to newcomers in his native German, Neumann also spoke Italian fluently. A growing congregation of Italian\\-speakers received pastoral care in his private chapel, and Neumann eventually established in Philadelphia the first Italian national parishes in the country.",
"Neumann actively invited [religious institutes](/wiki/Religious_institute \"Religious institute\") to establish new houses within the diocese to provide necessary social services. In 1855, Neumann supported the foundation of a congregation of [religious sisters](/wiki/Religious_sisters \"Religious sisters\") in the city, the [Sisters of St. Francis of Philadelphia](/wiki/Sisters_of_St._Francis_of_Philadelphia \"Sisters of St. Francis of Philadelphia\"). He brought the [School Sisters of Notre Dame](/wiki/School_Sisters_of_Notre_Dame \"School Sisters of Notre Dame\") from Germany to assist in religious instruction and staff an orphanage. He also intervened to save the [Oblate Sisters of Providence](/wiki/Oblate_Sisters_of_Providence \"Oblate Sisters of Providence\") from dissolution; this congregation of African\\-American women was founded by [Haitian](/wiki/Haitian_people \"Haitian people\") refugees in Baltimore.",
"The large diocese was not wealthy, and Neumann became known for his personal [frugality](/wiki/Frugality \"Frugality\"). He kept and wore only one pair of boots throughout his residence in the United States. When given a new set of [vestments](/wiki/Vestment \"Vestment\") as a gift, he would often use them to outfit the newest ordained priest in the diocese. Discouraged by conflict as well as anti\\-Catholic riots and arson of religious buildings, Neumann wrote to Rome asking to be replaced as bishop, but [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX \"Pope Pius IX\") insisted that he continue.",
"### Trip to Rome and Bohemia",
"In 1854, Neumann traveled to Rome and was present at [St. Peter's Basilica](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica \"St. Peter's Basilica\") on December 8, when Pius IX solemnly defined, *[ex cathedra](/wiki/Ex_cathedra \"Ex cathedra\")*, the [dogma](/wiki/Dogma \"Dogma\") of the [Immaculate Conception](/wiki/Immaculate_Conception \"Immaculate Conception\") of the [Blessed Virgin Mary](/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary \"Blessed Virgin Mary\"). He visited Prachatice for a week from February 3, 1855\\. Although he wanted this to be done quietly, the citizens greeted him lavishly on arrival. The visit is noted next to his baptismal record in the parish register alongside a later pencil note about his canonisation in 1977\\.",
"### Death",
"While doing errands on Thursday, January 5, 1860, Neumann collapsed and died on a Philadelphia street. He was 48 years old. He was buried, per his request, at St. Peter's Church beneath the undercroft floor directly below the high altar.",
"Bishop [James Frederick Wood](/wiki/James_Frederick_Wood \"James Frederick Wood\"), a Philadelphia native who converted to Catholicism in [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\") in 1836 and who had been appointed Neumann's [coadjutor](/wiki/Coadjutor_bishop \"Coadjutor bishop\") with right of succession in 1857, succeeded Neumann as Bishop of Philadelphia.",
""
] |
Fictional team biography
------------------------
{{long plot\|date\=May 2023}}
### Volume 1
In "Sidekicks" (issues \#1–6\), reporters [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones "Jessica Jones") (a former teen superhero known as Jewel) and Kat Farrell of *[The Daily Bugle](/wiki/Daily_Bugle "Daily Bugle")* and heroes Captain America and Iron Man investigate a new group of teenage heroes. The story is set in the time between the "[Avengers Disassembled](/wiki/Avengers_Disassembled "Avengers Disassembled")" storyline and the beginning of *[New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28comics%29 "The New Avengers (comics)")*. Although the team defeats [Kang the Conqueror](/wiki/Kang_the_Conqueror "Kang the Conqueror"), Captain America and Iron Man take away their gear and refuse to train the team without their parents' consent. Despite the heroes' warnings, the team continues with a new headquarters, new costumes, and new names.
In "Secret Identities" (issues \#7–8\), the Young Avengers must decide how much to tell their parents after the members decide to continue acting publicly. None of their parents find out. During a fight with [Mr. Hyde](/wiki/Mister_Hyde_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Mister Hyde (Marvel Comics)") in *Young Avengers* \#8, Wiccan discovers Eli abusing Mutant growth hormone (MGH) which gives people powers for short periods. Eli confesses that he deceived Iron Lad who meant to recruit his missing uncle [Josiah](/wiki/Josiah_X "Josiah X") in order to join the team. He quits the team, overwhelmed with emotion.
At the insistence of Kat Farrell, Jessica Jones interviews the Young Avengers about their pasts.*Young Avengers Special* \#1 Cassie Lang had a troubled home life, especially after her father [Ant\-Man](/wiki/Ant-Man_%28Scott_Lang%29 "Ant-Man (Scott Lang)") died. She and her mother constantly fought, and she hated her mother's boyfriend. Had the Young Avengers not formed, Cassie planned to join the [Runaways](/wiki/Runaways_%28comics%29 "Runaways (comics)"). Teddy Altman abused his shapeshifting powers to spend time with a more popular kid. He realized that he had gone too far when his "friend" tried to force him to steal artifacts from the destroyed [Avengers Mansion](/wiki/Avengers_Mansion "Avengers Mansion"). Billy Kaplan had a problem with being accepted because of his sexuality. He was tormented and physically abused. He met the [Scarlet Witch](/wiki/Scarlet_Witch "Scarlet Witch"), who explained that being different is not bad. He eventually stands up to his tormentor for another kid. He nearly kills him when his powers become dominant. Kate Bishop was brutally assaulted in a park. Eli Bradley used MGH because he felt powerless against some thugs and wanted to prove that his grandfather truly was the black Captain America.
K'Lrt the [Super\-Skrull](/wiki/Super-Skrull "Super-Skrull") tries to take Teddy to the [Skrull](/wiki/Skrull "Skrull") homeworld."Family Matters", *Young Avengers* \#9–12 K'Lrt reveals that Mrs. Altman is not Teddy's mother and kills her. In the aftermath, K'Lrt kidnaps Teddy. The Vision offers to locate more Young Avengers using his prior incarnation's contingency plan. The Young Avengers break Thomas Shepherd out of a superhuman prison and recruit him. Tommy can move at superhuman speed and accelerate matter, destabilizing it enough to cause an explosion. The Super\-Skrull tells Teddy of his true origin as the son of the Kree hero [Captain Marvel](/wiki/Mar-Vell "Mar-Vell") and the Skrull princess Anelle. He then claims that Tommy and Billy are the Scarlet Witch and Vision's lost twin sons. Billy believes him, but Tommy does not. Kree and Skrull combat forces arrive and fight each other and the Young Avengers until Teddy, realizing his importance to both sides, calls for a ceasefire. The Avengers intervene and a Kree warrior fires at Captain America. Patriot intervenes and is gravely wounded. [Hulkling](/wiki/Hulkling "Hulkling") and K'Lrt end the fighting by secretly shapeshifting into each other's forms. Captain America and K'Lrt, disguised as Hulkling, broker a shared custody between the races.
At a hospital, Eli's grandfather donates his blood to Eli. Captain America again tells the Young Avengers to stop what they are doing. Kate blames their trouble on the Avengers for not training them. The Young Avengers repair the statues of fallen Avengers at Avengers Mansion. Eli now has superpowers as a result of the blood transfusion. Kate receives Hawkeye's bow and quiver from Captain America, and she takes the mantle of Hawkeye. Tommy arrives in costume and calls himself Speed.
### "Civil War"
{{See also\|Civil War: Young Avengers/Runaways}}
In *[Civil War](/wiki/Civil_War_%28comics%29 "Civil War (comics)")* \#2, the members of Young Avengers are captured by [S.H.I.E.L.D.](/wiki/S.H.I.E.L.D. "S.H.I.E.L.D.") for not complying with the registration act. Captain America and the [Falcon](/wiki/Falcon_%28comics%29 "Falcon (comics)") help them escape, freeing Wiccan, allowing him to teleport the group to a base only known to [Nick Fury](/wiki/Nick_Fury "Nick Fury") and a few resistance fighters. Once in Captain America's secret base, the Young Avengers join the resistance movement called *Secret Avengers*. The Young Avengers joins the fight against Iron Man and the pro\-registration heroes. Stature leaves the resistance after [Goliath](/wiki/Bill_Foster_%28comics%29 "Bill Foster (comics)") is killed by a clone of Thor and the Secret Avengers are forced to retreat from battle leaving Wiccan behind. However, shortly afterwards Stature registers and begins superhero training. The remainder of the team remained with Captain America. Stature is seen alongside Iron Man and the rest of the "pro\-reg" group during the final battle between registered and rebel heroes. [Deadpool](/wiki/Deadpool "Deadpool") is commissioned as a "hero hunter" in the war and frequently remarks how he'd like to capture "those nubile Young Avengers".
With the surrender of Captain America, the rest of the Young Avengers are granted amnesty in exchange for registration. All the members except Hawkeye, Patriot and Speed registered, and began training at [Camp Hammond](/wiki/Camp_Hammond_%28comics%29 "Camp Hammond (comics)"). In the last issue of the *[Fallen Son](/wiki/Fallen_Son:The_Death_of_Captain_America "The Death of Captain America")* crossover, when the funeral of Captain America takes place at Washington D.C., all of the Young Avengers are seen, wearing their Super Hero outfits, and are even mentioned by name by the [Falcon](/wiki/Falcon_%28comics%29 "Falcon (comics)"), while delivering the ceremonial speech. This suggests another amnesty was offered to Hawkeye, Patriot and Speed, who had stayed in the resistance after the end of the Civil War, alongside the [New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28comics%29 "The New Avengers (comics)").
In *She\-Hulk* \#21, it was revealed that the Hulking and Wiccan that joined the Initiative were actually a pair of interdimensional travelers known as "Alphas" whereas the actual Hulkling and Wiccan were shocked at the discovery that they had registered. Hawkeye, Patriot, and Speed, remain unregistered.*Young Avengers Presents* \#1
### "Young Avengers Presents"
In the 2008 miniseries *Young Avengers Presents*, Patriot discovers that [Bucky](/wiki/Bucky_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Bucky (Marvel Comics)") had visited his grandfather [Isaiah Bradley](/wiki/Isaiah_Bradley "Isaiah Bradley"). After tracking him down, Patriot shares his concerns losing faith in the country. Bucky explains to Eli that America is an idea used for good or ill, but one with value to it and something worth defending against all threat, inspiring the younger hero once more. Hulkling meets [Mar\-Vell](/wiki/Captain_Marvel_%28Mar-Vell%29 "Captain Marvel (Mar-Vell)"), telling him that he is his son, much to Mar\-Vell's shock. While Captain Mar\-Vell is proud of his son, he confesses that he will not be able to stay forever, as the survival of the time stream depends on him eventually returning to the past and dying from cancer. This Captain Marvel eventually turned out to be a [Skrull](/wiki/Skrull "Skrull") sleeper agent in place for the "[Secret Invasion](/wiki/Secret_Invasion "Secret Invasion")".*Young Avengers Presents* \#2 Wiccan and Speed begin searching for the Scarlet Witch, whom they believe to be their mother. Upon searching the former home of the Scarlet Witch and Vision in [Leonia, NJ](/wiki/Leonia%2C_New_Jersey "Leonia, New Jersey"); they encounter [Master Pandemonium](/wiki/Master_Pandemonium "Master Pandemonium"), who advises them to end their search and embrace their present lives. Vision tells Cassie that after "Civil War", he traveled around the world posing as different people, living many different lives, ultimately culminating in a better understanding of who he is. He asserts that he is his own person, not the memories of Iron Lad, confessing his love to Cassie, and states that he wishes to now be called Jonas. Cassie demonstrates that she is unsure but is willing to reciprocate his feelings.{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=16151 \| title\=Vision Quest: Cornell talks ''Young Avengers Presents'' \| work\=\[\[Comic Book Resources]] \| date\=April 23, 2008 \| access\-date\=April 24, 2008 \| archive\-date\=January 23, 2009 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123075837/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=16151 \| url\-status\=live }} During the story, Cassie is also stricken with guilt after accidentally injuring her stepfather while stopping a villain, forcing her to come to terms with the responsibilities that come with her powers and with being part of the Young Avengers and the Initiative, much as her stepfather also understands the risks of life as a policeman. Hawkeye feels uncomfortable about her growing relationship with Patriot, and encounters Clint Barton, the original Hawkeye, who helps her reaffirm her position as Hawkeye and Young Avengers co\-leader.
### "Secret Invasion"
In the 2008 miniseries *[Secret Invasion: Runaways/Young Avengers](/wiki/Secret_Invasion:Runaways/Young_Avengers "Runaways/Young Avengers")*, the Young Avengers again teamed with the [Runaways](/wiki/Runaways_%28comics%29 "Runaways (comics)") in a *[Secret Invasion](/wiki/Secret_Invasion "Secret Invasion")* tie\-in.{{Cite web \| url\=http://comics.ign.com/articles/859/859389p1\.html \| title\=Exclusive Secret Invasion: Runaways/Young Avengers Interview \| access\-date\=2008\-03\-16 \| first\=Richard \| last\=George \| date\=March 13, 2008 \| work\=\[\[IGN]] \| archive\-date\=2012\-02\-12 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212211451/http://comics.ign.com/articles/859/859389p1\.html \| url\-status\=live }} The Young Avengers are the first to respond to the Skrull invasion in [Manhattan, New York](/wiki/Manhattan%2C_New_York "Manhattan, New York"). They are quickly defeated, though [Xavin](/wiki/Xavin "Xavin") manages to rescue Hulkling. The leaders of the Skrull invasion intend to assassinate Hulking, for fear that his identity as Dorrek VIII would diminish their authority. During the confrontation between the Young Avengers, Runaways, and the invading Skrulls, Xavin is forced to confront her former mentor, Commander Chrell, reluctantly killing him to save the Young Avengers and Runaways.{{Cite comic \| Writer\=\[\[Brian Michael Bendis\|Bendis, Brian Michael]] \| Artist\=\[\[Leinil Yu\|Yu, Leinil]] \| Title\=Secret Invasion \| Issue\=1–3 \| Date\=April–May 2008 \| Publisher\=Marvel Comics}}
### "Dark Reign"
The 2009 *[Dark Reign: Young Avengers](/wiki/Dark_Reign_%28comics%29 "Dark Reign (comics)")* limited series written by [Paul Cornell](/wiki/Paul_Cornell "Paul Cornell"),{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=19890 \| title\=NYCC: Cornell talks ''Dark Reign: Young Avengers'' \| work\=Comic Book Resources \| date\=February 7, 2009 \| access\-date\=March 2, 2009 \| archive\-date\=August 11, 2016 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811204936/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=19890 \| url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.newsarama.com/comics/020907\-DR\-YA.html \| title\=NYCC '09 – Paul Cornell on Dark Reign: Young Avengers \| work\=\[\[Newsarama]] \| date\=February 7, 2009 \| access\-date\=March 2, 2009 \| archive\-date\=August 19, 2019 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819021343/https://www.newsarama.com/2157\-nycc\-09\-paul\-cornell\-on\-dark\-reign\-young\-avengers.html \| url\-status\=live }} and [Mark Brooks](/wiki/Mark_Brooks_%28comics%29 "Mark Brooks (comics)"),{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.newsarama.com/comics/020920\-Brooks\-Young\-Masters.html \| title\=Mark Brooks: Designing the Young Masters \| work\=Newsarama \| date\=February 20, 2009 \| access\-date\=March 2, 2009 \| archive\-date\=September 12, 2012 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912130811/http://www.newsarama.com/comics/020920\-Brooks\-Young\-Masters.html \| url\-status\=live }} introduced a new group consist of [Enchantress](/wiki/Enchantress_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Enchantress "Enchantress (Marvel Comics)#Enchantress"), [Executioner](/wiki/Executioner_%28comics%29%23Young_Masters "Executioner (comics)#Young Masters"), Coat of Arms, [Egghead](/wiki/Egghead_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Young_Masters "Egghead (Marvel Comics)#Young Masters"), Big Zero and team leader [Melter](/wiki/Melter "Melter"), who are powered teens calling themselves the Young Avengers.{{Cite web \| last\=Stevens \| first\=Tim \| title\=The Young Avengers discover a world after Osborn in ''Dark Reign: Young Avengers'' \| work\=Marvel.com \| date\=February 6, 2009 \| url\=http://www.marvel.com/news/comicstories.6809\.NYCC\_\~apos\~09\~colon\~\_Dark\_Reign\~colon\~\_Young\_Avengers \| access\-date\=2009\-02\-07 \| archive\-date\=2009\-02\-08 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208112716/http://marvel.com/news/comicstories.6809\.NYCC\_%7Eapos%7E09%7Ecolon%7E\_Dark\_Reign%7Ecolon%7E\_Young\_Avengers \| url\-status\=live }} After Secret Invasion, all the Young Avengers remained under low profile during Norman Osborn's Dark Reign, who sent this version of Young Avengers and send them to battle only to fall against the original Young Avengers. They join forces with the genuine Young Avengers to battle [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn "Norman Osborn")'s [Dark Avengers](/wiki/Dark_Avengers "Dark Avengers").
### "Siege"
In the "[Siege](/wiki/Siege_%28comics%29 "Siege (comics)")" storyline, following the attack of Asgard, Steve Rogers calls on the Young Avengers to aid in the help of Asgard against Norman Osborn's Dark Avengers and Initiative.*Siege* \#2{{Cite web \| first\=Dave \| last\=Richards \| url\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=24874 \| title\=Storming Heaven: ''Siege'' \#2 \| work\=Comic Book Resources \| date\=February 17, 2010 \| access\-date\=2010\-09\-26 \| archive\-date\=2012\-10\-13 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013070820/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=24874 \| url\-status\=live }} Stature and Vision aid [Amadeus Cho](/wiki/Amadeus_Cho "Amadeus Cho") and [U.S. Agent](/wiki/U.S._Agent_%28comics%29 "U.S. Agent (comics)") in stopping the [Thunderbolts](/wiki/Thunderbolts_%28comics%29 "Thunderbolts (comics)") from stealing Odin's spear for Norman Osborn. With Patriot and Hawkeye entombed under the ruins of Asgard, Speed anxiously ferries a number of wounded [Asgardians](/wiki/Asgard_%28comics%29 "Asgard (comics)") to safety, looking for his teammates. Wiccan and Hulkling take on and defeat the [Wrecking Crew](/wiki/Wrecking_Crew_%28comics%29 "Wrecking Crew (comics)"), who were looting the ruins of the Throne Room. Wiccan strikes the villains down with lightning bolts, much to Hulkling's wonder and worry.*Siege: Young Avengers*
### *Avengers: The Children's Crusade*
[thumb\|250px\|Promotional artwork for *Avengers: The Children's Crusade*.](/wiki/File:Avengers_children%27s_crusade.jpg "Avengers children's crusade.jpg")
The Young Avengers appear in the 2010–2012 miniseries, *Avengers: The Children's Crusade*, written by [Allan Heinberg](/wiki/Allan_Heinberg "Allan Heinberg") and illustrated by [Jim Cheung](/wiki/Jim_Cheung "Jim Cheung").{{Cite web \| last\=Doran \| first\=Michael \| title\=Marvel Sr. Sales VP Talks Event Fatigue, Marvel Women, More \| work\=Newsarama \| date\=October 28, 2009 \| url\=http://www.newsarama.com/comics/091028\-gabriel\-diamond.html \| access\-date\=2009\-12\-16 \| archive\-date\=2009\-10\-31 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091031083659/http://www.newsarama.com/comics/091028\-gabriel\-diamond.html \| url\-status\=live }} In the series, [Magneto](/wiki/Magneto_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Magneto (Marvel Comics)") learned that the Young Avengers were going to search for the still missing [Scarlet Witch](/wiki/Scarlet_Witch "Scarlet Witch"), and that [Wiccan](/wiki/Wiccan_%28comics%29 "Wiccan (comics)") and [Speed](/wiki/Speed_%28comics%29 "Speed (comics)") may be the reincarnations of Wanda's children. Magneto meets them, stating that he wants Wiccan and Speed to finally know him as their grandfather, and helps them find Wanda.*Uncanny X\-Men* \#526*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \#1
The [Avengers](/wiki/Avengers_%28comics%29 "Avengers (comics)") attempt to stop Magneto and fight him unsuccessfully, before Wiccan teleports Magneto and the Young Avengers to Wundagore Mountain. There they encounter [Quicksilver](/wiki/Quicksilver_%28comics%29 "Quicksilver (comics)"), who attempts to kill his father. However, they discover that this Scarlet Witch is actually a Doombot in disguise,*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \#2 prompting the Young Avengers and Magneto to journey to [Latveria](/wiki/Latveria "Latveria"), with the Avengers, Quicksilver and [Wonder Man](/wiki/Wonder_Man "Wonder Man") following behind them.
Wiccan eventually finds the real Wanda, apparently devoid of her powers, amnesiac and engaged to be married to [Doctor Doom](/wiki/Doctor_Doom "Doctor Doom"). [Wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29 "Wolverine (character)") tries to kill Wanda, but is prevented from doing so by the reappearance of [Iron Lad](/wiki/Iron_Lad "Iron Lad").{{Cite web \| title\=C2E2: Heinberg \& Cheung Launch 'Children's Crusade' \| work\=Comic Book Resources \| date\=April 18, 2010 \| url\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=25813 \| access\-date\=2010\-07\-10 \| archive\-date\=2016\-03\-03 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303203228/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=25813 \| url\-status\=live }}{{Cite comic \| writer\=\[\[Allan Heinberg\|Heinberg, Allan]] \| title\=Avengers: The Children's Crusade \| issue\=1–4 \| date\=Sept. 2010 – March 2011}} Doom also states that Wanda is depowered.{{Cite comic \| writer\=Heinberg, Allan \| title\=Avengers: The Children's Crusade \| issue\=4 \| date\=March 2011}} Iron Lad and the Young Avengers escape with Wanda into the timestream and land in the past when the resurrected [Jack of Hearts](/wiki/Jack_of_Hearts_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Jack of Hearts (Marvel Comics)") destroys the Avengers Mansion. The team escapes the explosion and involuntarily returns to the present due to Wanda, who has remembered everything. As an unexpected side effect, the life of [Scott Lang](/wiki/Ant-Man_%28Scott_Lang%29 "Ant-Man (Scott Lang)") is also saved.{{Cite comic \| writer\=Heinberg, Allan \| title\=Avengers: The Children's Crusade \| issue\=5 \| date\=June 2011}}
When the group returns to the present, Scarlet Witch is shown in a depression where she thinks that she killed her father, her brother, and the Avengers. She vows to kill herself with Kree ships and Ultron clones which [Hawkeye](/wiki/Hawkeye_%28Clint_Barton%29 "Hawkeye (Clint Barton)") and the Young Avengers destroy. During that time, [Beast](/wiki/Beast_%28comics%29 "Beast (comics)") and [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones "Jessica Jones") arrive, where Beast learns that the Scarlet Witch that he encountered was actually a Doombot. Wiccan tells her that her father, her brother, and "her sons" are still alive. Billy finally gets the happy Mother\-and\-Child Reunion that he had been dreaming of. Beast asks Wanda if she can reverse the "No more mutants" spell. She is unsure a reverse spell would work. They meet up with X\-Factor Investigations, which has many clients who are depowered mutants. Rictor volunteers and has his powers restored. The [X\-Men](/wiki/X-Men "X-Men") show up and Wanda tells X\-Factor Investigations that if the X\-Men want more mutants then that's exactly what she will give them.*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \#6
However, a battle ensues between the X\-Men and the Avengers over what to do with Wanda, forcing her and the Young Avengers to flee back to Doctor Doom. It is revealed that Wanda's enhanced powers were a result of her and Doom's combined attempt to channel the Life Force in order to resurrect her children, but it proved to be too much for Wanda to contain and overtook her. With Wiccan and Doom's help, they seek to use the entity possessing Wanda to restore mutantkind's powers but they are stopped by Patriot (who is concerned at the fall\-out that would ensue if the powerless mutants are suddenly repowered), only to find out that the entity was transferred to Doom's body, giving him Wanda's god\-like powers. His scars finally healed, he calls himself "Victor", discards his now useless mask, and promises to take care of everything.*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \#7 Doom becomes omnipotent with powers surpassing those of beings as Beyonder or the Cosmic Cube; he offers to use these powers to fix the Avengers' and X\-Men's problems and bring their deceased friends back to life, but both teams refuse the offer. The Young Avengers confront him, aided by the Avengers, the X\-Men and X\-Factor; Wanda and Wiccan manage to remove Doom's newfound powers, and he claims that he was responsible for the Scarlet Witch's doings during the "[Avengers Disassembled](/wiki/Avengers_Disassembled "Avengers Disassembled")" and "[House of M](/wiki/House_of_M "House of M")" events (later established to have been lying on Wanda's behalf, and the Scarlet Witch to have been solely responsible). During the confrontation Stature attacks Doom, who responds by blasting her with a wave of energy. After Wanda and Wiccan successfully remove the powers from Doom he escapes. The last panel of issue 8 ends with the heroes surrounding Stature's stricken form.*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \#8
Following the battle with Doom, Stature is revealed to have died from her injuries. Iron Lad offers to save Stature by taking her into the timestream. Vision objects to this, making Iron Lad enraged with him. Iron Lad attacks him, resulting in Vision's destruction. Iron Lad then prepared to jump into the timestream to go back and save Stature, with Wiccan warning him that this is the moment he becomes Kang the Conqueror, but Iron Lad is not deterred. With the battles over, all that was left was to determine the fate of the Scarlet Witch. Cyclops agrees to leave the Scarlet Witch alone, but states that he will kill Wanda if she turns against the heroes again. Rejecting the offer to rejoin the Avengers or her family, Wanda departs stating that after years of defining herself as Magneto's daughter, Pietro's sister, or the Vision's wife, she wants to find out who she is on her own before she decides what to do with her life. Later the Young Avengers decide to disband, much to the disapproval of Speed. Months pass by with the events of Spider\-Island, Schism, and the Human Torch's revival having occurred and the Young Avengers taking no action. All this time Wiccan was in a depressive state. Hulkling tries to get him to talk to someone, but Wiccan refuses. Wiccan then believes Hulkling is breaking up with him, leading Hulkling to make an impromptu "proposal". They kiss, but are interrupted by Ms. Marvel and told to get into uniform and go to the mansion. The issue ends with the Young Avengers officially being recognized as full\-fledged Avengers.*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \#9
### Volume 2
A new *Young Avengers* series, written by [Kieron Gillen](/wiki/Kieron_Gillen "Kieron Gillen") and drawn by [Jamie McKelvie](/wiki/Jamie_McKelvie "Jamie McKelvie"), was launched in January 2013 as part of the [Marvel NOW!](/wiki/Marvel_NOW%21 "Marvel NOW!") rebranding campaign.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article\&id\=41439 \|title\=EXCLUSIVE: Gillen \& McKelvie Assemble New Volume of "Young Avengers" \|last\=Richards \|first\=Dave \|date\=9 October 2012 \|publisher\=Comic Book Resources \|access\-date\=15 October 2013 \|archive\-date\=26 October 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081026235244/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\=article \|url\-status\=live }} The new monthly series reintroduces existing Young Avengers, Wiccan, Hulkling and Hawkeye, as well as introducing [Kid Loki](/wiki/Loki_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Reincarnation "Loki (Marvel Comics)#Reincarnation"), [Noh\-Varr](/wiki/Noh-Varr "Noh-Varr") and [America Chavez](/wiki/America_Chavez "America Chavez") to the book's cast. The series' sixth issue included the reintroduction of former Young Avenger, Speed, and the addition of depowered mutant [Prodigy](/wiki/Prodigy_%28David_Alleyne%29 "Prodigy (David Alleyne)") to the group. Over the course of the series, Wiccan and Hulkling reaffirm their commitment to one another after Hulkling faces an existential crisis; Wiccan discovers that he will one day become the all\-powerful Demiurge; Prodigy comes out as bisexual, and develops a crush on Hulkling; Kate and Noh\-Varr become a couple, and then later break up after Noh\-Varr realises he doesn't feel as strongly for Kate as he does for his ex, Oubliette; and America Chavez is revealed to be from a paradise dimension created by the Demiurge (Wiccan). In the latter half of the series, Kid Loki believes he is engaged in a battle of wits with against his ex, Leah. However, he later uncovers that this 'Leah' is in fact a projection of his own guilty conscience, which wants to restore Loki to his true self. After tricking Wiccan into transforming him to a more mature form—that of a late teenager or young adult—he departs the group, choosing to do so before they can forgive him for manipulating and betraying them. Throughout the story, the group are also haunted by a powerful character dressed as Patriot, who captures Tommy. In the concluding issue of the series, Prodigy rightly surmises that this Patriot is a member of the team who has been transformed into a non\-human in some future magical event, and is now echoing backwards along the timeline in order to ensure this future comes to pass. Guessing this person may well be himself, he kisses the Patriot, causing the Patriot to vanish and Tommy to reappear. Volume 2 came to an end with issue \#15, as Gillen and McKelvie wrapped up their story and wanted to pursue other collaborations.
Thus the team again disbanded, after Hawkeye, America Chavez, and Noh\-Varr joined [West Coast Avengers](/wiki/West_Coast_Avengers "West Coast Avengers"), Wiccan and Speed focusing their relationships with Hulkling and Prodigy respectively.*West Coast Avengers* Vol. 3 \#1\. Marvel Comics*Lords of Empyre: Emperor Hulkling* \#1\. Marvel Comics
|
[
"Fictional team biography\n------------------------",
"{{long plot\\|date\\=May 2023}}",
"### Volume 1",
"In \"Sidekicks\" (issues \\#1–6\\), reporters [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones \"Jessica Jones\") (a former teen superhero known as Jewel) and Kat Farrell of *[The Daily Bugle](/wiki/Daily_Bugle \"Daily Bugle\")* and heroes Captain America and Iron Man investigate a new group of teenage heroes. The story is set in the time between the \"[Avengers Disassembled](/wiki/Avengers_Disassembled \"Avengers Disassembled\")\" storyline and the beginning of *[New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28comics%29 \"The New Avengers (comics)\")*. Although the team defeats [Kang the Conqueror](/wiki/Kang_the_Conqueror \"Kang the Conqueror\"), Captain America and Iron Man take away their gear and refuse to train the team without their parents' consent. Despite the heroes' warnings, the team continues with a new headquarters, new costumes, and new names.",
"In \"Secret Identities\" (issues \\#7–8\\), the Young Avengers must decide how much to tell their parents after the members decide to continue acting publicly. None of their parents find out. During a fight with [Mr. Hyde](/wiki/Mister_Hyde_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Mister Hyde (Marvel Comics)\") in *Young Avengers* \\#8, Wiccan discovers Eli abusing Mutant growth hormone (MGH) which gives people powers for short periods. Eli confesses that he deceived Iron Lad who meant to recruit his missing uncle [Josiah](/wiki/Josiah_X \"Josiah X\") in order to join the team. He quits the team, overwhelmed with emotion.",
"At the insistence of Kat Farrell, Jessica Jones interviews the Young Avengers about their pasts.*Young Avengers Special* \\#1 Cassie Lang had a troubled home life, especially after her father [Ant\\-Man](/wiki/Ant-Man_%28Scott_Lang%29 \"Ant-Man (Scott Lang)\") died. She and her mother constantly fought, and she hated her mother's boyfriend. Had the Young Avengers not formed, Cassie planned to join the [Runaways](/wiki/Runaways_%28comics%29 \"Runaways (comics)\"). Teddy Altman abused his shapeshifting powers to spend time with a more popular kid. He realized that he had gone too far when his \"friend\" tried to force him to steal artifacts from the destroyed [Avengers Mansion](/wiki/Avengers_Mansion \"Avengers Mansion\"). Billy Kaplan had a problem with being accepted because of his sexuality. He was tormented and physically abused. He met the [Scarlet Witch](/wiki/Scarlet_Witch \"Scarlet Witch\"), who explained that being different is not bad. He eventually stands up to his tormentor for another kid. He nearly kills him when his powers become dominant. Kate Bishop was brutally assaulted in a park. Eli Bradley used MGH because he felt powerless against some thugs and wanted to prove that his grandfather truly was the black Captain America.",
"K'Lrt the [Super\\-Skrull](/wiki/Super-Skrull \"Super-Skrull\") tries to take Teddy to the [Skrull](/wiki/Skrull \"Skrull\") homeworld.\"Family Matters\", *Young Avengers* \\#9–12 K'Lrt reveals that Mrs. Altman is not Teddy's mother and kills her. In the aftermath, K'Lrt kidnaps Teddy. The Vision offers to locate more Young Avengers using his prior incarnation's contingency plan. The Young Avengers break Thomas Shepherd out of a superhuman prison and recruit him. Tommy can move at superhuman speed and accelerate matter, destabilizing it enough to cause an explosion. The Super\\-Skrull tells Teddy of his true origin as the son of the Kree hero [Captain Marvel](/wiki/Mar-Vell \"Mar-Vell\") and the Skrull princess Anelle. He then claims that Tommy and Billy are the Scarlet Witch and Vision's lost twin sons. Billy believes him, but Tommy does not. Kree and Skrull combat forces arrive and fight each other and the Young Avengers until Teddy, realizing his importance to both sides, calls for a ceasefire. The Avengers intervene and a Kree warrior fires at Captain America. Patriot intervenes and is gravely wounded. [Hulkling](/wiki/Hulkling \"Hulkling\") and K'Lrt end the fighting by secretly shapeshifting into each other's forms. Captain America and K'Lrt, disguised as Hulkling, broker a shared custody between the races.",
"At a hospital, Eli's grandfather donates his blood to Eli. Captain America again tells the Young Avengers to stop what they are doing. Kate blames their trouble on the Avengers for not training them. The Young Avengers repair the statues of fallen Avengers at Avengers Mansion. Eli now has superpowers as a result of the blood transfusion. Kate receives Hawkeye's bow and quiver from Captain America, and she takes the mantle of Hawkeye. Tommy arrives in costume and calls himself Speed.",
"### \"Civil War\"",
"{{See also\\|Civil War: Young Avengers/Runaways}}\nIn *[Civil War](/wiki/Civil_War_%28comics%29 \"Civil War (comics)\")* \\#2, the members of Young Avengers are captured by [S.H.I.E.L.D.](/wiki/S.H.I.E.L.D. \"S.H.I.E.L.D.\") for not complying with the registration act. Captain America and the [Falcon](/wiki/Falcon_%28comics%29 \"Falcon (comics)\") help them escape, freeing Wiccan, allowing him to teleport the group to a base only known to [Nick Fury](/wiki/Nick_Fury \"Nick Fury\") and a few resistance fighters. Once in Captain America's secret base, the Young Avengers join the resistance movement called *Secret Avengers*. The Young Avengers joins the fight against Iron Man and the pro\\-registration heroes. Stature leaves the resistance after [Goliath](/wiki/Bill_Foster_%28comics%29 \"Bill Foster (comics)\") is killed by a clone of Thor and the Secret Avengers are forced to retreat from battle leaving Wiccan behind. However, shortly afterwards Stature registers and begins superhero training. The remainder of the team remained with Captain America. Stature is seen alongside Iron Man and the rest of the \"pro\\-reg\" group during the final battle between registered and rebel heroes. [Deadpool](/wiki/Deadpool \"Deadpool\") is commissioned as a \"hero hunter\" in the war and frequently remarks how he'd like to capture \"those nubile Young Avengers\".",
"With the surrender of Captain America, the rest of the Young Avengers are granted amnesty in exchange for registration. All the members except Hawkeye, Patriot and Speed registered, and began training at [Camp Hammond](/wiki/Camp_Hammond_%28comics%29 \"Camp Hammond (comics)\"). In the last issue of the *[Fallen Son](/wiki/Fallen_Son:The_Death_of_Captain_America \"The Death of Captain America\")* crossover, when the funeral of Captain America takes place at Washington D.C., all of the Young Avengers are seen, wearing their Super Hero outfits, and are even mentioned by name by the [Falcon](/wiki/Falcon_%28comics%29 \"Falcon (comics)\"), while delivering the ceremonial speech. This suggests another amnesty was offered to Hawkeye, Patriot and Speed, who had stayed in the resistance after the end of the Civil War, alongside the [New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28comics%29 \"The New Avengers (comics)\").",
"In *She\\-Hulk* \\#21, it was revealed that the Hulking and Wiccan that joined the Initiative were actually a pair of interdimensional travelers known as \"Alphas\" whereas the actual Hulkling and Wiccan were shocked at the discovery that they had registered. Hawkeye, Patriot, and Speed, remain unregistered.*Young Avengers Presents* \\#1",
"### \"Young Avengers Presents\"",
"In the 2008 miniseries *Young Avengers Presents*, Patriot discovers that [Bucky](/wiki/Bucky_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Bucky (Marvel Comics)\") had visited his grandfather [Isaiah Bradley](/wiki/Isaiah_Bradley \"Isaiah Bradley\"). After tracking him down, Patriot shares his concerns losing faith in the country. Bucky explains to Eli that America is an idea used for good or ill, but one with value to it and something worth defending against all threat, inspiring the younger hero once more. Hulkling meets [Mar\\-Vell](/wiki/Captain_Marvel_%28Mar-Vell%29 \"Captain Marvel (Mar-Vell)\"), telling him that he is his son, much to Mar\\-Vell's shock. While Captain Mar\\-Vell is proud of his son, he confesses that he will not be able to stay forever, as the survival of the time stream depends on him eventually returning to the past and dying from cancer. This Captain Marvel eventually turned out to be a [Skrull](/wiki/Skrull \"Skrull\") sleeper agent in place for the \"[Secret Invasion](/wiki/Secret_Invasion \"Secret Invasion\")\".*Young Avengers Presents* \\#2 Wiccan and Speed begin searching for the Scarlet Witch, whom they believe to be their mother. Upon searching the former home of the Scarlet Witch and Vision in [Leonia, NJ](/wiki/Leonia%2C_New_Jersey \"Leonia, New Jersey\"); they encounter [Master Pandemonium](/wiki/Master_Pandemonium \"Master Pandemonium\"), who advises them to end their search and embrace their present lives. Vision tells Cassie that after \"Civil War\", he traveled around the world posing as different people, living many different lives, ultimately culminating in a better understanding of who he is. He asserts that he is his own person, not the memories of Iron Lad, confessing his love to Cassie, and states that he wishes to now be called Jonas. Cassie demonstrates that she is unsure but is willing to reciprocate his feelings.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=16151 \\| title\\=Vision Quest: Cornell talks ''Young Avengers Presents'' \\| work\\=\\[\\[Comic Book Resources]] \\| date\\=April 23, 2008 \\| access\\-date\\=April 24, 2008 \\| archive\\-date\\=January 23, 2009 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123075837/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=16151 \\| url\\-status\\=live }} During the story, Cassie is also stricken with guilt after accidentally injuring her stepfather while stopping a villain, forcing her to come to terms with the responsibilities that come with her powers and with being part of the Young Avengers and the Initiative, much as her stepfather also understands the risks of life as a policeman. Hawkeye feels uncomfortable about her growing relationship with Patriot, and encounters Clint Barton, the original Hawkeye, who helps her reaffirm her position as Hawkeye and Young Avengers co\\-leader.",
"### \"Secret Invasion\"",
"In the 2008 miniseries *[Secret Invasion: Runaways/Young Avengers](/wiki/Secret_Invasion:Runaways/Young_Avengers \"Runaways/Young Avengers\")*, the Young Avengers again teamed with the [Runaways](/wiki/Runaways_%28comics%29 \"Runaways (comics)\") in a *[Secret Invasion](/wiki/Secret_Invasion \"Secret Invasion\")* tie\\-in.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://comics.ign.com/articles/859/859389p1\\.html \\| title\\=Exclusive Secret Invasion: Runaways/Young Avengers Interview \\| access\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-16 \\| first\\=Richard \\| last\\=George \\| date\\=March 13, 2008 \\| work\\=\\[\\[IGN]] \\| archive\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-12 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212211451/http://comics.ign.com/articles/859/859389p1\\.html \\| url\\-status\\=live }} The Young Avengers are the first to respond to the Skrull invasion in [Manhattan, New York](/wiki/Manhattan%2C_New_York \"Manhattan, New York\"). They are quickly defeated, though [Xavin](/wiki/Xavin \"Xavin\") manages to rescue Hulkling. The leaders of the Skrull invasion intend to assassinate Hulking, for fear that his identity as Dorrek VIII would diminish their authority. During the confrontation between the Young Avengers, Runaways, and the invading Skrulls, Xavin is forced to confront her former mentor, Commander Chrell, reluctantly killing him to save the Young Avengers and Runaways.{{Cite comic \\| Writer\\=\\[\\[Brian Michael Bendis\\|Bendis, Brian Michael]] \\| Artist\\=\\[\\[Leinil Yu\\|Yu, Leinil]] \\| Title\\=Secret Invasion \\| Issue\\=1–3 \\| Date\\=April–May 2008 \\| Publisher\\=Marvel Comics}}",
"### \"Dark Reign\"",
"The 2009 *[Dark Reign: Young Avengers](/wiki/Dark_Reign_%28comics%29 \"Dark Reign (comics)\")* limited series written by [Paul Cornell](/wiki/Paul_Cornell \"Paul Cornell\"),{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=19890 \\| title\\=NYCC: Cornell talks ''Dark Reign: Young Avengers'' \\| work\\=Comic Book Resources \\| date\\=February 7, 2009 \\| access\\-date\\=March 2, 2009 \\| archive\\-date\\=August 11, 2016 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811204936/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=19890 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.newsarama.com/comics/020907\\-DR\\-YA.html \\| title\\=NYCC '09 – Paul Cornell on Dark Reign: Young Avengers \\| work\\=\\[\\[Newsarama]] \\| date\\=February 7, 2009 \\| access\\-date\\=March 2, 2009 \\| archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2019 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819021343/https://www.newsarama.com/2157\\-nycc\\-09\\-paul\\-cornell\\-on\\-dark\\-reign\\-young\\-avengers.html \\| url\\-status\\=live }} and [Mark Brooks](/wiki/Mark_Brooks_%28comics%29 \"Mark Brooks (comics)\"),{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.newsarama.com/comics/020920\\-Brooks\\-Young\\-Masters.html \\| title\\=Mark Brooks: Designing the Young Masters \\| work\\=Newsarama \\| date\\=February 20, 2009 \\| access\\-date\\=March 2, 2009 \\| archive\\-date\\=September 12, 2012 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912130811/http://www.newsarama.com/comics/020920\\-Brooks\\-Young\\-Masters.html \\| url\\-status\\=live }} introduced a new group consist of [Enchantress](/wiki/Enchantress_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Enchantress \"Enchantress (Marvel Comics)#Enchantress\"), [Executioner](/wiki/Executioner_%28comics%29%23Young_Masters \"Executioner (comics)#Young Masters\"), Coat of Arms, [Egghead](/wiki/Egghead_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Young_Masters \"Egghead (Marvel Comics)#Young Masters\"), Big Zero and team leader [Melter](/wiki/Melter \"Melter\"), who are powered teens calling themselves the Young Avengers.{{Cite web \\| last\\=Stevens \\| first\\=Tim \\| title\\=The Young Avengers discover a world after Osborn in ''Dark Reign: Young Avengers'' \\| work\\=Marvel.com \\| date\\=February 6, 2009 \\| url\\=http://www.marvel.com/news/comicstories.6809\\.NYCC\\_\\~apos\\~09\\~colon\\~\\_Dark\\_Reign\\~colon\\~\\_Young\\_Avengers \\| access\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-07 \\| archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-08 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208112716/http://marvel.com/news/comicstories.6809\\.NYCC\\_%7Eapos%7E09%7Ecolon%7E\\_Dark\\_Reign%7Ecolon%7E\\_Young\\_Avengers \\| url\\-status\\=live }} After Secret Invasion, all the Young Avengers remained under low profile during Norman Osborn's Dark Reign, who sent this version of Young Avengers and send them to battle only to fall against the original Young Avengers. They join forces with the genuine Young Avengers to battle [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn \"Norman Osborn\")'s [Dark Avengers](/wiki/Dark_Avengers \"Dark Avengers\").",
"### \"Siege\"",
"In the \"[Siege](/wiki/Siege_%28comics%29 \"Siege (comics)\")\" storyline, following the attack of Asgard, Steve Rogers calls on the Young Avengers to aid in the help of Asgard against Norman Osborn's Dark Avengers and Initiative.*Siege* \\#2{{Cite web \\| first\\=Dave \\| last\\=Richards \\| url\\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=24874 \\| title\\=Storming Heaven: ''Siege'' \\#2 \\| work\\=Comic Book Resources \\| date\\=February 17, 2010 \\| access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-26 \\| archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-13 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013070820/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=24874 \\| url\\-status\\=live }} Stature and Vision aid [Amadeus Cho](/wiki/Amadeus_Cho \"Amadeus Cho\") and [U.S. Agent](/wiki/U.S._Agent_%28comics%29 \"U.S. Agent (comics)\") in stopping the [Thunderbolts](/wiki/Thunderbolts_%28comics%29 \"Thunderbolts (comics)\") from stealing Odin's spear for Norman Osborn. With Patriot and Hawkeye entombed under the ruins of Asgard, Speed anxiously ferries a number of wounded [Asgardians](/wiki/Asgard_%28comics%29 \"Asgard (comics)\") to safety, looking for his teammates. Wiccan and Hulkling take on and defeat the [Wrecking Crew](/wiki/Wrecking_Crew_%28comics%29 \"Wrecking Crew (comics)\"), who were looting the ruins of the Throne Room. Wiccan strikes the villains down with lightning bolts, much to Hulkling's wonder and worry.*Siege: Young Avengers*",
"### *Avengers: The Children's Crusade*",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Promotional artwork for *Avengers: The Children's Crusade*.](/wiki/File:Avengers_children%27s_crusade.jpg \"Avengers children's crusade.jpg\")\nThe Young Avengers appear in the 2010–2012 miniseries, *Avengers: The Children's Crusade*, written by [Allan Heinberg](/wiki/Allan_Heinberg \"Allan Heinberg\") and illustrated by [Jim Cheung](/wiki/Jim_Cheung \"Jim Cheung\").{{Cite web \\| last\\=Doran \\| first\\=Michael \\| title\\=Marvel Sr. Sales VP Talks Event Fatigue, Marvel Women, More \\| work\\=Newsarama \\| date\\=October 28, 2009 \\| url\\=http://www.newsarama.com/comics/091028\\-gabriel\\-diamond.html \\| access\\-date\\=2009\\-12\\-16 \\| archive\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-31 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091031083659/http://www.newsarama.com/comics/091028\\-gabriel\\-diamond.html \\| url\\-status\\=live }} In the series, [Magneto](/wiki/Magneto_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Magneto (Marvel Comics)\") learned that the Young Avengers were going to search for the still missing [Scarlet Witch](/wiki/Scarlet_Witch \"Scarlet Witch\"), and that [Wiccan](/wiki/Wiccan_%28comics%29 \"Wiccan (comics)\") and [Speed](/wiki/Speed_%28comics%29 \"Speed (comics)\") may be the reincarnations of Wanda's children. Magneto meets them, stating that he wants Wiccan and Speed to finally know him as their grandfather, and helps them find Wanda.*Uncanny X\\-Men* \\#526*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \\#1",
"The [Avengers](/wiki/Avengers_%28comics%29 \"Avengers (comics)\") attempt to stop Magneto and fight him unsuccessfully, before Wiccan teleports Magneto and the Young Avengers to Wundagore Mountain. There they encounter [Quicksilver](/wiki/Quicksilver_%28comics%29 \"Quicksilver (comics)\"), who attempts to kill his father. However, they discover that this Scarlet Witch is actually a Doombot in disguise,*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \\#2 prompting the Young Avengers and Magneto to journey to [Latveria](/wiki/Latveria \"Latveria\"), with the Avengers, Quicksilver and [Wonder Man](/wiki/Wonder_Man \"Wonder Man\") following behind them.",
"Wiccan eventually finds the real Wanda, apparently devoid of her powers, amnesiac and engaged to be married to [Doctor Doom](/wiki/Doctor_Doom \"Doctor Doom\"). [Wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29 \"Wolverine (character)\") tries to kill Wanda, but is prevented from doing so by the reappearance of [Iron Lad](/wiki/Iron_Lad \"Iron Lad\").{{Cite web \\| title\\=C2E2: Heinberg \\& Cheung Launch 'Children's Crusade' \\| work\\=Comic Book Resources \\| date\\=April 18, 2010 \\| url\\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=25813 \\| access\\-date\\=2010\\-07\\-10 \\| archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-03 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303203228/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=25813 \\| url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite comic \\| writer\\=\\[\\[Allan Heinberg\\|Heinberg, Allan]] \\| title\\=Avengers: The Children's Crusade \\| issue\\=1–4 \\| date\\=Sept. 2010 – March 2011}} Doom also states that Wanda is depowered.{{Cite comic \\| writer\\=Heinberg, Allan \\| title\\=Avengers: The Children's Crusade \\| issue\\=4 \\| date\\=March 2011}} Iron Lad and the Young Avengers escape with Wanda into the timestream and land in the past when the resurrected [Jack of Hearts](/wiki/Jack_of_Hearts_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Jack of Hearts (Marvel Comics)\") destroys the Avengers Mansion. The team escapes the explosion and involuntarily returns to the present due to Wanda, who has remembered everything. As an unexpected side effect, the life of [Scott Lang](/wiki/Ant-Man_%28Scott_Lang%29 \"Ant-Man (Scott Lang)\") is also saved.{{Cite comic \\| writer\\=Heinberg, Allan \\| title\\=Avengers: The Children's Crusade \\| issue\\=5 \\| date\\=June 2011}}",
"When the group returns to the present, Scarlet Witch is shown in a depression where she thinks that she killed her father, her brother, and the Avengers. She vows to kill herself with Kree ships and Ultron clones which [Hawkeye](/wiki/Hawkeye_%28Clint_Barton%29 \"Hawkeye (Clint Barton)\") and the Young Avengers destroy. During that time, [Beast](/wiki/Beast_%28comics%29 \"Beast (comics)\") and [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones \"Jessica Jones\") arrive, where Beast learns that the Scarlet Witch that he encountered was actually a Doombot. Wiccan tells her that her father, her brother, and \"her sons\" are still alive. Billy finally gets the happy Mother\\-and\\-Child Reunion that he had been dreaming of. Beast asks Wanda if she can reverse the \"No more mutants\" spell. She is unsure a reverse spell would work. They meet up with X\\-Factor Investigations, which has many clients who are depowered mutants. Rictor volunteers and has his powers restored. The [X\\-Men](/wiki/X-Men \"X-Men\") show up and Wanda tells X\\-Factor Investigations that if the X\\-Men want more mutants then that's exactly what she will give them.*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \\#6",
"However, a battle ensues between the X\\-Men and the Avengers over what to do with Wanda, forcing her and the Young Avengers to flee back to Doctor Doom. It is revealed that Wanda's enhanced powers were a result of her and Doom's combined attempt to channel the Life Force in order to resurrect her children, but it proved to be too much for Wanda to contain and overtook her. With Wiccan and Doom's help, they seek to use the entity possessing Wanda to restore mutantkind's powers but they are stopped by Patriot (who is concerned at the fall\\-out that would ensue if the powerless mutants are suddenly repowered), only to find out that the entity was transferred to Doom's body, giving him Wanda's god\\-like powers. His scars finally healed, he calls himself \"Victor\", discards his now useless mask, and promises to take care of everything.*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \\#7 Doom becomes omnipotent with powers surpassing those of beings as Beyonder or the Cosmic Cube; he offers to use these powers to fix the Avengers' and X\\-Men's problems and bring their deceased friends back to life, but both teams refuse the offer. The Young Avengers confront him, aided by the Avengers, the X\\-Men and X\\-Factor; Wanda and Wiccan manage to remove Doom's newfound powers, and he claims that he was responsible for the Scarlet Witch's doings during the \"[Avengers Disassembled](/wiki/Avengers_Disassembled \"Avengers Disassembled\")\" and \"[House of M](/wiki/House_of_M \"House of M\")\" events (later established to have been lying on Wanda's behalf, and the Scarlet Witch to have been solely responsible). During the confrontation Stature attacks Doom, who responds by blasting her with a wave of energy. After Wanda and Wiccan successfully remove the powers from Doom he escapes. The last panel of issue 8 ends with the heroes surrounding Stature's stricken form.*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \\#8",
"Following the battle with Doom, Stature is revealed to have died from her injuries. Iron Lad offers to save Stature by taking her into the timestream. Vision objects to this, making Iron Lad enraged with him. Iron Lad attacks him, resulting in Vision's destruction. Iron Lad then prepared to jump into the timestream to go back and save Stature, with Wiccan warning him that this is the moment he becomes Kang the Conqueror, but Iron Lad is not deterred. With the battles over, all that was left was to determine the fate of the Scarlet Witch. Cyclops agrees to leave the Scarlet Witch alone, but states that he will kill Wanda if she turns against the heroes again. Rejecting the offer to rejoin the Avengers or her family, Wanda departs stating that after years of defining herself as Magneto's daughter, Pietro's sister, or the Vision's wife, she wants to find out who she is on her own before she decides what to do with her life. Later the Young Avengers decide to disband, much to the disapproval of Speed. Months pass by with the events of Spider\\-Island, Schism, and the Human Torch's revival having occurred and the Young Avengers taking no action. All this time Wiccan was in a depressive state. Hulkling tries to get him to talk to someone, but Wiccan refuses. Wiccan then believes Hulkling is breaking up with him, leading Hulkling to make an impromptu \"proposal\". They kiss, but are interrupted by Ms. Marvel and told to get into uniform and go to the mansion. The issue ends with the Young Avengers officially being recognized as full\\-fledged Avengers.*Avengers: The Children's Crusade* \\#9",
"### Volume 2",
"A new *Young Avengers* series, written by [Kieron Gillen](/wiki/Kieron_Gillen \"Kieron Gillen\") and drawn by [Jamie McKelvie](/wiki/Jamie_McKelvie \"Jamie McKelvie\"), was launched in January 2013 as part of the [Marvel NOW!](/wiki/Marvel_NOW%21 \"Marvel NOW!\") rebranding campaign.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article\\&id\\=41439 \\|title\\=EXCLUSIVE: Gillen \\& McKelvie Assemble New Volume of \"Young Avengers\" \\|last\\=Richards \\|first\\=Dave \\|date\\=9 October 2012 \\|publisher\\=Comic Book Resources \\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 October 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081026235244/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page\\=article \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The new monthly series reintroduces existing Young Avengers, Wiccan, Hulkling and Hawkeye, as well as introducing [Kid Loki](/wiki/Loki_%28Marvel_Comics%29%23Reincarnation \"Loki (Marvel Comics)#Reincarnation\"), [Noh\\-Varr](/wiki/Noh-Varr \"Noh-Varr\") and [America Chavez](/wiki/America_Chavez \"America Chavez\") to the book's cast. The series' sixth issue included the reintroduction of former Young Avenger, Speed, and the addition of depowered mutant [Prodigy](/wiki/Prodigy_%28David_Alleyne%29 \"Prodigy (David Alleyne)\") to the group. Over the course of the series, Wiccan and Hulkling reaffirm their commitment to one another after Hulkling faces an existential crisis; Wiccan discovers that he will one day become the all\\-powerful Demiurge; Prodigy comes out as bisexual, and develops a crush on Hulkling; Kate and Noh\\-Varr become a couple, and then later break up after Noh\\-Varr realises he doesn't feel as strongly for Kate as he does for his ex, Oubliette; and America Chavez is revealed to be from a paradise dimension created by the Demiurge (Wiccan). In the latter half of the series, Kid Loki believes he is engaged in a battle of wits with against his ex, Leah. However, he later uncovers that this 'Leah' is in fact a projection of his own guilty conscience, which wants to restore Loki to his true self. After tricking Wiccan into transforming him to a more mature form—that of a late teenager or young adult—he departs the group, choosing to do so before they can forgive him for manipulating and betraying them. Throughout the story, the group are also haunted by a powerful character dressed as Patriot, who captures Tommy. In the concluding issue of the series, Prodigy rightly surmises that this Patriot is a member of the team who has been transformed into a non\\-human in some future magical event, and is now echoing backwards along the timeline in order to ensure this future comes to pass. Guessing this person may well be himself, he kisses the Patriot, causing the Patriot to vanish and Tommy to reappear. Volume 2 came to an end with issue \\#15, as Gillen and McKelvie wrapped up their story and wanted to pursue other collaborations.",
"Thus the team again disbanded, after Hawkeye, America Chavez, and Noh\\-Varr joined [West Coast Avengers](/wiki/West_Coast_Avengers \"West Coast Avengers\"), Wiccan and Speed focusing their relationships with Hulkling and Prodigy respectively.*West Coast Avengers* Vol. 3 \\#1\\. Marvel Comics*Lords of Empyre: Emperor Hulkling* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics",
""
] |
### Volume 1
In "Sidekicks" (issues \#1–6\), reporters [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones "Jessica Jones") (a former teen superhero known as Jewel) and Kat Farrell of *[The Daily Bugle](/wiki/Daily_Bugle "Daily Bugle")* and heroes Captain America and Iron Man investigate a new group of teenage heroes. The story is set in the time between the "[Avengers Disassembled](/wiki/Avengers_Disassembled "Avengers Disassembled")" storyline and the beginning of *[New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28comics%29 "The New Avengers (comics)")*. Although the team defeats [Kang the Conqueror](/wiki/Kang_the_Conqueror "Kang the Conqueror"), Captain America and Iron Man take away their gear and refuse to train the team without their parents' consent. Despite the heroes' warnings, the team continues with a new headquarters, new costumes, and new names.
In "Secret Identities" (issues \#7–8\), the Young Avengers must decide how much to tell their parents after the members decide to continue acting publicly. None of their parents find out. During a fight with [Mr. Hyde](/wiki/Mister_Hyde_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Mister Hyde (Marvel Comics)") in *Young Avengers* \#8, Wiccan discovers Eli abusing Mutant growth hormone (MGH) which gives people powers for short periods. Eli confesses that he deceived Iron Lad who meant to recruit his missing uncle [Josiah](/wiki/Josiah_X "Josiah X") in order to join the team. He quits the team, overwhelmed with emotion.
At the insistence of Kat Farrell, Jessica Jones interviews the Young Avengers about their pasts.*Young Avengers Special* \#1 Cassie Lang had a troubled home life, especially after her father [Ant\-Man](/wiki/Ant-Man_%28Scott_Lang%29 "Ant-Man (Scott Lang)") died. She and her mother constantly fought, and she hated her mother's boyfriend. Had the Young Avengers not formed, Cassie planned to join the [Runaways](/wiki/Runaways_%28comics%29 "Runaways (comics)"). Teddy Altman abused his shapeshifting powers to spend time with a more popular kid. He realized that he had gone too far when his "friend" tried to force him to steal artifacts from the destroyed [Avengers Mansion](/wiki/Avengers_Mansion "Avengers Mansion"). Billy Kaplan had a problem with being accepted because of his sexuality. He was tormented and physically abused. He met the [Scarlet Witch](/wiki/Scarlet_Witch "Scarlet Witch"), who explained that being different is not bad. He eventually stands up to his tormentor for another kid. He nearly kills him when his powers become dominant. Kate Bishop was brutally assaulted in a park. Eli Bradley used MGH because he felt powerless against some thugs and wanted to prove that his grandfather truly was the black Captain America.
K'Lrt the [Super\-Skrull](/wiki/Super-Skrull "Super-Skrull") tries to take Teddy to the [Skrull](/wiki/Skrull "Skrull") homeworld."Family Matters", *Young Avengers* \#9–12 K'Lrt reveals that Mrs. Altman is not Teddy's mother and kills her. In the aftermath, K'Lrt kidnaps Teddy. The Vision offers to locate more Young Avengers using his prior incarnation's contingency plan. The Young Avengers break Thomas Shepherd out of a superhuman prison and recruit him. Tommy can move at superhuman speed and accelerate matter, destabilizing it enough to cause an explosion. The Super\-Skrull tells Teddy of his true origin as the son of the Kree hero [Captain Marvel](/wiki/Mar-Vell "Mar-Vell") and the Skrull princess Anelle. He then claims that Tommy and Billy are the Scarlet Witch and Vision's lost twin sons. Billy believes him, but Tommy does not. Kree and Skrull combat forces arrive and fight each other and the Young Avengers until Teddy, realizing his importance to both sides, calls for a ceasefire. The Avengers intervene and a Kree warrior fires at Captain America. Patriot intervenes and is gravely wounded. [Hulkling](/wiki/Hulkling "Hulkling") and K'Lrt end the fighting by secretly shapeshifting into each other's forms. Captain America and K'Lrt, disguised as Hulkling, broker a shared custody between the races.
At a hospital, Eli's grandfather donates his blood to Eli. Captain America again tells the Young Avengers to stop what they are doing. Kate blames their trouble on the Avengers for not training them. The Young Avengers repair the statues of fallen Avengers at Avengers Mansion. Eli now has superpowers as a result of the blood transfusion. Kate receives Hawkeye's bow and quiver from Captain America, and she takes the mantle of Hawkeye. Tommy arrives in costume and calls himself Speed.
|
[
"### Volume 1",
"In \"Sidekicks\" (issues \\#1–6\\), reporters [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones \"Jessica Jones\") (a former teen superhero known as Jewel) and Kat Farrell of *[The Daily Bugle](/wiki/Daily_Bugle \"Daily Bugle\")* and heroes Captain America and Iron Man investigate a new group of teenage heroes. The story is set in the time between the \"[Avengers Disassembled](/wiki/Avengers_Disassembled \"Avengers Disassembled\")\" storyline and the beginning of *[New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28comics%29 \"The New Avengers (comics)\")*. Although the team defeats [Kang the Conqueror](/wiki/Kang_the_Conqueror \"Kang the Conqueror\"), Captain America and Iron Man take away their gear and refuse to train the team without their parents' consent. Despite the heroes' warnings, the team continues with a new headquarters, new costumes, and new names.",
"In \"Secret Identities\" (issues \\#7–8\\), the Young Avengers must decide how much to tell their parents after the members decide to continue acting publicly. None of their parents find out. During a fight with [Mr. Hyde](/wiki/Mister_Hyde_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Mister Hyde (Marvel Comics)\") in *Young Avengers* \\#8, Wiccan discovers Eli abusing Mutant growth hormone (MGH) which gives people powers for short periods. Eli confesses that he deceived Iron Lad who meant to recruit his missing uncle [Josiah](/wiki/Josiah_X \"Josiah X\") in order to join the team. He quits the team, overwhelmed with emotion.",
"At the insistence of Kat Farrell, Jessica Jones interviews the Young Avengers about their pasts.*Young Avengers Special* \\#1 Cassie Lang had a troubled home life, especially after her father [Ant\\-Man](/wiki/Ant-Man_%28Scott_Lang%29 \"Ant-Man (Scott Lang)\") died. She and her mother constantly fought, and she hated her mother's boyfriend. Had the Young Avengers not formed, Cassie planned to join the [Runaways](/wiki/Runaways_%28comics%29 \"Runaways (comics)\"). Teddy Altman abused his shapeshifting powers to spend time with a more popular kid. He realized that he had gone too far when his \"friend\" tried to force him to steal artifacts from the destroyed [Avengers Mansion](/wiki/Avengers_Mansion \"Avengers Mansion\"). Billy Kaplan had a problem with being accepted because of his sexuality. He was tormented and physically abused. He met the [Scarlet Witch](/wiki/Scarlet_Witch \"Scarlet Witch\"), who explained that being different is not bad. He eventually stands up to his tormentor for another kid. He nearly kills him when his powers become dominant. Kate Bishop was brutally assaulted in a park. Eli Bradley used MGH because he felt powerless against some thugs and wanted to prove that his grandfather truly was the black Captain America.",
"K'Lrt the [Super\\-Skrull](/wiki/Super-Skrull \"Super-Skrull\") tries to take Teddy to the [Skrull](/wiki/Skrull \"Skrull\") homeworld.\"Family Matters\", *Young Avengers* \\#9–12 K'Lrt reveals that Mrs. Altman is not Teddy's mother and kills her. In the aftermath, K'Lrt kidnaps Teddy. The Vision offers to locate more Young Avengers using his prior incarnation's contingency plan. The Young Avengers break Thomas Shepherd out of a superhuman prison and recruit him. Tommy can move at superhuman speed and accelerate matter, destabilizing it enough to cause an explosion. The Super\\-Skrull tells Teddy of his true origin as the son of the Kree hero [Captain Marvel](/wiki/Mar-Vell \"Mar-Vell\") and the Skrull princess Anelle. He then claims that Tommy and Billy are the Scarlet Witch and Vision's lost twin sons. Billy believes him, but Tommy does not. Kree and Skrull combat forces arrive and fight each other and the Young Avengers until Teddy, realizing his importance to both sides, calls for a ceasefire. The Avengers intervene and a Kree warrior fires at Captain America. Patriot intervenes and is gravely wounded. [Hulkling](/wiki/Hulkling \"Hulkling\") and K'Lrt end the fighting by secretly shapeshifting into each other's forms. Captain America and K'Lrt, disguised as Hulkling, broker a shared custody between the races.",
"At a hospital, Eli's grandfather donates his blood to Eli. Captain America again tells the Young Avengers to stop what they are doing. Kate blames their trouble on the Avengers for not training them. The Young Avengers repair the statues of fallen Avengers at Avengers Mansion. Eli now has superpowers as a result of the blood transfusion. Kate receives Hawkeye's bow and quiver from Captain America, and she takes the mantle of Hawkeye. Tommy arrives in costume and calls himself Speed.",
""
] |
Issues
------
### Relocation
Despite the flooding, most of the residents still refuse to live elsewhere for various reasons. Because most of the residents are family members of former Artex workers, the residents are still demanding the separation pay, back pay and benefits owed to them by the corporation. By moving elsewhere, the residents fear they would also relinquish their right to ownership of the properties. A banner that reads "We Are Still on Strike!" is still visible at the entrance to the compound.{{Cite web \|last\=Cayabyab \|first\=Marc Jayson \|title\=Malabon teacher rides boat to school \|url\=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/06/10/1925144/malabon\-teacher\-rides\-boat\-school \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-10 \|website\=Philstar.com}}
Offers to voluntarily relocate have been made by the city government of Malabon, however most of the residents that lived outside the compound ended up returning to Artex Compound after briefly staying outside.
On May 28, 2013, a large fire broke out in a housing complex inside the compound, killing one resident. Many of the victims of the fire chose to rebuild new houses on stilts rather than seek residence elsewhere in the city.
### Health and safety risks
Although fish such as tilapia can be found in the water, the residents do not eat them as they are aware that the water is contaminated by refuse and sewage from the nearby houses, restaurants, and [wet markets](/wiki/Wet_market "Wet market"). Because the houses have no access to sewerage and proper solid waste management, urine and feces are simply disposed of directly in the water. On certain days, the strong stench of sewage from the water is said to be so foul that even long\-time residents find it difficult to sleep.
A study conducted by the Department of Environmental Engineering of the [University of the Philippines](/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines "University of the Philippines") found that the compound's water has high levels of bacteria attributable to human and animal fecal matter.
In a 2015 interview with [ABS\-CBN](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs "ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs"), Dr. Rey Salinel warned that Artex Compound residents who are frequently exposed to the floodwaters are at a greater risk of contracting respiratory tract infections, mosquito\-borne illnesses such as [dengue](/wiki/Dengue_fever "Dengue fever") and [malaria](/wiki/Malaria "Malaria"), skin and fungal infections, [leptospirosis](/wiki/Leptospirosis "Leptospirosis"), [gastroenteritis](/wiki/Gastroenteritis "Gastroenteritis"), [diarrhea](/wiki/Diarrhea "Diarrhea"), [typhoid](/wiki/Typhoid_fever "Typhoid fever"), [amoebiasis](/wiki/Amoebiasis "Amoebiasis"), [dysentery](/wiki/Dysentery "Dysentery"), and various other diseases.
In January 2017, an 11\-year\-old boy from Barangay Panghulo drowned while swimming in the floodwaters of Artex Compound.{{Cite web \|last\=Garcia \|first\=Danilo \|date\=January 24, 2017 \|title\=Nag\-swimming sa baha: Totoy nalunod \|trans\-title\=Went swimming in the flood: boy drowns \|url\=https://www.philstar.com/pilipino\-star\-ngayon/metro/2017/01/24/1664858/nag\-swimming\-sa\-baha\-totoy\-nalunod \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-11 \|website\=www.philstar.com \|language\=Filipino}}
|
[
"Issues\n------",
"### Relocation",
"Despite the flooding, most of the residents still refuse to live elsewhere for various reasons. Because most of the residents are family members of former Artex workers, the residents are still demanding the separation pay, back pay and benefits owed to them by the corporation. By moving elsewhere, the residents fear they would also relinquish their right to ownership of the properties. A banner that reads \"We Are Still on Strike!\" is still visible at the entrance to the compound.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cayabyab \\|first\\=Marc Jayson \\|title\\=Malabon teacher rides boat to school \\|url\\=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/06/10/1925144/malabon\\-teacher\\-rides\\-boat\\-school \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-10 \\|website\\=Philstar.com}}",
"Offers to voluntarily relocate have been made by the city government of Malabon, however most of the residents that lived outside the compound ended up returning to Artex Compound after briefly staying outside.",
"On May 28, 2013, a large fire broke out in a housing complex inside the compound, killing one resident. Many of the victims of the fire chose to rebuild new houses on stilts rather than seek residence elsewhere in the city.",
"### Health and safety risks",
"Although fish such as tilapia can be found in the water, the residents do not eat them as they are aware that the water is contaminated by refuse and sewage from the nearby houses, restaurants, and [wet markets](/wiki/Wet_market \"Wet market\"). Because the houses have no access to sewerage and proper solid waste management, urine and feces are simply disposed of directly in the water. On certain days, the strong stench of sewage from the water is said to be so foul that even long\\-time residents find it difficult to sleep.",
"A study conducted by the Department of Environmental Engineering of the [University of the Philippines](/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines \"University of the Philippines\") found that the compound's water has high levels of bacteria attributable to human and animal fecal matter.",
"In a 2015 interview with [ABS\\-CBN](/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs \"ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs\"), Dr. Rey Salinel warned that Artex Compound residents who are frequently exposed to the floodwaters are at a greater risk of contracting respiratory tract infections, mosquito\\-borne illnesses such as [dengue](/wiki/Dengue_fever \"Dengue fever\") and [malaria](/wiki/Malaria \"Malaria\"), skin and fungal infections, [leptospirosis](/wiki/Leptospirosis \"Leptospirosis\"), [gastroenteritis](/wiki/Gastroenteritis \"Gastroenteritis\"), [diarrhea](/wiki/Diarrhea \"Diarrhea\"), [typhoid](/wiki/Typhoid_fever \"Typhoid fever\"), [amoebiasis](/wiki/Amoebiasis \"Amoebiasis\"), [dysentery](/wiki/Dysentery \"Dysentery\"), and various other diseases.",
"In January 2017, an 11\\-year\\-old boy from Barangay Panghulo drowned while swimming in the floodwaters of Artex Compound.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Garcia \\|first\\=Danilo \\|date\\=January 24, 2017 \\|title\\=Nag\\-swimming sa baha: Totoy nalunod \\|trans\\-title\\=Went swimming in the flood: boy drowns \\|url\\=https://www.philstar.com/pilipino\\-star\\-ngayon/metro/2017/01/24/1664858/nag\\-swimming\\-sa\\-baha\\-totoy\\-nalunod \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-11 \\|website\\=www.philstar.com \\|language\\=Filipino}}",
""
] |
Bugles
------
The drum and bugle corps activity has been a driving force of innovation behind the creation of marching brass instruments for many decades. The [mellophone](/wiki/Mellophone "Mellophone") and the [contrabass bugle](/wiki/Contrabass_bugle "Contrabass bugle") are among the creations spawned by instrument manufacturers for use in the marching activity due to the influence of drum and bugle corps hornlines.
The bugles utilized in modern drum corps are distinguished from their marching band counterparts mostly by their [key](/wiki/Key_%28music%29 "Key (music)"): bugles are keyed in G; band instruments are keyed in B{{music\|b}}. Bugle voices are grouped and referenced by the equivalent voices in a choir (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass). The naming conventions for these various instruments can be confusing however, due to the evolution of the bugles used in the drum and bugle corps activity.Riemann, Hugo. *[Dictionary of Music](https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmusi1919riem/page/108/mode/1up)*. Trans. J.A. Shedlock. Augener, 1900\. 108\. All these are descended from the old United States Army G major "straight" (valveless) standard bugles adopted in 1892 Army\-wide.
[thumb](/wiki/File:21_High_Choir.jpg "21 High Choir.jpg")
### Soprano voices
In the drum corps activity, there have been two separate types of instruments that have been classified as soprano voices: the soprano bugle and the piccolo soprano.
#### Piccolo soprano
The piccolo soprano entered regular production during the two piston valve bugle era in the late 1970s, and very closely resembles a G soprano trumpet in size. Piccolo sopranos were made in both two and three valve configurations, and are no longer mass\-produced, but available as custom orders. The primary difference between a G trumpet and a G piccolo soprano is the throat of the bell and the bore size. G trumpets typically have a bore size of .440"\-.450" while the G piccolo soprano was offered in a larger .468" bore. This larger bore often led to intonation issues throughout the range of the piccolo soprano.
[thumb](/wiki/File:DEG_2V_Silver_Piccolo_G_Bugle.jpg "DEG 2V Silver Piccolo G Bugle.jpg")
[thumb](/wiki/File:03_DEG_Silver_2V_Power_Bell_Soprano_G_Bugle.jpg "03 DEG Silver 2V Power Bell Soprano G Bugle.jpg")
#### Soprano
The soprano bugle was the first instrument in the drum corps bugle family. A direct descendant of the M1892 US Army field trumpet which was adopted within the Army and later on by the pioneer drum and bugle corps in the early 20th century, this instrument has undergone every design change since the start of the activity. In early corps, the soprano was pitched either in G or F (F being attained by a long tuning slide) to allow a split ensemble to play simple melodies across the group. The first design change was to add an additional loop of tubing to lower the soprano to the key of D via a locking piston valve tucked horizontally under the handhold. This allowed four possible keys: G and F with the valve open, and D and C with the valve closed. In the 1930s, the competitive circuits allowed the valve to be unlocked, which allowed for more complex melodies to be played by each musician, instead of the melodies being split among 3 or 4 parts. The horizontal valve was still tucked under the handhold, operated by the right thumb. Through the 1940s and 1950s, corps experimented with sanding down the tuning slide to be as quick and smooth in operation as a trombone slide, to allow quick changes in tuning to reach notes within overtone series of the keys of F\# and F. Combined with the piston valve, this allowed for notes within the overtone series of D{{music\|b}} and C. Many bugles were modified with a ring to allow the left hand to actuate the slip\-slide tuning slide. Eventually this slip\-slide setup became so popular that it became a factory option. By the early 1960s, the competitive circuits approved the use of a rotary valve tuning slide in place of the standard tuning slide on the soprano. The rotary valve was actuated by the left hand, and featured a length of tubing that lowered the pitch by either a half\-step (F\#) or a whole\-step (F). Corps featured sopranos with both slides to allow for the greatest choice of available notes, however these instruments were still non\-chromatic. Around 1967, the rules congress standardized an F piston valve and an F\# rotary valve. This allowed the equivalent of the first and second valves on a typical brass instrument, with the piston equating the first valve, and the rotor equating the second valve. Older equipment was grandfathered in, however most corps chose to sell their older D piston sopranos or purchase a kit which allowed local band instrument repairmen to remove the D tubing and solder on an F tubing section. In the late 1970s, DCI's rules congress allowed for the soprano to be designed similarly to a trumpet, with two vertical piston valves. The European drum corps circuits skipped the two valve rule and allowed three vertical valves at this time. American bugle manufacturers then designed both two and three valve instruments at the same time, often using the same parts for both. By 1990, DCI approved the use of three valve sopranos in the North American circuit, thus ending the era of non\-chromatic bugles. Sopranos are still manufactured by one company, which also still produces a two valve custom version for The Commandant's Own United States Marine Drum and Bugle Corps.
Soprano bugles typically have a bore size of .468"\-.470" and come in standard and "power bore" configurations. The "power bore" configurations typically feature heavier bracing, a heavier wall leadpipe, and a slightly larger bell.
[thumb](/wiki/File:02_DEG_Silver_2V_Herald_Soprano_G_Bugle.jpg "02 DEG Silver 2V Herald Soprano G Bugle.jpg")
#### Herald soprano
The Herald Soprano bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products for various small ensembles and corps. This instrument uses a standard soprano bugle valve section, with an adjusted leadpipe and bell to allow for a long fanfare\-like bell. The herald soprano was built in a two valve configuration and featured eyelets for a banner.
[thumb](/wiki/File:05_DEG_Silver_2V_Flugelhorn_G_Bugle.jpg "05 DEG Silver 2V Flugelhorn G Bugle.jpg")
#### Flugelhorn
The Flugelhorn bugle was first designed and utilized during the piston/rotor bugle era in the 1960s and 1970s. These Flugelhorns were designed to resemble a traditional Flugelhorn, however with the limitations of the rules congress. During the two vertical valve era, two competing designs of Flugelhorn were designed. One design was based on the more common style of Flugelhorn, with a tunable lead pipe. The other design was based on the trumpet\-style design, with a tuning slide and stationary leadpipe. There have been three valve G Flugelhorns produced, however in limited quantities. The G Flugelhorn has the same range as a soprano, and also featured a .468" bore.
[thumb](/wiki/File:22_Middle_Voices.jpg "22 Middle Voices.jpg")
### Alto voices
During the non\-chromatic era of drum and bugle corps, the alto voice was unique in that most alto instruments had the same range as soprano voices, therefore alto voice instruments sometimes voice\-crossed with sopranos to allow for various tone colors during shows.
[thumb](/wiki/File:07_DEG_Silver_2V_%28Allied_made%29_Alto_G_Bugle.jpg "07 DEG Silver 2V (Allied made) Alto G Bugle.jpg")
#### Alto bugle
The alto bugle is a voice that was created during the two piston era in the 1970s. These instruments were loosely based on the alto horns used in marching bands and brass bands in a bell\-front marching configuration. Alto bugles are still manufactured today in a three valve configuration. Bore size for the alto bugle typically ranges from .468"\-.470" As an alto voice in G, it has the same bottom end of its range as the soprano family.
[thumb](/wiki/File:09_DEG_Silver_2V_%28Open_wrap%29_Mellophone_G_Bugle.jpg "09 DEG Silver 2V (Open wrap) Mellophone G Bugle.jpg")
#### Mellophone bugle
The mellophone bugle was first instroduced in the mid 1960s. These instruments were based on the design of the Conn Mellophonium as used by the Stan Kenton Orchestra. Eventually the wrap of the mellophone was compacted more into a soprano shape, with accommodations made for the much larger bell. The mellophone quickly became a popular alto voice due to its tone quality and ease of playing, especially compared to the French horn bugle. Mellophones were often featured in highly talented corps as voices that often soared above soprano parts at large impact points. The mellophone bugle is still manufactured today in a three valve configuration, and by special order in a two valve configuration for The Commandant's Own. Bore size is typically between .468"\-.470"
[thumb](/wiki/File:11_DEG_Silver_2V_French_Horn_G_Bugle.jpg "11 DEG Silver 2V French Horn G Bugle.jpg")
#### French horn bugle
The French horn bugle, often called a "Frenchie," was first designed in a G and D single piston configuration in the early 1940s. The Frenchie became popular due to the overtone series allowing many more notes than other bugles could play. The Frenchie followed the design changes of the soprano, including slip\-slide configurations, piston/rotor, two piston, and three piston configurations. The Frenchie in a two piston or F/F\# piston/rotor configuration was a highly popular instrument as a bridge between baritone and soprano voices due to the near\-chromatic nature of the instrument in this range. The French horn bugle is still available in a three valve configuration. The French horn bugle had a typical bore size ranging from .468"\-.470"
#### Low alto bugle
The low alto bugle was an instrument designed in the 1990s by Zigmant Kanstul. This instrument is nearly identical to a French horn bugle in bore size, bell diameter, and length of tubing, but instead of a French horn mouthpiece receiver, the low alto has an alto horn mouthpiece receiver. The low alto has a range identical to the baritone bugle, but is designed primarily to be played in the middle to upper registers, using its extended length to give a more horn\-like sound to the mid voice.
### Tenor bugle
The tenor bugle was a popular voice in drum corps from the 1920s through the 1950s. These instruments were the same bore size and length as a soprano bugle, however they featured a larger bell and could be played with an alto horn mouthpiece. The tenor bugle was designed to play with a more open tone in the lower register of its range and had a tone color closer to a Flugelhorn than a trumpet. The tenor bugle fell out of favor in the 1950s, but was supplanted by the Flugelhorn and alto horn bugles in more modern ensembles.
[thumb](/wiki/File:16_DEG_Silver_2V_Baritone_G_Bugle.jpg "16 DEG Silver 2V Baritone G Bugle.jpg")
### Baritone bugle
The baritone bugle was the second voice developed for drum and bugle corps after the soprano bugle. The baritone bugle is pitched one octave below the soprano.
#### Baro\-tone bugle
The first design for the baritone bugle was often referred to as a "Baro\-tone" in advertising. These instruments were designed to simply be an octave lower than their soprano counterparts. Often built from bass trumpet and concert French horn parts, these small bore, small bell instruments had difficult intonation and a very poorly balanced tone. Instrument manufacturers eventually replaced these small baritones with the Bass Baritone bugle. The baro\-tone came in natural (no valves) and D piston versions with either an F\# slip slide, or F or F\# rotary valve attachments. Ludwig experimented with a "double piston" version, having a piston actuated rotary valve attached to an overlength F\# tuning circuit. The F\# length was too long to properly tune F\#, and when the slide was pulled out, was too short to properly tune an F.
#### Bass\-baritone bugle
The bass\-baritone bugle was developed in the 1950s to give a broader depth to the low voice in the drum corps. These instruments were designed to imitate the American concert baritone, which itself is a hybrid of a British style baritone and standard Euphonium. The bass\-baritone eventually supplanted the baro\-tone as the primary baritone voice, and is no longer called a bass\-baritone, but simply just a "baritone." The baritone has been made available in single D piston configuration with either a slip slide, F\# rotary, F rotary, or E rotary valve, two piston, or three piston. The baritone bugle is still available in both 3 valve or special order 2 valve configurations.
[thumb](/wiki/File:12_DEG_Silver_2V_Cellophone_G_Bugle_%281_of_4_produced%29.jpg "12 DEG Silver 2V Cellophone G Bugle (1 of 4 produced).jpg")
#### Cellophone
The Cellophone (pronounced like the stringed instrument Cello \+ phone) was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products at the request of the Phantom Regiment Drum and Bugle Corps. The Cellophone is a compact\-wrapped baritone bugle with a small bore and bell. The voicing was supposed to resemble more of an orchestral cello than a concert Euphonium. Only a small handful were built. Most examples were two valved, however several export models in a 3 valve configuration were built. The Cellophone's wrap and design later went on to be DEG's Bb marching trombone.
[thumb](/wiki/File:00_Tromboniums.jpg "00 Tromboniums.jpg")
#### Trombonium bugle
The trombonium bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products at the request of the Madison Scouts Drum and Bugle Corps. This is a standard bore baritone bugle with a detachable trombone bell. DCI rules at the time required that the bell must be the most forward part of the instrument, so the trombonium was wrapped in such a way that while the bell rested on the player's shoulder, all valves and tubing did not protrude beyond the bell flare. Several dozen were produced for US corps in a 2 valve configuration. Several three valve models were exported to European drum corps. The trombonium bugle's wrap and design later went on to be DEG's Bb Jazz Bone.
[thumb](/wiki/File:15_DEG_Silver_2V_Herald_Baritone_G_Bugle.jpg "15 DEG Silver 2V Herald Baritone G Bugle.jpg")
#### Herald baritone bugle
The Herald Baritone Bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products for various special ensembles and corps. This instrument features a standard bore baritone valve section, removable bell, and banner hooks. The herald baritone was only built in a two valve configuration. Kanstul instruments currently builds a G bass herald trumpet as used by Pershing's Own, which is in the same octave range as the herald baritone bugle.
#### Baritone grande bugle
The Baritone Grande bugle is a large bore bugle built by the Kanstul Instrument Company. This instrument takes a large shank mouthpiece versus the standard baritone which takes a small shank mouthpiece. Other features include a more open wrap and slightly larger bell to increase the presence of the instrument. The Baritone Grande is still available for purchase in a three valve configuration.
[thumb](/wiki/File:17_DEG_Silver_2V_Euphonium_G_Bugle.jpg "17 DEG Silver 2V Euphonium G Bugle.jpg")
#### Euphonium bugle
The Euphonium Bugle has been built since the 1960s in various configurations. The Euphonium was added to the bugle choir around the same time as the mellophone bugle. Euphoniums often feature a larger bore, larger bell throat, and larger bell than the bass\-baritone. The Euphonium has been available in D piston configurations with F and F\# rotors, F piston and F\# rotor configuration, two piston, and three piston configurations. The three valve Euphonium bugle is still available for purchase, along with a special order two piston version. Most Euphonium Bugles accept a large shank mouthpiece, however in the 1980s and early 1990s, DEG Music Products commissioned Willson Brass of Switzerland to design a Euphonium bugle, and their design used a medium shank mouthpiece that is not regularly seen in the United States.
[thumb](/wiki/File:24_Contras.jpg "24 Contras.jpg")
### Contrabass
{{main\|Contrabass bugle}}
The contrabass bugle, or "contra", is the bugle equivalent of a marching [tuba](/wiki/Tuba "Tuba") and its variants (the [sousaphone](/wiki/Sousaphone "Sousaphone") and [helicon](/wiki/Helicon_%28instrument%29 "Helicon (instrument)")). This bugle was designed in the 1960s. The original design for a contrabass called for an instrument in CC (the equivalent tubing length of a CC tuba), carried in front of the marcher like the higher voices. This was quickly replaced with a shoulder carried variant a full octave lower than the baritone voice. The first contrabass bugles used the same bore size as the baritone bugle, with double the length of tubing, utilizing a concert Euphonium bell and having a small shank tuba mouthpiece receiver. The combination of the small bell, small bore, and small mouthpiece made slotting notes very difficult. Eventually manufacturers began increasing the size of the contrabass first to the equivalent size of a 3/4 size concert tuba, then to the equivalent of a 4/4 tuba, and finally to the equivalent of a 5/4 tuba. The original small sized contrabass came in D piston or F piston configurations, with F\#, F, or E rotary valve tuning slides. The 3/4 sized contrabass came in D or F pistons with either F or F\# rotary valves. The 4/4 contrabass came in F piston/F\# rotor configuration, two piston, or three piston configuration. The 5/4 contrabass came in two piston, three piston, or four piston configuration. The 4/4 contrabass is still available in a three valve configuration, and has been built in both four piston, and two piston plus an F\# rotor special order configurations. The 5/4 contrabass is still available in a three valve configuration, with a four valve configuration as a special order.
The four valve contrabass bugle is the lowest pitched brasswind ever mass produced. Some special order BBBb tubas and sousaphones do exist, but were never built in large quantities. With all four valves depressed, the lowest sounding note on the contrabass bugle is A0, the lowest note on a piano. The pedal note of any contrabass bugle is G0, regardless of the number of valves. A talented musician may be able to play lower than G0 utilizing the [pedal range](/wiki/Pedal_tone "Pedal tone") of the bugle, but these notes [would be felt more than heard](/wiki/Infrasound "Infrasound") due to [the limitations of the human ear.](/wiki/Hearing_range%23humans "Hearing range#humans")
|
[
"Bugles\n------",
"The drum and bugle corps activity has been a driving force of innovation behind the creation of marching brass instruments for many decades. The [mellophone](/wiki/Mellophone \"Mellophone\") and the [contrabass bugle](/wiki/Contrabass_bugle \"Contrabass bugle\") are among the creations spawned by instrument manufacturers for use in the marching activity due to the influence of drum and bugle corps hornlines.",
"The bugles utilized in modern drum corps are distinguished from their marching band counterparts mostly by their [key](/wiki/Key_%28music%29 \"Key (music)\"): bugles are keyed in G; band instruments are keyed in B{{music\\|b}}. Bugle voices are grouped and referenced by the equivalent voices in a choir (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass). The naming conventions for these various instruments can be confusing however, due to the evolution of the bugles used in the drum and bugle corps activity.Riemann, Hugo. *[Dictionary of Music](https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmusi1919riem/page/108/mode/1up)*. Trans. J.A. Shedlock. Augener, 1900\\. 108\\. All these are descended from the old United States Army G major \"straight\" (valveless) standard bugles adopted in 1892 Army\\-wide.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:21_High_Choir.jpg \"21 High Choir.jpg\")\n### Soprano voices",
"In the drum corps activity, there have been two separate types of instruments that have been classified as soprano voices: the soprano bugle and the piccolo soprano.",
"#### Piccolo soprano",
"The piccolo soprano entered regular production during the two piston valve bugle era in the late 1970s, and very closely resembles a G soprano trumpet in size. Piccolo sopranos were made in both two and three valve configurations, and are no longer mass\\-produced, but available as custom orders. The primary difference between a G trumpet and a G piccolo soprano is the throat of the bell and the bore size. G trumpets typically have a bore size of .440\"\\-.450\" while the G piccolo soprano was offered in a larger .468\" bore. This larger bore often led to intonation issues throughout the range of the piccolo soprano.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:DEG_2V_Silver_Piccolo_G_Bugle.jpg \"DEG 2V Silver Piccolo G Bugle.jpg\")",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:03_DEG_Silver_2V_Power_Bell_Soprano_G_Bugle.jpg \"03 DEG Silver 2V Power Bell Soprano G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Soprano",
"The soprano bugle was the first instrument in the drum corps bugle family. A direct descendant of the M1892 US Army field trumpet which was adopted within the Army and later on by the pioneer drum and bugle corps in the early 20th century, this instrument has undergone every design change since the start of the activity. In early corps, the soprano was pitched either in G or F (F being attained by a long tuning slide) to allow a split ensemble to play simple melodies across the group. The first design change was to add an additional loop of tubing to lower the soprano to the key of D via a locking piston valve tucked horizontally under the handhold. This allowed four possible keys: G and F with the valve open, and D and C with the valve closed. In the 1930s, the competitive circuits allowed the valve to be unlocked, which allowed for more complex melodies to be played by each musician, instead of the melodies being split among 3 or 4 parts. The horizontal valve was still tucked under the handhold, operated by the right thumb. Through the 1940s and 1950s, corps experimented with sanding down the tuning slide to be as quick and smooth in operation as a trombone slide, to allow quick changes in tuning to reach notes within overtone series of the keys of F\\# and F. Combined with the piston valve, this allowed for notes within the overtone series of D{{music\\|b}} and C. Many bugles were modified with a ring to allow the left hand to actuate the slip\\-slide tuning slide. Eventually this slip\\-slide setup became so popular that it became a factory option. By the early 1960s, the competitive circuits approved the use of a rotary valve tuning slide in place of the standard tuning slide on the soprano. The rotary valve was actuated by the left hand, and featured a length of tubing that lowered the pitch by either a half\\-step (F\\#) or a whole\\-step (F). Corps featured sopranos with both slides to allow for the greatest choice of available notes, however these instruments were still non\\-chromatic. Around 1967, the rules congress standardized an F piston valve and an F\\# rotary valve. This allowed the equivalent of the first and second valves on a typical brass instrument, with the piston equating the first valve, and the rotor equating the second valve. Older equipment was grandfathered in, however most corps chose to sell their older D piston sopranos or purchase a kit which allowed local band instrument repairmen to remove the D tubing and solder on an F tubing section. In the late 1970s, DCI's rules congress allowed for the soprano to be designed similarly to a trumpet, with two vertical piston valves. The European drum corps circuits skipped the two valve rule and allowed three vertical valves at this time. American bugle manufacturers then designed both two and three valve instruments at the same time, often using the same parts for both. By 1990, DCI approved the use of three valve sopranos in the North American circuit, thus ending the era of non\\-chromatic bugles. Sopranos are still manufactured by one company, which also still produces a two valve custom version for The Commandant's Own United States Marine Drum and Bugle Corps.",
"Soprano bugles typically have a bore size of .468\"\\-.470\" and come in standard and \"power bore\" configurations. The \"power bore\" configurations typically feature heavier bracing, a heavier wall leadpipe, and a slightly larger bell.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:02_DEG_Silver_2V_Herald_Soprano_G_Bugle.jpg \"02 DEG Silver 2V Herald Soprano G Bugle.jpg\")",
"#### Herald soprano",
"The Herald Soprano bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products for various small ensembles and corps. This instrument uses a standard soprano bugle valve section, with an adjusted leadpipe and bell to allow for a long fanfare\\-like bell. The herald soprano was built in a two valve configuration and featured eyelets for a banner.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:05_DEG_Silver_2V_Flugelhorn_G_Bugle.jpg \"05 DEG Silver 2V Flugelhorn G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Flugelhorn",
"The Flugelhorn bugle was first designed and utilized during the piston/rotor bugle era in the 1960s and 1970s. These Flugelhorns were designed to resemble a traditional Flugelhorn, however with the limitations of the rules congress. During the two vertical valve era, two competing designs of Flugelhorn were designed. One design was based on the more common style of Flugelhorn, with a tunable lead pipe. The other design was based on the trumpet\\-style design, with a tuning slide and stationary leadpipe. There have been three valve G Flugelhorns produced, however in limited quantities. The G Flugelhorn has the same range as a soprano, and also featured a .468\" bore.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:22_Middle_Voices.jpg \"22 Middle Voices.jpg\")",
"### Alto voices",
"During the non\\-chromatic era of drum and bugle corps, the alto voice was unique in that most alto instruments had the same range as soprano voices, therefore alto voice instruments sometimes voice\\-crossed with sopranos to allow for various tone colors during shows.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:07_DEG_Silver_2V_%28Allied_made%29_Alto_G_Bugle.jpg \"07 DEG Silver 2V (Allied made) Alto G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Alto bugle",
"The alto bugle is a voice that was created during the two piston era in the 1970s. These instruments were loosely based on the alto horns used in marching bands and brass bands in a bell\\-front marching configuration. Alto bugles are still manufactured today in a three valve configuration. Bore size for the alto bugle typically ranges from .468\"\\-.470\" As an alto voice in G, it has the same bottom end of its range as the soprano family.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:09_DEG_Silver_2V_%28Open_wrap%29_Mellophone_G_Bugle.jpg \"09 DEG Silver 2V (Open wrap) Mellophone G Bugle.jpg\")",
"#### Mellophone bugle",
"The mellophone bugle was first instroduced in the mid 1960s. These instruments were based on the design of the Conn Mellophonium as used by the Stan Kenton Orchestra. Eventually the wrap of the mellophone was compacted more into a soprano shape, with accommodations made for the much larger bell. The mellophone quickly became a popular alto voice due to its tone quality and ease of playing, especially compared to the French horn bugle. Mellophones were often featured in highly talented corps as voices that often soared above soprano parts at large impact points. The mellophone bugle is still manufactured today in a three valve configuration, and by special order in a two valve configuration for The Commandant's Own. Bore size is typically between .468\"\\-.470\"",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:11_DEG_Silver_2V_French_Horn_G_Bugle.jpg \"11 DEG Silver 2V French Horn G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### French horn bugle",
"The French horn bugle, often called a \"Frenchie,\" was first designed in a G and D single piston configuration in the early 1940s. The Frenchie became popular due to the overtone series allowing many more notes than other bugles could play. The Frenchie followed the design changes of the soprano, including slip\\-slide configurations, piston/rotor, two piston, and three piston configurations. The Frenchie in a two piston or F/F\\# piston/rotor configuration was a highly popular instrument as a bridge between baritone and soprano voices due to the near\\-chromatic nature of the instrument in this range. The French horn bugle is still available in a three valve configuration. The French horn bugle had a typical bore size ranging from .468\"\\-.470\"",
"#### Low alto bugle",
"The low alto bugle was an instrument designed in the 1990s by Zigmant Kanstul. This instrument is nearly identical to a French horn bugle in bore size, bell diameter, and length of tubing, but instead of a French horn mouthpiece receiver, the low alto has an alto horn mouthpiece receiver. The low alto has a range identical to the baritone bugle, but is designed primarily to be played in the middle to upper registers, using its extended length to give a more horn\\-like sound to the mid voice.",
"### Tenor bugle",
"The tenor bugle was a popular voice in drum corps from the 1920s through the 1950s. These instruments were the same bore size and length as a soprano bugle, however they featured a larger bell and could be played with an alto horn mouthpiece. The tenor bugle was designed to play with a more open tone in the lower register of its range and had a tone color closer to a Flugelhorn than a trumpet. The tenor bugle fell out of favor in the 1950s, but was supplanted by the Flugelhorn and alto horn bugles in more modern ensembles.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:16_DEG_Silver_2V_Baritone_G_Bugle.jpg \"16 DEG Silver 2V Baritone G Bugle.jpg\")\n### Baritone bugle",
"The baritone bugle was the second voice developed for drum and bugle corps after the soprano bugle. The baritone bugle is pitched one octave below the soprano.",
"#### Baro\\-tone bugle",
"The first design for the baritone bugle was often referred to as a \"Baro\\-tone\" in advertising. These instruments were designed to simply be an octave lower than their soprano counterparts. Often built from bass trumpet and concert French horn parts, these small bore, small bell instruments had difficult intonation and a very poorly balanced tone. Instrument manufacturers eventually replaced these small baritones with the Bass Baritone bugle. The baro\\-tone came in natural (no valves) and D piston versions with either an F\\# slip slide, or F or F\\# rotary valve attachments. Ludwig experimented with a \"double piston\" version, having a piston actuated rotary valve attached to an overlength F\\# tuning circuit. The F\\# length was too long to properly tune F\\#, and when the slide was pulled out, was too short to properly tune an F.",
"#### Bass\\-baritone bugle",
"The bass\\-baritone bugle was developed in the 1950s to give a broader depth to the low voice in the drum corps. These instruments were designed to imitate the American concert baritone, which itself is a hybrid of a British style baritone and standard Euphonium. The bass\\-baritone eventually supplanted the baro\\-tone as the primary baritone voice, and is no longer called a bass\\-baritone, but simply just a \"baritone.\" The baritone has been made available in single D piston configuration with either a slip slide, F\\# rotary, F rotary, or E rotary valve, two piston, or three piston. The baritone bugle is still available in both 3 valve or special order 2 valve configurations.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:12_DEG_Silver_2V_Cellophone_G_Bugle_%281_of_4_produced%29.jpg \"12 DEG Silver 2V Cellophone G Bugle (1 of 4 produced).jpg\")\n#### Cellophone",
"The Cellophone (pronounced like the stringed instrument Cello \\+ phone) was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products at the request of the Phantom Regiment Drum and Bugle Corps. The Cellophone is a compact\\-wrapped baritone bugle with a small bore and bell. The voicing was supposed to resemble more of an orchestral cello than a concert Euphonium. Only a small handful were built. Most examples were two valved, however several export models in a 3 valve configuration were built. The Cellophone's wrap and design later went on to be DEG's Bb marching trombone.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:00_Tromboniums.jpg \"00 Tromboniums.jpg\")\n#### Trombonium bugle",
"The trombonium bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products at the request of the Madison Scouts Drum and Bugle Corps. This is a standard bore baritone bugle with a detachable trombone bell. DCI rules at the time required that the bell must be the most forward part of the instrument, so the trombonium was wrapped in such a way that while the bell rested on the player's shoulder, all valves and tubing did not protrude beyond the bell flare. Several dozen were produced for US corps in a 2 valve configuration. Several three valve models were exported to European drum corps. The trombonium bugle's wrap and design later went on to be DEG's Bb Jazz Bone.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:15_DEG_Silver_2V_Herald_Baritone_G_Bugle.jpg \"15 DEG Silver 2V Herald Baritone G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Herald baritone bugle",
"The Herald Baritone Bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products for various special ensembles and corps. This instrument features a standard bore baritone valve section, removable bell, and banner hooks. The herald baritone was only built in a two valve configuration. Kanstul instruments currently builds a G bass herald trumpet as used by Pershing's Own, which is in the same octave range as the herald baritone bugle.",
"#### Baritone grande bugle",
"The Baritone Grande bugle is a large bore bugle built by the Kanstul Instrument Company. This instrument takes a large shank mouthpiece versus the standard baritone which takes a small shank mouthpiece. Other features include a more open wrap and slightly larger bell to increase the presence of the instrument. The Baritone Grande is still available for purchase in a three valve configuration.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:17_DEG_Silver_2V_Euphonium_G_Bugle.jpg \"17 DEG Silver 2V Euphonium G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Euphonium bugle",
"The Euphonium Bugle has been built since the 1960s in various configurations. The Euphonium was added to the bugle choir around the same time as the mellophone bugle. Euphoniums often feature a larger bore, larger bell throat, and larger bell than the bass\\-baritone. The Euphonium has been available in D piston configurations with F and F\\# rotors, F piston and F\\# rotor configuration, two piston, and three piston configurations. The three valve Euphonium bugle is still available for purchase, along with a special order two piston version. Most Euphonium Bugles accept a large shank mouthpiece, however in the 1980s and early 1990s, DEG Music Products commissioned Willson Brass of Switzerland to design a Euphonium bugle, and their design used a medium shank mouthpiece that is not regularly seen in the United States.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:24_Contras.jpg \"24 Contras.jpg\")\n### Contrabass",
"{{main\\|Contrabass bugle}}",
"The contrabass bugle, or \"contra\", is the bugle equivalent of a marching [tuba](/wiki/Tuba \"Tuba\") and its variants (the [sousaphone](/wiki/Sousaphone \"Sousaphone\") and [helicon](/wiki/Helicon_%28instrument%29 \"Helicon (instrument)\")). This bugle was designed in the 1960s. The original design for a contrabass called for an instrument in CC (the equivalent tubing length of a CC tuba), carried in front of the marcher like the higher voices. This was quickly replaced with a shoulder carried variant a full octave lower than the baritone voice. The first contrabass bugles used the same bore size as the baritone bugle, with double the length of tubing, utilizing a concert Euphonium bell and having a small shank tuba mouthpiece receiver. The combination of the small bell, small bore, and small mouthpiece made slotting notes very difficult. Eventually manufacturers began increasing the size of the contrabass first to the equivalent size of a 3/4 size concert tuba, then to the equivalent of a 4/4 tuba, and finally to the equivalent of a 5/4 tuba. The original small sized contrabass came in D piston or F piston configurations, with F\\#, F, or E rotary valve tuning slides. The 3/4 sized contrabass came in D or F pistons with either F or F\\# rotary valves. The 4/4 contrabass came in F piston/F\\# rotor configuration, two piston, or three piston configuration. The 5/4 contrabass came in two piston, three piston, or four piston configuration. The 4/4 contrabass is still available in a three valve configuration, and has been built in both four piston, and two piston plus an F\\# rotor special order configurations. The 5/4 contrabass is still available in a three valve configuration, with a four valve configuration as a special order.",
"The four valve contrabass bugle is the lowest pitched brasswind ever mass produced. Some special order BBBb tubas and sousaphones do exist, but were never built in large quantities. With all four valves depressed, the lowest sounding note on the contrabass bugle is A0, the lowest note on a piano. The pedal note of any contrabass bugle is G0, regardless of the number of valves. A talented musician may be able to play lower than G0 utilizing the [pedal range](/wiki/Pedal_tone \"Pedal tone\") of the bugle, but these notes [would be felt more than heard](/wiki/Infrasound \"Infrasound\") due to [the limitations of the human ear.](/wiki/Hearing_range%23humans \"Hearing range#humans\")",
""
] |
### Soprano voices
In the drum corps activity, there have been two separate types of instruments that have been classified as soprano voices: the soprano bugle and the piccolo soprano.
#### Piccolo soprano
The piccolo soprano entered regular production during the two piston valve bugle era in the late 1970s, and very closely resembles a G soprano trumpet in size. Piccolo sopranos were made in both two and three valve configurations, and are no longer mass\-produced, but available as custom orders. The primary difference between a G trumpet and a G piccolo soprano is the throat of the bell and the bore size. G trumpets typically have a bore size of .440"\-.450" while the G piccolo soprano was offered in a larger .468" bore. This larger bore often led to intonation issues throughout the range of the piccolo soprano.
[thumb](/wiki/File:DEG_2V_Silver_Piccolo_G_Bugle.jpg "DEG 2V Silver Piccolo G Bugle.jpg")
[thumb](/wiki/File:03_DEG_Silver_2V_Power_Bell_Soprano_G_Bugle.jpg "03 DEG Silver 2V Power Bell Soprano G Bugle.jpg")
#### Soprano
The soprano bugle was the first instrument in the drum corps bugle family. A direct descendant of the M1892 US Army field trumpet which was adopted within the Army and later on by the pioneer drum and bugle corps in the early 20th century, this instrument has undergone every design change since the start of the activity. In early corps, the soprano was pitched either in G or F (F being attained by a long tuning slide) to allow a split ensemble to play simple melodies across the group. The first design change was to add an additional loop of tubing to lower the soprano to the key of D via a locking piston valve tucked horizontally under the handhold. This allowed four possible keys: G and F with the valve open, and D and C with the valve closed. In the 1930s, the competitive circuits allowed the valve to be unlocked, which allowed for more complex melodies to be played by each musician, instead of the melodies being split among 3 or 4 parts. The horizontal valve was still tucked under the handhold, operated by the right thumb. Through the 1940s and 1950s, corps experimented with sanding down the tuning slide to be as quick and smooth in operation as a trombone slide, to allow quick changes in tuning to reach notes within overtone series of the keys of F\# and F. Combined with the piston valve, this allowed for notes within the overtone series of D{{music\|b}} and C. Many bugles were modified with a ring to allow the left hand to actuate the slip\-slide tuning slide. Eventually this slip\-slide setup became so popular that it became a factory option. By the early 1960s, the competitive circuits approved the use of a rotary valve tuning slide in place of the standard tuning slide on the soprano. The rotary valve was actuated by the left hand, and featured a length of tubing that lowered the pitch by either a half\-step (F\#) or a whole\-step (F). Corps featured sopranos with both slides to allow for the greatest choice of available notes, however these instruments were still non\-chromatic. Around 1967, the rules congress standardized an F piston valve and an F\# rotary valve. This allowed the equivalent of the first and second valves on a typical brass instrument, with the piston equating the first valve, and the rotor equating the second valve. Older equipment was grandfathered in, however most corps chose to sell their older D piston sopranos or purchase a kit which allowed local band instrument repairmen to remove the D tubing and solder on an F tubing section. In the late 1970s, DCI's rules congress allowed for the soprano to be designed similarly to a trumpet, with two vertical piston valves. The European drum corps circuits skipped the two valve rule and allowed three vertical valves at this time. American bugle manufacturers then designed both two and three valve instruments at the same time, often using the same parts for both. By 1990, DCI approved the use of three valve sopranos in the North American circuit, thus ending the era of non\-chromatic bugles. Sopranos are still manufactured by one company, which also still produces a two valve custom version for The Commandant's Own United States Marine Drum and Bugle Corps.
Soprano bugles typically have a bore size of .468"\-.470" and come in standard and "power bore" configurations. The "power bore" configurations typically feature heavier bracing, a heavier wall leadpipe, and a slightly larger bell.
[thumb](/wiki/File:02_DEG_Silver_2V_Herald_Soprano_G_Bugle.jpg "02 DEG Silver 2V Herald Soprano G Bugle.jpg")
#### Herald soprano
The Herald Soprano bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products for various small ensembles and corps. This instrument uses a standard soprano bugle valve section, with an adjusted leadpipe and bell to allow for a long fanfare\-like bell. The herald soprano was built in a two valve configuration and featured eyelets for a banner.
[thumb](/wiki/File:05_DEG_Silver_2V_Flugelhorn_G_Bugle.jpg "05 DEG Silver 2V Flugelhorn G Bugle.jpg")
#### Flugelhorn
The Flugelhorn bugle was first designed and utilized during the piston/rotor bugle era in the 1960s and 1970s. These Flugelhorns were designed to resemble a traditional Flugelhorn, however with the limitations of the rules congress. During the two vertical valve era, two competing designs of Flugelhorn were designed. One design was based on the more common style of Flugelhorn, with a tunable lead pipe. The other design was based on the trumpet\-style design, with a tuning slide and stationary leadpipe. There have been three valve G Flugelhorns produced, however in limited quantities. The G Flugelhorn has the same range as a soprano, and also featured a .468" bore.
[thumb](/wiki/File:22_Middle_Voices.jpg "22 Middle Voices.jpg")
|
[
"### Soprano voices",
"In the drum corps activity, there have been two separate types of instruments that have been classified as soprano voices: the soprano bugle and the piccolo soprano.",
"#### Piccolo soprano",
"The piccolo soprano entered regular production during the two piston valve bugle era in the late 1970s, and very closely resembles a G soprano trumpet in size. Piccolo sopranos were made in both two and three valve configurations, and are no longer mass\\-produced, but available as custom orders. The primary difference between a G trumpet and a G piccolo soprano is the throat of the bell and the bore size. G trumpets typically have a bore size of .440\"\\-.450\" while the G piccolo soprano was offered in a larger .468\" bore. This larger bore often led to intonation issues throughout the range of the piccolo soprano.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:DEG_2V_Silver_Piccolo_G_Bugle.jpg \"DEG 2V Silver Piccolo G Bugle.jpg\")",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:03_DEG_Silver_2V_Power_Bell_Soprano_G_Bugle.jpg \"03 DEG Silver 2V Power Bell Soprano G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Soprano",
"The soprano bugle was the first instrument in the drum corps bugle family. A direct descendant of the M1892 US Army field trumpet which was adopted within the Army and later on by the pioneer drum and bugle corps in the early 20th century, this instrument has undergone every design change since the start of the activity. In early corps, the soprano was pitched either in G or F (F being attained by a long tuning slide) to allow a split ensemble to play simple melodies across the group. The first design change was to add an additional loop of tubing to lower the soprano to the key of D via a locking piston valve tucked horizontally under the handhold. This allowed four possible keys: G and F with the valve open, and D and C with the valve closed. In the 1930s, the competitive circuits allowed the valve to be unlocked, which allowed for more complex melodies to be played by each musician, instead of the melodies being split among 3 or 4 parts. The horizontal valve was still tucked under the handhold, operated by the right thumb. Through the 1940s and 1950s, corps experimented with sanding down the tuning slide to be as quick and smooth in operation as a trombone slide, to allow quick changes in tuning to reach notes within overtone series of the keys of F\\# and F. Combined with the piston valve, this allowed for notes within the overtone series of D{{music\\|b}} and C. Many bugles were modified with a ring to allow the left hand to actuate the slip\\-slide tuning slide. Eventually this slip\\-slide setup became so popular that it became a factory option. By the early 1960s, the competitive circuits approved the use of a rotary valve tuning slide in place of the standard tuning slide on the soprano. The rotary valve was actuated by the left hand, and featured a length of tubing that lowered the pitch by either a half\\-step (F\\#) or a whole\\-step (F). Corps featured sopranos with both slides to allow for the greatest choice of available notes, however these instruments were still non\\-chromatic. Around 1967, the rules congress standardized an F piston valve and an F\\# rotary valve. This allowed the equivalent of the first and second valves on a typical brass instrument, with the piston equating the first valve, and the rotor equating the second valve. Older equipment was grandfathered in, however most corps chose to sell their older D piston sopranos or purchase a kit which allowed local band instrument repairmen to remove the D tubing and solder on an F tubing section. In the late 1970s, DCI's rules congress allowed for the soprano to be designed similarly to a trumpet, with two vertical piston valves. The European drum corps circuits skipped the two valve rule and allowed three vertical valves at this time. American bugle manufacturers then designed both two and three valve instruments at the same time, often using the same parts for both. By 1990, DCI approved the use of three valve sopranos in the North American circuit, thus ending the era of non\\-chromatic bugles. Sopranos are still manufactured by one company, which also still produces a two valve custom version for The Commandant's Own United States Marine Drum and Bugle Corps.",
"Soprano bugles typically have a bore size of .468\"\\-.470\" and come in standard and \"power bore\" configurations. The \"power bore\" configurations typically feature heavier bracing, a heavier wall leadpipe, and a slightly larger bell.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:02_DEG_Silver_2V_Herald_Soprano_G_Bugle.jpg \"02 DEG Silver 2V Herald Soprano G Bugle.jpg\")",
"#### Herald soprano",
"The Herald Soprano bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products for various small ensembles and corps. This instrument uses a standard soprano bugle valve section, with an adjusted leadpipe and bell to allow for a long fanfare\\-like bell. The herald soprano was built in a two valve configuration and featured eyelets for a banner.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:05_DEG_Silver_2V_Flugelhorn_G_Bugle.jpg \"05 DEG Silver 2V Flugelhorn G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Flugelhorn",
"The Flugelhorn bugle was first designed and utilized during the piston/rotor bugle era in the 1960s and 1970s. These Flugelhorns were designed to resemble a traditional Flugelhorn, however with the limitations of the rules congress. During the two vertical valve era, two competing designs of Flugelhorn were designed. One design was based on the more common style of Flugelhorn, with a tunable lead pipe. The other design was based on the trumpet\\-style design, with a tuning slide and stationary leadpipe. There have been three valve G Flugelhorns produced, however in limited quantities. The G Flugelhorn has the same range as a soprano, and also featured a .468\" bore.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:22_Middle_Voices.jpg \"22 Middle Voices.jpg\")",
""
] |
### Baritone bugle
The baritone bugle was the second voice developed for drum and bugle corps after the soprano bugle. The baritone bugle is pitched one octave below the soprano.
#### Baro\-tone bugle
The first design for the baritone bugle was often referred to as a "Baro\-tone" in advertising. These instruments were designed to simply be an octave lower than their soprano counterparts. Often built from bass trumpet and concert French horn parts, these small bore, small bell instruments had difficult intonation and a very poorly balanced tone. Instrument manufacturers eventually replaced these small baritones with the Bass Baritone bugle. The baro\-tone came in natural (no valves) and D piston versions with either an F\# slip slide, or F or F\# rotary valve attachments. Ludwig experimented with a "double piston" version, having a piston actuated rotary valve attached to an overlength F\# tuning circuit. The F\# length was too long to properly tune F\#, and when the slide was pulled out, was too short to properly tune an F.
#### Bass\-baritone bugle
The bass\-baritone bugle was developed in the 1950s to give a broader depth to the low voice in the drum corps. These instruments were designed to imitate the American concert baritone, which itself is a hybrid of a British style baritone and standard Euphonium. The bass\-baritone eventually supplanted the baro\-tone as the primary baritone voice, and is no longer called a bass\-baritone, but simply just a "baritone." The baritone has been made available in single D piston configuration with either a slip slide, F\# rotary, F rotary, or E rotary valve, two piston, or three piston. The baritone bugle is still available in both 3 valve or special order 2 valve configurations.
[thumb](/wiki/File:12_DEG_Silver_2V_Cellophone_G_Bugle_%281_of_4_produced%29.jpg "12 DEG Silver 2V Cellophone G Bugle (1 of 4 produced).jpg")
#### Cellophone
The Cellophone (pronounced like the stringed instrument Cello \+ phone) was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products at the request of the Phantom Regiment Drum and Bugle Corps. The Cellophone is a compact\-wrapped baritone bugle with a small bore and bell. The voicing was supposed to resemble more of an orchestral cello than a concert Euphonium. Only a small handful were built. Most examples were two valved, however several export models in a 3 valve configuration were built. The Cellophone's wrap and design later went on to be DEG's Bb marching trombone.
[thumb](/wiki/File:00_Tromboniums.jpg "00 Tromboniums.jpg")
#### Trombonium bugle
The trombonium bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products at the request of the Madison Scouts Drum and Bugle Corps. This is a standard bore baritone bugle with a detachable trombone bell. DCI rules at the time required that the bell must be the most forward part of the instrument, so the trombonium was wrapped in such a way that while the bell rested on the player's shoulder, all valves and tubing did not protrude beyond the bell flare. Several dozen were produced for US corps in a 2 valve configuration. Several three valve models were exported to European drum corps. The trombonium bugle's wrap and design later went on to be DEG's Bb Jazz Bone.
[thumb](/wiki/File:15_DEG_Silver_2V_Herald_Baritone_G_Bugle.jpg "15 DEG Silver 2V Herald Baritone G Bugle.jpg")
#### Herald baritone bugle
The Herald Baritone Bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products for various special ensembles and corps. This instrument features a standard bore baritone valve section, removable bell, and banner hooks. The herald baritone was only built in a two valve configuration. Kanstul instruments currently builds a G bass herald trumpet as used by Pershing's Own, which is in the same octave range as the herald baritone bugle.
#### Baritone grande bugle
The Baritone Grande bugle is a large bore bugle built by the Kanstul Instrument Company. This instrument takes a large shank mouthpiece versus the standard baritone which takes a small shank mouthpiece. Other features include a more open wrap and slightly larger bell to increase the presence of the instrument. The Baritone Grande is still available for purchase in a three valve configuration.
[thumb](/wiki/File:17_DEG_Silver_2V_Euphonium_G_Bugle.jpg "17 DEG Silver 2V Euphonium G Bugle.jpg")
#### Euphonium bugle
The Euphonium Bugle has been built since the 1960s in various configurations. The Euphonium was added to the bugle choir around the same time as the mellophone bugle. Euphoniums often feature a larger bore, larger bell throat, and larger bell than the bass\-baritone. The Euphonium has been available in D piston configurations with F and F\# rotors, F piston and F\# rotor configuration, two piston, and three piston configurations. The three valve Euphonium bugle is still available for purchase, along with a special order two piston version. Most Euphonium Bugles accept a large shank mouthpiece, however in the 1980s and early 1990s, DEG Music Products commissioned Willson Brass of Switzerland to design a Euphonium bugle, and their design used a medium shank mouthpiece that is not regularly seen in the United States.
[thumb](/wiki/File:24_Contras.jpg "24 Contras.jpg")
|
[
"### Baritone bugle",
"The baritone bugle was the second voice developed for drum and bugle corps after the soprano bugle. The baritone bugle is pitched one octave below the soprano.",
"#### Baro\\-tone bugle",
"The first design for the baritone bugle was often referred to as a \"Baro\\-tone\" in advertising. These instruments were designed to simply be an octave lower than their soprano counterparts. Often built from bass trumpet and concert French horn parts, these small bore, small bell instruments had difficult intonation and a very poorly balanced tone. Instrument manufacturers eventually replaced these small baritones with the Bass Baritone bugle. The baro\\-tone came in natural (no valves) and D piston versions with either an F\\# slip slide, or F or F\\# rotary valve attachments. Ludwig experimented with a \"double piston\" version, having a piston actuated rotary valve attached to an overlength F\\# tuning circuit. The F\\# length was too long to properly tune F\\#, and when the slide was pulled out, was too short to properly tune an F.",
"#### Bass\\-baritone bugle",
"The bass\\-baritone bugle was developed in the 1950s to give a broader depth to the low voice in the drum corps. These instruments were designed to imitate the American concert baritone, which itself is a hybrid of a British style baritone and standard Euphonium. The bass\\-baritone eventually supplanted the baro\\-tone as the primary baritone voice, and is no longer called a bass\\-baritone, but simply just a \"baritone.\" The baritone has been made available in single D piston configuration with either a slip slide, F\\# rotary, F rotary, or E rotary valve, two piston, or three piston. The baritone bugle is still available in both 3 valve or special order 2 valve configurations.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:12_DEG_Silver_2V_Cellophone_G_Bugle_%281_of_4_produced%29.jpg \"12 DEG Silver 2V Cellophone G Bugle (1 of 4 produced).jpg\")\n#### Cellophone",
"The Cellophone (pronounced like the stringed instrument Cello \\+ phone) was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products at the request of the Phantom Regiment Drum and Bugle Corps. The Cellophone is a compact\\-wrapped baritone bugle with a small bore and bell. The voicing was supposed to resemble more of an orchestral cello than a concert Euphonium. Only a small handful were built. Most examples were two valved, however several export models in a 3 valve configuration were built. The Cellophone's wrap and design later went on to be DEG's Bb marching trombone.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:00_Tromboniums.jpg \"00 Tromboniums.jpg\")\n#### Trombonium bugle",
"The trombonium bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products at the request of the Madison Scouts Drum and Bugle Corps. This is a standard bore baritone bugle with a detachable trombone bell. DCI rules at the time required that the bell must be the most forward part of the instrument, so the trombonium was wrapped in such a way that while the bell rested on the player's shoulder, all valves and tubing did not protrude beyond the bell flare. Several dozen were produced for US corps in a 2 valve configuration. Several three valve models were exported to European drum corps. The trombonium bugle's wrap and design later went on to be DEG's Bb Jazz Bone.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:15_DEG_Silver_2V_Herald_Baritone_G_Bugle.jpg \"15 DEG Silver 2V Herald Baritone G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Herald baritone bugle",
"The Herald Baritone Bugle was an instrument prepared by DEG Music Products for various special ensembles and corps. This instrument features a standard bore baritone valve section, removable bell, and banner hooks. The herald baritone was only built in a two valve configuration. Kanstul instruments currently builds a G bass herald trumpet as used by Pershing's Own, which is in the same octave range as the herald baritone bugle.",
"#### Baritone grande bugle",
"The Baritone Grande bugle is a large bore bugle built by the Kanstul Instrument Company. This instrument takes a large shank mouthpiece versus the standard baritone which takes a small shank mouthpiece. Other features include a more open wrap and slightly larger bell to increase the presence of the instrument. The Baritone Grande is still available for purchase in a three valve configuration.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:17_DEG_Silver_2V_Euphonium_G_Bugle.jpg \"17 DEG Silver 2V Euphonium G Bugle.jpg\")\n#### Euphonium bugle",
"The Euphonium Bugle has been built since the 1960s in various configurations. The Euphonium was added to the bugle choir around the same time as the mellophone bugle. Euphoniums often feature a larger bore, larger bell throat, and larger bell than the bass\\-baritone. The Euphonium has been available in D piston configurations with F and F\\# rotors, F piston and F\\# rotor configuration, two piston, and three piston configurations. The three valve Euphonium bugle is still available for purchase, along with a special order two piston version. Most Euphonium Bugles accept a large shank mouthpiece, however in the 1980s and early 1990s, DEG Music Products commissioned Willson Brass of Switzerland to design a Euphonium bugle, and their design used a medium shank mouthpiece that is not regularly seen in the United States.",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:24_Contras.jpg \"24 Contras.jpg\")",
""
] |
History
-------
{{Multiple image
\| align \= left
\| direction \= horizontal
\| header \=
\| header\_align \= left/right/center
\| header\_background \=
\| footer \= A render of the Sydney Town Hall from the 1890s (left) and during the \[\[Federation of Australia\|Inauguration of the Australian Commonwealth]] in 1901\. The illuminated sign reads ''"One people, one destiny"'' (right).
\| footer\_align \= left/right/center
\| footer\_background \=
\| width \=
\| image1 \= Sydney Town Hall, 1893 from "Australia and New Zealand".jpg
\| width1 \= 159
\| caption1 \=
\| image2 \= Town Hall, Sydney, Inauguration of Australian Commonwealth.jpg
\| width2 \= 149
\| caption2 \= }}
The Sydney Town Hall is built within the former [Old Sydney Burial Ground](/wiki/Old_Sydney_Burial_Ground "Old Sydney Burial Ground"). The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery and it is estimated that at least 2,000 burials were made in the Old Sydney Burial Ground between 1792 and 1820\. The cemetery boundary originally extended into [George Street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Sydney "George Street, Sydney") and up to the southern side of Druitt Street. The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery, burials previously being reported in land adjacent to the Military Barracks and in the Rocks. The cemetery was set out in September 1792 by [Governor Phillip](/wiki/Arthur_Phillip "Arthur Phillip") and the Reverend [Richard Johnson](/wiki/Richard_Johnson_%28architect%29 "Richard Johnson (architect)") on land that had belonged to Marine Captain Shea (buried there in 1789\) and the first interments presumably took place from this time. More land was added on the northern and western sides of the cemetery in 1812\. The cemetery was closed in 1820 when the Sandhills or Brickfield cemetery (now [Central railway station](/wiki/Central_railway_station%2C_Sydney "Central railway station, Sydney")) was opened.
The majority of the people who died in Sydney would have been buried there, convict and prominent citizen alike, unless they were buried on their own land. Certain parts of the cemetery were set aside for particular people or groups (i.e. [New South Wales Corps](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Corps "New South Wales Corps")' area was near the Druitt and George Street Corner).
After it closed in 1820 the state of the cemetery deteriorated so that in 1845 evidence was given to a committee inquiring into its future that most of the graves were no longer marked and that it would be impossible to find them without clearing the land down to coffins. Notice was given in *[The Sydney Morning Herald](/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald "The Sydney Morning Herald")* that remains of the interred "so far as they can by reasonable search be discovered" would be reburied at [Rookwood Cemetery](/wiki/Rookwood_Cemetery "Rookwood Cemetery"). Since that time, works in the vicinity of the Town Hall regularly expose remains of graves.
The City Corporation was formed in 1842 meeting in various temporary offices. They lobbied the [NSW Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales "Government of New South Wales") for a suitable site for many years and were eventually granted the Old Burial Ground, in the heart of the commercial district. The site was used as Sydney's official burial ground from 1792 to 1820\. Graves ranged from paupers unmarked burials to elaborate tombs and vaults. Vandalism of the site is described in the 1840s to 1860s and some tombstones were used in footpaths. When the site was developed for the Town Hall remains that were disturbed were reinterred in a memorial in [Rookwood Cemetery](/wiki/Rookwood_Cemetery "Rookwood Cemetery"). Where graves were not disturbed they were left untouched.[thumb\|300px\|The Sydney Town Hall was inspired by the [Hôtel de Ville](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville%2C_Paris "Hôtel de Ville, Paris") in [Paris, France](/wiki/Paris%2C_France "Paris, France"), making similar use of its [mansard roofs](/wiki/Mansard_roof "Mansard roof") and Victorian Second Empire detail.\|left](/wiki/File:Paris-municipalidade.jpg "Paris-municipalidade.jpg") The foundation stone was laid in January 1868 by [Prince Alfred, the Duke of Edinburgh](/wiki/Alfred%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha "Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha").{{cite news \|title\=Sydney Morning Herald \|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/28609033?searchTerm\=Prince%20%E2%80%9Ctown%20hall%E2%80%9D \|access\-date\=5 July 2022 \|date\=30 January 1868}} Construction commenced in 1869, and it was designed to be a symbol of the wealth and status of the city. The building was constructed in two stages, Stage I: 1868 \- 1878 and Stage II: the Main Hall, 1885 \- 1890\. The Town Hall design was the result of a competition, won by J. H. Willson. The Second Empire style design (including four eastern pavilions, clock tower, vestibule, reception room and Council Chamber) was modified by the City Engineer to reduce the cost. Following Willson's death Stage I was completed by successive City Architects. The design and construction were associated with intense political and personal battles. In 1875 council occupied the incomplete building in temporary offices on the lower floor. Discussion continued about Stage II, including a report by McBeath in 1878 with costs for the foundations. These proceeded in 1880 but were faulty and work halted.
The building was extended from 1884\-86 with construction of Centennial Hall to the west. In 1881 Stage II was redesigned by Thomas Sapsford, City Architect, assisted by [John Hennessy](/wiki/John_Francis_Hennessy "John Francis Hennessy"), and after Sapsford's death was completed under the supervision of George McRae, City Architect. The new design featured a wider hall and curved corridors.
The new foundation stone was laid by Lady Mayoress Lizzie Harris in 1883 and the contract for the superstructure was let in 1885\. [John Harris](/wiki/John_Harris_%28mayor%29 "John Harris (mayor)") was mayor five times from 1875 to 1900\. The completion was delayed waiting for roof girders from England and was finally opened in 1889\. Electric lighting was used from the start produced by an engine on site. The practice of inscribing names in the building continued in the form of plaques, tablets and bronze medallions often unveiled by important public figures.
From the late 1880s through the 1890s, Town Hall was significantly the site where a number of important meetings on the issue of [Federation](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia "Federation of Australia") took place. Specifically, it was the venue for the formation and official launch of the Australasian Federation League, the principal pro\-federation organisation in NSW, in June and July 1893 respectively. The League also held its annual general and other meetings in the building and, on the eve of the second\- and successful\- federation referendum in June 1899, organised a massive public demonstration at the Hall in support of federation. The opponents of federation also used the Hall for important gatherings, such as the major public meeting organised by the Anti\-Convention Bill League in April 1898 as the first major public exposition of its views.
[left\|thumb\|Sydney Town Hall {{Circa\|1900}}, facing south\-west, with [St. Andrew's Cathedral](/wiki/St._Andrew%27s_Cathedral%2C_Sydney "St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney") in the background (left)](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_with_St_Andrews_cathedral_visible_%283575321672%29.jpg "Sydney Town Hall with St Andrews cathedral visible (3575321672).jpg")
Redecoration and various additions and alterations took place in the late 19th and early 20th century. In 1889 upgrading works included facing the stone treads of the north and south stairs with marble and redecoration of the front entrance and first floor chambers. Painting of the Main Hall was extensively debated and in 1903 proposals for colours were rejected and a scheme of "cream tones, flatted" was chosen.
In 1890 the Mayor's private rooms, on the first floor in the north of the second stage, were grandly furnished by the Mayor. It was redecorated in 1906 for the Lady Mayoress with new openings between rooms in the Art Nouveau style. The rooms house some of Town Hall's most precious items, including the "Vase de Remini".
During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the Town Hall displayed banners saying "Welcome" and "God Speed" and there was a controversy over hiring the hall to various groups and many tried to obtain bookings at charity rate. The Artists Ball in 1924 "got out of hand" and there was heightened debate over use.
The [Labor Party](/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party_%28New_South_Wales_Branch%29 "Australian Labor Party (New South Wales Branch)") assumed control of Council in the mid 1920s but were sacked by the NSW Government who installed Commissioners in 1927\. They answered criticism of the difficulties of using the halls with a proposal to revamp the place to enhance its letting value. *The Labour Daily* criticised the sacrifice of staff rooms. In 1929 blasting for the underground railway destabilised the port cochere to the east entrance and the Labour Daily called for its removal saying it was an afterthought for the aristocracy. In 1934 the current, more democratic, George Street stair and portico entrance commenced construction and the project incorporated works modernising Lower Town Hall. The additional columns in the Lower Town Hall may have been installed at this time.
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") Town Hall took an active role in maintaining civilian morale and safety. Areas were set aside for administration of National Emergency Services. The Lower Hall was altered to accommodate stretcher parties and there was an emergency battery. By 1948 letting of Town Hall to the Communist Party and similar organisation was banned.
Up till the opening of the [Sydney Opera House](/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House "Sydney Opera House"), Town Hall was the major venue for reception of guests to Sydney, including Royalty. Such visits were sometimes preceded by renovations to the building and accompanied by decorations with drapes and illuminations. In the 1950s and 1960s the hall was also the venue for naturalisation ceremonies and for mass vaccinations and events promoting public health. In the 1970s the front steps became the saluting base for Vietnam marches and for demonstrations and subsequently witnessed demonstrations about the law and the Green Bans campaign.
Sundry additions and alterations have taken place throughout the building in the late 20th century, including addition of a goods life servicing Centennial Hall and Lower Town Hall in 1978\.TKD Architects, 7/2015, 2
In 1989 and 1990 the centenary of the main hall, and Council's sesquicentenary were celebrated and resulted in the restoration of the main public spaces and the east facade. Substantial restoration and redecoration works took place in the early 1990s.TKD, 2015, 2 In 2000, Olympic and Paralympic ceremonial events took place at Sydney Town Hall. A major upgrade of essential services was undertaken in 2009\-10\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{Multiple image\n \\| align \\= left\n \\| direction \\= horizontal\n \\| header \\=\n \\| header\\_align \\= left/right/center\n \\| header\\_background \\=\n \\| footer \\= A render of the Sydney Town Hall from the 1890s (left) and during the \\[\\[Federation of Australia\\|Inauguration of the Australian Commonwealth]] in 1901\\. The illuminated sign reads ''\"One people, one destiny\"'' (right).\n \\| footer\\_align \\= left/right/center\n \\| footer\\_background \\=\n \\| width \\=\n \\| image1 \\= Sydney Town Hall, 1893 from \"Australia and New Zealand\".jpg\n \\| width1 \\= 159\n \\| caption1 \\=\n \\| image2 \\= Town Hall, Sydney, Inauguration of Australian Commonwealth.jpg\n \\| width2 \\= 149\n \\| caption2 \\= }}\nThe Sydney Town Hall is built within the former [Old Sydney Burial Ground](/wiki/Old_Sydney_Burial_Ground \"Old Sydney Burial Ground\"). The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery and it is estimated that at least 2,000 burials were made in the Old Sydney Burial Ground between 1792 and 1820\\. The cemetery boundary originally extended into [George Street](/wiki/George_Street%2C_Sydney \"George Street, Sydney\") and up to the southern side of Druitt Street. The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery, burials previously being reported in land adjacent to the Military Barracks and in the Rocks. The cemetery was set out in September 1792 by [Governor Phillip](/wiki/Arthur_Phillip \"Arthur Phillip\") and the Reverend [Richard Johnson](/wiki/Richard_Johnson_%28architect%29 \"Richard Johnson (architect)\") on land that had belonged to Marine Captain Shea (buried there in 1789\\) and the first interments presumably took place from this time. More land was added on the northern and western sides of the cemetery in 1812\\. The cemetery was closed in 1820 when the Sandhills or Brickfield cemetery (now [Central railway station](/wiki/Central_railway_station%2C_Sydney \"Central railway station, Sydney\")) was opened.",
"The majority of the people who died in Sydney would have been buried there, convict and prominent citizen alike, unless they were buried on their own land. Certain parts of the cemetery were set aside for particular people or groups (i.e. [New South Wales Corps](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Corps \"New South Wales Corps\")' area was near the Druitt and George Street Corner).",
"After it closed in 1820 the state of the cemetery deteriorated so that in 1845 evidence was given to a committee inquiring into its future that most of the graves were no longer marked and that it would be impossible to find them without clearing the land down to coffins. Notice was given in *[The Sydney Morning Herald](/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald \"The Sydney Morning Herald\")* that remains of the interred \"so far as they can by reasonable search be discovered\" would be reburied at [Rookwood Cemetery](/wiki/Rookwood_Cemetery \"Rookwood Cemetery\"). Since that time, works in the vicinity of the Town Hall regularly expose remains of graves.",
"The City Corporation was formed in 1842 meeting in various temporary offices. They lobbied the [NSW Government](/wiki/Government_of_New_South_Wales \"Government of New South Wales\") for a suitable site for many years and were eventually granted the Old Burial Ground, in the heart of the commercial district. The site was used as Sydney's official burial ground from 1792 to 1820\\. Graves ranged from paupers unmarked burials to elaborate tombs and vaults. Vandalism of the site is described in the 1840s to 1860s and some tombstones were used in footpaths. When the site was developed for the Town Hall remains that were disturbed were reinterred in a memorial in [Rookwood Cemetery](/wiki/Rookwood_Cemetery \"Rookwood Cemetery\"). Where graves were not disturbed they were left untouched.[thumb\\|300px\\|The Sydney Town Hall was inspired by the [Hôtel de Ville](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville%2C_Paris \"Hôtel de Ville, Paris\") in [Paris, France](/wiki/Paris%2C_France \"Paris, France\"), making similar use of its [mansard roofs](/wiki/Mansard_roof \"Mansard roof\") and Victorian Second Empire detail.\\|left](/wiki/File:Paris-municipalidade.jpg \"Paris-municipalidade.jpg\") The foundation stone was laid in January 1868 by [Prince Alfred, the Duke of Edinburgh](/wiki/Alfred%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha \"Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Sydney Morning Herald \\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/28609033?searchTerm\\=Prince%20%E2%80%9Ctown%20hall%E2%80%9D \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2022 \\|date\\=30 January 1868}} Construction commenced in 1869, and it was designed to be a symbol of the wealth and status of the city. The building was constructed in two stages, Stage I: 1868 \\- 1878 and Stage II: the Main Hall, 1885 \\- 1890\\. The Town Hall design was the result of a competition, won by J. H. Willson. The Second Empire style design (including four eastern pavilions, clock tower, vestibule, reception room and Council Chamber) was modified by the City Engineer to reduce the cost. Following Willson's death Stage I was completed by successive City Architects. The design and construction were associated with intense political and personal battles. In 1875 council occupied the incomplete building in temporary offices on the lower floor. Discussion continued about Stage II, including a report by McBeath in 1878 with costs for the foundations. These proceeded in 1880 but were faulty and work halted.",
"The building was extended from 1884\\-86 with construction of Centennial Hall to the west. In 1881 Stage II was redesigned by Thomas Sapsford, City Architect, assisted by [John Hennessy](/wiki/John_Francis_Hennessy \"John Francis Hennessy\"), and after Sapsford's death was completed under the supervision of George McRae, City Architect. The new design featured a wider hall and curved corridors.",
"The new foundation stone was laid by Lady Mayoress Lizzie Harris in 1883 and the contract for the superstructure was let in 1885\\. [John Harris](/wiki/John_Harris_%28mayor%29 \"John Harris (mayor)\") was mayor five times from 1875 to 1900\\. The completion was delayed waiting for roof girders from England and was finally opened in 1889\\. Electric lighting was used from the start produced by an engine on site. The practice of inscribing names in the building continued in the form of plaques, tablets and bronze medallions often unveiled by important public figures.",
"From the late 1880s through the 1890s, Town Hall was significantly the site where a number of important meetings on the issue of [Federation](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia \"Federation of Australia\") took place. Specifically, it was the venue for the formation and official launch of the Australasian Federation League, the principal pro\\-federation organisation in NSW, in June and July 1893 respectively. The League also held its annual general and other meetings in the building and, on the eve of the second\\- and successful\\- federation referendum in June 1899, organised a massive public demonstration at the Hall in support of federation. The opponents of federation also used the Hall for important gatherings, such as the major public meeting organised by the Anti\\-Convention Bill League in April 1898 as the first major public exposition of its views.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Sydney Town Hall {{Circa\\|1900}}, facing south\\-west, with [St. Andrew's Cathedral](/wiki/St._Andrew%27s_Cathedral%2C_Sydney \"St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney\") in the background (left)](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_with_St_Andrews_cathedral_visible_%283575321672%29.jpg \"Sydney Town Hall with St Andrews cathedral visible (3575321672).jpg\")\nRedecoration and various additions and alterations took place in the late 19th and early 20th century. In 1889 upgrading works included facing the stone treads of the north and south stairs with marble and redecoration of the front entrance and first floor chambers. Painting of the Main Hall was extensively debated and in 1903 proposals for colours were rejected and a scheme of \"cream tones, flatted\" was chosen.",
"In 1890 the Mayor's private rooms, on the first floor in the north of the second stage, were grandly furnished by the Mayor. It was redecorated in 1906 for the Lady Mayoress with new openings between rooms in the Art Nouveau style. The rooms house some of Town Hall's most precious items, including the \"Vase de Remini\".",
"During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), the Town Hall displayed banners saying \"Welcome\" and \"God Speed\" and there was a controversy over hiring the hall to various groups and many tried to obtain bookings at charity rate. The Artists Ball in 1924 \"got out of hand\" and there was heightened debate over use.",
"The [Labor Party](/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party_%28New_South_Wales_Branch%29 \"Australian Labor Party (New South Wales Branch)\") assumed control of Council in the mid 1920s but were sacked by the NSW Government who installed Commissioners in 1927\\. They answered criticism of the difficulties of using the halls with a proposal to revamp the place to enhance its letting value. *The Labour Daily* criticised the sacrifice of staff rooms. In 1929 blasting for the underground railway destabilised the port cochere to the east entrance and the Labour Daily called for its removal saying it was an afterthought for the aristocracy. In 1934 the current, more democratic, George Street stair and portico entrance commenced construction and the project incorporated works modernising Lower Town Hall. The additional columns in the Lower Town Hall may have been installed at this time.",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") Town Hall took an active role in maintaining civilian morale and safety. Areas were set aside for administration of National Emergency Services. The Lower Hall was altered to accommodate stretcher parties and there was an emergency battery. By 1948 letting of Town Hall to the Communist Party and similar organisation was banned.",
"Up till the opening of the [Sydney Opera House](/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House \"Sydney Opera House\"), Town Hall was the major venue for reception of guests to Sydney, including Royalty. Such visits were sometimes preceded by renovations to the building and accompanied by decorations with drapes and illuminations. In the 1950s and 1960s the hall was also the venue for naturalisation ceremonies and for mass vaccinations and events promoting public health. In the 1970s the front steps became the saluting base for Vietnam marches and for demonstrations and subsequently witnessed demonstrations about the law and the Green Bans campaign.",
"Sundry additions and alterations have taken place throughout the building in the late 20th century, including addition of a goods life servicing Centennial Hall and Lower Town Hall in 1978\\.TKD Architects, 7/2015, 2",
"In 1989 and 1990 the centenary of the main hall, and Council's sesquicentenary were celebrated and resulted in the restoration of the main public spaces and the east facade. Substantial restoration and redecoration works took place in the early 1990s.TKD, 2015, 2 In 2000, Olympic and Paralympic ceremonial events took place at Sydney Town Hall. A major upgrade of essential services was undertaken in 2009\\-10\\.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
[left\|thumb\|Clock tower](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_clock_tower.jpg "Sydney Town Hall clock tower.jpg")
The Town Hall was built from local [Sydney sandstone](/wiki/Sydney_sandstone "Sydney sandstone") in the grand [Victorian Second Empire](/wiki/Victorian_architecture "Victorian architecture") style, inspired by the [French Second Empire](/wiki/Second_Empire_architecture "Second Empire architecture") [Hôtel de Ville](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville%2C_Paris "Hôtel de Ville, Paris") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"). The Town Hall has been described as having "lavishly ornamented composition with focal tower and fanciful roofs".{{cite book \|title\=A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture \|work\=Apperley \|publisher\=\[\[Angus and Robertson]] \|date\=1994 \|page\=68 }} The building consists of the original Town Hall, mayoral suites and town clerk's offices. These were designed by J. H. Wilson in 1866, having won a civic competition to design a town hall for the rapidly\-growing city. Construction of his initial designs were completed under the architectural direction of Albert Bond in 1869\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sydneytownhall.com.au/discover\-learn/building\-history/coonstruction/ \|title\=Construction \|work\=Sydney Town Hall: Building history: Discover \& learn \|publisher\=\[\[City of Sydney]] \|date\=2016 \|access\-date\=24 September 2016 }} Wilson also designed the interior of the original Town Hall meeting room. The [clock tower](/wiki/Clock_tower "Clock tower") was completed in 1873 to the design of E. and T. Bradbridge and whose clock was installed in 1884\. The Centennial Hall and associated offices and entrances were designed by Thomas H. Sapsford in 1883, but after his death were completed by architects David McBeath, John Hennessy and [George McRae](/wiki/George_McRae "George McRae") in 1889\.
Sydney Town Hall is a monumental brick and stone structure. The building houses the [Sydney City Council](/wiki/Sydney_City_Council "Sydney City Council") Chamber, reception rooms, the Centennial Hall and offices for the [Lord Mayor](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Sydney "Lord Mayor of Sydney") and elected councillors. It is on four levels referred to as Lower Ground, Ground, First and Second floors and there are some intermediate levels in the area of the stage and organ. The building was built in two main stages the first being the vestibule and offices (1869–1880\) and the second being the two halls (1880–1889\). On the lowest level of the second stage is the Lower Town Hall, main north and south [stairs](/wiki/Stairs "Stairs") (which extend to the first floor), corridors, backstage facilities, north and south entrances, and ancillary spaces. The north corridor links via the enclosed [colonnade](/wiki/Colonnade "Colonnade") to Town Hall House to the west. On the lowest level of the first stage, which is about a metre higher, are vaults in the centre, corridors and offices around the outside.
[left\|thumb\|Mansard roof detailing](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_Roof_Detail.jpg "Sydney Town Hall Roof Detail.jpg")
On the ground floor of the second stage is the Main Hall. This is the main space in the building and is three storeys high. At the west end is the stage and the organ which is under a proscenium arch and behind which are facilities for performers. There are galleries on the other three sides accessed from the second floor with [clerestory](/wiki/Clerestory "Clerestory") windows above. On the north and south sides are wide corridors, main stairs, entrances and rooms containing offices and toilets. The entrances open onto balconies and grand stairs leading to the street. The main space on the ground floor of the first stage is the Vestibule which is an elaborate two storey space topped by an oval shaped curved glass [dome](/wiki/Dome "Dome"). The vestibule has wide corridors on three sides and around the perimeter are rooms containing offices and some public spaces. Centrally located on the eastern side is the octagonal entrance foyer over which is the clock tower. This leads off the main entrance to the building, the George Street stair. The Grand Stair is to the north of the foyer and includes a passenger lift.
The Centennial Hall contains the [Grand Organ](/wiki/Sydney_Town_Hall_Grand_Organ "Sydney Town Hall Grand Organ"), the world's largest pipe organ with [tubular pneumatic action](/wiki/Tubular_pneumatic_action "Tubular pneumatic action"), built from 1886 to 1889 and installed in 1890 by the English firm of [William Hill \& Son](/wiki/William_Hill_%26_Son "William Hill & Son"). The organ possesses one of only two full\-length {{cvt\|64\|ft}} [organ stops](/wiki/Organ_stop "Organ stop") in the world (the Contra\-Trombone in the pedal). Before the opening of the Sydney Opera House and its Concert Hall, the Town Hall was Sydney's premier concert hall, and many notable performances took place there.
On the first floor in the second stage are the corridors servicing the galleries in the Main Hall, the north and south stairs, rooms containing offices and toilets. In the backstage area are performers facilities and there are links on each side to Town Hall House which is west of the Town Hall. On the first floor in the first stage, on either side of the upper portion of the vestibule are the main spaces on this level; the Council Chamber and the Reception Room. A corridor to the east of the Vestibule serves these spaces and offices along the east of the building. The Grand Staircase ends at this level and a spiral stair under the clock tower leads to the second floor. The second floor is mainly in the first stage of the building and is offices and ancillary spaces. There are two main spaces on the north and south of the dome, linked by a corridor to rooms within the corner pavilions and to the lift, which continues to this level. Walkways on the roof provide access to storerooms in the roofs of the pavilions over the North and South entrances. To the west of the Main Hall two spiral stairs give access to the roof. The spiral stair in the clock tower continues giving access to higher levels where the bell and the clock mechanism are located. The counterweights for the clock are located within the walls at each corner of the tower.
### Construction
[left\|thumb\|Part of the southern facade](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_%282%29.jpg "Sydney Town Hall (2).jpg")
Sydney Town Hall is a composite brick and stone construction. The external walls and elements such as the upper levels of the clock tower, balconies and colonnades, external stairs and roof top decoration are of Sydney "yellowblock" [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone"). Internal faces of walls and internal walls are rendered and/or plastered brick. The building is supported on brick and stone strip [foundations](/wiki/Foundation_%28engineering%29 "Foundation (engineering)") or brick [piers](/wiki/Pier_%28architecture%29 "Pier (architecture)"). The first stage mostly has timber floor structures and floors except for the corridors and the vaults. The second stage has concrete floors vaulted between steel beams, and has some timber floors. The floors are tile or timber over the structure.
The roof structures of the first stage are timber with [trusses](/wiki/Trusses "Trusses") spanning the two larger spaces. The nature of the structure supporting the vestibule dome and the adjacent rooms is not known. The second stage utilises a steel roof structure with massive riveted steel girders spanning the main hall. Over these girders are [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron "Wrought iron") and steel trusses forming the pitched roof. The structure of the [flat roof](/wiki/Flat_roof "Flat roof") areas is concrete vaulted between steel beams. The domed pavilions have a steel structure. The roofing is slate to pitched roof areas, membrane to flat areas and corrugated steel to the curved roofed pavilions.
Internally the walls and ceilings to important spaces are elaborately finished in plaster. There is a hierarchy of decorative treatments reflecting the importance and use of spaces. Less important spaces are finished with render, sometimes lined to resemble stone. Fine timber joinery to windows and doors is cedar and there are many stained and [leadlight](/wiki/Leadlight "Leadlight") glass windows to major spaces.
### Internal decoration
[thumb\|The interior of the Centennial Hall during a service](/wiki/File:Gough_Whitlam_memorial_service_at_welcome_to_country.JPG "Gough Whitlam memorial service at welcome to country.JPG")
[left\|thumb\|The Centennial Hall with the [grand organ](/wiki/Sydney_Town_Hall_Grand_Organ "Sydney Town Hall Grand Organ")](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_interior.jpg "Sydney Town Hall interior.jpg")
The Town Hall was temporarily occupied in 1875 however the finishing of the ground floor rooms was not undertaken until 1878 and the finishing of the second floor rooms was undertaken to coincide with the opening of the Main Hall. The decoration of the ground floor chambers and corridors of the first stage was designed by David McBeath and the decoration of the Vestibule by Albert Bond. All of these interiors exhibit a high level of ornament to all surfaces. The High Victorian interior of the Vestibule was finished in a variety of colours (at least forty) and surface finishes such as marbelling, faux sheen, waxing and graining as well as tinted plaster were employed (or specified). Sharp corners and crisp details were obtained through the use of Keene's Cement, a hard plaster which could be oiled and polished, coloured or painted. Polished plaster was also employed in the first floor rooms, such as the Reception Room and the corridors.
[thumb\|Domed ceiling](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_Domed_Ceiling.jpg "Sydney Town Hall Domed Ceiling.jpg")
One of the characteristic features of the decoration of the first stage of the Town Hall is the use of embossed (or etched) glass. The milky design is actually raised and the polished sections recessed. The [fanlights](/wiki/Fanlight "Fanlight") to the offices and the first floor windows into the Vestibule feature Australian flora and fauna as decorative motifs. This is one of the earliest known uses of the use of Australian motifs to decorate architectural elements. In addition symbolic decoration is employed.
The High Victorian interiors went out of fashion quickly and the designers of the second stage, in particular John Hennessy, were influenced by the Aesthetic Movement. The first floor chambers including the Council Chamber, the Finance Room, the Aldermen's refreshment room (now the Aldermen's WC's), the Reception Room, the Town Clerk's and the Lord Mayor's offices and the first floor corridor and Grand Staircase were redecorated between 1888 and 1890 with Aesthetic Movement style decorative schemes.
The corridors and staircases of the second stage of the Town Hall were designed in a far less ornate manner. Throughout the corridors and the Main Hall the hard white plaster was given a polished finish. Doors were added, {{circa\|1890}}, to the Vestibule to separate it from the Main Hall. The rooms were subsequently repainted many times in simple one colour schemes.
### Present day
[thumb\|Southern facade of the building](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_-_Panorama.jpg "Sydney Town Hall - Panorama.jpg")
The Sydney Town Hall still serves as an important presence and meeting place for the City of Sydney to this very day. The building itself regularly undergoes cleaning and [restoration](/wiki/Building_restoration "Building restoration") to preserve it for future generations. Additionally, it has been rendered with sustainability by improving energy efficiency, including smart light sensors, energy efficient lighting, new roofing [insulation](/wiki/Building_insulation "Building insulation") to moderate building temperature, [solar panels](/wiki/Solar_panels "Solar panels"), and new hydraulics and storm water infrastructure.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/vision/better\-infrastructure/completed\-projects/sydney\-town\-hall\|title\=City of Sydney: Sydney Town Hall\|access\-date\=9 August 2015}}
### Condition
[thumb\|Sandstone lion on north side of building](/wiki/File:%281%29Sydney_Town_Hall_025.jpg "(1)Sydney Town Hall 025.jpg")
[alt\=Photograph of two cleaners working on the clock face.\|thumb\|Cleaning the clock face of Sydney Town Hall, George Street Sydney, 1937](/wiki/File:Cleaning_the_clock_face_of_Sydney_Town_Hall%2C_George_Street_Sydney%2C_1937.jpg "Cleaning the clock face of Sydney Town Hall, George Street Sydney, 1937.jpg")
As at 16 May 2003, the building is in excellent condition. As at 2003 maintenance is required to stonework on the north, west and south [facades](/wiki/Facade "Facade").
The site has exceptional archaeological potential because Town Hall is built within the former Old Sydney Burial Ground. The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery and it is estimated that at least 2000 burials were made in the Old Sydney Burial Ground between 1792 and 1820\. The majority of the people who died in Sydney would have been buried there, convict and prominent citizen alike, unless they were buried on their own land. Certain parts of the cemetery were set aside for particular people or groups (i.e. New South Wales Corps' area was near the Druitt and George Street Corner).
After it closed in 1820 the state of the cemetery deteriorated so that in 1845 evidence was given to a committee inquiring into its future that most of the graves were no longer marked and that it would be impossible to find them without clearing the land down to coffins. Notice was given in the Sydney Morning Herald that remains of the interred "so far as they can by reasonable search be discovered" would be reburied at Rockwood Cemetery. Since that time, works in the vicinity of the Town Hall regularly expose remains of graves. Excavation of services in the footpaths along George and Druitt Streets in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries found evidence of graves. Excavation for Town Hall railway station in 1929 exposed coffins and headstones. Several brick tombs were recorded in 1974 when the Town Hall [arcade](/wiki/Arcade_%28architecture%29 "Arcade (architecture)") was being excavated.
In 1991 works to Town Hall revealed a brick tomb and several graves so the potential for the proposed 2003 works to disturb graves of exceptional significance is considered to be high. Remains from the site have rare research potential for learning more about the health and well\-being of the early settlers.
The Sydney Town Hall is largely intact. Most changes have been layers over the original construction and the stages of construction are evident in the fabric. The function of the place is an essential part of its integrity. It continues to be used for the purpose for which it was designed.
There are numerous graves still intact below the existing foundations of Town Hall and within close vicinity of the site.
### Modifications and dates
There have been few modifications after the completion of the second stage of works associated with the Town Hall building. In 1906 a lift was added and the main stair altered, and the Lord Mayor's private rooms were converted into the Lady Mayoress suite.
In 1892 a [porte cochère](/wiki/Porte_coch%C3%A8re "Porte cochère") was added to the front of the building. In 1934 the main entrance was remodelled with the demolition of the porte cochère and its replacement with a flight of steps. During WW2 the Lower Town Hall was altered with additional [columns](/wiki/Columns "Columns") to strengthen the structure.
In the 1970s Town Hall House was added to the rear, earlier offices demolished, a two\-storey wing added on Druitt Street, which involved the removal of part of the north stair, Sydney Square was formed, earlier fences and gardens removed and pebblecrete paving laid around the building.
In 1990 to 1992 a restoration program replaced some [marble](/wiki/Marble "Marble") to the front stair and sandstone on the east facade, the vestibule and Main Hall were redecorated, stormwater and sewage systems were upgraded, and a protective roof installed over the Vestibule Dome.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Clock tower](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_clock_tower.jpg \"Sydney Town Hall clock tower.jpg\")\nThe Town Hall was built from local [Sydney sandstone](/wiki/Sydney_sandstone \"Sydney sandstone\") in the grand [Victorian Second Empire](/wiki/Victorian_architecture \"Victorian architecture\") style, inspired by the [French Second Empire](/wiki/Second_Empire_architecture \"Second Empire architecture\") [Hôtel de Ville](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville%2C_Paris \"Hôtel de Ville, Paris\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"). The Town Hall has been described as having \"lavishly ornamented composition with focal tower and fanciful roofs\".{{cite book \\|title\\=A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture \\|work\\=Apperley \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Angus and Robertson]] \\|date\\=1994 \\|page\\=68 }} The building consists of the original Town Hall, mayoral suites and town clerk's offices. These were designed by J. H. Wilson in 1866, having won a civic competition to design a town hall for the rapidly\\-growing city. Construction of his initial designs were completed under the architectural direction of Albert Bond in 1869\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sydneytownhall.com.au/discover\\-learn/building\\-history/coonstruction/ \\|title\\=Construction \\|work\\=Sydney Town Hall: Building history: Discover \\& learn \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[City of Sydney]] \\|date\\=2016 \\|access\\-date\\=24 September 2016 }} Wilson also designed the interior of the original Town Hall meeting room. The [clock tower](/wiki/Clock_tower \"Clock tower\") was completed in 1873 to the design of E. and T. Bradbridge and whose clock was installed in 1884\\. The Centennial Hall and associated offices and entrances were designed by Thomas H. Sapsford in 1883, but after his death were completed by architects David McBeath, John Hennessy and [George McRae](/wiki/George_McRae \"George McRae\") in 1889\\.",
"Sydney Town Hall is a monumental brick and stone structure. The building houses the [Sydney City Council](/wiki/Sydney_City_Council \"Sydney City Council\") Chamber, reception rooms, the Centennial Hall and offices for the [Lord Mayor](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Sydney \"Lord Mayor of Sydney\") and elected councillors. It is on four levels referred to as Lower Ground, Ground, First and Second floors and there are some intermediate levels in the area of the stage and organ. The building was built in two main stages the first being the vestibule and offices (1869–1880\\) and the second being the two halls (1880–1889\\). On the lowest level of the second stage is the Lower Town Hall, main north and south [stairs](/wiki/Stairs \"Stairs\") (which extend to the first floor), corridors, backstage facilities, north and south entrances, and ancillary spaces. The north corridor links via the enclosed [colonnade](/wiki/Colonnade \"Colonnade\") to Town Hall House to the west. On the lowest level of the first stage, which is about a metre higher, are vaults in the centre, corridors and offices around the outside.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Mansard roof detailing](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_Roof_Detail.jpg \"Sydney Town Hall Roof Detail.jpg\")\nOn the ground floor of the second stage is the Main Hall. This is the main space in the building and is three storeys high. At the west end is the stage and the organ which is under a proscenium arch and behind which are facilities for performers. There are galleries on the other three sides accessed from the second floor with [clerestory](/wiki/Clerestory \"Clerestory\") windows above. On the north and south sides are wide corridors, main stairs, entrances and rooms containing offices and toilets. The entrances open onto balconies and grand stairs leading to the street. The main space on the ground floor of the first stage is the Vestibule which is an elaborate two storey space topped by an oval shaped curved glass [dome](/wiki/Dome \"Dome\"). The vestibule has wide corridors on three sides and around the perimeter are rooms containing offices and some public spaces. Centrally located on the eastern side is the octagonal entrance foyer over which is the clock tower. This leads off the main entrance to the building, the George Street stair. The Grand Stair is to the north of the foyer and includes a passenger lift.",
"The Centennial Hall contains the [Grand Organ](/wiki/Sydney_Town_Hall_Grand_Organ \"Sydney Town Hall Grand Organ\"), the world's largest pipe organ with [tubular pneumatic action](/wiki/Tubular_pneumatic_action \"Tubular pneumatic action\"), built from 1886 to 1889 and installed in 1890 by the English firm of [William Hill \\& Son](/wiki/William_Hill_%26_Son \"William Hill & Son\"). The organ possesses one of only two full\\-length {{cvt\\|64\\|ft}} [organ stops](/wiki/Organ_stop \"Organ stop\") in the world (the Contra\\-Trombone in the pedal). Before the opening of the Sydney Opera House and its Concert Hall, the Town Hall was Sydney's premier concert hall, and many notable performances took place there.",
"On the first floor in the second stage are the corridors servicing the galleries in the Main Hall, the north and south stairs, rooms containing offices and toilets. In the backstage area are performers facilities and there are links on each side to Town Hall House which is west of the Town Hall. On the first floor in the first stage, on either side of the upper portion of the vestibule are the main spaces on this level; the Council Chamber and the Reception Room. A corridor to the east of the Vestibule serves these spaces and offices along the east of the building. The Grand Staircase ends at this level and a spiral stair under the clock tower leads to the second floor. The second floor is mainly in the first stage of the building and is offices and ancillary spaces. There are two main spaces on the north and south of the dome, linked by a corridor to rooms within the corner pavilions and to the lift, which continues to this level. Walkways on the roof provide access to storerooms in the roofs of the pavilions over the North and South entrances. To the west of the Main Hall two spiral stairs give access to the roof. The spiral stair in the clock tower continues giving access to higher levels where the bell and the clock mechanism are located. The counterweights for the clock are located within the walls at each corner of the tower.",
"### Construction",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Part of the southern facade](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_%282%29.jpg \"Sydney Town Hall (2).jpg\")\nSydney Town Hall is a composite brick and stone construction. The external walls and elements such as the upper levels of the clock tower, balconies and colonnades, external stairs and roof top decoration are of Sydney \"yellowblock\" [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\"). Internal faces of walls and internal walls are rendered and/or plastered brick. The building is supported on brick and stone strip [foundations](/wiki/Foundation_%28engineering%29 \"Foundation (engineering)\") or brick [piers](/wiki/Pier_%28architecture%29 \"Pier (architecture)\"). The first stage mostly has timber floor structures and floors except for the corridors and the vaults. The second stage has concrete floors vaulted between steel beams, and has some timber floors. The floors are tile or timber over the structure.",
"The roof structures of the first stage are timber with [trusses](/wiki/Trusses \"Trusses\") spanning the two larger spaces. The nature of the structure supporting the vestibule dome and the adjacent rooms is not known. The second stage utilises a steel roof structure with massive riveted steel girders spanning the main hall. Over these girders are [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron \"Wrought iron\") and steel trusses forming the pitched roof. The structure of the [flat roof](/wiki/Flat_roof \"Flat roof\") areas is concrete vaulted between steel beams. The domed pavilions have a steel structure. The roofing is slate to pitched roof areas, membrane to flat areas and corrugated steel to the curved roofed pavilions.",
"Internally the walls and ceilings to important spaces are elaborately finished in plaster. There is a hierarchy of decorative treatments reflecting the importance and use of spaces. Less important spaces are finished with render, sometimes lined to resemble stone. Fine timber joinery to windows and doors is cedar and there are many stained and [leadlight](/wiki/Leadlight \"Leadlight\") glass windows to major spaces.",
"### Internal decoration",
"[thumb\\|The interior of the Centennial Hall during a service](/wiki/File:Gough_Whitlam_memorial_service_at_welcome_to_country.JPG \"Gough Whitlam memorial service at welcome to country.JPG\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|The Centennial Hall with the [grand organ](/wiki/Sydney_Town_Hall_Grand_Organ \"Sydney Town Hall Grand Organ\")](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_interior.jpg \"Sydney Town Hall interior.jpg\")\nThe Town Hall was temporarily occupied in 1875 however the finishing of the ground floor rooms was not undertaken until 1878 and the finishing of the second floor rooms was undertaken to coincide with the opening of the Main Hall. The decoration of the ground floor chambers and corridors of the first stage was designed by David McBeath and the decoration of the Vestibule by Albert Bond. All of these interiors exhibit a high level of ornament to all surfaces. The High Victorian interior of the Vestibule was finished in a variety of colours (at least forty) and surface finishes such as marbelling, faux sheen, waxing and graining as well as tinted plaster were employed (or specified). Sharp corners and crisp details were obtained through the use of Keene's Cement, a hard plaster which could be oiled and polished, coloured or painted. Polished plaster was also employed in the first floor rooms, such as the Reception Room and the corridors.\n[thumb\\|Domed ceiling](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_Domed_Ceiling.jpg \"Sydney Town Hall Domed Ceiling.jpg\")\nOne of the characteristic features of the decoration of the first stage of the Town Hall is the use of embossed (or etched) glass. The milky design is actually raised and the polished sections recessed. The [fanlights](/wiki/Fanlight \"Fanlight\") to the offices and the first floor windows into the Vestibule feature Australian flora and fauna as decorative motifs. This is one of the earliest known uses of the use of Australian motifs to decorate architectural elements. In addition symbolic decoration is employed.",
"The High Victorian interiors went out of fashion quickly and the designers of the second stage, in particular John Hennessy, were influenced by the Aesthetic Movement. The first floor chambers including the Council Chamber, the Finance Room, the Aldermen's refreshment room (now the Aldermen's WC's), the Reception Room, the Town Clerk's and the Lord Mayor's offices and the first floor corridor and Grand Staircase were redecorated between 1888 and 1890 with Aesthetic Movement style decorative schemes.",
"The corridors and staircases of the second stage of the Town Hall were designed in a far less ornate manner. Throughout the corridors and the Main Hall the hard white plaster was given a polished finish. Doors were added, {{circa\\|1890}}, to the Vestibule to separate it from the Main Hall. The rooms were subsequently repainted many times in simple one colour schemes.",
"### Present day",
"[thumb\\|Southern facade of the building](/wiki/File:Sydney_Town_Hall_-_Panorama.jpg \"Sydney Town Hall - Panorama.jpg\")\nThe Sydney Town Hall still serves as an important presence and meeting place for the City of Sydney to this very day. The building itself regularly undergoes cleaning and [restoration](/wiki/Building_restoration \"Building restoration\") to preserve it for future generations. Additionally, it has been rendered with sustainability by improving energy efficiency, including smart light sensors, energy efficient lighting, new roofing [insulation](/wiki/Building_insulation \"Building insulation\") to moderate building temperature, [solar panels](/wiki/Solar_panels \"Solar panels\"), and new hydraulics and storm water infrastructure.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/vision/better\\-infrastructure/completed\\-projects/sydney\\-town\\-hall\\|title\\=City of Sydney: Sydney Town Hall\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2015}}",
"### Condition",
"[thumb\\|Sandstone lion on north side of building](/wiki/File:%281%29Sydney_Town_Hall_025.jpg \"(1)Sydney Town Hall 025.jpg\")\n[alt\\=Photograph of two cleaners working on the clock face.\\|thumb\\|Cleaning the clock face of Sydney Town Hall, George Street Sydney, 1937](/wiki/File:Cleaning_the_clock_face_of_Sydney_Town_Hall%2C_George_Street_Sydney%2C_1937.jpg \"Cleaning the clock face of Sydney Town Hall, George Street Sydney, 1937.jpg\")\nAs at 16 May 2003, the building is in excellent condition. As at 2003 maintenance is required to stonework on the north, west and south [facades](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\").",
"The site has exceptional archaeological potential because Town Hall is built within the former Old Sydney Burial Ground. The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery and it is estimated that at least 2000 burials were made in the Old Sydney Burial Ground between 1792 and 1820\\. The majority of the people who died in Sydney would have been buried there, convict and prominent citizen alike, unless they were buried on their own land. Certain parts of the cemetery were set aside for particular people or groups (i.e. New South Wales Corps' area was near the Druitt and George Street Corner).",
"After it closed in 1820 the state of the cemetery deteriorated so that in 1845 evidence was given to a committee inquiring into its future that most of the graves were no longer marked and that it would be impossible to find them without clearing the land down to coffins. Notice was given in the Sydney Morning Herald that remains of the interred \"so far as they can by reasonable search be discovered\" would be reburied at Rockwood Cemetery. Since that time, works in the vicinity of the Town Hall regularly expose remains of graves. Excavation of services in the footpaths along George and Druitt Streets in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries found evidence of graves. Excavation for Town Hall railway station in 1929 exposed coffins and headstones. Several brick tombs were recorded in 1974 when the Town Hall [arcade](/wiki/Arcade_%28architecture%29 \"Arcade (architecture)\") was being excavated.",
"In 1991 works to Town Hall revealed a brick tomb and several graves so the potential for the proposed 2003 works to disturb graves of exceptional significance is considered to be high. Remains from the site have rare research potential for learning more about the health and well\\-being of the early settlers.",
"The Sydney Town Hall is largely intact. Most changes have been layers over the original construction and the stages of construction are evident in the fabric. The function of the place is an essential part of its integrity. It continues to be used for the purpose for which it was designed.",
"There are numerous graves still intact below the existing foundations of Town Hall and within close vicinity of the site.",
"### Modifications and dates",
"There have been few modifications after the completion of the second stage of works associated with the Town Hall building. In 1906 a lift was added and the main stair altered, and the Lord Mayor's private rooms were converted into the Lady Mayoress suite.",
"In 1892 a [porte cochère](/wiki/Porte_coch%C3%A8re \"Porte cochère\") was added to the front of the building. In 1934 the main entrance was remodelled with the demolition of the porte cochère and its replacement with a flight of steps. During WW2 the Lower Town Hall was altered with additional [columns](/wiki/Columns \"Columns\") to strengthen the structure.",
"In the 1970s Town Hall House was added to the rear, earlier offices demolished, a two\\-storey wing added on Druitt Street, which involved the removal of part of the north stair, Sydney Square was formed, earlier fences and gardens removed and pebblecrete paving laid around the building.",
"In 1990 to 1992 a restoration program replaced some [marble](/wiki/Marble \"Marble\") to the front stair and sandstone on the east facade, the vestibule and Main Hall were redecorated, stormwater and sewage systems were upgraded, and a protective roof installed over the Vestibule Dome.",
""
] |
### Condition
[thumb\|Sandstone lion on north side of building](/wiki/File:%281%29Sydney_Town_Hall_025.jpg "(1)Sydney Town Hall 025.jpg")
[alt\=Photograph of two cleaners working on the clock face.\|thumb\|Cleaning the clock face of Sydney Town Hall, George Street Sydney, 1937](/wiki/File:Cleaning_the_clock_face_of_Sydney_Town_Hall%2C_George_Street_Sydney%2C_1937.jpg "Cleaning the clock face of Sydney Town Hall, George Street Sydney, 1937.jpg")
As at 16 May 2003, the building is in excellent condition. As at 2003 maintenance is required to stonework on the north, west and south [facades](/wiki/Facade "Facade").
The site has exceptional archaeological potential because Town Hall is built within the former Old Sydney Burial Ground. The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery and it is estimated that at least 2000 burials were made in the Old Sydney Burial Ground between 1792 and 1820\. The majority of the people who died in Sydney would have been buried there, convict and prominent citizen alike, unless they were buried on their own land. Certain parts of the cemetery were set aside for particular people or groups (i.e. New South Wales Corps' area was near the Druitt and George Street Corner).
After it closed in 1820 the state of the cemetery deteriorated so that in 1845 evidence was given to a committee inquiring into its future that most of the graves were no longer marked and that it would be impossible to find them without clearing the land down to coffins. Notice was given in the Sydney Morning Herald that remains of the interred "so far as they can by reasonable search be discovered" would be reburied at Rockwood Cemetery. Since that time, works in the vicinity of the Town Hall regularly expose remains of graves. Excavation of services in the footpaths along George and Druitt Streets in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries found evidence of graves. Excavation for Town Hall railway station in 1929 exposed coffins and headstones. Several brick tombs were recorded in 1974 when the Town Hall [arcade](/wiki/Arcade_%28architecture%29 "Arcade (architecture)") was being excavated.
In 1991 works to Town Hall revealed a brick tomb and several graves so the potential for the proposed 2003 works to disturb graves of exceptional significance is considered to be high. Remains from the site have rare research potential for learning more about the health and well\-being of the early settlers.
The Sydney Town Hall is largely intact. Most changes have been layers over the original construction and the stages of construction are evident in the fabric. The function of the place is an essential part of its integrity. It continues to be used for the purpose for which it was designed.
There are numerous graves still intact below the existing foundations of Town Hall and within close vicinity of the site.
|
[
"### Condition",
"[thumb\\|Sandstone lion on north side of building](/wiki/File:%281%29Sydney_Town_Hall_025.jpg \"(1)Sydney Town Hall 025.jpg\")\n[alt\\=Photograph of two cleaners working on the clock face.\\|thumb\\|Cleaning the clock face of Sydney Town Hall, George Street Sydney, 1937](/wiki/File:Cleaning_the_clock_face_of_Sydney_Town_Hall%2C_George_Street_Sydney%2C_1937.jpg \"Cleaning the clock face of Sydney Town Hall, George Street Sydney, 1937.jpg\")\nAs at 16 May 2003, the building is in excellent condition. As at 2003 maintenance is required to stonework on the north, west and south [facades](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\").",
"The site has exceptional archaeological potential because Town Hall is built within the former Old Sydney Burial Ground. The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery and it is estimated that at least 2000 burials were made in the Old Sydney Burial Ground between 1792 and 1820\\. The majority of the people who died in Sydney would have been buried there, convict and prominent citizen alike, unless they were buried on their own land. Certain parts of the cemetery were set aside for particular people or groups (i.e. New South Wales Corps' area was near the Druitt and George Street Corner).",
"After it closed in 1820 the state of the cemetery deteriorated so that in 1845 evidence was given to a committee inquiring into its future that most of the graves were no longer marked and that it would be impossible to find them without clearing the land down to coffins. Notice was given in the Sydney Morning Herald that remains of the interred \"so far as they can by reasonable search be discovered\" would be reburied at Rockwood Cemetery. Since that time, works in the vicinity of the Town Hall regularly expose remains of graves. Excavation of services in the footpaths along George and Druitt Streets in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries found evidence of graves. Excavation for Town Hall railway station in 1929 exposed coffins and headstones. Several brick tombs were recorded in 1974 when the Town Hall [arcade](/wiki/Arcade_%28architecture%29 \"Arcade (architecture)\") was being excavated.",
"In 1991 works to Town Hall revealed a brick tomb and several graves so the potential for the proposed 2003 works to disturb graves of exceptional significance is considered to be high. Remains from the site have rare research potential for learning more about the health and well\\-being of the early settlers.",
"The Sydney Town Hall is largely intact. Most changes have been layers over the original construction and the stages of construction are evident in the fabric. The function of the place is an essential part of its integrity. It continues to be used for the purpose for which it was designed.",
"There are numerous graves still intact below the existing foundations of Town Hall and within close vicinity of the site.",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
[thumb\|An early version of the [City of Sydney](/wiki/City_of_Sydney "City of Sydney") [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms "Coat of arms") on the [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico") [façade](/wiki/Fa%C3%A7ade "Façade") of the Town Hall.](/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Sydney_at_Town_Hall.jpg "Coat of arms of Sydney at Town Hall.jpg")
As at 2 June 2009, Sydney Town Hall is significant for its continuing use as the offices of the [Council of the City of Sydney](/wiki/City_of_Sydney "City of Sydney") and as the city's civic and cultural centre. It is the centre of city politics and the place where decisions are made about the city. Major civic events are celebrated here and the hall acts as the venue for major cultural events, benefit concerts and rituals. It has high social value for all sections of the community and is used regularly as the meeting place for political protests and rallies.
The building with its clock tower and steps is a city landmark and symbol of the city, both historically and today. It is the most elaborate and exuberant work of Second Empire Style architecture in Australia featuring corner towers, domed pavilions, pedimented breakfront entries, a hierarchy of decorative orders, columned and pedimented window treatment, venetian windows and elaborate decoration. It exhibits the highest level of craftsmanship, quality of materials and incorporates technological advances. Elaborate interiors exhibit fine design and craftsmanship.
Decorative features of exceptional significance include the vestibule glass dome, the organ, mosaic floors, carved cedar joinery and carved sandstone and marble. It features the first known use of Australian motifs in the etched glass. Exceptional windows by Lucien Henry also feature Australian flora.
The growth of the building reflects the growth and importance of the city. The development of the city coat of arms is also recorded in the building fabric.
The site and surrounding land has high historical and archaeological importance as it represents the location of the former Old Sydney Burial Ground. The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery, set out in September 1792 by Governor Phillip and the Reverend Richard Johnson. It was closed in 1820 when the Sandhills or Brickfield cemetery was opened. Works within Town Hall and its vicinity regularly expose remains of graves.
As an archaeological resource, Old Sydney Burial Ground has high scientific research potential as it contains material culture related to a seminal phase of the nation's history. As a burial ground which includes remains of some of the city's founding pioneers and one of Sydney's oldest European religious and ceremonial sites, the Old Sydney Burial Ground has outstanding social value to the people of Sydney and Australia. The Old Sydney Burial Ground is a site of State heritage significance.
The place is associated with many important people including politicians, designers, artists as well as performers and community figures and names are recorded in the fabric. There are important associated collections of records and of items such as art works which enhance understanding of the place and research and educational value.
Sydney Town Hall was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register "New South Wales State Heritage Register") on 5 March 2010 having satisfied a range of heritage criteria.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"[thumb\\|An early version of the [City of Sydney](/wiki/City_of_Sydney \"City of Sydney\") [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms \"Coat of arms\") on the [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\") [façade](/wiki/Fa%C3%A7ade \"Façade\") of the Town Hall.](/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Sydney_at_Town_Hall.jpg \"Coat of arms of Sydney at Town Hall.jpg\")\nAs at 2 June 2009, Sydney Town Hall is significant for its continuing use as the offices of the [Council of the City of Sydney](/wiki/City_of_Sydney \"City of Sydney\") and as the city's civic and cultural centre. It is the centre of city politics and the place where decisions are made about the city. Major civic events are celebrated here and the hall acts as the venue for major cultural events, benefit concerts and rituals. It has high social value for all sections of the community and is used regularly as the meeting place for political protests and rallies.",
"The building with its clock tower and steps is a city landmark and symbol of the city, both historically and today. It is the most elaborate and exuberant work of Second Empire Style architecture in Australia featuring corner towers, domed pavilions, pedimented breakfront entries, a hierarchy of decorative orders, columned and pedimented window treatment, venetian windows and elaborate decoration. It exhibits the highest level of craftsmanship, quality of materials and incorporates technological advances. Elaborate interiors exhibit fine design and craftsmanship.",
"Decorative features of exceptional significance include the vestibule glass dome, the organ, mosaic floors, carved cedar joinery and carved sandstone and marble. It features the first known use of Australian motifs in the etched glass. Exceptional windows by Lucien Henry also feature Australian flora.",
"The growth of the building reflects the growth and importance of the city. The development of the city coat of arms is also recorded in the building fabric.",
"The site and surrounding land has high historical and archaeological importance as it represents the location of the former Old Sydney Burial Ground. The cemetery was Sydney's first permanent cemetery, set out in September 1792 by Governor Phillip and the Reverend Richard Johnson. It was closed in 1820 when the Sandhills or Brickfield cemetery was opened. Works within Town Hall and its vicinity regularly expose remains of graves.",
"As an archaeological resource, Old Sydney Burial Ground has high scientific research potential as it contains material culture related to a seminal phase of the nation's history. As a burial ground which includes remains of some of the city's founding pioneers and one of Sydney's oldest European religious and ceremonial sites, the Old Sydney Burial Ground has outstanding social value to the people of Sydney and Australia. The Old Sydney Burial Ground is a site of State heritage significance.",
"The place is associated with many important people including politicians, designers, artists as well as performers and community figures and names are recorded in the fabric. There are important associated collections of records and of items such as art works which enhance understanding of the place and research and educational value.",
"Sydney Town Hall was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register \"New South Wales State Heritage Register\") on 5 March 2010 having satisfied a range of heritage criteria.",
""
] |
Treatment
---------
A septal hematoma requires urgent treatment from a physician in order to stop any further complications arising.
Prompt treatment of septal hematomas can prevent complications such as [ischemia](/wiki/Ischemia "Ischemia") of the septal cartilage, which can lead to permanent [necrosis](/wiki/Necrosis "Necrosis") and a [saddle\-nose](/wiki/Saddle_nose "Saddle nose") deformity. Such complication can occur rapidly, within as few as 3 days.
There are two different procedures used to achieve this and will be selected upon the size of the swelling or clot. If the condition is being treated promptly and is still relatively small, then a small incision can be made to allow the blood to flow out. If left untreated, the hematoma can cause bacterial colonization that leads to infection. Within 72 hours, the infection can form a septal abscess.
Treating a septal hematoma requires it to be incised and drained to prevent [avascular](/wiki/Avascular "Avascular") necrosis of the septal hyaline cartilage. This will depend on diffusion of nutrients from its attached nasal mucosa.{{cite book\|last1\=Dhingra\|first1\=P.L\|title\=Diseases Of Ear, Nose And Throat \& Head And Neck Surgery\|publisher\=Elsevier India\|isbn\=978\-8131234310\|date\=2013\-10\-01}}
The septum can generally heal within 1 week, without any evidence of the incision. The mucosa will appear healthy and smooth.
Secondary infections can be prevented by starting the patient on an antibiotic regimen immediately after the procedure and continuing the treatment while the nasal packs are in place. If an [abscess](/wiki/Abscess "Abscess") is present, a specimen of the abscess can be sent for [culture](/wiki/Culture_media "Culture media") to ensure that the antibiotics prescribed have provided adequate coverage. Culture\-directed therapy can help avert dangerous late [sequalae](/wiki/Sequela "Sequela"), including the [intracranial](/wiki/Intracranial "Intracranial") extension of a septal abscess. If the hematoma is not promptly drained, the septal cartilage may be destroyed. In such cases, a [saddle\-nose](/wiki/Saddle_nose "Saddle nose") deformity may develop.
|
[
"Treatment\n---------",
"A septal hematoma requires urgent treatment from a physician in order to stop any further complications arising.",
"Prompt treatment of septal hematomas can prevent complications such as [ischemia](/wiki/Ischemia \"Ischemia\") of the septal cartilage, which can lead to permanent [necrosis](/wiki/Necrosis \"Necrosis\") and a [saddle\\-nose](/wiki/Saddle_nose \"Saddle nose\") deformity. Such complication can occur rapidly, within as few as 3 days.",
"There are two different procedures used to achieve this and will be selected upon the size of the swelling or clot. If the condition is being treated promptly and is still relatively small, then a small incision can be made to allow the blood to flow out. If left untreated, the hematoma can cause bacterial colonization that leads to infection. Within 72 hours, the infection can form a septal abscess.",
"Treating a septal hematoma requires it to be incised and drained to prevent [avascular](/wiki/Avascular \"Avascular\") necrosis of the septal hyaline cartilage. This will depend on diffusion of nutrients from its attached nasal mucosa.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Dhingra\\|first1\\=P.L\\|title\\=Diseases Of Ear, Nose And Throat \\& Head And Neck Surgery\\|publisher\\=Elsevier India\\|isbn\\=978\\-8131234310\\|date\\=2013\\-10\\-01}}",
"The septum can generally heal within 1 week, without any evidence of the incision. The mucosa will appear healthy and smooth.",
"Secondary infections can be prevented by starting the patient on an antibiotic regimen immediately after the procedure and continuing the treatment while the nasal packs are in place. If an [abscess](/wiki/Abscess \"Abscess\") is present, a specimen of the abscess can be sent for [culture](/wiki/Culture_media \"Culture media\") to ensure that the antibiotics prescribed have provided adequate coverage. Culture\\-directed therapy can help avert dangerous late [sequalae](/wiki/Sequela \"Sequela\"), including the [intracranial](/wiki/Intracranial \"Intracranial\") extension of a septal abscess. If the hematoma is not promptly drained, the septal cartilage may be destroyed. In such cases, a [saddle\\-nose](/wiki/Saddle_nose \"Saddle nose\") deformity may develop.",
""
] |
Political satire
----------------
### "Cooking With Clinton"
One of JibJab's first animations "Cooking With Clinton" is about then\-president [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") trying to show the viewers how to bake [weed brownies](/wiki/Weed_brownies "Weed brownies") while being high and repeatedly asking [Hillary](/wiki/Hillary "Hillary") for a glass of water.
{{Citation \|title\=Cooking With Clinton
\|url\=https://youtube.com/watch/HpBVO9vcr\_Y?si\=WUy2tOHjk0wHQ8HX \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-11}}
### "Capitol Ill"
For the [2000 presidential election](/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election "2000 United States presidential election") JibJab released a Flash movie entitled "Capitol Ill" in July 2000, which featured an animated rap battle between [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") and [Al Gore](/wiki/Al_Gore "Al Gore"). [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") and [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") also make appearances. This cartoon aired on *[Mad TV](/wiki/Mad_TV "Mad TV")* on November 4, 2000\.{{Citation \|title\=Gorge Bush and Al Gore Rap Capitol Ill \| date\=5 August 2009 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=hDorkqZUOv0 \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-08}}
### "Ahnuld for Governor"
In 2003, JibJab produced a Flash movie poking fun at [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger "Arnold Schwarzenegger")'s campaign for [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_California "Governor of California") of [California](/wiki/California "California"). It depicts Schwarzenegger giving a campaign speech.{{Citation \|title\=JibJab.com \- Ahnuld for Governor \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=TaIWM2ruyK4 \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-08}}
### "This Land"
For the [2004 United States presidential election](/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election "2004 United States presidential election"), JibJab created a Flash movie entitled "This Land", released on July 9, 2004, which featured animated versions of [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") and [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry "John Kerry"){{cite web\|date\=November 16, 2011\|title\=The Complete Lyrics of JibJab's "This Land" Parody / Travis' Column: Hot Off the Presses\|url\=http://www.hopstudios.com/nep/column/jibjab\_this\_land\_lyrics.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502004907/http://www.hopstudios.com/nep/column/jibjab\_this\_land\_lyrics.html\|archive\-date\=May 2, 2009\|access\-date\=May 2, 2012\|publisher\=Hopstudios.com\|df\=mdy\-all}}{{cite web\|date\=July 9, 2004\|title\=This Land \| Funny Video Animation by JibJab\|url\=http://sendables.jibjab.com/originals/this\_land\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204201652/http://sendables.jibjab.com/originals/this\_land\|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-04\|access\-date\=2011\-03\-27\|website\=JibJab\|publisher\=Sendables.jibjab.com}} \- voiced by comedian [Jim Meskimen](/wiki/Jim_Meskimen "Jim Meskimen") \- singing a [parody](/wiki/Parody "Parody") of [Woody Guthrie](/wiki/Woody_Guthrie "Woody Guthrie")'s song "[This Land Is Your Land](/wiki/This_Land_Is_Your_Land "This Land Is Your Land")".
The video was an instant success, eventually being viewed all over the world, as well as the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station "International Space Station").{{cite web \|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/PersonOfWeek/story?id\=369362\&page\=1 \|title\=People of the Year: Spiridellis Brothers\| date\=7 January 2006 \|website\=ABC News}} The traffic surge forced JibJab's server to be shut down after one day, and the clip was placed on [AtomFilms](/wiki/AtomFilms "AtomFilms"), where it got more than 1 million hits in 24 hours.{{cite web\| url\=https://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/technology/maney/2004\-07\-27\-jibjab\_x.htm \|title\=USATODAY.com \- This Net was made for you and me and the rest of the world \|website\=www.usatoday.com}}
After being linked to on thousands of websites, the video was featured several times in the printed media and on television, including *[NBC Nightly News](/wiki/NBC_Nightly_News "NBC Nightly News")*, [Fox News](/wiki/Fox_News "Fox News") and *[ABC World News Tonight](/wiki/ABC_World_News_Tonight "ABC World News Tonight")*. On July 26, 2004, the creators appeared on *[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_with_Jay_Leno "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno")*. In December 2004, the Spiridellis brothers were named People of the Year by [Peter Jennings](/wiki/Peter_Jennings "Peter Jennings").
[The Richmond Organization](/wiki/Howie_Richmond "Howie Richmond"), a music publisher that owns the copyright to Guthrie's tune through its Ludlow Music Unit, threatened legal action.Wired News (August 8, 2004\)<https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2004/08/64428> CNN Money (July 26, 2004\) <https://money.cnn.com/2004/07/26/commentary/wastler/wastler/>{{Cite web \|date\=2011\-07\-01 \|title\=JibJab Media v. Ludlow Music ("This Land"Parody) \|url\=https://www.eff.org/cases/jibjab\-media\-inc\-v\-ludlow\-music\-inc \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-04 \|website\=Electronic Frontier Foundation \|language\=en}} JibJab responded with a lawsuit in a California federal court, claiming the song was protected under a [fair use](/wiki/Fair_use "Fair use") exemption for parodies. JibJab and Ludlow Music reached a settlement after JibJab's attorneys unearthed evidence that the song had passed into the [public domain](/wiki/Public_domain "Public domain") in 1973\. The terms of the settlement allowed for the continued distribution of *This Land*.{{cite web\|url\=http://news.cnet.com/JibJab\-beats\-copyright\-rap/2100\-1026\_3\-5322970\.html\|title\=JibJab beats copyright rap}}
### "Good to Be in DC"
In October 2004, JibJab followed up with another original animation, "Good to Be in DC," set to the tune of [Dan Emmett](/wiki/Dan_Emmett "Dan Emmett")'s "[Dixie](/wiki/Dixie_%28song%29 "Dixie (song)")". In this video, animated versions of George W. Bush, [Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney "Dick Cheney"), John Kerry, and [John Edwards](/wiki/John_Edwards "John Edwards") sing about their hopes for the upcoming election.
### "Second Term"
Immediately after George W. Bush's election victory, JibJab released a third video, "Second Term." Set to the tune of "[She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain](/wiki/She%27ll_Be_Coming_%27Round_the_Mountain "She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain")", an animated Bush gloats over his successful bid for a second term as president, and his plans for it, based on his campaign promises.
### "Time for Some Campaignin'"
For the [2008 presidential election](/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election "2008 United States presidential election"), JibJab released another election\-themed animation, "Time for Some Campaignin'" in July of that year. Set to the tune of [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan")'s "[The Times They Are a\-Changin](/wiki/The_Times_They_Are_a-Changin%27_%28song%29 "The Times They Are a-Changin' (song)")", animated versions of [Bill](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") and [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"), [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain"), [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") sing of their presidential hopes, as George W. Bush and Dick Cheney Bid Farewell to the White House. This video was the first instance where viewers had the option of using Jibjab's [e\-card](/wiki/E-cards "E-cards") website to insert their own face as that of a harassed voter.
### "He's Barack Obama"
Upon [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") becoming president, JibJab released "He's Barack Obama", where they portrayed Obama as a superhero. The music becomes a heavy metal interpretation of "[When Johnny Comes Marching Home](/wiki/When_Johnny_Comes_Marching_Home "When Johnny Comes Marching Home")", as Obama promises he will fix the Middle East, defeat the Taliban, fix the schools, fight a giant space robot, wrestle a bear, fix the deficit and more. This one is notable for having been viewed by
Obama himself. Stated on the description of its YouTube video: "A Over\-the\-Top Satire That Debuted In front of the President Himself this Friday At the Radio and Television Correspondents Dinner!"[https://www.politico.com/story/2009/06/video\-jibjab\-obama\-saves\-the\-day\-023956](https://www.politico.com/story/2009/06/video-jibjab-obama-saves-the-day-023956) {{Bare URL inline\|date\=August 2024}}
### 2012 election
For the [2012 United States presidential election](/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election "2012 United States presidential election"), JibJab did not make an election video and instead began to focus their efforts on their e\-card business. However, an election web app was released in late October of 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jibjab.com/politicsplus\|title\=JibJab\|website\=www.jibjab.com}}
|
[
"Political satire\n----------------",
"### \"Cooking With Clinton\"",
"One of JibJab's first animations \"Cooking With Clinton\" is about then\\-president [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") trying to show the viewers how to bake [weed brownies](/wiki/Weed_brownies \"Weed brownies\") while being high and repeatedly asking [Hillary](/wiki/Hillary \"Hillary\") for a glass of water.\n{{Citation \\|title\\=Cooking With Clinton\n\\|url\\=https://youtube.com/watch/HpBVO9vcr\\_Y?si\\=WUy2tOHjk0wHQ8HX \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-11}}",
"### \"Capitol Ill\"",
"For the [2000 presidential election](/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election \"2000 United States presidential election\") JibJab released a Flash movie entitled \"Capitol Ill\" in July 2000, which featured an animated rap battle between [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") and [Al Gore](/wiki/Al_Gore \"Al Gore\"). [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") and [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") also make appearances. This cartoon aired on *[Mad TV](/wiki/Mad_TV \"Mad TV\")* on November 4, 2000\\.{{Citation \\|title\\=Gorge Bush and Al Gore Rap Capitol Ill \\| date\\=5 August 2009 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=hDorkqZUOv0 \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-08}}",
"### \"Ahnuld for Governor\"",
"In 2003, JibJab produced a Flash movie poking fun at [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger \"Arnold Schwarzenegger\")'s campaign for [Governor](/wiki/Governor_of_California \"Governor of California\") of [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). It depicts Schwarzenegger giving a campaign speech.{{Citation \\|title\\=JibJab.com \\- Ahnuld for Governor \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=TaIWM2ruyK4 \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-08}}",
"### \"This Land\"",
"For the [2004 United States presidential election](/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election \"2004 United States presidential election\"), JibJab created a Flash movie entitled \"This Land\", released on July 9, 2004, which featured animated versions of [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") and [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry \"John Kerry\"){{cite web\\|date\\=November 16, 2011\\|title\\=The Complete Lyrics of JibJab's \"This Land\" Parody / Travis' Column: Hot Off the Presses\\|url\\=http://www.hopstudios.com/nep/column/jibjab\\_this\\_land\\_lyrics.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502004907/http://www.hopstudios.com/nep/column/jibjab\\_this\\_land\\_lyrics.html\\|archive\\-date\\=May 2, 2009\\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2012\\|publisher\\=Hopstudios.com\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}{{cite web\\|date\\=July 9, 2004\\|title\\=This Land \\| Funny Video Animation by JibJab\\|url\\=http://sendables.jibjab.com/originals/this\\_land\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204201652/http://sendables.jibjab.com/originals/this\\_land\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-03\\-27\\|website\\=JibJab\\|publisher\\=Sendables.jibjab.com}} \\- voiced by comedian [Jim Meskimen](/wiki/Jim_Meskimen \"Jim Meskimen\") \\- singing a [parody](/wiki/Parody \"Parody\") of [Woody Guthrie](/wiki/Woody_Guthrie \"Woody Guthrie\")'s song \"[This Land Is Your Land](/wiki/This_Land_Is_Your_Land \"This Land Is Your Land\")\".",
"The video was an instant success, eventually being viewed all over the world, as well as the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/PersonOfWeek/story?id\\=369362\\&page\\=1 \\|title\\=People of the Year: Spiridellis Brothers\\| date\\=7 January 2006 \\|website\\=ABC News}} The traffic surge forced JibJab's server to be shut down after one day, and the clip was placed on [AtomFilms](/wiki/AtomFilms \"AtomFilms\"), where it got more than 1 million hits in 24 hours.{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/technology/maney/2004\\-07\\-27\\-jibjab\\_x.htm \\|title\\=USATODAY.com \\- This Net was made for you and me and the rest of the world \\|website\\=www.usatoday.com}}",
"After being linked to on thousands of websites, the video was featured several times in the printed media and on television, including *[NBC Nightly News](/wiki/NBC_Nightly_News \"NBC Nightly News\")*, [Fox News](/wiki/Fox_News \"Fox News\") and *[ABC World News Tonight](/wiki/ABC_World_News_Tonight \"ABC World News Tonight\")*. On July 26, 2004, the creators appeared on *[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_with_Jay_Leno \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\")*. In December 2004, the Spiridellis brothers were named People of the Year by [Peter Jennings](/wiki/Peter_Jennings \"Peter Jennings\").",
"[The Richmond Organization](/wiki/Howie_Richmond \"Howie Richmond\"), a music publisher that owns the copyright to Guthrie's tune through its Ludlow Music Unit, threatened legal action.Wired News (August 8, 2004\\)<https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2004/08/64428> CNN Money (July 26, 2004\\) <https://money.cnn.com/2004/07/26/commentary/wastler/wastler/>{{Cite web \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-01 \\|title\\=JibJab Media v. Ludlow Music (\"This Land\"Parody) \\|url\\=https://www.eff.org/cases/jibjab\\-media\\-inc\\-v\\-ludlow\\-music\\-inc \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-04 \\|website\\=Electronic Frontier Foundation \\|language\\=en}} JibJab responded with a lawsuit in a California federal court, claiming the song was protected under a [fair use](/wiki/Fair_use \"Fair use\") exemption for parodies. JibJab and Ludlow Music reached a settlement after JibJab's attorneys unearthed evidence that the song had passed into the [public domain](/wiki/Public_domain \"Public domain\") in 1973\\. The terms of the settlement allowed for the continued distribution of *This Land*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.cnet.com/JibJab\\-beats\\-copyright\\-rap/2100\\-1026\\_3\\-5322970\\.html\\|title\\=JibJab beats copyright rap}}",
"### \"Good to Be in DC\"",
"In October 2004, JibJab followed up with another original animation, \"Good to Be in DC,\" set to the tune of [Dan Emmett](/wiki/Dan_Emmett \"Dan Emmett\")'s \"[Dixie](/wiki/Dixie_%28song%29 \"Dixie (song)\")\". In this video, animated versions of George W. Bush, [Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney \"Dick Cheney\"), John Kerry, and [John Edwards](/wiki/John_Edwards \"John Edwards\") sing about their hopes for the upcoming election.",
"### \"Second Term\"",
"Immediately after George W. Bush's election victory, JibJab released a third video, \"Second Term.\" Set to the tune of \"[She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain](/wiki/She%27ll_Be_Coming_%27Round_the_Mountain \"She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain\")\", an animated Bush gloats over his successful bid for a second term as president, and his plans for it, based on his campaign promises.",
"### \"Time for Some Campaignin'\"",
"For the [2008 presidential election](/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election \"2008 United States presidential election\"), JibJab released another election\\-themed animation, \"Time for Some Campaignin'\" in July of that year. Set to the tune of [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\")'s \"[The Times They Are a\\-Changin](/wiki/The_Times_They_Are_a-Changin%27_%28song%29 \"The Times They Are a-Changin' (song)\")\", animated versions of [Bill](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") and [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"), [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\"), [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") sing of their presidential hopes, as George W. Bush and Dick Cheney Bid Farewell to the White House. This video was the first instance where viewers had the option of using Jibjab's [e\\-card](/wiki/E-cards \"E-cards\") website to insert their own face as that of a harassed voter.",
"### \"He's Barack Obama\"",
"Upon [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") becoming president, JibJab released \"He's Barack Obama\", where they portrayed Obama as a superhero. The music becomes a heavy metal interpretation of \"[When Johnny Comes Marching Home](/wiki/When_Johnny_Comes_Marching_Home \"When Johnny Comes Marching Home\")\", as Obama promises he will fix the Middle East, defeat the Taliban, fix the schools, fight a giant space robot, wrestle a bear, fix the deficit and more. This one is notable for having been viewed by \nObama himself. Stated on the description of its YouTube video: \"A Over\\-the\\-Top Satire That Debuted In front of the President Himself this Friday At the Radio and Television Correspondents Dinner!\"[https://www.politico.com/story/2009/06/video\\-jibjab\\-obama\\-saves\\-the\\-day\\-023956](https://www.politico.com/story/2009/06/video-jibjab-obama-saves-the-day-023956) {{Bare URL inline\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"### 2012 election",
"For the [2012 United States presidential election](/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election \"2012 United States presidential election\"), JibJab did not make an election video and instead began to focus their efforts on their e\\-card business. However, an election web app was released in late October of 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jibjab.com/politicsplus\\|title\\=JibJab\\|website\\=www.jibjab.com}}",
""
] |
Early life and Congress
-----------------------
Blanton was born near [Adamsville, Tennessee](/wiki/Adamsville%2C_Tennessee "Adamsville, Tennessee"), in the community of New Hope, the son of Leonard and Ova (Delaney) Blanton. He was raised in an impoverished [sharecropping](/wiki/Sharecropping "Sharecropping") family with road\-building interests. While working with his family's road company, he occasionally got into fights at bars in [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee "Tennessee") and [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi "Mississippi"), and was once grazed in the neck by a stray bullet. Blanton graduated from Shiloh High School in 1948, and obtained a bachelor's degree in agriculture from the [University of Tennessee](/wiki/University_of_Tennessee "University of Tennessee") in 1951\.[Finding Aid for Governor (Leonard) Ray Blanton Papers](http://www.tn.gov/tsla/history/govpapers/findingaids/gp52.pdf), Tennessee State Library and Archives, 1992\. Retrieved: December 31, 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index\=B000548\|title\=BLANTON, Leonard Ray \- Biographical Information\|website\=bioguide.congress.gov\|access\-date\=October 24, 2018}} He taught school in [Mooresville, Indiana](/wiki/Mooresville%2C_Indiana "Mooresville, Indiana"), from 1951 to 1953, when he returned to Adamsville to work in the family construction business, B\&B Construction.
In 1964, Blanton was elected to the [Tennessee House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives "Tennessee House of Representatives"), representing [McNairy County](/wiki/McNairy_County%2C_Tennessee "McNairy County, Tennessee"). He often sat in the back of the House chamber wearing sunglasses during House proceedings.
In 1966, Blanton ran for [Congress](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives"), challenging 12\-term incumbent and former [Crump machine](/wiki/E._H._Crump "E. H. Crump") ally [Tom J. Murray](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Murray "Thomas Jefferson Murray") in the Democratic primary for [Tennessee's 7th congressional district](/wiki/Tennessee%27s_7th_congressional_district "Tennessee's 7th congressional district"), which was based in [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Tennessee "Jackson, Tennessee") and included Adamsville. In a major upset, Blanton edged Murray for the nomination, winning by just 384 votes out of the nearly 70,000 votes cast.[Our Campaigns \- TN District 7, Democratic primary](http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=418862). *Our Campaigns*. Retrieved: January 1, 2013\. He went on to win the general election, and was twice reelected.
As a congressman, Blanton had relatively poor attendance, sponsored few bills of significance, and served on just two committees: the [Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Energy_and_Commerce "United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce"), and the District of Columbia committee. He instead focused on his constituents, namely by trying to acquire funding for projects in Tennessee, including the state's first [Head Start Program](/wiki/Head_Start_Program "Head Start Program"). He spent a great deal of time at his district office responding to voter concerns, and frequently spoke to groups of students.[Finding Aid for Ray Blanton Congressional Papers](http://www.tn.gov/tsla/history/manuscripts/findingaids/95-098.pdf), Tennessee State Library and Archives, 2003\. Retrieved: January 1, 2013\. Blanton criticized the [anti\-war movement](/wiki/Opposition_to_the_U.S._involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War "Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War"), voted against extending the [Voting Rights Act](/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act "Voting Rights Act"), and opposed lowering the voting age to 18\.Phillip Langsdon, *Tennessee: A Political History* (Franklin, Tenn.: Hillsboro Press, 2000\), pp. 375\-387\.
Tennessee lost a congressional district after the 1970 census, and the legislature merged most of Blanton's territory with the neighboring 8th District of popular fellow Democrat, [Ed Jones](/wiki/Ed_Jones_%28Tennessee_politician%29 "Ed Jones (Tennessee politician)"). The merged district retained Blanton's district number, but was geographically more Jones' district. Rather than run against Jones in 1972, Blanton decided to run for the [U.S. Senate](/wiki/U.S._Senate "U.S. Senate"). He easily won the Democratic primary, and faced the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") incumbent, [Howard Baker](/wiki/Howard_Baker "Howard Baker"), in the [general election](/wiki/1972_United_States_Senate_election_in_Tennessee "1972 United States Senate election in Tennessee"). Unlike Blanton, Baker had supported the Voting Rights Act and the lowering of the voting age, helping him make inroads among two key constituencies, black voters and young voters. Baker also tied Blanton to the more liberal Democratic presidential candidate, [George McGovern](/wiki/George_McGovern "George McGovern"). On election day, Baker won in a landslide, 716,534 votes to 440,599\.
|
[
"Early life and Congress\n-----------------------",
"Blanton was born near [Adamsville, Tennessee](/wiki/Adamsville%2C_Tennessee \"Adamsville, Tennessee\"), in the community of New Hope, the son of Leonard and Ova (Delaney) Blanton. He was raised in an impoverished [sharecropping](/wiki/Sharecropping \"Sharecropping\") family with road\\-building interests. While working with his family's road company, he occasionally got into fights at bars in [Tennessee](/wiki/Tennessee \"Tennessee\") and [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi \"Mississippi\"), and was once grazed in the neck by a stray bullet. Blanton graduated from Shiloh High School in 1948, and obtained a bachelor's degree in agriculture from the [University of Tennessee](/wiki/University_of_Tennessee \"University of Tennessee\") in 1951\\.[Finding Aid for Governor (Leonard) Ray Blanton Papers](http://www.tn.gov/tsla/history/govpapers/findingaids/gp52.pdf), Tennessee State Library and Archives, 1992\\. Retrieved: December 31, 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index\\=B000548\\|title\\=BLANTON, Leonard Ray \\- Biographical Information\\|website\\=bioguide.congress.gov\\|access\\-date\\=October 24, 2018}} He taught school in [Mooresville, Indiana](/wiki/Mooresville%2C_Indiana \"Mooresville, Indiana\"), from 1951 to 1953, when he returned to Adamsville to work in the family construction business, B\\&B Construction.",
"In 1964, Blanton was elected to the [Tennessee House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives \"Tennessee House of Representatives\"), representing [McNairy County](/wiki/McNairy_County%2C_Tennessee \"McNairy County, Tennessee\"). He often sat in the back of the House chamber wearing sunglasses during House proceedings.",
"In 1966, Blanton ran for [Congress](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\"), challenging 12\\-term incumbent and former [Crump machine](/wiki/E._H._Crump \"E. H. Crump\") ally [Tom J. Murray](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Murray \"Thomas Jefferson Murray\") in the Democratic primary for [Tennessee's 7th congressional district](/wiki/Tennessee%27s_7th_congressional_district \"Tennessee's 7th congressional district\"), which was based in [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Tennessee \"Jackson, Tennessee\") and included Adamsville. In a major upset, Blanton edged Murray for the nomination, winning by just 384 votes out of the nearly 70,000 votes cast.[Our Campaigns \\- TN District 7, Democratic primary](http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=418862). *Our Campaigns*. Retrieved: January 1, 2013\\. He went on to win the general election, and was twice reelected.",
"As a congressman, Blanton had relatively poor attendance, sponsored few bills of significance, and served on just two committees: the [Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Energy_and_Commerce \"United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce\"), and the District of Columbia committee. He instead focused on his constituents, namely by trying to acquire funding for projects in Tennessee, including the state's first [Head Start Program](/wiki/Head_Start_Program \"Head Start Program\"). He spent a great deal of time at his district office responding to voter concerns, and frequently spoke to groups of students.[Finding Aid for Ray Blanton Congressional Papers](http://www.tn.gov/tsla/history/manuscripts/findingaids/95-098.pdf), Tennessee State Library and Archives, 2003\\. Retrieved: January 1, 2013\\. Blanton criticized the [anti\\-war movement](/wiki/Opposition_to_the_U.S._involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War \"Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War\"), voted against extending the [Voting Rights Act](/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act \"Voting Rights Act\"), and opposed lowering the voting age to 18\\.Phillip Langsdon, *Tennessee: A Political History* (Franklin, Tenn.: Hillsboro Press, 2000\\), pp. 375\\-387\\.",
"Tennessee lost a congressional district after the 1970 census, and the legislature merged most of Blanton's territory with the neighboring 8th District of popular fellow Democrat, [Ed Jones](/wiki/Ed_Jones_%28Tennessee_politician%29 \"Ed Jones (Tennessee politician)\"). The merged district retained Blanton's district number, but was geographically more Jones' district. Rather than run against Jones in 1972, Blanton decided to run for the [U.S. Senate](/wiki/U.S._Senate \"U.S. Senate\"). He easily won the Democratic primary, and faced the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") incumbent, [Howard Baker](/wiki/Howard_Baker \"Howard Baker\"), in the [general election](/wiki/1972_United_States_Senate_election_in_Tennessee \"1972 United States Senate election in Tennessee\"). Unlike Blanton, Baker had supported the Voting Rights Act and the lowering of the voting age, helping him make inroads among two key constituencies, black voters and young voters. Baker also tied Blanton to the more liberal Democratic presidential candidate, [George McGovern](/wiki/George_McGovern \"George McGovern\"). On election day, Baker won in a landslide, 716,534 votes to 440,599\\.",
""
] |
Scandals
--------
Blanton's administration was frequently accused of extravagant spending. He accepted a controversial $20,000 pay raise, and often took friends on trips at state expense. He and his aides charged $21,000 to state accounts for bar tabs, limousine rentals, and personal phone calls, though they eventually paid the money back. Blanton was criticized for setting up a large network of county [patronage](/wiki/Patronage "Patronage") officials, stating they were his political advisers.
His family's company was awarded a paving contract at a state park, even though Blanton had assured the company would not do business with the state during his governorship.
In 1977, the "surplus car scandal" erupted when state officials were accused of selling surplus state\-owned cars to political allies. Charles Bell, Commissioner of General Services, resigned, and Sonny McCarter, director of the state's Surplus Property Division, pleaded guilty to two counts of [embezzlement](/wiki/Embezzlement "Embezzlement"). Transportation Commissioner Eddie Shaw was indicted for his role in the scandal, but was acquitted.
### Pardons and liquor licenses scandals
In 1977, Blanton fired [Marie Ragghianti](/wiki/Marie_Ragghianti "Marie Ragghianti"), chairwoman of the state's [Board of Pardons and Paroles](/wiki/Tennessee_Board_of_Pardons_and_Paroles "Tennessee Board of Pardons and Paroles"), when she refused to release prisoners who, as was later determined, had bribed state officials in exchange for obtaining pardons (Ragghianti later sued and won a $38,000 judgment against the state). On December 15, 1978, the [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") raided the [state capitol](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Capitol "Tennessee State Capitol"), and seized documents from the office of Blanton's legal advisor, T. Edward Sisk. Sisk and two others were arrested, and Blanton appeared before a federal grand jury on December 23, where he denied any wrongdoing.
On January 15, 1979, near the end of his term, Blanton issued pardons to 52 state prisoners,{{cite news\|title\=Blanton Demands Convict's Release\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/1941773/blanton\_demands\_convicts\_release/\|work\=Indiana Evening Gazette\|date\=January 23, 1979\|page\=10}} including 20 convicted murderers. Among those pardoned was Roger Humphreys, the son of a Blanton supporter, who had been convicted of killing his ex\-wife and a male companion in 1973\. As Blanton signed Humphreys' pardon, he stated, "this takes guts." The [Secretary of State](/wiki/Tennessee_Secretary_of_State "Tennessee Secretary of State"), [Gentry Crowell](/wiki/Gentry_Crowell "Gentry Crowell"), who was disgusted with the pardons, replied, "some people have more guts than brains."Bill Rose, ["The 'Hillbilly Nixon'"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19790123&id=qcEwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=3VgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6562,1750111), *St. Petersburg Evening Independent*, January 23, 1979\. Retrieved: January 2, 2013\.
While Blanton stated the pardons were to comply with a court order to reduce the state's prison population, the FBI and members of both parties grew concerned that the pardons were related to the alleged scandal then under investigation. After U.S. Attorney Hal Hardin (a friend of Blanton) tipped off state leaders that Blanton was planning more pardons, [Lieutenant Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Tennessee "Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee") (and Senate Speaker) [John S. Wilder](/wiki/John_S._Wilder "John S. Wilder") and State House [Speaker](/wiki/Speaker_%28politics%29 "Speaker (politics)") [Ned McWherter](/wiki/Ned_McWherter "Ned McWherter") searched for a way to prevent further damage to the state's reputation. They found it in the state constitution, which is somewhat vague on when a newly elected governor must be sworn in. It was eventually decided to swear in Lamar Alexander, who had won the 1978 gubernatorial election, three days before the traditional inauguration day. Wilder later referred to Blanton's ouster as "[impeachment](/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States "Federal impeachment in the United States") Tennessee\-style".Whitehouse, Ken. [Former Lt. Gov. John Wilder passes away at 88](http://nashvillecitypaper.com/content/city-news/former-lt-gov-john-wilder-passes-away-88). *[Nashville City Paper](/wiki/Nashville_City_Paper "Nashville City Paper")*, January 1, 2010\.
Although never formally charged in the pardons matter, Blanton was eventually indicted on charges of [mail fraud](/wiki/Mail_fraud "Mail fraud"), conspiracy, and extortion for selling [liquor](/wiki/Liquor "Liquor") licenses. He was convicted and sentenced to federal prison. Released on July 18, 1986,<https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/> Federal Bureau of Prisons Inmate Locator, Leonard Ray Blanton, Register Number: 09362\-075 after serving 22 months, he returned to Tennessee. Although a panel of the [Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals](/wiki/Sixth_Circuit_Court_of_Appeals "Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals") initially reversed the convictions because of the way in which the district court conducted the *[voir dire](/wiki/Voir_dire "Voir dire")*,United States v. Blanton, 700 F.2d 298 (6th Cir. 1983\) that decision was vacated by the court's decision to re\-hear the case *en banc*. The full Sixth Circuit Court affirmed Blanton's convictions, and the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") denied review.United States v. Blanton, 719 F.2d 815 (6th Cir. 1983\), cert. denied, 465 U.S. 1099 (1984\). In January 1988, 9 of the 11 charges were thrown out in a separate appeal.
In June 2021, Tennessee officials linked the 1979 murder of [Chattanooga](/wiki/Chattanooga "Chattanooga") businessman Samuel Pettyjohn, who was working with the FBI, to the Blanton administration.{{Cite news\|title\=Cracked cold case links corrupt ex\-governor to the murder of a witness who 'knew too much,' officials say\|language\=en\-US\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2021/06/10/tennessee\-ray\-blanton\-samuel\-pettyjohn\-murder/\|access\-date\=June 11, 2021\|issn\=0190\-8286}}
|
[
"Scandals\n--------",
"Blanton's administration was frequently accused of extravagant spending. He accepted a controversial $20,000 pay raise, and often took friends on trips at state expense. He and his aides charged $21,000 to state accounts for bar tabs, limousine rentals, and personal phone calls, though they eventually paid the money back. Blanton was criticized for setting up a large network of county [patronage](/wiki/Patronage \"Patronage\") officials, stating they were his political advisers.",
"His family's company was awarded a paving contract at a state park, even though Blanton had assured the company would not do business with the state during his governorship.",
"In 1977, the \"surplus car scandal\" erupted when state officials were accused of selling surplus state\\-owned cars to political allies. Charles Bell, Commissioner of General Services, resigned, and Sonny McCarter, director of the state's Surplus Property Division, pleaded guilty to two counts of [embezzlement](/wiki/Embezzlement \"Embezzlement\"). Transportation Commissioner Eddie Shaw was indicted for his role in the scandal, but was acquitted.",
"### Pardons and liquor licenses scandals",
"In 1977, Blanton fired [Marie Ragghianti](/wiki/Marie_Ragghianti \"Marie Ragghianti\"), chairwoman of the state's [Board of Pardons and Paroles](/wiki/Tennessee_Board_of_Pardons_and_Paroles \"Tennessee Board of Pardons and Paroles\"), when she refused to release prisoners who, as was later determined, had bribed state officials in exchange for obtaining pardons (Ragghianti later sued and won a $38,000 judgment against the state). On December 15, 1978, the [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") raided the [state capitol](/wiki/Tennessee_State_Capitol \"Tennessee State Capitol\"), and seized documents from the office of Blanton's legal advisor, T. Edward Sisk. Sisk and two others were arrested, and Blanton appeared before a federal grand jury on December 23, where he denied any wrongdoing.",
"On January 15, 1979, near the end of his term, Blanton issued pardons to 52 state prisoners,{{cite news\\|title\\=Blanton Demands Convict's Release\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/1941773/blanton\\_demands\\_convicts\\_release/\\|work\\=Indiana Evening Gazette\\|date\\=January 23, 1979\\|page\\=10}} including 20 convicted murderers. Among those pardoned was Roger Humphreys, the son of a Blanton supporter, who had been convicted of killing his ex\\-wife and a male companion in 1973\\. As Blanton signed Humphreys' pardon, he stated, \"this takes guts.\" The [Secretary of State](/wiki/Tennessee_Secretary_of_State \"Tennessee Secretary of State\"), [Gentry Crowell](/wiki/Gentry_Crowell \"Gentry Crowell\"), who was disgusted with the pardons, replied, \"some people have more guts than brains.\"Bill Rose, [\"The 'Hillbilly Nixon'\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19790123&id=qcEwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=3VgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6562,1750111), *St. Petersburg Evening Independent*, January 23, 1979\\. Retrieved: January 2, 2013\\.",
"While Blanton stated the pardons were to comply with a court order to reduce the state's prison population, the FBI and members of both parties grew concerned that the pardons were related to the alleged scandal then under investigation. After U.S. Attorney Hal Hardin (a friend of Blanton) tipped off state leaders that Blanton was planning more pardons, [Lieutenant Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Tennessee \"Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee\") (and Senate Speaker) [John S. Wilder](/wiki/John_S._Wilder \"John S. Wilder\") and State House [Speaker](/wiki/Speaker_%28politics%29 \"Speaker (politics)\") [Ned McWherter](/wiki/Ned_McWherter \"Ned McWherter\") searched for a way to prevent further damage to the state's reputation. They found it in the state constitution, which is somewhat vague on when a newly elected governor must be sworn in. It was eventually decided to swear in Lamar Alexander, who had won the 1978 gubernatorial election, three days before the traditional inauguration day. Wilder later referred to Blanton's ouster as \"[impeachment](/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States \"Federal impeachment in the United States\") Tennessee\\-style\".Whitehouse, Ken. [Former Lt. Gov. John Wilder passes away at 88](http://nashvillecitypaper.com/content/city-news/former-lt-gov-john-wilder-passes-away-88). *[Nashville City Paper](/wiki/Nashville_City_Paper \"Nashville City Paper\")*, January 1, 2010\\.",
"Although never formally charged in the pardons matter, Blanton was eventually indicted on charges of [mail fraud](/wiki/Mail_fraud \"Mail fraud\"), conspiracy, and extortion for selling [liquor](/wiki/Liquor \"Liquor\") licenses. He was convicted and sentenced to federal prison. Released on July 18, 1986,<https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/> Federal Bureau of Prisons Inmate Locator, Leonard Ray Blanton, Register Number: 09362\\-075 after serving 22 months, he returned to Tennessee. Although a panel of the [Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals](/wiki/Sixth_Circuit_Court_of_Appeals \"Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals\") initially reversed the convictions because of the way in which the district court conducted the *[voir dire](/wiki/Voir_dire \"Voir dire\")*,United States v. Blanton, 700 F.2d 298 (6th Cir. 1983\\) that decision was vacated by the court's decision to re\\-hear the case *en banc*. The full Sixth Circuit Court affirmed Blanton's convictions, and the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") denied review.United States v. Blanton, 719 F.2d 815 (6th Cir. 1983\\), cert. denied, 465 U.S. 1099 (1984\\). In January 1988, 9 of the 11 charges were thrown out in a separate appeal.",
"In June 2021, Tennessee officials linked the 1979 murder of [Chattanooga](/wiki/Chattanooga \"Chattanooga\") businessman Samuel Pettyjohn, who was working with the FBI, to the Blanton administration.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Cracked cold case links corrupt ex\\-governor to the murder of a witness who 'knew too much,' officials say\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2021/06/10/tennessee\\-ray\\-blanton\\-samuel\\-pettyjohn\\-murder/\\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2021\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}}",
""
] |
Disbanding
----------
Shortly before the album's release in June, the band announced they were to "stop touring and effectively end the group for the foreseeable future", with a live album and a b\-sides and rarities collection to follow.
In December 2005 a new "unofficial" studio album – *[Club Sandwich at the Peveril Hotel](/wiki/Club_Sandwich_at_the_Peveril_Hotel "Club Sandwich at the Peveril Hotel")* – was released on the band's web site on 16 January 2006, with a limited number of copies making their way into stores in March. Although there was mention (and even scheduling) of a series of live gigs for early 2006, these shows were eventually cancelled.
In August 2006 the band made a surprise appearance playing at the Social in Nottingham with a new line\-up featuring past collaborators Tony Doggen Foster and Ady Fletcher with Ian Bissett newly recruited on the drums.
In September 2006 a collection of rarities, live tracks and demo recordings was made available via the bands' website.
On 12 December 2006 the band played another gig at the Social in Nottingham. Once again this featured the lineup of Chris Olley, James Flower, Doggen, Ady Fletcher and Ian Bissett.
|
[
"Disbanding\n----------",
"Shortly before the album's release in June, the band announced they were to \"stop touring and effectively end the group for the foreseeable future\", with a live album and a b\\-sides and rarities collection to follow.",
"In December 2005 a new \"unofficial\" studio album – *[Club Sandwich at the Peveril Hotel](/wiki/Club_Sandwich_at_the_Peveril_Hotel \"Club Sandwich at the Peveril Hotel\")* – was released on the band's web site on 16 January 2006, with a limited number of copies making their way into stores in March. Although there was mention (and even scheduling) of a series of live gigs for early 2006, these shows were eventually cancelled.",
"In August 2006 the band made a surprise appearance playing at the Social in Nottingham with a new line\\-up featuring past collaborators Tony Doggen Foster and Ady Fletcher with Ian Bissett newly recruited on the drums.",
"In September 2006 a collection of rarities, live tracks and demo recordings was made available via the bands' website.",
"On 12 December 2006 the band played another gig at the Social in Nottingham. Once again this featured the lineup of Chris Olley, James Flower, Doggen, Ady Fletcher and Ian Bissett.",
""
] |
Reformation
-----------
In February 2007, it was officially announced via the band's website that Six by Seven had re\-formed with their original lineup of Chris Olley, Sam Hempton, James Flower and Christian Davis. Pete Stevenson takes over Paul Douglas' role on bass.
July 2007 saw the online release of a new album recorded solely by Olley and Flower. It was entitled *If Symptoms Persist, Kill Your Doctor* and was limited to 1000 copies only. Its lyrics are inspired by an episode of a BBC TV programme called [The Trap](/wiki/The_Trap_%28British_TV_series%29 "The Trap (British TV series)"). Gigs were scheduled to coincide with the release.
A best of (with songs chosen by fans on [the official forum](http://www.sixbyseven.co.uk/cgi-bin/yabb2/YaBB.pl)) was released later including remixes and a DVD containing the band's promo videos.
The band finally imploded after Chris Olley left in November 2008\.
In August 2012, Chris Olley announced that he and James Flower re\-formed Six by Seven and that they were recording new material with the former [Placebo](/wiki/Placebo_%28band%29 "Placebo (band)") drummer [Steve Hewitt](/wiki/Steve_Hewitt "Steve Hewitt").{{cite web\|url\=http://chrisolley.wordpress.com/2012/08/31/steve\-hewitt\-joins\-six\-by\-seven/ \|title\=Steve Hewitt joins six by seven \| CHRIS OLLEY'S BLOG \|website\=Chrisolley.wordpress.com \|date\=2012\-08\-31 \|accessdate\=2020\-06\-03}} A new album, Love And Peace And Sympathy, was released on 8 July 2013\.
Following a Facebook campaign to get Eat Junk Become Junk to number one another re\-formation happened. After the song went to number one in the Christmas 2015 Rock Download Chart, Beggars Banquet re\-released the band's second album on vinyl, including a bonus album of B\-sides and Peel Sessions. A Greatest Hits CD was also released. Following this the band did two one\-off shows with the original line\-up at the Maze In Nottingham and The Garage in London. At the Maze show in Nottingham the band played *The Closer You Get* album in its entirety.
With another six by seven show planned in October 2017, Chris Olley intends to re\-form and restructure the band as a going live concern once again. The band played the Glade stage at [Glastonbury Festival](/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival "Glastonbury Festival") in 2019\.
|
[
"Reformation\n-----------",
"In February 2007, it was officially announced via the band's website that Six by Seven had re\\-formed with their original lineup of Chris Olley, Sam Hempton, James Flower and Christian Davis. Pete Stevenson takes over Paul Douglas' role on bass.",
"July 2007 saw the online release of a new album recorded solely by Olley and Flower. It was entitled *If Symptoms Persist, Kill Your Doctor* and was limited to 1000 copies only. Its lyrics are inspired by an episode of a BBC TV programme called [The Trap](/wiki/The_Trap_%28British_TV_series%29 \"The Trap (British TV series)\"). Gigs were scheduled to coincide with the release.",
"A best of (with songs chosen by fans on [the official forum](http://www.sixbyseven.co.uk/cgi-bin/yabb2/YaBB.pl)) was released later including remixes and a DVD containing the band's promo videos.",
"The band finally imploded after Chris Olley left in November 2008\\.",
"In August 2012, Chris Olley announced that he and James Flower re\\-formed Six by Seven and that they were recording new material with the former [Placebo](/wiki/Placebo_%28band%29 \"Placebo (band)\") drummer [Steve Hewitt](/wiki/Steve_Hewitt \"Steve Hewitt\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://chrisolley.wordpress.com/2012/08/31/steve\\-hewitt\\-joins\\-six\\-by\\-seven/ \\|title\\=Steve Hewitt joins six by seven \\| CHRIS OLLEY'S BLOG \\|website\\=Chrisolley.wordpress.com \\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-31 \\|accessdate\\=2020\\-06\\-03}} A new album, Love And Peace And Sympathy, was released on 8 July 2013\\.",
"Following a Facebook campaign to get Eat Junk Become Junk to number one another re\\-formation happened. After the song went to number one in the Christmas 2015 Rock Download Chart, Beggars Banquet re\\-released the band's second album on vinyl, including a bonus album of B\\-sides and Peel Sessions. A Greatest Hits CD was also released. Following this the band did two one\\-off shows with the original line\\-up at the Maze In Nottingham and The Garage in London. At the Maze show in Nottingham the band played *The Closer You Get* album in its entirety.",
"With another six by seven show planned in October 2017, Chris Olley intends to re\\-form and restructure the band as a going live concern once again. The band played the Glade stage at [Glastonbury Festival](/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival \"Glastonbury Festival\") in 2019\\.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|align\=
\|1940\= 972
\|1950\= 1612
\|1960\= 2681
\|1970\= 2607
\|1980\= 2134
\|1990\= 1965
\|2000\= 2570
\|2010\= 2770
\|2020\= 2988
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2010 Census
As of the 2010 [census](/wiki/United_States_Census "United States Census"){{Cite web \| url\=https://www.census.gov \|title \= U.S. Census website}} the population was 86% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (76% [Non\-Hispanic White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_Whites "Non-Hispanic Whites")), 2\.2% Black or [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 8\.85% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 2\.6% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 2\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 11\.2% of the population.
### 2000 Census
As of the census {{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 2,570 people, 1,060 households, and 603 families residing in the village. The population density was {{convert\|4,082\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 1,124 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,785\.4\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}. The racial makeup of the village was 86\.81% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 2\.33% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.08% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 6\.15% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 2\.02% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 2\.61% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 6\.34% of the population.
There were 1,060 households, out of which 25\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\.3% were married couples living together, 7\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43\.1% were non\-families. 37\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.17 and the average family size was 2\.89\.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 18\.2% under the age of 18, 3\.6% from 18 to 24, 30\.2% from 25 to 44, 25\.3% from 45 to 64, and 22\.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 83\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78\.4 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $72,404, and the median income for a family was $101,622\. Males had a median income of $65,156 versus $45,221 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $47,166\. About 1\.3% of families and 4\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 2\.9% of those under age 18 and 2\.7% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=\n\\|1940\\= 972\n\\|1950\\= 1612\n\\|1960\\= 2681\n\\|1970\\= 2607\n\\|1980\\= 2134\n\\|1990\\= 1965\n\\|2000\\= 2570\n\\|2010\\= 2770\n\\|2020\\= 2988\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2010 Census",
"As of the 2010 [census](/wiki/United_States_Census \"United States Census\"){{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|title \\= U.S. Census website}} the population was 86% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (76% [Non\\-Hispanic White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_Whites \"Non-Hispanic Whites\")), 2\\.2% Black or [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 8\\.85% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.6% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 11\\.2% of the population.",
"### 2000 Census",
"As of the census {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 2,570 people, 1,060 households, and 603 families residing in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|4,082\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 1,124 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1,785\\.4\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}. The racial makeup of the village was 86\\.81% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.33% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.08% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 6\\.15% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.02% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.61% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 6\\.34% of the population.",
"There were 1,060 households, out of which 25\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\\.3% were married couples living together, 7\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43\\.1% were non\\-families. 37\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.17 and the average family size was 2\\.89\\.",
"In the village, the population was spread out, with 18\\.2% under the age of 18, 3\\.6% from 18 to 24, 30\\.2% from 25 to 44, 25\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 22\\.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 83\\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78\\.4 males.",
"The median income for a household in the village was $72,404, and the median income for a family was $101,622\\. Males had a median income of $65,156 versus $45,221 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $47,166\\. About 1\\.3% of families and 4\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 2\\.9% of those under age 18 and 2\\.7% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Amedeo was born in [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin"), [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont "Piedmont"), to [Prince Emanuele Filiberto, 2nd Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Prince_Emanuele_Filiberto%2C_Duke_of_Aosta_%281869%E2%80%931931%29 "Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (1869–1931)") (son of [Amadeo I of Spain](/wiki/Amadeo_I_of_Spain "Amadeo I of Spain") and [Princess Maria Vittoria](/wiki/Maria_Vittoria_dal_Pozzo "Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo")), and [Princess Hélène](/wiki/Princess_H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Princess Hélène of Orléans") (daughter of [Prince Philippe of Orléans](/wiki/Prince_Philippe_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Prince Philippe of Orléans") and [Princess Marie Isabelle of Orléans](/wiki/Princess_Marie_Isabelle_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Princess Marie Isabelle of Orléans")). As his [patrilinal](/wiki/Patrilineality "Patrilineality") great\-grandfather was King [Victor Emmanuel II of Italy](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy "Victor Emmanuel II of Italy"), he was a member of the [House of Savoy](/wiki/House_of_Savoy "House of Savoy"). He was known from birth by the courtesy title of *Duke of Apulia*.
Amedeo was a very tall man (in stark contrast of the [King](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy "Victor Emmanuel III of Italy") who was known to be quite short). According to [Amedeo Guillet](/wiki/Amedeo_Guillet "Amedeo Guillet"), he was once referred to by a journalist as "Your Highness" (which in Italian could also be interpreted to mean "your height"). The Duke replied in jest: "198 centimetres" (6 feet, 6 inches).
### Education and early military career
Amedeo was educated at St David's College, [Reigate](/wiki/Reigate "Reigate"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey "Surrey"), in England.Hanson, The Wandering Princess, 161\. The school is often mis\-identified as St Andrew's College. He cultivated British mannerisms, spoke Oxford English, and even enjoyed the pastimes of [fox hunting](/wiki/Fox_hunting "Fox hunting") and [polo](/wiki/Polo "Polo").{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2019}} Amedeo entered the [Nunziatella](/wiki/Nunziatella "Nunziatella"), the military academy in Naples, joined the Italian Royal Army (*[Regio Esercito](/wiki/Regio_Esercito "Regio Esercito")*) and fought with distinction in the [artillery](/wiki/Artillery "Artillery") during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). He left the army in 1921 and traveled widely in [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa").
Amedeo subsequently rejoined the Italian armed forces and became a pilot. In 1932, he joined the Italian Royal Air Force (*[Regia Aeronautica](/wiki/Regia_Aeronautica "Regia Aeronautica")*). Amedeo served under Marshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani "Rodolfo Graziani") and Libyan Governor [Pietro Badoglio](/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio "Pietro Badoglio") during later stages of the so\-called "[pacification of Libya](/wiki/Pacification_of_Libya "Pacification of Libya")" (1911 to 1932\). Amedeo and his fellow airmen harried the [Senussi](/wiki/Senussi "Senussi") forces of [Omar Mukhtar](/wiki/Omar_Mukhtar "Omar Mukhtar") from the sky.Time Magazine, [Muktar](https://web.archive.org/web/20081215015754/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,742332,00.html) When hostilities in Libya came to an end in early 1932, much was made of the participation of the "Duke of Apulia" as the commander of the airmen who forced the Senussi to flee [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya") and seek relief in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt").Time Magazine, [Peace in Libya](https://web.archive.org/web/20070930180847/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743097,00.html) Amedeo, portrayed by the tall actor Sky du Mont, appears in several non\-flying scenes with Graziani in the movie *[The Lion of the Desert](/wiki/The_Lion_of_the_Desert "The Lion of the Desert")*,Lion of the Desert \- Wikipedia [Lion of the Desert](/wiki/Lion_of_the_Desert "Lion of the Desert") about the Italian conquest of Libya.
On 4 July 1931, upon the death of his father, Amedeo became the [Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Duke_of_Aosta "Duke of Aosta").
### Viceroy and governor\-general
In 1937, after the Italian conquest of [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire "Ethiopian Empire") during the [Second Italo\-Abyssinian War](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War "Second Italo-Ethiopian War"), the Duke of Aosta replaced Marshal Graziani as [Viceroy](/wiki/Viceroy "Viceroy") and as [Governor\-General](/wiki/Governor-General "Governor-General") of [Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa "Italian East Africa"). It was generally conceded that he was a vast improvement over Graziani. As Viceroy and Governor\-General, he was also the [Commander\-in\-Chief](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief "Commander-in-Chief") of all Italian military forces in [Eritrea](/wiki/Italian_Eritrea "Italian Eritrea"), [Ethiopia](/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia "Italian Ethiopia"), and [Somaliland](/wiki/Italian_Somaliland "Italian Somaliland").
### World War II
[thumb\|left\|250px\|The Duke of Aosta surrenders to British officials.](/wiki/File:Surrender_of_the_Duke_of_Aosta.jpg "Surrender of the Duke of Aosta.jpg")
When Italy declared war on the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") and [France](/wiki/France "France") on 10 June 1940, he became the commander of the Italian forces in what is known as the [East African Campaign](/wiki/East_African_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 "East African Campaign (World War II)") of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). He oversaw the initial Italian advances into the [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") and [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya") and, in August, he oversaw the Italian invasion of [British Somaliland](/wiki/British_Somaliland "British Somaliland").Time Magazine, [War Without Water](https://web.archive.org/web/20090830061853/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764398,00.html)
In January 1941, the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") launched a counter\-invasion and the Italians went on the defensive in [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa"). The Italians fought throughout February. But, after fierce resistance, the [Battle of Keren](/wiki/Battle_of_Keren "Battle of Keren") ended in Italian defeat,Time Magazine, [Last Act in East Africa](https://web.archive.org/web/20090830062246/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,765414,00.html) after which the rest of [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea "Eritrea"), including the port of [Massawa](/wiki/Massawa "Massawa"), fell quickly. On 31 January, he reported that the Italian military forces in East Africa were down to 67 operational aircraft with limited fuel stocks. With supplies running low and with no chance of re\-supply, he opted to concentrate the remaining Italian forces into several strongholds: [Gondar](/wiki/Gondar "Gondar"), [Amba Alagi](/wiki/Amba_Alagi "Amba Alagi"), [Dessie](/wiki/Dessie "Dessie"), and [Gimma](/wiki/Jimma "Jimma"). He himself commanded the 7,000 Italians at the mountain fortress of Amba Alagi. With his water supply compromised, surrounded, and besieged by 9,000 British and Commonwealth troops and more than 20,000 Ethiopian irregulars, he surrendered Amba Alagi on 18 May 1941\. Due to the gallant resistance of the Italian garrison, the British allowed them to surrender with [honours of war](/wiki/Honours_of_war "Honours of war").{{cite book\|last1\=Fuller\|first1\=J.F.C.\|title\=The Second World War, 1939\-45 : a strategical and tactical history\|date\=1993\|publisher\=Da Capo Press\|location\=New York\|isbn\=9780306805066\|page\=102}}Time Magazine [Aosta on Alag?](https://web.archive.org/web/20090829184022/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790095,00.html)
### Death
Shortly after his surrender, he was interned in a prisoner\-of\-war camp in [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi "Nairobi"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"). He was placed in command of his fellow prisoners, but never saw the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). On 3 March 1942, shortly after his internment, he died at the prison camp, reportedly as a result of complications from both [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis") and [malaria](/wiki/Malaria "Malaria").Time Magazine, [Died. Prince Amedeo di Savoia, Duke of Aosta](https://web.archive.org/web/20081012054510/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801425,00.html) Amedeo was succeeded by his brother, [Aimone, 4th Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Aimone%2C_4th_Duke_of_Aosta "Aimone, 4th Duke of Aosta").
### Aftermath
Amedeo was well known and highly regarded for being a gentleman. In one instance, before he fled his headquarters at [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa "Addis Ababa"), he wrote a note to the British to thank them in advance for protecting the women and children in the cities.
Count [Galeazzo Ciano](/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano "Galeazzo Ciano"), Italian Foreign Minister under his father\-in\-law Italian dictator [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini"), paid Amedeo a high compliment in his famous diaries. Upon being given the news of the Duke's death Ciano wrote, "So dies the image of a Prince and an Italian. Simple in his ways, broad in outlook, and humane in spirit."
Emperor [Haile Selassie](/wiki/Haile_Selassie "Haile Selassie") of Ethiopia was also impressed by the respect and care that the Duke of Aosta showed to the exiled Emperor's personal property left behind in [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa "Addis Ababa"). In a gesture of thanks, the Emperor during his state visit to Italy in 1953 invited the widowed [Duchess of Aosta](/wiki/Anne%2C_Duchess_of_Aosta "Anne, Duchess of Aosta") to tea during his stay in Milan, but was then informed by the Italian government that receiving the Duchess would cause offence to the [Italian Republic](/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic%23The_First_Republic_%281948%E2%80%931994%29 "History of the Italian Republic#The First Republic (1948–1994)"), and so the Emperor cancelled the visit.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2009}} Instead he invited the [5th Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Amedeo%2C_5th_Duke_of_Aosta "Amedeo, 5th Duke of Aosta") to Ethiopia in the mid\-1960s, and accorded him all the protocol due to visiting royalty.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2009}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Amedeo was born in [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\"), [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont \"Piedmont\"), to [Prince Emanuele Filiberto, 2nd Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Prince_Emanuele_Filiberto%2C_Duke_of_Aosta_%281869%E2%80%931931%29 \"Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (1869–1931)\") (son of [Amadeo I of Spain](/wiki/Amadeo_I_of_Spain \"Amadeo I of Spain\") and [Princess Maria Vittoria](/wiki/Maria_Vittoria_dal_Pozzo \"Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo\")), and [Princess Hélène](/wiki/Princess_H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Princess Hélène of Orléans\") (daughter of [Prince Philippe of Orléans](/wiki/Prince_Philippe_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Prince Philippe of Orléans\") and [Princess Marie Isabelle of Orléans](/wiki/Princess_Marie_Isabelle_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Princess Marie Isabelle of Orléans\")). As his [patrilinal](/wiki/Patrilineality \"Patrilineality\") great\\-grandfather was King [Victor Emmanuel II of Italy](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy \"Victor Emmanuel II of Italy\"), he was a member of the [House of Savoy](/wiki/House_of_Savoy \"House of Savoy\"). He was known from birth by the courtesy title of *Duke of Apulia*.",
"Amedeo was a very tall man (in stark contrast of the [King](/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy \"Victor Emmanuel III of Italy\") who was known to be quite short). According to [Amedeo Guillet](/wiki/Amedeo_Guillet \"Amedeo Guillet\"), he was once referred to by a journalist as \"Your Highness\" (which in Italian could also be interpreted to mean \"your height\"). The Duke replied in jest: \"198 centimetres\" (6 feet, 6 inches).",
"### Education and early military career",
"Amedeo was educated at St David's College, [Reigate](/wiki/Reigate \"Reigate\"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey \"Surrey\"), in England.Hanson, The Wandering Princess, 161\\. The school is often mis\\-identified as St Andrew's College. He cultivated British mannerisms, spoke Oxford English, and even enjoyed the pastimes of [fox hunting](/wiki/Fox_hunting \"Fox hunting\") and [polo](/wiki/Polo \"Polo\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2019}} Amedeo entered the [Nunziatella](/wiki/Nunziatella \"Nunziatella\"), the military academy in Naples, joined the Italian Royal Army (*[Regio Esercito](/wiki/Regio_Esercito \"Regio Esercito\")*) and fought with distinction in the [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\") during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). He left the army in 1921 and traveled widely in [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\").",
"Amedeo subsequently rejoined the Italian armed forces and became a pilot. In 1932, he joined the Italian Royal Air Force (*[Regia Aeronautica](/wiki/Regia_Aeronautica \"Regia Aeronautica\")*). Amedeo served under Marshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani \"Rodolfo Graziani\") and Libyan Governor [Pietro Badoglio](/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio \"Pietro Badoglio\") during later stages of the so\\-called \"[pacification of Libya](/wiki/Pacification_of_Libya \"Pacification of Libya\")\" (1911 to 1932\\). Amedeo and his fellow airmen harried the [Senussi](/wiki/Senussi \"Senussi\") forces of [Omar Mukhtar](/wiki/Omar_Mukhtar \"Omar Mukhtar\") from the sky.Time Magazine, [Muktar](https://web.archive.org/web/20081215015754/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,742332,00.html) When hostilities in Libya came to an end in early 1932, much was made of the participation of the \"Duke of Apulia\" as the commander of the airmen who forced the Senussi to flee [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\") and seek relief in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\").Time Magazine, [Peace in Libya](https://web.archive.org/web/20070930180847/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743097,00.html) Amedeo, portrayed by the tall actor Sky du Mont, appears in several non\\-flying scenes with Graziani in the movie *[The Lion of the Desert](/wiki/The_Lion_of_the_Desert \"The Lion of the Desert\")*,Lion of the Desert \\- Wikipedia [Lion of the Desert](/wiki/Lion_of_the_Desert \"Lion of the Desert\") about the Italian conquest of Libya.",
"On 4 July 1931, upon the death of his father, Amedeo became the [Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Duke_of_Aosta \"Duke of Aosta\").",
"### Viceroy and governor\\-general",
"In 1937, after the Italian conquest of [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire \"Ethiopian Empire\") during the [Second Italo\\-Abyssinian War](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War \"Second Italo-Ethiopian War\"), the Duke of Aosta replaced Marshal Graziani as [Viceroy](/wiki/Viceroy \"Viceroy\") and as [Governor\\-General](/wiki/Governor-General \"Governor-General\") of [Italian East Africa](/wiki/Italian_East_Africa \"Italian East Africa\"). It was generally conceded that he was a vast improvement over Graziani. As Viceroy and Governor\\-General, he was also the [Commander\\-in\\-Chief](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief \"Commander-in-Chief\") of all Italian military forces in [Eritrea](/wiki/Italian_Eritrea \"Italian Eritrea\"), [Ethiopia](/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia \"Italian Ethiopia\"), and [Somaliland](/wiki/Italian_Somaliland \"Italian Somaliland\").",
"### World War II",
"[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|The Duke of Aosta surrenders to British officials.](/wiki/File:Surrender_of_the_Duke_of_Aosta.jpg \"Surrender of the Duke of Aosta.jpg\")\nWhen Italy declared war on the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") and [France](/wiki/France \"France\") on 10 June 1940, he became the commander of the Italian forces in what is known as the [East African Campaign](/wiki/East_African_Campaign_%28World_War_II%29 \"East African Campaign (World War II)\") of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). He oversaw the initial Italian advances into the [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\") and [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\") and, in August, he oversaw the Italian invasion of [British Somaliland](/wiki/British_Somaliland \"British Somaliland\").Time Magazine, [War Without Water](https://web.archive.org/web/20090830061853/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764398,00.html)",
"In January 1941, the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") launched a counter\\-invasion and the Italians went on the defensive in [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\"). The Italians fought throughout February. But, after fierce resistance, the [Battle of Keren](/wiki/Battle_of_Keren \"Battle of Keren\") ended in Italian defeat,Time Magazine, [Last Act in East Africa](https://web.archive.org/web/20090830062246/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,765414,00.html) after which the rest of [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea \"Eritrea\"), including the port of [Massawa](/wiki/Massawa \"Massawa\"), fell quickly. On 31 January, he reported that the Italian military forces in East Africa were down to 67 operational aircraft with limited fuel stocks. With supplies running low and with no chance of re\\-supply, he opted to concentrate the remaining Italian forces into several strongholds: [Gondar](/wiki/Gondar \"Gondar\"), [Amba Alagi](/wiki/Amba_Alagi \"Amba Alagi\"), [Dessie](/wiki/Dessie \"Dessie\"), and [Gimma](/wiki/Jimma \"Jimma\"). He himself commanded the 7,000 Italians at the mountain fortress of Amba Alagi. With his water supply compromised, surrounded, and besieged by 9,000 British and Commonwealth troops and more than 20,000 Ethiopian irregulars, he surrendered Amba Alagi on 18 May 1941\\. Due to the gallant resistance of the Italian garrison, the British allowed them to surrender with [honours of war](/wiki/Honours_of_war \"Honours of war\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=Fuller\\|first1\\=J.F.C.\\|title\\=The Second World War, 1939\\-45 : a strategical and tactical history\\|date\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Da Capo Press\\|location\\=New York\\|isbn\\=9780306805066\\|page\\=102}}Time Magazine [Aosta on Alag?](https://web.archive.org/web/20090829184022/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790095,00.html)",
"### Death",
"Shortly after his surrender, he was interned in a prisoner\\-of\\-war camp in [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi \"Nairobi\"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"). He was placed in command of his fellow prisoners, but never saw the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). On 3 March 1942, shortly after his internment, he died at the prison camp, reportedly as a result of complications from both [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\") and [malaria](/wiki/Malaria \"Malaria\").Time Magazine, [Died. Prince Amedeo di Savoia, Duke of Aosta](https://web.archive.org/web/20081012054510/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801425,00.html) Amedeo was succeeded by his brother, [Aimone, 4th Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Aimone%2C_4th_Duke_of_Aosta \"Aimone, 4th Duke of Aosta\").",
"### Aftermath",
"Amedeo was well known and highly regarded for being a gentleman. In one instance, before he fled his headquarters at [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa \"Addis Ababa\"), he wrote a note to the British to thank them in advance for protecting the women and children in the cities.",
"Count [Galeazzo Ciano](/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano \"Galeazzo Ciano\"), Italian Foreign Minister under his father\\-in\\-law Italian dictator [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\"), paid Amedeo a high compliment in his famous diaries. Upon being given the news of the Duke's death Ciano wrote, \"So dies the image of a Prince and an Italian. Simple in his ways, broad in outlook, and humane in spirit.\"",
"Emperor [Haile Selassie](/wiki/Haile_Selassie \"Haile Selassie\") of Ethiopia was also impressed by the respect and care that the Duke of Aosta showed to the exiled Emperor's personal property left behind in [Addis Ababa](/wiki/Addis_Ababa \"Addis Ababa\"). In a gesture of thanks, the Emperor during his state visit to Italy in 1953 invited the widowed [Duchess of Aosta](/wiki/Anne%2C_Duchess_of_Aosta \"Anne, Duchess of Aosta\") to tea during his stay in Milan, but was then informed by the Italian government that receiving the Duchess would cause offence to the [Italian Republic](/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic%23The_First_Republic_%281948%E2%80%931994%29 \"History of the Italian Republic#The First Republic (1948–1994)\"), and so the Emperor cancelled the visit.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2009}} Instead he invited the [5th Duke of Aosta](/wiki/Amedeo%2C_5th_Duke_of_Aosta \"Amedeo, 5th Duke of Aosta\") to Ethiopia in the mid\\-1960s, and accorded him all the protocol due to visiting royalty.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2009}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Bernard Fantus was born to David and Ida (Gentilli) Fantus in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest"), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary"). As a child, Fantus was educated at Real\-Gymnasium in [Vienna, Austria](/wiki/Vienna%2C_Austria "Vienna, Austria"). From a young age, his parents supported his ambition to be a physician. In 1889, at the age of fifteen, he and his parents immigrated to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). In [Detroit, Michigan](/wiki/Detroit_Michigan "Detroit Michigan"), Fantus was an apprentice for Mr. Leushner at Paul Leuchner's Drug store, who began training him in pharmacy. By 1902 the family relocated to [Chicago, Illinois](/wiki/Chicago_Illinois "Chicago Illinois").
Fantus received his [Doctor of Medicine](/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine "Doctor of Medicine") in 1899 from the [College of Physicians and Surgeons (Chicago)](/wiki/College_of_Physicians_and_Surgeons_%28Chicago%29 "College of Physicians and Surgeons (Chicago)").He furthered his education by doing post\-graduate work at the [University of Strasbourg](/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg "University of Strasbourg") in 1906 and the [University of Berlin](/wiki/University_of_Berlin "University of Berlin") in 1909\. Fantus also received a [Master of Science](/wiki/Master_of_Science "Master of Science") from the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan") in 1917, where he had done research in [Pharmacology](/wiki/Pharmacology "Pharmacology") with Professor Cushny during the summer of 1901\.
Fantus married Emily Senn, a nurse who he met at [Cook County Hospital](/wiki/Cook_County_Hospital "Cook County Hospital"), on September 1, 1907\. He had a daughter named Ruth.Fantus, Bernard. Collection, \[Box 1, Folders 13, 14, 15, 16], Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library
* Daughter Ruth Fantus aka Valeri Gendron (December 14, 1913 – March 21, 1989\): Adopted
After suffering a heart attack the year prior, Fantus died on April 14, 1940, at the age of sixty\-five. Fantus was buried at [Forest Home Cemetery (Chicago)](/wiki/Forest_Home_Cemetery_%28Chicago%29 "Forest Home Cemetery (Chicago)").
[center\|thumb\|522x522px\|Family Photo (Fantus at top left)](/wiki/File:Family_Photo.png "Family Photo.png")
### Career
| Year | Location | Position |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1899\-1900 | [Cook County Hospital](/wiki/Cook_County_Hospital "Cook County Hospital") | Intern |
| 1900\-1902 | [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois "University of Illinois") | Adjunct Professor of materia medica and therapeutics |
| 1902\-1912 | [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois "University of Illinois") | Professor of materia medica and therapeutics |
| 1909\-1912 | [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois "University of Illinois") | Assistant Professor of Clinical Medication |
| 1913\-1917 | [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois "University of Illinois") | Professor of Pharmacology and Therapeutics |
| 1918\-1924 | [Rush Medical College](/wiki/Rush_Medical_College "Rush Medical College") | Associate Professor of Therapeutics |
| 1924 | [Rush Medical College](/wiki/Rush_Medical_College "Rush Medical College") | Clinical Professor of Medicine |
Source:
### Palatable Medication
From about 1910–1915, at the Pharmacological Laboratory of the [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois "University of Illinois"), Fantus conducted research in order to formulate medications that were more enjoyable to children. Knowing that medication in the form of candy would be best for children, Fantus studied candy confection and worked with candy\-makers in order to determine that "sweet tablets" would be the best way to administer medicine to kids in a candy form. Fantus' goal was to create medications that were not only palatable to children, but relatively easy and inexpensive to make, in order for them to be readily available and accessible to the public. Strong emphasis was put on the ability of the tablet to dissolve, to be an attractive color, and to have a palatable sweet flavor not reminiscent of typical medicine.
In order to make sweet tablets, one needs a tablet machine. Fantus recommends the No. 25 Machine from the [Whitall Tatum Company](/wiki/Whitall_Tatum_Company "Whitall Tatum Company"), which, at the time, was effective and inexpensive at only ten dollars.
Fantus found that the most effect way to disguise the taste of medicine and still maintain an effective integrity that met his criteria was with sugar coating and the use of [tolu](/wiki/Tolu_balsam "Tolu balsam"). The idea was to cover the medicine with resin then sugar. To saturate the granules of medical powders, Fantus used a solution consisting of tolu, [saccharin](/wiki/Saccharin "Saccharin"), and [alcohol](/wiki/Ethanol "Ethanol"). Fantus suggests the addition of saccharin to lessen any aftertaste.
{{Quote\|text\=''Unfortunately, however, many a child has had its palate offended by liquid medicines to such a degree that it abhors spoon\-medicine of any kind, and will struggle even against the most palatable. When one witnesses the struggling of the average child against the average medicine, one cannot but wonder whether at times the struggle does not do more harm than the medicine can do good, and wish that we had other means of administering medicines to the little ones. As all children love candy, this would seem the form most desirable for them.''\|sign\='''''Candy Medication''''', Bernard Fantus\|source\=}}
#### *Candy Medication*
In 1915, Fantus published a book called *Candy Medication.* Through his book, Fantus sought to make sweet tablets common place by giving pharmacists and physicians a guide book of sorts. {{Quote\|text\=''It is the author's hope that this booklet may be instrumental in robbing childhood of one of its terrors, namely, nasty medicine; that it may lessen the difficulties experienced by nurse and mother in giving medicament to the sick child; and help to make the doctor more popular with the little ones.''\|sign\=\|source\='''''Candy Medication''''', Bernard Fantus}}
Sources:Fantus, Bernard. *Candy Medication*. St. Louis, 1915\. <http://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.hc35b5>.Fantus, Bernard. “Tolu and Sugar Coating in the Disguising of Medicines.” *Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association* 7, no. 3 (MarchFantus, Bernard. “Tabellæ Dulces, Sweet Tablets for Children’s Medication.” *Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association* 3, no. 5 (May 1, 1914\): 656–62\. {{doi\|10\.1002/jps.3080030515\.1,}} 1918\): 249–55\. {{doi\|10\.1002/jps.3080070305}}[thumb\|256x256px](/wiki/File:Tablet_Machine.png "Tablet Machine.png")
##### Contents
1. Historical Introduction
2. Tabellae Dulces
3. The Uses of Sweet Tablets
4. The Making of Sweet Tablets
5. The Tablet Machine
6. The Construction off Formulae for Sweet Tablets
* Choice of Flavor
* Subduing of Tastes
* Choice of Color
7. Formulae for the Preparation of Sweet Tablets
8. Formulae for Stock Preparations
In the book, Fantus includes sweet tablet formulas for the following:
{{Div col\|colwidth\=22em}}
* [Acetophenetidin](/wiki/Acetophenetidin "Acetophenetidin")
* [Acetaminosalol](/wiki/Salophen "Salophen")
* [Cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine "Cocaine")
* [Heroin](/wiki/Heroin "Heroin")
* [Aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin "Aspirin")
* [Aconitine](/wiki/Aconitine "Aconitine")
* [Anaesthesin](/wiki/Anaesthesin "Anaesthesin")
* [Antimony potassium tartrate](/wiki/Antimony_potassium_tartrate "Antimony potassium tartrate")
* [Antipyrine](/wiki/Antipyrine "Antipyrine")
* [Apomorphine](/wiki/Apomorphine "Apomorphine")
* [Arsenic trioxide](/wiki/Arsenic_trioxide "Arsenic trioxide")
* [Atropine](/wiki/Atropine "Atropine")
* [Bismuth subcarbonate](/wiki/Bismuth_subcarbonate "Bismuth subcarbonate")
* [Bismuth subnitrate](/wiki/Bismuth_subnitrate "Bismuth subnitrate")
* [Caffeine](/wiki/Caffeine "Caffeine")
* [Charcoal](/wiki/Charcoal "Charcoal")
* [Cerium oxalate](/wiki/Cerium_oxalate "Cerium oxalate")
* [Chalk](/wiki/Chalk "Chalk")
* [Emetine](/wiki/Emetine "Emetine")
* [Lactic acid fermentation](/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation "Lactic acid fermentation")
* [Ferrous carbonate](/wiki/Ferrous_carbonate "Ferrous carbonate")
* [Arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic")
* [Iron](/wiki/Iron "Iron")
* [Quinine](/wiki/Quinine "Quinine")
* [Strychnine](/wiki/Strychnine "Strychnine")
* [Nitroglycerin (drug)](/wiki/Nitroglycerin_%28drug%29 "Nitroglycerin (drug)")
* [Urotropin](/wiki/Urotropin "Urotropin")
* [Mercury chloride](/wiki/Mercury_chloride "Mercury chloride")
* [Mercury(II) iodide](/wiki/Mercury%28II%29_iodide "Mercury(II) iodide")
* [Hyoscine](/wiki/Hyoscine "Hyoscine")
{{div col end}}
In 1918, three years after the publication of *Candy Medication,* Fantus published an article in the Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association entitled "Tolu and sugar coating in the disguising of medicines,"Fantus, Bernard. “Tolu and Sugar Coating in the Disguising of Medicines.” *Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association* 7, no. 3 (March 1, 1918\): 249–55\. {{doi\|10\.1002/jps.3080070305}} in which he amended some of his formulas from the book.
Source:
### Therapeutics
[Therapeutics](/wiki/Therapeutics "Therapeutics") involves the comprehensive care of patients and is sometimes considered the science of healing. Preventative medicine and the proper use of drugs in treatments and administration fall under the purview of pharmacologic therapeutics.
Therapies worked on:{{Div col\|colwidth\=22em}}
* [Amebiasis](/wiki/Amebiasis "Amebiasis")
* [Insomnia](/wiki/Insomnia "Insomnia")
* [Tetanus](/wiki/Tetanus "Tetanus")
* [Rheumatic Fever](/wiki/Rheumatic_Fever "Rheumatic Fever")
* Dextrose Phleboclysis
* [Conjunctivitis](/wiki/Conjunctivitis "Conjunctivitis")
* Fresh Accidental Wounds
* Ersipelas
* [Furunculosis](/wiki/Furunculosis "Furunculosis") Fever Regimen
* [Barbiturate](/wiki/Barbiturate "Barbiturate") Poisoning
* [Mycoses](/wiki/Mycoses "Mycoses")
* [Anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax "Anthrax")
* [Carbuncles](/wiki/Carbuncles "Carbuncles")
* [Eczema](/wiki/Eczema "Eczema")
* Burns
* [Glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma "Glaucoma")
* Chanoroid
* [Bubo](/wiki/Bubo "Bubo")
* [Bedsores](/wiki/Bedsores "Bedsores")
* Pain
* [Ulcer](/wiki/Ulcer "Ulcer")
* [Uncinariasis](/wiki/Uncinariasis "Uncinariasis")
* Trichiniasias
* [Varicose Veins](/wiki/Varicose_Veins "Varicose Veins")
* [Acne](/wiki/Acne "Acne")
* Acne Rosacaea
* Arterial Thrombosis of the Extremities
* [Eclampsia](/wiki/Eclampsia "Eclampsia"){{div col end}}
[thumb\|336x336px\|Tandem Flask for blood transfusion](/wiki/File:Tandem_flask_for_blood_transfusio.png "Tandem flask for blood transfusio.png")
### The Blood Bank
Throughout his career, Fantus became acutely aware of the importance of having access to blood for transfusions and the lack of accessibility that existed at the time. Transfusions were typically only done directly from donor to patient and were typically not used for emergency traumas. Fantus was introduced to the idea of blood being stored as the [Spanish Revolution](/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936 "Spanish Revolution of 1936") was underway and he immediately realized the multitude of possibilities and the abundance of lives that could be saved, especially in times of war, that storing blood for transfusion presented. From information he obtained from Russian publications, Fantus learned that storing blood was a rather simple process and that establishing some sort of laboratory for it in the United States would not be very complicated. From that point on, Fantus made it his mission to establish a laboratory where blood could be stored. His daughter Ruth is credited with coming up with the term "[blood bank](/wiki/Blood_bank "Blood bank")," a phrase which Fantus readily accepted because everyone in society knows how a bank works, and the process of storing blood was essentially analogous. [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") spurred Fantus on as he wanted to use the blood from people state side to save the lives of U.S. soldiers overseas. He thus spent years in the laboratory perfecting methods of transfusion.
{{Quote\|text\=''Just think what it would mean to our soldiers to know that their loved ones at home were sending them the Blood of Life in their moment of greatest need.''\|sign\=Bernard Fantus\|source\=''Blood of Life'', Valerie Gendron}}
Fantus secured permission, spread the word of the establishment, obtained a suitable room at [Cook County Hospital](/wiki/Cook_County_Hospital "Cook County Hospital"), and put Dr. Elizabeth Schermer in charge of the laboratory. The [blood bank](/wiki/Blood_bank "Blood bank") officially opened on March 15, 1937\.Gendron, Valerie, and Norman Senn. Brubeck. *Blood of Life: A Biography of the Life of Bernard Fantus M.D.* \[Baltimore? N.S. Brubeck], 2007\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Bernard Fantus was born to David and Ida (Gentilli) Fantus in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\"), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\"). As a child, Fantus was educated at Real\\-Gymnasium in [Vienna, Austria](/wiki/Vienna%2C_Austria \"Vienna, Austria\"). From a young age, his parents supported his ambition to be a physician. In 1889, at the age of fifteen, he and his parents immigrated to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). In [Detroit, Michigan](/wiki/Detroit_Michigan \"Detroit Michigan\"), Fantus was an apprentice for Mr. Leushner at Paul Leuchner's Drug store, who began training him in pharmacy. By 1902 the family relocated to [Chicago, Illinois](/wiki/Chicago_Illinois \"Chicago Illinois\").",
"Fantus received his [Doctor of Medicine](/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine \"Doctor of Medicine\") in 1899 from the [College of Physicians and Surgeons (Chicago)](/wiki/College_of_Physicians_and_Surgeons_%28Chicago%29 \"College of Physicians and Surgeons (Chicago)\").He furthered his education by doing post\\-graduate work at the [University of Strasbourg](/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg \"University of Strasbourg\") in 1906 and the [University of Berlin](/wiki/University_of_Berlin \"University of Berlin\") in 1909\\. Fantus also received a [Master of Science](/wiki/Master_of_Science \"Master of Science\") from the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\") in 1917, where he had done research in [Pharmacology](/wiki/Pharmacology \"Pharmacology\") with Professor Cushny during the summer of 1901\\.",
"Fantus married Emily Senn, a nurse who he met at [Cook County Hospital](/wiki/Cook_County_Hospital \"Cook County Hospital\"), on September 1, 1907\\. He had a daughter named Ruth.Fantus, Bernard. Collection, \\[Box 1, Folders 13, 14, 15, 16], Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library\n* Daughter Ruth Fantus aka Valeri Gendron (December 14, 1913 – March 21, 1989\\): Adopted",
"After suffering a heart attack the year prior, Fantus died on April 14, 1940, at the age of sixty\\-five. Fantus was buried at [Forest Home Cemetery (Chicago)](/wiki/Forest_Home_Cemetery_%28Chicago%29 \"Forest Home Cemetery (Chicago)\").\n[center\\|thumb\\|522x522px\\|Family Photo (Fantus at top left)](/wiki/File:Family_Photo.png \"Family Photo.png\")",
"### Career",
"",
"| Year | Location | Position |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 1899\\-1900 | [Cook County Hospital](/wiki/Cook_County_Hospital \"Cook County Hospital\") | Intern |\n| 1900\\-1902 | [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois \"University of Illinois\") | Adjunct Professor of materia medica and therapeutics |\n| 1902\\-1912 | [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois \"University of Illinois\") | Professor of materia medica and therapeutics |\n| 1909\\-1912 | [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois \"University of Illinois\") | Assistant Professor of Clinical Medication |\n| 1913\\-1917 | [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois \"University of Illinois\") | Professor of Pharmacology and Therapeutics |\n| 1918\\-1924 | [Rush Medical College](/wiki/Rush_Medical_College \"Rush Medical College\") | Associate Professor of Therapeutics |\n| 1924 | [Rush Medical College](/wiki/Rush_Medical_College \"Rush Medical College\") | Clinical Professor of Medicine |",
"Source:",
"### Palatable Medication",
"From about 1910–1915, at the Pharmacological Laboratory of the [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois \"University of Illinois\"), Fantus conducted research in order to formulate medications that were more enjoyable to children. Knowing that medication in the form of candy would be best for children, Fantus studied candy confection and worked with candy\\-makers in order to determine that \"sweet tablets\" would be the best way to administer medicine to kids in a candy form. Fantus' goal was to create medications that were not only palatable to children, but relatively easy and inexpensive to make, in order for them to be readily available and accessible to the public. Strong emphasis was put on the ability of the tablet to dissolve, to be an attractive color, and to have a palatable sweet flavor not reminiscent of typical medicine.",
"In order to make sweet tablets, one needs a tablet machine. Fantus recommends the No. 25 Machine from the [Whitall Tatum Company](/wiki/Whitall_Tatum_Company \"Whitall Tatum Company\"), which, at the time, was effective and inexpensive at only ten dollars.",
"Fantus found that the most effect way to disguise the taste of medicine and still maintain an effective integrity that met his criteria was with sugar coating and the use of [tolu](/wiki/Tolu_balsam \"Tolu balsam\"). The idea was to cover the medicine with resin then sugar. To saturate the granules of medical powders, Fantus used a solution consisting of tolu, [saccharin](/wiki/Saccharin \"Saccharin\"), and [alcohol](/wiki/Ethanol \"Ethanol\"). Fantus suggests the addition of saccharin to lessen any aftertaste.",
"{{Quote\\|text\\=''Unfortunately, however, many a child has had its palate offended by liquid medicines to such a degree that it abhors spoon\\-medicine of any kind, and will struggle even against the most palatable. When one witnesses the struggling of the average child against the average medicine, one cannot but wonder whether at times the struggle does not do more harm than the medicine can do good, and wish that we had other means of administering medicines to the little ones. As all children love candy, this would seem the form most desirable for them.''\\|sign\\='''''Candy Medication''''', Bernard Fantus\\|source\\=}}",
"#### *Candy Medication*",
"In 1915, Fantus published a book called *Candy Medication.* Through his book, Fantus sought to make sweet tablets common place by giving pharmacists and physicians a guide book of sorts. {{Quote\\|text\\=''It is the author's hope that this booklet may be instrumental in robbing childhood of one of its terrors, namely, nasty medicine; that it may lessen the difficulties experienced by nurse and mother in giving medicament to the sick child; and help to make the doctor more popular with the little ones.''\\|sign\\=\\|source\\='''''Candy Medication''''', Bernard Fantus}}",
"Sources:Fantus, Bernard. *Candy Medication*. St. Louis, 1915\\. <http://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.hc35b5>.Fantus, Bernard. “Tolu and Sugar Coating in the Disguising of Medicines.” *Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association* 7, no. 3 (MarchFantus, Bernard. “Tabellæ Dulces, Sweet Tablets for Children’s Medication.” *Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association* 3, no. 5 (May 1, 1914\\): 656–62\\. {{doi\\|10\\.1002/jps.3080030515\\.1,}} 1918\\): 249–55\\. {{doi\\|10\\.1002/jps.3080070305}}[thumb\\|256x256px](/wiki/File:Tablet_Machine.png \"Tablet Machine.png\")",
"##### Contents",
"1. Historical Introduction\n2. Tabellae Dulces\n3. The Uses of Sweet Tablets\n4. The Making of Sweet Tablets\n5. The Tablet Machine\n6. The Construction off Formulae for Sweet Tablets\n\t* Choice of Flavor\n\t* Subduing of Tastes\n\t* Choice of Color\n7. Formulae for the Preparation of Sweet Tablets\n8. Formulae for Stock Preparations",
"In the book, Fantus includes sweet tablet formulas for the following:",
"{{Div col\\|colwidth\\=22em}}\n* [Acetophenetidin](/wiki/Acetophenetidin \"Acetophenetidin\")\n* [Acetaminosalol](/wiki/Salophen \"Salophen\")\n* [Cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine \"Cocaine\")\n* [Heroin](/wiki/Heroin \"Heroin\")\n* [Aspirin](/wiki/Aspirin \"Aspirin\")\n* [Aconitine](/wiki/Aconitine \"Aconitine\")\n* [Anaesthesin](/wiki/Anaesthesin \"Anaesthesin\")\n* [Antimony potassium tartrate](/wiki/Antimony_potassium_tartrate \"Antimony potassium tartrate\")\n* [Antipyrine](/wiki/Antipyrine \"Antipyrine\")\n* [Apomorphine](/wiki/Apomorphine \"Apomorphine\")\n* [Arsenic trioxide](/wiki/Arsenic_trioxide \"Arsenic trioxide\")\n* [Atropine](/wiki/Atropine \"Atropine\")\n* [Bismuth subcarbonate](/wiki/Bismuth_subcarbonate \"Bismuth subcarbonate\")\n* [Bismuth subnitrate](/wiki/Bismuth_subnitrate \"Bismuth subnitrate\")\n* [Caffeine](/wiki/Caffeine \"Caffeine\")\n* [Charcoal](/wiki/Charcoal \"Charcoal\")\n* [Cerium oxalate](/wiki/Cerium_oxalate \"Cerium oxalate\")\n* [Chalk](/wiki/Chalk \"Chalk\")\n* [Emetine](/wiki/Emetine \"Emetine\")\n* [Lactic acid fermentation](/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation \"Lactic acid fermentation\")\n* [Ferrous carbonate](/wiki/Ferrous_carbonate \"Ferrous carbonate\")\n* [Arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic \"Arsenic\")\n* [Iron](/wiki/Iron \"Iron\")\n* [Quinine](/wiki/Quinine \"Quinine\")\n* [Strychnine](/wiki/Strychnine \"Strychnine\")\n* [Nitroglycerin (drug)](/wiki/Nitroglycerin_%28drug%29 \"Nitroglycerin (drug)\")\n* [Urotropin](/wiki/Urotropin \"Urotropin\")\n* [Mercury chloride](/wiki/Mercury_chloride \"Mercury chloride\")\n* [Mercury(II) iodide](/wiki/Mercury%28II%29_iodide \"Mercury(II) iodide\")\n* [Hyoscine](/wiki/Hyoscine \"Hyoscine\")\n{{div col end}}",
"In 1918, three years after the publication of *Candy Medication,* Fantus published an article in the Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association entitled \"Tolu and sugar coating in the disguising of medicines,\"Fantus, Bernard. “Tolu and Sugar Coating in the Disguising of Medicines.” *Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association* 7, no. 3 (March 1, 1918\\): 249–55\\. {{doi\\|10\\.1002/jps.3080070305}} in which he amended some of his formulas from the book.",
"Source:",
"### Therapeutics",
"[Therapeutics](/wiki/Therapeutics \"Therapeutics\") involves the comprehensive care of patients and is sometimes considered the science of healing. Preventative medicine and the proper use of drugs in treatments and administration fall under the purview of pharmacologic therapeutics.",
"Therapies worked on:{{Div col\\|colwidth\\=22em}}\n* [Amebiasis](/wiki/Amebiasis \"Amebiasis\")\n* [Insomnia](/wiki/Insomnia \"Insomnia\")\n* [Tetanus](/wiki/Tetanus \"Tetanus\")\n* [Rheumatic Fever](/wiki/Rheumatic_Fever \"Rheumatic Fever\")\n* Dextrose Phleboclysis\n* [Conjunctivitis](/wiki/Conjunctivitis \"Conjunctivitis\")\n* Fresh Accidental Wounds\n* Ersipelas\n* [Furunculosis](/wiki/Furunculosis \"Furunculosis\") Fever Regimen\n* [Barbiturate](/wiki/Barbiturate \"Barbiturate\") Poisoning\n* [Mycoses](/wiki/Mycoses \"Mycoses\")\n* [Anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax \"Anthrax\")\n* [Carbuncles](/wiki/Carbuncles \"Carbuncles\")\n* [Eczema](/wiki/Eczema \"Eczema\")\n* Burns\n* [Glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma \"Glaucoma\")\n* Chanoroid\n* [Bubo](/wiki/Bubo \"Bubo\")\n* [Bedsores](/wiki/Bedsores \"Bedsores\")\n* Pain\n* [Ulcer](/wiki/Ulcer \"Ulcer\")\n* [Uncinariasis](/wiki/Uncinariasis \"Uncinariasis\")\n* Trichiniasias\n* [Varicose Veins](/wiki/Varicose_Veins \"Varicose Veins\")\n* [Acne](/wiki/Acne \"Acne\")\n* Acne Rosacaea\n* Arterial Thrombosis of the Extremities\n* [Eclampsia](/wiki/Eclampsia \"Eclampsia\"){{div col end}}",
"[thumb\\|336x336px\\|Tandem Flask for blood transfusion](/wiki/File:Tandem_flask_for_blood_transfusio.png \"Tandem flask for blood transfusio.png\")",
"### The Blood Bank",
"Throughout his career, Fantus became acutely aware of the importance of having access to blood for transfusions and the lack of accessibility that existed at the time. Transfusions were typically only done directly from donor to patient and were typically not used for emergency traumas. Fantus was introduced to the idea of blood being stored as the [Spanish Revolution](/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936 \"Spanish Revolution of 1936\") was underway and he immediately realized the multitude of possibilities and the abundance of lives that could be saved, especially in times of war, that storing blood for transfusion presented. From information he obtained from Russian publications, Fantus learned that storing blood was a rather simple process and that establishing some sort of laboratory for it in the United States would not be very complicated. From that point on, Fantus made it his mission to establish a laboratory where blood could be stored. His daughter Ruth is credited with coming up with the term \"[blood bank](/wiki/Blood_bank \"Blood bank\"),\" a phrase which Fantus readily accepted because everyone in society knows how a bank works, and the process of storing blood was essentially analogous. [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") spurred Fantus on as he wanted to use the blood from people state side to save the lives of U.S. soldiers overseas. He thus spent years in the laboratory perfecting methods of transfusion.",
"{{Quote\\|text\\=''Just think what it would mean to our soldiers to know that their loved ones at home were sending them the Blood of Life in their moment of greatest need.''\\|sign\\=Bernard Fantus\\|source\\=''Blood of Life'', Valerie Gendron}}",
"Fantus secured permission, spread the word of the establishment, obtained a suitable room at [Cook County Hospital](/wiki/Cook_County_Hospital \"Cook County Hospital\"), and put Dr. Elizabeth Schermer in charge of the laboratory. The [blood bank](/wiki/Blood_bank \"Blood bank\") officially opened on March 15, 1937\\.Gendron, Valerie, and Norman Senn. Brubeck. *Blood of Life: A Biography of the Life of Bernard Fantus M.D.* \\[Baltimore? N.S. Brubeck], 2007\\.",
""
] |
Life
----
Born in Saint\-Martin de Caux, his widowed mother brought him to Paris, where they lived near the [Boulevard du Temple](/wiki/Boulevard_du_Temple "Boulevard du Temple"). The [Théâtre des Élèves de l'Opéra](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_%C3%89l%C3%A8ves_de_l%27Op%C3%A9ra "Théâtre des Élèves de l'Opéra") opened there not long after their arrival, and Milon's interest was piqued. He was soon filling in as a Saracen on the city walls in the five\-act pantomime *La Jérusalem délivrée*. By the age of fourteen, he was playing pantomime and comedy and dancing at the [Variétés Amusantes](/wiki/Vari%C3%A9t%C3%A9s_Amusantes "Variétés Amusantes").Guest 2001, pp. 62–72\.
Later he began studying dance at the [Paris Opera Ballet School](/wiki/Paris_Opera_Ballet_School "Paris Opera Ballet School"), joining the *corps de ballet* of the school's parent company in 1787 and making a favorable impression as the Grand Cousin in [Maximilien Gardel](/wiki/Maximilien_Gardel "Maximilien Gardel")'s *Le déserteur* on 16 January 1788 and as the Mentor in [Pierre Gardel](/wiki/Pierre_Gardel "Pierre Gardel")'s *Télémaque* on 23 February 1790\.Pitou 1985, vol. 2, pp. 364–365\. He became *double* in 1791 and was only promoted to *replacement* in the *noble* genre in 1799, before retiring as a dancer in 1800\.
He created his first ballet, *Pygmalion*, at the [Théâtre de l'Ambigu\-Comique](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_l%27Ambigu-Comique "Théâtre de l'Ambigu-Comique") in 1799 with his sister\-in\-law, [Émilie Bigottini](/wiki/%C3%89milie_Bigottini "Émilie Bigottini"), as the star. It was so successful, that he was invited to stage it at the [Opéra](/wiki/Paris_Opera "Paris Opera"), where it was first presented on 20 August 1800\.
After successfully creating *Héro et Léandre* at the Opéra on 31 December 1799,Pitou 1985, vol. 2, p. 584\. he became assistant ballet master to [Pierre Gardel](/wiki/Pierre_Gardel "Pierre Gardel"), with whom he worked in great harmony. Their collaboration, *Les Noces de Gamache*, with a libretto by Milon based on comic episodes from Cervantes's novel *[Don Quixote](/wiki/Don_Quixote "Don Quixote")*, premiered on 18 January 1801 and was retained in the repertory until 1841\. He continued to teach and created many other works for the company until his retirement in 1826\.
Many of his ballets were also produced in the main stages of Europe. In parallel to his choreography career, he was also the last "Grand Professeur" of [pantomime](/wiki/Pantomime "Pantomime") at the Opéra.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2017}}
He died in [Neuilly\-sur\-Seine](/wiki/Neuilly-sur-Seine "Neuilly-sur-Seine") in 1849\.
Though not revolutionary, his works were well in line with the tastes of the time and perfectly legible for audiences. With Bigottini, Milon put on pieces full of fantasy and humour as well as melodramas, with the latter having great success right up until the rise of [romantic ballet](/wiki/Romantic_ballet "Romantic ballet") around 1830\.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Born in Saint\\-Martin de Caux, his widowed mother brought him to Paris, where they lived near the [Boulevard du Temple](/wiki/Boulevard_du_Temple \"Boulevard du Temple\"). The [Théâtre des Élèves de l'Opéra](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_%C3%89l%C3%A8ves_de_l%27Op%C3%A9ra \"Théâtre des Élèves de l'Opéra\") opened there not long after their arrival, and Milon's interest was piqued. He was soon filling in as a Saracen on the city walls in the five\\-act pantomime *La Jérusalem délivrée*. By the age of fourteen, he was playing pantomime and comedy and dancing at the [Variétés Amusantes](/wiki/Vari%C3%A9t%C3%A9s_Amusantes \"Variétés Amusantes\").Guest 2001, pp. 62–72\\.",
"Later he began studying dance at the [Paris Opera Ballet School](/wiki/Paris_Opera_Ballet_School \"Paris Opera Ballet School\"), joining the *corps de ballet* of the school's parent company in 1787 and making a favorable impression as the Grand Cousin in [Maximilien Gardel](/wiki/Maximilien_Gardel \"Maximilien Gardel\")'s *Le déserteur* on 16 January 1788 and as the Mentor in [Pierre Gardel](/wiki/Pierre_Gardel \"Pierre Gardel\")'s *Télémaque* on 23 February 1790\\.Pitou 1985, vol. 2, pp. 364–365\\. He became *double* in 1791 and was only promoted to *replacement* in the *noble* genre in 1799, before retiring as a dancer in 1800\\.",
"He created his first ballet, *Pygmalion*, at the [Théâtre de l'Ambigu\\-Comique](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_l%27Ambigu-Comique \"Théâtre de l'Ambigu-Comique\") in 1799 with his sister\\-in\\-law, [Émilie Bigottini](/wiki/%C3%89milie_Bigottini \"Émilie Bigottini\"), as the star. It was so successful, that he was invited to stage it at the [Opéra](/wiki/Paris_Opera \"Paris Opera\"), where it was first presented on 20 August 1800\\.",
"After successfully creating *Héro et Léandre* at the Opéra on 31 December 1799,Pitou 1985, vol. 2, p. 584\\. he became assistant ballet master to [Pierre Gardel](/wiki/Pierre_Gardel \"Pierre Gardel\"), with whom he worked in great harmony. Their collaboration, *Les Noces de Gamache*, with a libretto by Milon based on comic episodes from Cervantes's novel *[Don Quixote](/wiki/Don_Quixote \"Don Quixote\")*, premiered on 18 January 1801 and was retained in the repertory until 1841\\. He continued to teach and created many other works for the company until his retirement in 1826\\.",
"Many of his ballets were also produced in the main stages of Europe. In parallel to his choreography career, he was also the last \"Grand Professeur\" of [pantomime](/wiki/Pantomime \"Pantomime\") at the Opéra.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2017}}",
"He died in [Neuilly\\-sur\\-Seine](/wiki/Neuilly-sur-Seine \"Neuilly-sur-Seine\") in 1849\\.",
"Though not revolutionary, his works were well in line with the tastes of the time and perfectly legible for audiences. With Bigottini, Milon put on pieces full of fantasy and humour as well as melodramas, with the latter having great success right up until the rise of [romantic ballet](/wiki/Romantic_ballet \"Romantic ballet\") around 1830\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
The band was founded in 1995 in Berlin by Christopher Blenkinsop ([bouzouki](/wiki/Bouzouki "Bouzouki"), [ukulele](/wiki/Ukulele "Ukulele") and [vocals](/wiki/Vocals "Vocals")), Carsten Wegener ([bass](/wiki/Bass_guitar "Bass guitar")), Lutz "Lüül" Ulbrich ([banjo](/wiki/Banjo "Banjo") and [guitar](/wiki/Guitar "Guitar")), Kristin "Kiki" Sauer ([accordion](/wiki/Accordion "Accordion") and vocals) and Reinhard "Koma" Lüderitz ([bagpipes](/wiki/Bagpipes "Bagpipes")). They first used the name *17 Hippies* in the fall of that year.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/wir\-traeumen\-immer\-noch\-17\-hippies\-revisited.3691\.de.html?dram:article\_id\=460160 \|title\=Wir träumen immer noch \- 17 Hippies revisited \|website\=Hörspiel und Feature \|language\=de \|access\-date\=2019\-11\-17}}
In 1996 they began to organize their own series of free concerts called *Hippie Haus Tanz* (Hippie House Dance). At this time Antje Henkel ([clarinet](/wiki/Clarinet "Clarinet")), Elmar Gutmann ([trumpet](/wiki/Trumpet "Trumpet")), and Ulrike "Rike" Lau ([cello](/wiki/Cello "Cello")) joined the band. In 1997 Henry Notroff (clarinet) and Dirk Trageser (guitar \& vocals) also were added, and live recordings of different concerts and rehearsal room sessions were compiled into their first CD *Rock'n'Roll 13*.
In 1998 they played at the [SXSW](/wiki/SXSW "SXSW") Festival in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas") and then toured in [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas") and [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"). Later that year Uwe Langer ([trombone](/wiki/Trombone "Trombone")) joined the band and they played in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") for the first time.
They established their own record label and in 1999 released their second CD *Wer ist das?* (Who is that?). The French label Buda Musique released a [compilation](/wiki/Compilation_album "Compilation album") of both CDs called *Berlin Style*, which was then also released in Italy. Volker "Kruisko" Rettmann (accordion) joined the band.
In 2001 the band wrote the score for the German movie *[Grill Point](/wiki/Grill_Point "Grill Point")* (*Halbe Treppe*) by [Andreas Dresen](/wiki/Andreas_Dresen "Andreas Dresen") and they performed in a cameo role in the film. A tour of [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest"), [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague"), [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") and [France](/wiki/France "France") took place, and the second French album *Sirba* was released, featuring their first radio hit "Marlène". Kerstin Kaernbach ([violin](/wiki/Violin "Violin")) also was added to the band lineup. Their first studio album *Ifni* was released in 2004\. An extensive tour of Germany, [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland"), the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium"), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary"), the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"), [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco "Morocco") and France ensued. Daniel Friederichs (violin) became the last member to join the current lineup. In 2006 the band made a tour of [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") and [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") and composed the music for the play [Kasimir and Karoline](/wiki/Kasimir_and_Karoline "Kasimir and Karoline"), staged at the [Deutsches Theater](/wiki/Deutsches_Theater_%28Berlin%29 "Deutsches Theater (Berlin)") in Berlin.
In 2007, a second studio album, *Heimlich* (Secretly), was released in Europe and North America. In September they embarked on their first US tour, playing in Chicago, New York, Washington and Bloomington. In December they played at the Olympia in Paris. In 2008, their earlier albums were released in the UK by Proper Records, they toured the US twice, and they played festivals in Germany, France, the UK, Canada, Spain, Switzerland, Ireland, Greece, and Algeria.
In 2009 they released their third studio album *El Dorado*, the first of their albums to be released worldwide. Again the band went on an extensive world tour, that took them to 14 countries including China, the US, [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel") and [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan"). Concert highlights included appearances at [WOMAD](/wiki/WOMAD "WOMAD") in Charlton Park (UK), and a sold out show at the [Théâtre de la Ville](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_la_Ville "Théâtre de la Ville") in Paris. In 2011 they performed a concert at the [WOMAD New Zealand](https://web.archive.org/web/20100602115610/http://womad.co.nz/womad_index.html), in [Taranaki](/wiki/Taranaki_Region "Taranaki Region"), New Zealand. A one\-hour broadcast was later played on [Radio New Zealand National](/wiki/Radio_New_Zealand_National "Radio New Zealand National") on 1 July 2011\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/womad \|title\=Radio New Zealand : National : Programmes : WOMAD Taranaki 2011 \|publisher\=Radionz.co.nz \|date\=2011\-09\-09 \|accessdate\=2012\-03\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705060227/http://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/womad \|archive\-date\=5 July 2011 \|url\-status\=dead}}
In 2011 [JD Foster](/wiki/JD_Foster "JD Foster") co\-produced their album *Phantom Songs*. Since then they have added [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") to their list of countries visited, recorded an album for children called *Titus* in 2013 and recorded an album featuring percussionists, including [Aly Keita](/wiki/Aly_Keita "Aly Keita"), [Harald Grosskopf](/wiki/Harald_Grosskopf "Harald Grosskopf") and [Tunji Beier](/wiki/Tunji_Beier "Tunji Beier"), called *Biester* (Beasts) in 2014\. For their 20th anniversary they invited musicians they had met on their tours to collaborate in a special project called *Metamorphosis*. The idea was to record a 17 Hippies tune and then pass it on to another musician to further work on the track. Resulting music was published on the album of the same name, featuring [Elyas Khan](/wiki/Elyas_Khan "Elyas Khan"), [Marc Ribot](/wiki/Marc_Ribot "Marc Ribot"), [Mars Red Sky](/wiki/Mars_Red_Sky "Mars Red Sky"),[Tunji Beier](/wiki/Tunji_Beier "Tunji Beier"), [Banda Bardo](/wiki/Banda_Bardo "Banda Bardo"), [Aris Doryono](/wiki/Aris_Doryono "Aris Doryono") and [Les Ogres de Barback](/wiki/Les_Ogres_de_Barback "Les Ogres de Barback") (among others). The album was released together with the [best of](/wiki/Best_of "Best of") album *Anatomy* in 2016\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The band was founded in 1995 in Berlin by Christopher Blenkinsop ([bouzouki](/wiki/Bouzouki \"Bouzouki\"), [ukulele](/wiki/Ukulele \"Ukulele\") and [vocals](/wiki/Vocals \"Vocals\")), Carsten Wegener ([bass](/wiki/Bass_guitar \"Bass guitar\")), Lutz \"Lüül\" Ulbrich ([banjo](/wiki/Banjo \"Banjo\") and [guitar](/wiki/Guitar \"Guitar\")), Kristin \"Kiki\" Sauer ([accordion](/wiki/Accordion \"Accordion\") and vocals) and Reinhard \"Koma\" Lüderitz ([bagpipes](/wiki/Bagpipes \"Bagpipes\")). They first used the name *17 Hippies* in the fall of that year.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/wir\\-traeumen\\-immer\\-noch\\-17\\-hippies\\-revisited.3691\\.de.html?dram:article\\_id\\=460160 \\|title\\=Wir träumen immer noch \\- 17 Hippies revisited \\|website\\=Hörspiel und Feature \\|language\\=de \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-11\\-17}}",
"In 1996 they began to organize their own series of free concerts called *Hippie Haus Tanz* (Hippie House Dance). At this time Antje Henkel ([clarinet](/wiki/Clarinet \"Clarinet\")), Elmar Gutmann ([trumpet](/wiki/Trumpet \"Trumpet\")), and Ulrike \"Rike\" Lau ([cello](/wiki/Cello \"Cello\")) joined the band. In 1997 Henry Notroff (clarinet) and Dirk Trageser (guitar \\& vocals) also were added, and live recordings of different concerts and rehearsal room sessions were compiled into their first CD *Rock'n'Roll 13*.\nIn 1998 they played at the [SXSW](/wiki/SXSW \"SXSW\") Festival in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\") and then toured in [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\") and [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"). Later that year Uwe Langer ([trombone](/wiki/Trombone \"Trombone\")) joined the band and they played in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") for the first time.",
"They established their own record label and in 1999 released their second CD *Wer ist das?* (Who is that?). The French label Buda Musique released a [compilation](/wiki/Compilation_album \"Compilation album\") of both CDs called *Berlin Style*, which was then also released in Italy. Volker \"Kruisko\" Rettmann (accordion) joined the band.",
"In 2001 the band wrote the score for the German movie *[Grill Point](/wiki/Grill_Point \"Grill Point\")* (*Halbe Treppe*) by [Andreas Dresen](/wiki/Andreas_Dresen \"Andreas Dresen\") and they performed in a cameo role in the film. A tour of [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\"), [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\"), [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") and [France](/wiki/France \"France\") took place, and the second French album *Sirba* was released, featuring their first radio hit \"Marlène\". Kerstin Kaernbach ([violin](/wiki/Violin \"Violin\")) also was added to the band lineup. Their first studio album *Ifni* was released in 2004\\. An extensive tour of Germany, [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\"), the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\"), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\"), the [Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic \"Czech Republic\"), [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco \"Morocco\") and France ensued. Daniel Friederichs (violin) became the last member to join the current lineup. In 2006 the band made a tour of [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") and [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") and composed the music for the play [Kasimir and Karoline](/wiki/Kasimir_and_Karoline \"Kasimir and Karoline\"), staged at the [Deutsches Theater](/wiki/Deutsches_Theater_%28Berlin%29 \"Deutsches Theater (Berlin)\") in Berlin.",
"In 2007, a second studio album, *Heimlich* (Secretly), was released in Europe and North America. In September they embarked on their first US tour, playing in Chicago, New York, Washington and Bloomington. In December they played at the Olympia in Paris. In 2008, their earlier albums were released in the UK by Proper Records, they toured the US twice, and they played festivals in Germany, France, the UK, Canada, Spain, Switzerland, Ireland, Greece, and Algeria.",
"In 2009 they released their third studio album *El Dorado*, the first of their albums to be released worldwide. Again the band went on an extensive world tour, that took them to 14 countries including China, the US, [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") and [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\"). Concert highlights included appearances at [WOMAD](/wiki/WOMAD \"WOMAD\") in Charlton Park (UK), and a sold out show at the [Théâtre de la Ville](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_la_Ville \"Théâtre de la Ville\") in Paris. In 2011 they performed a concert at the [WOMAD New Zealand](https://web.archive.org/web/20100602115610/http://womad.co.nz/womad_index.html), in [Taranaki](/wiki/Taranaki_Region \"Taranaki Region\"), New Zealand. A one\\-hour broadcast was later played on [Radio New Zealand National](/wiki/Radio_New_Zealand_National \"Radio New Zealand National\") on 1 July 2011\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/womad \\|title\\=Radio New Zealand : National : Programmes : WOMAD Taranaki 2011 \\|publisher\\=Radionz.co.nz \\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-09 \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-03\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705060227/http://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/womad \\|archive\\-date\\=5 July 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In 2011 [JD Foster](/wiki/JD_Foster \"JD Foster\") co\\-produced their album *Phantom Songs*. Since then they have added [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") to their list of countries visited, recorded an album for children called *Titus* in 2013 and recorded an album featuring percussionists, including [Aly Keita](/wiki/Aly_Keita \"Aly Keita\"), [Harald Grosskopf](/wiki/Harald_Grosskopf \"Harald Grosskopf\") and [Tunji Beier](/wiki/Tunji_Beier \"Tunji Beier\"), called *Biester* (Beasts) in 2014\\. For their 20th anniversary they invited musicians they had met on their tours to collaborate in a special project called *Metamorphosis*. The idea was to record a 17 Hippies tune and then pass it on to another musician to further work on the track. Resulting music was published on the album of the same name, featuring [Elyas Khan](/wiki/Elyas_Khan \"Elyas Khan\"), [Marc Ribot](/wiki/Marc_Ribot \"Marc Ribot\"), [Mars Red Sky](/wiki/Mars_Red_Sky \"Mars Red Sky\"),[Tunji Beier](/wiki/Tunji_Beier \"Tunji Beier\"), [Banda Bardo](/wiki/Banda_Bardo \"Banda Bardo\"), [Aris Doryono](/wiki/Aris_Doryono \"Aris Doryono\") and [Les Ogres de Barback](/wiki/Les_Ogres_de_Barback \"Les Ogres de Barback\") (among others). The album was released together with the [best of](/wiki/Best_of \"Best of\") album *Anatomy* in 2016\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Marla is a formerly free\-spirited girl who has grown up to be responsible yet overprotective in caring for her brother, Charlie. Charlie has grown lonely and disconnected from her after their parents died in a car accident. One night, Charlie sneaks out to visit a toy museum with a Playmobil exhibit. After Marla arrives and tells Charlie off for running away, a lighthouse illuminates them and transports them to the Playmobil world.
Marla and Charlie –who has been transformed into a Viking warrior– find themselves in the middle of a [Viking](/wiki/Vikings "Vikings") battle, and Charlie helps them until he is kidnapped by a group of [pirates](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy"). Frantic to find her brother, Marla goes to the nearest town hoping to ask for help and runs into Del, the driver of a [food truck](/wiki/Food_truck "Food truck") whose client refuses to pay him over pink hay that causes the town's horses to sprout wings. As Marla tries to form a posse to find Charlie, Del gets her out of trouble when she shows Viking gold to the whole town and agrees to help Marla find her brother in exchange for the gold.
Marla and Del run into Rex Dasher, a secret agent and an old friend of Del. Rex explains that several characters have disappeared, and the group sneaks into a villainous spy headquarters to find information about the disappearances. Despite some issues, they successfully gather the data and escape, but the pirates later capture Rex. He is taken to Constantinopolis and finds Charlie, who had been locked up with other characters by Emperor Maximus, who intends to have the prisoners fight to their deaths. Rex tells Charlie that Marla has been looking for him, which encourages Charlie to break away. However, he later allows himself to be recaptured, so the other characters can escape.
Del recognizes that a device used by the pirates belongs to Glinara, an alien [crime lord](/wiki/Boss_%28crime%29 "Boss (crime)"). After meeting with her in exchange for information, Del offers to pay twice as much as he owes her. Glinara agrees and reveals that she sold the device to Maximus. However, Del cannot uphold his end of the bargain, as Marla only has two pieces of gold left. Angered, Glinara captures them and attempts to drop them into a portal, but they are spared by Glinara's robot servant, Robotitron, who hacks the portal and drops the group into a forest. Del leaves the group, upset by Marla's deception. Marla and Robotitron get lost in the forest until Marla accidentally hits a [fairy godmother](/wiki/Fairy_godmother "Fairy godmother"), who encourages her to continue her search and sends her to Constantinopolis.
Arriving in the city, Marla reaches a coliseum where Charlie is about to fight a *[Tyrannosaurus rex](/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex "Tyrannosaurus rex")*. Charlie and Marla work together to fight off the T\-Rex, but to no avail. Del soon arrives with his food truck, and Marla uses the last of Del's pink hay to turn the T\-Rex harmless. An enraged Maximus orders his guards to arrest them, but the guards reveal themselves as Rex and the missing warriors, who lock Maximus inside a cage. As everyone celebrates their victory, Marla and Charlie use the T\-Rex to fly back to the lighthouse and return to the real world, where it is revealed that they were missing for only five minutes. On good terms, Marla promises Charlie that their relationship will be mended.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Marla is a formerly free\\-spirited girl who has grown up to be responsible yet overprotective in caring for her brother, Charlie. Charlie has grown lonely and disconnected from her after their parents died in a car accident. One night, Charlie sneaks out to visit a toy museum with a Playmobil exhibit. After Marla arrives and tells Charlie off for running away, a lighthouse illuminates them and transports them to the Playmobil world.",
"Marla and Charlie –who has been transformed into a Viking warrior– find themselves in the middle of a [Viking](/wiki/Vikings \"Vikings\") battle, and Charlie helps them until he is kidnapped by a group of [pirates](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\"). Frantic to find her brother, Marla goes to the nearest town hoping to ask for help and runs into Del, the driver of a [food truck](/wiki/Food_truck \"Food truck\") whose client refuses to pay him over pink hay that causes the town's horses to sprout wings. As Marla tries to form a posse to find Charlie, Del gets her out of trouble when she shows Viking gold to the whole town and agrees to help Marla find her brother in exchange for the gold.",
"Marla and Del run into Rex Dasher, a secret agent and an old friend of Del. Rex explains that several characters have disappeared, and the group sneaks into a villainous spy headquarters to find information about the disappearances. Despite some issues, they successfully gather the data and escape, but the pirates later capture Rex. He is taken to Constantinopolis and finds Charlie, who had been locked up with other characters by Emperor Maximus, who intends to have the prisoners fight to their deaths. Rex tells Charlie that Marla has been looking for him, which encourages Charlie to break away. However, he later allows himself to be recaptured, so the other characters can escape.",
"Del recognizes that a device used by the pirates belongs to Glinara, an alien [crime lord](/wiki/Boss_%28crime%29 \"Boss (crime)\"). After meeting with her in exchange for information, Del offers to pay twice as much as he owes her. Glinara agrees and reveals that she sold the device to Maximus. However, Del cannot uphold his end of the bargain, as Marla only has two pieces of gold left. Angered, Glinara captures them and attempts to drop them into a portal, but they are spared by Glinara's robot servant, Robotitron, who hacks the portal and drops the group into a forest. Del leaves the group, upset by Marla's deception. Marla and Robotitron get lost in the forest until Marla accidentally hits a [fairy godmother](/wiki/Fairy_godmother \"Fairy godmother\"), who encourages her to continue her search and sends her to Constantinopolis.",
"Arriving in the city, Marla reaches a coliseum where Charlie is about to fight a *[Tyrannosaurus rex](/wiki/Tyrannosaurus_rex \"Tyrannosaurus rex\")*. Charlie and Marla work together to fight off the T\\-Rex, but to no avail. Del soon arrives with his food truck, and Marla uses the last of Del's pink hay to turn the T\\-Rex harmless. An enraged Maximus orders his guards to arrest them, but the guards reveal themselves as Rex and the missing warriors, who lock Maximus inside a cage. As everyone celebrates their victory, Marla and Charlie use the T\\-Rex to fly back to the lighthouse and return to the real world, where it is revealed that they were missing for only five minutes. On good terms, Marla promises Charlie that their relationship will be mended.",
""
] |
Chemistry and compounds
-----------------------
### Dinitrogen complexes
{{main\|Dinitrogen complex}}
[thumb\|right\|Structure of \[Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2\+ ([pentaamine(dinitrogen)ruthenium(II)](/wiki/Pentaamine%28dinitrogen%29ruthenium%28II%29_chloride "Pentaamine(dinitrogen)ruthenium(II) chloride")), the first dinitrogen complex to be discovered](/wiki/File:RuA5N2.png "RuA5N2.png")
The first example of a [dinitrogen complex](/wiki/Dinitrogen_complex "Dinitrogen complex") to be discovered was \[Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2\+ (see figure at right), and soon many other such complexes were discovered. These [complexes](/wiki/Complex_%28chemistry%29 "Complex (chemistry)"), in which a nitrogen molecule donates at least one lone pair of electrons to a central metal cation, illustrate how N2 might bind to the metal(s) in [nitrogenase](/wiki/Nitrogenase "Nitrogenase") and the [catalyst](/wiki/Catalysis "Catalysis") for the [Haber process](/wiki/Haber_process "Haber process"): these processes involving dinitrogen activation are vitally important in biology and in the production of fertilisers.{{Cite journal\|author\=Fryzuk, M. D.\|author2\=Johnson, S. A.\|name\-list\-style\=amp\|title\=The continuing story of dinitrogen activation\|journal\=Coordination Chemistry Reviews\|volume\=200–202\|page\=379\|year\=2000\|doi\=10\.1016/S0010\-8545(00\)00264\-2}}{{Cite journal\|author\=Schrock, R. R.\|title\=Catalytic Reduction of Dinitrogen to Ammonia at a Single Molybdenum Center\|journal\=\[\[Acc. Chem. Res.]]\|year\=2005\|volume\=38\|issue\=12\|pmid\=16359167\|pages\=955–62\|pmc\=2551323\|doi\=10\.1021/ar0501121\|author\-link\=Richard R. Schrock}}
Dinitrogen is able to coordinate to metals in five different ways. The more well\-characterised ways are the end\-on M←N≡N (*[η](/wiki/Hapticity "Hapticity")*1) and M←N≡N→M (*[μ](/wiki/Bridging_ligand "Bridging ligand")*, bis\-*η*1), in which the lone pairs on the nitrogen atoms are donated to the metal cation. The less well\-characterised ways involve dinitrogen donating electron pairs from the triple bond, either as a [bridging ligand](/wiki/Bridging_ligand "Bridging ligand") to two metal cations (*μ*, bis\-*η*2) or to just one (*η*2). The fifth and unique method involves triple\-coordination as a bridging ligand, donating all three electron pairs from the triple bond (*μ*3\-N2). A few complexes feature multiple N2 ligands and some feature N2 bonded in multiple ways. Since N2 is isoelectronic with [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide "Carbon monoxide") (CO) and [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene "Acetylene") (C2H2), the bonding in dinitrogen complexes is closely allied to that in [carbonyl](/wiki/Carbonyl "Carbonyl") compounds, although N2 is a weaker *σ*\-donor and *π*\-acceptor than CO. Theoretical studies show that *σ* donation is a more important factor allowing the formation of the M–N bond than *π* back\-donation, which mostly only weakens the N–N bond, and end\-on (*η*1) donation is more readily accomplished than side\-on (*η*2) donation.
Today, dinitrogen complexes are known for almost all the [transition metals](/wiki/Transition_metal "Transition metal"), accounting for several hundred compounds. They are normally prepared by three methods:
1. Replacing labile ligands such as [H2O](/wiki/Water "Water"), [H−](/wiki/Hydride "Hydride"), or [CO](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide "Carbon monoxide") directly by nitrogen: these are often reversible reactions that proceed at mild conditions.
2. Reducing metal complexes in the presence of a suitable co\-ligand in excess under nitrogen gas. A common choice includes replacing chloride ligands with [dimethylphenylphosphine](/wiki/Dimethylphenylphosphine "Dimethylphenylphosphine") (PMe2Ph) to make up for the smaller number of nitrogen ligands attached to the original chlorine ligands.
3. Converting a ligand with N–N bonds, such as hydrazine or azide, directly into a dinitrogen ligand.
Occasionally the N≡N bond may be formed directly within a metal complex, for example by directly reacting coordinated [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia "Ammonia") (NH3) with [nitrous acid](/wiki/Nitrous_acid "Nitrous acid") (HNO2), but this is not generally applicable. Most dinitrogen complexes have colours within the range white\-yellow\-orange\-red\-brown; a few exceptions are known, such as the blue \[{Ti(*η*5\-C5H5)2}2\-(N2)].
### Nitrides, azides, and nitrido complexes
Nitrogen bonds to almost all the elements in the periodic table except the first two [noble gases](/wiki/Noble_gas "Noble gas"), [helium](/wiki/Helium "Helium") and [neon](/wiki/Neon "Neon"), and some of the very short\-lived elements after [bismuth](/wiki/Bismuth "Bismuth"), creating an immense variety of binary compounds with varying properties and applications. Many binary compounds are known: with the exception of the nitrogen hydrides, oxides, and fluorides, these are typically called [nitrides](/wiki/Nitride "Nitride"). Many stoichiometric phases are usually present for most elements (e.g. MnN, Mn6N5, Mn3N2, Mn2N, Mn4N, and Mn*x*N for 9\.2 \< *x* \< 25\.3\). They may be classified as "salt\-like" (mostly ionic), covalent, "diamond\-like", and metallic (or [interstitial](/wiki/Interstitial_compound "Interstitial compound")), although this classification has limitations generally stemming from the continuity of bonding types instead of the discrete and separate types that it implies. They are normally prepared by directly reacting a metal with nitrogen or ammonia (sometimes after heating), or by [thermal decomposition](/wiki/Thermal_decomposition "Thermal decomposition") of metal amides:Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 417–20
3 Ca \+ N2 → Ca3N2
3 Mg \+ 2 NH3 → Mg3N2 \+ 3 H2 (at 900 °C)
3 Zn(NH2)2 → Zn3N2 \+ 4 NH3
Many variants on these processes are possible. The most ionic of these nitrides are those of the [alkali metals](/wiki/Alkali_metal "Alkali metal") and [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal "Alkaline earth metal"), Li3N (Na, K, Rb, and Cs do not form stable nitrides for steric reasons) and M3N2 (M \= Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba). These can formally be thought of as salts of the N3− anion, although charge separation is not actually complete even for these highly electropositive elements. However, the alkali metal [azides](/wiki/Azide "Azide") NaN3 and KN3, featuring the linear {{chem\|N\|3\|\-}} anion, are well\-known, as are Sr(N3)2 and Ba(N3)2. Azides of the B\-subgroup metals (those in [groups 11](/wiki/Group_11_element "Group 11 element") through [16](/wiki/Chalcogen "Chalcogen")) are much less ionic, have more complicated structures, and detonate readily when shocked.
[thumb\|right\|upright\=1\.8\|Mesomeric structures of borazine, (–BH–NH–)3](/wiki/File:Borazin_Mesomers1.svg "Borazin Mesomers1.svg")
Many covalent binary nitrides are known. Examples include [cyanogen](/wiki/Cyanogen "Cyanogen") ((CN)2), [triphosphorus pentanitride](/wiki/Triphosphorus_pentanitride "Triphosphorus pentanitride") (P3N5), [disulfur dinitride](/wiki/Disulfur_dinitride "Disulfur dinitride") (S2N2), and [tetrasulfur tetranitride](/wiki/Tetrasulfur_tetranitride "Tetrasulfur tetranitride") (S4N4). The essentially covalent [silicon nitride](/wiki/Silicon_nitride "Silicon nitride") (Si3N4) and [germanium nitride](/wiki/Germanium_nitride "Germanium nitride") (Ge3N4) are also known: silicon nitride, in particular, would make a promising [ceramic](/wiki/Ceramic "Ceramic") if not for the difficulty of working with and sintering it. In particular, the [group 13](/wiki/Boron_group "Boron group") nitrides, most of which are promising [semiconductors](/wiki/Semiconductor "Semiconductor"), are isoelectronic with graphite, diamond, and [silicon carbide](/wiki/Silicon_carbide "Silicon carbide") and have similar structures: their bonding changes from covalent to partially ionic to metallic as the group is descended. In particular, since the B–N unit is isoelectronic to C–C, and carbon is essentially intermediate in size between boron and nitrogen, much of [organic chemistry](/wiki/Organic_chemistry "Organic chemistry") finds an echo in boron–nitrogen chemistry, such as in [borazine](/wiki/Borazine "Borazine") ("inorganic [benzene](/wiki/Benzene "Benzene")"). Nevertheless, the analogy is not exact due to the ease of [nucleophilic](/wiki/Nucleophile "Nucleophile") attack at boron due to its deficiency in electrons, which is not possible in a wholly carbon\-containing ring.
The largest category of nitrides are the interstitial nitrides of formulae MN, M2N, and M4N (although variable composition is perfectly possible), where the small nitrogen atoms are positioned in the gaps in a metallic cubic or [hexagonal close\-packed](/wiki/Hexagonal_close-packed "Hexagonal close-packed") lattice. They are opaque, very hard, and chemically inert, melting only at very high temperatures (generally over 2500 °C). They have a metallic lustre and conduct electricity as do metals. They hydrolyse only very slowly to give ammonia or nitrogen.
The nitride anion (N3−) is the strongest *π* donor known among ligands (the second\-strongest is O2−). Nitrido complexes are generally made by the thermal decomposition of azides or by deprotonating ammonia, and they usually involve a terminal {≡N}3− group. The linear azide anion ({{chem\|N\|3\|\-}}), being isoelectronic with [nitrous oxide](/wiki/Nitrous_oxide "Nitrous oxide"), [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide"), and [cyanate](/wiki/Cyanate "Cyanate"), forms many coordination complexes. Further catenation is rare, although {{chem\|N\|4\|4\-}} (isoelectronic with [carbonate](/wiki/Carbonate "Carbonate") and [nitrate](/wiki/Nitrate "Nitrate")) is known.
### Hydrides
[thumb\|right\|upright\=2\.3\|Standard reduction potentials for nitrogen\-containing species. Top diagram shows potentials at pH 0; bottom diagram shows potentials at pH 14\.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 434–38](/wiki/File:Nitrogen_electrode_potentials.svg "Nitrogen electrode potentials.svg")
Industrially, [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia "Ammonia") (NH3) is the most important compound of nitrogen and is prepared in larger amounts than any other compound because it contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilisers. It is a colourless alkaline gas with a characteristic pungent smell. The presence of [hydrogen bonding](/wiki/Hydrogen_bonding "Hydrogen bonding") has very significant effects on ammonia, conferring on it its high melting (−78 °C) and boiling (−33 °C) points. As a liquid, it is a very good solvent with a high heat of vaporisation (enabling it to be used in vacuum flasks), that also has a low viscosity and electrical conductivity and high [dielectric constant](/wiki/Dielectric_constant "Dielectric constant"), and is less dense than water. However, the hydrogen bonding in NH3 is weaker than that in H2O due to the lower electronegativity of nitrogen compared to oxygen and the presence of only one lone pair in NH3 rather than two in H2O. It is a weak base in aqueous solution ([p*K**b*](/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant "Acid dissociation constant") 4\.74\); its conjugate acid is [ammonium](/wiki/Ammonium "Ammonium"), {{chem\|NH\|4\|\+}}. It can also act as an extremely weak acid, losing a proton to produce the amide anion, {{chem\|NH\|2\|\-}}. It thus undergoes self\-dissociation, similar to water, to produce ammonium and amide. Ammonia burns in air or oxygen, though not readily, to produce nitrogen gas; it burns in fluorine with a greenish\-yellow flame to give [nitrogen trifluoride](/wiki/Nitrogen_trifluoride "Nitrogen trifluoride"). Reactions with the other nonmetals are very complex and tend to lead to a mixture of products. Ammonia reacts on heating with metals to give nitrides.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 420–26
Many other binary nitrogen hydrides are known, but the most important are [hydrazine](/wiki/Hydrazine "Hydrazine") (N2H4) and [hydrogen azide](/wiki/Hydrogen_azide "Hydrogen azide") (HN3). Although it is not a nitrogen hydride, [hydroxylamine](/wiki/Hydroxylamine "Hydroxylamine") (NH2OH) is similar in properties and structure to ammonia and hydrazine as well. Hydrazine is a fuming, colourless liquid that smells similar to ammonia. Its physical properties are very similar to those of water (melting point 2\.0 °C, boiling point 113\.5 °C, density 1\.00 g/cm3). Despite it being an endothermic compound, it is kinetically stable. It burns quickly and completely in air very exothermically to give nitrogen and water vapour. It is a very useful and versatile reducing agent and is a weaker base than ammonia. It is also commonly used as a rocket fuel.{{cite journal \| last \= Vieira \| first \= R. \|author2\=C. Pham\-Huu \|author3\=N. Keller \|author4\=M. J. Ledoux \| year \= 2002 \| title \= New carbon nanofiber/graphite felt composite for use as a catalyst for hydrazine catalytic decomposition \| journal \= \[\[Chemical Communications]] \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 954–55 \| doi \= 10\.1039/b202032g\| pmid \= 12123065 }}
Hydrazine is generally made by reaction of ammonia with alkaline [sodium hypochlorite](/wiki/Sodium_hypochlorite "Sodium hypochlorite") in the presence of gelatin or glue:Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 426–33
NH3 \+ OCl− → NH2Cl \+ OH−
NH2Cl \+ NH3 → {{chem\|N\|2\|H\|5\|\+}} \+ Cl− (slow)
{{chem\|N\|2\|H\|5\|\+}} \+ OH− → N2H4 \+ H2O (fast)
(The attacks by hydroxide and ammonia may be reversed, thus passing through the intermediate NHCl− instead.) The reason for adding gelatin is that it removes metal ions such as Cu2\+ that catalyses the destruction of hydrazine by reaction with [monochloramine](/wiki/Monochloramine "Monochloramine") (NH2Cl) to produce [ammonium chloride](/wiki/Ammonium_chloride "Ammonium chloride") and nitrogen.
[Hydrogen azide](/wiki/Hydrogen_azide "Hydrogen azide") (HN3) was first produced in 1890 by the oxidation of aqueous hydrazine by nitrous acid. It is very explosive and even dilute solutions can be dangerous. It has a disagreeable and irritating smell and is a potentially lethal (but not cumulative) poison. It may be considered the conjugate acid of the azide anion, and is similarly analogous to the [hydrohalic acids](/wiki/Hydrohalic_acid "Hydrohalic acid").
### Halides and oxohalides
[thumb\|right\|[Nitrogen trichloride](/wiki/Nitrogen_trichloride "Nitrogen trichloride")](/wiki/File:Nitrogen_trichloride.JPG "Nitrogen trichloride.JPG")
All four simple nitrogen trihalides are known. A few mixed halides and hydrohalides are known, but are mostly unstable; examples include NClF2, NCl2F, NBrF2, NF2H, [NFH2](/wiki/Fluoroamine "Fluoroamine"), [NCl2H](/wiki/Dichloramine "Dichloramine"), and [NClH2](/wiki/Monochloramine "Monochloramine").Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 438–42
[Nitrogen trifluoride](/wiki/Nitrogen_trifluoride "Nitrogen trifluoride") (NF3, first prepared in 1928\) is a colourless and odourless gas that is thermodynamically stable, and most readily produced by the [electrolysis](/wiki/Electrolysis "Electrolysis") of molten [ammonium fluoride](/wiki/Ammonium_fluoride "Ammonium fluoride") dissolved in anhydrous [hydrogen fluoride](/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride "Hydrogen fluoride"). Like [carbon tetrafluoride](/wiki/Carbon_tetrafluoride "Carbon tetrafluoride"), it is not at all reactive and is stable in water or dilute aqueous acids or alkalis. Only when heated does it act as a fluorinating agent, and it reacts with [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper"), arsenic, antimony, and bismuth on contact at high temperatures to give [tetrafluorohydrazine](/wiki/Tetrafluorohydrazine "Tetrafluorohydrazine") (N2F4). The cations {{chem\|NF\|4\|\+}} and {{chem\|N\|2\|F\|3\|\+}} are also known (the latter from reacting tetrafluorohydrazine with strong fluoride\-acceptors such as [arsenic pentafluoride](/wiki/Arsenic_pentafluoride "Arsenic pentafluoride")), as is ONF3, which has aroused interest due to the short N–O distance implying partial double bonding and the highly polar and long N–F bond. Tetrafluorohydrazine, unlike hydrazine itself, can dissociate at room temperature and above to give the radical NF2•. [Fluorine azide](/wiki/Fluorine_azide "Fluorine azide") (FN3) is very explosive and thermally unstable. [Dinitrogen difluoride](/wiki/Dinitrogen_difluoride "Dinitrogen difluoride") (N2F2) exists as thermally interconvertible *cis* and *trans* isomers, and was first found as a product of the thermal decomposition of FN3.
[Nitrogen trichloride](/wiki/Nitrogen_trichloride "Nitrogen trichloride") (NCl3) is a dense, volatile, and explosive liquid whose physical properties are similar to those of [carbon tetrachloride](/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride "Carbon tetrachloride"), although one difference is that NCl3 is easily hydrolysed by water while CCl4 is not. It was first synthesised in 1811 by [Pierre Louis Dulong](/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Dulong "Pierre Louis Dulong"), who lost three fingers and an eye to its explosive tendencies. As a dilute gas it is less dangerous and is thus used industrially to bleach and sterilise flour. [Nitrogen tribromide](/wiki/Nitrogen_tribromide "Nitrogen tribromide") (NBr3), first prepared in 1975, is a deep red, temperature\-sensitive, volatile solid that is explosive even at −100 °C. [Nitrogen triiodide](/wiki/Nitrogen_triiodide "Nitrogen triiodide") (NI3) is still more unstable and was only prepared in 1990\. Its adduct with ammonia, which was known earlier, is very shock\-sensitive: it can be set off by the touch of a feather, shifting air currents, or even [alpha particles](/wiki/Alpha_particle "Alpha particle").{{ cite journal \| author \= Bowden, F. P. \| title \= Initiation of Explosion by Neutrons, α\-Particles, and Fission Products \| journal \= Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A \| year \= 1958 \| volume \= 246 \| issue \= 1245 \| pages \= 216–19 \| doi \= 10\.1098/rspa.1958\.0123 \| bibcode \= 1958RSPSA.246\..216B \| s2cid \= 137728239 }} For this reason, small amounts of nitrogen triiodide are sometimes synthesised as a demonstration to high school chemistry students or as an act of "chemical magic".{{cite book \| author1 \= Ford, L. A. \| author2 \= Grundmeier, E. W. \| title \= Chemical Magic \| publisher \= Dover \| year \= 1993 \| page \= \[https://archive.org/details/chemicalmagic00ford\_0/page/76 76] \| isbn \= 978\-0\-486\-67628\-9 \| url\-access \= registration \| url \= https://archive.org/details/chemicalmagic00ford\_0/page/76 }} [Chlorine azide](/wiki/Chlorine_azide "Chlorine azide") (ClN3) and [bromine azide](/wiki/Bromine_azide "Bromine azide") (BrN3) are extremely sensitive and explosive.{{ cite journal \|author1\=Frierson, W. J. \|author2\=Kronrad, J. \|author3\=Browne, A. W. \| title \= Chlorine Azide, ClN3. I \| journal \= \[\[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] \| year \= 1943 \| volume \= 65 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 1696–1698 \| doi \= 10\.1021/ja01249a012 }}{{cite journal\|last\=Lyhs\|first\=Benjamin\|author2\=Bläser, Dieter\|author3\=Wölper, Christoph\|author4\=Schulz, Stephan\|author5\=Jansen, Georg\|title\=Solid\-State Structure of Bromine Azide\|journal\=Angewandte Chemie International Edition\|date\=20 February 2012\|volume\=51\|issue\=8\|pages\=1970–1974\|doi\=10\.1002/anie.201108092\|pmid\=22250068\|url\=https://duepublico2\.uni\-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico\_derivate\_00073133/Accepted\_Manuscript\_Angew\_Chem\_Int\_Ed\_2012\_51\_1970\.pdf\|access\-date\=25 August 2021\|archive\-date\=25 August 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825213503/https://duepublico2\.uni\-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico\_derivate\_00073133/Accepted\_Manuscript\_Angew\_Chem\_Int\_Ed\_2012\_51\_1970\.pdf\|url\-status\=live}}
Two series of nitrogen oxohalides are known: the nitrosyl halides (XNO) and the nitryl halides (XNO2). The first is very reactive gases that can be made by directly halogenating nitrous oxide. [Nitrosyl fluoride](/wiki/Nitrosyl_fluoride "Nitrosyl fluoride") (NOF) is colourless and a vigorous fluorinating agent. [Nitrosyl chloride](/wiki/Nitrosyl_chloride "Nitrosyl chloride") (NOCl) behaves in much the same way and has often been used as an ionising solvent. [Nitrosyl bromide](/wiki/Nitrosyl_bromide "Nitrosyl bromide") (NOBr) is red. The reactions of the nitryl halides are mostly similar: [nitryl fluoride](/wiki/Nitryl_fluoride "Nitryl fluoride") (FNO2) and [nitryl chloride](/wiki/Nitryl_chloride "Nitryl chloride") (ClNO2) are likewise reactive gases and vigorous halogenating agents.
### Oxides
{{main\|Nitrogen oxide}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\.36\|right\|Nitrogen dioxide at −196 °C, 0 °C, 23 °C, 35 °C, and 50 °C. {{chem\|NO\|2}} converts to colourless dinitrogen tetroxide ({{chem\|N\|2\|O\|4}}) at low temperatures, and reverts to {{chem\|NO\|2}} at higher temperatures.](/wiki/File:Nitrogen_dioxide_at_different_temperatures.jpg "Nitrogen dioxide at different temperatures.jpg")
Nitrogen forms nine molecular oxides, some of which were the first gases to be identified: N2O ([nitrous oxide](/wiki/Nitrous_oxide "Nitrous oxide")), NO ([nitric oxide](/wiki/Nitric_oxide "Nitric oxide")), N2O3 ([dinitrogen trioxide](/wiki/Dinitrogen_trioxide "Dinitrogen trioxide")), NO2 ([nitrogen dioxide](/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide "Nitrogen dioxide")), N2O4 ([dinitrogen tetroxide](/wiki/Dinitrogen_tetroxide "Dinitrogen tetroxide")), N2O5 ([dinitrogen pentoxide](/wiki/Dinitrogen_pentoxide "Dinitrogen pentoxide")), N4O ([nitrosylazide](/wiki/Nitrosylazide "Nitrosylazide")),Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 443–58 and N(NO2)3 ([trinitramide](/wiki/Trinitramide "Trinitramide")).{{cite journal \|last1\=Rahm \|first1\=Martin \|last2\=Dvinskikh \|first2\=Sergey V. \|last3\=Furó \|first3\=István \|last4\=Brinck \|first4\=Tore \|date\=23 December 2010 \|title\=Experimental Detection of Trinitramide, N(NO2)3 \|journal\=Angewandte Chemie International Edition \|volume\=50 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=1145–48 \|doi\=10\.1002/anie.201007047\|pmid\=21268214 \|s2cid\=32952729 }} All are thermally unstable towards decomposition to their elements. One other possible oxide that has not yet been synthesised is [oxatetrazole](/wiki/Oxatetrazole "Oxatetrazole") (N4O), an aromatic ring.
Nitrous oxide (N2O), better known as laughing gas, is made by thermal decomposition of molten [ammonium nitrate](/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate "Ammonium nitrate") at 250 °C. This is a redox reaction and thus nitric oxide and nitrogen are also produced as byproducts. It is mostly used as a propellant and aerating agent for [sprayed canned whipped cream](/wiki/Cream "Cream"), and was formerly commonly used as an anaesthetic. Despite appearances, it cannot be considered to be the [anhydride](/wiki/Inorganic_anhydride "Inorganic anhydride") of [hyponitrous acid](/wiki/Hyponitrous_acid "Hyponitrous acid") (H2N2O2) because that acid is not produced by the dissolution of nitrous oxide in water. It is rather unreactive (not reacting with the halogens, the alkali metals, or [ozone](/wiki/Ozone "Ozone") at room temperature, although reactivity increases upon heating) and has the unsymmetrical structure N–N–O (N≡N\+O−↔−N\=N\+\=O): above 600 °C it dissociates by breaking the weaker N–O bond.
Nitric oxide (NO) is the simplest stable molecule with an odd number of electrons. In mammals, including humans, it is an important cellular [signalling molecule](/wiki/Signalling_molecule "Signalling molecule") involved in many physiological and pathological processes.{{cite journal\|pmid\=10390607\|year\=1999\|last1\=Hou\|first1\=Y. C.\|last2\=Janczuk\|first2\=A.\|last3\=Wang\|first3\=P. G.\|title\=Current trends in the development of nitric oxide donors\|volume\=5\|issue\=6\|pages\=417–41\|journal\=Current Pharmaceutical Design\|doi\=10\.2174/138161280506230110111042 }} It is formed by catalytic oxidation of ammonia. It is a colourless paramagnetic gas that, being thermodynamically unstable, decomposes to nitrogen and oxygen gas at 1100–1200 °C. Its bonding is similar to that in nitrogen, but one extra electron is added to a *π*\* antibonding orbital and thus the bond order has been reduced to approximately 2\.5; hence dimerisation to O\=N–N\=O is unfavourable except below the boiling point (where the *cis* isomer is more stable) because it does not actually increase the total bond order and because the unpaired electron is delocalised across the NO molecule, granting it stability. There is also evidence for the asymmetric red dimer O\=N–O\=N when nitric oxide is condensed with polar molecules. It reacts with oxygen to give brown nitrogen dioxide and with halogens to give nitrosyl halides. It also reacts with transition metal compounds to give nitrosyl complexes, most of which are deeply coloured.
Blue dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) is only available as a solid because it rapidly dissociates above its melting point to give nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). The latter two compounds are somewhat difficult to study individually because of the equilibrium between them, although sometimes dinitrogen tetroxide can react by heterolytic fission to [nitrosonium](/wiki/Nitrosonium "Nitrosonium") and [nitrate](/wiki/Nitrate "Nitrate") in a medium with high dielectric constant. Nitrogen dioxide is an acrid, corrosive brown gas. Both compounds may be easily prepared by decomposing a dry metal nitrate. Both react with water to form [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid "Nitric acid"). Dinitrogen tetroxide is very useful for the preparation of anhydrous metal nitrates and nitrato complexes, and it became the storable oxidiser of choice for many rockets in both the United States and [USSR](/wiki/USSR "USSR") by the late 1950s. This is because it is a [hypergolic propellant](/wiki/Hypergolic_propellant "Hypergolic propellant") in combination with a [hydrazine](/wiki/Hydrazine "Hydrazine")\-based [rocket fuel](/wiki/Rocket_propellant "Rocket propellant") and can be easily stored since it is liquid at room temperature.
The thermally unstable and very reactive dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) is the anhydride of [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid "Nitric acid"), and can be made from it by dehydration with [phosphorus pentoxide](/wiki/Phosphorus_pentoxide "Phosphorus pentoxide"). It is of interest for the preparation of explosives.{{cite journal\|author\=Talawar, M. B.\|title\=Establishment of Process Technology for the Manufacture of Dinitrogen Pentoxide and its Utility for the Synthesis of Most Powerful Explosive of Today – CL\-20\|journal\=Journal of Hazardous Materials\|year\= 2005\| volume \=124\|issue\=1–3\| pages \=153–64\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jhazmat.2005\.04\.021\|pmid\=15979786\|bibcode\=2005JHzM..124\..153T \|display\-authors\=etal}} It is a [deliquescent](/wiki/Deliquescent "Deliquescent"), colourless crystalline solid that is sensitive to light. In the solid state it is ionic with structure \[NO2]\+\[NO3]−; as a gas and in solution it is molecular O2N–O–NO2. Hydration to nitric acid comes readily, as does analogous reaction with [hydrogen peroxide](/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide "Hydrogen peroxide") giving [peroxonitric acid](/wiki/Peroxonitric_acid "Peroxonitric acid") (HOONO2). It is a violent oxidising agent. Gaseous dinitrogen pentoxide decomposes as follows:
N2O5 {{eqm}} NO2 \+ NO3 → NO2 \+ O2 \+ NO
N2O5 \+ NO {{eqm}} 3 NO2
### Oxoacids, oxoanions, and oxoacid salts
Many nitrogen [oxoacids](/wiki/Oxoacid "Oxoacid") are known, though most of them are unstable as pure compounds and are known only as aqueous solutions or as salts. [Hyponitrous acid](/wiki/Hyponitrous_acid "Hyponitrous acid") (H2N2O2) is a weak diprotic acid with the structure HON\=NOH (p*K*a1 6\.9, p*K*a2 11\.6\). Acidic solutions are quite stable but above pH 4 base\-catalysed decomposition occurs via \[HONNO]− to nitrous oxide and the hydroxide anion. [Hyponitrites](/wiki/Hyponitrite "Hyponitrite") (involving the {{chem\|N\|2\|O\|2\|2\-}} anion) are stable to reducing agents and more commonly act as reducing agents themselves. They are an intermediate step in the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite, which occurs in the [nitrogen cycle](/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle "Nitrogen cycle"). Hyponitrite can act as a bridging or chelating bidentate ligand.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 459–72
[Nitrous acid](/wiki/Nitrous_acid "Nitrous acid") (HNO2) is not known as a pure compound, but is a common component in gaseous equilibria and is an important aqueous reagent: its aqueous solutions may be made from acidifying cool aqueous [nitrite](/wiki/Nitrite "Nitrite") ({{chem\|NO\|2\|\-}}, bent) solutions, although already at room temperature disproportionation to [nitrate](/wiki/Nitrate "Nitrate") and nitric oxide is significant. It is a weak acid with p*K**a* 3\.35 at 18 °C. They may be [titrimetrically](/wiki/Titration "Titration") analysed by their oxidation to nitrate by [permanganate](/wiki/Permanganate "Permanganate"). They are readily reduced to nitrous oxide and nitric oxide by [sulfur dioxide](/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide "Sulfur dioxide"), to hyponitrous acid with [tin](/wiki/Tin "Tin")(II), and to ammonia with [hydrogen sulfide](/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide "Hydrogen sulfide"). Salts of [hydrazinium](/wiki/Hydrazinium "Hydrazinium") {{chem\|N\|2\|H\|5\|\+}} react with nitrous acid to produce azides which further react to give nitrous oxide and nitrogen. [Sodium nitrite](/wiki/Sodium_nitrite "Sodium nitrite") is mildly toxic in concentrations above 100 mg/kg, but small amounts are often used to cure meat and as a preservative to avoid bacterial spoilage. It is also used to synthesise hydroxylamine and to [diazotise](/wiki/Diazonium_compound%23Preparation "Diazonium compound#Preparation") primary aromatic amines as follows:
ArNH2 \+ HNO2 → \[ArNN]Cl \+ 2 H2O
Nitrite is also a common ligand that can coordinate in five ways. The most common are nitro (bonded from the nitrogen) and nitrito (bonded from an oxygen). Nitro\-nitrito isomerism is common, where the nitrito form is usually less stable.
[thumb\|right\|Fuming nitric acid contaminated with yellow nitrogen dioxide](/wiki/File:Fuming_nitric_acid_40ml.jpg "Fuming nitric acid 40ml.jpg")
[Nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid "Nitric acid") (HNO3) is by far the most important and the most stable of the nitrogen oxoacids. It is one of the three most used acids (the other two being [sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid "Sulfuric acid") and [hydrochloric acid](/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid "Hydrochloric acid")) and was first discovered by alchemists in the 13th century. It is made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide, which is oxidised to nitrogen dioxide, and then dissolved in water to give concentrated nitric acid. In the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States "United States"), over seven million tonnes of nitric acid are produced every year, most of which is used for nitrate production for fertilisers and explosives, among other uses. Anhydrous nitric acid may be made by distilling concentrated nitric acid with phosphorus pentoxide at low pressure in glass apparatus in the dark. It can only be made in the solid state, because upon melting it spontaneously decomposes to nitrogen dioxide, and liquid nitric acid undergoes [self\-ionisation](/wiki/Molecular_autoionization "Molecular autoionization") to a larger extent than any other covalent liquid as follows:
2 HNO3 {{eqm}} {{chem\|H\|2\|NO\|3\|\+}} \+ {{chem\|NO\|3\|\-}} {{eqm}} H2O \+ \[NO2]\+ \+ \[NO3]−
Two hydrates, HNO3·H2O and HNO3·3H2O, are known that can be crystallised. It is a strong acid and concentrated solutions are strong oxidising agents, though [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold"), [platinum](/wiki/Platinum "Platinum"), [rhodium](/wiki/Rhodium "Rhodium"), and [iridium](/wiki/Iridium "Iridium") are immune to attack. A 3:1 mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, called *[aqua regia](/wiki/Aqua_regia "Aqua regia")*, is still stronger and successfully dissolves gold and platinum, because free chlorine and nitrosyl chloride are formed and chloride anions can form strong complexes. In concentrated sulfuric acid, nitric acid is protonated to form [nitronium](/wiki/Nitronium "Nitronium"), which can act as an electrophile for aromatic nitration:
HNO3 \+ 2 H2SO4 {{eqm}} {{chem\|NO\|2\|\+}} \+ H3O\+ \+ 2 {{chem\|HSO\|4\|\-}}
The thermal stabilities of [nitrates](/wiki/Nitrate "Nitrate") (involving the trigonal planar {{chem\|NO\|3\|\-}} anion) depends on the basicity of the metal, and so do the products of decomposition (thermolysis), which can vary between the nitrite (for example, sodium), the oxide (potassium and [lead](/wiki/Lead "Lead")), or even the metal itself ([silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver")) depending on their relative stabilities. Nitrate is also a common ligand with many modes of coordination.
Finally, although orthonitric acid (H3NO4), which would be analogous to [orthophosphoric acid](/wiki/Orthophosphoric_acid "Orthophosphoric acid"), does not exist, the tetrahedral [orthonitrate](/wiki/Orthonitrate "Orthonitrate") anion {{chem\|NO\|4\|3\-}} is known in its sodium and potassium salts:
NaNO3{} \+ Na2O \-\>\[\\ce{Ag\~crucible}]\[\\ce{300^\\circ C\~for\~7 days}] Na3NO4
These white crystalline salts are very sensitive to water vapour and carbon dioxide in the air:
Na3NO4 \+ H2O \+ CO2 → NaNO3 \+ NaOH \+ NaHCO3
Despite its limited chemistry, the orthonitrate anion is interesting from a structural point of view due to its regular tetrahedral shape and the short N–O bond lengths, implying significant polar character to the bonding.
### Organic nitrogen compounds
Nitrogen is one of the most important elements in [organic chemistry](/wiki/Organic_chemistry "Organic chemistry"). Many organic [functional groups](/wiki/Functional_group "Functional group") involve a [carbon–nitrogen bond](/wiki/Carbon%E2%80%93nitrogen_bond "Carbon–nitrogen bond"), such as [amides](/wiki/Amide "Amide") (RCONR2), [amines](/wiki/Amine "Amine") (R3N), [imines](/wiki/Imine "Imine") (RC(\=NR)R), [imides](/wiki/Imide "Imide") (RCO)2NR, [azides](/wiki/Azide "Azide") (RN3), [azo compounds](/wiki/Azo_compound "Azo compound") (RN2R), [cyanates](/wiki/Cyanate_ester "Cyanate ester") (ROCN), [isocyanates](/wiki/Isocyanate "Isocyanate") (RNCO), [nitrates](/wiki/Nitrate "Nitrate") (RONO2), [nitriles](/wiki/Nitrile "Nitrile") (RCN), [isonitriles](/wiki/Isonitrile "Isonitrile") (RNC), [nitrites](/wiki/Nitrite%23Organic_nitrites "Nitrite#Organic nitrites") (RONO), [nitro compounds](/wiki/Nitro_compound "Nitro compound") (RNO2), [nitroso compounds](/wiki/Nitroso_compound "Nitroso compound") (RNO), [oximes](/wiki/Oxime "Oxime") (RC(\=NOH)R), and [pyridine](/wiki/Pyridine "Pyridine") derivatives. C–N bonds are strongly polarised towards nitrogen. In these compounds, nitrogen is usually trivalent (though it can be tetravalent in [quaternary ammonium salts](/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_salt "Quaternary ammonium salt"), R4N\+), with a lone pair that can confer basicity on the compound by being coordinated to a proton. This may be offset by other factors: for example, amides are not basic because the lone pair is delocalised into a double bond (though they may act as bases at very low pH, being protonated at the oxygen), and [pyrrole](/wiki/Pyrrole "Pyrrole") is not basic because the lone pair is delocalised as part of an [aromatic](/wiki/Aromaticity "Aromaticity") ring.{{JerryMarch}} The amount of nitrogen in a [chemical substance](/wiki/Chemical_substance "Chemical substance") can be determined by the [Kjeldahl method](/wiki/Kjeldahl_method "Kjeldahl method").{{cite book\|year\=2008\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-1\-4020\-6754\-9\_9066\|isbn\=978\-1\-4020\-6753\-2\|title\=Encyclopedia of Genetics, Genomics, Proteomics and Informatics\|page\=1063\|chapter\=Kjeldahl Method\|last1\=Rédei\|first1\=George P}} In particular, nitrogen is an essential component of [nucleic acids](/wiki/Nucleic_acids "Nucleic acids"), [amino acids](/wiki/Amino_acid "Amino acid") and thus [proteins](/wiki/Protein "Protein"), and the energy\-carrying molecule [adenosine triphosphate](/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate "Adenosine triphosphate") and is thus vital to all life on Earth.
|
[
"Chemistry and compounds\n-----------------------",
"### Dinitrogen complexes",
"{{main\\|Dinitrogen complex}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Structure of \\[Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2\\+ ([pentaamine(dinitrogen)ruthenium(II)](/wiki/Pentaamine%28dinitrogen%29ruthenium%28II%29_chloride \"Pentaamine(dinitrogen)ruthenium(II) chloride\")), the first dinitrogen complex to be discovered](/wiki/File:RuA5N2.png \"RuA5N2.png\")\nThe first example of a [dinitrogen complex](/wiki/Dinitrogen_complex \"Dinitrogen complex\") to be discovered was \\[Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2\\+ (see figure at right), and soon many other such complexes were discovered. These [complexes](/wiki/Complex_%28chemistry%29 \"Complex (chemistry)\"), in which a nitrogen molecule donates at least one lone pair of electrons to a central metal cation, illustrate how N2 might bind to the metal(s) in [nitrogenase](/wiki/Nitrogenase \"Nitrogenase\") and the [catalyst](/wiki/Catalysis \"Catalysis\") for the [Haber process](/wiki/Haber_process \"Haber process\"): these processes involving dinitrogen activation are vitally important in biology and in the production of fertilisers.{{Cite journal\\|author\\=Fryzuk, M. D.\\|author2\\=Johnson, S. A.\\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp\\|title\\=The continuing story of dinitrogen activation\\|journal\\=Coordination Chemistry Reviews\\|volume\\=200–202\\|page\\=379\\|year\\=2000\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0010\\-8545(00\\)00264\\-2}}{{Cite journal\\|author\\=Schrock, R. R.\\|title\\=Catalytic Reduction of Dinitrogen to Ammonia at a Single Molybdenum Center\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Acc. Chem. Res.]]\\|year\\=2005\\|volume\\=38\\|issue\\=12\\|pmid\\=16359167\\|pages\\=955–62\\|pmc\\=2551323\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/ar0501121\\|author\\-link\\=Richard R. Schrock}}",
"Dinitrogen is able to coordinate to metals in five different ways. The more well\\-characterised ways are the end\\-on M←N≡N (*[η](/wiki/Hapticity \"Hapticity\")*1) and M←N≡N→M (*[μ](/wiki/Bridging_ligand \"Bridging ligand\")*, bis\\-*η*1), in which the lone pairs on the nitrogen atoms are donated to the metal cation. The less well\\-characterised ways involve dinitrogen donating electron pairs from the triple bond, either as a [bridging ligand](/wiki/Bridging_ligand \"Bridging ligand\") to two metal cations (*μ*, bis\\-*η*2) or to just one (*η*2). The fifth and unique method involves triple\\-coordination as a bridging ligand, donating all three electron pairs from the triple bond (*μ*3\\-N2). A few complexes feature multiple N2 ligands and some feature N2 bonded in multiple ways. Since N2 is isoelectronic with [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide \"Carbon monoxide\") (CO) and [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene \"Acetylene\") (C2H2), the bonding in dinitrogen complexes is closely allied to that in [carbonyl](/wiki/Carbonyl \"Carbonyl\") compounds, although N2 is a weaker *σ*\\-donor and *π*\\-acceptor than CO. Theoretical studies show that *σ* donation is a more important factor allowing the formation of the M–N bond than *π* back\\-donation, which mostly only weakens the N–N bond, and end\\-on (*η*1) donation is more readily accomplished than side\\-on (*η*2) donation.",
"Today, dinitrogen complexes are known for almost all the [transition metals](/wiki/Transition_metal \"Transition metal\"), accounting for several hundred compounds. They are normally prepared by three methods:\n1. Replacing labile ligands such as [H2O](/wiki/Water \"Water\"), [H−](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\"), or [CO](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide \"Carbon monoxide\") directly by nitrogen: these are often reversible reactions that proceed at mild conditions.\n2. Reducing metal complexes in the presence of a suitable co\\-ligand in excess under nitrogen gas. A common choice includes replacing chloride ligands with [dimethylphenylphosphine](/wiki/Dimethylphenylphosphine \"Dimethylphenylphosphine\") (PMe2Ph) to make up for the smaller number of nitrogen ligands attached to the original chlorine ligands.\n3. Converting a ligand with N–N bonds, such as hydrazine or azide, directly into a dinitrogen ligand.\nOccasionally the N≡N bond may be formed directly within a metal complex, for example by directly reacting coordinated [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") (NH3) with [nitrous acid](/wiki/Nitrous_acid \"Nitrous acid\") (HNO2), but this is not generally applicable. Most dinitrogen complexes have colours within the range white\\-yellow\\-orange\\-red\\-brown; a few exceptions are known, such as the blue \\[{Ti(*η*5\\-C5H5)2}2\\-(N2)].",
"### Nitrides, azides, and nitrido complexes",
"Nitrogen bonds to almost all the elements in the periodic table except the first two [noble gases](/wiki/Noble_gas \"Noble gas\"), [helium](/wiki/Helium \"Helium\") and [neon](/wiki/Neon \"Neon\"), and some of the very short\\-lived elements after [bismuth](/wiki/Bismuth \"Bismuth\"), creating an immense variety of binary compounds with varying properties and applications. Many binary compounds are known: with the exception of the nitrogen hydrides, oxides, and fluorides, these are typically called [nitrides](/wiki/Nitride \"Nitride\"). Many stoichiometric phases are usually present for most elements (e.g. MnN, Mn6N5, Mn3N2, Mn2N, Mn4N, and Mn*x*N for 9\\.2 \\< *x* \\< 25\\.3\\). They may be classified as \"salt\\-like\" (mostly ionic), covalent, \"diamond\\-like\", and metallic (or [interstitial](/wiki/Interstitial_compound \"Interstitial compound\")), although this classification has limitations generally stemming from the continuity of bonding types instead of the discrete and separate types that it implies. They are normally prepared by directly reacting a metal with nitrogen or ammonia (sometimes after heating), or by [thermal decomposition](/wiki/Thermal_decomposition \"Thermal decomposition\") of metal amides:Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 417–20\n3 Ca \\+ N2 → Ca3N2\n3 Mg \\+ 2 NH3 → Mg3N2 \\+ 3 H2 (at 900 °C)\n3 Zn(NH2)2 → Zn3N2 \\+ 4 NH3\nMany variants on these processes are possible. The most ionic of these nitrides are those of the [alkali metals](/wiki/Alkali_metal \"Alkali metal\") and [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\"), Li3N (Na, K, Rb, and Cs do not form stable nitrides for steric reasons) and M3N2 (M \\= Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba). These can formally be thought of as salts of the N3− anion, although charge separation is not actually complete even for these highly electropositive elements. However, the alkali metal [azides](/wiki/Azide \"Azide\") NaN3 and KN3, featuring the linear {{chem\\|N\\|3\\|\\-}} anion, are well\\-known, as are Sr(N3)2 and Ba(N3)2. Azides of the B\\-subgroup metals (those in [groups 11](/wiki/Group_11_element \"Group 11 element\") through [16](/wiki/Chalcogen \"Chalcogen\")) are much less ionic, have more complicated structures, and detonate readily when shocked.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=1\\.8\\|Mesomeric structures of borazine, (–BH–NH–)3](/wiki/File:Borazin_Mesomers1.svg \"Borazin Mesomers1.svg\")\nMany covalent binary nitrides are known. Examples include [cyanogen](/wiki/Cyanogen \"Cyanogen\") ((CN)2), [triphosphorus pentanitride](/wiki/Triphosphorus_pentanitride \"Triphosphorus pentanitride\") (P3N5), [disulfur dinitride](/wiki/Disulfur_dinitride \"Disulfur dinitride\") (S2N2), and [tetrasulfur tetranitride](/wiki/Tetrasulfur_tetranitride \"Tetrasulfur tetranitride\") (S4N4). The essentially covalent [silicon nitride](/wiki/Silicon_nitride \"Silicon nitride\") (Si3N4) and [germanium nitride](/wiki/Germanium_nitride \"Germanium nitride\") (Ge3N4) are also known: silicon nitride, in particular, would make a promising [ceramic](/wiki/Ceramic \"Ceramic\") if not for the difficulty of working with and sintering it. In particular, the [group 13](/wiki/Boron_group \"Boron group\") nitrides, most of which are promising [semiconductors](/wiki/Semiconductor \"Semiconductor\"), are isoelectronic with graphite, diamond, and [silicon carbide](/wiki/Silicon_carbide \"Silicon carbide\") and have similar structures: their bonding changes from covalent to partially ionic to metallic as the group is descended. In particular, since the B–N unit is isoelectronic to C–C, and carbon is essentially intermediate in size between boron and nitrogen, much of [organic chemistry](/wiki/Organic_chemistry \"Organic chemistry\") finds an echo in boron–nitrogen chemistry, such as in [borazine](/wiki/Borazine \"Borazine\") (\"inorganic [benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\")\"). Nevertheless, the analogy is not exact due to the ease of [nucleophilic](/wiki/Nucleophile \"Nucleophile\") attack at boron due to its deficiency in electrons, which is not possible in a wholly carbon\\-containing ring.",
"The largest category of nitrides are the interstitial nitrides of formulae MN, M2N, and M4N (although variable composition is perfectly possible), where the small nitrogen atoms are positioned in the gaps in a metallic cubic or [hexagonal close\\-packed](/wiki/Hexagonal_close-packed \"Hexagonal close-packed\") lattice. They are opaque, very hard, and chemically inert, melting only at very high temperatures (generally over 2500 °C). They have a metallic lustre and conduct electricity as do metals. They hydrolyse only very slowly to give ammonia or nitrogen.",
"The nitride anion (N3−) is the strongest *π* donor known among ligands (the second\\-strongest is O2−). Nitrido complexes are generally made by the thermal decomposition of azides or by deprotonating ammonia, and they usually involve a terminal {≡N}3− group. The linear azide anion ({{chem\\|N\\|3\\|\\-}}), being isoelectronic with [nitrous oxide](/wiki/Nitrous_oxide \"Nitrous oxide\"), [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\"), and [cyanate](/wiki/Cyanate \"Cyanate\"), forms many coordination complexes. Further catenation is rare, although {{chem\\|N\\|4\\|4\\-}} (isoelectronic with [carbonate](/wiki/Carbonate \"Carbonate\") and [nitrate](/wiki/Nitrate \"Nitrate\")) is known.",
"### Hydrides",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=2\\.3\\|Standard reduction potentials for nitrogen\\-containing species. Top diagram shows potentials at pH 0; bottom diagram shows potentials at pH 14\\.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 434–38](/wiki/File:Nitrogen_electrode_potentials.svg \"Nitrogen electrode potentials.svg\")\nIndustrially, [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") (NH3) is the most important compound of nitrogen and is prepared in larger amounts than any other compound because it contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilisers. It is a colourless alkaline gas with a characteristic pungent smell. The presence of [hydrogen bonding](/wiki/Hydrogen_bonding \"Hydrogen bonding\") has very significant effects on ammonia, conferring on it its high melting (−78 °C) and boiling (−33 °C) points. As a liquid, it is a very good solvent with a high heat of vaporisation (enabling it to be used in vacuum flasks), that also has a low viscosity and electrical conductivity and high [dielectric constant](/wiki/Dielectric_constant \"Dielectric constant\"), and is less dense than water. However, the hydrogen bonding in NH3 is weaker than that in H2O due to the lower electronegativity of nitrogen compared to oxygen and the presence of only one lone pair in NH3 rather than two in H2O. It is a weak base in aqueous solution ([p*K**b*](/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant \"Acid dissociation constant\") 4\\.74\\); its conjugate acid is [ammonium](/wiki/Ammonium \"Ammonium\"), {{chem\\|NH\\|4\\|\\+}}. It can also act as an extremely weak acid, losing a proton to produce the amide anion, {{chem\\|NH\\|2\\|\\-}}. It thus undergoes self\\-dissociation, similar to water, to produce ammonium and amide. Ammonia burns in air or oxygen, though not readily, to produce nitrogen gas; it burns in fluorine with a greenish\\-yellow flame to give [nitrogen trifluoride](/wiki/Nitrogen_trifluoride \"Nitrogen trifluoride\"). Reactions with the other nonmetals are very complex and tend to lead to a mixture of products. Ammonia reacts on heating with metals to give nitrides.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 420–26",
"Many other binary nitrogen hydrides are known, but the most important are [hydrazine](/wiki/Hydrazine \"Hydrazine\") (N2H4) and [hydrogen azide](/wiki/Hydrogen_azide \"Hydrogen azide\") (HN3). Although it is not a nitrogen hydride, [hydroxylamine](/wiki/Hydroxylamine \"Hydroxylamine\") (NH2OH) is similar in properties and structure to ammonia and hydrazine as well. Hydrazine is a fuming, colourless liquid that smells similar to ammonia. Its physical properties are very similar to those of water (melting point 2\\.0 °C, boiling point 113\\.5 °C, density 1\\.00 g/cm3). Despite it being an endothermic compound, it is kinetically stable. It burns quickly and completely in air very exothermically to give nitrogen and water vapour. It is a very useful and versatile reducing agent and is a weaker base than ammonia. It is also commonly used as a rocket fuel.{{cite journal \\| last \\= Vieira \\| first \\= R. \\|author2\\=C. Pham\\-Huu \\|author3\\=N. Keller \\|author4\\=M. J. Ledoux \\| year \\= 2002 \\| title \\= New carbon nanofiber/graphite felt composite for use as a catalyst for hydrazine catalytic decomposition \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Chemical Communications]] \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 954–55 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1039/b202032g\\| pmid \\= 12123065 }}",
"Hydrazine is generally made by reaction of ammonia with alkaline [sodium hypochlorite](/wiki/Sodium_hypochlorite \"Sodium hypochlorite\") in the presence of gelatin or glue:Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 426–33\nNH3 \\+ OCl− → NH2Cl \\+ OH−\nNH2Cl \\+ NH3 → {{chem\\|N\\|2\\|H\\|5\\|\\+}} \\+ Cl− (slow)\n{{chem\\|N\\|2\\|H\\|5\\|\\+}} \\+ OH− → N2H4 \\+ H2O (fast)\n(The attacks by hydroxide and ammonia may be reversed, thus passing through the intermediate NHCl− instead.) The reason for adding gelatin is that it removes metal ions such as Cu2\\+ that catalyses the destruction of hydrazine by reaction with [monochloramine](/wiki/Monochloramine \"Monochloramine\") (NH2Cl) to produce [ammonium chloride](/wiki/Ammonium_chloride \"Ammonium chloride\") and nitrogen.",
"[Hydrogen azide](/wiki/Hydrogen_azide \"Hydrogen azide\") (HN3) was first produced in 1890 by the oxidation of aqueous hydrazine by nitrous acid. It is very explosive and even dilute solutions can be dangerous. It has a disagreeable and irritating smell and is a potentially lethal (but not cumulative) poison. It may be considered the conjugate acid of the azide anion, and is similarly analogous to the [hydrohalic acids](/wiki/Hydrohalic_acid \"Hydrohalic acid\").",
"### Halides and oxohalides",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Nitrogen trichloride](/wiki/Nitrogen_trichloride \"Nitrogen trichloride\")](/wiki/File:Nitrogen_trichloride.JPG \"Nitrogen trichloride.JPG\")\nAll four simple nitrogen trihalides are known. A few mixed halides and hydrohalides are known, but are mostly unstable; examples include NClF2, NCl2F, NBrF2, NF2H, [NFH2](/wiki/Fluoroamine \"Fluoroamine\"), [NCl2H](/wiki/Dichloramine \"Dichloramine\"), and [NClH2](/wiki/Monochloramine \"Monochloramine\").Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 438–42",
"[Nitrogen trifluoride](/wiki/Nitrogen_trifluoride \"Nitrogen trifluoride\") (NF3, first prepared in 1928\\) is a colourless and odourless gas that is thermodynamically stable, and most readily produced by the [electrolysis](/wiki/Electrolysis \"Electrolysis\") of molten [ammonium fluoride](/wiki/Ammonium_fluoride \"Ammonium fluoride\") dissolved in anhydrous [hydrogen fluoride](/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride \"Hydrogen fluoride\"). Like [carbon tetrafluoride](/wiki/Carbon_tetrafluoride \"Carbon tetrafluoride\"), it is not at all reactive and is stable in water or dilute aqueous acids or alkalis. Only when heated does it act as a fluorinating agent, and it reacts with [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\"), arsenic, antimony, and bismuth on contact at high temperatures to give [tetrafluorohydrazine](/wiki/Tetrafluorohydrazine \"Tetrafluorohydrazine\") (N2F4). The cations {{chem\\|NF\\|4\\|\\+}} and {{chem\\|N\\|2\\|F\\|3\\|\\+}} are also known (the latter from reacting tetrafluorohydrazine with strong fluoride\\-acceptors such as [arsenic pentafluoride](/wiki/Arsenic_pentafluoride \"Arsenic pentafluoride\")), as is ONF3, which has aroused interest due to the short N–O distance implying partial double bonding and the highly polar and long N–F bond. Tetrafluorohydrazine, unlike hydrazine itself, can dissociate at room temperature and above to give the radical NF2•. [Fluorine azide](/wiki/Fluorine_azide \"Fluorine azide\") (FN3) is very explosive and thermally unstable. [Dinitrogen difluoride](/wiki/Dinitrogen_difluoride \"Dinitrogen difluoride\") (N2F2) exists as thermally interconvertible *cis* and *trans* isomers, and was first found as a product of the thermal decomposition of FN3.",
"[Nitrogen trichloride](/wiki/Nitrogen_trichloride \"Nitrogen trichloride\") (NCl3) is a dense, volatile, and explosive liquid whose physical properties are similar to those of [carbon tetrachloride](/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride \"Carbon tetrachloride\"), although one difference is that NCl3 is easily hydrolysed by water while CCl4 is not. It was first synthesised in 1811 by [Pierre Louis Dulong](/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Dulong \"Pierre Louis Dulong\"), who lost three fingers and an eye to its explosive tendencies. As a dilute gas it is less dangerous and is thus used industrially to bleach and sterilise flour. [Nitrogen tribromide](/wiki/Nitrogen_tribromide \"Nitrogen tribromide\") (NBr3), first prepared in 1975, is a deep red, temperature\\-sensitive, volatile solid that is explosive even at −100 °C. [Nitrogen triiodide](/wiki/Nitrogen_triiodide \"Nitrogen triiodide\") (NI3) is still more unstable and was only prepared in 1990\\. Its adduct with ammonia, which was known earlier, is very shock\\-sensitive: it can be set off by the touch of a feather, shifting air currents, or even [alpha particles](/wiki/Alpha_particle \"Alpha particle\").{{ cite journal \\| author \\= Bowden, F. P. \\| title \\= Initiation of Explosion by Neutrons, α\\-Particles, and Fission Products \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A \\| year \\= 1958 \\| volume \\= 246 \\| issue \\= 1245 \\| pages \\= 216–19 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1098/rspa.1958\\.0123 \\| bibcode \\= 1958RSPSA.246\\..216B \\| s2cid \\= 137728239 }} For this reason, small amounts of nitrogen triiodide are sometimes synthesised as a demonstration to high school chemistry students or as an act of \"chemical magic\".{{cite book \\| author1 \\= Ford, L. A. \\| author2 \\= Grundmeier, E. W. \\| title \\= Chemical Magic \\| publisher \\= Dover \\| year \\= 1993 \\| page \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/chemicalmagic00ford\\_0/page/76 76] \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-486\\-67628\\-9 \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/chemicalmagic00ford\\_0/page/76 }} [Chlorine azide](/wiki/Chlorine_azide \"Chlorine azide\") (ClN3) and [bromine azide](/wiki/Bromine_azide \"Bromine azide\") (BrN3) are extremely sensitive and explosive.{{ cite journal \\|author1\\=Frierson, W. J. \\|author2\\=Kronrad, J. \\|author3\\=Browne, A. W. \\| title \\= Chlorine Azide, ClN3. I \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] \\| year \\= 1943 \\| volume \\= 65 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 1696–1698 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1021/ja01249a012 }}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Lyhs\\|first\\=Benjamin\\|author2\\=Bläser, Dieter\\|author3\\=Wölper, Christoph\\|author4\\=Schulz, Stephan\\|author5\\=Jansen, Georg\\|title\\=Solid\\-State Structure of Bromine Azide\\|journal\\=Angewandte Chemie International Edition\\|date\\=20 February 2012\\|volume\\=51\\|issue\\=8\\|pages\\=1970–1974\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/anie.201108092\\|pmid\\=22250068\\|url\\=https://duepublico2\\.uni\\-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico\\_derivate\\_00073133/Accepted\\_Manuscript\\_Angew\\_Chem\\_Int\\_Ed\\_2012\\_51\\_1970\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=25 August 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825213503/https://duepublico2\\.uni\\-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico\\_derivate\\_00073133/Accepted\\_Manuscript\\_Angew\\_Chem\\_Int\\_Ed\\_2012\\_51\\_1970\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Two series of nitrogen oxohalides are known: the nitrosyl halides (XNO) and the nitryl halides (XNO2). The first is very reactive gases that can be made by directly halogenating nitrous oxide. [Nitrosyl fluoride](/wiki/Nitrosyl_fluoride \"Nitrosyl fluoride\") (NOF) is colourless and a vigorous fluorinating agent. [Nitrosyl chloride](/wiki/Nitrosyl_chloride \"Nitrosyl chloride\") (NOCl) behaves in much the same way and has often been used as an ionising solvent. [Nitrosyl bromide](/wiki/Nitrosyl_bromide \"Nitrosyl bromide\") (NOBr) is red. The reactions of the nitryl halides are mostly similar: [nitryl fluoride](/wiki/Nitryl_fluoride \"Nitryl fluoride\") (FNO2) and [nitryl chloride](/wiki/Nitryl_chloride \"Nitryl chloride\") (ClNO2) are likewise reactive gases and vigorous halogenating agents.",
"### Oxides",
"{{main\\|Nitrogen oxide}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.36\\|right\\|Nitrogen dioxide at −196 °C, 0 °C, 23 °C, 35 °C, and 50 °C. {{chem\\|NO\\|2}} converts to colourless dinitrogen tetroxide ({{chem\\|N\\|2\\|O\\|4}}) at low temperatures, and reverts to {{chem\\|NO\\|2}} at higher temperatures.](/wiki/File:Nitrogen_dioxide_at_different_temperatures.jpg \"Nitrogen dioxide at different temperatures.jpg\")\nNitrogen forms nine molecular oxides, some of which were the first gases to be identified: N2O ([nitrous oxide](/wiki/Nitrous_oxide \"Nitrous oxide\")), NO ([nitric oxide](/wiki/Nitric_oxide \"Nitric oxide\")), N2O3 ([dinitrogen trioxide](/wiki/Dinitrogen_trioxide \"Dinitrogen trioxide\")), NO2 ([nitrogen dioxide](/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide \"Nitrogen dioxide\")), N2O4 ([dinitrogen tetroxide](/wiki/Dinitrogen_tetroxide \"Dinitrogen tetroxide\")), N2O5 ([dinitrogen pentoxide](/wiki/Dinitrogen_pentoxide \"Dinitrogen pentoxide\")), N4O ([nitrosylazide](/wiki/Nitrosylazide \"Nitrosylazide\")),Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 443–58 and N(NO2)3 ([trinitramide](/wiki/Trinitramide \"Trinitramide\")).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Rahm \\|first1\\=Martin \\|last2\\=Dvinskikh \\|first2\\=Sergey V. \\|last3\\=Furó \\|first3\\=István \\|last4\\=Brinck \\|first4\\=Tore \\|date\\=23 December 2010 \\|title\\=Experimental Detection of Trinitramide, N(NO2)3 \\|journal\\=Angewandte Chemie International Edition \\|volume\\=50 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=1145–48 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/anie.201007047\\|pmid\\=21268214 \\|s2cid\\=32952729 }} All are thermally unstable towards decomposition to their elements. One other possible oxide that has not yet been synthesised is [oxatetrazole](/wiki/Oxatetrazole \"Oxatetrazole\") (N4O), an aromatic ring.",
"Nitrous oxide (N2O), better known as laughing gas, is made by thermal decomposition of molten [ammonium nitrate](/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate \"Ammonium nitrate\") at 250 °C. This is a redox reaction and thus nitric oxide and nitrogen are also produced as byproducts. It is mostly used as a propellant and aerating agent for [sprayed canned whipped cream](/wiki/Cream \"Cream\"), and was formerly commonly used as an anaesthetic. Despite appearances, it cannot be considered to be the [anhydride](/wiki/Inorganic_anhydride \"Inorganic anhydride\") of [hyponitrous acid](/wiki/Hyponitrous_acid \"Hyponitrous acid\") (H2N2O2) because that acid is not produced by the dissolution of nitrous oxide in water. It is rather unreactive (not reacting with the halogens, the alkali metals, or [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\") at room temperature, although reactivity increases upon heating) and has the unsymmetrical structure N–N–O (N≡N\\+O−↔−N\\=N\\+\\=O): above 600 °C it dissociates by breaking the weaker N–O bond.\nNitric oxide (NO) is the simplest stable molecule with an odd number of electrons. In mammals, including humans, it is an important cellular [signalling molecule](/wiki/Signalling_molecule \"Signalling molecule\") involved in many physiological and pathological processes.{{cite journal\\|pmid\\=10390607\\|year\\=1999\\|last1\\=Hou\\|first1\\=Y. C.\\|last2\\=Janczuk\\|first2\\=A.\\|last3\\=Wang\\|first3\\=P. G.\\|title\\=Current trends in the development of nitric oxide donors\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=417–41\\|journal\\=Current Pharmaceutical Design\\|doi\\=10\\.2174/138161280506230110111042 }} It is formed by catalytic oxidation of ammonia. It is a colourless paramagnetic gas that, being thermodynamically unstable, decomposes to nitrogen and oxygen gas at 1100–1200 °C. Its bonding is similar to that in nitrogen, but one extra electron is added to a *π*\\* antibonding orbital and thus the bond order has been reduced to approximately 2\\.5; hence dimerisation to O\\=N–N\\=O is unfavourable except below the boiling point (where the *cis* isomer is more stable) because it does not actually increase the total bond order and because the unpaired electron is delocalised across the NO molecule, granting it stability. There is also evidence for the asymmetric red dimer O\\=N–O\\=N when nitric oxide is condensed with polar molecules. It reacts with oxygen to give brown nitrogen dioxide and with halogens to give nitrosyl halides. It also reacts with transition metal compounds to give nitrosyl complexes, most of which are deeply coloured.",
"Blue dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) is only available as a solid because it rapidly dissociates above its melting point to give nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). The latter two compounds are somewhat difficult to study individually because of the equilibrium between them, although sometimes dinitrogen tetroxide can react by heterolytic fission to [nitrosonium](/wiki/Nitrosonium \"Nitrosonium\") and [nitrate](/wiki/Nitrate \"Nitrate\") in a medium with high dielectric constant. Nitrogen dioxide is an acrid, corrosive brown gas. Both compounds may be easily prepared by decomposing a dry metal nitrate. Both react with water to form [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid \"Nitric acid\"). Dinitrogen tetroxide is very useful for the preparation of anhydrous metal nitrates and nitrato complexes, and it became the storable oxidiser of choice for many rockets in both the United States and [USSR](/wiki/USSR \"USSR\") by the late 1950s. This is because it is a [hypergolic propellant](/wiki/Hypergolic_propellant \"Hypergolic propellant\") in combination with a [hydrazine](/wiki/Hydrazine \"Hydrazine\")\\-based [rocket fuel](/wiki/Rocket_propellant \"Rocket propellant\") and can be easily stored since it is liquid at room temperature.",
"The thermally unstable and very reactive dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) is the anhydride of [nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid \"Nitric acid\"), and can be made from it by dehydration with [phosphorus pentoxide](/wiki/Phosphorus_pentoxide \"Phosphorus pentoxide\"). It is of interest for the preparation of explosives.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Talawar, M. B.\\|title\\=Establishment of Process Technology for the Manufacture of Dinitrogen Pentoxide and its Utility for the Synthesis of Most Powerful Explosive of Today – CL\\-20\\|journal\\=Journal of Hazardous Materials\\|year\\= 2005\\| volume \\=124\\|issue\\=1–3\\| pages \\=153–64\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jhazmat.2005\\.04\\.021\\|pmid\\=15979786\\|bibcode\\=2005JHzM..124\\..153T \\|display\\-authors\\=etal}} It is a [deliquescent](/wiki/Deliquescent \"Deliquescent\"), colourless crystalline solid that is sensitive to light. In the solid state it is ionic with structure \\[NO2]\\+\\[NO3]−; as a gas and in solution it is molecular O2N–O–NO2. Hydration to nitric acid comes readily, as does analogous reaction with [hydrogen peroxide](/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide \"Hydrogen peroxide\") giving [peroxonitric acid](/wiki/Peroxonitric_acid \"Peroxonitric acid\") (HOONO2). It is a violent oxidising agent. Gaseous dinitrogen pentoxide decomposes as follows:\nN2O5 {{eqm}} NO2 \\+ NO3 → NO2 \\+ O2 \\+ NO\nN2O5 \\+ NO {{eqm}} 3 NO2",
"### Oxoacids, oxoanions, and oxoacid salts",
"Many nitrogen [oxoacids](/wiki/Oxoacid \"Oxoacid\") are known, though most of them are unstable as pure compounds and are known only as aqueous solutions or as salts. [Hyponitrous acid](/wiki/Hyponitrous_acid \"Hyponitrous acid\") (H2N2O2) is a weak diprotic acid with the structure HON\\=NOH (p*K*a1 6\\.9, p*K*a2 11\\.6\\). Acidic solutions are quite stable but above pH 4 base\\-catalysed decomposition occurs via \\[HONNO]− to nitrous oxide and the hydroxide anion. [Hyponitrites](/wiki/Hyponitrite \"Hyponitrite\") (involving the {{chem\\|N\\|2\\|O\\|2\\|2\\-}} anion) are stable to reducing agents and more commonly act as reducing agents themselves. They are an intermediate step in the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite, which occurs in the [nitrogen cycle](/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle \"Nitrogen cycle\"). Hyponitrite can act as a bridging or chelating bidentate ligand.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 459–72",
"[Nitrous acid](/wiki/Nitrous_acid \"Nitrous acid\") (HNO2) is not known as a pure compound, but is a common component in gaseous equilibria and is an important aqueous reagent: its aqueous solutions may be made from acidifying cool aqueous [nitrite](/wiki/Nitrite \"Nitrite\") ({{chem\\|NO\\|2\\|\\-}}, bent) solutions, although already at room temperature disproportionation to [nitrate](/wiki/Nitrate \"Nitrate\") and nitric oxide is significant. It is a weak acid with p*K**a* 3\\.35 at 18 °C. They may be [titrimetrically](/wiki/Titration \"Titration\") analysed by their oxidation to nitrate by [permanganate](/wiki/Permanganate \"Permanganate\"). They are readily reduced to nitrous oxide and nitric oxide by [sulfur dioxide](/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide \"Sulfur dioxide\"), to hyponitrous acid with [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\")(II), and to ammonia with [hydrogen sulfide](/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\"). Salts of [hydrazinium](/wiki/Hydrazinium \"Hydrazinium\") {{chem\\|N\\|2\\|H\\|5\\|\\+}} react with nitrous acid to produce azides which further react to give nitrous oxide and nitrogen. [Sodium nitrite](/wiki/Sodium_nitrite \"Sodium nitrite\") is mildly toxic in concentrations above 100 mg/kg, but small amounts are often used to cure meat and as a preservative to avoid bacterial spoilage. It is also used to synthesise hydroxylamine and to [diazotise](/wiki/Diazonium_compound%23Preparation \"Diazonium compound#Preparation\") primary aromatic amines as follows:\nArNH2 \\+ HNO2 → \\[ArNN]Cl \\+ 2 H2O",
"Nitrite is also a common ligand that can coordinate in five ways. The most common are nitro (bonded from the nitrogen) and nitrito (bonded from an oxygen). Nitro\\-nitrito isomerism is common, where the nitrito form is usually less stable.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Fuming nitric acid contaminated with yellow nitrogen dioxide](/wiki/File:Fuming_nitric_acid_40ml.jpg \"Fuming nitric acid 40ml.jpg\")\n[Nitric acid](/wiki/Nitric_acid \"Nitric acid\") (HNO3) is by far the most important and the most stable of the nitrogen oxoacids. It is one of the three most used acids (the other two being [sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid \"Sulfuric acid\") and [hydrochloric acid](/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid \"Hydrochloric acid\")) and was first discovered by alchemists in the 13th century. It is made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide, which is oxidised to nitrogen dioxide, and then dissolved in water to give concentrated nitric acid. In the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), over seven million tonnes of nitric acid are produced every year, most of which is used for nitrate production for fertilisers and explosives, among other uses. Anhydrous nitric acid may be made by distilling concentrated nitric acid with phosphorus pentoxide at low pressure in glass apparatus in the dark. It can only be made in the solid state, because upon melting it spontaneously decomposes to nitrogen dioxide, and liquid nitric acid undergoes [self\\-ionisation](/wiki/Molecular_autoionization \"Molecular autoionization\") to a larger extent than any other covalent liquid as follows:\n2 HNO3 {{eqm}} {{chem\\|H\\|2\\|NO\\|3\\|\\+}} \\+ {{chem\\|NO\\|3\\|\\-}} {{eqm}} H2O \\+ \\[NO2]\\+ \\+ \\[NO3]−\nTwo hydrates, HNO3·H2O and HNO3·3H2O, are known that can be crystallised. It is a strong acid and concentrated solutions are strong oxidising agents, though [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\"), [platinum](/wiki/Platinum \"Platinum\"), [rhodium](/wiki/Rhodium \"Rhodium\"), and [iridium](/wiki/Iridium \"Iridium\") are immune to attack. A 3:1 mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, called *[aqua regia](/wiki/Aqua_regia \"Aqua regia\")*, is still stronger and successfully dissolves gold and platinum, because free chlorine and nitrosyl chloride are formed and chloride anions can form strong complexes. In concentrated sulfuric acid, nitric acid is protonated to form [nitronium](/wiki/Nitronium \"Nitronium\"), which can act as an electrophile for aromatic nitration:\nHNO3 \\+ 2 H2SO4 {{eqm}} {{chem\\|NO\\|2\\|\\+}} \\+ H3O\\+ \\+ 2 {{chem\\|HSO\\|4\\|\\-}}\nThe thermal stabilities of [nitrates](/wiki/Nitrate \"Nitrate\") (involving the trigonal planar {{chem\\|NO\\|3\\|\\-}} anion) depends on the basicity of the metal, and so do the products of decomposition (thermolysis), which can vary between the nitrite (for example, sodium), the oxide (potassium and [lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\")), or even the metal itself ([silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\")) depending on their relative stabilities. Nitrate is also a common ligand with many modes of coordination.",
"Finally, although orthonitric acid (H3NO4), which would be analogous to [orthophosphoric acid](/wiki/Orthophosphoric_acid \"Orthophosphoric acid\"), does not exist, the tetrahedral [orthonitrate](/wiki/Orthonitrate \"Orthonitrate\") anion {{chem\\|NO\\|4\\|3\\-}} is known in its sodium and potassium salts:\nNaNO3{} \\+ Na2O \\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{Ag\\~crucible}]\\[\\\\ce{300^\\\\circ C\\~for\\~7 days}] Na3NO4\nThese white crystalline salts are very sensitive to water vapour and carbon dioxide in the air:\nNa3NO4 \\+ H2O \\+ CO2 → NaNO3 \\+ NaOH \\+ NaHCO3\nDespite its limited chemistry, the orthonitrate anion is interesting from a structural point of view due to its regular tetrahedral shape and the short N–O bond lengths, implying significant polar character to the bonding.",
"### Organic nitrogen compounds",
"Nitrogen is one of the most important elements in [organic chemistry](/wiki/Organic_chemistry \"Organic chemistry\"). Many organic [functional groups](/wiki/Functional_group \"Functional group\") involve a [carbon–nitrogen bond](/wiki/Carbon%E2%80%93nitrogen_bond \"Carbon–nitrogen bond\"), such as [amides](/wiki/Amide \"Amide\") (RCONR2), [amines](/wiki/Amine \"Amine\") (R3N), [imines](/wiki/Imine \"Imine\") (RC(\\=NR)R), [imides](/wiki/Imide \"Imide\") (RCO)2NR, [azides](/wiki/Azide \"Azide\") (RN3), [azo compounds](/wiki/Azo_compound \"Azo compound\") (RN2R), [cyanates](/wiki/Cyanate_ester \"Cyanate ester\") (ROCN), [isocyanates](/wiki/Isocyanate \"Isocyanate\") (RNCO), [nitrates](/wiki/Nitrate \"Nitrate\") (RONO2), [nitriles](/wiki/Nitrile \"Nitrile\") (RCN), [isonitriles](/wiki/Isonitrile \"Isonitrile\") (RNC), [nitrites](/wiki/Nitrite%23Organic_nitrites \"Nitrite#Organic nitrites\") (RONO), [nitro compounds](/wiki/Nitro_compound \"Nitro compound\") (RNO2), [nitroso compounds](/wiki/Nitroso_compound \"Nitroso compound\") (RNO), [oximes](/wiki/Oxime \"Oxime\") (RC(\\=NOH)R), and [pyridine](/wiki/Pyridine \"Pyridine\") derivatives. C–N bonds are strongly polarised towards nitrogen. In these compounds, nitrogen is usually trivalent (though it can be tetravalent in [quaternary ammonium salts](/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_salt \"Quaternary ammonium salt\"), R4N\\+), with a lone pair that can confer basicity on the compound by being coordinated to a proton. This may be offset by other factors: for example, amides are not basic because the lone pair is delocalised into a double bond (though they may act as bases at very low pH, being protonated at the oxygen), and [pyrrole](/wiki/Pyrrole \"Pyrrole\") is not basic because the lone pair is delocalised as part of an [aromatic](/wiki/Aromaticity \"Aromaticity\") ring.{{JerryMarch}} The amount of nitrogen in a [chemical substance](/wiki/Chemical_substance \"Chemical substance\") can be determined by the [Kjeldahl method](/wiki/Kjeldahl_method \"Kjeldahl method\").{{cite book\\|year\\=2008\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-4020\\-6754\\-9\\_9066\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4020\\-6753\\-2\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Genetics, Genomics, Proteomics and Informatics\\|page\\=1063\\|chapter\\=Kjeldahl Method\\|last1\\=Rédei\\|first1\\=George P}} In particular, nitrogen is an essential component of [nucleic acids](/wiki/Nucleic_acids \"Nucleic acids\"), [amino acids](/wiki/Amino_acid \"Amino acid\") and thus [proteins](/wiki/Protein \"Protein\"), and the energy\\-carrying molecule [adenosine triphosphate](/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate \"Adenosine triphosphate\") and is thus vital to all life on Earth.",
""
] |
History
-------
This Heat first came together in 1976 by Charles Hayward and Charles Bullen. Hayward was a member of the [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock "Progressive rock") band [Quiet Sun](/wiki/Quiet_Sun "Quiet Sun"), fronted by guitarist [Phil Manzanera](/wiki/Phil_Manzanera "Phil Manzanera") of [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music "Roxy Music"). In 1975, Quiet Sun had signed a deal with [Island Records](/wiki/Island_Records "Island Records") to record an album entitled *[Mainstream](/wiki/Mainstream_%28Quiet_Sun_album%29 "Mainstream (Quiet Sun album)")*. *Mainstream* was critically acclaimed and became the [New Musical Express](/wiki/New_Musical_Express "New Musical Express")' album of the month, and [Island Records](/wiki/Island_Records "Island Records")' fourth or fifth biggest seller at the time, close to sales figures of [Bad Company](/wiki/Bad_Company "Bad Company") and [Cat Stevens](/wiki/Cat_Stevens "Cat Stevens").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.manzanera.com/QuietSunalbum.htm \|title\=Quiet Sun Album Reviews \|accessdate\=9 September 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927204639/http://www.manzanera.com/QuietSunalbum.htm \|archivedate\=27 September 2007 }} Whilst touring to support the record, Manzanera stepped down as his commitments with Roxy Music were taking up his schedule, so Bullen stepped in as a replacement. Quiet Sun dissolved shortly afterwards, but Bullen and Hayward, who had bonded over their similar tastes and attitude to music making, decided to continue working together.
After playing in a variety of improvisational groups such as Dolphin Logic and Friendly Rifles, they were joined by visual artist Gareth Williams, who despite his lack of formal musical training had an intuitive ear for sound. Hayward had also hoped to bring Quiet Sun bassist [Bill MacCormick](/wiki/Bill_MacCormick "Bill MacCormick") on board; MacCormick however, declined due to personality clashes between him and Williams. The trio settled upon the name This Heat in reference to the [1976 British Isles heat wave](/wiki/1976_British_Isles_heat_wave "1976 British Isles heat wave"), regarded at the time as the hottest summer on record.
This Heat's first radio airplay came in early 1977 from legendary DJ [John Peel](/wiki/John_Peel "John Peel"), to whom they sent a demo tape recorded in the top room at Hayward's parents' house in [Camberwell](/wiki/Camberwell "Camberwell"), prior to moving into their 'Cold Storage' studio — a disused cold storage room converted into a studio, which was part of an "Acme Studios" artists studios complex in [Brixton](/wiki/Brixton "Brixton"). During this time, they also recorded a session with [Ghanaian](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") percussionist Mario Boyer Diekuuroh, parts of which later appeared on a 1982 split cassette with Albert Marcoeur, released by the French experimental rock magazine *[Tago Mago](/wiki/Tago_Mago "Tago Mago")*.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2013}}
Their [self\-titled debut album](/wiki/This_Heat_%28album%29 "This Heat (album)") was recorded between February 1976 and September 1978 in various studios and venues, and was released in August 1979\. It was characterised by heavy use of [tape manipulation](/wiki/Tape_music "Tape music") and [looping](/wiki/Tape_loops "Tape loops") (especially on the track "24 Track Loop" which was a loop actually on the 2" master tape), combined with more traditional performance (including quite a lot of live stereo microphone in the room recordings) to create dense, eerie, electronic soundscapes. Despite receiving offers from several major labels to release the album, This Heat declined them all in order to maintain creative control and independence over their work. They were eventually swayed by their friend [David Cunningham](/wiki/David_Cunningham_%28musician%29 "David Cunningham (musician)") of [The Flying Lizards](/wiki/The_Flying_Lizards "The Flying Lizards") to release it through his independent label Piano. Shortly thereafter, This Heat released the *[Health and Efficiency](/wiki/Health_and_Efficiency_%28EP%29 "Health and Efficiency (EP)")* EP, which foreshadowed the more rock\-oriented sound of their subsequent album.
This Heat then signed a record deal with [Rough Trade Records](/wiki/Rough_Trade_Records "Rough Trade Records"), who released *[Deceit](/wiki/Deceit_%28album%29 "Deceit (album)")*, the band's second and final album, in 1981\. Whilst maintaining their experimental approach, *Deceit* found the band incorporating more coherent song structures, and consolidating the dub and world music influences in their work. The album was produced with help from noted [reggae](/wiki/Reggae "Reggae") mixer Martin Frederick. Although at the time, like all of This Heat's releases, it sold poorly, *Deceit* is now seen as a classic of the [post\-punk](/wiki/Post-punk "Post-punk") era. By that time *Deceit* was released, Williams had exited from the band, departing for India to study [kathakali](/wiki/Kathakali "Kathakali").
This Heat split up in 1982 after completing their final European tour with bassist\-vocalist [Trefor Goronwy](/wiki/Trefor_Goronwy "Trefor Goronwy") and keyboardist Ian Hill joining Bullen and Hayward. Hayward went on to form [Camberwell Now](/wiki/Camberwell_Now "Camberwell Now") with Goronwy and Stephen Rickard, and remains musically active. Bullen went on to collaborate with bassist and percussionist Dub Judah on a solo venture called Lifetones, releasing an album entitled *[For a Reason](/wiki/For_a_Reason "For a Reason")* in 1983 on his Tone of Life imprint, and in 1998 he released the album *Internal Clock* under the name [Circadian Rhythms](/wiki/Circadian_Rhythm "Circadian Rhythm"). Williams later formed Flaming Tunes with Mary Currie and released a cassette of material, which was later released on CD.
In 1993 a new album of previously unreleased This Heat recordings was unearthed. *Repeat* featured three long tracks, including the title track, a 20\-minute remix of "24 Track Loop". *Out of Cold Storage*, a [box set](/wiki/Box_set "Box set") of all the band's official recordings, was released in June 2006 on This is!, a new [Recommended Records](/wiki/Recommended_Records "Recommended Records") sub\-label set up by Hayward and Bullen to re\-release This Heat's back catalogue. The set comprises *This Heat*, *Deceit*, *Health and Efficiency*, *Made Available* and *Repeat*, plus *Live 80/81*, a CD of concert recordings.{{cite book \|last\=Cutler \|first\=Chris \|author\-link\=Chris Cutler \|title\=Out of Cold Storage \|year\=2006 \|type\=booklet \|location\=\[\[Thornton Heath]], England \|publisher\=\[\[Recommended Records]]}}
In December 2001 This Heat tentatively rehearsed (with Williams); however, nothing came to fruition as Williams died later that month of cancer.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/feb/07/guardianobituaries \|title\=Obituary: Gareth Williams \|last\=Baxter \|first\=Ed \|date\=7 February 2002 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|access\-date\=23 January 2013}}
In 2016, Bullen and Hayward reunited under the name This Is Not This Heat to perform a number of critically acclaimed gigs in London. The concerts featured several guests such as [Thurston Moore](/wiki/Thurston_Moore "Thurston Moore"), [Alexis Taylor](/wiki/Alexis_Taylor "Alexis Taylor"), Alex Ward and [Daniel O'Sullivan](/wiki/Daniel_O%27Sullivan_%28musician%29 "Daniel O'Sullivan (musician)"). The reunion continued across the following three years, concluding with a small series of shows in London, New York, and Los Angeles in 2019\.
In August 2020, This Heat released part of its catalogue digitally on streaming services,{{cite web\|url\=https://pitchfork.com/news/this\-heat\-to\-release\-discography\-digitally\-for\-the\-first\-time/\|title\=This Heat to Release Discography Digitally for the First Time\|work\=\[\[Pitchfork (website)\|Pitchfork]]\|date\=23 June 2020\|author\=Moreland, Quinn}} including Bandcamp.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.thisheat.bandcamp.com\|title\=This Heat\|access\-date\=31 August 2020}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"This Heat first came together in 1976 by Charles Hayward and Charles Bullen. Hayward was a member of the [progressive rock](/wiki/Progressive_rock \"Progressive rock\") band [Quiet Sun](/wiki/Quiet_Sun \"Quiet Sun\"), fronted by guitarist [Phil Manzanera](/wiki/Phil_Manzanera \"Phil Manzanera\") of [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music \"Roxy Music\"). In 1975, Quiet Sun had signed a deal with [Island Records](/wiki/Island_Records \"Island Records\") to record an album entitled *[Mainstream](/wiki/Mainstream_%28Quiet_Sun_album%29 \"Mainstream (Quiet Sun album)\")*. *Mainstream* was critically acclaimed and became the [New Musical Express](/wiki/New_Musical_Express \"New Musical Express\")' album of the month, and [Island Records](/wiki/Island_Records \"Island Records\")' fourth or fifth biggest seller at the time, close to sales figures of [Bad Company](/wiki/Bad_Company \"Bad Company\") and [Cat Stevens](/wiki/Cat_Stevens \"Cat Stevens\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.manzanera.com/QuietSunalbum.htm \\|title\\=Quiet Sun Album Reviews \\|accessdate\\=9 September 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927204639/http://www.manzanera.com/QuietSunalbum.htm \\|archivedate\\=27 September 2007 }} Whilst touring to support the record, Manzanera stepped down as his commitments with Roxy Music were taking up his schedule, so Bullen stepped in as a replacement. Quiet Sun dissolved shortly afterwards, but Bullen and Hayward, who had bonded over their similar tastes and attitude to music making, decided to continue working together.",
"After playing in a variety of improvisational groups such as Dolphin Logic and Friendly Rifles, they were joined by visual artist Gareth Williams, who despite his lack of formal musical training had an intuitive ear for sound. Hayward had also hoped to bring Quiet Sun bassist [Bill MacCormick](/wiki/Bill_MacCormick \"Bill MacCormick\") on board; MacCormick however, declined due to personality clashes between him and Williams. The trio settled upon the name This Heat in reference to the [1976 British Isles heat wave](/wiki/1976_British_Isles_heat_wave \"1976 British Isles heat wave\"), regarded at the time as the hottest summer on record.",
"This Heat's first radio airplay came in early 1977 from legendary DJ [John Peel](/wiki/John_Peel \"John Peel\"), to whom they sent a demo tape recorded in the top room at Hayward's parents' house in [Camberwell](/wiki/Camberwell \"Camberwell\"), prior to moving into their 'Cold Storage' studio — a disused cold storage room converted into a studio, which was part of an \"Acme Studios\" artists studios complex in [Brixton](/wiki/Brixton \"Brixton\"). During this time, they also recorded a session with [Ghanaian](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\") percussionist Mario Boyer Diekuuroh, parts of which later appeared on a 1982 split cassette with Albert Marcoeur, released by the French experimental rock magazine *[Tago Mago](/wiki/Tago_Mago \"Tago Mago\")*.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2013}}",
"Their [self\\-titled debut album](/wiki/This_Heat_%28album%29 \"This Heat (album)\") was recorded between February 1976 and September 1978 in various studios and venues, and was released in August 1979\\. It was characterised by heavy use of [tape manipulation](/wiki/Tape_music \"Tape music\") and [looping](/wiki/Tape_loops \"Tape loops\") (especially on the track \"24 Track Loop\" which was a loop actually on the 2\" master tape), combined with more traditional performance (including quite a lot of live stereo microphone in the room recordings) to create dense, eerie, electronic soundscapes. Despite receiving offers from several major labels to release the album, This Heat declined them all in order to maintain creative control and independence over their work. They were eventually swayed by their friend [David Cunningham](/wiki/David_Cunningham_%28musician%29 \"David Cunningham (musician)\") of [The Flying Lizards](/wiki/The_Flying_Lizards \"The Flying Lizards\") to release it through his independent label Piano. Shortly thereafter, This Heat released the *[Health and Efficiency](/wiki/Health_and_Efficiency_%28EP%29 \"Health and Efficiency (EP)\")* EP, which foreshadowed the more rock\\-oriented sound of their subsequent album.",
"This Heat then signed a record deal with [Rough Trade Records](/wiki/Rough_Trade_Records \"Rough Trade Records\"), who released *[Deceit](/wiki/Deceit_%28album%29 \"Deceit (album)\")*, the band's second and final album, in 1981\\. Whilst maintaining their experimental approach, *Deceit* found the band incorporating more coherent song structures, and consolidating the dub and world music influences in their work. The album was produced with help from noted [reggae](/wiki/Reggae \"Reggae\") mixer Martin Frederick. Although at the time, like all of This Heat's releases, it sold poorly, *Deceit* is now seen as a classic of the [post\\-punk](/wiki/Post-punk \"Post-punk\") era. By that time *Deceit* was released, Williams had exited from the band, departing for India to study [kathakali](/wiki/Kathakali \"Kathakali\").",
"This Heat split up in 1982 after completing their final European tour with bassist\\-vocalist [Trefor Goronwy](/wiki/Trefor_Goronwy \"Trefor Goronwy\") and keyboardist Ian Hill joining Bullen and Hayward. Hayward went on to form [Camberwell Now](/wiki/Camberwell_Now \"Camberwell Now\") with Goronwy and Stephen Rickard, and remains musically active. Bullen went on to collaborate with bassist and percussionist Dub Judah on a solo venture called Lifetones, releasing an album entitled *[For a Reason](/wiki/For_a_Reason \"For a Reason\")* in 1983 on his Tone of Life imprint, and in 1998 he released the album *Internal Clock* under the name [Circadian Rhythms](/wiki/Circadian_Rhythm \"Circadian Rhythm\"). Williams later formed Flaming Tunes with Mary Currie and released a cassette of material, which was later released on CD.",
"In 1993 a new album of previously unreleased This Heat recordings was unearthed. *Repeat* featured three long tracks, including the title track, a 20\\-minute remix of \"24 Track Loop\". *Out of Cold Storage*, a [box set](/wiki/Box_set \"Box set\") of all the band's official recordings, was released in June 2006 on This is!, a new [Recommended Records](/wiki/Recommended_Records \"Recommended Records\") sub\\-label set up by Hayward and Bullen to re\\-release This Heat's back catalogue. The set comprises *This Heat*, *Deceit*, *Health and Efficiency*, *Made Available* and *Repeat*, plus *Live 80/81*, a CD of concert recordings.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cutler \\|first\\=Chris \\|author\\-link\\=Chris Cutler \\|title\\=Out of Cold Storage \\|year\\=2006 \\|type\\=booklet \\|location\\=\\[\\[Thornton Heath]], England \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Recommended Records]]}}",
"In December 2001 This Heat tentatively rehearsed (with Williams); however, nothing came to fruition as Williams died later that month of cancer.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/feb/07/guardianobituaries \\|title\\=Obituary: Gareth Williams \\|last\\=Baxter \\|first\\=Ed \\|date\\=7 February 2002 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 January 2013}}",
"In 2016, Bullen and Hayward reunited under the name This Is Not This Heat to perform a number of critically acclaimed gigs in London. The concerts featured several guests such as [Thurston Moore](/wiki/Thurston_Moore \"Thurston Moore\"), [Alexis Taylor](/wiki/Alexis_Taylor \"Alexis Taylor\"), Alex Ward and [Daniel O'Sullivan](/wiki/Daniel_O%27Sullivan_%28musician%29 \"Daniel O'Sullivan (musician)\"). The reunion continued across the following three years, concluding with a small series of shows in London, New York, and Los Angeles in 2019\\.",
"In August 2020, This Heat released part of its catalogue digitally on streaming services,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://pitchfork.com/news/this\\-heat\\-to\\-release\\-discography\\-digitally\\-for\\-the\\-first\\-time/\\|title\\=This Heat to Release Discography Digitally for the First Time\\|work\\=\\[\\[Pitchfork (website)\\|Pitchfork]]\\|date\\=23 June 2020\\|author\\=Moreland, Quinn}} including Bandcamp.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thisheat.bandcamp.com\\|title\\=This Heat\\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2020}}",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
### 1985–2005: Early years and career beginnings
Zhou was born to her parents Zhou Zhongzhan and Lu Yuanyuan in [Changsha](/wiki/Changsha "Changsha"), [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan "Hunan") on 26 July 1985\. Her father was a government agent, while her mother was a Chinese folk music teacher. At the age of six, she and her family moved to [Shenzhen](/wiki/Shenzhen "Shenzhen"), Guangdong, China. She attended Yuanling Elementary School, Gangxia Elementary School, Fuhua Elementary School, and Futian High School. In 2002, she majored in non\-classical music at the [Xinghai Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Xinghai_Conservatory_of_Music "Xinghai Conservatory of Music") in [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou"), Guangdong, China. In the same year, she released a song titled "How I Miss You" on the internet. In 2005, she took part in the Chinese singing contest *[Super Girl](/wiki/Super_Girl_%28TV_series%29 "Super Girl (TV series)")*, and eventually won second place at the contest.
### 2006–2007: *Who Touched My Violin String*
In March 2006, Zhou signed a recording deal with Chinese record label Yuelin Music. At the same time, she released her first studio single titled "Swan", which was included in her first extended play titled *[Bibi](/wiki/Bibi%27s_1st_EP "Bibi's 1st EP")* released in June 2006\. The extended play was followed by her debut studio album titled *[Who Touched My Violin String](/wiki/Who_Touched_My_Violin_String "Who Touched My Violin String")* released in August 2006\. In the same year, she featured in two Chinese films, *[McDull, the Alumni](/wiki/McDull%2C_the_Alumni "McDull, the Alumni")* and *[The 601st Phone Call](/wiki/The_601st_Phone_Call "The 601st Phone Call")*. In March 2007, she attended the Encore Program at the [Musicians Institute](/wiki/Musicians_Institute "Musicians Institute") in Los Angeles, California, United States to take singing classes.
### 2007–2008: *Now* and *Wow*
After she finished her courses at [Musicians Institute](/wiki/Musicians_Institute "Musicians Institute"), Zhou returned to China and prepared for her next studio album. In the same year, she also graduated from [Xinghai Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Xinghai_Conservatory_of_Music "Xinghai Conservatory of Music") with a bachelor's degree. In December 2007, she released two studio albums *[Now](/wiki/Now_%28Bibi_Zhou_album%29 "Now (Bibi Zhou album)")* and *[Wow](/wiki/Wow_%28Bibi_Zhou_album%29 "Wow (Bibi Zhou album)")* at the same time. In April 2008, she featured in the theme song "[Beijing Welcomes You](/wiki/Beijing_Welcomes_You "Beijing Welcomes You")" for the 100\-day countdown of the [2008 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics "2008 Summer Olympics"). In the same month, she joined the public benefit campaign 56 Ethnic Groups, One Dream as a young ambassador along with Hong Kong singer and professional swimmer [Alex Fong](/wiki/Alex_Fong_%28singer%29 "Alex Fong (singer)").
### 2009–2012: *Time*, *I, Fish, Light, Mirror*, and *Black Apple*
In January 2009, Zhou signed a recording deal with [Gold Typhoon](/wiki/Gold_Typhoon "Gold Typhoon"). In July 2009, she released her fourth studio album *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28Bibi_Zhou_album%29 "Time (Bibi Zhou album)")*. The album was released in mainland China as well as Taiwan. In June 2010, she released her fifth studio album *I, Fish, Light, Mirror*. The album topped the album sales chart for one week in Taiwan. In May 2011, she launched a fashion brand Begins with Lin Zijun and Cheng Yang. In November 2011, she released her sixth studio album *Black Apple*.
### 2013: *Unlock*
In October 2012, Zhou signed a recording deal with [Yuehua Entertainment](/wiki/Yuehua_Entertainment "Yuehua Entertainment"), and opened her own studio at the same time. In May 2013, she released her seventh studio album *Unlock*. She also embarked a concert tour titled Unlock Tour. In early 2014, she appeared on the Chinese singing competition *[I Am a Singer (season 2\)](/wiki/I_Am_a_Singer_%28season_2%29 "I Am a Singer (season 2)")*. In November 2014, she won an [MTV Europe Music Award for Best Worldwide Act](/wiki/MTV_Europe_Music_Award_for_Best_Worldwide_Act "MTV Europe Music Award for Best Worldwide Act"). That same year, she was internally selected by [CCTV](/wiki/China_Central_Television "China Central Television") to represent China in the [ABU TV Song Festival 2014](/wiki/ABU_TV_Song_Festival_2014 "ABU TV Song Festival 2014"), with the song "I miss you missing me". In January 2015, she held a public benefit concert Begins to Love Concert. In March 2015, she won a [Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Award](/wiki/Nickelodeon_Kids%27_Choice_Awards "Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards") for Favorite Chinese Act. That year, she released the album "Rolling my eyes", which was published initially in two EPs and later released as a whole.
### 2015–present: *Rolling My Eyes, Not Typical, Renamed, Lunar*
2018: Vocal judge on The Next Top Bang with other celebrities like [Victoria Song](/wiki/Victoria_Song "Victoria Song") and [Kris Wu](/wiki/Kris_Wu "Kris Wu").
2021: Zhou participates on "Sisters Who Make Waves" season 2\.
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"### 1985–2005: Early years and career beginnings",
"Zhou was born to her parents Zhou Zhongzhan and Lu Yuanyuan in [Changsha](/wiki/Changsha \"Changsha\"), [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan \"Hunan\") on 26 July 1985\\. Her father was a government agent, while her mother was a Chinese folk music teacher. At the age of six, she and her family moved to [Shenzhen](/wiki/Shenzhen \"Shenzhen\"), Guangdong, China. She attended Yuanling Elementary School, Gangxia Elementary School, Fuhua Elementary School, and Futian High School. In 2002, she majored in non\\-classical music at the [Xinghai Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Xinghai_Conservatory_of_Music \"Xinghai Conservatory of Music\") in [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\"), Guangdong, China. In the same year, she released a song titled \"How I Miss You\" on the internet. In 2005, she took part in the Chinese singing contest *[Super Girl](/wiki/Super_Girl_%28TV_series%29 \"Super Girl (TV series)\")*, and eventually won second place at the contest.",
"### 2006–2007: *Who Touched My Violin String*",
"In March 2006, Zhou signed a recording deal with Chinese record label Yuelin Music. At the same time, she released her first studio single titled \"Swan\", which was included in her first extended play titled *[Bibi](/wiki/Bibi%27s_1st_EP \"Bibi's 1st EP\")* released in June 2006\\. The extended play was followed by her debut studio album titled *[Who Touched My Violin String](/wiki/Who_Touched_My_Violin_String \"Who Touched My Violin String\")* released in August 2006\\. In the same year, she featured in two Chinese films, *[McDull, the Alumni](/wiki/McDull%2C_the_Alumni \"McDull, the Alumni\")* and *[The 601st Phone Call](/wiki/The_601st_Phone_Call \"The 601st Phone Call\")*. In March 2007, she attended the Encore Program at the [Musicians Institute](/wiki/Musicians_Institute \"Musicians Institute\") in Los Angeles, California, United States to take singing classes.",
"### 2007–2008: *Now* and *Wow*",
"After she finished her courses at [Musicians Institute](/wiki/Musicians_Institute \"Musicians Institute\"), Zhou returned to China and prepared for her next studio album. In the same year, she also graduated from [Xinghai Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Xinghai_Conservatory_of_Music \"Xinghai Conservatory of Music\") with a bachelor's degree. In December 2007, she released two studio albums *[Now](/wiki/Now_%28Bibi_Zhou_album%29 \"Now (Bibi Zhou album)\")* and *[Wow](/wiki/Wow_%28Bibi_Zhou_album%29 \"Wow (Bibi Zhou album)\")* at the same time. In April 2008, she featured in the theme song \"[Beijing Welcomes You](/wiki/Beijing_Welcomes_You \"Beijing Welcomes You\")\" for the 100\\-day countdown of the [2008 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics \"2008 Summer Olympics\"). In the same month, she joined the public benefit campaign 56 Ethnic Groups, One Dream as a young ambassador along with Hong Kong singer and professional swimmer [Alex Fong](/wiki/Alex_Fong_%28singer%29 \"Alex Fong (singer)\").",
"### 2009–2012: *Time*, *I, Fish, Light, Mirror*, and *Black Apple*",
"In January 2009, Zhou signed a recording deal with [Gold Typhoon](/wiki/Gold_Typhoon \"Gold Typhoon\"). In July 2009, she released her fourth studio album *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28Bibi_Zhou_album%29 \"Time (Bibi Zhou album)\")*. The album was released in mainland China as well as Taiwan. In June 2010, she released her fifth studio album *I, Fish, Light, Mirror*. The album topped the album sales chart for one week in Taiwan. In May 2011, she launched a fashion brand Begins with Lin Zijun and Cheng Yang. In November 2011, she released her sixth studio album *Black Apple*.",
"### 2013: *Unlock*",
"In October 2012, Zhou signed a recording deal with [Yuehua Entertainment](/wiki/Yuehua_Entertainment \"Yuehua Entertainment\"), and opened her own studio at the same time. In May 2013, she released her seventh studio album *Unlock*. She also embarked a concert tour titled Unlock Tour. In early 2014, she appeared on the Chinese singing competition *[I Am a Singer (season 2\\)](/wiki/I_Am_a_Singer_%28season_2%29 \"I Am a Singer (season 2)\")*. In November 2014, she won an [MTV Europe Music Award for Best Worldwide Act](/wiki/MTV_Europe_Music_Award_for_Best_Worldwide_Act \"MTV Europe Music Award for Best Worldwide Act\"). That same year, she was internally selected by [CCTV](/wiki/China_Central_Television \"China Central Television\") to represent China in the [ABU TV Song Festival 2014](/wiki/ABU_TV_Song_Festival_2014 \"ABU TV Song Festival 2014\"), with the song \"I miss you missing me\". In January 2015, she held a public benefit concert Begins to Love Concert. In March 2015, she won a [Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Award](/wiki/Nickelodeon_Kids%27_Choice_Awards \"Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards\") for Favorite Chinese Act. That year, she released the album \"Rolling my eyes\", which was published initially in two EPs and later released as a whole.",
"### 2015–present: *Rolling My Eyes, Not Typical, Renamed, Lunar*",
"2018: Vocal judge on The Next Top Bang with other celebrities like [Victoria Song](/wiki/Victoria_Song \"Victoria Song\") and [Kris Wu](/wiki/Kris_Wu \"Kris Wu\"). \n2021: Zhou participates on \"Sisters Who Make Waves\" season 2\\.",
""
] |
Notable uses
------------
*Honky* was adopted as a [pejorative](/wiki/Pejorative "Pejorative") in 1967 by black militants within [Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee](/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee "Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee") (SNCC) seeking a rebuttal for the term *[nigger](/wiki/Nigger "Nigger")*. The [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") stated in 1967 that National Chairman of the SNCC, [H. Rap Brown](/wiki/H._Rap_Brown "H. Rap Brown"), told a Black audience in [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Maryland "Cambridge, Maryland") that "You should burn that school down and then go take over the honkie's school" on June 24, 1967\. Brown went on to say: "\[I]f America don't come 'round, we got to burn it down. You better get some guns, brother. The only thing the honky respects is a gun. You give me a gun and tell me to shoot my enemy, I might shoot [Lady Bird](/wiki/Lady_Bird_Johnson "Lady Bird Johnson")."[Full text of US Army Intelligence report](http://www.aavw.org/protest/carmichael_sncc_abstract06_full.html) on SNCC at "African\-American Involvement in the Vietnam War" website
*Honky* has occasionally been used even for white allies of African Americans, as seen in the 1968 trial of [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party "Black Panther Party") member [Huey Newton](/wiki/Huey_Newton "Huey Newton"), when fellow Panther [Eldridge Cleaver](/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver "Eldridge Cleaver") created pins for Newton's white supporters stating "Honkies for Huey".{{cite news \|date\=2 March 1970 \|url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904228\-4,00\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115153619/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904228\-4,00\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=January 15, 2008 \|title\=Radical Saul Alinsky: Prophet of Power to the People \|magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-01}}
"Father of the Blues" [W. C. Handy](/wiki/W._C._Handy "W. C. Handy") wrote of "Negroes and hunkies" in his autobiography.*Father of the Blues* by William Christopher Handy. 1941 MacMillan. Page 214\. no ISBN in this edition
### Use in music
In the 2012 [rap](/wiki/Rap "Rap") song "[Thrift Shop](/wiki/Thrift_Shop "Thrift Shop")" by [Macklemore \& Ryan Lewis](/wiki/Macklemore_%26_Ryan_Lewis "Macklemore & Ryan Lewis") ft. [Wanz](/wiki/Wanz "Wanz"), "Damn, that's a cold ass honkey!" is used in reference to Macklemore and his secondhand clothes. [Eminem](/wiki/Eminem "Eminem"), who is also a [white American](/wiki/White_American "White American") rapper, uses the line "He looked at me and said, 'You gonna die, honkey!'" in 1999's "[Brain Damage](/wiki/Brain_Damage_%28Eminem_song%29 "Brain Damage (Eminem song)")." "[Play That Funky Music](/wiki/Play_That_Funky_Music "Play That Funky Music")," a 1976 [disco](/wiki/Disco "Disco")/[funk](/wiki/Funk "Funk") hit by [Wild Cherry](/wiki/Wild_Cherry_%28band%29 "Wild Cherry (band)") about a rock band adapting to the rise of disco, substitutes "honky" for "white boy" in the final chorus of the uncensored version.{{cite AV media notes\|title\=Play That Funky Music\|others\=Wild Cherry\|date\=1976\|last\=Parisi\|first\=Robert\|type\=vinyl\|publisher\=Epic Records\|location\=USA}} The British band [Hot Chocolate](/wiki/Hot_Chocolate_%28band%29 "Hot Chocolate (band)") used "honky" and "spook" in their controversial 1973 hit single "[Brother Louie](/wiki/Brother_Louie_%28Hot_Chocolate_song%29 "Brother Louie (Hot Chocolate song)")" about an interracial relationship as the terms chosen by the respective fathers to slur their child's newfound lover.
Other uses of "honky" in music include "[Honky Tonk Women](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_Women "Honky Tonk Women")" a 1969 song by the Rolling Stones, [*Honky*](/wiki/Honky_%28album%29 "Honky (album)") (an album by [Melvins](/wiki/Melvins "Melvins")), *[Honky Reduction](/wiki/Honky_Reduction "Honky Reduction")* (an album by [Agoraphobic Nosebleed](/wiki/Agoraphobic_Nosebleed "Agoraphobic Nosebleed")), [MC Honky](/wiki/MC_Honky "MC Honky") ([DJ](/wiki/Disc_jockey "Disc jockey") [stage persona](/wiki/Stage_name "Stage name")), *[Honky Château](/wiki/Honky_Ch%C3%A2teau "Honky Château")* (an album by [Elton John](/wiki/Elton_John "Elton John"), the first track on which is "[Honky Cat](/wiki/Honky_Cat "Honky Cat")"), *[Talkin' Honky Blues](/wiki/Talkin%27_Honky_Blues "Talkin' Honky Blues")* (an album by [Buck 65](/wiki/Buck_65 "Buck 65")), and *Honky* (an album by [Keith Emerson](/wiki/Keith_Emerson "Keith Emerson")). *[Honky's Ladder](/wiki/Honky%27s_Ladder "Honky's Ladder")* is a 1996 [EP](/wiki/Extended_play "Extended play") by [The Afghan Whigs](/wiki/The_Afghan_Whigs "The Afghan Whigs").
The Chicago style of [polka music](/wiki/Polka%23Styles_and_variants "Polka#Styles and variants") is also known as honky polka.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/991\.html \|title\=Polka \|last\=Bohlman \|first\=Philip \|publisher\=Chicago Historical Society \|date\=2005 \|website\=The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago \|access\-date\=December 6, 2020}} The etymological connection remains unclear, but the word "[honky\-tonk](/wiki/Honky-tonk "Honky-tonk")" occurs often in [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music"), referring since the late 19th century to working\-class nightclubs where country music is played.{{cite book\|page\=85\|title\=Handbook to Life in America\|volume\=6\|year\=2014\|first\=Rodney P. \|last\=Carlisle\|isbn\=9781438119021\|publisher\=\[\[Infobase\|Facts On File, Inc.]]}}
In 2022 [Hank Williams Jr.](/wiki/Hank_Williams_Jr. "Hank Williams Jr.") released a blues album [Rich White Honky Blues](/wiki/Rich_White_Honky_Blues "Rich White Honky Blues").
### Use in television and film
In film, there were some movies using "honky" without any [derogatory](/wiki/Pejorative "Pejorative") connotation. *[Honky Tonk](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_%281929_film%29 "Honky Tonk (1929 film)")* is a [1929](/wiki/1929_in_film "1929 in film") American [musical film](/wiki/Musical_film "Musical film") starring [Sophie Tucker](/wiki/Sophie_Tucker "Sophie Tucker"). And *[Honky Tonk](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_%281941_film%29 "Honky Tonk (1941 film)")* is also a [1941](/wiki/1941_in_film "1941 in film") [black\-and\-white](/wiki/Black-and-white "Black-and-white") [Western film](/wiki/Western_%28genre%29 "Western (genre)") starring [Clark Gable](/wiki/Clark_Gable "Clark Gable") and [Lana Turner](/wiki/Lana_Turner "Lana Turner"). The phrase [honky\-tonk](/wiki/Honky-tonk "Honky-tonk") refers both to a particular type of rowdy [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") played live at bars and to the type of bar in which such music is played.*Reno Evening Gazette* (Nevada), 3 February 1900, pg. 2, col. 5\. "Every child of the range can tell what honkatonk means and where it came from. Away, away back in the very early days, so the story goes, a party of cow punchers rode out from camp at sundown in search of recreation after a day of toil. They headed for a place of amusement, but lost the trail. From far out in the distance there finally came to their ears a 'honk\-a\-tonk\-a\-tonk\-a\-tonk\-a,' which they mistook for the bass viol. They turned toward the sound, to find alas! a dock {{sic}} of wild geese. So honkatonk was named. *N. Y. Sun*.
[*Honky*](/wiki/Honky_%28film%29 "Honky (film)") is a 1971 movie based on an interracial relationship, starring [Brenda Sykes](/wiki/Brenda_Sykes "Brenda Sykes") as Sheila Smith and John Neilson as Wayne "Honky" Devine. *Honky Tonk* is also a 1974 Western film starring [Richard Crenna](/wiki/Richard_Crenna "Richard Crenna") and [Margot Kidder](/wiki/Margot_Kidder "Margot Kidder"). Additionally, *[Honkytonk Man](/wiki/Honkytonk_Man "Honkytonk Man")* is a 1982 [drama film](/wiki/Drama_%28film_and_television%29 "Drama (film and television)") set in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). [Clint Eastwood](/wiki/Clint_Eastwood "Clint Eastwood"), who produced and directed the film, stars in the film with his son, [Kyle Eastwood](/wiki/Kyle_Eastwood "Kyle Eastwood").
In [a sketch](/wiki/Racist_Word_Association_Interview "Racist Word Association Interview") on *[Saturday Night Live](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live "Saturday Night Live")* (*SNL*), [Chevy Chase](/wiki/Chevy_Chase "Chevy Chase") and [Richard Pryor](/wiki/Richard_Pryor "Richard Pryor") used both *nigger* (Chase) and *honky* (Pryor) in reference to one another during a "[racist](/wiki/Racism "Racism") [word association](/wiki/Word_association "Word association") interview".{{cite web\|title\=Racist Word Association Interview\|first\=Paul\|last\=Mooney\|author\-link\=Paul Mooney (comedian)\|url\=http://snltranscripts.jt.org/75/75ginterview.phtml\|date\=1975\-12\-13\|access\-date\=2008\-12\-06\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923185534/http://snltranscripts.jt.org/75/75ginterview.phtml\|archive\-date\=2013\-09\-23\|url\-status\=dead}} During this period, [Steve Martin](/wiki/Steve_Martin "Steve Martin") (as musical guest and [stand\-up regular](/wiki/Stand-up_comedy "Stand-up comedy") on *SNL*) performed a rendition of "[King Tut](/wiki/King_Tut_%28song%29 "King Tut (song)")" which contained the word *honky* in its lyrics.
On the TV series *[Barney Miller](/wiki/Barney_Miller "Barney Miller")*, Season 5, Episode 8, "Loan Shark", [Arthur Dietrich](/wiki/Arthur_Dietrich "Arthur Dietrich") gives an etymology of the word "honky", claiming it was "coined by Blacks in the 1950s in reference to the nasal tone of Caucasians".{{cite AV media\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=dcieTRWUeWw\|title\=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links\|date\=February 2022}}
On the TV series *[The Jeffersons](/wiki/The_Jeffersons "The Jeffersons")*, [George Jefferson](/wiki/George_Jefferson "George Jefferson") regularly referred to a white person as a honky (or [whitey](/wiki/Whitey_%28slang%29 "Whitey (slang)")) as did [Redd Foxx](/wiki/Redd_Foxx "Redd Foxx") on *[Sanford and Son](/wiki/Sanford_and_Son "Sanford and Son")*. This word would later be popularized in episodes of *[Mork \& Mindy](/wiki/Mork_%26_Mindy "Mork & Mindy")* by [Robin Williams](/wiki/Robin_Williams "Robin Williams") and [Jonathan Winters](/wiki/Jonathan_Winters "Jonathan Winters").
These and other shows, as exemplified by the controversial *[All in the Family](/wiki/All_in_the_Family "All in the Family")*, attempted to expose racism and [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") as an issue in society using the subversive weapon of humor. However, the effect that this theme had on television created both negative and positive criticism{{cn\|date\=January 2024}} and the use of [anti\-racist](/wiki/Anti-racist "Anti-racist") messages actually escalates the use of racial slurs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/ironic\-effects\-of\-anti\-prejudice\-messages.html\|title\=Ironic Effects of Anti\-Prejudice Messages\|last1\=Legault\|first1\=Lisa\|last2\=Menon\|first2\=Divya\|date\=6 July 2011\|website\=Association for Psychological Science (news)\|publisher\=Association for Psychological Science\|access\-date\=17 June 2013}} The presence of higher education may countermand this effect.{{cite web\|url\=http://ils.unc.edu/courses/2013\_spring/inls200\_002/Readings/Burke.pdf\|title\=Social Tolerance and Racist Materials in Public Libraries\|last1\=Burke\|first1\=Susan K.\|date\=18 September 2009\|publisher\=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill\|access\-date\=17 June 2013}}
|
[
"Notable uses\n------------",
"*Honky* was adopted as a [pejorative](/wiki/Pejorative \"Pejorative\") in 1967 by black militants within [Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee](/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee \"Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee\") (SNCC) seeking a rebuttal for the term *[nigger](/wiki/Nigger \"Nigger\")*. The [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense \"United States Department of Defense\") stated in 1967 that National Chairman of the SNCC, [H. Rap Brown](/wiki/H._Rap_Brown \"H. Rap Brown\"), told a Black audience in [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Maryland \"Cambridge, Maryland\") that \"You should burn that school down and then go take over the honkie's school\" on June 24, 1967\\. Brown went on to say: \"\\[I]f America don't come 'round, we got to burn it down. You better get some guns, brother. The only thing the honky respects is a gun. You give me a gun and tell me to shoot my enemy, I might shoot [Lady Bird](/wiki/Lady_Bird_Johnson \"Lady Bird Johnson\").\"[Full text of US Army Intelligence report](http://www.aavw.org/protest/carmichael_sncc_abstract06_full.html) on SNCC at \"African\\-American Involvement in the Vietnam War\" website",
"*Honky* has occasionally been used even for white allies of African Americans, as seen in the 1968 trial of [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party \"Black Panther Party\") member [Huey Newton](/wiki/Huey_Newton \"Huey Newton\"), when fellow Panther [Eldridge Cleaver](/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver \"Eldridge Cleaver\") created pins for Newton's white supporters stating \"Honkies for Huey\".{{cite news \\|date\\=2 March 1970 \\|url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904228\\-4,00\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115153619/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904228\\-4,00\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=January 15, 2008 \\|title\\=Radical Saul Alinsky: Prophet of Power to the People \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-01}}",
"\"Father of the Blues\" [W. C. Handy](/wiki/W._C._Handy \"W. C. Handy\") wrote of \"Negroes and hunkies\" in his autobiography.*Father of the Blues* by William Christopher Handy. 1941 MacMillan. Page 214\\. no ISBN in this edition",
"### Use in music",
"In the 2012 [rap](/wiki/Rap \"Rap\") song \"[Thrift Shop](/wiki/Thrift_Shop \"Thrift Shop\")\" by [Macklemore \\& Ryan Lewis](/wiki/Macklemore_%26_Ryan_Lewis \"Macklemore & Ryan Lewis\") ft. [Wanz](/wiki/Wanz \"Wanz\"), \"Damn, that's a cold ass honkey!\" is used in reference to Macklemore and his secondhand clothes. [Eminem](/wiki/Eminem \"Eminem\"), who is also a [white American](/wiki/White_American \"White American\") rapper, uses the line \"He looked at me and said, 'You gonna die, honkey!'\" in 1999's \"[Brain Damage](/wiki/Brain_Damage_%28Eminem_song%29 \"Brain Damage (Eminem song)\").\" \"[Play That Funky Music](/wiki/Play_That_Funky_Music \"Play That Funky Music\"),\" a 1976 [disco](/wiki/Disco \"Disco\")/[funk](/wiki/Funk \"Funk\") hit by [Wild Cherry](/wiki/Wild_Cherry_%28band%29 \"Wild Cherry (band)\") about a rock band adapting to the rise of disco, substitutes \"honky\" for \"white boy\" in the final chorus of the uncensored version.{{cite AV media notes\\|title\\=Play That Funky Music\\|others\\=Wild Cherry\\|date\\=1976\\|last\\=Parisi\\|first\\=Robert\\|type\\=vinyl\\|publisher\\=Epic Records\\|location\\=USA}} The British band [Hot Chocolate](/wiki/Hot_Chocolate_%28band%29 \"Hot Chocolate (band)\") used \"honky\" and \"spook\" in their controversial 1973 hit single \"[Brother Louie](/wiki/Brother_Louie_%28Hot_Chocolate_song%29 \"Brother Louie (Hot Chocolate song)\")\" about an interracial relationship as the terms chosen by the respective fathers to slur their child's newfound lover.",
"Other uses of \"honky\" in music include \"[Honky Tonk Women](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_Women \"Honky Tonk Women\")\" a 1969 song by the Rolling Stones, [*Honky*](/wiki/Honky_%28album%29 \"Honky (album)\") (an album by [Melvins](/wiki/Melvins \"Melvins\")), *[Honky Reduction](/wiki/Honky_Reduction \"Honky Reduction\")* (an album by [Agoraphobic Nosebleed](/wiki/Agoraphobic_Nosebleed \"Agoraphobic Nosebleed\")), [MC Honky](/wiki/MC_Honky \"MC Honky\") ([DJ](/wiki/Disc_jockey \"Disc jockey\") [stage persona](/wiki/Stage_name \"Stage name\")), *[Honky Château](/wiki/Honky_Ch%C3%A2teau \"Honky Château\")* (an album by [Elton John](/wiki/Elton_John \"Elton John\"), the first track on which is \"[Honky Cat](/wiki/Honky_Cat \"Honky Cat\")\"), *[Talkin' Honky Blues](/wiki/Talkin%27_Honky_Blues \"Talkin' Honky Blues\")* (an album by [Buck 65](/wiki/Buck_65 \"Buck 65\")), and *Honky* (an album by [Keith Emerson](/wiki/Keith_Emerson \"Keith Emerson\")). *[Honky's Ladder](/wiki/Honky%27s_Ladder \"Honky's Ladder\")* is a 1996 [EP](/wiki/Extended_play \"Extended play\") by [The Afghan Whigs](/wiki/The_Afghan_Whigs \"The Afghan Whigs\").",
"The Chicago style of [polka music](/wiki/Polka%23Styles_and_variants \"Polka#Styles and variants\") is also known as honky polka.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/991\\.html \\|title\\=Polka \\|last\\=Bohlman \\|first\\=Philip \\|publisher\\=Chicago Historical Society \\|date\\=2005 \\|website\\=The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago \\|access\\-date\\=December 6, 2020}} The etymological connection remains unclear, but the word \"[honky\\-tonk](/wiki/Honky-tonk \"Honky-tonk\")\" occurs often in [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\"), referring since the late 19th century to working\\-class nightclubs where country music is played.{{cite book\\|page\\=85\\|title\\=Handbook to Life in America\\|volume\\=6\\|year\\=2014\\|first\\=Rodney P. \\|last\\=Carlisle\\|isbn\\=9781438119021\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Infobase\\|Facts On File, Inc.]]}}",
"In 2022 [Hank Williams Jr.](/wiki/Hank_Williams_Jr. \"Hank Williams Jr.\") released a blues album [Rich White Honky Blues](/wiki/Rich_White_Honky_Blues \"Rich White Honky Blues\").",
"### Use in television and film",
"In film, there were some movies using \"honky\" without any [derogatory](/wiki/Pejorative \"Pejorative\") connotation. *[Honky Tonk](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_%281929_film%29 \"Honky Tonk (1929 film)\")* is a [1929](/wiki/1929_in_film \"1929 in film\") American [musical film](/wiki/Musical_film \"Musical film\") starring [Sophie Tucker](/wiki/Sophie_Tucker \"Sophie Tucker\"). And *[Honky Tonk](/wiki/Honky_Tonk_%281941_film%29 \"Honky Tonk (1941 film)\")* is also a [1941](/wiki/1941_in_film \"1941 in film\") [black\\-and\\-white](/wiki/Black-and-white \"Black-and-white\") [Western film](/wiki/Western_%28genre%29 \"Western (genre)\") starring [Clark Gable](/wiki/Clark_Gable \"Clark Gable\") and [Lana Turner](/wiki/Lana_Turner \"Lana Turner\"). The phrase [honky\\-tonk](/wiki/Honky-tonk \"Honky-tonk\") refers both to a particular type of rowdy [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") played live at bars and to the type of bar in which such music is played.*Reno Evening Gazette* (Nevada), 3 February 1900, pg. 2, col. 5\\. \"Every child of the range can tell what honkatonk means and where it came from. Away, away back in the very early days, so the story goes, a party of cow punchers rode out from camp at sundown in search of recreation after a day of toil. They headed for a place of amusement, but lost the trail. From far out in the distance there finally came to their ears a 'honk\\-a\\-tonk\\-a\\-tonk\\-a\\-tonk\\-a,' which they mistook for the bass viol. They turned toward the sound, to find alas! a dock {{sic}} of wild geese. So honkatonk was named. *N. Y. Sun*.",
"[*Honky*](/wiki/Honky_%28film%29 \"Honky (film)\") is a 1971 movie based on an interracial relationship, starring [Brenda Sykes](/wiki/Brenda_Sykes \"Brenda Sykes\") as Sheila Smith and John Neilson as Wayne \"Honky\" Devine. *Honky Tonk* is also a 1974 Western film starring [Richard Crenna](/wiki/Richard_Crenna \"Richard Crenna\") and [Margot Kidder](/wiki/Margot_Kidder \"Margot Kidder\"). Additionally, *[Honkytonk Man](/wiki/Honkytonk_Man \"Honkytonk Man\")* is a 1982 [drama film](/wiki/Drama_%28film_and_television%29 \"Drama (film and television)\") set in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). [Clint Eastwood](/wiki/Clint_Eastwood \"Clint Eastwood\"), who produced and directed the film, stars in the film with his son, [Kyle Eastwood](/wiki/Kyle_Eastwood \"Kyle Eastwood\").",
"In [a sketch](/wiki/Racist_Word_Association_Interview \"Racist Word Association Interview\") on *[Saturday Night Live](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live \"Saturday Night Live\")* (*SNL*), [Chevy Chase](/wiki/Chevy_Chase \"Chevy Chase\") and [Richard Pryor](/wiki/Richard_Pryor \"Richard Pryor\") used both *nigger* (Chase) and *honky* (Pryor) in reference to one another during a \"[racist](/wiki/Racism \"Racism\") [word association](/wiki/Word_association \"Word association\") interview\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Racist Word Association Interview\\|first\\=Paul\\|last\\=Mooney\\|author\\-link\\=Paul Mooney (comedian)\\|url\\=http://snltranscripts.jt.org/75/75ginterview.phtml\\|date\\=1975\\-12\\-13\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-06\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923185534/http://snltranscripts.jt.org/75/75ginterview.phtml\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-23\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} During this period, [Steve Martin](/wiki/Steve_Martin \"Steve Martin\") (as musical guest and [stand\\-up regular](/wiki/Stand-up_comedy \"Stand-up comedy\") on *SNL*) performed a rendition of \"[King Tut](/wiki/King_Tut_%28song%29 \"King Tut (song)\")\" which contained the word *honky* in its lyrics.",
"On the TV series *[Barney Miller](/wiki/Barney_Miller \"Barney Miller\")*, Season 5, Episode 8, \"Loan Shark\", [Arthur Dietrich](/wiki/Arthur_Dietrich \"Arthur Dietrich\") gives an etymology of the word \"honky\", claiming it was \"coined by Blacks in the 1950s in reference to the nasal tone of Caucasians\".{{cite AV media\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=dcieTRWUeWw\\|title\\=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links\\|date\\=February 2022}}",
"On the TV series *[The Jeffersons](/wiki/The_Jeffersons \"The Jeffersons\")*, [George Jefferson](/wiki/George_Jefferson \"George Jefferson\") regularly referred to a white person as a honky (or [whitey](/wiki/Whitey_%28slang%29 \"Whitey (slang)\")) as did [Redd Foxx](/wiki/Redd_Foxx \"Redd Foxx\") on *[Sanford and Son](/wiki/Sanford_and_Son \"Sanford and Son\")*. This word would later be popularized in episodes of *[Mork \\& Mindy](/wiki/Mork_%26_Mindy \"Mork & Mindy\")* by [Robin Williams](/wiki/Robin_Williams \"Robin Williams\") and [Jonathan Winters](/wiki/Jonathan_Winters \"Jonathan Winters\").",
"These and other shows, as exemplified by the controversial *[All in the Family](/wiki/All_in_the_Family \"All in the Family\")*, attempted to expose racism and [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") as an issue in society using the subversive weapon of humor. However, the effect that this theme had on television created both negative and positive criticism{{cn\\|date\\=January 2024}} and the use of [anti\\-racist](/wiki/Anti-racist \"Anti-racist\") messages actually escalates the use of racial slurs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/ironic\\-effects\\-of\\-anti\\-prejudice\\-messages.html\\|title\\=Ironic Effects of Anti\\-Prejudice Messages\\|last1\\=Legault\\|first1\\=Lisa\\|last2\\=Menon\\|first2\\=Divya\\|date\\=6 July 2011\\|website\\=Association for Psychological Science (news)\\|publisher\\=Association for Psychological Science\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2013}} The presence of higher education may countermand this effect.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ils.unc.edu/courses/2013\\_spring/inls200\\_002/Readings/Burke.pdf\\|title\\=Social Tolerance and Racist Materials in Public Libraries\\|last1\\=Burke\\|first1\\=Susan K.\\|date\\=18 September 2009\\|publisher\\=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2013}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The division's lineage begins with the XIII Brigade established on 24 June 1859 with the 23rd and 24th infantry regiments of the Army of the [United Provinces of Central Italy](/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy "United Provinces of Central Italy"). On 16 September 1859 the brigade received the name "Forlì". On 25 March 1860 the Brigade "Forlì" entered the [Royal Sardinian Army](/wiki/Royal_Sardinian_Army "Royal Sardinian Army") three days after the [Kingdom of Sardinia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia "Kingdom of Sardinia") had annexed the United Provinces of Central Italy. Already before entering the Royal Sardinian Army the brigade's two infantry regiments had been renumbered on 30 December 1859 as 43rd Infantry Regiment and 44th Infantry Regiment.{{cite book \|last1\=Voghera \|first1\=Enrico \|title\=Annuario militare del regno d'Italia \- Volume I \|date\=1909 \|location\=Rome \|page\=414}}
### World War I
The brigade fought on the [Italian front](/wiki/Italian_front_%28World_War_I%29 "Italian front (World War I)") in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). On 10 October 1926 the brigade assumed the name of III Infantry Brigade and received the [37th Infantry Regiment "Ravenna"](/wiki/37th_Infantry_Regiment_%22Ravenna%22 "37th Infantry Regiment ") from the disbanded [Brigade "Ravenna"](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%22Ravenna%22 "3rd Infantry Division "). The brigade was the infantry component of the 3rd Territorial Division of Alessandria, which also included the [11th Field Artillery Regiment](/wiki/11th_Artillery_Regiment_%22Ravenna%22 "11th Artillery Regiment ").{{cite web \|title\=43° Reggimento di fanteria "Forlì" \|url\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/fanteria/rgt/rgt43\.htm \|publisher\=Regio Esercito \|access\-date\=22 December 2021}}{{cite web \|title\=44° Reggimento di fanteria "Forlì" \|url\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/fanteria/rgt/rgt44\.htm \|publisher\=Regio Esercito \|access\-date\=22 December 2021}}
In 1930 the division exchanged the 44th Infantry Regiment "Forlì" for the 38th Infantry Regiment "Ravenna" with the [4th Territorial Division of Cuneo](/wiki/4th_Infantry_Division_%22Livorno%22 "4th Infantry Division "). In 1935 the division changed its name to 3rd Infantry Division "[Monferrato](/wiki/Monferrato "Monferrato")". On 1 April 1934 the division exchanged the 38th Infantry Regiment "Ravenna" for [30th Infantry Regiment "Pisa"](/wiki/30th_Infantry_Regiment_%22Pisa%22 "30th Infantry Regiment ") with the [26th Infantry Division "Assietta"](/wiki/26th_Infantry_Division_%22Assietta%22 "26th Infantry Division ").
On 31 March 1939 the 36th Infantry Division "Forlì" was activated in [Saluzzo](/wiki/Saluzzo "Saluzzo") and on the same day the 3rd Infantry Division "[Monferrato](/wiki/Monferrato "Monferrato")" was renamed as [3rd Infantry Division "Ravenna"](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%22Ravenna%22 "3rd Infantry Division "), becoming thus the heir to the Brigade "Ravenna", while the traditions of the Brigade "Forlì" were passed to the newly activated 36th division. On the same day the Forlì received the 43rd Infantry Regiment "Forlì" from the Ravenna division and the 44th Infantry Regiment "Forlì" from the [4th Territorial Division of Cuneo](/wiki/4th_Infantry_Division_%22Livorno%22 "4th Infantry Division "). On 3 September 1939 the 36th Artillery Regiment was reformed in [Saluzzo](/wiki/Saluzzo "Saluzzo") by the depot of the [11th Artillery Regiment "Ravenna"](/wiki/11th_Artillery_Regiment_%22Ravenna%22 "11th Artillery Regiment ") and assigned to the division.
### World War II
On 10 June 1940 the Forlì was the part of the Italian [1st Army](/wiki/1st_Army_%28Italy%29 "1st Army (Italy)") and took part in the [Italian invasion of France](/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France "Italian invasion of France").{{cite web\|author\=Mulholland, John\|publisher\= Axis History\|title\= Axis Order of Battle 10 June 1940 – The Italian Invasion of France\|access\-date \=2009\-04\-12\|url \= http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id\=6466}} The division was initially deployed on the French border in defensive positions in the [Argentera](/wiki/Argentera "Argentera") valley and between the Rocca Peroni and [Monte Maniglia](/wiki/Monte_Maniglia "Monte Maniglia") mountains. On 22 June 1940 the Forlì attacked towards [Meyronnes](/wiki/Meyronnes "Meyronnes") and the road junction of [La Condamine\-Châtelard](/wiki/La_Condamine-Ch%C3%A2telard "La Condamine-Châtelard"), after bypassing French defenders north of mount Tête de Viraysse, it took the forts of Bec du Lièvre and Tête Dure on 23 June. As result, the Forlì advanced rapidly that day and captured Malboisset, before stopping before the village of Larche at the news of the [Franco\-Italian Armistice](/wiki/Franco-Italian_Armistice "Franco-Italian Armistice").
In early 1941 the Forlì moved to Albania to augment the Italian forces fighting in the [Greco\-Italian War](/wiki/Greco-Italian_War "Greco-Italian War"). On 12 February 1941 it entered the frontline west of [Lake Ohrid](/wiki/Lake_Ohrid "Lake Ohrid"), in the [Librazhd](/wiki/Librazhd "Librazhd")\-Kalivaç\-[Dunicë](/wiki/Dunic%C3%AB "Dunicë") area and partly along the [Shkumbin](/wiki/Shkumbin "Shkumbin") river. On 20 February the Greek army attacked the Forlì positions, focusing on mount Kosicës and the Kalivaç valley in [Korçë](/wiki/Kor%C3%A7%C3%AB "Korçë") municipality. On April 10, 1941 the Forlì went on the offensive as part of German\-led [Battle of Greece](/wiki/Battle_of_Greece "Battle of Greece"). The division attacked from [Vloçisht](/wiki/Vlo%C3%A7isht "Vloçisht") to Gurisht. By 14 April 1941 it moved towards Leminot. When the Greek Army began to retreat due to the Germans' rapid advance in the east, and Forlì was able to reach [Ersekë](/wiki/Ersek%C3%AB "Ersekë") on 17 April 1941, where it stop at the [Aoös](/wiki/Ao%C3%B6s "Aoös") river. After the Greek surrender the division was ordered to [Larissa](/wiki/Larissa "Larissa") for occupation duties.
While the Forlì was on occupation duty in Greece the division's [regimental depots](/wiki/Regimental_depot "Regimental depot") in Italy raised the [154th Infantry Division "Murge"](/wiki/154th_Infantry_Division_%22Murge%22 "154th Infantry Division "): the depot of the 43rd Infantry Regiment "Forlì" raised the 259th Infantry Regiment "Murge", the depot of the 44th Infantry Regiment "Forlì" raised the 260th Infantry Regiment "Murge", and the depot of the 36th Artillery Regiment "Forlì" raised the 154th Artillery Regiment "Murge".{{cite web \|title\=154ª Divisione di fanteria "Murge" \|url\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/fanteria/rediv154\.htm \|publisher\=Regio Esercito \|access\-date\=22 December 2021}}
In August 1942 the Forlì was assigned occupation and coastal defence duties at [Larissa](/wiki/Larissa "Larissa"), [Volos](/wiki/Volos "Volos") and [Lamia](/wiki/Lamia_%28city%29 "Lamia (city)"). In 1943, the Forlì has relocated further south, covering the Lamia – [Amfikleia](/wiki/Amfikleia "Amfikleia") – [Livadeia](/wiki/Livadeia "Livadeia") – [Thebes](/wiki/Thebes%2C_Greece "Thebes, Greece") and [Attica](/wiki/Attica "Attica") area. Also, the Forlì was responsible for the control of the [Euripus Strait](/wiki/Euripus_Strait "Euripus Strait"), the island of [Euboea](/wiki/Euboea "Euboea") and the area surrounding [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens").
On 5–6 March 1943, troops of the Forlì set the town of [Servia](/wiki/Servia%2C_Greece "Servia, Greece") on fire in retaliation for the defeat and capture of an Italian battalion at the [Battle of Fardykambos](/wiki/Battle_of_Fardykambos "Battle of Fardykambos") by the [Greek Resistance](/wiki/Greek_Resistance "Greek Resistance").{{cite book \| last \= Flountzis \| first \= Antonis \| title \= Στρατόπεδα Λάρισας\-Τρικάλων: Η γέννηση του αντάρτικου στη Θεσσαλία \| trans\-title \= Larisa\-Trikala Camps: The Birth of the Partisan Movement in Thessaly \| publisher \= Papazisis \| location \= Athens \| year \= 1977 \| language \= el \| oclc \= 8624538 \| pages\=210–211}}
The Forlì surrendered to the German forces in Greece after the [Armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile "Armistice of Cassibile") and was dissolved 16 September 1943\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The division's lineage begins with the XIII Brigade established on 24 June 1859 with the 23rd and 24th infantry regiments of the Army of the [United Provinces of Central Italy](/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy \"United Provinces of Central Italy\"). On 16 September 1859 the brigade received the name \"Forlì\". On 25 March 1860 the Brigade \"Forlì\" entered the [Royal Sardinian Army](/wiki/Royal_Sardinian_Army \"Royal Sardinian Army\") three days after the [Kingdom of Sardinia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia \"Kingdom of Sardinia\") had annexed the United Provinces of Central Italy. Already before entering the Royal Sardinian Army the brigade's two infantry regiments had been renumbered on 30 December 1859 as 43rd Infantry Regiment and 44th Infantry Regiment.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Voghera \\|first1\\=Enrico \\|title\\=Annuario militare del regno d'Italia \\- Volume I \\|date\\=1909 \\|location\\=Rome \\|page\\=414}}",
"### World War I",
"The brigade fought on the [Italian front](/wiki/Italian_front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Italian front (World War I)\") in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). On 10 October 1926 the brigade assumed the name of III Infantry Brigade and received the [37th Infantry Regiment \"Ravenna\"](/wiki/37th_Infantry_Regiment_%22Ravenna%22 \"37th Infantry Regiment \") from the disbanded [Brigade \"Ravenna\"](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%22Ravenna%22 \"3rd Infantry Division \"). The brigade was the infantry component of the 3rd Territorial Division of Alessandria, which also included the [11th Field Artillery Regiment](/wiki/11th_Artillery_Regiment_%22Ravenna%22 \"11th Artillery Regiment \").{{cite web \\|title\\=43° Reggimento di fanteria \"Forlì\" \\|url\\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/fanteria/rgt/rgt43\\.htm \\|publisher\\=Regio Esercito \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2021}}{{cite web \\|title\\=44° Reggimento di fanteria \"Forlì\" \\|url\\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/fanteria/rgt/rgt44\\.htm \\|publisher\\=Regio Esercito \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2021}}",
"In 1930 the division exchanged the 44th Infantry Regiment \"Forlì\" for the 38th Infantry Regiment \"Ravenna\" with the [4th Territorial Division of Cuneo](/wiki/4th_Infantry_Division_%22Livorno%22 \"4th Infantry Division \"). In 1935 the division changed its name to 3rd Infantry Division \"[Monferrato](/wiki/Monferrato \"Monferrato\")\". On 1 April 1934 the division exchanged the 38th Infantry Regiment \"Ravenna\" for [30th Infantry Regiment \"Pisa\"](/wiki/30th_Infantry_Regiment_%22Pisa%22 \"30th Infantry Regiment \") with the [26th Infantry Division \"Assietta\"](/wiki/26th_Infantry_Division_%22Assietta%22 \"26th Infantry Division \").",
"On 31 March 1939 the 36th Infantry Division \"Forlì\" was activated in [Saluzzo](/wiki/Saluzzo \"Saluzzo\") and on the same day the 3rd Infantry Division \"[Monferrato](/wiki/Monferrato \"Monferrato\")\" was renamed as [3rd Infantry Division \"Ravenna\"](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%22Ravenna%22 \"3rd Infantry Division \"), becoming thus the heir to the Brigade \"Ravenna\", while the traditions of the Brigade \"Forlì\" were passed to the newly activated 36th division. On the same day the Forlì received the 43rd Infantry Regiment \"Forlì\" from the Ravenna division and the 44th Infantry Regiment \"Forlì\" from the [4th Territorial Division of Cuneo](/wiki/4th_Infantry_Division_%22Livorno%22 \"4th Infantry Division \"). On 3 September 1939 the 36th Artillery Regiment was reformed in [Saluzzo](/wiki/Saluzzo \"Saluzzo\") by the depot of the [11th Artillery Regiment \"Ravenna\"](/wiki/11th_Artillery_Regiment_%22Ravenna%22 \"11th Artillery Regiment \") and assigned to the division.",
"### World War II",
"On 10 June 1940 the Forlì was the part of the Italian [1st Army](/wiki/1st_Army_%28Italy%29 \"1st Army (Italy)\") and took part in the [Italian invasion of France](/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France \"Italian invasion of France\").{{cite web\\|author\\=Mulholland, John\\|publisher\\= Axis History\\|title\\= Axis Order of Battle 10 June 1940 – The Italian Invasion of France\\|access\\-date \\=2009\\-04\\-12\\|url \\= http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id\\=6466}} The division was initially deployed on the French border in defensive positions in the [Argentera](/wiki/Argentera \"Argentera\") valley and between the Rocca Peroni and [Monte Maniglia](/wiki/Monte_Maniglia \"Monte Maniglia\") mountains. On 22 June 1940 the Forlì attacked towards [Meyronnes](/wiki/Meyronnes \"Meyronnes\") and the road junction of [La Condamine\\-Châtelard](/wiki/La_Condamine-Ch%C3%A2telard \"La Condamine-Châtelard\"), after bypassing French defenders north of mount Tête de Viraysse, it took the forts of Bec du Lièvre and Tête Dure on 23 June. As result, the Forlì advanced rapidly that day and captured Malboisset, before stopping before the village of Larche at the news of the [Franco\\-Italian Armistice](/wiki/Franco-Italian_Armistice \"Franco-Italian Armistice\").",
"In early 1941 the Forlì moved to Albania to augment the Italian forces fighting in the [Greco\\-Italian War](/wiki/Greco-Italian_War \"Greco-Italian War\"). On 12 February 1941 it entered the frontline west of [Lake Ohrid](/wiki/Lake_Ohrid \"Lake Ohrid\"), in the [Librazhd](/wiki/Librazhd \"Librazhd\")\\-Kalivaç\\-[Dunicë](/wiki/Dunic%C3%AB \"Dunicë\") area and partly along the [Shkumbin](/wiki/Shkumbin \"Shkumbin\") river. On 20 February the Greek army attacked the Forlì positions, focusing on mount Kosicës and the Kalivaç valley in [Korçë](/wiki/Kor%C3%A7%C3%AB \"Korçë\") municipality. On April 10, 1941 the Forlì went on the offensive as part of German\\-led [Battle of Greece](/wiki/Battle_of_Greece \"Battle of Greece\"). The division attacked from [Vloçisht](/wiki/Vlo%C3%A7isht \"Vloçisht\") to Gurisht. By 14 April 1941 it moved towards Leminot. When the Greek Army began to retreat due to the Germans' rapid advance in the east, and Forlì was able to reach [Ersekë](/wiki/Ersek%C3%AB \"Ersekë\") on 17 April 1941, where it stop at the [Aoös](/wiki/Ao%C3%B6s \"Aoös\") river. After the Greek surrender the division was ordered to [Larissa](/wiki/Larissa \"Larissa\") for occupation duties.",
"While the Forlì was on occupation duty in Greece the division's [regimental depots](/wiki/Regimental_depot \"Regimental depot\") in Italy raised the [154th Infantry Division \"Murge\"](/wiki/154th_Infantry_Division_%22Murge%22 \"154th Infantry Division \"): the depot of the 43rd Infantry Regiment \"Forlì\" raised the 259th Infantry Regiment \"Murge\", the depot of the 44th Infantry Regiment \"Forlì\" raised the 260th Infantry Regiment \"Murge\", and the depot of the 36th Artillery Regiment \"Forlì\" raised the 154th Artillery Regiment \"Murge\".{{cite web \\|title\\=154ª Divisione di fanteria \"Murge\" \\|url\\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/fanteria/rediv154\\.htm \\|publisher\\=Regio Esercito \\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2021}}",
"In August 1942 the Forlì was assigned occupation and coastal defence duties at [Larissa](/wiki/Larissa \"Larissa\"), [Volos](/wiki/Volos \"Volos\") and [Lamia](/wiki/Lamia_%28city%29 \"Lamia (city)\"). In 1943, the Forlì has relocated further south, covering the Lamia – [Amfikleia](/wiki/Amfikleia \"Amfikleia\") – [Livadeia](/wiki/Livadeia \"Livadeia\") – [Thebes](/wiki/Thebes%2C_Greece \"Thebes, Greece\") and [Attica](/wiki/Attica \"Attica\") area. Also, the Forlì was responsible for the control of the [Euripus Strait](/wiki/Euripus_Strait \"Euripus Strait\"), the island of [Euboea](/wiki/Euboea \"Euboea\") and the area surrounding [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\").",
"On 5–6 March 1943, troops of the Forlì set the town of [Servia](/wiki/Servia%2C_Greece \"Servia, Greece\") on fire in retaliation for the defeat and capture of an Italian battalion at the [Battle of Fardykambos](/wiki/Battle_of_Fardykambos \"Battle of Fardykambos\") by the [Greek Resistance](/wiki/Greek_Resistance \"Greek Resistance\").{{cite book \\| last \\= Flountzis \\| first \\= Antonis \\| title \\= Στρατόπεδα Λάρισας\\-Τρικάλων: Η γέννηση του αντάρτικου στη Θεσσαλία \\| trans\\-title \\= Larisa\\-Trikala Camps: The Birth of the Partisan Movement in Thessaly \\| publisher \\= Papazisis \\| location \\= Athens \\| year \\= 1977 \\| language \\= el \\| oclc \\= 8624538 \\| pages\\=210–211}}",
"The Forlì surrendered to the German forces in Greece after the [Armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile \"Armistice of Cassibile\") and was dissolved 16 September 1943\\.",
""
] |
Environment deterioration in the 1960s
--------------------------------------
{{main\|Four Big Pollution Diseases of Japan}}
Current Japanese environmental policy and regulations were the consequence of a number of environmental disasters in the 1950s and 1960s that attended the high\-speed economic growth associated with the [Japanese economic miracle](/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle "Japanese economic miracle"). [Cadmium](/wiki/Cadmium "Cadmium") poisoning from industrial waste in [Toyama Prefecture](/wiki/Toyama_Prefecture "Toyama Prefecture") was discovered to be the cause of the extremely painful {{Nihongo\|''\[\[itai\-itai disease]]''\|イタイイタイ病\|Itai itai byō\|"ouch ouch sickness"}}. People in Minamata City in [Kumamoto Prefecture](/wiki/Kumamoto_Prefecture "Kumamoto Prefecture") were poisoned by [methylmercury](/wiki/Methylmercury "Methylmercury") drained from a [chemical factory](/wiki/Chemical_factory "Chemical factory"), a condition known as the *[Minamata disease](/wiki/Minamata_disease "Minamata disease")*. The number of casualties in Minamata is 6,500 as of November 2006\.
In [Yokkaichi](/wiki/Yokkaichi "Yokkaichi"), a port in [Mie Prefecture](/wiki/Mie_Prefecture "Mie Prefecture"), air pollution caused by [sulfur dioxide](/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide "Sulfur dioxide") and [nitrogen dioxide](/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide "Nitrogen dioxide") emissions led to a rapid increase in the number of people suffering from [asthma](/wiki/Asthma "Asthma") and [bronchitis](/wiki/Bronchitis "Bronchitis"). In urban areas [photochemical smog](/wiki/Photochemical_smog "Photochemical smog") from automotive and industrial exhaust fumes also contributed to a rise in respiratory problems. In the early 1970s, chronic [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic") poisoning attributed to dust from arsenic mines occurred in [Shimane](/wiki/Shimane_Prefecture "Shimane Prefecture") and [Miyazaki Prefectures](/wiki/Miyazaki_Prefecture "Miyazaki Prefecture").
Environmentalist movements began to spring up around Japan in the wake of the 1960 [Anpo protests](/wiki/Anpo_protests "Anpo protests"), which energized a new generation of activists. These movements gained momentum as Prime Minister [Hayato Ikeda](/wiki/Hayato_Ikeda "Hayato Ikeda")'s [Income Doubling Plan](/wiki/Income_Doubling_Plan "Income Doubling Plan") placed a priority on economic growth at all costs, exacerbating environmental problems.
In 1969, the [Consumers Union of Japan](/wiki/Consumers_Union_of_Japan "Consumers Union of Japan") was founded to deal with health problems and false claims by companies. The [National Diet](/wiki/National_Diet "National Diet") session of 1970 came to be remembered as "the Pollution Diet."{{Cite book\|last\=Kapur\|first\=Nick\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Re5hDwAAQBAJ\|title\=Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo\|publisher\=\[\[Harvard University Press]]\|year\=2018\|location\=Cambridge, Massachusetts\|pages\=272\|isbn\=9780674988484}} Responding to rising popular pressure and outrage, the Diet passed fourteen anti\-pollution laws in a single session, in what was seen as a turning point in environmental policy. As a result, Japan had what were at the time the strongest set of environmental protection laws in the world.
These new laws included a Water Pollution Act and nationwide regulations of toxic discharges. The "polluter pays" principle was introduced. A national Environmental Agency, which later developed into the Ministry of Environment, was founded in 1971\.{{cite web\|title\=Environmental Protection Policy in Japan \- Introduction\|url\=http://www.env.go.jp/en/policy/plan/intro.html\|publisher\=Ministry of the Environment, Japan\|accessdate\=13 October 2012}} National governmental expenditures on environmental issues almost doubled between 1970 and 1975 and tripled on the local government level. Business investments in [clean technologies](/wiki/Clean_technologies "Clean technologies") rose dramatically, too.
In the latter half of the 1970s, the Consumers Union of Japan led the opposition to nuclear power, calling for a nationwide Anti\-Nuclear Power Week Campaign. This movement would continue to grow over the next several decades into a sizable [anti\-nuclear power movement in Japan](/wiki/Anti-nuclear_power_movement_in_Japan "Anti-nuclear power movement in Japan").
In the 1990s, Japan's environmental legislation was further tightened. In 1993 the government reorganized the environment law system and legislated the *Basic Environment Law* ({{lang\|ja\|環境基本法}}) and related laws. The law includes restriction of industrial emissions, restriction of products, restriction of wastes, improvement of energy conservation, promotion of recycling, restriction of land utilization, the arrangement of environmental pollution control programs, relief of victims and provision for sanctions. The Environment Agency was promoted to full\-fledged [Ministry of the Environment](/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Environment_%28Japan%29 "Ministry of the Environment (Japan)") in 2001, to deal with the deteriorating international environmental problems.
In 1984 the Environmental Agency had issued its first [white paper](/wiki/White_paper "White paper"). In the 1989 study, citizens thought environmental problems had improved compared with the past, nearly 1\.7% thought things had improved, 31% thought that they had stayed the same, and nearly 21% thought that they had worsened. Some 75% of those surveyed expressed concern about [endangered species](/wiki/Endangered_species "Endangered species"), shrinkage of [rain forests](/wiki/Rain_forest "Rain forest"), [expansion of deserts](/wiki/Desertification "Desertification"), destruction of the [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer "Ozone layer"), [acid rain](/wiki/Acid_rain "Acid rain"), and increased [water](/wiki/Water_pollution "Water pollution") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution") in [developing countries](/wiki/Developing_country "Developing country"). Most believed that Japan, alone or in cooperation with other industrialized countries, had the responsibility to solve environmental problems. In the 2007 opinion poll, 31\.8% of the people answered environmental conservation activity leads to more economic development, 22\.0% answered the environmental activity does not always obstruct the economic, 23\.3% answered environmental conservation should be given preference even if it may obstruct the economic and 3\.2％ answered economic development should place priority than environmental conservation.[環境問題に関する世論調査](http://www8.cao.go.jp/survey/h17/h17-environment/2-1.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208092325/http://www8\.cao.go.jp/survey/h17/h17\-environment/2\-1\.html \|date\=2008\-02\-08 }}, 内閣府大臣官房政府広報室
The OECD's first Environmental Performance Review of Japan was published in 1994, which applauded the nation for decoupling its economic development from air pollution, as the nation's air quality improved while the economy thrived. However, it received poorer marks for water quality, as its rivers, lakes and coastal waters did not meet quality standards.[OECD asks how green is Japan?](http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20010602b4.html), [Japan Times](/wiki/Japan_Times "Japan Times"), June 2, 2001, Another report in 2002 said that the mix of instruments used to implement environmental policy is highly effective and regulations are strict, well enforced and based on strong monitoring capacities.[Environmental Performance Review of Japan](http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/0/17/2110905.pdf), [Organisation for Economic Co\-operation and Development](/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development")
In the 2006 environment annual report,[Annual Report on the Environment in Japan 2006](http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2006/02.pdf), Ministry of the Environment the Ministry of Environment reported that current major issues are [global warming](/wiki/Global_warming "Global warming") and preservation of the [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer "Ozone layer"), conservation of the atmospheric environment, water and soil, [waste management](/wiki/Waste_management "Waste management") and [recycling](/wiki/Recycling "Recycling"), measures for chemical substances, conservation of the natural environment and the participation in the international cooperation.
|
[
"Environment deterioration in the 1960s\n--------------------------------------",
"{{main\\|Four Big Pollution Diseases of Japan}}\nCurrent Japanese environmental policy and regulations were the consequence of a number of environmental disasters in the 1950s and 1960s that attended the high\\-speed economic growth associated with the [Japanese economic miracle](/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle \"Japanese economic miracle\"). [Cadmium](/wiki/Cadmium \"Cadmium\") poisoning from industrial waste in [Toyama Prefecture](/wiki/Toyama_Prefecture \"Toyama Prefecture\") was discovered to be the cause of the extremely painful {{Nihongo\\|''\\[\\[itai\\-itai disease]]''\\|イタイイタイ病\\|Itai itai byō\\|\"ouch ouch sickness\"}}. People in Minamata City in [Kumamoto Prefecture](/wiki/Kumamoto_Prefecture \"Kumamoto Prefecture\") were poisoned by [methylmercury](/wiki/Methylmercury \"Methylmercury\") drained from a [chemical factory](/wiki/Chemical_factory \"Chemical factory\"), a condition known as the *[Minamata disease](/wiki/Minamata_disease \"Minamata disease\")*. The number of casualties in Minamata is 6,500 as of November 2006\\.",
"In [Yokkaichi](/wiki/Yokkaichi \"Yokkaichi\"), a port in [Mie Prefecture](/wiki/Mie_Prefecture \"Mie Prefecture\"), air pollution caused by [sulfur dioxide](/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide \"Sulfur dioxide\") and [nitrogen dioxide](/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide \"Nitrogen dioxide\") emissions led to a rapid increase in the number of people suffering from [asthma](/wiki/Asthma \"Asthma\") and [bronchitis](/wiki/Bronchitis \"Bronchitis\"). In urban areas [photochemical smog](/wiki/Photochemical_smog \"Photochemical smog\") from automotive and industrial exhaust fumes also contributed to a rise in respiratory problems. In the early 1970s, chronic [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic \"Arsenic\") poisoning attributed to dust from arsenic mines occurred in [Shimane](/wiki/Shimane_Prefecture \"Shimane Prefecture\") and [Miyazaki Prefectures](/wiki/Miyazaki_Prefecture \"Miyazaki Prefecture\").",
"Environmentalist movements began to spring up around Japan in the wake of the 1960 [Anpo protests](/wiki/Anpo_protests \"Anpo protests\"), which energized a new generation of activists. These movements gained momentum as Prime Minister [Hayato Ikeda](/wiki/Hayato_Ikeda \"Hayato Ikeda\")'s [Income Doubling Plan](/wiki/Income_Doubling_Plan \"Income Doubling Plan\") placed a priority on economic growth at all costs, exacerbating environmental problems.",
"In 1969, the [Consumers Union of Japan](/wiki/Consumers_Union_of_Japan \"Consumers Union of Japan\") was founded to deal with health problems and false claims by companies. The [National Diet](/wiki/National_Diet \"National Diet\") session of 1970 came to be remembered as \"the Pollution Diet.\"{{Cite book\\|last\\=Kapur\\|first\\=Nick\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Re5hDwAAQBAJ\\|title\\=Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Harvard University Press]]\\|year\\=2018\\|location\\=Cambridge, Massachusetts\\|pages\\=272\\|isbn\\=9780674988484}} Responding to rising popular pressure and outrage, the Diet passed fourteen anti\\-pollution laws in a single session, in what was seen as a turning point in environmental policy. As a result, Japan had what were at the time the strongest set of environmental protection laws in the world.",
"These new laws included a Water Pollution Act and nationwide regulations of toxic discharges. The \"polluter pays\" principle was introduced. A national Environmental Agency, which later developed into the Ministry of Environment, was founded in 1971\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Environmental Protection Policy in Japan \\- Introduction\\|url\\=http://www.env.go.jp/en/policy/plan/intro.html\\|publisher\\=Ministry of the Environment, Japan\\|accessdate\\=13 October 2012}} National governmental expenditures on environmental issues almost doubled between 1970 and 1975 and tripled on the local government level. Business investments in [clean technologies](/wiki/Clean_technologies \"Clean technologies\") rose dramatically, too.",
"In the latter half of the 1970s, the Consumers Union of Japan led the opposition to nuclear power, calling for a nationwide Anti\\-Nuclear Power Week Campaign. This movement would continue to grow over the next several decades into a sizable [anti\\-nuclear power movement in Japan](/wiki/Anti-nuclear_power_movement_in_Japan \"Anti-nuclear power movement in Japan\").",
"In the 1990s, Japan's environmental legislation was further tightened. In 1993 the government reorganized the environment law system and legislated the *Basic Environment Law* ({{lang\\|ja\\|環境基本法}}) and related laws. The law includes restriction of industrial emissions, restriction of products, restriction of wastes, improvement of energy conservation, promotion of recycling, restriction of land utilization, the arrangement of environmental pollution control programs, relief of victims and provision for sanctions. The Environment Agency was promoted to full\\-fledged [Ministry of the Environment](/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Environment_%28Japan%29 \"Ministry of the Environment (Japan)\") in 2001, to deal with the deteriorating international environmental problems.",
"In 1984 the Environmental Agency had issued its first [white paper](/wiki/White_paper \"White paper\"). In the 1989 study, citizens thought environmental problems had improved compared with the past, nearly 1\\.7% thought things had improved, 31% thought that they had stayed the same, and nearly 21% thought that they had worsened. Some 75% of those surveyed expressed concern about [endangered species](/wiki/Endangered_species \"Endangered species\"), shrinkage of [rain forests](/wiki/Rain_forest \"Rain forest\"), [expansion of deserts](/wiki/Desertification \"Desertification\"), destruction of the [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer \"Ozone layer\"), [acid rain](/wiki/Acid_rain \"Acid rain\"), and increased [water](/wiki/Water_pollution \"Water pollution\") and [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\") in [developing countries](/wiki/Developing_country \"Developing country\"). Most believed that Japan, alone or in cooperation with other industrialized countries, had the responsibility to solve environmental problems. In the 2007 opinion poll, 31\\.8% of the people answered environmental conservation activity leads to more economic development, 22\\.0% answered the environmental activity does not always obstruct the economic, 23\\.3% answered environmental conservation should be given preference even if it may obstruct the economic and 3\\.2％ answered economic development should place priority than environmental conservation.[環境問題に関する世論調査](http://www8.cao.go.jp/survey/h17/h17-environment/2-1.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208092325/http://www8\\.cao.go.jp/survey/h17/h17\\-environment/2\\-1\\.html \\|date\\=2008\\-02\\-08 }}, 内閣府大臣官房政府広報室",
"The OECD's first Environmental Performance Review of Japan was published in 1994, which applauded the nation for decoupling its economic development from air pollution, as the nation's air quality improved while the economy thrived. However, it received poorer marks for water quality, as its rivers, lakes and coastal waters did not meet quality standards.[OECD asks how green is Japan?](http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20010602b4.html), [Japan Times](/wiki/Japan_Times \"Japan Times\"), June 2, 2001, Another report in 2002 said that the mix of instruments used to implement environmental policy is highly effective and regulations are strict, well enforced and based on strong monitoring capacities.[Environmental Performance Review of Japan](http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/0/17/2110905.pdf), [Organisation for Economic Co\\-operation and Development](/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development \"Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development\")",
"In the 2006 environment annual report,[Annual Report on the Environment in Japan 2006](http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2006/02.pdf), Ministry of the Environment the Ministry of Environment reported that current major issues are [global warming](/wiki/Global_warming \"Global warming\") and preservation of the [ozone layer](/wiki/Ozone_layer \"Ozone layer\"), conservation of the atmospheric environment, water and soil, [waste management](/wiki/Waste_management \"Waste management\") and [recycling](/wiki/Recycling \"Recycling\"), measures for chemical substances, conservation of the natural environment and the participation in the international cooperation.",
""
] |
Career in Parliament
--------------------
At the [1818 general election](/wiki/1818_United_Kingdom_general_election "1818 United Kingdom general election"), Blair bought a seat in Parliament, in the [rotten borough](/wiki/Rotten_borough "Rotten borough") of [Saltash](/wiki/Saltash_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Saltash (UK Parliament constituency)") in Devon. That seat was bought for one Parliament only from [Michael George Prendergast](/wiki/Michael_George_Prendergast "Michael George Prendergast"), who had purchased a life interest from the borough's owner [James Buller](/wiki/James_Buller_%281772%E2%80%931830%29 "James Buller (1772–1830)").
At the [1820 general election](/wiki/1820_United_Kingdom_general_election "1820 United Kingdom general election"), Blair was returned for another rotten borough, this time [Aldeburgh](/wiki/Aldeburgh_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Aldeburgh (UK Parliament constituency)") in Suffolk. It was owned by the Lancashire ironmaster [Samuel Walker](/wiki/Samuel_Walker_%281779%E2%80%931851%29 "Samuel Walker (1779–1851)"), who had bought it in 1818 for £39,000 (equivalent to £{{formatprice\|{{inflation\|UK\|39,000\|1818}}}} in 2024{{Inflation\-fn\|UK\|df\=y}}).
Blair had entered Parliament to defend the slave plantations, and while he voted on conventional Tory lines, he did not speak in the Commons until March 1824, in the debates which followed the [Demerara rebellion of 1823](/wiki/Demerara_rebellion_of_1823 "Demerara rebellion of 1823"). He opposed measures to improve the living and working conditions of slaves. He told the house that the slaves were "as mildly and as humanely managed in Demerara, as in the Islands, or as is compatible with a state of slavery and pressure" and that "there can be no doubt that the revolt in Demerara is to be attributed to the debates which took place in this House last year, and to the notice preceding them". His only other contribution to Parliamentary debates was in 1825, when he supported retaining the preferential tariff on sugar imported from the West Indies. He had been an active member of the [London Society of West India Planters and Merchants](/wiki/London_Society_of_West_India_Planters_and_Merchants "London Society of West India Planters and Merchants"), attending 33 meetings between 1824 \-1829\.Ryden D. (2015\) The Society of West India Planters and Merchants in the Age of Emancipation, c.1816\-35, [Economic History Society Annual Conference, University of Wolverhampton](http://www.ehs.org.uk/events/annual-conference-programme-2015.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619164857/http://www.ehs.org.uk/events/annual\-conference\-programme\-2015\.html \|date\=19 June 2019 }}, accessed 5 January 2016
Walker's interest in Aldeburgh had been sold in 1822, and at the [1826 election](/wiki/1826_United_Kingdom_general_election "1826 United Kingdom general election") Blair was returned for [Minehead](/wiki/Minehead_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Minehead (UK Parliament constituency)") in the Fownes Luttrell interest. He continued to take a Tory line, voting against repeal of the [Test Acts](/wiki/Test_Acts "Test Acts"), against Jewish emancipation, and against Catholic emancipation.
He stood down at the [1830 general election](/wiki/1830_United_Kingdom_general_election "1830 United Kingdom general election"), with hopes of a seat in [Wigtownshire](/wiki/Wigtownshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Wigtownshire (UK Parliament constituency)"). However, he did not return to the Commons for seven years.
Blair did not contest the Wigtownshire seat until [1835](/wiki/1835_United_Kingdom_general_election "1835 United Kingdom general election"), when he was defeated by the incumbent [Sir Andrew Agnew, Bt](/wiki/Sir_Andrew_Agnew%2C_7th_Baronet "Sir Andrew Agnew, 7th Baronet"). Agnew retired at the [1837 election](/wiki/1837_United_Kingdom_general_election "1837 United Kingdom general election"), when Blair won the seat by 362 votes to 314 of the Whig [Alexander Murray](/wiki/Alexander_Murray_%281789%E2%80%931845%29 "Alexander Murray (1789–1845)"). At the [general election in August](/wiki/1841_United_Kingdom_general_election "1841 United Kingdom general election"), Blair lost his seat to the Whig [John Hamilton Dalrymple](/wiki/John_Dalrymple%2C_10th_Earl_of_Stair "John Dalrymple, 10th Earl of Stair").
|
[
"Career in Parliament\n--------------------",
"At the [1818 general election](/wiki/1818_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1818 United Kingdom general election\"), Blair bought a seat in Parliament, in the [rotten borough](/wiki/Rotten_borough \"Rotten borough\") of [Saltash](/wiki/Saltash_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Saltash (UK Parliament constituency)\") in Devon. That seat was bought for one Parliament only from [Michael George Prendergast](/wiki/Michael_George_Prendergast \"Michael George Prendergast\"), who had purchased a life interest from the borough's owner [James Buller](/wiki/James_Buller_%281772%E2%80%931830%29 \"James Buller (1772–1830)\").",
"At the [1820 general election](/wiki/1820_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1820 United Kingdom general election\"), Blair was returned for another rotten borough, this time [Aldeburgh](/wiki/Aldeburgh_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Aldeburgh (UK Parliament constituency)\") in Suffolk. It was owned by the Lancashire ironmaster [Samuel Walker](/wiki/Samuel_Walker_%281779%E2%80%931851%29 \"Samuel Walker (1779–1851)\"), who had bought it in 1818 for £39,000 (equivalent to £{{formatprice\\|{{inflation\\|UK\\|39,000\\|1818}}}} in 2024{{Inflation\\-fn\\|UK\\|df\\=y}}).",
"Blair had entered Parliament to defend the slave plantations, and while he voted on conventional Tory lines, he did not speak in the Commons until March 1824, in the debates which followed the [Demerara rebellion of 1823](/wiki/Demerara_rebellion_of_1823 \"Demerara rebellion of 1823\"). He opposed measures to improve the living and working conditions of slaves. He told the house that the slaves were \"as mildly and as humanely managed in Demerara, as in the Islands, or as is compatible with a state of slavery and pressure\" and that \"there can be no doubt that the revolt in Demerara is to be attributed to the debates which took place in this House last year, and to the notice preceding them\". His only other contribution to Parliamentary debates was in 1825, when he supported retaining the preferential tariff on sugar imported from the West Indies. He had been an active member of the [London Society of West India Planters and Merchants](/wiki/London_Society_of_West_India_Planters_and_Merchants \"London Society of West India Planters and Merchants\"), attending 33 meetings between 1824 \\-1829\\.Ryden D. (2015\\) The Society of West India Planters and Merchants in the Age of Emancipation, c.1816\\-35, [Economic History Society Annual Conference, University of Wolverhampton](http://www.ehs.org.uk/events/annual-conference-programme-2015.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619164857/http://www.ehs.org.uk/events/annual\\-conference\\-programme\\-2015\\.html \\|date\\=19 June 2019 }}, accessed 5 January 2016",
"Walker's interest in Aldeburgh had been sold in 1822, and at the [1826 election](/wiki/1826_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1826 United Kingdom general election\") Blair was returned for [Minehead](/wiki/Minehead_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Minehead (UK Parliament constituency)\") in the Fownes Luttrell interest. He continued to take a Tory line, voting against repeal of the [Test Acts](/wiki/Test_Acts \"Test Acts\"), against Jewish emancipation, and against Catholic emancipation.",
"He stood down at the [1830 general election](/wiki/1830_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1830 United Kingdom general election\"), with hopes of a seat in [Wigtownshire](/wiki/Wigtownshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Wigtownshire (UK Parliament constituency)\"). However, he did not return to the Commons for seven years.",
"Blair did not contest the Wigtownshire seat until [1835](/wiki/1835_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1835 United Kingdom general election\"), when he was defeated by the incumbent [Sir Andrew Agnew, Bt](/wiki/Sir_Andrew_Agnew%2C_7th_Baronet \"Sir Andrew Agnew, 7th Baronet\"). Agnew retired at the [1837 election](/wiki/1837_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1837 United Kingdom general election\"), when Blair won the seat by 362 votes to 314 of the Whig [Alexander Murray](/wiki/Alexander_Murray_%281789%E2%80%931845%29 \"Alexander Murray (1789–1845)\"). At the [general election in August](/wiki/1841_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1841 United Kingdom general election\"), Blair lost his seat to the Whig [John Hamilton Dalrymple](/wiki/John_Dalrymple%2C_10th_Earl_of_Stair \"John Dalrymple, 10th Earl of Stair\").",
""
] |
Literary Metered Poetry Facet
-----------------------------
Narayana Das was a scholar who had mastery over four classical languages (Sanskrit, Telugu, Arabic and Persian) and who translated from Persian and English into Sanskrit and Telugu; the only litterateur who wrote a comparative treatise on the works of Kalidas and Shakespeare;
He was also a performer of Ashtavadhanam. His works ranged from children's literature to philosophical treatises.
His literary output was extensive. He wrote original Kavyas and Prabandhas that reflect a rare creative genius, erudition and great felicity of expression. He wrote over fifty books in Telugu, Sanskrit and Atcha\-Telugu (Desyandhramu or Telugu unmixed of Sanskrit). His works included original story\-poems (Kavyas and Prabndhas), Harikathas, prose works, musical works, dramas, translations, treatises in philosophy and Vedic studies and children's literature.
He felt that Edward Fitzgerald's English translations did not do justice to the Persian poet Omar Khayyam's poetry. To demonstrate his viewpoint he translated both the original quatrains of Omar Khayyam and Edward Fitzgerald's English translation into two languages – Sanskrit and Atcha Telugu in different meters. The work titled The **Rubaiyaat** of Omar Khayyam (1932\)\[1] was acclaimed as a rare literary feat by the literati of his times. In a rare tribute, a leading newspaper reviewed the book an editorial hailed it as *A Monument of Scholarship*.
In another voluminous display of scholarship, he compared the works of the Sanskrit dramatist Kālidāsa with those of Shakespeare. Entitled **Nava Rasa Tarangini** (1922\) the book annotates passages consisting of the nine rasas or moods from the dramas of both the dramatists by translating them into Telugu.
His Sanskrit works include **Harikathamrutam** a compilation of three Hari Kathas, **Taarakam** an original allegorical poem and two Shatakas **Ramachandra Shatakam** and **Kashi Shatakam**. A Satakam usually consists of 100 verses written in the same prosody.
He translated Lalithasahasranama in 'Natu' Telugu or pure Telugu language.
|
[
"Literary Metered Poetry Facet\n-----------------------------",
"Narayana Das was a scholar who had mastery over four classical languages (Sanskrit, Telugu, Arabic and Persian) and who translated from Persian and English into Sanskrit and Telugu; the only litterateur who wrote a comparative treatise on the works of Kalidas and Shakespeare;",
"He was also a performer of Ashtavadhanam. His works ranged from children's literature to philosophical treatises.",
"His literary output was extensive. He wrote original Kavyas and Prabandhas that reflect a rare creative genius, erudition and great felicity of expression. He wrote over fifty books in Telugu, Sanskrit and Atcha\\-Telugu (Desyandhramu or Telugu unmixed of Sanskrit). His works included original story\\-poems (Kavyas and Prabndhas), Harikathas, prose works, musical works, dramas, translations, treatises in philosophy and Vedic studies and children's literature.",
"He felt that Edward Fitzgerald's English translations did not do justice to the Persian poet Omar Khayyam's poetry. To demonstrate his viewpoint he translated both the original quatrains of Omar Khayyam and Edward Fitzgerald's English translation into two languages – Sanskrit and Atcha Telugu in different meters. The work titled The **Rubaiyaat** of Omar Khayyam (1932\\)\\[1] was acclaimed as a rare literary feat by the literati of his times. In a rare tribute, a leading newspaper reviewed the book an editorial hailed it as *A Monument of Scholarship*.",
"In another voluminous display of scholarship, he compared the works of the Sanskrit dramatist Kālidāsa with those of Shakespeare. Entitled **Nava Rasa Tarangini** (1922\\) the book annotates passages consisting of the nine rasas or moods from the dramas of both the dramatists by translating them into Telugu.",
"His Sanskrit works include **Harikathamrutam** a compilation of three Hari Kathas, **Taarakam** an original allegorical poem and two Shatakas **Ramachandra Shatakam** and **Kashi Shatakam**. A Satakam usually consists of 100 verses written in the same prosody.",
"He translated Lalithasahasranama in 'Natu' Telugu or pure Telugu language.",
""
] |
Music Composing \& Performing Facet
-----------------------------------
The only songwriter\-composer who translated into Telugu and set to music Rig Vedic hymns and the only writer\-composer who composed a geeta\-malika comprising 90 Carnatic ragas. As a songwriter\-composer who exhaustively composed music in all the 72 Carnatic ragas he was next only to Thyagaraja.
His musical accomplishments left him peerless in his times. Maestros of the musical world honoured him with titles like **Laya Brahma** and **Panchamukhi Parameshwara** for his ability to sing to five different Talas, beat with two arms, two feet and the head. Five different musicians used to keep time with him when he performed **Panchamukhi** feat.
The literary and musical elite of his time joined to honour him with the title **Sangita Sahitya Sarvabhauma**.
He was the first principal of the Maharajah's Government College of Music and Dance (Vijayarama Gana Pathasala) established by the Maharajah of Vizianagaram in 1919\. The Maharajah in fact established the Music College, which was among the first few in South India, to honour the Pundit and enable enthusiasts to learn music from him. Dwaram Venkataswami Naidu the well\-known Violin maestro was a lecturer in the college during the Pandit's tenure and succeeded him as principal.
He entranced Rabindranath Tagore with his rendering of Hindusthani Bhairavi. Tagore sought the curriculum of the Vizianagaram Music College to be introduced in Shantiniketan.
He composed a lyric, titled **Dasha Vidha Raga Navati Kusuma Manjari** incorportating 90 ragas in the Manjari metre. Such a composition has never been attempted and is a testimony to his rare mastery over poetry and music. He set to musical notation 300\-odd select ruks from the Rigveda in a work titled **Ruksangraham** and taught playing them on the veena to students but also translated them as poems in Telugu, demonstrating his command in Vedaardham (meaning of Vedas).
|
[
"Music Composing \\& Performing Facet\n-----------------------------------",
"The only songwriter\\-composer who translated into Telugu and set to music Rig Vedic hymns and the only writer\\-composer who composed a geeta\\-malika comprising 90 Carnatic ragas. As a songwriter\\-composer who exhaustively composed music in all the 72 Carnatic ragas he was next only to Thyagaraja.",
"His musical accomplishments left him peerless in his times. Maestros of the musical world honoured him with titles like **Laya Brahma** and **Panchamukhi Parameshwara** for his ability to sing to five different Talas, beat with two arms, two feet and the head. Five different musicians used to keep time with him when he performed **Panchamukhi** feat.",
"The literary and musical elite of his time joined to honour him with the title **Sangita Sahitya Sarvabhauma**.",
"He was the first principal of the Maharajah's Government College of Music and Dance (Vijayarama Gana Pathasala) established by the Maharajah of Vizianagaram in 1919\\. The Maharajah in fact established the Music College, which was among the first few in South India, to honour the Pundit and enable enthusiasts to learn music from him. Dwaram Venkataswami Naidu the well\\-known Violin maestro was a lecturer in the college during the Pandit's tenure and succeeded him as principal.",
"He entranced Rabindranath Tagore with his rendering of Hindusthani Bhairavi. Tagore sought the curriculum of the Vizianagaram Music College to be introduced in Shantiniketan.",
"He composed a lyric, titled **Dasha Vidha Raga Navati Kusuma Manjari** incorportating 90 ragas in the Manjari metre. Such a composition has never been attempted and is a testimony to his rare mastery over poetry and music. He set to musical notation 300\\-odd select ruks from the Rigveda in a work titled **Ruksangraham** and taught playing them on the veena to students but also translated them as poems in Telugu, demonstrating his command in Vedaardham (meaning of Vedas).",
""
] |
Life
----
Tan Kah Kee was born in [Xiamen](/wiki/Xiamen "Xiamen"), [Fujian Province](/wiki/Fujian_Province "Fujian Province"), in 1874 during the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty") of China. In 1890, at the age of 16, he travelled to [Singapore in the Straits Settlements](/wiki/Singapore_in_the_Straits_Settlements "Singapore in the Straits Settlements") to help his father, who owned a [rice trading](/wiki/Rice_trading "Rice trading") business. In 1903, after his father's business collapsed, Tan started his own company and built a business empire from [rubber plantations](/wiki/Rubber_plantation "Rubber plantation"), manufacturing, sawmills, canneries, real estate, import and export brokerage, ocean transport and rice trading. As he was proficient in [Hokkien](/wiki/Hokkien "Hokkien"), he achieved much success doing business in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") because Hokkien was the common language of [overseas Chinese](/wiki/Overseas_Chinese "Overseas Chinese") in Singapore throughout most of the 19th and 20th centuries. His business was at its prime from 1912 to 1914 when he was known as the "[Henry Ford](/wiki/Henry_Ford "Henry Ford") of the [Malayan community](/wiki/British_Malaya "British Malaya")".[Brief history of Nan Chiau](http://www.theherencia.com/site-history) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208163038/http://www.theherencia.com/site\-history\|date\=8 December 2015}}, The Herencia, Retrieved 12 December 2015
Tan had a leading role among the 110 founders of [Tao Nan School](/wiki/Tao_Nan_School "Tao Nan School") in Singapore. In 1919, he set up [The Chinese High School](/wiki/The_Chinese_High_School_%28Singapore%29 "The Chinese High School (Singapore)") (now [Hwa Chong Institution](/wiki/Hwa_Chong_Institution "Hwa Chong Institution")) in Singapore. Earlier, in 1918, he established the Jimei Schools (now [Jimei University](/wiki/Jimei_University "Jimei University")) in Xiamen. Tan was also a member of the Anglo\-Chinese College Council and had pledged S$100,000 to the proposed Anglo Chinese School College in 1919\. However, when the proposal was turned down by the Government, he agreed to channel the $30,000 he had given to the [Anglo\-Chinese School](/wiki/Anglo-Chinese_School "Anglo-Chinese School") fund for physics and chemistry. This helped to complete the [Secondary School](/wiki/Anglo-Chinese_School_%28Independent%29 "Anglo-Chinese School (Independent)") at Cairnhill in 1928\.Tan Kah Kee House (TKK), Anglo\-Chinese School (Independent), and Ai Tong School url\=[https://www.acsindep.moe.edu.sg/student\-development/houses/tkk\-house/](https://www.acsindep.moe.edu.sg/student-development/houses/tkk-house/) In 1921, he set up [Xiamen University](/wiki/Xiamen_University "Xiamen University") and financially supported it until the [Nationalist government](/wiki/Nationalist_government "Nationalist government") of the [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%9349%29 "Republic of China (1912–49)") took over in 1937\. In 1920, Tan arranged a marriage between his daughter, Tan Ai Leh, and [Lee Kong Chian](/wiki/Lee_Kong_Chian "Lee Kong Chian"), his protégé and a businessman.
Tan was one of the prominent overseas Chinese to provide financial support to China during the [Second Sino\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War "Second Sino-Japanese War"). He organised many relief funds under his name, one of which alone managed to raise ten million [Straits dollars](/wiki/Straits_dollar "Straits dollar") in 1937\. He was also a participant in the [Legislative Yuan](/wiki/Legislative_Yuan "Legislative Yuan") of the Nationalist government in [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing "Chongqing"). After the Japanese invaded and occupied Malaya and Singapore in 1942, they deemed these contributors "undesirable" and conducted systematic extermination of anti\-Japanese elements in Singapore through the [Sook Ching Massacre](/wiki/Sook_Ching_Massacre "Sook Ching Massacre"). Tan survived because he escaped from Singapore before it fell to the Japanese, and went into hiding in [Malang](/wiki/Malang "Malang"), a town in [East Java](/wiki/East_Java "East Java") province, [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"). He strongly rejected proposals to attempt to negotiate with the Japanese and regarded such attempts as characteristic of a *[hanjian](/wiki/Hanjian "Hanjian")* (a Chinese term for [race traitor](/wiki/Race_traitor "Race traitor")). He also attempted to dissuade [Wang Jingwei](/wiki/Wang_Jingwei "Wang Jingwei") from such activities. He exercised considerable effort against the governor of Fujian Province, [Chen Yi](/wiki/Chen_Yi_%28Kuomintang%29 "Chen Yi (Kuomintang)"), for perceived maladministration.{{cite book\|last\=Boorman\|first\=Howard L.\|title\=Biographical Dictionary of Republican China\|location\=New York\|publisher\=Columbia University Press\|year\=1968\|article\=Fei Hsiao\-t'ung\|volume\=II\|page\=252}}
In 1943, while he was in [Java](/wiki/Java "Java"), Tan began writing his memoirs, *The Memoirs of an Overseas Chinese of the Southern Ocean* ({{zh\|first\=t\|t\=南僑回憶錄\|s\=南侨回忆录\|p\=Nánqiáo Huíyìlù\|labels\=no}}), which later became an important document of the history of the overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia.
Tan was the *de facto* leader of the Chinese community in Singapore, serving as chairman of the [Chinese Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Singapore_Chinese_Chamber_of_Commerce_and_Industry "Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry") and helping to organise the [Hokkien clan association](/wiki/Singapore_Hokkien_Huay_Kuan "Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan"). However, he lost this role when the [Chinese Civil War](/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War "Chinese Civil War") divided Singapore's Chinese community into [Communist](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China "Communist Party of China") and [Kuomintang](/wiki/Kuomintang "Kuomintang") sympathisers. Tan Kah Kee has consistently demonstrated a keen interest in business, philanthropy, and education, with a dedicated commitment to uplifting ASEAN and his homeland, particularly in Jimei and Xiamen. He refrains from aligning with any political party but advocates for the principles of diligence and achieving commendable outcomes. The venerable individual does not concern himself with affiliations or factions and disapproves of malpractices within the Kuomintang.
In 1947 Tan founded the [Chiyu Banking Corporation](/wiki/Chiyu_Banking_Corporation "Chiyu Banking Corporation") in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), an intended to be a sustainable business with profits to be devoted to education in Xiamen and the rest of Fujian province in China.
After the Communist victory in China and the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Tan tried to return to Singapore in 1950 but was denied entry by the British colonial authorities concerned about communist influence in Singapore and Malaya. He then moved permanently to China and served in numerous positions in the Chinese Communist Party.
Tan died in 1961 in Beijing and was given a state funeral by the Chinese government. In Singapore, the [Tan Kah Kee Scholarship Fund](/wiki/Tan_Kah_Kee_Scholarship_Fund "Tan Kah Kee Scholarship Fund"), which later became known as the [Tan Kah Kee Foundation](/wiki/Tan_Kah_Kee_Foundation "Tan Kah Kee Foundation"), was established in memory of this philanthropy.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Tan Kah Kee was born in [Xiamen](/wiki/Xiamen \"Xiamen\"), [Fujian Province](/wiki/Fujian_Province \"Fujian Province\"), in 1874 during the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") of China. In 1890, at the age of 16, he travelled to [Singapore in the Straits Settlements](/wiki/Singapore_in_the_Straits_Settlements \"Singapore in the Straits Settlements\") to help his father, who owned a [rice trading](/wiki/Rice_trading \"Rice trading\") business. In 1903, after his father's business collapsed, Tan started his own company and built a business empire from [rubber plantations](/wiki/Rubber_plantation \"Rubber plantation\"), manufacturing, sawmills, canneries, real estate, import and export brokerage, ocean transport and rice trading. As he was proficient in [Hokkien](/wiki/Hokkien \"Hokkien\"), he achieved much success doing business in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\") because Hokkien was the common language of [overseas Chinese](/wiki/Overseas_Chinese \"Overseas Chinese\") in Singapore throughout most of the 19th and 20th centuries. His business was at its prime from 1912 to 1914 when he was known as the \"[Henry Ford](/wiki/Henry_Ford \"Henry Ford\") of the [Malayan community](/wiki/British_Malaya \"British Malaya\")\".[Brief history of Nan Chiau](http://www.theherencia.com/site-history) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208163038/http://www.theherencia.com/site\\-history\\|date\\=8 December 2015}}, The Herencia, Retrieved 12 December 2015",
"Tan had a leading role among the 110 founders of [Tao Nan School](/wiki/Tao_Nan_School \"Tao Nan School\") in Singapore. In 1919, he set up [The Chinese High School](/wiki/The_Chinese_High_School_%28Singapore%29 \"The Chinese High School (Singapore)\") (now [Hwa Chong Institution](/wiki/Hwa_Chong_Institution \"Hwa Chong Institution\")) in Singapore. Earlier, in 1918, he established the Jimei Schools (now [Jimei University](/wiki/Jimei_University \"Jimei University\")) in Xiamen. Tan was also a member of the Anglo\\-Chinese College Council and had pledged S$100,000 to the proposed Anglo Chinese School College in 1919\\. However, when the proposal was turned down by the Government, he agreed to channel the $30,000 he had given to the [Anglo\\-Chinese School](/wiki/Anglo-Chinese_School \"Anglo-Chinese School\") fund for physics and chemistry. This helped to complete the [Secondary School](/wiki/Anglo-Chinese_School_%28Independent%29 \"Anglo-Chinese School (Independent)\") at Cairnhill in 1928\\.Tan Kah Kee House (TKK), Anglo\\-Chinese School (Independent), and Ai Tong School url\\=[https://www.acsindep.moe.edu.sg/student\\-development/houses/tkk\\-house/](https://www.acsindep.moe.edu.sg/student-development/houses/tkk-house/) In 1921, he set up [Xiamen University](/wiki/Xiamen_University \"Xiamen University\") and financially supported it until the [Nationalist government](/wiki/Nationalist_government \"Nationalist government\") of the [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%9349%29 \"Republic of China (1912–49)\") took over in 1937\\. In 1920, Tan arranged a marriage between his daughter, Tan Ai Leh, and [Lee Kong Chian](/wiki/Lee_Kong_Chian \"Lee Kong Chian\"), his protégé and a businessman.",
"Tan was one of the prominent overseas Chinese to provide financial support to China during the [Second Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War \"Second Sino-Japanese War\"). He organised many relief funds under his name, one of which alone managed to raise ten million [Straits dollars](/wiki/Straits_dollar \"Straits dollar\") in 1937\\. He was also a participant in the [Legislative Yuan](/wiki/Legislative_Yuan \"Legislative Yuan\") of the Nationalist government in [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing \"Chongqing\"). After the Japanese invaded and occupied Malaya and Singapore in 1942, they deemed these contributors \"undesirable\" and conducted systematic extermination of anti\\-Japanese elements in Singapore through the [Sook Ching Massacre](/wiki/Sook_Ching_Massacre \"Sook Ching Massacre\"). Tan survived because he escaped from Singapore before it fell to the Japanese, and went into hiding in [Malang](/wiki/Malang \"Malang\"), a town in [East Java](/wiki/East_Java \"East Java\") province, [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"). He strongly rejected proposals to attempt to negotiate with the Japanese and regarded such attempts as characteristic of a *[hanjian](/wiki/Hanjian \"Hanjian\")* (a Chinese term for [race traitor](/wiki/Race_traitor \"Race traitor\")). He also attempted to dissuade [Wang Jingwei](/wiki/Wang_Jingwei \"Wang Jingwei\") from such activities. He exercised considerable effort against the governor of Fujian Province, [Chen Yi](/wiki/Chen_Yi_%28Kuomintang%29 \"Chen Yi (Kuomintang)\"), for perceived maladministration.{{cite book\\|last\\=Boorman\\|first\\=Howard L.\\|title\\=Biographical Dictionary of Republican China\\|location\\=New York\\|publisher\\=Columbia University Press\\|year\\=1968\\|article\\=Fei Hsiao\\-t'ung\\|volume\\=II\\|page\\=252}}",
"In 1943, while he was in [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\"), Tan began writing his memoirs, *The Memoirs of an Overseas Chinese of the Southern Ocean* ({{zh\\|first\\=t\\|t\\=南僑回憶錄\\|s\\=南侨回忆录\\|p\\=Nánqiáo Huíyìlù\\|labels\\=no}}), which later became an important document of the history of the overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia.",
"Tan was the *de facto* leader of the Chinese community in Singapore, serving as chairman of the [Chinese Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Singapore_Chinese_Chamber_of_Commerce_and_Industry \"Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry\") and helping to organise the [Hokkien clan association](/wiki/Singapore_Hokkien_Huay_Kuan \"Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan\"). However, he lost this role when the [Chinese Civil War](/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War \"Chinese Civil War\") divided Singapore's Chinese community into [Communist](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China \"Communist Party of China\") and [Kuomintang](/wiki/Kuomintang \"Kuomintang\") sympathisers. Tan Kah Kee has consistently demonstrated a keen interest in business, philanthropy, and education, with a dedicated commitment to uplifting ASEAN and his homeland, particularly in Jimei and Xiamen. He refrains from aligning with any political party but advocates for the principles of diligence and achieving commendable outcomes. The venerable individual does not concern himself with affiliations or factions and disapproves of malpractices within the Kuomintang.",
"In 1947 Tan founded the [Chiyu Banking Corporation](/wiki/Chiyu_Banking_Corporation \"Chiyu Banking Corporation\") in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), an intended to be a sustainable business with profits to be devoted to education in Xiamen and the rest of Fujian province in China.",
"After the Communist victory in China and the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Tan tried to return to Singapore in 1950 but was denied entry by the British colonial authorities concerned about communist influence in Singapore and Malaya. He then moved permanently to China and served in numerous positions in the Chinese Communist Party.",
"Tan died in 1961 in Beijing and was given a state funeral by the Chinese government. In Singapore, the [Tan Kah Kee Scholarship Fund](/wiki/Tan_Kah_Kee_Scholarship_Fund \"Tan Kah Kee Scholarship Fund\"), which later became known as the [Tan Kah Kee Foundation](/wiki/Tan_Kah_Kee_Foundation \"Tan Kah Kee Foundation\"), was established in memory of this philanthropy.",
""
] |
Hardware
--------
[thumb\|Commodore Plus/4 with accessories. Clockwise from top left: power supply, joystick, [1531](/wiki/Commodore_Datasette "Commodore Datasette") tape recorder with tapes](/wiki/File:Plus4_komplett.jpg "Plus4 komplett.jpg")
### Graphics
The [TED](/wiki/MOS_Technology_TED "MOS Technology TED") offered 121\-color (15 colors × 8 [luminance](/wiki/Luma_%28video%29 "Luma (video)") levels \+ black) video, a [palette](/wiki/Palette_%28computing%29 "Palette (computing)") matched only by the [Atari 8\-bit computers](/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers "Atari 8-bit computers") and the [Enterprise](/wiki/Enterprise_%28computer%29 "Enterprise (computer)") at the time, and 320×200 video resolution, similar to many computers intended to be capable of connecting to a television.
The TED chip had identical resolutions and video modes to the [VIC\-II](/wiki/MOS_Technology_VIC-II "MOS Technology VIC-II") (bitmap or character graphics which could be high\-resolution or multicolor), but lacked hardware [sprites](/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29 "Sprite (computer graphics)"). Its sound capability was a two\-voice [square wave](/wiki/Square_wave "Square wave") generator.
The first eight colors of the TED's palette are the same as the VIC\-II, but colors 8\-15 are different. It allowed each color except 0 (black) to be set to one of eight possible luminance levels, thus making 121 total colors possible.
The power\-on default configuration places the screen memory at {{mono\|$0C00}} and the color memory at {{mono\|$0800}}. Color memory is integrated into the TED and there is no separate color RAM like on the VIC\-20 and C64\. Bits 0\-3 of each byte in color RAM hold the color value and 4\-6 hold the luminance. Bit 7 is a [flag](/wiki/Flag_%28programming%29 "Flag (programming)") that sets blinking text. [Bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap "Bitmap") mode is similar to the C64, however in hi\-res mode the color RAM is used to supply the luminance values for each block (bits 0\-3 the luminance for color 0 and 4\-7 the luminance for color 1\) while it is not used at all in C64 hi\-res graphics. In multicolor bitmap mode, the same setup is used, but while on the C64, color RAM holds the values for color 3, on the Plus/4 it instead holds the luminance values for colors 1–2\. Color 3 is instead global and obtained from the register at {{mono\|$FF16}}.
Since the Plus/4 does not have sprites, games must make use of [character graphics](/wiki/ASCII_art "ASCII art") for software sprites, like on the VIC\-20 this tended to cause unintentional [color clash](/wiki/Attribute_clash "Attribute clash").{{original research inline\|date\=December 2022}}
The Plus/4's TED has several advantages over C64's VIC\+SID. All TED [registers](/wiki/Hardware_register "Hardware register") that are available can be read and written. TED may realize the blinking cursor and the characters in the reverse\-video mode. It may display 256 characters in the text mode. It may use graphics split by [raster interrupt](/wiki/Raster_interrupt "Raster interrupt") and show pictures at 320x288 resolution.{{cite web\|url\=http://plus4world.powweb.com/software/40x36c\|title\=The examples of Plus/4 graphics}} This, with [interlaced](/wiki/Interlaced_video "Interlaced video") mode, makes it possible to show 320x496 images. In addition, the TED has 16 [address lines](/wiki/Address_line "Address line"), thus it can "see" the entire memory space of the computer unlike the VIC\-II. The video buffers may thus be placed anywhere in memory and there are no mirrors of the character ROM to get in the way like on the C64\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lemon64\.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t\=47356\|title\=The examples of Plus/4 graphics\|date\=8 April 2013 }}
### Input and output
Commodore released a high\-speed [floppy disk](/wiki/Floppy_disk "Floppy disk") drive for the Plus/4, the [Commodore 1551](/wiki/Commodore_1551 "Commodore 1551"), which offered much better performance than the C64/[1541](/wiki/Commodore_1541 "Commodore 1541") combination because it used a [parallel interface](/wiki/Parallel_interface "Parallel interface") rather than a [serial bus](/wiki/Serial_communication%23Serial_buses "Serial communication#Serial buses"). The 1551 plugged into the cartridge port.
The Plus/4 had a built\-in [MOS Technology 6551](/wiki/MOS_Technology_6551 "MOS Technology 6551") [UART](/wiki/Universal_asynchronous_receiver-transmitter "Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter") chip that could perform up to {{nowrap\|19200 \[\[Bit\_rate\|bit/s]]}},{{cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/run\-magazine\-35/Run\_Issue\_35\_1986\_Nov\#page/n103/mode/2up\|title\=RUN Magazine Issue 35\|date\=November 1986}} unlike the C64, which emulated the 6551 chip in software.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2023}} This allowed the Plus/4 to use high\-speed [modems](/wiki/Modem "Modem") without additional hardware or software tricks (the C64 required specially written software to operate at {{nowrap\|2400 bit/s}}), at a time when 300\- or 1200\-bit/s modems were more common{{snd}} and Commodore never released a 2400\-bit/s modem{{snd}} so this feature went largely unnoticed. The Plus/4's serial port is the standard Commodore user port used since the PET, featuring [TTL](/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logic "Transistor–transistor logic") voltage which is incompatible with [RS\-232](/wiki/RS-232 "RS-232"). This requires a [voltage converter](/wiki/Voltage_converter "Voltage converter") to use modems or other serial devices from non\-Commodore vendors.
The Plus/4 keyboard had a separately placed directional "diamond" of four cursor keys, presumably more intuitive to use than the VIC's and C64's two shifted cursor keys.{{synthesis inline\|date\=January 2023}}
A reset button was added on the right side of the system, a feature lacking on the C64\.
The Plus/4 also revived the built\-in [machine language monitor](/wiki/Machine_language_monitor "Machine language monitor") from the PET days, a feature missing on the VIC\-20 and C64\.
### Specifications
[thumb\|Main board](/wiki/File:Plus4_main_board.jpg "Plus4 main board.jpg")
[thumb\|I/O ports](/wiki/File:Plus4_Interface.jpg "Plus4 Interface.jpg")
* CPU: [MOS Technology](/wiki/MOS_Technology "MOS Technology") [7501/8501](/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510%23MOS_7501/8501 "MOS Technology 6510#MOS 7501/8501"), approximately {{nowrap\|0\.88 \[\[megahertz\|MHz]]}} when the raster beam is on the visible screen and {{nowrap\|1\.77 \[\[megahertz\|MHz]]}} ([PAL](/wiki/PAL "PAL")) / {{nowrap\|1\.79 \[\[megahertz\|MHz]]}} ([NTSC](/wiki/NTSC "NTSC")) the rest of the time
* RAM: {{nowrap\|64 KB}}, of which nearly {{nowrap\|60 KB}} (60671 bytes) is available to [BASIC](/wiki/Commodore_BASIC "Commodore BASIC") users. There are known RAM expansions with {{nowrap\|256 KB}} and 1 [MB](/wiki/Megabyte "Megabyte"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.zimmers.net/anonftp/pub/cbm/documents/projects/memory/plus4/\|title \= /Pub/CBM/Documents/Projects/Memory/Plus4/}}
* ROM: {{nowrap\|64 KB}} including [Commodore BASIC 3\.5](/wiki/Commodore_BASIC "Commodore BASIC"), a [machine code monitor](/wiki/Machine_code_monitor "Machine code monitor"), and TRI\-Micro's "3 Plus 1" (word processor, spreadsheet, database, graphing). It is possible to add up to {{nowrap\|64 KB}} more ROM with [cartridges](/wiki/ROM_cartridge "ROM cartridge").
* Graphics: [MOS Technology TED](/wiki/MOS_Technology_TED "MOS Technology TED") (TED 7360\)
* Text mode: 40×25 characters ([PETSCII](/wiki/PETSCII "PETSCII")). There are three text modes: standard, extended color, multicolor
* Graphics modes: 160x200 (multicolor, 2bpp, no sprites) / 320×200 (hi\-resolution, 1bpp) at 121 colors (all can be visible at the same time)
* I/O ports:
+ Tape connector (for [Commodore 1531](/wiki/Commodore_1531 "Commodore 1531") Datassette with {{nowrap\|\[\[Mini\-DIN connector\#7\-pin\|7\-pin mini\-DIN]]}}; incompatible with C64, although adapters allowing the machine to use earlier and aftermarket datasettes were common.)
+ [ROM cartridge](/wiki/ROM_cartridge "ROM cartridge") slot (incompatible with C64\)
+ Two [8\-pin mini\-DIN](/wiki/Mini-DIN_connector%238-pin "Mini-DIN connector#8-pin") [game controller](/wiki/Game_controller "Game controller") ports (incompatible with C64\)
+ Commodore serial bus (compatible with C64\)
+ User port (for modems and nonstandard devices, incompatible with C64\)
+ [Composite video](/wiki/Composite_video "Composite video") connector including [S\-Video](/wiki/S-Video "S-Video") and mono audio signal (compatible with C64\)
+ [RF modulator](/wiki/RF_modulator "RF modulator") to TV antenna connector (compatible with C64\)
* The power connector is compatible with C64 power supplies in some Plus/4s and takes the same 9V AC and 5V DC voltages, but uses a non\-standard "Square DIN" plug, like the C128, in most Plus/4s.
|
[
"Hardware\n--------",
"[thumb\\|Commodore Plus/4 with accessories. Clockwise from top left: power supply, joystick, [1531](/wiki/Commodore_Datasette \"Commodore Datasette\") tape recorder with tapes](/wiki/File:Plus4_komplett.jpg \"Plus4 komplett.jpg\")",
"### Graphics",
"The [TED](/wiki/MOS_Technology_TED \"MOS Technology TED\") offered 121\\-color (15 colors × 8 [luminance](/wiki/Luma_%28video%29 \"Luma (video)\") levels \\+ black) video, a [palette](/wiki/Palette_%28computing%29 \"Palette (computing)\") matched only by the [Atari 8\\-bit computers](/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers \"Atari 8-bit computers\") and the [Enterprise](/wiki/Enterprise_%28computer%29 \"Enterprise (computer)\") at the time, and 320×200 video resolution, similar to many computers intended to be capable of connecting to a television.",
"The TED chip had identical resolutions and video modes to the [VIC\\-II](/wiki/MOS_Technology_VIC-II \"MOS Technology VIC-II\") (bitmap or character graphics which could be high\\-resolution or multicolor), but lacked hardware [sprites](/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Sprite (computer graphics)\"). Its sound capability was a two\\-voice [square wave](/wiki/Square_wave \"Square wave\") generator.",
"The first eight colors of the TED's palette are the same as the VIC\\-II, but colors 8\\-15 are different. It allowed each color except 0 (black) to be set to one of eight possible luminance levels, thus making 121 total colors possible.",
"The power\\-on default configuration places the screen memory at {{mono\\|$0C00}} and the color memory at {{mono\\|$0800}}. Color memory is integrated into the TED and there is no separate color RAM like on the VIC\\-20 and C64\\. Bits 0\\-3 of each byte in color RAM hold the color value and 4\\-6 hold the luminance. Bit 7 is a [flag](/wiki/Flag_%28programming%29 \"Flag (programming)\") that sets blinking text. [Bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\") mode is similar to the C64, however in hi\\-res mode the color RAM is used to supply the luminance values for each block (bits 0\\-3 the luminance for color 0 and 4\\-7 the luminance for color 1\\) while it is not used at all in C64 hi\\-res graphics. In multicolor bitmap mode, the same setup is used, but while on the C64, color RAM holds the values for color 3, on the Plus/4 it instead holds the luminance values for colors 1–2\\. Color 3 is instead global and obtained from the register at {{mono\\|$FF16}}.",
"Since the Plus/4 does not have sprites, games must make use of [character graphics](/wiki/ASCII_art \"ASCII art\") for software sprites, like on the VIC\\-20 this tended to cause unintentional [color clash](/wiki/Attribute_clash \"Attribute clash\").{{original research inline\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"The Plus/4's TED has several advantages over C64's VIC\\+SID. All TED [registers](/wiki/Hardware_register \"Hardware register\") that are available can be read and written. TED may realize the blinking cursor and the characters in the reverse\\-video mode. It may display 256 characters in the text mode. It may use graphics split by [raster interrupt](/wiki/Raster_interrupt \"Raster interrupt\") and show pictures at 320x288 resolution.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://plus4world.powweb.com/software/40x36c\\|title\\=The examples of Plus/4 graphics}} This, with [interlaced](/wiki/Interlaced_video \"Interlaced video\") mode, makes it possible to show 320x496 images. In addition, the TED has 16 [address lines](/wiki/Address_line \"Address line\"), thus it can \"see\" the entire memory space of the computer unlike the VIC\\-II. The video buffers may thus be placed anywhere in memory and there are no mirrors of the character ROM to get in the way like on the C64\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lemon64\\.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t\\=47356\\|title\\=The examples of Plus/4 graphics\\|date\\=8 April 2013 }}",
"### Input and output",
"Commodore released a high\\-speed [floppy disk](/wiki/Floppy_disk \"Floppy disk\") drive for the Plus/4, the [Commodore 1551](/wiki/Commodore_1551 \"Commodore 1551\"), which offered much better performance than the C64/[1541](/wiki/Commodore_1541 \"Commodore 1541\") combination because it used a [parallel interface](/wiki/Parallel_interface \"Parallel interface\") rather than a [serial bus](/wiki/Serial_communication%23Serial_buses \"Serial communication#Serial buses\"). The 1551 plugged into the cartridge port.",
"The Plus/4 had a built\\-in [MOS Technology 6551](/wiki/MOS_Technology_6551 \"MOS Technology 6551\") [UART](/wiki/Universal_asynchronous_receiver-transmitter \"Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter\") chip that could perform up to {{nowrap\\|19200 \\[\\[Bit\\_rate\\|bit/s]]}},{{cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/run\\-magazine\\-35/Run\\_Issue\\_35\\_1986\\_Nov\\#page/n103/mode/2up\\|title\\=RUN Magazine Issue 35\\|date\\=November 1986}} unlike the C64, which emulated the 6551 chip in software.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2023}} This allowed the Plus/4 to use high\\-speed [modems](/wiki/Modem \"Modem\") without additional hardware or software tricks (the C64 required specially written software to operate at {{nowrap\\|2400 bit/s}}), at a time when 300\\- or 1200\\-bit/s modems were more common{{snd}} and Commodore never released a 2400\\-bit/s modem{{snd}} so this feature went largely unnoticed. The Plus/4's serial port is the standard Commodore user port used since the PET, featuring [TTL](/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logic \"Transistor–transistor logic\") voltage which is incompatible with [RS\\-232](/wiki/RS-232 \"RS-232\"). This requires a [voltage converter](/wiki/Voltage_converter \"Voltage converter\") to use modems or other serial devices from non\\-Commodore vendors.",
"The Plus/4 keyboard had a separately placed directional \"diamond\" of four cursor keys, presumably more intuitive to use than the VIC's and C64's two shifted cursor keys.{{synthesis inline\\|date\\=January 2023}}",
"A reset button was added on the right side of the system, a feature lacking on the C64\\.",
"The Plus/4 also revived the built\\-in [machine language monitor](/wiki/Machine_language_monitor \"Machine language monitor\") from the PET days, a feature missing on the VIC\\-20 and C64\\.",
"### Specifications",
"[thumb\\|Main board](/wiki/File:Plus4_main_board.jpg \"Plus4 main board.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|I/O ports](/wiki/File:Plus4_Interface.jpg \"Plus4 Interface.jpg\")",
"* CPU: [MOS Technology](/wiki/MOS_Technology \"MOS Technology\") [7501/8501](/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510%23MOS_7501/8501 \"MOS Technology 6510#MOS 7501/8501\"), approximately {{nowrap\\|0\\.88 \\[\\[megahertz\\|MHz]]}} when the raster beam is on the visible screen and {{nowrap\\|1\\.77 \\[\\[megahertz\\|MHz]]}} ([PAL](/wiki/PAL \"PAL\")) / {{nowrap\\|1\\.79 \\[\\[megahertz\\|MHz]]}} ([NTSC](/wiki/NTSC \"NTSC\")) the rest of the time\n* RAM: {{nowrap\\|64 KB}}, of which nearly {{nowrap\\|60 KB}} (60671 bytes) is available to [BASIC](/wiki/Commodore_BASIC \"Commodore BASIC\") users. There are known RAM expansions with {{nowrap\\|256 KB}} and 1 [MB](/wiki/Megabyte \"Megabyte\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.zimmers.net/anonftp/pub/cbm/documents/projects/memory/plus4/\\|title \\= /Pub/CBM/Documents/Projects/Memory/Plus4/}}\n* ROM: {{nowrap\\|64 KB}} including [Commodore BASIC 3\\.5](/wiki/Commodore_BASIC \"Commodore BASIC\"), a [machine code monitor](/wiki/Machine_code_monitor \"Machine code monitor\"), and TRI\\-Micro's \"3 Plus 1\" (word processor, spreadsheet, database, graphing). It is possible to add up to {{nowrap\\|64 KB}} more ROM with [cartridges](/wiki/ROM_cartridge \"ROM cartridge\").\n* Graphics: [MOS Technology TED](/wiki/MOS_Technology_TED \"MOS Technology TED\") (TED 7360\\)\n* Text mode: 40×25 characters ([PETSCII](/wiki/PETSCII \"PETSCII\")). There are three text modes: standard, extended color, multicolor\n* Graphics modes: 160x200 (multicolor, 2bpp, no sprites) / 320×200 (hi\\-resolution, 1bpp) at 121 colors (all can be visible at the same time)\n* I/O ports:\n\t+ Tape connector (for [Commodore 1531](/wiki/Commodore_1531 \"Commodore 1531\") Datassette with {{nowrap\\|\\[\\[Mini\\-DIN connector\\#7\\-pin\\|7\\-pin mini\\-DIN]]}}; incompatible with C64, although adapters allowing the machine to use earlier and aftermarket datasettes were common.)\n\t+ [ROM cartridge](/wiki/ROM_cartridge \"ROM cartridge\") slot (incompatible with C64\\)\n\t+ Two [8\\-pin mini\\-DIN](/wiki/Mini-DIN_connector%238-pin \"Mini-DIN connector#8-pin\") [game controller](/wiki/Game_controller \"Game controller\") ports (incompatible with C64\\)\n\t+ Commodore serial bus (compatible with C64\\)\n\t+ User port (for modems and nonstandard devices, incompatible with C64\\)\n\t+ [Composite video](/wiki/Composite_video \"Composite video\") connector including [S\\-Video](/wiki/S-Video \"S-Video\") and mono audio signal (compatible with C64\\)\n\t+ [RF modulator](/wiki/RF_modulator \"RF modulator\") to TV antenna connector (compatible with C64\\)\n* The power connector is compatible with C64 power supplies in some Plus/4s and takes the same 9V AC and 5V DC voltages, but uses a non\\-standard \"Square DIN\" plug, like the C128, in most Plus/4s."
] |
Software
--------
### BASIC
{{unreferenced section\|date\=January 2023}}
The Plus/4's [memory map](/wiki/Memory_map "Memory map"), which used [bank switching](/wiki/Bank_switching "Bank switching") far more extensively than the C64, gave it a 56% larger amount of user\-accessible memory than the C64 for programming in BASIC, and its [BASIC programming language](/wiki/Commodore_BASIC "Commodore BASIC") was vastly improved, adding sound and graphics commands as well as looping commands that improved [program structure](/wiki/Structured_programming "Structured programming").
The Plus/4 does not have the Restore key on the VIC and C64, but a similar function may be achieved by holding down Run/Stop and pressing the reset button. This will reboot the computer into the machine language monitor, but any BASIC programs in memory will be left intact.
The Plus/4 contains an [Easter egg](/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29 "Easter egg (media)"). Entering the command `SYS DEC("CDAB")` or `SYS 52651` puts up the names of three programmers and a hardware designer: Fred Bowen, John Cooper, Terry Ryan and [Bil Herd](/wiki/Bil_Herd "Bil Herd"), with Bowen's name at the top in reverse\-field and Ryan's at the bottom blinking on and off.
While the C64 had the advertised {{nowrap\|64 KB}} of RAM installed, only about {{nowrap\|38 KB}} was available for BASIC programs. The Plus/4's BASIC V3\.5 made {{nowrap\|59 KB}} available, aided by its memory map that swapped the ROMs in and out of memory as needed, and that placed the [memory mapped I/O](/wiki/Memory_mapped_I/O "Memory mapped I/O") registers, which all 6502\-based computers have to use, at the top of memory ({{mono\|$FD00}}), while in the C64 they had been located at the much lower address {{mono\|$D000}}. On the C64, a program was able to swap out the ROMs and the I/O registers manually and thus gain access to the full {{nowrap\|64 KB}}, but this was not compatible with BASIC on that machine; on the Plus/4, on the other hand, most of the ROM area was automatically switched out when not needed, rendering the RAM existing at the same addresses accessible for BASIC programs.
The BASIC program area on the Plus/4 begins at {{mono\|$1000}}, but the BASIC ROM starts at {{mono\|$8000}} so the automatic switching of the OS ROMs is not initiated unless a BASIC program grows big enough to reach {{mono\|$8000}}, or 28K in size. Since RAM on the C16 never exceeds the {{mono\|$8000}} line, banking does not occur on that machine. As on the C64, writing to the ROM areas will alter the RAM underneath.
The registers at {{mono\|$FDD0\-$FDDF}} contain the ROM configuration for the machine, which normally has the BASIC and kernal ROMs enabled. The ROM configuration is adjusted by writing to the registers (the value is irrelevant). {{mono\|$FDD0}} enables or disables BASIC, {{mono\|$FDD1}} the low function ROM, {{mono\|$FDD2}} the low cartridge ROM, {{mono\|$FDD3}} is unused, {{mono\|$FDD4}} the kernal, {{mono\|$FDD5}} the high function ROM, and {{mono\|$FDD6}} the high cartridge ROM. The upper portion of the kernal ROM at {{mono\|$FC00\-$FCFF}} is always enabled no matter what the memory configuration, as are the I/O registers.
Furthermore, the registers at {{mono\|$FF3E\-$FF3F}} if written to will bank out (or in) all ROMs currently enabled via the ROM configuration at {{mono\|$FDD0\-$FDDF}} excepting {{mono\|$FC00\-$FCFF}}; this is done by BASIC automatically to read program text above {{mono\|$8000}}. Since disabling the ROMs will also remove the kernal interrupt handler, it will be necessary to first turn off interrupts via an SEI instruction.
BASIC 3\.5 added all of BASIC 4\.0's disk commands as well as sound and graphics functions to support the TED, additional programming features, and statements to allow structured programming. While BASIC 2\.0 was 8K in size and BASIC 4\.0 12K, BASIC 3\.5 ballooned to 20K in size, as big as the entire set of OS ROMs in the VIC\-20 and C64\.
### Application software
The Plus/4, unlike the C64, was equipped with a [ROM](/wiki/Read-only_memory "Read-only memory")\-resident [application suite](/wiki/Office_suite "Office suite"). It was, however, completely inadequate for the Plus/4's originally intended market of business and professional users. In an otherwise largely favorable review of the computer, [John J. Anderson](/wiki/John_J._Anderson "John J. Anderson") of *[Creative Computing](/wiki/Creative_Computing_%28magazine%29 "Creative Computing (magazine)")* wrote "I would guess that the applications were whipped up in a great hurry ... I would never use the software".{{Cite magazine \|last\=Anderson \|first\=John J. \|author\-link\=John J. Anderson \|date\=December 1984 \|title\=Preview of the Plus 4, the Amiga, and Alphacom printers \|url\=https://archive.org/stream/Creative\_Computing\_1984\-12\#page/n219/mode/2up \|department\=Commodore's Port \|magazine\=Creative Computing}} *[The Transactor](/wiki/The_Transactor "The Transactor")* stated, "The word processor is barely that, the data base defiles the name, and the spreadsheet has little spread". The magazine advised users to "think of the software as an almost free bonus".{{r\|evers198607}} *[BYTE](/wiki/Byte_%28magazine%29 "Byte (magazine)")* called the built\-in software "just a tiny bit better than bad", noting that a Commodore 64 with [Multiplan](/wiki/Multiplan "Multiplan") and other third\-party software would be cheaper and much more powerful. The magazine stated that the computer "should have been called not the Plus 4, but the Minus 60".{{cite news \| url\=https://archive.org/stream/byte\-magazine\-1985\-01/1985\_01\_BYTE\_10\-01\_Through\_the\_Hourglass\#page/n289/mode/2up \| title\=Reviewer's Notebook \| work\=BYTE \| date\=January 1985 \| access\-date\=27 October 2013 \| author\=Malloy, Rich \| pages\=289}} *INFO* warned that users who wanted to use the computer "for serious 'productive' work, you are in deep trouble with the PLUS/4" because of the poor software, and unlikelihood that better third\-party replacements would be available.{{cite journal \| url\=https://archive.org/stream/info\-magazine\-05/Info\_Issue\_05\#page/n27/mode/2up \| title\=The Plus/4 \| author\=Dunnington, Benn \| journal\=INFO \| year\=1984 \| issue\=5 \| pages\=28}} Better business software packages were available for equivalently\-priced systems, including the C64\. Since [IBM compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible "IBM PC compatible") were quickly dominating the [small business](/wiki/Small_business "Small business") market, the Plus/4 had no realistic chance of succeeding in its intended use.
Further dividing the market was that once the user had created data using many of the built\-in software packages, the result could only be saved to a connected disk drive{{snd}} much of the software did not support tape.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.old\-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st\=1\&c\=194\|title\=OldComputers.com\|access\-date\=2011\-01\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121105026/http://www.old\-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st\=1\&c\=194\|archive\-date\=2010\-01\-21\|url\-status\=dead}} Thus, tape\-based home users, the only users who might still have been interested in the Plus/4's less\-capable but built\-in and instantly ready software, were shut out from the package.
|
[
"Software\n--------",
"### BASIC",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=January 2023}}",
"The Plus/4's [memory map](/wiki/Memory_map \"Memory map\"), which used [bank switching](/wiki/Bank_switching \"Bank switching\") far more extensively than the C64, gave it a 56% larger amount of user\\-accessible memory than the C64 for programming in BASIC, and its [BASIC programming language](/wiki/Commodore_BASIC \"Commodore BASIC\") was vastly improved, adding sound and graphics commands as well as looping commands that improved [program structure](/wiki/Structured_programming \"Structured programming\").",
"The Plus/4 does not have the Restore key on the VIC and C64, but a similar function may be achieved by holding down Run/Stop and pressing the reset button. This will reboot the computer into the machine language monitor, but any BASIC programs in memory will be left intact.",
"The Plus/4 contains an [Easter egg](/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29 \"Easter egg (media)\"). Entering the command `SYS DEC(\"CDAB\")` or `SYS 52651` puts up the names of three programmers and a hardware designer: Fred Bowen, John Cooper, Terry Ryan and [Bil Herd](/wiki/Bil_Herd \"Bil Herd\"), with Bowen's name at the top in reverse\\-field and Ryan's at the bottom blinking on and off.",
"While the C64 had the advertised {{nowrap\\|64 KB}} of RAM installed, only about {{nowrap\\|38 KB}} was available for BASIC programs. The Plus/4's BASIC V3\\.5 made {{nowrap\\|59 KB}} available, aided by its memory map that swapped the ROMs in and out of memory as needed, and that placed the [memory mapped I/O](/wiki/Memory_mapped_I/O \"Memory mapped I/O\") registers, which all 6502\\-based computers have to use, at the top of memory ({{mono\\|$FD00}}), while in the C64 they had been located at the much lower address {{mono\\|$D000}}. On the C64, a program was able to swap out the ROMs and the I/O registers manually and thus gain access to the full {{nowrap\\|64 KB}}, but this was not compatible with BASIC on that machine; on the Plus/4, on the other hand, most of the ROM area was automatically switched out when not needed, rendering the RAM existing at the same addresses accessible for BASIC programs.",
"The BASIC program area on the Plus/4 begins at {{mono\\|$1000}}, but the BASIC ROM starts at {{mono\\|$8000}} so the automatic switching of the OS ROMs is not initiated unless a BASIC program grows big enough to reach {{mono\\|$8000}}, or 28K in size. Since RAM on the C16 never exceeds the {{mono\\|$8000}} line, banking does not occur on that machine. As on the C64, writing to the ROM areas will alter the RAM underneath.",
"The registers at {{mono\\|$FDD0\\-$FDDF}} contain the ROM configuration for the machine, which normally has the BASIC and kernal ROMs enabled. The ROM configuration is adjusted by writing to the registers (the value is irrelevant). {{mono\\|$FDD0}} enables or disables BASIC, {{mono\\|$FDD1}} the low function ROM, {{mono\\|$FDD2}} the low cartridge ROM, {{mono\\|$FDD3}} is unused, {{mono\\|$FDD4}} the kernal, {{mono\\|$FDD5}} the high function ROM, and {{mono\\|$FDD6}} the high cartridge ROM. The upper portion of the kernal ROM at {{mono\\|$FC00\\-$FCFF}} is always enabled no matter what the memory configuration, as are the I/O registers.",
"Furthermore, the registers at {{mono\\|$FF3E\\-$FF3F}} if written to will bank out (or in) all ROMs currently enabled via the ROM configuration at {{mono\\|$FDD0\\-$FDDF}} excepting {{mono\\|$FC00\\-$FCFF}}; this is done by BASIC automatically to read program text above {{mono\\|$8000}}. Since disabling the ROMs will also remove the kernal interrupt handler, it will be necessary to first turn off interrupts via an SEI instruction.",
"BASIC 3\\.5 added all of BASIC 4\\.0's disk commands as well as sound and graphics functions to support the TED, additional programming features, and statements to allow structured programming. While BASIC 2\\.0 was 8K in size and BASIC 4\\.0 12K, BASIC 3\\.5 ballooned to 20K in size, as big as the entire set of OS ROMs in the VIC\\-20 and C64\\.",
"### Application software",
"The Plus/4, unlike the C64, was equipped with a [ROM](/wiki/Read-only_memory \"Read-only memory\")\\-resident [application suite](/wiki/Office_suite \"Office suite\"). It was, however, completely inadequate for the Plus/4's originally intended market of business and professional users. In an otherwise largely favorable review of the computer, [John J. Anderson](/wiki/John_J._Anderson \"John J. Anderson\") of *[Creative Computing](/wiki/Creative_Computing_%28magazine%29 \"Creative Computing (magazine)\")* wrote \"I would guess that the applications were whipped up in a great hurry ... I would never use the software\".{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Anderson \\|first\\=John J. \\|author\\-link\\=John J. Anderson \\|date\\=December 1984 \\|title\\=Preview of the Plus 4, the Amiga, and Alphacom printers \\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/Creative\\_Computing\\_1984\\-12\\#page/n219/mode/2up \\|department\\=Commodore's Port \\|magazine\\=Creative Computing}} *[The Transactor](/wiki/The_Transactor \"The Transactor\")* stated, \"The word processor is barely that, the data base defiles the name, and the spreadsheet has little spread\". The magazine advised users to \"think of the software as an almost free bonus\".{{r\\|evers198607}} *[BYTE](/wiki/Byte_%28magazine%29 \"Byte (magazine)\")* called the built\\-in software \"just a tiny bit better than bad\", noting that a Commodore 64 with [Multiplan](/wiki/Multiplan \"Multiplan\") and other third\\-party software would be cheaper and much more powerful. The magazine stated that the computer \"should have been called not the Plus 4, but the Minus 60\".{{cite news \\| url\\=https://archive.org/stream/byte\\-magazine\\-1985\\-01/1985\\_01\\_BYTE\\_10\\-01\\_Through\\_the\\_Hourglass\\#page/n289/mode/2up \\| title\\=Reviewer's Notebook \\| work\\=BYTE \\| date\\=January 1985 \\| access\\-date\\=27 October 2013 \\| author\\=Malloy, Rich \\| pages\\=289}} *INFO* warned that users who wanted to use the computer \"for serious 'productive' work, you are in deep trouble with the PLUS/4\" because of the poor software, and unlikelihood that better third\\-party replacements would be available.{{cite journal \\| url\\=https://archive.org/stream/info\\-magazine\\-05/Info\\_Issue\\_05\\#page/n27/mode/2up \\| title\\=The Plus/4 \\| author\\=Dunnington, Benn \\| journal\\=INFO \\| year\\=1984 \\| issue\\=5 \\| pages\\=28}} Better business software packages were available for equivalently\\-priced systems, including the C64\\. Since [IBM compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible \"IBM PC compatible\") were quickly dominating the [small business](/wiki/Small_business \"Small business\") market, the Plus/4 had no realistic chance of succeeding in its intended use.",
"Further dividing the market was that once the user had created data using many of the built\\-in software packages, the result could only be saved to a connected disk drive{{snd}} much of the software did not support tape.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.old\\-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st\\=1\\&c\\=194\\|title\\=OldComputers.com\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121105026/http://www.old\\-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st\\=1\\&c\\=194\\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Thus, tape\\-based home users, the only users who might still have been interested in the Plus/4's less\\-capable but built\\-in and instantly ready software, were shut out from the package.",
""
] |
### BASIC
{{unreferenced section\|date\=January 2023}}
The Plus/4's [memory map](/wiki/Memory_map "Memory map"), which used [bank switching](/wiki/Bank_switching "Bank switching") far more extensively than the C64, gave it a 56% larger amount of user\-accessible memory than the C64 for programming in BASIC, and its [BASIC programming language](/wiki/Commodore_BASIC "Commodore BASIC") was vastly improved, adding sound and graphics commands as well as looping commands that improved [program structure](/wiki/Structured_programming "Structured programming").
The Plus/4 does not have the Restore key on the VIC and C64, but a similar function may be achieved by holding down Run/Stop and pressing the reset button. This will reboot the computer into the machine language monitor, but any BASIC programs in memory will be left intact.
The Plus/4 contains an [Easter egg](/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29 "Easter egg (media)"). Entering the command `SYS DEC("CDAB")` or `SYS 52651` puts up the names of three programmers and a hardware designer: Fred Bowen, John Cooper, Terry Ryan and [Bil Herd](/wiki/Bil_Herd "Bil Herd"), with Bowen's name at the top in reverse\-field and Ryan's at the bottom blinking on and off.
While the C64 had the advertised {{nowrap\|64 KB}} of RAM installed, only about {{nowrap\|38 KB}} was available for BASIC programs. The Plus/4's BASIC V3\.5 made {{nowrap\|59 KB}} available, aided by its memory map that swapped the ROMs in and out of memory as needed, and that placed the [memory mapped I/O](/wiki/Memory_mapped_I/O "Memory mapped I/O") registers, which all 6502\-based computers have to use, at the top of memory ({{mono\|$FD00}}), while in the C64 they had been located at the much lower address {{mono\|$D000}}. On the C64, a program was able to swap out the ROMs and the I/O registers manually and thus gain access to the full {{nowrap\|64 KB}}, but this was not compatible with BASIC on that machine; on the Plus/4, on the other hand, most of the ROM area was automatically switched out when not needed, rendering the RAM existing at the same addresses accessible for BASIC programs.
The BASIC program area on the Plus/4 begins at {{mono\|$1000}}, but the BASIC ROM starts at {{mono\|$8000}} so the automatic switching of the OS ROMs is not initiated unless a BASIC program grows big enough to reach {{mono\|$8000}}, or 28K in size. Since RAM on the C16 never exceeds the {{mono\|$8000}} line, banking does not occur on that machine. As on the C64, writing to the ROM areas will alter the RAM underneath.
The registers at {{mono\|$FDD0\-$FDDF}} contain the ROM configuration for the machine, which normally has the BASIC and kernal ROMs enabled. The ROM configuration is adjusted by writing to the registers (the value is irrelevant). {{mono\|$FDD0}} enables or disables BASIC, {{mono\|$FDD1}} the low function ROM, {{mono\|$FDD2}} the low cartridge ROM, {{mono\|$FDD3}} is unused, {{mono\|$FDD4}} the kernal, {{mono\|$FDD5}} the high function ROM, and {{mono\|$FDD6}} the high cartridge ROM. The upper portion of the kernal ROM at {{mono\|$FC00\-$FCFF}} is always enabled no matter what the memory configuration, as are the I/O registers.
Furthermore, the registers at {{mono\|$FF3E\-$FF3F}} if written to will bank out (or in) all ROMs currently enabled via the ROM configuration at {{mono\|$FDD0\-$FDDF}} excepting {{mono\|$FC00\-$FCFF}}; this is done by BASIC automatically to read program text above {{mono\|$8000}}. Since disabling the ROMs will also remove the kernal interrupt handler, it will be necessary to first turn off interrupts via an SEI instruction.
BASIC 3\.5 added all of BASIC 4\.0's disk commands as well as sound and graphics functions to support the TED, additional programming features, and statements to allow structured programming. While BASIC 2\.0 was 8K in size and BASIC 4\.0 12K, BASIC 3\.5 ballooned to 20K in size, as big as the entire set of OS ROMs in the VIC\-20 and C64\.
|
[
"### BASIC",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=January 2023}}",
"The Plus/4's [memory map](/wiki/Memory_map \"Memory map\"), which used [bank switching](/wiki/Bank_switching \"Bank switching\") far more extensively than the C64, gave it a 56% larger amount of user\\-accessible memory than the C64 for programming in BASIC, and its [BASIC programming language](/wiki/Commodore_BASIC \"Commodore BASIC\") was vastly improved, adding sound and graphics commands as well as looping commands that improved [program structure](/wiki/Structured_programming \"Structured programming\").",
"The Plus/4 does not have the Restore key on the VIC and C64, but a similar function may be achieved by holding down Run/Stop and pressing the reset button. This will reboot the computer into the machine language monitor, but any BASIC programs in memory will be left intact.",
"The Plus/4 contains an [Easter egg](/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29 \"Easter egg (media)\"). Entering the command `SYS DEC(\"CDAB\")` or `SYS 52651` puts up the names of three programmers and a hardware designer: Fred Bowen, John Cooper, Terry Ryan and [Bil Herd](/wiki/Bil_Herd \"Bil Herd\"), with Bowen's name at the top in reverse\\-field and Ryan's at the bottom blinking on and off.",
"While the C64 had the advertised {{nowrap\\|64 KB}} of RAM installed, only about {{nowrap\\|38 KB}} was available for BASIC programs. The Plus/4's BASIC V3\\.5 made {{nowrap\\|59 KB}} available, aided by its memory map that swapped the ROMs in and out of memory as needed, and that placed the [memory mapped I/O](/wiki/Memory_mapped_I/O \"Memory mapped I/O\") registers, which all 6502\\-based computers have to use, at the top of memory ({{mono\\|$FD00}}), while in the C64 they had been located at the much lower address {{mono\\|$D000}}. On the C64, a program was able to swap out the ROMs and the I/O registers manually and thus gain access to the full {{nowrap\\|64 KB}}, but this was not compatible with BASIC on that machine; on the Plus/4, on the other hand, most of the ROM area was automatically switched out when not needed, rendering the RAM existing at the same addresses accessible for BASIC programs.",
"The BASIC program area on the Plus/4 begins at {{mono\\|$1000}}, but the BASIC ROM starts at {{mono\\|$8000}} so the automatic switching of the OS ROMs is not initiated unless a BASIC program grows big enough to reach {{mono\\|$8000}}, or 28K in size. Since RAM on the C16 never exceeds the {{mono\\|$8000}} line, banking does not occur on that machine. As on the C64, writing to the ROM areas will alter the RAM underneath.",
"The registers at {{mono\\|$FDD0\\-$FDDF}} contain the ROM configuration for the machine, which normally has the BASIC and kernal ROMs enabled. The ROM configuration is adjusted by writing to the registers (the value is irrelevant). {{mono\\|$FDD0}} enables or disables BASIC, {{mono\\|$FDD1}} the low function ROM, {{mono\\|$FDD2}} the low cartridge ROM, {{mono\\|$FDD3}} is unused, {{mono\\|$FDD4}} the kernal, {{mono\\|$FDD5}} the high function ROM, and {{mono\\|$FDD6}} the high cartridge ROM. The upper portion of the kernal ROM at {{mono\\|$FC00\\-$FCFF}} is always enabled no matter what the memory configuration, as are the I/O registers.",
"Furthermore, the registers at {{mono\\|$FF3E\\-$FF3F}} if written to will bank out (or in) all ROMs currently enabled via the ROM configuration at {{mono\\|$FDD0\\-$FDDF}} excepting {{mono\\|$FC00\\-$FCFF}}; this is done by BASIC automatically to read program text above {{mono\\|$8000}}. Since disabling the ROMs will also remove the kernal interrupt handler, it will be necessary to first turn off interrupts via an SEI instruction.",
"BASIC 3\\.5 added all of BASIC 4\\.0's disk commands as well as sound and graphics functions to support the TED, additional programming features, and statements to allow structured programming. While BASIC 2\\.0 was 8K in size and BASIC 4\\.0 12K, BASIC 3\\.5 ballooned to 20K in size, as big as the entire set of OS ROMs in the VIC\\-20 and C64\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In January 1994, the U.S. {{sclass\|Ohio\|submarine\|2}} USS *Montana* has an encounter with an [unidentified submerged object](/wiki/Unidentified_submerged_object "Unidentified submerged object") and sinks near the [Cayman Trough](/wiki/Cayman_Trough "Cayman Trough"). With Soviet ships moving in to try to salvage the sub and a [hurricane](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone "Tropical cyclone") moving over the area, the U.S. government sends a [SEAL](/wiki/United_States_Navy_SEALs "United States Navy SEALs") team to *Deep Core*, a privately owned experimental underwater [drilling platform](/wiki/Drilling_platform "Drilling platform") near the Cayman Trough, to use it as a base of operations. The platform's designer, Dr. Lindsey Brigman, insists on going along with the SEAL team, even though her estranged husband Virgil "Bud" Brigman is the current foreman.
During the initial investigation of *Montana*, a power cut in the team's submersibles leads to Lindsey seeing a strange light circling the sub, which she later calls a "non\-terrestrial intelligence" or "NTI". Lt. Hiram Coffey, the SEAL team leader, is ordered to accelerate their mission and takes one of the mini\-subs without *Deep Core*{{'}}s permission to recover a [Trident missile](/wiki/Trident_%28missile%29 "Trident (missile)") warhead from *Montana* just as the storm hits above, leaving the crew unable to disconnect from their surface support ship in time. The cable crane is torn from the ship and falls into the trench, dragging *Deep Core* to the edge before it stops. The rig is partially flooded, killing several crew members and damaging its power systems.
The crew waits out the storm so they can restore communications and be rescued. As they struggle against the cold, they find the NTIs have formed an animated column of water to explore the rig, which they equate to an alien version of a [remotely operated vehicle](/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle "Remotely operated underwater vehicle"). Though they treat it with curiosity, Coffey is agitated and cuts it in half by closing a pressure bulkhead on it, causing it to retreat. Realizing that Coffey is suffering paranoia from [high\-pressure nervous syndrome](/wiki/High-pressure_nervous_syndrome "High-pressure nervous syndrome"), the crew spies on him through an ROV, finding him and another SEAL arming the warhead to attack the NTIs. To try to stop him, Bud fights Coffey, but Coffey escapes in a mini\-sub with the primed warhead. Bud and Lindsey give chase in the other sub, damaging both. Coffey is able to launch the warhead into the trench, but his sub drifts over the edge and implodes from the pressure, killing him. Bud's mini\-sub is inoperable and taking on water. With only one functional diving suit, Lindsey opts to drown and hopefully enter deep hypothermia when the ocean's cold water engulfs her with hopes of being able to be resucitated. Bud swims back to the platform with her body; there, he and the crew use a [defibrillator](/wiki/Defibrillation "Defibrillation") and administer [CPR](/wiki/CPR "CPR"), and they revive her.
It is decided that they need to disarm the warhead, which is more than {{convert\|2\|miles\|km}} below them. One SEAL, Ensign Monk, helps Bud use an experimental diving suit equipped with a [liquid breathing](/wiki/Liquid_breathing "Liquid breathing") apparatus to survive to that depth, though he will only be able to communicate through a keypad on the suit. Bud begins his dive, assisted by Lindsey's voice to keep him coherent against the effects of the mounting pressure, and he reaches the warhead. Monk guides him in successfully disarming it. With little oxygen left in the system, Bud explains that he knew it was a one\-way trip, and he tells Lindsey he loves her. As he waits for death, an NTI approaches Bud, takes his hand, and guides him to a massive alien city deep in the trench. Inside, the NTIs create an atmospheric pocket for Bud, allowing him to breathe normally. The NTIs then play back Bud's message to his wife and look at each other with understanding.
On *Deep Core*, the crew is waiting for rescue when they see a message from Bud that he met some friends and warns them to hold on. The base shakes, and lights from the trench herald the arrival of the alien ship. It rises to the ocean's surface, with *Deep Core* and several of the surface ships run aground on its hull. The crew of *Deep Core* exits the platform, surprised they are not [dead from the sudden decompression](/wiki/Decompression_sickness "Decompression sickness"). They see Bud walking out of the alien ship, and Lindsey races to hug him.
### Special Edition
In the [extended version](/wiki/Director%27s_cut%23Extended_cuts_and_special_editions "Director's cut#Extended cuts and special editions"), the events in the film are played against a backdrop of conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, with the potential for all\-out war. The sinking of *Montana* additionally fuels the aggression. There is additionally more conflict between Bud and Lindsey in regard to their former relationship. The primary addition is the ending: When Bud is taken to the alien ship, the aliens begin by showing him images of war and aggression from news sources around the globe. The aliens then create massive [megatsunamis](/wiki/Megatsunami "Megatsunami") that threaten the world's coasts, but stop them short before they hit. Bud asks why they spared the humans, and they show Bud his message to Lindsey before bringing him, the alien ship, and *Deep Core* to the surface.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In January 1994, the U.S. {{sclass\\|Ohio\\|submarine\\|2}} USS *Montana* has an encounter with an [unidentified submerged object](/wiki/Unidentified_submerged_object \"Unidentified submerged object\") and sinks near the [Cayman Trough](/wiki/Cayman_Trough \"Cayman Trough\"). With Soviet ships moving in to try to salvage the sub and a [hurricane](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone \"Tropical cyclone\") moving over the area, the U.S. government sends a [SEAL](/wiki/United_States_Navy_SEALs \"United States Navy SEALs\") team to *Deep Core*, a privately owned experimental underwater [drilling platform](/wiki/Drilling_platform \"Drilling platform\") near the Cayman Trough, to use it as a base of operations. The platform's designer, Dr. Lindsey Brigman, insists on going along with the SEAL team, even though her estranged husband Virgil \"Bud\" Brigman is the current foreman.",
"During the initial investigation of *Montana*, a power cut in the team's submersibles leads to Lindsey seeing a strange light circling the sub, which she later calls a \"non\\-terrestrial intelligence\" or \"NTI\". Lt. Hiram Coffey, the SEAL team leader, is ordered to accelerate their mission and takes one of the mini\\-subs without *Deep Core*{{'}}s permission to recover a [Trident missile](/wiki/Trident_%28missile%29 \"Trident (missile)\") warhead from *Montana* just as the storm hits above, leaving the crew unable to disconnect from their surface support ship in time. The cable crane is torn from the ship and falls into the trench, dragging *Deep Core* to the edge before it stops. The rig is partially flooded, killing several crew members and damaging its power systems.",
"The crew waits out the storm so they can restore communications and be rescued. As they struggle against the cold, they find the NTIs have formed an animated column of water to explore the rig, which they equate to an alien version of a [remotely operated vehicle](/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle \"Remotely operated underwater vehicle\"). Though they treat it with curiosity, Coffey is agitated and cuts it in half by closing a pressure bulkhead on it, causing it to retreat. Realizing that Coffey is suffering paranoia from [high\\-pressure nervous syndrome](/wiki/High-pressure_nervous_syndrome \"High-pressure nervous syndrome\"), the crew spies on him through an ROV, finding him and another SEAL arming the warhead to attack the NTIs. To try to stop him, Bud fights Coffey, but Coffey escapes in a mini\\-sub with the primed warhead. Bud and Lindsey give chase in the other sub, damaging both. Coffey is able to launch the warhead into the trench, but his sub drifts over the edge and implodes from the pressure, killing him. Bud's mini\\-sub is inoperable and taking on water. With only one functional diving suit, Lindsey opts to drown and hopefully enter deep hypothermia when the ocean's cold water engulfs her with hopes of being able to be resucitated. Bud swims back to the platform with her body; there, he and the crew use a [defibrillator](/wiki/Defibrillation \"Defibrillation\") and administer [CPR](/wiki/CPR \"CPR\"), and they revive her.",
"It is decided that they need to disarm the warhead, which is more than {{convert\\|2\\|miles\\|km}} below them. One SEAL, Ensign Monk, helps Bud use an experimental diving suit equipped with a [liquid breathing](/wiki/Liquid_breathing \"Liquid breathing\") apparatus to survive to that depth, though he will only be able to communicate through a keypad on the suit. Bud begins his dive, assisted by Lindsey's voice to keep him coherent against the effects of the mounting pressure, and he reaches the warhead. Monk guides him in successfully disarming it. With little oxygen left in the system, Bud explains that he knew it was a one\\-way trip, and he tells Lindsey he loves her. As he waits for death, an NTI approaches Bud, takes his hand, and guides him to a massive alien city deep in the trench. Inside, the NTIs create an atmospheric pocket for Bud, allowing him to breathe normally. The NTIs then play back Bud's message to his wife and look at each other with understanding.",
"On *Deep Core*, the crew is waiting for rescue when they see a message from Bud that he met some friends and warns them to hold on. The base shakes, and lights from the trench herald the arrival of the alien ship. It rises to the ocean's surface, with *Deep Core* and several of the surface ships run aground on its hull. The crew of *Deep Core* exits the platform, surprised they are not [dead from the sudden decompression](/wiki/Decompression_sickness \"Decompression sickness\"). They see Bud walking out of the alien ship, and Lindsey races to hug him.",
"### Special Edition",
"In the [extended version](/wiki/Director%27s_cut%23Extended_cuts_and_special_editions \"Director's cut#Extended cuts and special editions\"), the events in the film are played against a backdrop of conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, with the potential for all\\-out war. The sinking of *Montana* additionally fuels the aggression. There is additionally more conflict between Bud and Lindsey in regard to their former relationship. The primary addition is the ending: When Bud is taken to the alien ship, the aliens begin by showing him images of war and aggression from news sources around the globe. The aliens then create massive [megatsunamis](/wiki/Megatsunami \"Megatsunami\") that threaten the world's coasts, but stop them short before they hit. Bud asks why they spared the humans, and they show Bud his message to Lindsey before bringing him, the alien ship, and *Deep Core* to the surface.",
""
] |
Special Edition
---------------
Rumors circulated from the film's opening weeks of sequences cut from the film's third act. Pressure to cut the film's running time stemmed from both distribution concerns and [Industrial Light \& Magic](/wiki/Industrial_Light_%26_Magic "Industrial Light & Magic")'s then\-inability to complete the required sequences. The looming three\-hour length also limited the number of times the film could be shown each day, though *[Dances with Wolves](/wiki/Dances_with_Wolves "Dances with Wolves")* (1990\) would challenge industry notions. [Test audience screenings](/wiki/Test_screening "Test screening") revealed mixed reactions to the sequences as they appeared in their unfinished form.
Cameron held final cut provided that the film met a running time of roughly two hours and 15 minutes. He later noted: "Ironically, the studio brass were horrified when I said I was cutting the wave."*The Abyss Special Edition DVD: The Restoration*
> What emerges in the winnowing process is only the best stuff. And I think the overall caliber of the film is improved by that. I cut only two minutes of *Terminator*. On *Aliens*, we took out much more. I even reconstituted some of that in a special (TV) release version.
The sense of something being missing on *Aliens* was greater for me than on *The Abyss*, where the film just got consistently better as the cut got along. The film must function as a dramatic, organic whole. When I cut the film together, things that read well on paper, on a conceptual level, didn't necessarily translate to the screen as well. I felt I was losing something by breaking my focus. Breaking the story's focus and coming off the main characters was a far greater detriment to the film than what was gained. The film keeps the same message intact at a thematic level, not at a really overt level, by working in a symbolic way.{{cite magazine \|title\=James Cameron: Filmmaker Under Pressure \|last\=Spelling \|first\=Ian \|date\=January 1990 \|magazine\=\[\[Starlog]] \|issue\=150}}
[thumb\|Star [Michael Biehn](/wiki/Michael_Biehn "Michael Biehn") signing a copy of the film's [DVD](/wiki/DVD "DVD") cover during an appearance at [Midtown Comics](/wiki/Midtown_Comics "Midtown Comics") in Manhattan on August 23, 2012](/wiki/File:8.23.12BiehnBlancByLuigiNovi17.jpg "8.23.12BiehnBlancByLuigiNovi17.jpg")
Cameron elected to remove the wave sequences along with other, shorter scenes elsewhere in the film, reducing the running time from roughly two hours and 50 minutes to two hours and 20 minutes, and diminishing his signature themes of nuclear peril and disarmament. Subsequent test audience screenings drew substantially better reactions.
Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio publicly expressed regret about some of the scenes selected for removal from the film's theatrical cut, saying: "There were some beautiful scenes that were taken out. I just wish we hadn't shot so much that isn't in the film."
Shortly after the film's premiere, Cameron and video editor Ed Marsh created a longer video cut of *The Abyss* for their own use that incorporated [dailies](/wiki/Dailies "Dailies"). With the tremendous success of Cameron's *[Terminator 2: Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_2:Judgment_Day "Judgment Day")* in 1991, [Lightstorm Entertainment](/wiki/Lightstorm_Entertainment "Lightstorm Entertainment") secured a five\-year, $500 million financing deal with 20th Century Fox for films produced, directed or written by Cameron.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/22/movies/fox\-locks\-in\-cameron\-with\-a\-5\-year\-deal\-worth\-500\-million.html \|title\=Fox Locks in Cameron with a 5\-Year Deal Worth $500 Million \|last\=Weinraub \|first\=Bernard \|author\-link\=Bernard Weinraub \|date\=April 22, 1992 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=27 October 2019 \|archive\-date\=May 15, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180515115636/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/22/movies/fox\-locks\-in\-cameron\-with\-a\-5\-year\-deal\-worth\-500\-million.html \|url\-status\=live}} The contract allocated roughly $500,000 of the amount to complete *The Abyss*.*The Toronto Star*, *Starweek Magazine* ILM was commissioned to finish the work they had started three years earlier, with many of the same people who had worked on it originally.
The [CGI](/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery "Computer-generated imagery") tools developed for *Terminator 2: Judgment Day* allowed ILM to complete the [tidal wave](/wiki/Tsunami "Tsunami") sequence, as well as correcting flaws in rendering for all their other work done for the film.
The tidal wave sequence had originally been designed by ILM as a physical effect, using a plastic wave, but Cameron was dissatisfied with the end result, and the sequence was scrapped. By the time Cameron was ready to revisit *The Abyss*, ILM's CGI prowess had finally progressed to an appropriate level, and the wave was rendered as a CGI effect. *Terminator 2: Judgment Day* screenwriter and frequent Cameron collaborator [William Wisher](/wiki/William_Wisher_Jr. "William Wisher Jr.") had a [cameo](/wiki/Cameo_appearance "Cameo appearance") in the scene as a reporter in [Santa Monica](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California "Santa Monica, California") who catches the first tidal wave on camera.
When it was discovered that original [production sound recordings](/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction "Sound recording and reproduction") had been lost, new [dialogue](/wiki/Dialogue "Dialogue") and [foley](/wiki/Foley_artist "Foley artist") were recorded, but since Kidd Brewer had died{{cite news \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1454\&dat\=19900524\&id\=wg8yAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=\-BMEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5946,3479841 \|title\=Kidd Brewer Jr. found dead at home \|date\=May 24, 1990 \|newspaper\=\[\[Star\-News\|Wilmington Morning Star]] \|access\-date\=December 28, 2014 \|archive\-date\=November 26, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126085229/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1454\&dat\=19900524\&id\=wg8yAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=\-BMEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5946,3479841 \|url\-status\=live}} before he could return to re\-loop his dialog, producers and editors had to lift his original dialogue tracks from the remaining optical\-sound prints of the [dailies](/wiki/Dailies "Dailies"). The Special Edition was therefore dedicated to his memory as a result.
As [Alan Silvestri](/wiki/Alan_Silvestri "Alan Silvestri") was not available to compose new music for the restored scenes, Robert Garrett, who had composed temporary music for the film's initial cutting in 1989, was chosen to create new music. The Special Edition was completed in December 1992, with 28 minutes added to the film, and saw a [limited theatrical release](/wiki/Limited_theatrical_release "Limited theatrical release") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") and [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") on February 26, 1993, and expanded to key cities nationwide in the following weeks. Both versions of the film continue to receive public exhibitions, including a screening of an original [35mm print](/wiki/35_mm_movie_film "35 mm movie film") of the theatrical cut on August 20, 2019, in New York City.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ifccenter.com/films/the\-abyss/ \|title\=The Abyss \|date\=August 20, 2019 \|publisher\=\[\[IFC Center]] \|access\-date\=October 27, 2019 \|archive\-date\=August 21, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821061048/https://www.ifccenter.com/films/the\-abyss/ \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite tweet \|first\=Matt Zoller \|last\=Seitz \|author\-link\=Matt Zoller Seitz \|user\=mattzollerseitz \|number\=1161083008365092864 \|date\=August 12, 2019 \|title\=New Yorkers: come see THE ABYSS (original theatrical cut) on 35mm August 20 at @IFCCenter. We've got two special guests, @EarlOfEdgecombe, sound designer for the movie, and Ron Pogue, veteran FX coordinator on Avatar, Spider\-Man 2, The Get Down and more. ifccenter.com/films/the\-abyss/ \|access\-date\=October 27, 2019}}
On November 13, 2023, Cameron announced in a video message via [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter") that a [4K](/wiki/4K_resolution "4K resolution") remastered transfer of *The Abyss: Special Edition* will return to theaters for a one\-night\-only event on December 6, 2023; 20th Century Studios released a new trailer the same day to hype up the screening. Cameron explained: "If you haven't seen the film before, this is the way to experience it and if you have, you'll be seeing the film I actually set out to make, with some big surprises not seen in the originally released version. I hope you'll take advantage of seeing *The Abyss*, my first ocean film, back in theaters."{{cite tweet \|number\=1724102357779362038 \|title\=I'm excited for you to experience The Abyss: Special Edition, now remastered in 4K, only in theaters on December 6\. \|user\=JimCameron \|first\=James \|last\=Cameron \|author\-link\=James Cameron \|date\=November 13, 2023 \|access\-date\=November 15, 2023}}{{cite web \|url\=https://collider.com/the\-abyss\-4k\-theatrical\-release\-date/ \|title\=James Cameron's 'The Abyss' Swims Back to Theaters with 4K Remaster \|last\=Azeem \|first\=Safwan \|work\=\[\[Collider (website)\|Collider]] \|date\=November 13, 2023 \|access\-date\=November 15, 2023}}{{cite tweet \|number\=1724109875834191934 \|title\=Experience James Cameron's The Abyss: Special Edition, now remastered in 4K, when it returns to theaters for one night only. Don't miss the movie event, only in theaters December 6\. \|user\=20thcentury \|author\-link\=20th Century Studios \|date\=November 13, 2023 \|access\-date\=November 15, 2023}}
|
[
"Special Edition\n---------------",
"Rumors circulated from the film's opening weeks of sequences cut from the film's third act. Pressure to cut the film's running time stemmed from both distribution concerns and [Industrial Light \\& Magic](/wiki/Industrial_Light_%26_Magic \"Industrial Light & Magic\")'s then\\-inability to complete the required sequences. The looming three\\-hour length also limited the number of times the film could be shown each day, though *[Dances with Wolves](/wiki/Dances_with_Wolves \"Dances with Wolves\")* (1990\\) would challenge industry notions. [Test audience screenings](/wiki/Test_screening \"Test screening\") revealed mixed reactions to the sequences as they appeared in their unfinished form.",
"Cameron held final cut provided that the film met a running time of roughly two hours and 15 minutes. He later noted: \"Ironically, the studio brass were horrified when I said I was cutting the wave.\"*The Abyss Special Edition DVD: The Restoration*",
"",
"> What emerges in the winnowing process is only the best stuff. And I think the overall caliber of the film is improved by that. I cut only two minutes of *Terminator*. On *Aliens*, we took out much more. I even reconstituted some of that in a special (TV) release version.",
"The sense of something being missing on *Aliens* was greater for me than on *The Abyss*, where the film just got consistently better as the cut got along. The film must function as a dramatic, organic whole. When I cut the film together, things that read well on paper, on a conceptual level, didn't necessarily translate to the screen as well. I felt I was losing something by breaking my focus. Breaking the story's focus and coming off the main characters was a far greater detriment to the film than what was gained. The film keeps the same message intact at a thematic level, not at a really overt level, by working in a symbolic way.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=James Cameron: Filmmaker Under Pressure \\|last\\=Spelling \\|first\\=Ian \\|date\\=January 1990 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Starlog]] \\|issue\\=150}}\n[thumb\\|Star [Michael Biehn](/wiki/Michael_Biehn \"Michael Biehn\") signing a copy of the film's [DVD](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") cover during an appearance at [Midtown Comics](/wiki/Midtown_Comics \"Midtown Comics\") in Manhattan on August 23, 2012](/wiki/File:8.23.12BiehnBlancByLuigiNovi17.jpg \"8.23.12BiehnBlancByLuigiNovi17.jpg\")",
"Cameron elected to remove the wave sequences along with other, shorter scenes elsewhere in the film, reducing the running time from roughly two hours and 50 minutes to two hours and 20 minutes, and diminishing his signature themes of nuclear peril and disarmament. Subsequent test audience screenings drew substantially better reactions.",
"Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio publicly expressed regret about some of the scenes selected for removal from the film's theatrical cut, saying: \"There were some beautiful scenes that were taken out. I just wish we hadn't shot so much that isn't in the film.\"",
"Shortly after the film's premiere, Cameron and video editor Ed Marsh created a longer video cut of *The Abyss* for their own use that incorporated [dailies](/wiki/Dailies \"Dailies\"). With the tremendous success of Cameron's *[Terminator 2: Judgment Day](/wiki/Terminator_2:Judgment_Day \"Judgment Day\")* in 1991, [Lightstorm Entertainment](/wiki/Lightstorm_Entertainment \"Lightstorm Entertainment\") secured a five\\-year, $500 million financing deal with 20th Century Fox for films produced, directed or written by Cameron.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/22/movies/fox\\-locks\\-in\\-cameron\\-with\\-a\\-5\\-year\\-deal\\-worth\\-500\\-million.html \\|title\\=Fox Locks in Cameron with a 5\\-Year Deal Worth $500 Million \\|last\\=Weinraub \\|first\\=Bernard \\|author\\-link\\=Bernard Weinraub \\|date\\=April 22, 1992 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 15, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180515115636/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/22/movies/fox\\-locks\\-in\\-cameron\\-with\\-a\\-5\\-year\\-deal\\-worth\\-500\\-million.html \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The contract allocated roughly $500,000 of the amount to complete *The Abyss*.*The Toronto Star*, *Starweek Magazine* ILM was commissioned to finish the work they had started three years earlier, with many of the same people who had worked on it originally.",
"The [CGI](/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery \"Computer-generated imagery\") tools developed for *Terminator 2: Judgment Day* allowed ILM to complete the [tidal wave](/wiki/Tsunami \"Tsunami\") sequence, as well as correcting flaws in rendering for all their other work done for the film.",
"The tidal wave sequence had originally been designed by ILM as a physical effect, using a plastic wave, but Cameron was dissatisfied with the end result, and the sequence was scrapped. By the time Cameron was ready to revisit *The Abyss*, ILM's CGI prowess had finally progressed to an appropriate level, and the wave was rendered as a CGI effect. *Terminator 2: Judgment Day* screenwriter and frequent Cameron collaborator [William Wisher](/wiki/William_Wisher_Jr. \"William Wisher Jr.\") had a [cameo](/wiki/Cameo_appearance \"Cameo appearance\") in the scene as a reporter in [Santa Monica](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California \"Santa Monica, California\") who catches the first tidal wave on camera.",
"When it was discovered that original [production sound recordings](/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction \"Sound recording and reproduction\") had been lost, new [dialogue](/wiki/Dialogue \"Dialogue\") and [foley](/wiki/Foley_artist \"Foley artist\") were recorded, but since Kidd Brewer had died{{cite news \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1454\\&dat\\=19900524\\&id\\=wg8yAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=\\-BMEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5946,3479841 \\|title\\=Kidd Brewer Jr. found dead at home \\|date\\=May 24, 1990 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Star\\-News\\|Wilmington Morning Star]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 28, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 26, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126085229/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1454\\&dat\\=19900524\\&id\\=wg8yAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=\\-BMEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5946,3479841 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} before he could return to re\\-loop his dialog, producers and editors had to lift his original dialogue tracks from the remaining optical\\-sound prints of the [dailies](/wiki/Dailies \"Dailies\"). The Special Edition was therefore dedicated to his memory as a result.",
"As [Alan Silvestri](/wiki/Alan_Silvestri \"Alan Silvestri\") was not available to compose new music for the restored scenes, Robert Garrett, who had composed temporary music for the film's initial cutting in 1989, was chosen to create new music. The Special Edition was completed in December 1992, with 28 minutes added to the film, and saw a [limited theatrical release](/wiki/Limited_theatrical_release \"Limited theatrical release\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") and [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") on February 26, 1993, and expanded to key cities nationwide in the following weeks. Both versions of the film continue to receive public exhibitions, including a screening of an original [35mm print](/wiki/35_mm_movie_film \"35 mm movie film\") of the theatrical cut on August 20, 2019, in New York City.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ifccenter.com/films/the\\-abyss/ \\|title\\=The Abyss \\|date\\=August 20, 2019 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IFC Center]] \\|access\\-date\\=October 27, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 21, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821061048/https://www.ifccenter.com/films/the\\-abyss/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite tweet \\|first\\=Matt Zoller \\|last\\=Seitz \\|author\\-link\\=Matt Zoller Seitz \\|user\\=mattzollerseitz \\|number\\=1161083008365092864 \\|date\\=August 12, 2019 \\|title\\=New Yorkers: come see THE ABYSS (original theatrical cut) on 35mm August 20 at @IFCCenter. We've got two special guests, @EarlOfEdgecombe, sound designer for the movie, and Ron Pogue, veteran FX coordinator on Avatar, Spider\\-Man 2, The Get Down and more. ifccenter.com/films/the\\-abyss/ \\|access\\-date\\=October 27, 2019}}",
"On November 13, 2023, Cameron announced in a video message via [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\") that a [4K](/wiki/4K_resolution \"4K resolution\") remastered transfer of *The Abyss: Special Edition* will return to theaters for a one\\-night\\-only event on December 6, 2023; 20th Century Studios released a new trailer the same day to hype up the screening. Cameron explained: \"If you haven't seen the film before, this is the way to experience it and if you have, you'll be seeing the film I actually set out to make, with some big surprises not seen in the originally released version. I hope you'll take advantage of seeing *The Abyss*, my first ocean film, back in theaters.\"{{cite tweet \\|number\\=1724102357779362038 \\|title\\=I'm excited for you to experience The Abyss: Special Edition, now remastered in 4K, only in theaters on December 6\\. \\|user\\=JimCameron \\|first\\=James \\|last\\=Cameron \\|author\\-link\\=James Cameron \\|date\\=November 13, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=November 15, 2023}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://collider.com/the\\-abyss\\-4k\\-theatrical\\-release\\-date/ \\|title\\=James Cameron's 'The Abyss' Swims Back to Theaters with 4K Remaster \\|last\\=Azeem \\|first\\=Safwan \\|work\\=\\[\\[Collider (website)\\|Collider]] \\|date\\=November 13, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=November 15, 2023}}{{cite tweet \\|number\\=1724109875834191934 \\|title\\=Experience James Cameron's The Abyss: Special Edition, now remastered in 4K, when it returns to theaters for one night only. Don't miss the movie event, only in theaters December 6\\. \\|user\\=20thcentury \\|author\\-link\\=20th Century Studios \\|date\\=November 13, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=November 15, 2023}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Butler was born in [St. George's, Grenada](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada "St. George's, Grenada"), where he attended the [Anglican School](/wiki/Anglican_High_School_%28Grenada%29 "Anglican High School (Grenada)").["Tubal Uriah 'Buzz' Butler (1897\-1977\)"](http://www.thegrenadarevolutiononline.com/butlera.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120095156/http://www.thegrenadarevolutiononline.com/butlera.html \|date\=2021\-01\-20 }}, *The Grenada Revolution Online*. Unable to find work after completing his primary school education, at 17 he became a volunteer in the [British West Indies Regiment](/wiki/British_West_Indies_Regiment "British West Indies Regiment") in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), serving in the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") from 1914 to 1918, stationed in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"). Returning from military service at the end of the war in 1918, he became active in political pressure groups and workers unions, establishing the Grenada Representative Government Movement, and the Grenada Union of Returned Soldiers.["Uriah 'Buzz' Butler"](https://stephrichardsonblog.wordpress.com/uriah-buzz-butler/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203172545/https://stephrichardsonblog.wordpress.com/uriah\-buzz\-butler/ \|date\=2020\-12\-03 }}, *Trinidad and Tobago: Struggle for Independence*. In 1921, aged 24, he went to south Trinidad and was employed at the Roodal Oilfields as a pipe\-fitter. He became influenced by the philosophy of [Marcus Garvey](/wiki/Marcus_Garvey "Marcus Garvey"), according to Garvey's son Dr Julius Garvey.Andre Bagoo,
["Marcus Garvey’s TT legacy"](http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/0,214905.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812023015/http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/0,214905\.html \|date\=2017\-08\-12 }}, *[Trinidad and Tobago Newsday](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago_Newsday "Trinidad and Tobago Newsday")*, 30 July 2015\.
Butler first came to prominence in 1935 when he led a "hunger march" from the oilfields to [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain "Port of Spain"). In 1936 he was expelled from the [Trinidad Labour Party](/wiki/Trinidad_Labour_Party "Trinidad Labour Party") for his "extremist tendencies". He then formed the [British Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party](/wiki/British_Empire_Citizens%27_and_Workers%27_Home_Rule_Party "British Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party"). On 19 June 1937 a strike in protest of working conditions, wages, racism and exploitation began in the oilfields in the southern Trinidad. Police attempted to arrest Butler as he addressed a meeting in [Fyzabad](/wiki/Fyzabad "Fyzabad"). His supporters prevented the police from doing so and Charlie King, a police officer was killed. The [Labour riots of 1937](/wiki/Labour_riots_of_1937 "Labour riots of 1937") resulted in turmoil throughout the oilfields. When strikes spread to the [sugar](/wiki/Sugar_cane "Sugar cane") factories, the Colonial government responded by issuing an arrest warrant for Butler. Butler went into hiding and the colonial authorities were unable to locate him. He stayed in contact with the authorities through [Adrian Cola Rienzi](/wiki/Adrian_Cola_Rienzi "Adrian Cola Rienzi") and although he was promised safe passage by the colonial authorities to testify at a commission of enquiry into the events of June 1937, he was arrested by the colonial government when he emerged to do so.
Butler was imprisoned from 9 September 1937 to May 1939\. With the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") in September 1939, he was re\-arrested and detained for the duration of the war. After release from prison he formed the [Butler Home Rule Party](/wiki/Butler_Home_Rule_Party "Butler Home Rule Party"), which later became the Butler Party. The Butler Party captured the largest block of seats in the [Legislative Council](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago "Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago"), but the Governor chose to exclude Butler and instead [Albert Gomes](/wiki/Albert_Gomes "Albert Gomes") became the first [chief minister](/wiki/Chief_minister "Chief minister").
In the [1956 General Elections](/wiki/Elections_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago%231956_General_Elections "Elections in Trinidad and Tobago#1956 General Elections") the Butler Party only won two seats. Butler, the fiery radical, was deemed too unstable and threatening to the nation's economic well\-being by [Eric Williams](/wiki/Eric_Williams "Eric Williams") and the [People's National Movement](/wiki/People%27s_National_Movement "People's National Movement").
Butler is looked upon as the founding father of the [Oilfields Workers' Trade Union](/wiki/Oilfields_Workers%27_Trade_Union "Oilfields Workers' Trade Union") (OWTU) and the labour movement and is honoured with a statue in Fyzabad. He was awarded the [Trinity Cross](/wiki/Trinity_Cross "Trinity Cross"), the nation's highest honour, in 1970\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Butler was born in [St. George's, Grenada](/wiki/St._George%27s%2C_Grenada \"St. George's, Grenada\"), where he attended the [Anglican School](/wiki/Anglican_High_School_%28Grenada%29 \"Anglican High School (Grenada)\").[\"Tubal Uriah 'Buzz' Butler (1897\\-1977\\)\"](http://www.thegrenadarevolutiononline.com/butlera.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120095156/http://www.thegrenadarevolutiononline.com/butlera.html \\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-20 }}, *The Grenada Revolution Online*. Unable to find work after completing his primary school education, at 17 he became a volunteer in the [British West Indies Regiment](/wiki/British_West_Indies_Regiment \"British West Indies Regiment\") in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), serving in the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") from 1914 to 1918, stationed in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"). Returning from military service at the end of the war in 1918, he became active in political pressure groups and workers unions, establishing the Grenada Representative Government Movement, and the Grenada Union of Returned Soldiers.[\"Uriah 'Buzz' Butler\"](https://stephrichardsonblog.wordpress.com/uriah-buzz-butler/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203172545/https://stephrichardsonblog.wordpress.com/uriah\\-buzz\\-butler/ \\|date\\=2020\\-12\\-03 }}, *Trinidad and Tobago: Struggle for Independence*. In 1921, aged 24, he went to south Trinidad and was employed at the Roodal Oilfields as a pipe\\-fitter. He became influenced by the philosophy of [Marcus Garvey](/wiki/Marcus_Garvey \"Marcus Garvey\"), according to Garvey's son Dr Julius Garvey.Andre Bagoo,\n [\"Marcus Garvey’s TT legacy\"](http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/0,214905.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812023015/http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/0,214905\\.html \\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-12 }}, *[Trinidad and Tobago Newsday](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago_Newsday \"Trinidad and Tobago Newsday\")*, 30 July 2015\\.",
"Butler first came to prominence in 1935 when he led a \"hunger march\" from the oilfields to [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain \"Port of Spain\"). In 1936 he was expelled from the [Trinidad Labour Party](/wiki/Trinidad_Labour_Party \"Trinidad Labour Party\") for his \"extremist tendencies\". He then formed the [British Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party](/wiki/British_Empire_Citizens%27_and_Workers%27_Home_Rule_Party \"British Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party\"). On 19 June 1937 a strike in protest of working conditions, wages, racism and exploitation began in the oilfields in the southern Trinidad. Police attempted to arrest Butler as he addressed a meeting in [Fyzabad](/wiki/Fyzabad \"Fyzabad\"). His supporters prevented the police from doing so and Charlie King, a police officer was killed. The [Labour riots of 1937](/wiki/Labour_riots_of_1937 \"Labour riots of 1937\") resulted in turmoil throughout the oilfields. When strikes spread to the [sugar](/wiki/Sugar_cane \"Sugar cane\") factories, the Colonial government responded by issuing an arrest warrant for Butler. Butler went into hiding and the colonial authorities were unable to locate him. He stayed in contact with the authorities through [Adrian Cola Rienzi](/wiki/Adrian_Cola_Rienzi \"Adrian Cola Rienzi\") and although he was promised safe passage by the colonial authorities to testify at a commission of enquiry into the events of June 1937, he was arrested by the colonial government when he emerged to do so.",
"Butler was imprisoned from 9 September 1937 to May 1939\\. With the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in September 1939, he was re\\-arrested and detained for the duration of the war. After release from prison he formed the [Butler Home Rule Party](/wiki/Butler_Home_Rule_Party \"Butler Home Rule Party\"), which later became the Butler Party. The Butler Party captured the largest block of seats in the [Legislative Council](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago \"Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago\"), but the Governor chose to exclude Butler and instead [Albert Gomes](/wiki/Albert_Gomes \"Albert Gomes\") became the first [chief minister](/wiki/Chief_minister \"Chief minister\").",
"In the [1956 General Elections](/wiki/Elections_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago%231956_General_Elections \"Elections in Trinidad and Tobago#1956 General Elections\") the Butler Party only won two seats. Butler, the fiery radical, was deemed too unstable and threatening to the nation's economic well\\-being by [Eric Williams](/wiki/Eric_Williams \"Eric Williams\") and the [People's National Movement](/wiki/People%27s_National_Movement \"People's National Movement\").",
"Butler is looked upon as the founding father of the [Oilfields Workers' Trade Union](/wiki/Oilfields_Workers%27_Trade_Union \"Oilfields Workers' Trade Union\") (OWTU) and the labour movement and is honoured with a statue in Fyzabad. He was awarded the [Trinity Cross](/wiki/Trinity_Cross \"Trinity Cross\"), the nation's highest honour, in 1970\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|500px\|Atlantic Highlands as seen from [Sandy Hook, New Jersey](/wiki/Sandy_Hook%2C_New_Jersey "Sandy Hook, New Jersey")](/wiki/File:Atlantic_Highlands_from_Sandy_Hook_%282%29.jpg "Atlantic Highlands from Sandy Hook (2).jpg")
The town overlooks where the Atlantic Ocean and [Raritan Bay](/wiki/Raritan_Bay "Raritan Bay") meet at [Sandy Hook](/wiki/Sandy_Hook%2C_New_Jersey "Sandy Hook, New Jersey"), and its hills mark the highest point on the eastern seaboard of the U.S.Rounds, Kate. "The Shore Next Door" *Palisade* magazine; Summer 2010; Pages 38–39 south of Maine.
For hundreds of years, the original inhabitants were the [Lenape](/wiki/Lenape "Lenape"), who lived in and along the cliffs and creeks of Atlantic Highlands. The Lenape traded with the Europeans and sold a group of English settlers an area that covered the entire peninsula that was named Portland Poynt. The area was laid out with 10 lots in 1667, making them the first European residents of present\-day Atlantic Highlands.Nash, Margo. ["ON THE MAP; In a Detective Tale Involving a Town's Birth, the Clue Was Framed"](https://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/17/nyregion/on-the-map-in-a-detective-tale-involving-a-town-s-birth-the-clue-was-framed.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, September 17, 2000\. Accessed July 17, 2011\. "On Dec. 14, 1667, the first Europeans to settle in what is today Atlantic Highlands decided to lay out 10 lots in an area they called Portland Poynt on the Navesink peninsula.... Paul Boyd, a Ph.D. candidate in cultural geography at Rutgers University who is the historian of the Atlantic Highlands Historical Society and chairman of the Atlantic Highlands Environmental Commission, worked on the problem for five years."
Colonists convened the first Assembly of New Jersey in 1667 in what is now Atlantic Highlands.[Atlantic Highlands, Highlands and Sandy Hook: A brief history](http://www.injersey.com/day/story/0,2379,394212,00.html), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press "Asbury Park Press")*, May 17, 2001, accessed April 15, 2007\. During Revolutionary War years, loyalists to the British crown and patriots of the new America clashed in repeated raids and counterattacks across these lands. Retreating English troops passed through after their defeat in 1778 by George Washington at the [Battle of Monmouth](/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth "Battle of Monmouth").
During the late 1800s, the many farms were subdivided by resort developers, church groups and builders who created the Victorian core of the borough, attracting thousands of visitors and year\-round residents.
In 1879, a surveyor was engaged to lay roads and lots for a permanent community. The Atlantic Highlands Association was formed by prominent members of the [Methodist Church](/wiki/Methodist%23Methodism_in_the_United_States "Methodist#Methodism in the United States"). This organization developed the community of Atlantic Highlands.[History](http://www.ahnj.com/ahnj/History/History%20of%20Atlantic%20Highlands/), Borough of Atlantic Highlands. Accessed August 23, 2013\.
Individuals and groups came from New York City and the surrounding vicinity to camp along the water in tent colonies. An outdoor amphitheater was created with a large seating capacity and outstanding acoustics. An indoor auditorium was built, which was utilized for entertaining visitors at the camp meetings. In 1887, Atlantic Highlands was incorporated as a borough, containing {{convert\|1\.2\|sqmi\|km2}} of land bordering on the Raritan Bay.
Major construction occurred from the 1880s through 1900\. It included hotels, cottages, rooming houses, and private homes. A pier was built extending well into the bay to accommodate steamboats from New York City. The next twenty years saw rapid development within the community. A water and sewer system was constructed, cottages were erected, and the road system was completed. During this period of development a fire department was organized.
A number of churches saw their beginning in the 1880s: the Central Baptist, First Presbyterian, Saint Agnes Roman Catholic, First Methodist, and Saint Paul Baptist Church.
Atlantic Highlands became a haven for [bootleggers](/wiki/Rum-running "Rum-running") during the [Prohibition era](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States "Prohibition in the United States").
Steamer service was the most important transport during the formation of the borough, and continued through the 1940s. In the 1890s, rail service came to Atlantic Highlands. This opened up Highlands and points south to vacationers. The 1920s saw 26 passenger trains daily passing through the borough. The [Central Railroad of New Jersey](/wiki/Central_Railroad_of_New_Jersey "Central Railroad of New Jersey") built a major pier at the end of First Avenue. Several trains at a time could continue to the end of the pier to offload [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat "Steamboat") passengers. From the 1910s through the 1940s, the steamers *Sandy Hook* and the *Monmouth* navigated the waters bringing businessmen and vacationers to Atlantic Highlands.
The Manhattan skyline can be seen from the borough's ridges and its shoreline. Pleasure, fishing and commuter boats sail from its harbor. The municipal harbor was built from 1938 through 1940 with municipal, state, and federal funds. It is the largest on the East Coast, home to 715 craft, including high\-speed ferry service to New York City, which was introduced in 1986\.Sauchelli, Dana; Fermino, Jennifer; and Sanderson, Bill. ["Seastreak captains worried over crash ferry's new propulsion system"](http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/manhattan/propeller_problems_CP9uODMyqD3H6zdwgi0eeI), *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post "New York Post")*, January 10, 2013\. Accessed August 23, 2013\. "Seastreak began ferry service between Atlantic Highlands, NJ, and Manhattan in 1986\." In 1966, the [Central Railroad of New Jersey](/wiki/Central_Railroad_of_New_Jersey "Central Railroad of New Jersey") pier was destroyed by fire. Its rail route is now used by the [Henry Hudson Trail](/wiki/Henry_Hudson_Trail "Henry Hudson Trail").[Henry Hudson Trail](http://www.monmouthcountyparks.com/page.aspx?Id=2525), [Monmouth County, New Jersey](/wiki/Monmouth_County%2C_New_Jersey "Monmouth County, New Jersey") Park System. Accessed August 23, 2013\.
The bungalows on the East Side of the borough, which in the 1920s were summer bungalows, are now occupied year\-round. Portland Pointe, a five\-story senior citizens building, provides housing for the elderly.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|500px\\|Atlantic Highlands as seen from [Sandy Hook, New Jersey](/wiki/Sandy_Hook%2C_New_Jersey \"Sandy Hook, New Jersey\")](/wiki/File:Atlantic_Highlands_from_Sandy_Hook_%282%29.jpg \"Atlantic Highlands from Sandy Hook (2).jpg\")\nThe town overlooks where the Atlantic Ocean and [Raritan Bay](/wiki/Raritan_Bay \"Raritan Bay\") meet at [Sandy Hook](/wiki/Sandy_Hook%2C_New_Jersey \"Sandy Hook, New Jersey\"), and its hills mark the highest point on the eastern seaboard of the U.S.Rounds, Kate. \"The Shore Next Door\" *Palisade* magazine; Summer 2010; Pages 38–39 south of Maine.",
"For hundreds of years, the original inhabitants were the [Lenape](/wiki/Lenape \"Lenape\"), who lived in and along the cliffs and creeks of Atlantic Highlands. The Lenape traded with the Europeans and sold a group of English settlers an area that covered the entire peninsula that was named Portland Poynt. The area was laid out with 10 lots in 1667, making them the first European residents of present\\-day Atlantic Highlands.Nash, Margo. [\"ON THE MAP; In a Detective Tale Involving a Town's Birth, the Clue Was Framed\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/17/nyregion/on-the-map-in-a-detective-tale-involving-a-town-s-birth-the-clue-was-framed.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, September 17, 2000\\. Accessed July 17, 2011\\. \"On Dec. 14, 1667, the first Europeans to settle in what is today Atlantic Highlands decided to lay out 10 lots in an area they called Portland Poynt on the Navesink peninsula.... Paul Boyd, a Ph.D. candidate in cultural geography at Rutgers University who is the historian of the Atlantic Highlands Historical Society and chairman of the Atlantic Highlands Environmental Commission, worked on the problem for five years.\"",
"Colonists convened the first Assembly of New Jersey in 1667 in what is now Atlantic Highlands.[Atlantic Highlands, Highlands and Sandy Hook: A brief history](http://www.injersey.com/day/story/0,2379,394212,00.html), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press \"Asbury Park Press\")*, May 17, 2001, accessed April 15, 2007\\. During Revolutionary War years, loyalists to the British crown and patriots of the new America clashed in repeated raids and counterattacks across these lands. Retreating English troops passed through after their defeat in 1778 by George Washington at the [Battle of Monmouth](/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth \"Battle of Monmouth\").",
"During the late 1800s, the many farms were subdivided by resort developers, church groups and builders who created the Victorian core of the borough, attracting thousands of visitors and year\\-round residents.",
"In 1879, a surveyor was engaged to lay roads and lots for a permanent community. The Atlantic Highlands Association was formed by prominent members of the [Methodist Church](/wiki/Methodist%23Methodism_in_the_United_States \"Methodist#Methodism in the United States\"). This organization developed the community of Atlantic Highlands.[History](http://www.ahnj.com/ahnj/History/History%20of%20Atlantic%20Highlands/), Borough of Atlantic Highlands. Accessed August 23, 2013\\.",
"Individuals and groups came from New York City and the surrounding vicinity to camp along the water in tent colonies. An outdoor amphitheater was created with a large seating capacity and outstanding acoustics. An indoor auditorium was built, which was utilized for entertaining visitors at the camp meetings. In 1887, Atlantic Highlands was incorporated as a borough, containing {{convert\\|1\\.2\\|sqmi\\|km2}} of land bordering on the Raritan Bay.",
"Major construction occurred from the 1880s through 1900\\. It included hotels, cottages, rooming houses, and private homes. A pier was built extending well into the bay to accommodate steamboats from New York City. The next twenty years saw rapid development within the community. A water and sewer system was constructed, cottages were erected, and the road system was completed. During this period of development a fire department was organized.",
"A number of churches saw their beginning in the 1880s: the Central Baptist, First Presbyterian, Saint Agnes Roman Catholic, First Methodist, and Saint Paul Baptist Church.",
"Atlantic Highlands became a haven for [bootleggers](/wiki/Rum-running \"Rum-running\") during the [Prohibition era](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States \"Prohibition in the United States\").",
"Steamer service was the most important transport during the formation of the borough, and continued through the 1940s. In the 1890s, rail service came to Atlantic Highlands. This opened up Highlands and points south to vacationers. The 1920s saw 26 passenger trains daily passing through the borough. The [Central Railroad of New Jersey](/wiki/Central_Railroad_of_New_Jersey \"Central Railroad of New Jersey\") built a major pier at the end of First Avenue. Several trains at a time could continue to the end of the pier to offload [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat \"Steamboat\") passengers. From the 1910s through the 1940s, the steamers *Sandy Hook* and the *Monmouth* navigated the waters bringing businessmen and vacationers to Atlantic Highlands.",
"The Manhattan skyline can be seen from the borough's ridges and its shoreline. Pleasure, fishing and commuter boats sail from its harbor. The municipal harbor was built from 1938 through 1940 with municipal, state, and federal funds. It is the largest on the East Coast, home to 715 craft, including high\\-speed ferry service to New York City, which was introduced in 1986\\.Sauchelli, Dana; Fermino, Jennifer; and Sanderson, Bill. [\"Seastreak captains worried over crash ferry's new propulsion system\"](http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/manhattan/propeller_problems_CP9uODMyqD3H6zdwgi0eeI), *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post \"New York Post\")*, January 10, 2013\\. Accessed August 23, 2013\\. \"Seastreak began ferry service between Atlantic Highlands, NJ, and Manhattan in 1986\\.\" In 1966, the [Central Railroad of New Jersey](/wiki/Central_Railroad_of_New_Jersey \"Central Railroad of New Jersey\") pier was destroyed by fire. Its rail route is now used by the [Henry Hudson Trail](/wiki/Henry_Hudson_Trail \"Henry Hudson Trail\").[Henry Hudson Trail](http://www.monmouthcountyparks.com/page.aspx?Id=2525), [Monmouth County, New Jersey](/wiki/Monmouth_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Monmouth County, New Jersey\") Park System. Accessed August 23, 2013\\.",
"The bungalows on the East Side of the borough, which in the 1920s were summer bungalows, are now occupied year\\-round. Portland Pointe, a five\\-story senior citizens building, provides housing for the elderly.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1890\= 945
\|1900\= 1383
\|1910\= 1645
\|1920\= 1629
\|1930\= 2000
\|1940\= 2335
\|1950\= 3083
\|1960\= 4119
\|1970\= 5102
\|1980\= 4950
\|1990\= 4629
\|2000\= 4705
\|2010\= 4385
\|2020\= 4414
\| estimate\=4383
\| estyear\=2023
\| estref\=\[https://www2\.census.gov/programs\-surveys/popest/tables/2020\-2023/mcds/totals/SUB\-MCD\-EST2023\-POP\-34\.xlsx Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Minor Civil Divisions in New Jersey: April 1, 2020 to July 1, 2022], \[\[United States Census Bureau]], released May 2024\. Accessed May 16, 2024\.
\|footnote\=Population sources: 1890–1920\[https://dspace.njstatelib.org/xmlui/handle/10929/25218?show\=full ''Compendium of censuses 1726–1905: together with the tabulated returns of 1905''], \[\[New Jersey Department of State]], 1906\. Accessed August 23, 2013\.
1890–1910\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=T9HrAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA337 ''Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910: Population by Counties and Minor Civil Divisions, 1910, 1900, 1890''], \[\[United States Census Bureau]], p. 337\. Accessed July 27, 2012\. 1910–1930\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=kifRAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA717 ''Fifteenth Census of the United States : 1930 – Population Volume I''], \[\[United States Census Bureau]], p. 717\. Accessed July 27, 2012\.
1940–2000\[https://www.nj.gov/labor/labormarketinformation/assets/PDFs/census/2kpub/njsdcp3\.pdf\#page\=27 Table 6: New Jersey Resident Population by Municipality: 1940 \- 2000], Workforce New Jersey Public Information Network, August 2001\. Accessed May 1, 2023\. 2000
2010\[https://archive.today/20200212101442/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\.0/en/DEC/10\_DP/DPDP1/0600000US3402502110 DP\-1 – Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 for Atlantic Highlands borough, Monmouth County, New Jersey], \[\[United States Census Bureau]]. Accessed July 27, 2012\.\[http://lwd.dol.state.nj.us/labor/lpa/census/2010/dp/dp1\_mon/atlantichighlands1\.pdf Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2010 for Atlantic Highlands borough] {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807141855/http://lwd.dol.state.nj.us/labor/lpa/census/2010/dp/dp1\_mon/atlantichighlands1\.pdf \|date\=2013\-08\-07 }}, \[\[New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development]]. Accessed July 27, 2012\. 2020\[https://www.nj.gov/labor/labormarketinformation/assets/PDFs/census/2020/2020%20pl94%20Tables/2020\_Mun/MCD%200\_All.pdf Total Population: Census 2010 \- Census 2020 New Jersey Municipalities], \[\[New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development]]. Accessed December 1, 2022\.
}}
### 2010 census
The [2010 United States census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census "2010 United States census") counted 4,385 people, 1,870 households, and 1,186 families in the borough. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was 3,401\.2 per square mile (1,313\.2/km2). There were 2,002 housing units at an average density of 1,552\.9 per square mile (599\.6/km2). The racial makeup was 93\.18% (4,086\) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._census%29 "White (U.S. census)"), 1\.44% (63\) [Black or African American](/wiki/Black_%28U.S._census%29 "Black (U.S. census)"), 0\.25% (11\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._census%29 "Native American (U.S. census)"), 2\.17% (95\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._census%29 "Asian (U.S. census)"), 0\.00% (0\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. census)"), 1\.25% (55\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census%23Race "Race and ethnicity in the United States census#Race"), and 1\.71% (75\) from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. census)") of any race were 5\.13% (225\) of the population.
Of the 1,870 households, 25\.5% had children under the age of 18; 51\.9% were married couples living together; 8\.6% had a female householder with no husband present and 36\.6% were non\-families. Of all households, 30\.4% were made up of individuals and 11\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.34 and the average family size was 2\.96\.
19\.6% of the population were under the age of 18, 5\.5% from 18 to 24, 24\.9% from 25 to 44, 34\.4% from 45 to 64, and 15\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45\.0 years. For every 100 females, the population had 95\.2 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 94\.2 males.
The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey "American Community Survey") showed that (in 2010 [inflation\-adjusted](/wiki/Inflation_adjustment "Inflation adjustment") dollars) [median household income](/wiki/Median_household_income "Median household income") was $82,127 (with a margin of error of \+/− $10,511\) and the median family income was $100,117 (\+/− $16,562\). Males had a median income of $73,021 (\+/− $18,808\) versus $51,207 (\+/− $6,155\) for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the borough was $41,785 (\+/− $4,864\). About 2\.5% of families and 5\.3% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 6\.9% of those under age 18 and 2\.0% of those age 65 or over.[DP03: Selected Economic Characteristics from the 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5\-Year Estimates for Atlantic Highlands borough, Monmouth County, New Jersey](https://archive.today/20200212082915/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/10_5YR/DP03/0600000US3402502110), [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"). Accessed July 27, 2012\.
### 2000 census
As of the [2000 United States census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census "2000 United States census") there were 4,705 people, 1,969 households, and 1,258 families residing in the borough. The population density was {{convert\|3,805\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 2,056 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,662\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the borough was 94\.37% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 2\.30% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.06% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.23% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 1\.02% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.02% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.51% of the population.[Census 2000 Profiles of Demographic / Social / Economic / Housing Characteristics for Atlantic Highlands borough, New Jersey](http://censtats.census.gov/data/NJ/1603402110.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810095235/http://censtats.census.gov/data/NJ/1603402110\.pdf \|date\=2011\-08\-10 }}, [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"). Accessed July 27, 2012\.[DP\-1: Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000 – Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1\) 100\-Percent Data for Atlantic Highlands borough, Monmouth County, New Jersey](https://archive.today/20200212095330/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/00_SF1/DP1/0600000US3402502110), [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"). Accessed July 27, 2012\.
There were 1,969 households, out of which 26\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\.7% were married couples living together, 9\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\.1% were non\-families. 29\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.39 and the average family size was 3\.00\.
In the borough the age distribution of the population shows 21\.4% under the age of 18, 6\.2% from 18 to 24, 31\.8% from 25 to 44, 26\.5% from 45 to 64, and 14\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 93\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88\.3 males.
The median income for a household in the borough was $64,955, and the median income for a family was $79,044\. Males had a median income of $60,857 versus $36,060 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the borough was $34,798\. About 4\.4% of families and 4\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 5\.0% of those under age 18 and 12\.9% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1890\\= 945\n\\|1900\\= 1383\n\\|1910\\= 1645\n\\|1920\\= 1629\n\\|1930\\= 2000\n\\|1940\\= 2335\n\\|1950\\= 3083\n\\|1960\\= 4119\n\\|1970\\= 5102\n\\|1980\\= 4950\n\\|1990\\= 4629\n\\|2000\\= 4705\n\\|2010\\= 4385\n\\|2020\\= 4414\n\\| estimate\\=4383\n\\| estyear\\=2023\n\\| estref\\=\\[https://www2\\.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/popest/tables/2020\\-2023/mcds/totals/SUB\\-MCD\\-EST2023\\-POP\\-34\\.xlsx Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Minor Civil Divisions in New Jersey: April 1, 2020 to July 1, 2022], \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]], released May 2024\\. Accessed May 16, 2024\\.\n\\|footnote\\=Population sources: 1890–1920\\[https://dspace.njstatelib.org/xmlui/handle/10929/25218?show\\=full ''Compendium of censuses 1726–1905: together with the tabulated returns of 1905''], \\[\\[New Jersey Department of State]], 1906\\. Accessed August 23, 2013\\. \n1890–1910\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=T9HrAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA337 ''Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910: Population by Counties and Minor Civil Divisions, 1910, 1900, 1890''], \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]], p. 337\\. Accessed July 27, 2012\\. 1910–1930\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kifRAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA717 ''Fifteenth Census of the United States : 1930 – Population Volume I''], \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]], p. 717\\. Accessed July 27, 2012\\. \n1940–2000\\[https://www.nj.gov/labor/labormarketinformation/assets/PDFs/census/2kpub/njsdcp3\\.pdf\\#page\\=27 Table 6: New Jersey Resident Population by Municipality: 1940 \\- 2000], Workforce New Jersey Public Information Network, August 2001\\. Accessed May 1, 2023\\. 2000 \n2010\\[https://archive.today/20200212101442/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\\.0/en/DEC/10\\_DP/DPDP1/0600000US3402502110 DP\\-1 – Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 for Atlantic Highlands borough, Monmouth County, New Jersey], \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]. Accessed July 27, 2012\\.\\[http://lwd.dol.state.nj.us/labor/lpa/census/2010/dp/dp1\\_mon/atlantichighlands1\\.pdf Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2010 for Atlantic Highlands borough] {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807141855/http://lwd.dol.state.nj.us/labor/lpa/census/2010/dp/dp1\\_mon/atlantichighlands1\\.pdf \\|date\\=2013\\-08\\-07 }}, \\[\\[New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development]]. Accessed July 27, 2012\\. 2020\\[https://www.nj.gov/labor/labormarketinformation/assets/PDFs/census/2020/2020%20pl94%20Tables/2020\\_Mun/MCD%200\\_All.pdf Total Population: Census 2010 \\- Census 2020 New Jersey Municipalities], \\[\\[New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development]]. Accessed December 1, 2022\\.\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"The [2010 United States census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census \"2010 United States census\") counted 4,385 people, 1,870 households, and 1,186 families in the borough. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 3,401\\.2 per square mile (1,313\\.2/km2). There were 2,002 housing units at an average density of 1,552\\.9 per square mile (599\\.6/km2). The racial makeup was 93\\.18% (4,086\\) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._census%29 \"White (U.S. census)\"), 1\\.44% (63\\) [Black or African American](/wiki/Black_%28U.S._census%29 \"Black (U.S. census)\"), 0\\.25% (11\\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._census%29 \"Native American (U.S. census)\"), 2\\.17% (95\\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._census%29 \"Asian (U.S. census)\"), 0\\.00% (0\\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. census)\"), 1\\.25% (55\\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census%23Race \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census#Race\"), and 1\\.71% (75\\) from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. census)\") of any race were 5\\.13% (225\\) of the population.",
"Of the 1,870 households, 25\\.5% had children under the age of 18; 51\\.9% were married couples living together; 8\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present and 36\\.6% were non\\-families. Of all households, 30\\.4% were made up of individuals and 11\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.34 and the average family size was 2\\.96\\.",
"19\\.6% of the population were under the age of 18, 5\\.5% from 18 to 24, 24\\.9% from 25 to 44, 34\\.4% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45\\.0 years. For every 100 females, the population had 95\\.2 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 94\\.2 males.",
"The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\") showed that (in 2010 [inflation\\-adjusted](/wiki/Inflation_adjustment \"Inflation adjustment\") dollars) [median household income](/wiki/Median_household_income \"Median household income\") was $82,127 (with a margin of error of \\+/− $10,511\\) and the median family income was $100,117 (\\+/− $16,562\\). Males had a median income of $73,021 (\\+/− $18,808\\) versus $51,207 (\\+/− $6,155\\) for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the borough was $41,785 (\\+/− $4,864\\). About 2\\.5% of families and 5\\.3% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 6\\.9% of those under age 18 and 2\\.0% of those age 65 or over.[DP03: Selected Economic Characteristics from the 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5\\-Year Estimates for Atlantic Highlands borough, Monmouth County, New Jersey](https://archive.today/20200212082915/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/10_5YR/DP03/0600000US3402502110), [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"). Accessed July 27, 2012\\.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [2000 United States census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census \"2000 United States census\") there were 4,705 people, 1,969 households, and 1,258 families residing in the borough. The population density was {{convert\\|3,805\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 2,056 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1,662\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the borough was 94\\.37% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.30% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.06% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.23% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.02% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.02% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.51% of the population.[Census 2000 Profiles of Demographic / Social / Economic / Housing Characteristics for Atlantic Highlands borough, New Jersey](http://censtats.census.gov/data/NJ/1603402110.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810095235/http://censtats.census.gov/data/NJ/1603402110\\.pdf \\|date\\=2011\\-08\\-10 }}, [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"). Accessed July 27, 2012\\.[DP\\-1: Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000 – Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1\\) 100\\-Percent Data for Atlantic Highlands borough, Monmouth County, New Jersey](https://archive.today/20200212095330/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/00_SF1/DP1/0600000US3402502110), [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"). Accessed July 27, 2012\\.",
"There were 1,969 households, out of which 26\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\\.7% were married couples living together, 9\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\\.1% were non\\-families. 29\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.39 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.",
"In the borough the age distribution of the population shows 21\\.4% under the age of 18, 6\\.2% from 18 to 24, 31\\.8% from 25 to 44, 26\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 14\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 93\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88\\.3 males.",
"The median income for a household in the borough was $64,955, and the median income for a family was $79,044\\. Males had a median income of $60,857 versus $36,060 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the borough was $34,798\\. About 4\\.4% of families and 4\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 5\\.0% of those under age 18 and 12\\.9% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Storyline
---------
Dr. Stollberg realizes a dream. He establishes a private school in an old castle and names his school “the Albert\-Einstein\-Gymnasium, Internat Schloss Seelitz.” The school bears the name of the founder of the [theory of relativity](/wiki/Theory_of_relativity "Theory of relativity") because it teaches [natural science](/wiki/Natural_science "Natural science"). Its students shorten the long name, and it is thereafter known as “Schloss Einstein.”
Dr. Stollberg wants to provide an education for his students by using his best strength — personal tutoring. Violence is forbidden in the school. Problems that arise must be solved peacefully and, if possible, by the children themselves. Newcomers are given an older student who acts as a “godparent.” Of course, this does not always go smoothly, but the teachers and students must master their everyday life under a common roof.
At the center of the show are the personal responsibilities of teenagers from class 6 to class 8\. Because there are no parents present, the children must make decisions for themselves and be prepared for the consequences. A few adults appear as advisers or counselors.
The students experience problems such as grades, [cliques](/wiki/Clique "Clique"), envy, friendships, puberty, first love, career hopes, alcoholism, and the divorce or unemployment of their parents.
In many episodes, the students have adventures and learn how to manage conflicts. They also have fun with all kinds of jokes and pranks. There is tension between the Schloss Einstein students and the students who attend public schools. They do not like each other but have to get along. Compromise and tolerance are important in these relationships.
In the later episodes, which are set in the city of Erfurt, no public school students are present. However, students who attend other private schools are present from time to time.
|
[
"Storyline\n---------",
"Dr. Stollberg realizes a dream. He establishes a private school in an old castle and names his school “the Albert\\-Einstein\\-Gymnasium, Internat Schloss Seelitz.” The school bears the name of the founder of the [theory of relativity](/wiki/Theory_of_relativity \"Theory of relativity\") because it teaches [natural science](/wiki/Natural_science \"Natural science\"). Its students shorten the long name, and it is thereafter known as “Schloss Einstein.”",
"Dr. Stollberg wants to provide an education for his students by using his best strength — personal tutoring. Violence is forbidden in the school. Problems that arise must be solved peacefully and, if possible, by the children themselves. Newcomers are given an older student who acts as a “godparent.” Of course, this does not always go smoothly, but the teachers and students must master their everyday life under a common roof.",
"At the center of the show are the personal responsibilities of teenagers from class 6 to class 8\\. Because there are no parents present, the children must make decisions for themselves and be prepared for the consequences. A few adults appear as advisers or counselors.",
"The students experience problems such as grades, [cliques](/wiki/Clique \"Clique\"), envy, friendships, puberty, first love, career hopes, alcoholism, and the divorce or unemployment of their parents.",
"In many episodes, the students have adventures and learn how to manage conflicts. They also have fun with all kinds of jokes and pranks. There is tension between the Schloss Einstein students and the students who attend public schools. They do not like each other but have to get along. Compromise and tolerance are important in these relationships.",
"In the later episodes, which are set in the city of Erfurt, no public school students are present. However, students who attend other private schools are present from time to time.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Vassiljeva was born in [Novosibirsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk "Novosibirsk"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia") and played cello since she was six years old. From 1989 to 1995 she attended Central Music School under a direction of Maria Zhuravleva, prior to which she used to go to the [Special Music School](/wiki/Special_Music_School "Special Music School") which are both in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow").{{cite web\|url\= http://www.tatjanavassiljeva.com/biography/\|title\=Tatjana Vassiljeva\|publisher\=Official site\|accessdate\=October 30, 2013}}
### Early career
She had performances throughout [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") and her native [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"). She first appeared in a 1992 *Tchaikovsky Youth Competition* in Moscow, and two years later participated at the *ARD Munich Competition* in [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") for which she won a prize. In 1999 she appeared at the International Adam Cello Competition in [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") and next year participated in the *[Pablo Casals](/wiki/Pablo_Casals "Pablo Casals") Competition* in [Kronberg](/wiki/Kronberg "Kronberg"). In 2001 she received Grand Prix and Audience awards from the International Izuminomori Competition which was held in [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka "Osaka"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") and the same year became the first Russian to be awarded *Grand Prix de la Ville de Paris*. In 2005 she received [Victoires de la musique classique](/wiki/Victoires_de_la_musique_classique "Victoires de la musique classique") award and prior to it, in 2004, was named a *Revelation from Abroad*.
Throughout the years she appeared with such orchestras as the [National Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/National_Philharmonic_Orchestra "National Philharmonic Orchestra") of Russia, [Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra](/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre_Orchestra "Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra") of [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"), [London](/wiki/London_Symphony_Orchestra "London Symphony Orchestra") and [Vienna Radio Symphony Orchestras](/wiki/Vienna_Radio_Symphony_Orchestra "Vienna Radio Symphony Orchestra"), and various Philharmonics, including the [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Philharmonic "Saint Petersburg Philharmonic"), Lithuanian and both [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra") and [New Japan Philharmonic](/wiki/New_Japan_Philharmonic "New Japan Philharmonic") Orchestras. She also played under directions from such notable Russian conductors as [Valery Gergiev](/wiki/Valery_Gergiev "Valery Gergiev"), [Vassily Sinaisky](/wiki/Vassily_Sinaisky "Vassily Sinaisky"), [Vladimir Spivakov](/wiki/Vladimir_Spivakov "Vladimir Spivakov"), [Yuri Bashmet](/wiki/Yuri_Bashmet "Yuri Bashmet"), [Yuri Temirkanov](/wiki/Yuri_Temirkanov "Yuri Temirkanov"), [Mstislav Rostropovitch](/wiki/Mstislav_Rostropovitch "Mstislav Rostropovitch"), [Dmitri Kitayenko](/wiki/Dmitri_Kitayenko "Dmitri Kitayenko"), and American conductor [David Zinman](/wiki/David_Zinman "David Zinman"), among others.
### 2005 \- 2008
In 2005 along with [Paul Badura\-Skoda](/wiki/Paul_Badura-Skoda "Paul Badura-Skoda") she did various [cello](/wiki/Cello "Cello") and [piano](/wiki/Piano "Piano") works, and next year played [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven")'s [Triple Concerto](/wiki/Triple_Concerto_%28Beethoven%29 "Triple Concerto (Beethoven)") in [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") with Italian music director [Claudio Abbado](/wiki/Claudio_Abbado "Claudio Abbado"). During the same year she had tours and concerts throughout the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), Germany, and [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") and played [Dmitri Shostakovich](/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich "Dmitri Shostakovich") at the [Salle Pleyel](/wiki/Salle_Pleyel "Salle Pleyel") of [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and some Rostropovich's compositions with the [Orchestre de Paris](/wiki/Orchestre_de_Paris "Orchestre de Paris") and [Philharmonie Luxembourg](/wiki/Philharmonie_Luxembourg "Philharmonie Luxembourg"). In 2007 she appeared in the [Berlin Philharmonic](/wiki/Berlin_Philharmonic "Berlin Philharmonic") and in 2008 she gave [concerto grosso](/wiki/Concerto_grosso "Concerto grosso") with [Krzysztof Penderecki](/wiki/Krzysztof_Penderecki "Krzysztof Penderecki") with whom she had many concerts in the past. Later on, she collaborated with him again in 2009, this time in Spain.
### 2008 \- 2009
During the same year, under a direction of Yuri Temirkanov she gave concerts in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo") and Saint Petersburg with the Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra. During the [Edinburgh Festival](/wiki/Edinburgh_Festival "Edinburgh Festival") she performed [Sergei Prokofiev](/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev "Sergei Prokofiev")'s [sinfonia concertante](/wiki/Sinfonia_concertante "Sinfonia concertante") along with LSO and under a direction of Maestro Gergiev. Later on, she was invited by him to perform a memoriam concert of Mstislav Rostropovich with the [Mariinsky Theatre](/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre "Mariinsky Theatre") Symphony Orchestra. She finished the year with [Henri Dutilleux](/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux "Henri Dutilleux")'s concert which she did along with the Japanese Philharmonic Orchestra of Osaka and in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") with its Radio Symphony Orchestra which at the time was conducted by [Bertrand de Billy](/wiki/Bertrand_de_Billy "Bertrand de Billy").
### 2009 \- 2011
In 2009 Vassiljeva appeared at the [Prague Spring Festival](/wiki/Prague_Spring_Festival "Prague Spring Festival") with [Jiri Kout](/wiki/Jiri_Kout "Jiri Kout") and the same year participated along with [Saburo Teshigawara](/wiki/Saburo_Teshigawara "Saburo Teshigawara") at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall "Cadogan Hall") in [London](/wiki/London "London") and with [Yoel Levi](/wiki/Yoel_Levi "Yoel Levi") in La Grange de Meslay. From 2010 to 2011 she participated with the [Orchestre National de France](/wiki/Orchestre_National_de_France "Orchestre National de France") in [Théâtre des Champs\-Élysées](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es "Théâtre des Champs-Élysées"), conductor of whom was [Daniele Gatti](/wiki/Daniele_Gatti "Daniele Gatti"). Later on, she played along with Hugh Wolf and Philharmonic Orchestra of New Japan in Tokyo and then played cello for both [Munich](/wiki/Munich_Philharmonic "Munich Philharmonic") and [Gasteig Philharmonics](/wiki/Gasteig "Gasteig") under command of [Tugan Sokhiev](/wiki/Tugan_Sokhiev "Tugan Sokhiev"). She also took part in the [Victoria Hall](/wiki/Victoria_Hall_%28Geneva%29 "Victoria Hall (Geneva)") in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva") and played for both the [Moscow Conservatory](/wiki/Moscow_Conservatory "Moscow Conservatory") Grand Hall and the Grand Hall of the Musikverein in Vienna, Austria. During the same years she also had a tour with [Tchaikovsky Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Tchaikovsky_Symphony_Orchestra "Tchaikovsky Symphony Orchestra") and [Vladimir Fedoseev](/wiki/Vladimir_Fedoseev "Vladimir Fedoseev") which was performed in [Tonhalle](/wiki/Tonhalle_%28Z%C3%BCrich%29 "Tonhalle (Zürich)"), [Zürich](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich "Zürich").
### Present
Tatjana also participated in various chamber music festivals including the [Lockenhaus](/wiki/Lockenhaus_Chamber_Music_Festival "Lockenhaus Chamber Music Festival") and [Verbier Festivals](/wiki/Verbier_Festival "Verbier Festival"), among others. She recorded numerous albums with [Naxos Records](/wiki/Naxos_Records "Naxos Records") which featured her works of [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"), [Benjamin Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten "Benjamin Britten"), [Henri Dutilleux](/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux "Henri Dutilleux"), and [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy "Claude Debussy"), along with [Mirare](/wiki/Mirare "Mirare")'s sonatas of [Frédéric Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin "Frédéric Chopin") and [Charles\-Valentin Alkan](/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan "Charles-Valentin Alkan") for which she got a recommendation from [Classica](/wiki/Classica_%28magazine%29 "Classica (magazine)"). Recently she released Krzysztof Penderecki's *Concerto No. 2* under a Naxos label, which was performed by her along with Polish conductor [Antoni Wit](/wiki/Antoni_Wit "Antoni Wit") and his [Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Warsaw_National_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Vassiljeva was born in [Novosibirsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk \"Novosibirsk\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") and played cello since she was six years old. From 1989 to 1995 she attended Central Music School under a direction of Maria Zhuravleva, prior to which she used to go to the [Special Music School](/wiki/Special_Music_School \"Special Music School\") which are both in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\").{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.tatjanavassiljeva.com/biography/\\|title\\=Tatjana Vassiljeva\\|publisher\\=Official site\\|accessdate\\=October 30, 2013}}",
"### Early career",
"She had performances throughout [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and her native [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"). She first appeared in a 1992 *Tchaikovsky Youth Competition* in Moscow, and two years later participated at the *ARD Munich Competition* in [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") for which she won a prize. In 1999 she appeared at the International Adam Cello Competition in [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") and next year participated in the *[Pablo Casals](/wiki/Pablo_Casals \"Pablo Casals\") Competition* in [Kronberg](/wiki/Kronberg \"Kronberg\"). In 2001 she received Grand Prix and Audience awards from the International Izuminomori Competition which was held in [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka \"Osaka\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") and the same year became the first Russian to be awarded *Grand Prix de la Ville de Paris*. In 2005 she received [Victoires de la musique classique](/wiki/Victoires_de_la_musique_classique \"Victoires de la musique classique\") award and prior to it, in 2004, was named a *Revelation from Abroad*.",
"Throughout the years she appeared with such orchestras as the [National Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/National_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"National Philharmonic Orchestra\") of Russia, [Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra](/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre_Orchestra \"Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra\") of [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"), [London](/wiki/London_Symphony_Orchestra \"London Symphony Orchestra\") and [Vienna Radio Symphony Orchestras](/wiki/Vienna_Radio_Symphony_Orchestra \"Vienna Radio Symphony Orchestra\"), and various Philharmonics, including the [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Philharmonic \"Saint Petersburg Philharmonic\"), Lithuanian and both [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra\") and [New Japan Philharmonic](/wiki/New_Japan_Philharmonic \"New Japan Philharmonic\") Orchestras. She also played under directions from such notable Russian conductors as [Valery Gergiev](/wiki/Valery_Gergiev \"Valery Gergiev\"), [Vassily Sinaisky](/wiki/Vassily_Sinaisky \"Vassily Sinaisky\"), [Vladimir Spivakov](/wiki/Vladimir_Spivakov \"Vladimir Spivakov\"), [Yuri Bashmet](/wiki/Yuri_Bashmet \"Yuri Bashmet\"), [Yuri Temirkanov](/wiki/Yuri_Temirkanov \"Yuri Temirkanov\"), [Mstislav Rostropovitch](/wiki/Mstislav_Rostropovitch \"Mstislav Rostropovitch\"), [Dmitri Kitayenko](/wiki/Dmitri_Kitayenko \"Dmitri Kitayenko\"), and American conductor [David Zinman](/wiki/David_Zinman \"David Zinman\"), among others.",
"### 2005 \\- 2008",
"In 2005 along with [Paul Badura\\-Skoda](/wiki/Paul_Badura-Skoda \"Paul Badura-Skoda\") she did various [cello](/wiki/Cello \"Cello\") and [piano](/wiki/Piano \"Piano\") works, and next year played [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\")'s [Triple Concerto](/wiki/Triple_Concerto_%28Beethoven%29 \"Triple Concerto (Beethoven)\") in [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\") with Italian music director [Claudio Abbado](/wiki/Claudio_Abbado \"Claudio Abbado\"). During the same year she had tours and concerts throughout the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), Germany, and [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") and played [Dmitri Shostakovich](/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich \"Dmitri Shostakovich\") at the [Salle Pleyel](/wiki/Salle_Pleyel \"Salle Pleyel\") of [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and some Rostropovich's compositions with the [Orchestre de Paris](/wiki/Orchestre_de_Paris \"Orchestre de Paris\") and [Philharmonie Luxembourg](/wiki/Philharmonie_Luxembourg \"Philharmonie Luxembourg\"). In 2007 she appeared in the [Berlin Philharmonic](/wiki/Berlin_Philharmonic \"Berlin Philharmonic\") and in 2008 she gave [concerto grosso](/wiki/Concerto_grosso \"Concerto grosso\") with [Krzysztof Penderecki](/wiki/Krzysztof_Penderecki \"Krzysztof Penderecki\") with whom she had many concerts in the past. Later on, she collaborated with him again in 2009, this time in Spain.",
"### 2008 \\- 2009",
"During the same year, under a direction of Yuri Temirkanov she gave concerts in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") and Saint Petersburg with the Saint Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra. During the [Edinburgh Festival](/wiki/Edinburgh_Festival \"Edinburgh Festival\") she performed [Sergei Prokofiev](/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev \"Sergei Prokofiev\")'s [sinfonia concertante](/wiki/Sinfonia_concertante \"Sinfonia concertante\") along with LSO and under a direction of Maestro Gergiev. Later on, she was invited by him to perform a memoriam concert of Mstislav Rostropovich with the [Mariinsky Theatre](/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre \"Mariinsky Theatre\") Symphony Orchestra. She finished the year with [Henri Dutilleux](/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux \"Henri Dutilleux\")'s concert which she did along with the Japanese Philharmonic Orchestra of Osaka and in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") with its Radio Symphony Orchestra which at the time was conducted by [Bertrand de Billy](/wiki/Bertrand_de_Billy \"Bertrand de Billy\").",
"### 2009 \\- 2011",
"In 2009 Vassiljeva appeared at the [Prague Spring Festival](/wiki/Prague_Spring_Festival \"Prague Spring Festival\") with [Jiri Kout](/wiki/Jiri_Kout \"Jiri Kout\") and the same year participated along with [Saburo Teshigawara](/wiki/Saburo_Teshigawara \"Saburo Teshigawara\") at [Cadogan Hall](/wiki/Cadogan_Hall \"Cadogan Hall\") in [London](/wiki/London \"London\") and with [Yoel Levi](/wiki/Yoel_Levi \"Yoel Levi\") in La Grange de Meslay. From 2010 to 2011 she participated with the [Orchestre National de France](/wiki/Orchestre_National_de_France \"Orchestre National de France\") in [Théâtre des Champs\\-Élysées](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es \"Théâtre des Champs-Élysées\"), conductor of whom was [Daniele Gatti](/wiki/Daniele_Gatti \"Daniele Gatti\"). Later on, she played along with Hugh Wolf and Philharmonic Orchestra of New Japan in Tokyo and then played cello for both [Munich](/wiki/Munich_Philharmonic \"Munich Philharmonic\") and [Gasteig Philharmonics](/wiki/Gasteig \"Gasteig\") under command of [Tugan Sokhiev](/wiki/Tugan_Sokhiev \"Tugan Sokhiev\"). She also took part in the [Victoria Hall](/wiki/Victoria_Hall_%28Geneva%29 \"Victoria Hall (Geneva)\") in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\") and played for both the [Moscow Conservatory](/wiki/Moscow_Conservatory \"Moscow Conservatory\") Grand Hall and the Grand Hall of the Musikverein in Vienna, Austria. During the same years she also had a tour with [Tchaikovsky Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Tchaikovsky_Symphony_Orchestra \"Tchaikovsky Symphony Orchestra\") and [Vladimir Fedoseev](/wiki/Vladimir_Fedoseev \"Vladimir Fedoseev\") which was performed in [Tonhalle](/wiki/Tonhalle_%28Z%C3%BCrich%29 \"Tonhalle (Zürich)\"), [Zürich](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich \"Zürich\").",
"### Present",
"Tatjana also participated in various chamber music festivals including the [Lockenhaus](/wiki/Lockenhaus_Chamber_Music_Festival \"Lockenhaus Chamber Music Festival\") and [Verbier Festivals](/wiki/Verbier_Festival \"Verbier Festival\"), among others. She recorded numerous albums with [Naxos Records](/wiki/Naxos_Records \"Naxos Records\") which featured her works of [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"), [Benjamin Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\"), [Henri Dutilleux](/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux \"Henri Dutilleux\"), and [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\"), along with [Mirare](/wiki/Mirare \"Mirare\")'s sonatas of [Frédéric Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin \"Frédéric Chopin\") and [Charles\\-Valentin Alkan](/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan \"Charles-Valentin Alkan\") for which she got a recommendation from [Classica](/wiki/Classica_%28magazine%29 \"Classica (magazine)\"). Recently she released Krzysztof Penderecki's *Concerto No. 2* under a Naxos label, which was performed by her along with Polish conductor [Antoni Wit](/wiki/Antoni_Wit \"Antoni Wit\") and his [Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Warsaw_National_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra\").",
""
] |
Career
------
When Hui returned to Hong Kong after her stay in London, she became an assistant to prominent Chinese film director [King Hu](/wiki/King_Hu "King Hu"). She then began working for [Television Broadcasts Limited](/wiki/Television_Broadcasts_Limited "Television Broadcasts Limited") (TVB) as a scriptwriter\-director and produced documentaries such as *Wonderful*, four episodes of *CID*, two of *Social Worker*, and one of the *Dragon, Tiger, Panther* series. In March 1977 she directed six dramas for the [Independent Commission Against Corruption](/wiki/Independent_Commission_Against_Corruption_%28Hong_Kong%29 "Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)"),{{cite book \|last\=Cheuk \|first\=Pak Tong \|title\=Hong Kong New Wave Cinema (1978–2000\) \|date\=2008 \|publisher\=Intellect Ltd. \|isbn\=978\-1841501482}} a Hong Kong organization created to clean up government misconduct. Two of these films were so controversial that they were banned. A year later, Hui directed three episodes of *[Below the Lion Rock](/wiki/Below_the_Lion_Rock "Below the Lion Rock")*, a documentary series about people from Hong Kong, produced by public broadcasting station, [Radio Television Hong Kong](/wiki/Radio_Television_Hong_Kong "Radio Television Hong Kong"). The most recognized episode of Hui's is *Boy from Vietnam* (1978\), which is the start of her Vietnam Trilogy.{{cite news\| url\=https://movies.nytimes.com/person/95126/Ann\-Hui \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123203339/http://movies.nytimes.com/person/95126/Ann\-Hui \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=23 January 2008 \| department\=Movies \& TV Dept. \| work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \| date\=23 January 2008 \| title\=Ann Hui}}
In 1979, Hui finally directed her first feature\-length film, *The Secret*, which presents images from the gloomy and dreary old [Western District](/wiki/Sai_Wan "Sai Wan"), with its worn\-out mansions, shadowy alleys, fallen leaves and religious rituals, such as the ceremonial rite of releasing the soul from purgatory by burning paper money and cutting off the head of a chicken. *The Secret* earned Hui a Golden Horse Award for Best Feature Film.{{cite web \|url\=https://amp.scmp.com/culture/film\-tv/article/2094988/pictures\-ann\-hui\-officially\-most\-celebrated\-director\-hong\-kong\-film \|title\=Ann Hui, most celebrated director in Hong Kong film history, turns 70 \|website\=\[\[South China Morning Post]] \|first\=Edmund \|last\=Lee \|date\=21 May 2017 \|access\-date\=17 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=8 October 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008184054/https://amp.scmp.com/culture/film\-tv/article/2094988/pictures\-ann\-hui\-officially\-most\-celebrated\-director\-hong\-kong\-film \|url\-status\=live }}
In the 1980s, Hui's career was growing internationally. The most popular films of that time were Eastern variations of Hollywood gangster and action films. But Hui did not follow the trend, and instead created more personal films. Many of her best films dealt with cultural displacement. In particular, her central characters are often forced to relocate to another country where they struggle to learn and survive. Hui explores the characters' reactions to new environments and their responses to their return home. During this "New Wave" period, most of her films are sharp and tough, with satirical and political metaphors, reflecting her concern for people; for women; for orphans devastated by war; and for Vietnamese refugees.{{Cite web \|url\=http://gb.oversea.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?recid\=\&FileName\=YSJY201512139\&DbName\=CJFDLAST2015\&DbCode\=CJFD\&uid\=WEEvREcwSlJHSldRa1FhdkJkVWEySnZzNllvOHRJTGxjRFBYMXFkTHhZUT0\=$9A4hF\_YAuvQ5obgVAqNKPCYcEjKensW4IQMovwHtwkF4VYPoHbKxJw!! \|script\-title\=zh:许鞍华电影中的人文情怀解读 \- 中国期刊全文数据库\|website\=gb.oversea.cnki.net\|access\-date\=14 November 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113032600/http://gb.oversea.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?recid\=\&FileName\=YSJY201512139\&DbName\=CJFDLAST2015\&DbCode\=CJFD\&uid\=WEEvREcwSlJHSldRa1FhdkJkVWEySnZzNllvOHRJTGxjRFBYMXFkTHhZUT0\=$9A4hF\_YAuvQ5obgVAqNKPCYcEjKensW4IQMovwHtwkF4VYPoHbKxJw!! \|archive\-date\=13 November 2018}} Her best known works in this category are *[The Story of Woo Viet](/wiki/The_Story_of_Woo_Viet "The Story of Woo Viet")* (1981\) and *[Boat People](/wiki/Boat_People_%28film%29 "Boat People (film)")* (1982\) – the remaining two parts of her Vietnam Trilogy. *Boat People* won the [Hong Kong Film Awards](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Award "Hong Kong Film Award") for Best Film and Best Director. Although Hui has directed some generic films, another common theme she works with is family conflict, such as in the 1990 film *My American Grandson*.
Hui's concern for regular people, and especially women, became the most common theme in her films. She creates stories of the experiences of women. One of her most personal works is *[Song of the Exile](/wiki/Song_of_the_Exile "Song of the Exile")* (1990\), a semi\-autobiographical film about family connections and identity. It depicts the story of a young woman, Cheung Hueyin, returning to Hong Kong for her sister's wedding after studying film in London for several years. Hueyin and her mother, who is Japanese, do not seem to have a steady relationship. As the film follows Hueyin's journey to her mother's home town in Japan, Hueyin and her mother are forced to re\-examine their relationship, as both have been uprooted from their own countries. "Its narratives of migration also spoke to the displacement of the Hong Kong people as they left the colony in panic to escape the impending Chinese rule." The film won both the Hong Kong Film Awards and Golden Horse Award for Best Director. She served as the president of the [Hong Kong Film Directors' Guild](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Directors%27_Guild "Hong Kong Film Directors' Guild") in 2004\.
In the 1990s, Hui worked on more commercial films. She directed fewer films herself, as she focused on behind\-the\-scenes work for other filmmakers. The theme of displacement still recurs in her work. During the mid\-1990s, Hui started a film project about the [Tiananmen Square massacre](/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre "1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre") and the reactions of Hong Kong citizens, but the project was not completed due to lack of funding. Throughout her career, Hui has taken chances to develop more intense and ambitious films while making a name for herself.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.filmdirectorssite.com/ann\-hui \|title\=Ann Hui Films \| Ann Hui Filmography \| Ann Hui Biography \| Ann Hui Career \| Ann Hui Awards \| Film Director \| Movie Director \| Film Directors \| Movie Directors \| Filmmaker \|publisher\=FilmDirectorsSite.com \|date\=23 May 1947 \|access\-date\=10 December 2012 \|archive\-date\=13 November 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113102244/http://www.filmdirectorssite.com/ann\-hui \|url\-status\=live }}
Hui said in an interview that she wants to do more socially conscious projects. She knows the difficulties of finding projects that would do that and "attract investors as well as appeal to the public." Her goal was to "present something that is watchable and at the same time attractive" and allow the public to analyse the social issues involved. Hui is known for making controversial films; the interview, in particular, described the horrors of increased crime and unemployment rates in [Tin Shui Wai](/wiki/Tin_Shui_Wai "Tin Shui Wai"), Hong Kong. Two of her films that focus on these issues are *[The Way We Are](/wiki/The_Way_We_Are_%28film%29 "The Way We Are (film)")* (2008\) and *[Night and Fog](/wiki/Night_and_Fog_%282009_film%29 "Night and Fog (2009 film)")* (2009\), while maintaining a motif of displacement.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=49wna1xJCT0 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/49wna1xJCT0 \|archive\-date\=22 December 2021 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Director Ann Hui (許鞍華) completes Tin Shui Wai diptych \|publisher\=YouTube \|date\=22 April 2009 \|access\-date\=10 December 2012}}{{cbignore}}
The 45th annual Hong Kong International Film Festival was held in April 2021\. Hui is one of the six veteran Hong Kong filmmakers who directed [Johnnie To Kei\-Fung](/wiki/Johnnie_To "Johnnie To")'s highly anticipated anthology film: *Septet: The Story of Hong Kong* (2020\). The other filmmakers were [Sammo Hung](/wiki/Sammo_Hung "Sammo Hung"), [Ringo Lam](/wiki/Ringo_Lam "Ringo Lam"), [Patrick Tam Kar\-Ming](/wiki/Patrick_Tam_Kar-Ming "Patrick Tam Kar-Ming"), [Tsui Hark](/wiki/Tsui_Hark "Tsui Hark"), [Yuen Woo\-ping](/wiki/Yuen_Woo-ping "Yuen Woo-ping") and Johnnie To. The short films were shot entirely on 35 mm film; each touches on a nostalgic and moving story set across time periods, with each an ode to the city.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.igafencu.com/r/hong\-kong\-international\-film\-festival\-2021/\|title\=Must\-watch Chinese film premieres at the 2021 Hong Kong International Film Festival\|publisher\=Gafencu\|access\-date\=7 April 2021\|archive\-date\=25 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425152655/https://www.igafencu.com/r/hong\-kong\-international\-film\-festival\-2021/\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Vietnam Trilogy
"Collectively, the three have been named the 'Trilogy of Vietnam', as they all focus on problems involving Vietnam. They are about the tragic destinies of displaced individuals seeking a place to which they can belong and who are struggling in a period of changes, leading in the end to failure."
*Boy from Vietnam* (1978\) is the first film of Hui's Vietnam Trilogy. It chronicles a teenager's illegal entry to Hong Kong and adjustment to life in the city. "As the boy locates his brother, who is already in Hong Kong, moves from a safe house and takes up work, Hui and writers Shu Kei and Wong Chi carefully shed light on the hardships immigrants face in Hong Kong. The new home, it turns out, is no promised land for refugees but more a transit point on a journey elsewhere, and a place where injustice and prejudice are common."Youngs, Tim (n.d.). ["Below the Lion Rock: The Boy from Vietnam"](https://www.fareastfilm.com/eng/archive/2009/below-the-lion-rock-the-boy-from-vietnam/?IDLYT=15535) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202170704/https://www.fareastfilm.com/eng/archive/2009/below\-the\-lion\-rock\-the\-boy\-from\-vietnam/?IDLYT\=15535 \|date\=2 December 2021 }}. [Far East Film Festival](/wiki/Far_East_Film_Festival "Far East Film Festival"). Retrieved 2 December 2021\. This film is historical: in the late 1970s, a large number of [Vietnamese boat people](/wiki/Vietnamese_boat_people "Vietnamese boat people") illegally immigrated to Hong Kong. This film describes the experience of those who risked their lives in Hong Kong, and shows the setbacks, discrimination and exploitation they experienced when they were only teens.
In 1981, *The Story of Woo Viet* continued to describe the problem of Vietnamese boat people. Woo Viet, an overseas Chinese of Vietnam, smuggles himself into Hong Kong after trying many times. He gets a pen pal from Hong Kong to help him start over in the United States. However, he is stuck in the Philippines as a hired killer for saving his love. This film describes the hardship of smuggling, the memories of war, the sinister nature of refugee camps, and the crisis in Chinatown.
In 1982, the People's Republic of China, having just ended a war with Vietnam, permitted Hui to film on [Hainan Island](/wiki/Hainan_Island "Hainan Island"). *[Boat People](/wiki/Boat_People_%28film%29 "Boat People (film)")* (1982\) set in 1978, after the Communist Party lead Vietnam, through the point of view of a Japanese photojournalist, Shiomi Akutagawa, showed the condition of society and political chaos after the Vietnam War. *Boat People* was the first Hong Kong movie filmed in Communist China. Hui saved a role for [Chow Yun\-fat](/wiki/Chow_Yun-fat "Chow Yun-fat"), but because at that time Hong Kong actors working in mainland China were banned in Taiwan, Chow Yun\-fat declined the role out of fear for being [blacklisted](/wiki/Blacklist "Blacklist"). Six months before filming was set to start, and after the film crew was already on location in Hainan, a cameraman suggested that Hui give the role to [Andy Lau](/wiki/Andy_Lau "Andy Lau"). At that time, Lau was still a newcomer in the Hong Kong film industry. Hui gave Lau the role and flew him to Hainan before a proper audition or even seeing what he looked like.
### Transition from television to film
Hui left television in 1979, making her first feature, *The Secret*, a mystery thriller based on real life murder case and starring Taiwanese star [Sylvia Chang](/wiki/Sylvia_Chang "Sylvia Chang"). It was immediately hailed as an important film in the Hong Kong New Wave. *[The Spooky Bunch](/wiki/The_Spooky_Bunch "The Spooky Bunch")* (1981\) was her take on the [ghost story](/wiki/Ghost_story "Ghost story") genre, while *[The Story of Woo Viet](/wiki/The_Story_of_Woo_Viet "The Story of Woo Viet")* (1981\) continued her Vietnam Trilogy. Hui experimented with special effects and daring angles; her preoccupation with sensitive political and social issues is a recurrent feature in most of her subsequent films. *[Boat People](/wiki/Boat_People_%28film%29 "Boat People (film)")* (1982\), the third part of her Vietnam Trilogy, is the most famous of her early films. It examines the plight of the Vietnamese after the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/99/0305/feat1\.html\|title\=Hong Kong director Ann Hui hits the festival circuit with her Ordinary Heroes\|first\=Stuart \|last\=Whitmore\|date\=30 November 2000\|publisher\=CNN\|newspaper\=\[\[Asiaweek]]\|access\-date\=18 April 2010\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100529160947/http://www.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/99/0305/feat1\.html\| archive\-date\= 29 May 2010 \| url\-status\= live}}
In the mid\-1980s Hui continued her string of critically acclaimed works. *[Love in a Fallen City](/wiki/Love_in_a_Fallen_City_%28film%29 "Love in a Fallen City (film)")* (1984\) was based on a novella by [Eileen Chang](/wiki/Eileen_Chang "Eileen Chang"), and the two\-part, ambitious *[wuxia](/wiki/Wuxia "Wuxia")* adaptation of [Louis Cha](/wiki/Louis_Cha "Louis Cha")'s first novel, *[The Book and the Sword](/wiki/The_Book_and_the_Sword "The Book and the Sword")*, was divided into *[The Romance of Book and Sword](/wiki/The_Romance_of_Book_and_Sword "The Romance of Book and Sword")* (1987\) and *[Princess Fragrance](/wiki/Princess_Fragrance_%28film%29 "Princess Fragrance (film)")* (1987\). In 1990, one of her most important works to date, the semi\-autobiographical *The Song of Exile*, was released. The film looks into the loss of identity, disorientation and despair faced by an exiled mother and a daughter faced with clashes in culture and historicity. As in the film, Hui's mother was Japanese.
### Post\-hiatus work
After a brief hiatus in which she returned briefly to television, Hui returned with *[Summer Snow](/wiki/Summer_Snow_%28film%29 "Summer Snow (film)")* (1995\), about a middle\-aged woman trying to cope with everyday family problems and an [Alzheimer](/wiki/Alzheimer_disease "Alzheimer disease")\-inflicted father\-in\-law. In 1996, she was a member of the jury at the [46th Berlin International Film Festival](/wiki/46th_Berlin_International_Film_Festival "46th Berlin International Film Festival").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1996/04\_jury\_1996/04\_Jury\_1996\.html \|title\=Berlinale: 1996 Juries \|access\-date\=1 January 2012 \|work\=berlinale.de \|archive\-date\=16 May 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516024508/http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1996/04\_jury\_1996/04\_Jury\_1996\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
*[Eighteen Springs](/wiki/Eighteen_Springs_%28film%29 "Eighteen Springs (film)")* (1997\) reprises another Eileen Chang novel. Hui's *[Ordinary Heroes](/wiki/Ordinary_Heroes_%281999_film%29 "Ordinary Heroes (1999 film)")* (1999\), about Chinese and Hong Kong political activists from 1970s to the 1990s, won the Best Feature at the [Golden Horse Awards](/wiki/Golden_Horse_Awards "Golden Horse Awards").
In 2002, her *[July Rhapsody](/wiki/July_Rhapsody "July Rhapsody")*, the companion film to *Summer Snow* about a middle\-aged male teacher facing a [mid\-life crisis](/wiki/Mid-life_crisis "Mid-life crisis"), was released to good reviews in Hong Kong and elsewhere. Her film, *[Jade Goddess of Mercy](/wiki/Jade_Goddess_of_Mercy "Jade Goddess of Mercy")* (2003\), starring [Zhao Wei](/wiki/Zhao_Wei "Zhao Wei") and [Nicholas Tse](/wiki/Nicholas_Tse "Nicholas Tse"), was adapted from a novel from Chinese writer [Hai Yan](/wiki/Hai_Yan "Hai Yan").
In 2008, Hui directed the highly acclaimed domestic drama, *[The Way We Are](/wiki/The_Way_We_Are_%28film%29 "The Way We Are (film)")*. In an interview with Esther M. K. Cheung, Hui recalls working on *The Way We Are* being the same as working during her "earlier TVB days".
{{Block quote \|The film has no plot yet people did not find that distracting. I am also very proud of the film's relative technical merits. I was doing completely the same thing as before. People watch the film without knowing why its believable and why it's not boring.{{cite book \|editor1\-last\=Cheung \|editor1\-first\=Esther M. K. \|editor2\-last\=Marchetti \|editor2\-first\=Gina \|editor3\-last\=Tan \|editor3\-first\=See\-Kam \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|date\=November 1, 2010 \|title\=Hong Kong Screenscapes: From the New Wave to the Digital Frontier \|publisher\=Hong Kong University Press \|isbn\=978\-9888028566}}}}
*The Way We Are* was followed by *[Night and Fog](/wiki/Night_and_Fog_%282009_film%29 "Night and Fog (2009 film)")*. "The two films revolve around the mundane lives of the inhabitants of [Tin Shui Wai](/wiki/Tin_Shui_Wai "Tin Shui Wai")'s public housing blocks."{{cite journal \|last\=Chang \|first\=Jing Jing \|date\=16 November 2016 \|url\=https://ucsc.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CDL\_SCR\_INST/ojisf2/cdi\_crossref\_primary\_10\_1080\_10509208\_2016\_1144039 \|title\=Ann Hui's Tin Shui Wai Diptych: The Flashback and Feminist Perception in Post\-Handover Hong Kong \|journal\=\[\[Quarterly Review of Film and Video]] \|volume\=33 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=722–742\|doi\=10\.1080/10509208\.2016\.1144039 \|s2cid\=192626678 }} In an interview with *[Muse](/wiki/Muse_%28Hong_Kong_magazine%29 "Muse (Hong Kong magazine)")* magazine, Hui explains how she sees the two films as about something uniquely Hong Kong: "\[on *Night and Fog*] I think that this film can represent something; it can express a kind of feeling about the middle and lower class, and maybe even Hong Kong as a whole. Everyone can eat at McDonald's or shop at malls. That's a way of life, but spiritually, there's dissatisfaction, especially with families on welfare. They don't really have any worries about life, but there's an unspeakable feeling of depression.{{cite journal \|last\= Ma \|first\= Kevin \|date\=May 2009 \|title\= The Life and Times of Ann Hui \|journal\= \[\[Muse (Hong Kong magazine)\|Muse]] \|issue\= 28 \|page\= 19}}
*[A Simple Life](/wiki/A_Simple_Life "A Simple Life")* (2011\) premiered at the [68th Venice International Film Festival](/wiki/68th_Venice_International_Film_Festival "68th Venice International Film Festival") where it was nominated for the [Golden Lion](/wiki/Golden_Lion "Golden Lion"). The film centres around the relationship of two characters, Ah Tao ([Deanie Ip](/wiki/Deanie_Ip "Deanie Ip")) and Roger ([Andy Lau](/wiki/Andy_Lau "Andy Lau")). It is a tale about a master and his long\-time servant and was based on the relationship producer Roger Lee had with his servant. The film was chosen as [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong")'s submission to the [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Awards "Academy Awards") but did not make the shortlist.{{cite web\|last1\=Chu\|first1\=Karen\|title\=Hong Kong Chooses Ann Hui's 'A Simple Life' for Oscar Foreign Language Submission\|website\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\|date\=22 September 2011 \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/hong\-kong\-chooses\-ann\-huis\-239399\|access\-date\=4 October 2015\|archive\-date\=16 November 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116220019/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/hong\-kong\-chooses\-ann\-huis\-239399\|url\-status\=live}} Hui could not afford to film *A Simple Life* until she found Andy Lau. "You make a movie and a lot of people ask you why you do it, and this time I was moved by one person's behavior, by the script." "Because she has always shot a very authentic Hong Kong theme, the reaction on the mainland will not be too special", said Andy Lau. When Hui reached him, she said something that made him sad: "I haven't had enough money for a long time. Can you help me?" Andy Lau said it touched him. "I feel so sad. Sometimes when you make a movie, they say, aren't you afraid to lose money? It's not the best\-selling, it's not the most famous, but sometimes you're moved, maybe it's the action, maybe it's the script, and the many little drops add together to make me do it. I work hard to make money every day, so I won't be stupid". He invested 30 million yuan before [Yu Dong](/wiki/Yu_Dong "Yu Dong") (president of Bona Film Group Limited) joined. "Both the director and I wanted the film to come out, so we calculated the cost and used it to produce, what I lost was just my salary, just count it as finding someone to play with me for two months."{{Cite web \|url\=http://ent.163\.com/11/0924/02/7EMC985S00032KMI.html \|script\-title\=zh:《桃姐》无人投资 许鞍华靠一句话打动刘德华\_网易娱乐 \|last\=网易 \|website\=\[\[NetEase]] \|access\-date\=16 November 2018 \|archive\-date\=16 November 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116131437/http://ent.163\.com/11/0924/02/7EMC985S00032KMI.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Hui's 2014 film *[The Golden Era](/wiki/The_Golden_Era_%28film%29 "The Golden Era (film)")* premiered out of competition at the [71st Venice International Film Festival](/wiki/71st_Venice_International_Film_Festival "71st Venice International Film Festival"). It was a biopic based on the lives of writers [Xiao Hong](/wiki/Xiao_Hong "Xiao Hong") and [Xiao Jun](/wiki/Xiao_Jun "Xiao Jun"). [Tang Wei](/wiki/Tang_Wei "Tang Wei") and [Feng Shaofeng](/wiki/Feng_Shaofeng "Feng Shaofeng") starred.
*[Our Time Will Come](/wiki/Our_Time_Will_Come_%28film%29 "Our Time Will Come (film)")* ({{zh\|t\=明月幾時有}}) is a 2017 [war film](/wiki/War_film "War film"), starring [Zhou Xun](/wiki/Zhou_Xun "Zhou Xun"), [Eddie Peng](/wiki/Eddie_Peng "Eddie Peng") and [Wallace Huo](/wiki/Wallace_Huo "Wallace Huo"). It revolves around the resistance movement during Japan's occupation of Hong Kong. Mark Jenkins writes, "Fictionalized from actual events, the sumptuously photographed drama centers on Lan ([Zhou Xun](/wiki/Zhou_Xun "Zhou Xun")), a teacher before the Japanese closed the local schools. After she helps smuggle out a noted author ([Guo Tao](/wiki/Guo_Tao_%28actor%29 "Guo Tao (actor)")), the young woman is recruited by the insurgents' swashbuckling leader ([Eddie Peng](/wiki/Eddie_Peng "Eddie Peng")). Lan eventually learns that her ex ([Wallace Huo Chienhwa](/wiki/Wallace_Huo_Chienhwa "Wallace Huo Chienhwa")) has infiltrated the occupation headquarters, where he discusses classical Chinese verse with a Japanese officer ([Masatoshi Nagase](/wiki/Masatoshi_Nagase "Masatoshi Nagase"), who also portrayed another poetry lover in '[Paterson](/wiki/Paterson_%28film%29 "Paterson (film)")')."{{cite news \|last\=Jenkins \|first\=Mark \|date\=6 July 2017 \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/our\-time\-will\-come\-an\-overstuffed\-but\-ultimately\-moving\-drama\-of\-hong\-kong\-under\-occupation/2017/07/06/811d9a8e\-5dba\-11e7\-9fc6\-c7ef4bc58d13\_story.html \|title\='Our Time Will Come': An Overstuffed but Ultimately Moving Drama of Hong Kong Under Occupation: Veteran Hong Kong Director Ann Hui Spins a Sumptuous\-Looking Tale Inspired by Historical Events \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|access\-date\=7 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=15 April 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415033124/https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/our\-time\-will\-come\-an\-overstuffed\-but\-ultimately\-moving\-drama\-of\-hong\-kong\-under\-occupation/2017/07/06/811d9a8e\-5dba\-11e7\-9fc6\-c7ef4bc58d13\_story.html \|url\-status\=live }} The film opened in China on 1 July 2017, to commemorate and to coincide with the 20th anniversary of [the handover of Hong Kong](/wiki/Transfer_of_sovereignty_over_Hong_Kong "Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong") from the United Kingdom to China.
In 2022, Hui was invited to be the Jury President of the [59th Golden Horse Awards](/wiki/59th_Golden_Horse_Awards "59th Golden Horse Awards").{{Cite web\|date\=2022\-10\-17\|title\=Jury of the 59th Golden Horse Awards Announced\|url\=https://www.goldenhorse.org.tw/news/detail/1787\|website\=goldenhorse.org\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112095342/https://www.goldenhorse.org.tw/news/detail/1782?r\=ch\|archive\-date\=2022\-11\-12\|url\-status\=live}}
In February 2024, Hui served as a jury member at the [74th Berlin International Film Festival](/wiki/74th_Berlin_International_Film_Festival "74th Berlin International Film Festival").{{Cite web \|last\=Roxborough \|first\=Scott \|date\=2024\-02\-01 \|title\=Berlinale Unveils International Jury \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie\-news/berlinale\-unveils\-2024\-international\-jury\-1235812354/ \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-21 \|website\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=21 May 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521063018/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie\-news/berlinale\-unveils\-2024\-international\-jury\-1235812354/ \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"When Hui returned to Hong Kong after her stay in London, she became an assistant to prominent Chinese film director [King Hu](/wiki/King_Hu \"King Hu\"). She then began working for [Television Broadcasts Limited](/wiki/Television_Broadcasts_Limited \"Television Broadcasts Limited\") (TVB) as a scriptwriter\\-director and produced documentaries such as *Wonderful*, four episodes of *CID*, two of *Social Worker*, and one of the *Dragon, Tiger, Panther* series. In March 1977 she directed six dramas for the [Independent Commission Against Corruption](/wiki/Independent_Commission_Against_Corruption_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)\"),{{cite book \\|last\\=Cheuk \\|first\\=Pak Tong \\|title\\=Hong Kong New Wave Cinema (1978–2000\\) \\|date\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Intellect Ltd. \\|isbn\\=978\\-1841501482}} a Hong Kong organization created to clean up government misconduct. Two of these films were so controversial that they were banned. A year later, Hui directed three episodes of *[Below the Lion Rock](/wiki/Below_the_Lion_Rock \"Below the Lion Rock\")*, a documentary series about people from Hong Kong, produced by public broadcasting station, [Radio Television Hong Kong](/wiki/Radio_Television_Hong_Kong \"Radio Television Hong Kong\"). The most recognized episode of Hui's is *Boy from Vietnam* (1978\\), which is the start of her Vietnam Trilogy.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://movies.nytimes.com/person/95126/Ann\\-Hui \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123203339/http://movies.nytimes.com/person/95126/Ann\\-Hui \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=23 January 2008 \\| department\\=Movies \\& TV Dept. \\| work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\| date\\=23 January 2008 \\| title\\=Ann Hui}}",
"In 1979, Hui finally directed her first feature\\-length film, *The Secret*, which presents images from the gloomy and dreary old [Western District](/wiki/Sai_Wan \"Sai Wan\"), with its worn\\-out mansions, shadowy alleys, fallen leaves and religious rituals, such as the ceremonial rite of releasing the soul from purgatory by burning paper money and cutting off the head of a chicken. *The Secret* earned Hui a Golden Horse Award for Best Feature Film.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://amp.scmp.com/culture/film\\-tv/article/2094988/pictures\\-ann\\-hui\\-officially\\-most\\-celebrated\\-director\\-hong\\-kong\\-film \\|title\\=Ann Hui, most celebrated director in Hong Kong film history, turns 70 \\|website\\=\\[\\[South China Morning Post]] \\|first\\=Edmund \\|last\\=Lee \\|date\\=21 May 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=17 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 October 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008184054/https://amp.scmp.com/culture/film\\-tv/article/2094988/pictures\\-ann\\-hui\\-officially\\-most\\-celebrated\\-director\\-hong\\-kong\\-film \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In the 1980s, Hui's career was growing internationally. The most popular films of that time were Eastern variations of Hollywood gangster and action films. But Hui did not follow the trend, and instead created more personal films. Many of her best films dealt with cultural displacement. In particular, her central characters are often forced to relocate to another country where they struggle to learn and survive. Hui explores the characters' reactions to new environments and their responses to their return home. During this \"New Wave\" period, most of her films are sharp and tough, with satirical and political metaphors, reflecting her concern for people; for women; for orphans devastated by war; and for Vietnamese refugees.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://gb.oversea.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?recid\\=\\&FileName\\=YSJY201512139\\&DbName\\=CJFDLAST2015\\&DbCode\\=CJFD\\&uid\\=WEEvREcwSlJHSldRa1FhdkJkVWEySnZzNllvOHRJTGxjRFBYMXFkTHhZUT0\\=$9A4hF\\_YAuvQ5obgVAqNKPCYcEjKensW4IQMovwHtwkF4VYPoHbKxJw!! \\|script\\-title\\=zh:许鞍华电影中的人文情怀解读 \\- 中国期刊全文数据库\\|website\\=gb.oversea.cnki.net\\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113032600/http://gb.oversea.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?recid\\=\\&FileName\\=YSJY201512139\\&DbName\\=CJFDLAST2015\\&DbCode\\=CJFD\\&uid\\=WEEvREcwSlJHSldRa1FhdkJkVWEySnZzNllvOHRJTGxjRFBYMXFkTHhZUT0\\=$9A4hF\\_YAuvQ5obgVAqNKPCYcEjKensW4IQMovwHtwkF4VYPoHbKxJw!! \\|archive\\-date\\=13 November 2018}} Her best known works in this category are *[The Story of Woo Viet](/wiki/The_Story_of_Woo_Viet \"The Story of Woo Viet\")* (1981\\) and *[Boat People](/wiki/Boat_People_%28film%29 \"Boat People (film)\")* (1982\\) – the remaining two parts of her Vietnam Trilogy. *Boat People* won the [Hong Kong Film Awards](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Award \"Hong Kong Film Award\") for Best Film and Best Director. Although Hui has directed some generic films, another common theme she works with is family conflict, such as in the 1990 film *My American Grandson*.",
"Hui's concern for regular people, and especially women, became the most common theme in her films. She creates stories of the experiences of women. One of her most personal works is *[Song of the Exile](/wiki/Song_of_the_Exile \"Song of the Exile\")* (1990\\), a semi\\-autobiographical film about family connections and identity. It depicts the story of a young woman, Cheung Hueyin, returning to Hong Kong for her sister's wedding after studying film in London for several years. Hueyin and her mother, who is Japanese, do not seem to have a steady relationship. As the film follows Hueyin's journey to her mother's home town in Japan, Hueyin and her mother are forced to re\\-examine their relationship, as both have been uprooted from their own countries. \"Its narratives of migration also spoke to the displacement of the Hong Kong people as they left the colony in panic to escape the impending Chinese rule.\" The film won both the Hong Kong Film Awards and Golden Horse Award for Best Director. She served as the president of the [Hong Kong Film Directors' Guild](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Directors%27_Guild \"Hong Kong Film Directors' Guild\") in 2004\\.",
"In the 1990s, Hui worked on more commercial films. She directed fewer films herself, as she focused on behind\\-the\\-scenes work for other filmmakers. The theme of displacement still recurs in her work. During the mid\\-1990s, Hui started a film project about the [Tiananmen Square massacre](/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre \"1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre\") and the reactions of Hong Kong citizens, but the project was not completed due to lack of funding. Throughout her career, Hui has taken chances to develop more intense and ambitious films while making a name for herself.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.filmdirectorssite.com/ann\\-hui \\|title\\=Ann Hui Films \\| Ann Hui Filmography \\| Ann Hui Biography \\| Ann Hui Career \\| Ann Hui Awards \\| Film Director \\| Movie Director \\| Film Directors \\| Movie Directors \\| Filmmaker \\|publisher\\=FilmDirectorsSite.com \\|date\\=23 May 1947 \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 November 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113102244/http://www.filmdirectorssite.com/ann\\-hui \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Hui said in an interview that she wants to do more socially conscious projects. She knows the difficulties of finding projects that would do that and \"attract investors as well as appeal to the public.\" Her goal was to \"present something that is watchable and at the same time attractive\" and allow the public to analyse the social issues involved. Hui is known for making controversial films; the interview, in particular, described the horrors of increased crime and unemployment rates in [Tin Shui Wai](/wiki/Tin_Shui_Wai \"Tin Shui Wai\"), Hong Kong. Two of her films that focus on these issues are *[The Way We Are](/wiki/The_Way_We_Are_%28film%29 \"The Way We Are (film)\")* (2008\\) and *[Night and Fog](/wiki/Night_and_Fog_%282009_film%29 \"Night and Fog (2009 film)\")* (2009\\), while maintaining a motif of displacement.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=49wna1xJCT0 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/49wna1xJCT0 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 December 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Director Ann Hui (許鞍華) completes Tin Shui Wai diptych \\|publisher\\=YouTube \\|date\\=22 April 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2012}}{{cbignore}}",
"The 45th annual Hong Kong International Film Festival was held in April 2021\\. Hui is one of the six veteran Hong Kong filmmakers who directed [Johnnie To Kei\\-Fung](/wiki/Johnnie_To \"Johnnie To\")'s highly anticipated anthology film: *Septet: The Story of Hong Kong* (2020\\). The other filmmakers were [Sammo Hung](/wiki/Sammo_Hung \"Sammo Hung\"), [Ringo Lam](/wiki/Ringo_Lam \"Ringo Lam\"), [Patrick Tam Kar\\-Ming](/wiki/Patrick_Tam_Kar-Ming \"Patrick Tam Kar-Ming\"), [Tsui Hark](/wiki/Tsui_Hark \"Tsui Hark\"), [Yuen Woo\\-ping](/wiki/Yuen_Woo-ping \"Yuen Woo-ping\") and Johnnie To. The short films were shot entirely on 35 mm film; each touches on a nostalgic and moving story set across time periods, with each an ode to the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.igafencu.com/r/hong\\-kong\\-international\\-film\\-festival\\-2021/\\|title\\=Must\\-watch Chinese film premieres at the 2021 Hong Kong International Film Festival\\|publisher\\=Gafencu\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425152655/https://www.igafencu.com/r/hong\\-kong\\-international\\-film\\-festival\\-2021/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Vietnam Trilogy",
"\"Collectively, the three have been named the 'Trilogy of Vietnam', as they all focus on problems involving Vietnam. They are about the tragic destinies of displaced individuals seeking a place to which they can belong and who are struggling in a period of changes, leading in the end to failure.\"",
"*Boy from Vietnam* (1978\\) is the first film of Hui's Vietnam Trilogy. It chronicles a teenager's illegal entry to Hong Kong and adjustment to life in the city. \"As the boy locates his brother, who is already in Hong Kong, moves from a safe house and takes up work, Hui and writers Shu Kei and Wong Chi carefully shed light on the hardships immigrants face in Hong Kong. The new home, it turns out, is no promised land for refugees but more a transit point on a journey elsewhere, and a place where injustice and prejudice are common.\"Youngs, Tim (n.d.). [\"Below the Lion Rock: The Boy from Vietnam\"](https://www.fareastfilm.com/eng/archive/2009/below-the-lion-rock-the-boy-from-vietnam/?IDLYT=15535) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202170704/https://www.fareastfilm.com/eng/archive/2009/below\\-the\\-lion\\-rock\\-the\\-boy\\-from\\-vietnam/?IDLYT\\=15535 \\|date\\=2 December 2021 }}. [Far East Film Festival](/wiki/Far_East_Film_Festival \"Far East Film Festival\"). Retrieved 2 December 2021\\. This film is historical: in the late 1970s, a large number of [Vietnamese boat people](/wiki/Vietnamese_boat_people \"Vietnamese boat people\") illegally immigrated to Hong Kong. This film describes the experience of those who risked their lives in Hong Kong, and shows the setbacks, discrimination and exploitation they experienced when they were only teens.",
"In 1981, *The Story of Woo Viet* continued to describe the problem of Vietnamese boat people. Woo Viet, an overseas Chinese of Vietnam, smuggles himself into Hong Kong after trying many times. He gets a pen pal from Hong Kong to help him start over in the United States. However, he is stuck in the Philippines as a hired killer for saving his love. This film describes the hardship of smuggling, the memories of war, the sinister nature of refugee camps, and the crisis in Chinatown.",
"In 1982, the People's Republic of China, having just ended a war with Vietnam, permitted Hui to film on [Hainan Island](/wiki/Hainan_Island \"Hainan Island\"). *[Boat People](/wiki/Boat_People_%28film%29 \"Boat People (film)\")* (1982\\) set in 1978, after the Communist Party lead Vietnam, through the point of view of a Japanese photojournalist, Shiomi Akutagawa, showed the condition of society and political chaos after the Vietnam War. *Boat People* was the first Hong Kong movie filmed in Communist China. Hui saved a role for [Chow Yun\\-fat](/wiki/Chow_Yun-fat \"Chow Yun-fat\"), but because at that time Hong Kong actors working in mainland China were banned in Taiwan, Chow Yun\\-fat declined the role out of fear for being [blacklisted](/wiki/Blacklist \"Blacklist\"). Six months before filming was set to start, and after the film crew was already on location in Hainan, a cameraman suggested that Hui give the role to [Andy Lau](/wiki/Andy_Lau \"Andy Lau\"). At that time, Lau was still a newcomer in the Hong Kong film industry. Hui gave Lau the role and flew him to Hainan before a proper audition or even seeing what he looked like.",
"### Transition from television to film",
"Hui left television in 1979, making her first feature, *The Secret*, a mystery thriller based on real life murder case and starring Taiwanese star [Sylvia Chang](/wiki/Sylvia_Chang \"Sylvia Chang\"). It was immediately hailed as an important film in the Hong Kong New Wave. *[The Spooky Bunch](/wiki/The_Spooky_Bunch \"The Spooky Bunch\")* (1981\\) was her take on the [ghost story](/wiki/Ghost_story \"Ghost story\") genre, while *[The Story of Woo Viet](/wiki/The_Story_of_Woo_Viet \"The Story of Woo Viet\")* (1981\\) continued her Vietnam Trilogy. Hui experimented with special effects and daring angles; her preoccupation with sensitive political and social issues is a recurrent feature in most of her subsequent films. *[Boat People](/wiki/Boat_People_%28film%29 \"Boat People (film)\")* (1982\\), the third part of her Vietnam Trilogy, is the most famous of her early films. It examines the plight of the Vietnamese after the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/99/0305/feat1\\.html\\|title\\=Hong Kong director Ann Hui hits the festival circuit with her Ordinary Heroes\\|first\\=Stuart \\|last\\=Whitmore\\|date\\=30 November 2000\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Asiaweek]]\\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2010\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100529160947/http://www.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/99/0305/feat1\\.html\\| archive\\-date\\= 29 May 2010 \\| url\\-status\\= live}}",
"In the mid\\-1980s Hui continued her string of critically acclaimed works. *[Love in a Fallen City](/wiki/Love_in_a_Fallen_City_%28film%29 \"Love in a Fallen City (film)\")* (1984\\) was based on a novella by [Eileen Chang](/wiki/Eileen_Chang \"Eileen Chang\"), and the two\\-part, ambitious *[wuxia](/wiki/Wuxia \"Wuxia\")* adaptation of [Louis Cha](/wiki/Louis_Cha \"Louis Cha\")'s first novel, *[The Book and the Sword](/wiki/The_Book_and_the_Sword \"The Book and the Sword\")*, was divided into *[The Romance of Book and Sword](/wiki/The_Romance_of_Book_and_Sword \"The Romance of Book and Sword\")* (1987\\) and *[Princess Fragrance](/wiki/Princess_Fragrance_%28film%29 \"Princess Fragrance (film)\")* (1987\\). In 1990, one of her most important works to date, the semi\\-autobiographical *The Song of Exile*, was released. The film looks into the loss of identity, disorientation and despair faced by an exiled mother and a daughter faced with clashes in culture and historicity. As in the film, Hui's mother was Japanese.",
"### Post\\-hiatus work",
"After a brief hiatus in which she returned briefly to television, Hui returned with *[Summer Snow](/wiki/Summer_Snow_%28film%29 \"Summer Snow (film)\")* (1995\\), about a middle\\-aged woman trying to cope with everyday family problems and an [Alzheimer](/wiki/Alzheimer_disease \"Alzheimer disease\")\\-inflicted father\\-in\\-law. In 1996, she was a member of the jury at the [46th Berlin International Film Festival](/wiki/46th_Berlin_International_Film_Festival \"46th Berlin International Film Festival\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1996/04\\_jury\\_1996/04\\_Jury\\_1996\\.html \\|title\\=Berlinale: 1996 Juries \\|access\\-date\\=1 January 2012 \\|work\\=berlinale.de \\|archive\\-date\\=16 May 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516024508/http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1996/04\\_jury\\_1996/04\\_Jury\\_1996\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"*[Eighteen Springs](/wiki/Eighteen_Springs_%28film%29 \"Eighteen Springs (film)\")* (1997\\) reprises another Eileen Chang novel. Hui's *[Ordinary Heroes](/wiki/Ordinary_Heroes_%281999_film%29 \"Ordinary Heroes (1999 film)\")* (1999\\), about Chinese and Hong Kong political activists from 1970s to the 1990s, won the Best Feature at the [Golden Horse Awards](/wiki/Golden_Horse_Awards \"Golden Horse Awards\").",
"In 2002, her *[July Rhapsody](/wiki/July_Rhapsody \"July Rhapsody\")*, the companion film to *Summer Snow* about a middle\\-aged male teacher facing a [mid\\-life crisis](/wiki/Mid-life_crisis \"Mid-life crisis\"), was released to good reviews in Hong Kong and elsewhere. Her film, *[Jade Goddess of Mercy](/wiki/Jade_Goddess_of_Mercy \"Jade Goddess of Mercy\")* (2003\\), starring [Zhao Wei](/wiki/Zhao_Wei \"Zhao Wei\") and [Nicholas Tse](/wiki/Nicholas_Tse \"Nicholas Tse\"), was adapted from a novel from Chinese writer [Hai Yan](/wiki/Hai_Yan \"Hai Yan\").",
"In 2008, Hui directed the highly acclaimed domestic drama, *[The Way We Are](/wiki/The_Way_We_Are_%28film%29 \"The Way We Are (film)\")*. In an interview with Esther M. K. Cheung, Hui recalls working on *The Way We Are* being the same as working during her \"earlier TVB days\".\n{{Block quote \\|The film has no plot yet people did not find that distracting. I am also very proud of the film's relative technical merits. I was doing completely the same thing as before. People watch the film without knowing why its believable and why it's not boring.{{cite book \\|editor1\\-last\\=Cheung \\|editor1\\-first\\=Esther M. K. \\|editor2\\-last\\=Marchetti \\|editor2\\-first\\=Gina \\|editor3\\-last\\=Tan \\|editor3\\-first\\=See\\-Kam \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|date\\=November 1, 2010 \\|title\\=Hong Kong Screenscapes: From the New Wave to the Digital Frontier \\|publisher\\=Hong Kong University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-9888028566}}}}",
"*The Way We Are* was followed by *[Night and Fog](/wiki/Night_and_Fog_%282009_film%29 \"Night and Fog (2009 film)\")*. \"The two films revolve around the mundane lives of the inhabitants of [Tin Shui Wai](/wiki/Tin_Shui_Wai \"Tin Shui Wai\")'s public housing blocks.\"{{cite journal \\|last\\=Chang \\|first\\=Jing Jing \\|date\\=16 November 2016 \\|url\\=https://ucsc.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CDL\\_SCR\\_INST/ojisf2/cdi\\_crossref\\_primary\\_10\\_1080\\_10509208\\_2016\\_1144039 \\|title\\=Ann Hui's Tin Shui Wai Diptych: The Flashback and Feminist Perception in Post\\-Handover Hong Kong \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Quarterly Review of Film and Video]] \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=722–742\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/10509208\\.2016\\.1144039 \\|s2cid\\=192626678 }} In an interview with *[Muse](/wiki/Muse_%28Hong_Kong_magazine%29 \"Muse (Hong Kong magazine)\")* magazine, Hui explains how she sees the two films as about something uniquely Hong Kong: \"\\[on *Night and Fog*] I think that this film can represent something; it can express a kind of feeling about the middle and lower class, and maybe even Hong Kong as a whole. Everyone can eat at McDonald's or shop at malls. That's a way of life, but spiritually, there's dissatisfaction, especially with families on welfare. They don't really have any worries about life, but there's an unspeakable feeling of depression.{{cite journal \\|last\\= Ma \\|first\\= Kevin \\|date\\=May 2009 \\|title\\= The Life and Times of Ann Hui \\|journal\\= \\[\\[Muse (Hong Kong magazine)\\|Muse]] \\|issue\\= 28 \\|page\\= 19}}",
"*[A Simple Life](/wiki/A_Simple_Life \"A Simple Life\")* (2011\\) premiered at the [68th Venice International Film Festival](/wiki/68th_Venice_International_Film_Festival \"68th Venice International Film Festival\") where it was nominated for the [Golden Lion](/wiki/Golden_Lion \"Golden Lion\"). The film centres around the relationship of two characters, Ah Tao ([Deanie Ip](/wiki/Deanie_Ip \"Deanie Ip\")) and Roger ([Andy Lau](/wiki/Andy_Lau \"Andy Lau\")). It is a tale about a master and his long\\-time servant and was based on the relationship producer Roger Lee had with his servant. The film was chosen as [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\")'s submission to the [Academy Awards](/wiki/Academy_Awards \"Academy Awards\") but did not make the shortlist.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Chu\\|first1\\=Karen\\|title\\=Hong Kong Chooses Ann Hui's 'A Simple Life' for Oscar Foreign Language Submission\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\\|date\\=22 September 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/hong\\-kong\\-chooses\\-ann\\-huis\\-239399\\|access\\-date\\=4 October 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116220019/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/hong\\-kong\\-chooses\\-ann\\-huis\\-239399\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Hui could not afford to film *A Simple Life* until she found Andy Lau. \"You make a movie and a lot of people ask you why you do it, and this time I was moved by one person's behavior, by the script.\" \"Because she has always shot a very authentic Hong Kong theme, the reaction on the mainland will not be too special\", said Andy Lau. When Hui reached him, she said something that made him sad: \"I haven't had enough money for a long time. Can you help me?\" Andy Lau said it touched him. \"I feel so sad. Sometimes when you make a movie, they say, aren't you afraid to lose money? It's not the best\\-selling, it's not the most famous, but sometimes you're moved, maybe it's the action, maybe it's the script, and the many little drops add together to make me do it. I work hard to make money every day, so I won't be stupid\". He invested 30 million yuan before [Yu Dong](/wiki/Yu_Dong \"Yu Dong\") (president of Bona Film Group Limited) joined. \"Both the director and I wanted the film to come out, so we calculated the cost and used it to produce, what I lost was just my salary, just count it as finding someone to play with me for two months.\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://ent.163\\.com/11/0924/02/7EMC985S00032KMI.html \\|script\\-title\\=zh:《桃姐》无人投资 许鞍华靠一句话打动刘德华\\_网易娱乐 \\|last\\=网易 \\|website\\=\\[\\[NetEase]] \\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 November 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116131437/http://ent.163\\.com/11/0924/02/7EMC985S00032KMI.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Hui's 2014 film *[The Golden Era](/wiki/The_Golden_Era_%28film%29 \"The Golden Era (film)\")* premiered out of competition at the [71st Venice International Film Festival](/wiki/71st_Venice_International_Film_Festival \"71st Venice International Film Festival\"). It was a biopic based on the lives of writers [Xiao Hong](/wiki/Xiao_Hong \"Xiao Hong\") and [Xiao Jun](/wiki/Xiao_Jun \"Xiao Jun\"). [Tang Wei](/wiki/Tang_Wei \"Tang Wei\") and [Feng Shaofeng](/wiki/Feng_Shaofeng \"Feng Shaofeng\") starred.",
"*[Our Time Will Come](/wiki/Our_Time_Will_Come_%28film%29 \"Our Time Will Come (film)\")* ({{zh\\|t\\=明月幾時有}}) is a 2017 [war film](/wiki/War_film \"War film\"), starring [Zhou Xun](/wiki/Zhou_Xun \"Zhou Xun\"), [Eddie Peng](/wiki/Eddie_Peng \"Eddie Peng\") and [Wallace Huo](/wiki/Wallace_Huo \"Wallace Huo\"). It revolves around the resistance movement during Japan's occupation of Hong Kong. Mark Jenkins writes, \"Fictionalized from actual events, the sumptuously photographed drama centers on Lan ([Zhou Xun](/wiki/Zhou_Xun \"Zhou Xun\")), a teacher before the Japanese closed the local schools. After she helps smuggle out a noted author ([Guo Tao](/wiki/Guo_Tao_%28actor%29 \"Guo Tao (actor)\")), the young woman is recruited by the insurgents' swashbuckling leader ([Eddie Peng](/wiki/Eddie_Peng \"Eddie Peng\")). Lan eventually learns that her ex ([Wallace Huo Chienhwa](/wiki/Wallace_Huo_Chienhwa \"Wallace Huo Chienhwa\")) has infiltrated the occupation headquarters, where he discusses classical Chinese verse with a Japanese officer ([Masatoshi Nagase](/wiki/Masatoshi_Nagase \"Masatoshi Nagase\"), who also portrayed another poetry lover in '[Paterson](/wiki/Paterson_%28film%29 \"Paterson (film)\")').\"{{cite news \\|last\\=Jenkins \\|first\\=Mark \\|date\\=6 July 2017 \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/our\\-time\\-will\\-come\\-an\\-overstuffed\\-but\\-ultimately\\-moving\\-drama\\-of\\-hong\\-kong\\-under\\-occupation/2017/07/06/811d9a8e\\-5dba\\-11e7\\-9fc6\\-c7ef4bc58d13\\_story.html \\|title\\='Our Time Will Come': An Overstuffed but Ultimately Moving Drama of Hong Kong Under Occupation: Veteran Hong Kong Director Ann Hui Spins a Sumptuous\\-Looking Tale Inspired by Historical Events \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415033124/https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/our\\-time\\-will\\-come\\-an\\-overstuffed\\-but\\-ultimately\\-moving\\-drama\\-of\\-hong\\-kong\\-under\\-occupation/2017/07/06/811d9a8e\\-5dba\\-11e7\\-9fc6\\-c7ef4bc58d13\\_story.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The film opened in China on 1 July 2017, to commemorate and to coincide with the 20th anniversary of [the handover of Hong Kong](/wiki/Transfer_of_sovereignty_over_Hong_Kong \"Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong\") from the United Kingdom to China.",
"In 2022, Hui was invited to be the Jury President of the [59th Golden Horse Awards](/wiki/59th_Golden_Horse_Awards \"59th Golden Horse Awards\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-17\\|title\\=Jury of the 59th Golden Horse Awards Announced\\|url\\=https://www.goldenhorse.org.tw/news/detail/1787\\|website\\=goldenhorse.org\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112095342/https://www.goldenhorse.org.tw/news/detail/1782?r\\=ch\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-12\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In February 2024, Hui served as a jury member at the [74th Berlin International Film Festival](/wiki/74th_Berlin_International_Film_Festival \"74th Berlin International Film Festival\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Roxborough \\|first\\=Scott \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-01 \\|title\\=Berlinale Unveils International Jury \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie\\-news/berlinale\\-unveils\\-2024\\-international\\-jury\\-1235812354/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-21 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521063018/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie\\-news/berlinale\\-unveils\\-2024\\-international\\-jury\\-1235812354/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
Productions
-----------
### *SkyLight*
*SkyLight* was performed on October 3, 2015, in collaboration with [Lunar Mission One](/wiki/Lunar_Mission_One "Lunar Mission One"), as part of [World Space Week](/wiki/World_Space_Week "World Space Week") 2015\.{{cite web\|title\=LM1 teams up with CREAT\-IT and World Space Week\|url\=https://lunarmissionone.com/lm1\-teams\-up\-with\-creat\-it\-and\-world\-space\-week.html\|website\=Lunar Mission One\|access\-date\=8 April 2017}} The artwork for the *SkyLight* poster was provided by space and nature photographer Babak Tafreshi.{{cite web\|title\=LM1 teams up with CREAT\-IT and World Space Week\|url\=https://lunarmissionone.com/lm1\-teams\-up\-with\-creat\-it\-and\-world\-space\-week.html\|website\=Lunar Mission One\|access\-date\=8 April 2017}}
The science opera was [live\-streamed](/wiki/Live-streamed "Live-streamed") by the 31 participating countries,{{cite web\|title\=LM1 teams up with CREAT\-IT and World Space Week\|url\=https://lunarmissionone.com/lm1\-teams\-up\-with\-creat\-it\-and\-world\-space\-week.html\|website\=Lunar Mission One\|access\-date\=8 April 2017}} including schools, universities, art institutions and volunteers, and coincided with the final conference of the CREAT\-IT project.{{cite web\|title\=SkyLight – a Global Science Opera\|url\=http://www.epsnews.eu/2015/05/skylight\-a\-global\-science\-opera/\|website\=European Physical Society\|access\-date\=8 April 2017}} *SkyLight – a Global Science Opera* was screened during the [International Year of Light](/wiki/International_Year_of_Light "International Year of Light") 2015 closing ceremony and film festival in the Centro de convenciones de Yucatán, [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico").{{cite web\|title\=Film Festival\|url\=http://www.iyl2015closing.org/fv\-friday\|website\=International Year of Light 2015\|access\-date\=8 April 2017}}
*Presentations of SkyLight*
| Event | City | Country | Year |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| European Planetary Science Congress | Cascais | Portugal | 2015 |
| Lunar Mission One event at The Royal Institution | London | England | 2015 |
{{cite web\|title\=science on a worldwide stage\|url\=http://galileoteachers.org/science\-on\-a\-worldwide\-stage/\|website\=galileo teacher training program\|access\-date\=8 april 2017}}\=""\>
CREAT\-IT conference | Athens | Greece | 2015 || The Greek Physical Society | Athens | Greece | 2015 |
| European Network of Opera \& Dance Education Conference | Bristol | England | 2016 |
### Ghost Particles
Global Science Opera's second production, Ghost Particles, was performed globally on November 19, 2016, by 20 participating countries and streamed online by TV Haugaland.
The chosen scientific theme was 'particle physics', with the opera exploring the science and discoveries of Higgs Boson, Neutrinos and Photons. The opera incorporated a virtual visit to [CERN](/wiki/CERN "CERN") [Compact Muon Solenoid](/wiki/Compact_Muon_Solenoid "Compact Muon Solenoid").
The 2016 GSO also involved the cooperation of the European Commissions' Horizons 2020 Project CREATIONS cooperated and was a research focus for the Norwegian Research Council's project "iSCOPE".
### Moon Village
The 2017 Global Science Opera, Moon Village, will involve 25 countries{{cite web\|title\=Moon Village Opera\|url\=http://galileoteachers.org/moon\-village\-opera/\|website\=Galileo Teacher Training\|access\-date\=8 April 2017}} and was streamed online December 13\. It explores the process, science and technology of the European Space Agency's Moon Village.
### One Ocean
Ocean health is the scientific topic for One Ocean, with IMBER as official scientific partner.
### Gravity
GRAVITY! is the Global Science Opera's 5th production. The opera's story was created by students in Brazil, Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe. It celebrates the 100th anniversary of Eddington proof Einstein's Theory of General Relativity. Premieres on the International Children's Day: November 20, 2019 on YouTube.
### Energize
Global Science Opera 2020 focuses on energy and sustainability. The main story is produced by students in Australia, but with contributions from 17 countries. World\-wide premiere on YouTube November 20, 2020\.
### Thrive
The scientific topic for the 2021 Global Science Opera production is inspired by the UN's Decade of Ecosystem Restoration and supported by the UN's Environment Programme. Premiere on YouTube/Vimeo November 20, 2021\.
### Creavolution
The scientific topic for the 2022 Global Science Opera production is inspired by the creative mind. "We need a creative revolution in our evolution required for a healthy, sustainable future. Join the Creavolution!" This year's production is created in collaboration with the Erasmus\-project GSO4SCHOOL, an EU\-funded research\-project which trains teachers and students while strengthening international collaboration. Premiere on YouTube/Vimeo November 20, 2022\.
|
[
"Productions\n-----------",
"### *SkyLight*",
"*SkyLight* was performed on October 3, 2015, in collaboration with [Lunar Mission One](/wiki/Lunar_Mission_One \"Lunar Mission One\"), as part of [World Space Week](/wiki/World_Space_Week \"World Space Week\") 2015\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=LM1 teams up with CREAT\\-IT and World Space Week\\|url\\=https://lunarmissionone.com/lm1\\-teams\\-up\\-with\\-creat\\-it\\-and\\-world\\-space\\-week.html\\|website\\=Lunar Mission One\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2017}} The artwork for the *SkyLight* poster was provided by space and nature photographer Babak Tafreshi.{{cite web\\|title\\=LM1 teams up with CREAT\\-IT and World Space Week\\|url\\=https://lunarmissionone.com/lm1\\-teams\\-up\\-with\\-creat\\-it\\-and\\-world\\-space\\-week.html\\|website\\=Lunar Mission One\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2017}} \nThe science opera was [live\\-streamed](/wiki/Live-streamed \"Live-streamed\") by the 31 participating countries,{{cite web\\|title\\=LM1 teams up with CREAT\\-IT and World Space Week\\|url\\=https://lunarmissionone.com/lm1\\-teams\\-up\\-with\\-creat\\-it\\-and\\-world\\-space\\-week.html\\|website\\=Lunar Mission One\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2017}} including schools, universities, art institutions and volunteers, and coincided with the final conference of the CREAT\\-IT project.{{cite web\\|title\\=SkyLight – a Global Science Opera\\|url\\=http://www.epsnews.eu/2015/05/skylight\\-a\\-global\\-science\\-opera/\\|website\\=European Physical Society\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2017}} *SkyLight – a Global Science Opera* was screened during the [International Year of Light](/wiki/International_Year_of_Light \"International Year of Light\") 2015 closing ceremony and film festival in the Centro de convenciones de Yucatán, [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Film Festival\\|url\\=http://www.iyl2015closing.org/fv\\-friday\\|website\\=International Year of Light 2015\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2017}}",
"*Presentations of SkyLight*",
"| Event | City | Country | Year |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| European Planetary Science Congress | Cascais | Portugal | 2015 |\n| Lunar Mission One event at The Royal Institution | London | England | 2015 |\n{{cite web\\|title\\=science on a worldwide stage\\|url\\=http://galileoteachers.org/science\\-on\\-a\\-worldwide\\-stage/\\|website\\=galileo teacher training program\\|access\\-date\\=8 april 2017}}\\=\"\"\\>\n CREAT\\-IT conference | Athens | Greece | 2015 || The Greek Physical Society | Athens | Greece | 2015 |\n| European Network of Opera \\& Dance Education Conference | Bristol | England | 2016 |",
"",
"### Ghost Particles",
"Global Science Opera's second production, Ghost Particles, was performed globally on November 19, 2016, by 20 participating countries and streamed online by TV Haugaland. \nThe chosen scientific theme was 'particle physics', with the opera exploring the science and discoveries of Higgs Boson, Neutrinos and Photons. The opera incorporated a virtual visit to [CERN](/wiki/CERN \"CERN\") [Compact Muon Solenoid](/wiki/Compact_Muon_Solenoid \"Compact Muon Solenoid\").\nThe 2016 GSO also involved the cooperation of the European Commissions' Horizons 2020 Project CREATIONS cooperated and was a research focus for the Norwegian Research Council's project \"iSCOPE\".",
"### Moon Village",
"The 2017 Global Science Opera, Moon Village, will involve 25 countries{{cite web\\|title\\=Moon Village Opera\\|url\\=http://galileoteachers.org/moon\\-village\\-opera/\\|website\\=Galileo Teacher Training\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2017}} and was streamed online December 13\\. It explores the process, science and technology of the European Space Agency's Moon Village.",
"### One Ocean",
"Ocean health is the scientific topic for One Ocean, with IMBER as official scientific partner.",
"### Gravity",
"GRAVITY! is the Global Science Opera's 5th production. The opera's story was created by students in Brazil, Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe. It celebrates the 100th anniversary of Eddington proof Einstein's Theory of General Relativity. Premieres on the International Children's Day: November 20, 2019 on YouTube.",
"### Energize",
"Global Science Opera 2020 focuses on energy and sustainability. The main story is produced by students in Australia, but with contributions from 17 countries. World\\-wide premiere on YouTube November 20, 2020\\.",
"### Thrive",
"The scientific topic for the 2021 Global Science Opera production is inspired by the UN's Decade of Ecosystem Restoration and supported by the UN's Environment Programme. Premiere on YouTube/Vimeo November 20, 2021\\.",
"### Creavolution",
"The scientific topic for the 2022 Global Science Opera production is inspired by the creative mind. \"We need a creative revolution in our evolution required for a healthy, sustainable future. Join the Creavolution!\" This year's production is created in collaboration with the Erasmus\\-project GSO4SCHOOL, an EU\\-funded research\\-project which trains teachers and students while strengthening international collaboration. Premiere on YouTube/Vimeo November 20, 2022\\.",
""
] |
Life
----
His parents were [Adolf I, Duke of Schleswig\-Holstein\-Gottorp](/wiki/Adolf%2C_Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp "Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp") and [Christine, Landgravine of Hesse\-Cassel](/wiki/Christine_of_Hesse "Christine of Hesse"). *John Frederick* and [Anna Dobbel](/wiki/Anna_Dobbel "Anna Dobbel") from [Bremervörde](/wiki/Bremerv%C3%B6rde "Bremervörde"), the Bremian prince\-archiepiscopal residence, had two children: *Friedrich* and *Christine*. In 1621 [Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor"), legitimated them and ennobled them as *von Holstein*.
After *John Frederick's* brother [John Adolf](/wiki/John_Adolf%2C_Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp "John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp") succeeded their brother [Philip, Duke of Schleswig\-Holstein\-Gottorp](/wiki/Philip%2C_Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp "Philip, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp") as [Duke of Schleswig\-Holstein\-Gottorp](/wiki/Dukes_of_Holstein-Gottorp "Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp"), the Bremian Chapter feared *John Adolf* would integrate the [Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Bremen "Archdiocese of Bremen") into his inheritable ducal monarchy. The Chapter demanded that John Adolf would resign, what he did in 1596 in favour of *John Frederick*. In 1607 *John Adolf* also handed over the [Prince\-Bishopric of Lübeck](/wiki/Bishopric_of_L%C3%BCbeck "Bishopric of Lübeck") to his brother.
At the beginning of the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War") *John Frederick* and his prince\-bishoprics of Bremen and Lübeck maintained neutrality, as did most of the territories in the [Lower Saxon Circle](/wiki/Lower_Saxon_Circle "Lower Saxon Circle").
After 1613 King [Christian IV of Denmark and Norway](/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark "Christian IV of Denmark"), being in personal union Duke of [Holstein](/wiki/Holstein "Holstein") within the *Holy Roman Empire*, turned his attention to gain grounds by acquiring the prince\-bishoprics of [Bremen](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Bremen "Archdiocese of Bremen"), [Verden](/wiki/Diocese_of_Verden "Diocese of Verden"), [Minden](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Minden "Bishopric of Minden") and [Halberstadt](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt "Bishopric of Halberstadt").
He skillfully took advantage of the alarm of the German [Protestants](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") after the [Battle of White Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain "Battle of White Mountain") in 1620, to stipulate with Bremen's Chapter and *John Frederick*, his cousin of second degree, to grant coadjutorship of the See of Bremen for his son [Frederick, later Crown Prince of Denmark](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark "Frederick III of Denmark") (September 1621\). Coadjutorship usually included the succession of a See.
In November 1619 [Christian IV of Denmark, Duke of Holstein](/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark "Christian IV of Denmark") stationed Danish troops in the Bremian city of [Stade](/wiki/Stade "Stade"), officially on behalf of his son the provided to be Administrator successor, suppressing an unrest of its burghers.
In 1620 [Christian, *the Younger*, titular Duke of Brunswick and Lunenburg\-Wolfenbüttel](/wiki/Christian_the_Younger_of_Brunswick "Christian the Younger of Brunswick"), the Lutheran Administrator of the [Prince\-Bishopric Halberstadt](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt "Bishopric of Halberstadt") requested that the Lutheran *Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen* would join the war coalition of the [Protestant Union](/wiki/Protestant_Union "Protestant Union"). *John Frederick* and the Bremian [Estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_Realm "Estates of the Realm") met in a Diet and declared for their territory their loyalty to [Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor"), and their neutrality in the conflict.
With Danish troops within his territory and *Christian the Younger's* request *John Frederick* tried desperately to keep his Prince\-Archbishopric out of the war, being in complete agreement with the Estates and the city of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen_%28city%29 "Bremen (city)"). When in 1623 the [Republic of the Seven United Netherlands](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic"), fighting in the [Eighty Years' War](/wiki/Dutch_Revolt "Dutch Revolt") for its independence against [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg")'s Spanish and imperial forces, requested its [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinism "Calvinism") co\-religionist of the city of *Bremen* to join, the city refused, but started to enforce its fortifications.
In 1623 the territories comprising the [Lower Saxon Circle](/wiki/Lower_Saxon_Circle "Lower Saxon Circle") decided to recruit an army in order to maintain an armed neutrality, with troops of the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28German%29 "Catholic League (German)") already operating in the neighboured [Lower Rhenish\-Westphalian Circle](/wiki/Lower_Rhenish-Westphalian_Circle "Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle") and dangerously approaching their region. The concomitant effects of the war, [debasements](/wiki/Debasement "Debasement") and dearness, had already caused an inflation also in the region. The population suffered from [billeting](/wiki/Billet "Billet") and alimenting [Baden\-Durlachian](/wiki/Baden "Baden"), Danish, [Halberstadtian](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt "Bishopric of Halberstadt"), [Leaguist](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28German%29 "Catholic League (German)"), and [Palatine](/wiki/Electoral_Palatinate "Electoral Palatinate") troops, whose marching through the John Frederick had to tolerate in order to prevent entering into armed conflict.
In 1623 the [Republic of the Seven United Netherlands](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic"), diplomatically supported by [James I, King of England](/wiki/James_I_of_England "James I of England"), the brother\-in\-law of [Christian IV of Denmark](/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark "Christian IV of Denmark"), started a new anti\-[Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg") campaign. Thus the troops of the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28German%29 "Catholic League (German)") were bound and the Prince\-Archbishopric seemed relieved. But soon after the imperial troops under [Albrecht von Wallenstein](/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein "Albrecht von Wallenstein") headed for the North in an attempt to destroy the fading [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League "Hanseatic League"), in order to subject the Hanseatic cities of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen"), [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg") and [Lübeck](/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck "Free City of Lübeck") and to establish a Baltic trade monopoly, to be run by some imperial favourites including Spaniards and Poles. The idea was to win [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden")'s and [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark")'s support, both of which since long were after the destruction of the *Hanseatic League*.
In May 1625 [Christian IV of Denmark, Duke of Holstein](/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark "Christian IV of Denmark") was elected – in the latter of his functions – by the [Lower Saxon Circle](/wiki/Lower_Saxon_Circle "Lower Saxon Circle")'s member territories commander\-in\-chief of the Lower Saxon troops. More troops were recruited and to be billeted and alimented in the Lower Saxon territories, including the Prince\-Archbishopric. In the same year *Christian IV* joined the Anglo\-Dutch war coalition. In 1625 [Johan 't Serclaes, Count of Tilly](/wiki/Johann_Tserclaes%2C_Count_of_Tilly "Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly") warned John Frederick to further accept the stationing of Danish troops and [Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor"), demanded the immediate end of his and *Verden's* alliance with [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"), with *Verden* being already ruled by *Christian's* son [Frederick II, Administrator of the Prince\-Bishopric of Verden](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark "Frederick III of Denmark"), being as well the provided successor of *John Frederick*. He declared again his loyalty to the Emperor and neutrality in the conflict. But all in vain.
Now *Christian IV* ordered his troops to capture all the important traffic hubs in the Prince\-Archbishopric and entered into the [Battle of Lutter am Barenberge](/wiki/Battle_of_Lutter "Battle of Lutter"), on 27 August 1626, where he was defeated by the [Leaguist](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28German%29 "Catholic League (German)") troops under *Tilly*. *Christian IV* and his surviving troops fled to the Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen and took their headquarters in *Stade*. *John Frederick* fled to his [Prince\-Bishopric of Lübeck](/wiki/Bishopric_of_L%C3%BCbeck "Bishopric of Lübeck") and left the rule in the *Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen* to the Chapter and the Estates.
By 1627 *Christian IV* had de facto dismissed his cousin *John Frederick* from the Bremian See. In the same year *Christian IV* withdrew from the Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen, in order to fight *Wallenstein's* invasion of his [Duchy of Holstein](/wiki/Holstein "Holstein"). *Tilly* then invaded the Prince\-Archbishopric and captured its southern parts. The city of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen") shut its city gates and entrenched behind its improved fortifications. In 1628 *Tilly* beleaguered *Stade* with its remaining garrison of 3,500 Danish and English soldiers. On May 5, 1628 *Tilly* granted them safe\-conduct to England and Denmark and the whole Prince\-Archbishopric was in his hands. Now *Tilly* turned to the city of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen"), which paid him a ransom of 10,000 [rixdollars](/wiki/Rixdollar "Rixdollar") in order to spare its siege. The city remained unoccupied.
*Wallenstein* had meanwhile conquered all the [Jutish Peninsula](/wiki/Jutland_Peninsula "Jutland Peninsula"), which made *Christian IV* to sign the [Treaty of Lübeck](/wiki/Treaty_of_L%C3%BCbeck "Treaty of Lübeck"), on May 22, 1629, in order to regain possession of all his feoffs on the peninsula, he in return agreed to formally end Denmark's participation in the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War") and waived for his son [Frederick II, Administrator of the Prince\-Bishopric of Verden](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark "Frederick III of Denmark"), the administration of that prince\-bishopric as well as the provided succession as Administrator of the [Prince\-Bishopric of Halberstadt](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Halberstadt "Prince-Bishopric of Halberstadt").
*John Frederick*, exiled in the [Imperial Free City of Lübeck](/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck "Free City of Lübeck"), was in a markedly weak position. So in 1628 he consented that the Lutheran convent in the former [Premonstratensian](/wiki/Premonstratensians "Premonstratensians") {{Interlanguage link multi\|Our Lady's Friary, Stade\|de\|3\=Kloster St. Marien (Stade)\|lt\=''Our Lady's Friary''}} in *Stade* – under Leaguist occupation – was restituted to Catholic rite and manned with foreign monks, if the Chapter would also agree. Again passing the buck on to the Chapter.
The Leaguist takeover enabled [Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor"), to implement the [Edict of Restitution](/wiki/Edict_of_Restitution "Edict of Restitution"), decreed March 6, 1629, within the *Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen*. The Bremian monasteries still maintaining Roman Catholic rite – [Altkloster](/wiki/Buxtehude "Buxtehude"), *[Harsefeld](/wiki/Harsefeld "Harsefeld")* {{Interlanguage link multi\|Harsefeld Archabbey\|de\|3\=Kloster Harsefeld\|lt\=''Archabbey''}}, [Neukloster](/wiki/Buxtehude%23Pfingstmarkt_Neukloster "Buxtehude#Pfingstmarkt Neukloster"), and {{Interlanguage link multi\|Zeven Convent\|de\|3\=Kloster Zeven\|lt\=''Zeven Nunnery''}} – became the local strongholds for a reCatholicisation within the scope of [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation").
Under the threat of the [Edict of Restitution](/wiki/Edict_of_Restitution "Edict of Restitution") *John Frederick* consented to [Canonical Visitations](/wiki/Canonical_Visitation "Canonical Visitation") of the remaining monasteries, those clinging to Roman Catholic rite and those converted to voluntary Lutheran convents alike. Nunneries had traditionally been institutions to provide unmarried daughters of the better off, who couldn't be provided a husband befitting their social status or who didn't want to marry, with a decent livelihood. So when an unmarried woman of that status joined a nunnery she would bestow earning assets (real estate) or – restricted to her lifetime – regular revenues paid by her male relatives, on the nunnery, making up in the former case part of the nunnery's [estates](/wiki/Estate_%28law%29 "Estate (law)") (not to be confused with the political body of the [Estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_Realm "Estates of the Realm")).
In many territories, where the majority of the population adopted [Lutheranism](/wiki/Lutheranism "Lutheranism"), the nunneries' function to provide sustenance for unmarried women wasn't to be given up. So it happened that the Prince\-Archbishopric's former Roman Catholic [nunneries of Himmelpforten](/wiki/Himmelpforten_Convent "Himmelpforten Convent"), *[Lilienthal](/wiki/Lilienthal%2C_Lower_Saxony "Lilienthal, Lower Saxony")* {{Interlanguage link multi\|Lilienthal Convent\|de\|3\=Kloster Lilienthal\|lt\=''St. Mary's Nunnery in the Valley of Lillies''}}, [Neuenwalde](/wiki/Neuenwalde_Convent "Neuenwalde Convent"),Neuenwalde Convent has been re\-established as Lutheran convent after the end of the Catholic occupation and is functioning up to the present day as such an institution. and [Osterholz](/wiki/Osterholz "Osterholz") with all their estates had turned into such foundations (German: das *Stift*, more particular: [*Damenstift*](/wiki/Frauenstift "Frauenstift"), literally *Ladies' foundation*), while the nunnery of [Zeven](/wiki/Zeven "Zeven") was in the process of becoming one, with – among a majority of Catholic nuns – a number of *nuns* of Lutheran denomination, usually called conventuals. Other expressions like abbess, for the chairwoman, and prioress for conventuals of certain hierarchic function, were – and are partly – continued to be used in such Lutheran *Stifte*.
Within the scope of the [visitations](/wiki/Canonical_Visitation "Canonical Visitation") by the end of the year 1629 the Roman Catholic *visitors* issued an ultimatum to the Lutheran conventuals to convert to [Catholicism](/wiki/Catholicism "Catholicism") or to leave the [convents](/wiki/Convent "Convent"). No conversion had been recorded, so at different dates between before Christmas 1629 and April 1631 all Lutheran conventuals had been thrown out from the nunneries, with the estates of *Himmelpforten* and *Neuenwalde* then being bestowed to the [Jesuits](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus "Society of Jesus"), in order to finance them and their missioning in the course of the *Counter\-Reformation* in the Prince\-Archbishopric. The expelled conventuals were denied to get the real estate restituted, which they bestowed on the nunnery, when they entered it.
*Ferdinand II* suspended the capitulars from penalty, if they would dismiss the Lutheran coadjutor [Frederick, later Crown Prince of Denmark](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark "Frederick III of Denmark") from office. The Chapter refused, still backing *Frederick*, whom it had elected with full legal validity in 1621\. So *Ferdinand II* himself dismissed him by way of using the *Edict of Restitution*, in favour of his youngest son, the Roman Catholic [Leopold Wilhelm, Archduke of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Leopold_Wilhelm_of_Austria "Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria"), already prince\-bishop of [Halberstadt](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt "Bishopric of Halberstadt") (1628\-1648\), [Passau](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Passau "Roman Catholic Diocese of Passau") (1625\-1662\) and [Strasbourg](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Strasbourg "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Strasbourg") (1626\-1662\).
*Ferdinand II* left *John Frederick* in office, against Leaguist resistance, for he had always kept loyalty to him. The *Catholic League* wished the Roman Catholic [Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg](/wiki/Franz_Wilhelm_von_Wartenberg "Franz Wilhelm von Wartenberg"), prince\-bishopric of [Osnabrück](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Osnabr%C3%BCck "Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück") (1625–1661\), onto the See. After all, the See included at those years an annual revenue of 60,000 [rixdollars](/wiki/Rixdollar "Rixdollar") at the free disposal of its holder, making up half the Prince\-Archbishopric's budget.
*Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg*, appointed by *Ferdinand II* as chairman of the imperial *restitution commission*, carrying out the provisions of the *Edict of Restitution* in the *Lower Saxon Circle*, dismissed *John Frederick* in 1629, who acquiesced.
In February 1631 *John Frederick* conferred with [Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden](/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus_of_Sweden "Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden") and a number of Lower Saxon princes in [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig "Leipzig"), all of them troubled by Habsburg's growing influence wielded by virtue of the *Edict of Restitution* in a number of Northern German Lutheran prince\-bishoprics. *John Frederick* speculated to regain the Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen and therefore in June/July 1631 officially allied himself with Sweden. For the war being *John Frederick* accepted the supreme command of *Gustavus II Adolphus*, who promised to restitute the Prince\-Archbishopric to its former Administrator. In October an Army, newly recruited by *John Frederick*, started to reconquer the Prince\-Archbishopric and – supported by Swedish troops – to capture the neighboured Prince\-Bishopric of Verden, de facto dismissing *Verden's* Catholic Prince\-Bishop [Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg](/wiki/Franz_Wilhelm_von_Wartenberg "Franz Wilhelm von Wartenberg"), (ruled 1630–1632\) and causing the flight of the Catholic clergy wherever they arrived. The *Prince\-Bishopric of Verden* became subject of a Swedish military administration with *John Frederick* being officially the Administrator.
The reconquest of the *Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen* – helped by forces from Sweden and from the city of Bremen – was interrupted by Leaguist forces under [Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim](/wiki/Gottfried_Heinrich_Graf_zu_Pappenheim "Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim"), coming as a relief to [Stade](/wiki/Stade "Stade"), where they joined the Catholic imperial and Leaguist forces still holding out. On May 10, 1632, they were granted safe\-conduct and left a desperately impoverished city of [Stade](/wiki/Stade "Stade") after its siege by *John Frederick's* forces. *John Frederick* was back in his office, only to realise the supremacy of Sweden, insisting on its supreme command until the war's end.
The *Prince\-Archbishopric of Bremen* continuously suffered from billeting and alimenting soldiers. The relation between the Estates, who had to maintain administration under Catholic occupation, and the returned *John Frederick* were difficult. The Estates preferred to directly negotiate with the occupants, this time the Swedes. *John Frederick* wanted to secularise the monasteries in favour of his budget, but the opposing Estates prevented that.
After *John Frederick's* death in 1634 the Bremian Chapter and Estates regarded [Frederick's (later Danish Crown Prince)](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark "Frederick III of Denmark") dismissal as coadjutor by [Ferdinand II](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor") by virtue of the *Edict of Restitution* illegitimate. But the Swedish occupants had to be persuaded first, to accept *Frederick's* succession. So Chapter and Estates ruled the Prince\-Archbishopric until the conclusion of the negotiations with Sweden. In 1635 he succeeded as Lutheran Administrator [Frederick II](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark "Frederick III of Denmark") in the Sees of Bremen and of Verden. But he had to render homage to the minor Queen regnant [Christina of Sweden](/wiki/Christina_of_Sweden "Christina of Sweden").
In the same year [Pope Urban VIII](/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII "Pope Urban VIII") provided the Catholic coadjutor [Leopold Wilhelm, Archduke of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Leopold_Wilhelm_of_Austria "Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria"), imposed in 1629 by his father *Ferdinand II*, with the Archdiocese of Bremen, but due to its persisting occupation by the Swedes he never gained de facto pastoral influence let alone the power as prince\-archbishop.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"His parents were [Adolf I, Duke of Schleswig\\-Holstein\\-Gottorp](/wiki/Adolf%2C_Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp \"Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp\") and [Christine, Landgravine of Hesse\\-Cassel](/wiki/Christine_of_Hesse \"Christine of Hesse\"). *John Frederick* and [Anna Dobbel](/wiki/Anna_Dobbel \"Anna Dobbel\") from [Bremervörde](/wiki/Bremerv%C3%B6rde \"Bremervörde\"), the Bremian prince\\-archiepiscopal residence, had two children: *Friedrich* and *Christine*. In 1621 [Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor\"), legitimated them and ennobled them as *von Holstein*.",
"After *John Frederick's* brother [John Adolf](/wiki/John_Adolf%2C_Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp \"John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp\") succeeded their brother [Philip, Duke of Schleswig\\-Holstein\\-Gottorp](/wiki/Philip%2C_Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp \"Philip, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp\") as [Duke of Schleswig\\-Holstein\\-Gottorp](/wiki/Dukes_of_Holstein-Gottorp \"Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp\"), the Bremian Chapter feared *John Adolf* would integrate the [Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Bremen \"Archdiocese of Bremen\") into his inheritable ducal monarchy. The Chapter demanded that John Adolf would resign, what he did in 1596 in favour of *John Frederick*. In 1607 *John Adolf* also handed over the [Prince\\-Bishopric of Lübeck](/wiki/Bishopric_of_L%C3%BCbeck \"Bishopric of Lübeck\") to his brother.",
"At the beginning of the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\") *John Frederick* and his prince\\-bishoprics of Bremen and Lübeck maintained neutrality, as did most of the territories in the [Lower Saxon Circle](/wiki/Lower_Saxon_Circle \"Lower Saxon Circle\").",
"After 1613 King [Christian IV of Denmark and Norway](/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark \"Christian IV of Denmark\"), being in personal union Duke of [Holstein](/wiki/Holstein \"Holstein\") within the *Holy Roman Empire*, turned his attention to gain grounds by acquiring the prince\\-bishoprics of [Bremen](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Bremen \"Archdiocese of Bremen\"), [Verden](/wiki/Diocese_of_Verden \"Diocese of Verden\"), [Minden](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Minden \"Bishopric of Minden\") and [Halberstadt](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt \"Bishopric of Halberstadt\").",
"He skillfully took advantage of the alarm of the German [Protestants](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") after the [Battle of White Mountain](/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain \"Battle of White Mountain\") in 1620, to stipulate with Bremen's Chapter and *John Frederick*, his cousin of second degree, to grant coadjutorship of the See of Bremen for his son [Frederick, later Crown Prince of Denmark](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark \"Frederick III of Denmark\") (September 1621\\). Coadjutorship usually included the succession of a See.",
"In November 1619 [Christian IV of Denmark, Duke of Holstein](/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark \"Christian IV of Denmark\") stationed Danish troops in the Bremian city of [Stade](/wiki/Stade \"Stade\"), officially on behalf of his son the provided to be Administrator successor, suppressing an unrest of its burghers.",
"In 1620 [Christian, *the Younger*, titular Duke of Brunswick and Lunenburg\\-Wolfenbüttel](/wiki/Christian_the_Younger_of_Brunswick \"Christian the Younger of Brunswick\"), the Lutheran Administrator of the [Prince\\-Bishopric Halberstadt](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt \"Bishopric of Halberstadt\") requested that the Lutheran *Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen* would join the war coalition of the [Protestant Union](/wiki/Protestant_Union \"Protestant Union\"). *John Frederick* and the Bremian [Estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_Realm \"Estates of the Realm\") met in a Diet and declared for their territory their loyalty to [Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor\"), and their neutrality in the conflict.",
"With Danish troops within his territory and *Christian the Younger's* request *John Frederick* tried desperately to keep his Prince\\-Archbishopric out of the war, being in complete agreement with the Estates and the city of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen_%28city%29 \"Bremen (city)\"). When in 1623 the [Republic of the Seven United Netherlands](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\"), fighting in the [Eighty Years' War](/wiki/Dutch_Revolt \"Dutch Revolt\") for its independence against [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\")'s Spanish and imperial forces, requested its [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinism \"Calvinism\") co\\-religionist of the city of *Bremen* to join, the city refused, but started to enforce its fortifications.",
"In 1623 the territories comprising the [Lower Saxon Circle](/wiki/Lower_Saxon_Circle \"Lower Saxon Circle\") decided to recruit an army in order to maintain an armed neutrality, with troops of the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28German%29 \"Catholic League (German)\") already operating in the neighboured [Lower Rhenish\\-Westphalian Circle](/wiki/Lower_Rhenish-Westphalian_Circle \"Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle\") and dangerously approaching their region. The concomitant effects of the war, [debasements](/wiki/Debasement \"Debasement\") and dearness, had already caused an inflation also in the region. The population suffered from [billeting](/wiki/Billet \"Billet\") and alimenting [Baden\\-Durlachian](/wiki/Baden \"Baden\"), Danish, [Halberstadtian](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt \"Bishopric of Halberstadt\"), [Leaguist](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28German%29 \"Catholic League (German)\"), and [Palatine](/wiki/Electoral_Palatinate \"Electoral Palatinate\") troops, whose marching through the John Frederick had to tolerate in order to prevent entering into armed conflict.",
"In 1623 the [Republic of the Seven United Netherlands](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\"), diplomatically supported by [James I, King of England](/wiki/James_I_of_England \"James I of England\"), the brother\\-in\\-law of [Christian IV of Denmark](/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark \"Christian IV of Denmark\"), started a new anti\\-[Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\") campaign. Thus the troops of the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28German%29 \"Catholic League (German)\") were bound and the Prince\\-Archbishopric seemed relieved. But soon after the imperial troops under [Albrecht von Wallenstein](/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein \"Albrecht von Wallenstein\") headed for the North in an attempt to destroy the fading [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League \"Hanseatic League\"), in order to subject the Hanseatic cities of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\"), [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\") and [Lübeck](/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck \"Free City of Lübeck\") and to establish a Baltic trade monopoly, to be run by some imperial favourites including Spaniards and Poles. The idea was to win [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\")'s and [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\")'s support, both of which since long were after the destruction of the *Hanseatic League*.",
"In May 1625 [Christian IV of Denmark, Duke of Holstein](/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark \"Christian IV of Denmark\") was elected – in the latter of his functions – by the [Lower Saxon Circle](/wiki/Lower_Saxon_Circle \"Lower Saxon Circle\")'s member territories commander\\-in\\-chief of the Lower Saxon troops. More troops were recruited and to be billeted and alimented in the Lower Saxon territories, including the Prince\\-Archbishopric. In the same year *Christian IV* joined the Anglo\\-Dutch war coalition. In 1625 [Johan 't Serclaes, Count of Tilly](/wiki/Johann_Tserclaes%2C_Count_of_Tilly \"Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly\") warned John Frederick to further accept the stationing of Danish troops and [Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor\"), demanded the immediate end of his and *Verden's* alliance with [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\"), with *Verden* being already ruled by *Christian's* son [Frederick II, Administrator of the Prince\\-Bishopric of Verden](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark \"Frederick III of Denmark\"), being as well the provided successor of *John Frederick*. He declared again his loyalty to the Emperor and neutrality in the conflict. But all in vain.",
"Now *Christian IV* ordered his troops to capture all the important traffic hubs in the Prince\\-Archbishopric and entered into the [Battle of Lutter am Barenberge](/wiki/Battle_of_Lutter \"Battle of Lutter\"), on 27 August 1626, where he was defeated by the [Leaguist](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28German%29 \"Catholic League (German)\") troops under *Tilly*. *Christian IV* and his surviving troops fled to the Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen and took their headquarters in *Stade*. *John Frederick* fled to his [Prince\\-Bishopric of Lübeck](/wiki/Bishopric_of_L%C3%BCbeck \"Bishopric of Lübeck\") and left the rule in the *Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen* to the Chapter and the Estates.",
"By 1627 *Christian IV* had de facto dismissed his cousin *John Frederick* from the Bremian See. In the same year *Christian IV* withdrew from the Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen, in order to fight *Wallenstein's* invasion of his [Duchy of Holstein](/wiki/Holstein \"Holstein\"). *Tilly* then invaded the Prince\\-Archbishopric and captured its southern parts. The city of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\") shut its city gates and entrenched behind its improved fortifications. In 1628 *Tilly* beleaguered *Stade* with its remaining garrison of 3,500 Danish and English soldiers. On May 5, 1628 *Tilly* granted them safe\\-conduct to England and Denmark and the whole Prince\\-Archbishopric was in his hands. Now *Tilly* turned to the city of [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\"), which paid him a ransom of 10,000 [rixdollars](/wiki/Rixdollar \"Rixdollar\") in order to spare its siege. The city remained unoccupied.",
"*Wallenstein* had meanwhile conquered all the [Jutish Peninsula](/wiki/Jutland_Peninsula \"Jutland Peninsula\"), which made *Christian IV* to sign the [Treaty of Lübeck](/wiki/Treaty_of_L%C3%BCbeck \"Treaty of Lübeck\"), on May 22, 1629, in order to regain possession of all his feoffs on the peninsula, he in return agreed to formally end Denmark's participation in the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\") and waived for his son [Frederick II, Administrator of the Prince\\-Bishopric of Verden](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark \"Frederick III of Denmark\"), the administration of that prince\\-bishopric as well as the provided succession as Administrator of the [Prince\\-Bishopric of Halberstadt](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Halberstadt \"Prince-Bishopric of Halberstadt\").",
"*John Frederick*, exiled in the [Imperial Free City of Lübeck](/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck \"Free City of Lübeck\"), was in a markedly weak position. So in 1628 he consented that the Lutheran convent in the former [Premonstratensian](/wiki/Premonstratensians \"Premonstratensians\") {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Our Lady's Friary, Stade\\|de\\|3\\=Kloster St. Marien (Stade)\\|lt\\=''Our Lady's Friary''}} in *Stade* – under Leaguist occupation – was restituted to Catholic rite and manned with foreign monks, if the Chapter would also agree. Again passing the buck on to the Chapter.",
"The Leaguist takeover enabled [Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor\"), to implement the [Edict of Restitution](/wiki/Edict_of_Restitution \"Edict of Restitution\"), decreed March 6, 1629, within the *Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen*. The Bremian monasteries still maintaining Roman Catholic rite – [Altkloster](/wiki/Buxtehude \"Buxtehude\"), *[Harsefeld](/wiki/Harsefeld \"Harsefeld\")* {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Harsefeld Archabbey\\|de\\|3\\=Kloster Harsefeld\\|lt\\=''Archabbey''}}, [Neukloster](/wiki/Buxtehude%23Pfingstmarkt_Neukloster \"Buxtehude#Pfingstmarkt Neukloster\"), and {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Zeven Convent\\|de\\|3\\=Kloster Zeven\\|lt\\=''Zeven Nunnery''}} – became the local strongholds for a reCatholicisation within the scope of [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\").",
"Under the threat of the [Edict of Restitution](/wiki/Edict_of_Restitution \"Edict of Restitution\") *John Frederick* consented to [Canonical Visitations](/wiki/Canonical_Visitation \"Canonical Visitation\") of the remaining monasteries, those clinging to Roman Catholic rite and those converted to voluntary Lutheran convents alike. Nunneries had traditionally been institutions to provide unmarried daughters of the better off, who couldn't be provided a husband befitting their social status or who didn't want to marry, with a decent livelihood. So when an unmarried woman of that status joined a nunnery she would bestow earning assets (real estate) or – restricted to her lifetime – regular revenues paid by her male relatives, on the nunnery, making up in the former case part of the nunnery's [estates](/wiki/Estate_%28law%29 \"Estate (law)\") (not to be confused with the political body of the [Estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_Realm \"Estates of the Realm\")).",
"In many territories, where the majority of the population adopted [Lutheranism](/wiki/Lutheranism \"Lutheranism\"), the nunneries' function to provide sustenance for unmarried women wasn't to be given up. So it happened that the Prince\\-Archbishopric's former Roman Catholic [nunneries of Himmelpforten](/wiki/Himmelpforten_Convent \"Himmelpforten Convent\"), *[Lilienthal](/wiki/Lilienthal%2C_Lower_Saxony \"Lilienthal, Lower Saxony\")* {{Interlanguage link multi\\|Lilienthal Convent\\|de\\|3\\=Kloster Lilienthal\\|lt\\=''St. Mary's Nunnery in the Valley of Lillies''}}, [Neuenwalde](/wiki/Neuenwalde_Convent \"Neuenwalde Convent\"),Neuenwalde Convent has been re\\-established as Lutheran convent after the end of the Catholic occupation and is functioning up to the present day as such an institution. and [Osterholz](/wiki/Osterholz \"Osterholz\") with all their estates had turned into such foundations (German: das *Stift*, more particular: [*Damenstift*](/wiki/Frauenstift \"Frauenstift\"), literally *Ladies' foundation*), while the nunnery of [Zeven](/wiki/Zeven \"Zeven\") was in the process of becoming one, with – among a majority of Catholic nuns – a number of *nuns* of Lutheran denomination, usually called conventuals. Other expressions like abbess, for the chairwoman, and prioress for conventuals of certain hierarchic function, were – and are partly – continued to be used in such Lutheran *Stifte*.",
"Within the scope of the [visitations](/wiki/Canonical_Visitation \"Canonical Visitation\") by the end of the year 1629 the Roman Catholic *visitors* issued an ultimatum to the Lutheran conventuals to convert to [Catholicism](/wiki/Catholicism \"Catholicism\") or to leave the [convents](/wiki/Convent \"Convent\"). No conversion had been recorded, so at different dates between before Christmas 1629 and April 1631 all Lutheran conventuals had been thrown out from the nunneries, with the estates of *Himmelpforten* and *Neuenwalde* then being bestowed to the [Jesuits](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus \"Society of Jesus\"), in order to finance them and their missioning in the course of the *Counter\\-Reformation* in the Prince\\-Archbishopric. The expelled conventuals were denied to get the real estate restituted, which they bestowed on the nunnery, when they entered it.",
"*Ferdinand II* suspended the capitulars from penalty, if they would dismiss the Lutheran coadjutor [Frederick, later Crown Prince of Denmark](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark \"Frederick III of Denmark\") from office. The Chapter refused, still backing *Frederick*, whom it had elected with full legal validity in 1621\\. So *Ferdinand II* himself dismissed him by way of using the *Edict of Restitution*, in favour of his youngest son, the Roman Catholic [Leopold Wilhelm, Archduke of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Leopold_Wilhelm_of_Austria \"Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria\"), already prince\\-bishop of [Halberstadt](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt \"Bishopric of Halberstadt\") (1628\\-1648\\), [Passau](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Passau \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Passau\") (1625\\-1662\\) and [Strasbourg](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Strasbourg \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Strasbourg\") (1626\\-1662\\).",
"*Ferdinand II* left *John Frederick* in office, against Leaguist resistance, for he had always kept loyalty to him. The *Catholic League* wished the Roman Catholic [Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg](/wiki/Franz_Wilhelm_von_Wartenberg \"Franz Wilhelm von Wartenberg\"), prince\\-bishopric of [Osnabrück](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Osnabr%C3%BCck \"Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück\") (1625–1661\\), onto the See. After all, the See included at those years an annual revenue of 60,000 [rixdollars](/wiki/Rixdollar \"Rixdollar\") at the free disposal of its holder, making up half the Prince\\-Archbishopric's budget.",
"*Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg*, appointed by *Ferdinand II* as chairman of the imperial *restitution commission*, carrying out the provisions of the *Edict of Restitution* in the *Lower Saxon Circle*, dismissed *John Frederick* in 1629, who acquiesced.",
"In February 1631 *John Frederick* conferred with [Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden](/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus_of_Sweden \"Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden\") and a number of Lower Saxon princes in [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig \"Leipzig\"), all of them troubled by Habsburg's growing influence wielded by virtue of the *Edict of Restitution* in a number of Northern German Lutheran prince\\-bishoprics. *John Frederick* speculated to regain the Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen and therefore in June/July 1631 officially allied himself with Sweden. For the war being *John Frederick* accepted the supreme command of *Gustavus II Adolphus*, who promised to restitute the Prince\\-Archbishopric to its former Administrator. In October an Army, newly recruited by *John Frederick*, started to reconquer the Prince\\-Archbishopric and – supported by Swedish troops – to capture the neighboured Prince\\-Bishopric of Verden, de facto dismissing *Verden's* Catholic Prince\\-Bishop [Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg](/wiki/Franz_Wilhelm_von_Wartenberg \"Franz Wilhelm von Wartenberg\"), (ruled 1630–1632\\) and causing the flight of the Catholic clergy wherever they arrived. The *Prince\\-Bishopric of Verden* became subject of a Swedish military administration with *John Frederick* being officially the Administrator.",
"The reconquest of the *Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen* – helped by forces from Sweden and from the city of Bremen – was interrupted by Leaguist forces under [Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim](/wiki/Gottfried_Heinrich_Graf_zu_Pappenheim \"Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim\"), coming as a relief to [Stade](/wiki/Stade \"Stade\"), where they joined the Catholic imperial and Leaguist forces still holding out. On May 10, 1632, they were granted safe\\-conduct and left a desperately impoverished city of [Stade](/wiki/Stade \"Stade\") after its siege by *John Frederick's* forces. *John Frederick* was back in his office, only to realise the supremacy of Sweden, insisting on its supreme command until the war's end.",
"The *Prince\\-Archbishopric of Bremen* continuously suffered from billeting and alimenting soldiers. The relation between the Estates, who had to maintain administration under Catholic occupation, and the returned *John Frederick* were difficult. The Estates preferred to directly negotiate with the occupants, this time the Swedes. *John Frederick* wanted to secularise the monasteries in favour of his budget, but the opposing Estates prevented that.",
"After *John Frederick's* death in 1634 the Bremian Chapter and Estates regarded [Frederick's (later Danish Crown Prince)](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark \"Frederick III of Denmark\") dismissal as coadjutor by [Ferdinand II](/wiki/Ferdinand_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor\") by virtue of the *Edict of Restitution* illegitimate. But the Swedish occupants had to be persuaded first, to accept *Frederick's* succession. So Chapter and Estates ruled the Prince\\-Archbishopric until the conclusion of the negotiations with Sweden. In 1635 he succeeded as Lutheran Administrator [Frederick II](/wiki/Frederick_III_of_Denmark \"Frederick III of Denmark\") in the Sees of Bremen and of Verden. But he had to render homage to the minor Queen regnant [Christina of Sweden](/wiki/Christina_of_Sweden \"Christina of Sweden\").",
"In the same year [Pope Urban VIII](/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII \"Pope Urban VIII\") provided the Catholic coadjutor [Leopold Wilhelm, Archduke of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Leopold_Wilhelm_of_Austria \"Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria\"), imposed in 1629 by his father *Ferdinand II*, with the Archdiocese of Bremen, but due to its persisting occupation by the Swedes he never gained de facto pastoral influence let alone the power as prince\\-archbishop.",
""
] |
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