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### Publishing and distribution From its earliest days, the SPCK commissioned tracts and pamphlets, making it the third\-oldest publishing house in England. (Only the [Oxford](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press") and [Cambridge University Presses](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press") have existed longer.) Very early on, SPCK member [George Sale](/wiki/George_Sale "George Sale") translated The Koran into English and this was published in 1734 by the SPCK, much to the praise of [Voltaire](/wiki/Voltaire "Voltaire"). Throughout the 18th century, SPCK was by far the largest producer of Christian literature in Britain.{{cn\\|date\=October 2023}} The range of its output was considerable \- from pamphlets aimed at specific groups such as farmers, prisoners, soldiers, seamen, servants and slave\-owners, to more general works on subjects such as baptism, confirmation, Holy Communion, the Prayer Book, and private devotion. Increasingly, more substantial books were also published, both on Christian subjects and, from the 1830s, on general educational topics as well. Depositories were established at [Great Queen Street](/wiki/Great_Queen_Street "Great Queen Street"), [Lincoln Inn's Fields](/wiki/Lincoln_Inn%27s_Fields "Lincoln Inn's Fields"), [Royal Exchange](/wiki/Royal_Exchange%2C_London "Royal Exchange, London") and [Piccadilly](/wiki/Piccadilly "Piccadilly").{{Cite book\\| title\=The children of Seeligsberg\\| date\=1875\\| author\= BTAO}} SPCK's early publications were distributed through a network of supporters who received books and tracts to sell or give away in their own localities. Large quantities of Christian literature were provided for the Navy, and the Society actively encouraged the formation of parish libraries, to help both clergy and laity. By the 19th century, members had organized local district committees, many of which established small book depots \- which at one time numbered over four hundred. These were overseen by central committees such as the Committee of General Literature and Education. In 1875 the addresses of their "depositories" in London were given as [Great Queen Street](/wiki/Great_Queen_Street "Great Queen Street"), [Lincoln Inn's Fields](/wiki/Lincoln_Inn%27s_Fields "Lincoln Inn's Fields"), [Royal Exchange](/wiki/Royal_Exchange%2C_London "Royal Exchange, London") and [Piccadilly](/wiki/Piccadilly "Piccadilly"), by 1899 they were at [Northumberland Avenue](/wiki/Northumberland_Avenue "Northumberland Avenue"), W.C.; [Charing Cross](/wiki/Charing_Cross "Charing Cross"), W.C. and 43 [Queen Victoria Street](/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Street%2C_London "Queen Victoria Street, London"), E.C.."The Dawn of Day", 256th edition Six years later, in edition 331, the depository was closed at Charing Cross, but a new one added at 129, North Street in Brighton. In the 1930s, a centrally coordinated network of SPCK Bookshops was established, offering a wide range of books from many different publishers. At its peak, the SPCK Bookshop chain consisted of 40 shops in the UK and 20 overseas. The latter were gradually passed into local ownership during the 1960s and 1970s. [Holy Trinity Church, Marylebone](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Marylebone "Holy Trinity Church, Marylebone"), Westminster, London is a former Anglican church, built in 1828 by Sir [John Soane](/wiki/John_Soane "John Soane"). By the 1930s, it had fallen into disuse and in 1936 was used by the newly founded Penguin Books company to store books. A children's slide was used to deliver books from the street into the large crypt. In 1937, Penguin moved out to [Harmondsworth](/wiki/Harmondsworth "Harmondsworth"), and the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge moved in. It was their headquarters until 2004, when it moved to [London Diocesan House](/wiki/Diocese_of_London "Diocese of London") in Causton Street, Pimlico. The bookshop moved to Tufton Street, Westminster, in 2003\. In 1999 the SPCK established the Assemblies website to provide resources for school assemblies.[SPCK Assemblies \- About \- How to use this site](https://www.assemblies.org.uk/about/how-to-use/), assemblies.org.uk. Retrieved 24 December 2023\. On 1 November 2006, St Stephen the Great Charitable Trust (SSG) took over the bookshops but continued to trade under the SPCK name, under licence from SPCK. That licence was withdrawn in October 2007\. However, some shops continued trading as SPCK Bookshops without licence until the SSG operation was closed down in 2009\.{{cn\\|date\=October 2023}} In 2006 Alec Gilmore described what he called the "narrowing" of the SPCK's vision.Alec Gilmore, ["Before they narrowed the vision"](https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2006/22-december/comment/before-they-narrowed-the-vision), [Church Times](/wiki/Church_Times "Church Times"), 19 December 2023\. Retrieved 23 December 2023\. In 2019 the SPCK's "specialist medical, mental health and self\-help imprint", The Sheldon Press, was acquired by Hachette UK.Katharine Cowdrey, ["Hachette acquires SPCK's Sheldon Press"](https://www.thebookseller.com/news/spcks-sheldon-press-join-john-murray-learning-923766), [The Bookseller](/wiki/The_Bookseller "The Bookseller"), 3 January 2019\. Retrieved 23 December 2023\.	[ "### Publishing and distribution", "From its earliest days, the SPCK commissioned tracts and pamphlets, making it the third\\-oldest publishing house in England. (Only the [Oxford](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press \"Oxford University Press\") and [Cambridge University Presses](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press \"Cambridge University Press\") have existed longer.) Very early on, SPCK member [George Sale](/wiki/George_Sale \"George Sale\") translated The Koran into English and this was published in 1734 by the SPCK, much to the praise of [Voltaire](/wiki/Voltaire \"Voltaire\").", "Throughout the 18th century, SPCK was by far the largest producer of Christian literature in Britain.{{cn\\\|date\\=October 2023}} The range of its output was considerable \\- from pamphlets aimed at specific groups such as farmers, prisoners, soldiers, seamen, servants and slave\\-owners, to more general works on subjects such as baptism, confirmation, Holy Communion, the Prayer Book, and private devotion. Increasingly, more substantial books were also published, both on Christian subjects and, from the 1830s, on general educational topics as well.", "Depositories were established at [Great Queen Street](/wiki/Great_Queen_Street \"Great Queen Street\"), [Lincoln Inn's Fields](/wiki/Lincoln_Inn%27s_Fields \"Lincoln Inn's Fields\"), [Royal Exchange](/wiki/Royal_Exchange%2C_London \"Royal Exchange, London\") and [Piccadilly](/wiki/Piccadilly \"Piccadilly\").{{Cite book\\\| title\\=The children of Seeligsberg\\\| date\\=1875\\\| author\\= BTAO}}", "SPCK's early publications were distributed through a network of supporters who received books and tracts to sell or give away in their own localities. Large quantities of Christian literature were provided for the Navy, and the Society actively encouraged the formation of parish libraries, to help both clergy and laity. By the 19th century, members had organized local district committees, many of which established small book depots \\- which at one time numbered over four hundred. These were overseen by central committees such as the Committee of General Literature and Education. In 1875 the addresses of their \"depositories\" in London were given as [Great Queen Street](/wiki/Great_Queen_Street \"Great Queen Street\"), [Lincoln Inn's Fields](/wiki/Lincoln_Inn%27s_Fields \"Lincoln Inn's Fields\"), [Royal Exchange](/wiki/Royal_Exchange%2C_London \"Royal Exchange, London\") and [Piccadilly](/wiki/Piccadilly \"Piccadilly\"), by 1899 they were at [Northumberland Avenue](/wiki/Northumberland_Avenue \"Northumberland Avenue\"), W.C.; [Charing Cross](/wiki/Charing_Cross \"Charing Cross\"), W.C. and 43 [Queen Victoria Street](/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Street%2C_London \"Queen Victoria Street, London\"), E.C..\"The Dawn of Day\", 256th edition Six years later, in edition 331, the depository was closed at Charing Cross, but a new one added at 129, North Street in Brighton.", "In the 1930s, a centrally coordinated network of SPCK Bookshops was established, offering a wide range of books from many different publishers. At its peak, the SPCK Bookshop chain consisted of 40 shops in the UK and 20 overseas. The latter were gradually passed into local ownership during the 1960s and 1970s.", "[Holy Trinity Church, Marylebone](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Marylebone \"Holy Trinity Church, Marylebone\"), Westminster, London is a former Anglican church, built in 1828 by Sir [John Soane](/wiki/John_Soane \"John Soane\"). By the 1930s, it had fallen into disuse and in 1936 was used by the newly founded Penguin Books company to store books. A children's slide was used to deliver books from the street into the large crypt. In 1937, Penguin moved out to [Harmondsworth](/wiki/Harmondsworth \"Harmondsworth\"), and the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge moved in. It was their headquarters until 2004, when it moved to [London Diocesan House](/wiki/Diocese_of_London \"Diocese of London\") in Causton Street, Pimlico. The bookshop moved to Tufton Street, Westminster, in 2003\\.", "In 1999 the SPCK established the Assemblies website to provide resources for school assemblies.[SPCK Assemblies \\- About \\- How to use this site](https://www.assemblies.org.uk/about/how-to-use/), assemblies.org.uk. Retrieved 24 December 2023\\.", "On 1 November 2006, St Stephen the Great Charitable Trust (SSG) took over the bookshops but continued to trade under the SPCK name, under licence from SPCK. That licence was withdrawn in October 2007\\. However, some shops continued trading as SPCK Bookshops without licence until the SSG operation was closed down in 2009\\.{{cn\\\|date\\=October 2023}} In 2006 Alec Gilmore described what he called the \"narrowing\" of the SPCK's vision.Alec Gilmore, [\"Before they narrowed the vision\"](https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2006/22-december/comment/before-they-narrowed-the-vision), [Church Times](/wiki/Church_Times \"Church Times\"), 19 December 2023\\. Retrieved 23 December 2023\\.", "In 2019 the SPCK's \"specialist medical, mental health and self\\-help imprint\", The Sheldon Press, was acquired by Hachette UK.Katharine Cowdrey, [\"Hachette acquires SPCK's Sheldon Press\"](https://www.thebookseller.com/news/spcks-sheldon-press-join-john-murray-learning-923766), [The Bookseller](/wiki/The_Bookseller \"The Bookseller\"), 3 January 2019\\. Retrieved 23 December 2023\\.", "" ]
SPCK in the 2020s ----------------- The SPCK's publishing team produces around 80 titles per year, for audiences from a wide range of Christian traditions and none. The SPCK publishes under its own name, SPCK Publishing, and via three main imprints, IVP, Lion Hudson and Marylebone House. ### SPCK Publishing SPCK Publishing is a market leader in the areas of theology and Christian spirituality.{{Cite web\\|url\=https://spckpublishing.co.uk/about\-us\\|title\=About SPCK\\|publisher\=SPCK Publishing\\|access\-date\=8 March 2019}} At present, key authors for SPCK include the Anglican New Testament scholar [N. T. Wright](/wiki/N._T._Wright "N. T. Wright"), the former Archbishop of Canterbury [Rowan Williams](/wiki/Rowan_Williams "Rowan Williams"), [Paula Gooder](/wiki/Paula_Gooder "Paula Gooder") and [Alister McGrath](/wiki/Alister_McGrath "Alister McGrath"). Recent additions to SPCK's list include [Guvna B](/wiki/Guvna_B "Guvna B"), and Ben Cooley, founder of [Hope for Justice](/wiki/Hope_for_Justice "Hope for Justice"). SPCK is also increasingly gaining recognition in the secular space in genres such as history and leadership. SPCK represent authors such as [Terry Waite](/wiki/Terry_Waite "Terry Waite"), [Melvyn Bragg](/wiki/Melvyn_Bragg "Melvyn Bragg") and [Janina Ramirez](/wiki/Janina_Ramirez "Janina Ramirez"). #### SPCK's current book series In 2023 SPCK Publishing was issuing the following series:[Search results for: series](https://spckpublishing.co.uk/catalogsearch/result/?q=series), spckpublishing.co.uk. Retrieved 22 April 2023\. * Discovering Series * Food for the Journey * For Everyone Series * Modern Church Series ### IVP SPCK merged with [Inter\-Varsity Press](/wiki/Inter-Varsity_Press "Inter-Varsity Press") (IVP) in 2015\.{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.thebookseller.com/news/ivp\-and\-spck\-partner\-314290\\|title\=SPCK moves to secure future of IVP\\|work\=The Bookseller\\|access\-date\=8 March 2019}} IVP maintains its own board of trustees and editorial board. Key authors for IVP include [John Stott](/wiki/John_Stott "John Stott"), [Don Carson](/wiki/D._A._Carson "D. A. Carson"), Amy Orr\-Ewing and Emma Scrivener. ### Lion Hudson SPCK purchased [Lion Hudson](/wiki/Lion_Hudson "Lion Hudson") in 2021{{cite web\\|work\=The Bookseller\\|title\=SPCK buys Lion Hudson's publishing business\\|url\=https://www.thebookseller.com/news/spck\-buys\-lion\-hudson\-become\-uks\-biggest\-publisher\-1256461}} which is now an SPCK imprint. ### Marylebone House In 2014, SPCK launched its fiction imprint, Marylebone House,{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.marylebonehousebooks.co.uk/\\|publisher\=Marylebone House\\|title\=Home page\\|access\-date\=8 March 2019}} which publishes a range of contemporary and historical fiction, short stories and clerical crime mysteries, with Christian characters and Christian themes. ### Diffusion prison fiction SPCK also owns the imprint Diffusion, which has published 12 titles especially commissioned for adults who struggle to read. These titles are divided into two series, "Star" and "Diamond". Star books are written for adults who are new to reading and need to improve their very basic skills, while the Diamond series is more appropriate for learners who want to develop their reading confidence further.{{Cite web \\|title\=Diffusion Books \\|url\=https://spckpublishing.co.uk/diffusion\_books \\|access\-date\=13 March 2019 \\|publisher\=SPCK Publishing}} All of the books are suitable for adults, but written in a style and typeface that is accessible to people with very basic literacy skills. SPCK provides these books for free to prisons including to individual prisoners, prison libraries and prison reading groups. This is done with the aim of addressing two major causes of re\-offending: lack of employment on release and lack of support from family and friends. At the end of each chapter, the Diffusion books contain questions which can be discussed in a reading group, thereby developing verbal communication and social skills. These questions focus on developing empathy by asking questions like "what would it feel like to be in that character's position?" and encourage self\-reflection by asking "how does this example apply to my own life?".{{Cite web \\|title\=What We Do {{!}} Improving Literacy \\|url\=https://www.diffusionbooks.org.uk/reading\-groups \\|access\-date\=13 March 2019 \\|publisher\=Diffusion Books}} By the end of 2018, the SPCK had sent Diffusion books to 70% of prisons in the UK. In 2018 alone, it sent out over 6,500 books. ### The African Theological Network Press Together with the [Akrofi\-Christaller Institute of Theology, Mission and Culture](/wiki/Akrofi-Christaller_Institute "Akrofi-Christaller Institute"), the Jesuit Historical Institute in Africa and Missio Africanus, the SPCK founded the African Theological Network Press (the ATNP). The ATNP publishes theology written by Africans on topics that matter to African Christians. The ATNP is a centralised commissioning and editorial unit, based in [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi "Nairobi"). The material is distributed across Africa to be printed locally, which avoids the problems of localised publishing where books rarely make it outside the country in which they are published. The ATNP seeks to mitigate the dependence of African theological study and teaching on publications from the global North.{{Cite web\\|url\=https://spckpublishing.co.uk/african\-theological\-network\-press\\|title\=African Theological Network Press \- ATNP\\| publisher\=SPCK Publishing\\| access\-date\=8 March 2019}}	[ "SPCK in the 2020s\n-----------------", "The SPCK's publishing team produces around 80 titles per year, for audiences from a wide range of Christian traditions and none. The SPCK publishes under its own name, SPCK Publishing, and via three main imprints, IVP, Lion Hudson and Marylebone House.", "### SPCK Publishing", "SPCK Publishing is a market leader in the areas of theology and Christian spirituality.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://spckpublishing.co.uk/about\\-us\\\|title\\=About SPCK\\\|publisher\\=SPCK Publishing\\\|access\\-date\\=8 March 2019}} At present, key authors for SPCK include the Anglican New Testament scholar [N. T. Wright](/wiki/N._T._Wright \"N. T. Wright\"), the former Archbishop of Canterbury [Rowan Williams](/wiki/Rowan_Williams \"Rowan Williams\"), [Paula Gooder](/wiki/Paula_Gooder \"Paula Gooder\") and [Alister McGrath](/wiki/Alister_McGrath \"Alister McGrath\"). Recent additions to SPCK's list include [Guvna B](/wiki/Guvna_B \"Guvna B\"), and Ben Cooley, founder of [Hope for Justice](/wiki/Hope_for_Justice \"Hope for Justice\").", "SPCK is also increasingly gaining recognition in the secular space in genres such as history and leadership. SPCK represent authors such as [Terry Waite](/wiki/Terry_Waite \"Terry Waite\"), [Melvyn Bragg](/wiki/Melvyn_Bragg \"Melvyn Bragg\") and [Janina Ramirez](/wiki/Janina_Ramirez \"Janina Ramirez\").", "#### SPCK's current book series", "In 2023 SPCK Publishing was issuing the following series:[Search results for: series](https://spckpublishing.co.uk/catalogsearch/result/?q=series), spckpublishing.co.uk. Retrieved 22 April 2023\\.\n* Discovering Series\n* Food for the Journey\n* For Everyone Series\n* Modern Church Series", "### IVP", "SPCK merged with [Inter\\-Varsity Press](/wiki/Inter-Varsity_Press \"Inter-Varsity Press\") (IVP) in 2015\\.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.thebookseller.com/news/ivp\\-and\\-spck\\-partner\\-314290\\\|title\\=SPCK moves to secure future of IVP\\\|work\\=The Bookseller\\\|access\\-date\\=8 March 2019}} IVP maintains its own board of trustees and editorial board. Key authors for IVP include [John Stott](/wiki/John_Stott \"John Stott\"), [Don Carson](/wiki/D._A._Carson \"D. A. Carson\"), Amy Orr\\-Ewing and Emma Scrivener.", "### Lion Hudson", "SPCK purchased [Lion Hudson](/wiki/Lion_Hudson \"Lion Hudson\") in 2021{{cite web\\\|work\\=The Bookseller\\\|title\\=SPCK buys Lion Hudson's publishing business\\\|url\\=https://www.thebookseller.com/news/spck\\-buys\\-lion\\-hudson\\-become\\-uks\\-biggest\\-publisher\\-1256461}} which is now an SPCK imprint.", "### Marylebone House", "In 2014, SPCK launched its fiction imprint, Marylebone House,{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.marylebonehousebooks.co.uk/\\\|publisher\\=Marylebone House\\\|title\\=Home page\\\|access\\-date\\=8 March 2019}} which publishes a range of contemporary and historical fiction, short stories and clerical crime mysteries, with Christian characters and Christian themes.", "### Diffusion prison fiction", "SPCK also owns the imprint Diffusion, which has published 12 titles especially commissioned for adults who struggle to read. These titles are divided into two series, \"Star\" and \"Diamond\". Star books are written for adults who are new to reading and need to improve their very basic skills, while the Diamond series is more appropriate for learners who want to develop their reading confidence further.{{Cite web \\\|title\\=Diffusion Books \\\|url\\=https://spckpublishing.co.uk/diffusion\\_books \\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2019 \\\|publisher\\=SPCK Publishing}} All of the books are suitable for adults, but written in a style and typeface that is accessible to people with very basic literacy skills.", "SPCK provides these books for free to prisons including to individual prisoners, prison libraries and prison reading groups. This is done with the aim of addressing two major causes of re\\-offending: lack of employment on release and lack of support from family and friends. At the end of each chapter, the Diffusion books contain questions which can be discussed in a reading group, thereby developing verbal communication and social skills. These questions focus on developing empathy by asking questions like \"what would it feel like to be in that character's position?\" and encourage self\\-reflection by asking \"how does this example apply to my own life?\".{{Cite web \\\|title\\=What We Do {{!}} Improving Literacy \\\|url\\=https://www.diffusionbooks.org.uk/reading\\-groups \\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2019 \\\|publisher\\=Diffusion Books}}", "By the end of 2018, the SPCK had sent Diffusion books to 70% of prisons in the UK. In 2018 alone, it sent out over 6,500 books.", "### The African Theological Network Press", "Together with the [Akrofi\\-Christaller Institute of Theology, Mission and Culture](/wiki/Akrofi-Christaller_Institute \"Akrofi-Christaller Institute\"), the Jesuit Historical Institute in Africa and Missio Africanus, the SPCK founded the African Theological Network Press (the ATNP). The ATNP publishes theology written by Africans on topics that matter to African Christians.", "The ATNP is a centralised commissioning and editorial unit, based in [Nairobi](/wiki/Nairobi \"Nairobi\"). The material is distributed across Africa to be printed locally, which avoids the problems of localised publishing where books rarely make it outside the country in which they are published.", "The ATNP seeks to mitigate the dependence of African theological study and teaching on publications from the global North.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://spckpublishing.co.uk/african\\-theological\\-network\\-press\\\|title\\=African Theological Network Press \\- ATNP\\\| publisher\\=SPCK Publishing\\\| access\\-date\\=8 March 2019}}", "" ]
Publication history ------------------- By the end of the 19th century, stories centered on scientific inventions and set in the future, in the tradition of [Jules Verne](/wiki/Jules_Verne "Jules Verne"), were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 7\. Magazines such as [Munsey's Magazine](/wiki/Munsey%27s_Magazine "Munsey's Magazine") and [The Argosy](/wiki/Argosy_%28magazine%29 "Argosy (magazine)"), launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively, carried a few science fiction stories each year. Some upmarket "slicks" such as [McClure's](/wiki/McClure%27s "McClure's"), which paid well and were aimed at a more literary audience, also carried scientific stories, but by the early years of the 20th century, science fiction (though it was not yet called that) was appearing more often in the [pulp magazines](/wiki/Pulp_magazine "Pulp magazine") than in the slicks.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 21–25\.Nicholls, "Pulp Magazines", p. 979\.Ashley, Transformations, p. 155\. The first science fiction magazine, [Amazing Stories](/wiki/Amazing_Stories "Amazing Stories"), was launched in 1926 by [Hugo Gernsback](/wiki/Hugo_Gernsback "Hugo Gernsback") at the height of the pulp magazine era. It helped to form science fiction as a separately marketed genre, and by the end of the 1930s a "[Golden Age of Science Fiction](/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Science_Fiction "Golden Age of Science Fiction")" had begun, inaugurated by the efforts of John W. Campbell, the editor of [Astounding Science Fiction](/wiki/Astounding_Science_Fiction "Astounding Science Fiction"). Wonder Stories was launched in the pulp era, not long after Amazing Stories, and lasted through the Golden Age and well into the 1950s.Stableford, "Amazing Stories", p. 27\.Nicholls, "Golden Age of SF", p. 258\. The publisher was Stellar Publishing company based in New York City.{{cite book\\|editor\=H. W. Hall\\|title\=The Science Fiction Magazine Checklist\\|url\=https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969\.1/157551/MAGCHECKLIST\-TO%20CONVERT%20TO%20PDF.pdf?sequence\=1\\|date\=1983\\|location\=Bryan, TX\\|isbn\=0\-935064\-10\-9\\|page\=10\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923145421/https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969\.1/157551/MAGCHECKLIST\-TO%20CONVERT%20TO%20PDF.pdf?sequence\=1\\|archive\-date\=September 23, 2021}} ### Gernsback era \| \+Air Wonder Stories \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1929 \| \| \| \| \| \| \|1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 \| 1930 \|1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|Volume and issue numbers of Air Wonder Stories. The editor was David Lasser throughout. Gernsback's new magazine, Amazing Stories, was successful, but Gernsback lost control of the publisher when it went bankrupt in February 1929\. By April he had formed a new company, Gernsback Publications Incorporated, and created two subsidiaries: Techni\-Craft Publishing Corporation and Stellar Publishing Corporation. Gernsback sent out letters advertising his plans for new magazines; the mailing lists he used almost certainly were compiled from the subscription lists of Amazing Stories. This would have been illegal, as the lists were owned by Irving Trust, the receiver of the bankruptcy. Gernsback denied using the lists under oath, but historians have generally agreed that he must have done so. The letters also asked potential subscribers to decide the name of the new magazine; they voted for "Science Wonder Stories", which became the name of one of Gernsback's new magazines.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 579–581\.Perry, "An Amazing Story" pp. 114–115\. \| \+ Science Wonder Stories \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1929 \| \| \| \| \| \|1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 \| 1930 \|1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 1/12 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|Volume and issue numbers of Science Wonder Stories. The editor was David Lasser throughout. Gernsback's recovery from the bankruptcy judgment was remarkably quick. By early June he had launched three new magazines, two of which published science fiction.The other was Radio\-Craft, which was aimed at radio hobbyists and repairmen. See Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 579\. The June 1929 issue of Science Wonder Stories appeared on newsstands on 5 May 1929, and was followed on 5 June by the July 1929 issue of Air Wonder Stories.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 541–543\. Both magazines were monthly, with Gernsback as editor\-in\-chief and [David Lasser](/wiki/David_Lasser "David Lasser") as editor.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 64\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 237\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 254\. Lasser had no prior editing experience and knew little about science fiction, but his recently acquired degree from [MIT](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology "Massachusetts Institute of Technology") convinced Gernsback to hire him.Davin, Pioneers, p. 47\. Gernsback claimed that science fiction was educational. He repeatedly made this assertion in Amazing Stories, and continued to do so in his editorials for the new magazines, stating, for example, that "teachers encourage the reading of this fiction because they know that it gives the pupil a fundamental knowledge of science and aviation."Gernsback, editorial in Air Wonder Stories, July 1929, p. 5, quoted in Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 542\. He also recruited a panel of "nationally known educators \[who] pass upon the scientific principles of all stories". Science fiction historian [Everett Bleiler](/wiki/Everett_Bleiler "Everett Bleiler") describes this as "fakery, pure and simple", asserting that there is no evidence that the men on the panel—some of whom, such as [Lee De Forest](/wiki/Lee_De_Forest "Lee De Forest"), were well\-known scientists—had any editorial influence.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 580\. However, [Donald Menzel](/wiki/Donald_Menzel "Donald Menzel"), the astrophysicist on the panel, said that Gernsback sent him manuscripts and made changes to stories as a result of Menzel's commentary.Carter, Creation of Tomorrow, p. 11\. \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1930 \| \| \| \| \| \|2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7 \| 1931 \|2/8 2/9 2/10 2/11 2/12 3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 3/7 \| 1932 \|3/8 3/9 3/10 3/11 3/12 4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7 \| 1933 \|4/8 4/9 4/10 4/11 4/12 5/1 \|5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5 \| 1934 \|5/6 5/7 5/8 5/9 5/10 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6 6/7 \| 1935 \|6/8 6/9 6/10 6/11 6/12 7/1 7/2 7/3 7/4 7/5 \|7/6 \| 1936 \| \|7/7 \|7/8 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|Issues of Wonder Stories from the merger of Science Wonder and Air Wonder to the acquisition by Beacon Publications, indicating editors: Lasser (blue, 1930–1933\), and Hornig (yellow, 1933–1936\) In 1930, Gernsback decided to merge Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories into Wonder Stories. The reason for the merger is unknown, although it may have been that he needed the space in the printing schedule for his new Aviation Mechanics magazine.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 70–71\. Bleiler has suggested that the merger was caused by poor sales and a consequent need to downsize. In addition, Air Wonder Stories was probably focused on too specialized a niche to succeed. In an editorial just before Science Wonder Stories changed its name, Gernsback commented that the word "Science" in the title "has tended to retard the progress of the magazine, because many people had the impression that it is a sort of scientific periodical rather than a fiction magazine".Gernsback, in Science Wonder, May 1930, p. 1099; quoted in Ashley, Time Machines, p. 71\. Ironically, the inclusion of "science" in the title was the reason that science fiction writer [Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov "Isaac Asimov") began reading the magazine; when he saw the August 1929 issue he obtained permission to read it from his father on the grounds that it was clearly educational.Asimov, Before the Golden Age I, p. 29\. Concerns about the marketability of titles seem to have surfaced in the last two issues of Science Wonder, which had the word "Science" printed in a color that made it difficult to read. On the top of the cover appeared the words "Mystery\-Adventure\-Romance", the last of which was a surprising way to advertise a science fiction magazine. The first issue of the merged magazine appeared in June 1930, still on a monthly schedule, with Lasser as editor. The volume numbering continued that of Science Wonder Stories, therefore Wonder Stories is sometimes regarded as a retitling of Science Wonder Stories.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 586–589\. Gernsback had also produced a companion magazine for Science Wonder Stories, titled Science Wonder Quarterly, the first issue of which was published in the fall of 1929\. Three issues were produced under this title, but after the merger Gernsback changed the companion magazine's title to Wonder Stories Quarterly, and produced a further eleven issues under that title.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 578–579\.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 595–596\. \| \+Science Wonder Quarterly andWonder Stories Quarterly \| \| Winter \| Spring \| Summer \| Fall \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1929 \| \| \| \|1/1 \|1930 1/2 1/3 1/4 2/1 \| 1931 \|2/2 2/3 2/4 3/1 \| 1932 \|3/2 3/3 3/4 4/1 \| 1933 \|4/2 \| \| \| \|Science Wonder Quarterly (first three issues) and Wonder Stories Quarterly (all subsequent issues). The editor was David Lasser throughout. In July 1933, Gernsback dismissed Lasser as editor. Lasser had become active in promoting workers' rights and was spending less time on his editorial duties. According to Lasser, Gernsback told him "if you like working with the unemployed so much, I suggest you go and join them".Davin, Pioneers, p. 57\. It is likely that cost\-cutting was also a consideration, as Lasser was paid $65 per week, a substantial salary in those days.Davin, Pioneers, p. 57\. Bleiler, who cites Davin, gives Lasser's salary as $70 per week, though he does not explain the discrepancy; see Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 588\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 94, note 38\. Soon after Lasser was let go, Gernsback received a [fanzine](/wiki/Fanzine "Fanzine"), The Fantasy Fan, from a reader, [Charles Hornig](/wiki/Charles_Hornig "Charles Hornig"). Gernsback called Hornig to his office to interview him for the position of editor; Hornig turned out to be only 17, but Gernsback asked him to proofread a manuscript and decided that the results were satisfactory. Hornig was hired at an initial salary of $20 per week.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 78–79\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 70\. That same year, Gernsback dissolved Stellar Publications and created Continental Publications as the new publisher for Wonder Stories. The schedule stuttered for the first time, missing the July and September 1933 issues; the recent bankruptcy of the company's distributor, [Eastern Distributing Corporation](/wiki/Eastern_Distributing_Corporation "Eastern Distributing Corporation"), may have been partly responsible for this disruption.Davin, Pioneers, p. 29\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 43\. The first issue with Continental on the masthead, and the first listing Hornig as editor, was November 1933\. Wonder Stories had a circulation of about 25,000 in 1934, comparable to that of Amazing Stories, which had declined from an early peak of about 100,000\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 51\.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 85–86\. Gernsback considered issuing a reprint magazine in 1934, Wonder Stories Reprint Annual, but it never appeared.Tuck, Encyclopedia of SF, Vol. 3, p. 609\. That year he experimented with other fiction magazines—Pirate Stories and High Seas Adventures—but neither was successful. Wonder Stories was also failing, and in November 1935 it started publishing bimonthly instead of monthly. Gernsback had a reputation for paying slowly and was therefore unpopular with many authors; by 1936 he was even failing to pay [Laurence Manning](/wiki/Laurence_Manning "Laurence Manning"), one of his most reliable authors.Davin, Pioneers, p. 64\. Staff were sometimes asked to delay cashing their paychecks for weeks at a time.Hornig, quoted in Davin, Pioneers, p. 68; Hornig does not specify whether this happened only towards the end of Gernsback's control of the magazine. Gernsback felt the blame lay with dealers who were returning magazine covers as unsold copies, and then selling the stripped copies at a reduced rate. To bypass the dealers, he made a plea in the March 1936 issue to his readers, asking them to subscribe, and proposing to distribute Wonder Stories solely by subscription. There was little response, and Gernsback decided to sell. He made a deal with Ned Pines of [Beacon Magazines](/wiki/Beacon_Magazines "Beacon Magazines") and on 21 February 1936 Wonder Stories was sold.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 91\. ### Thrilling Wonder Stories \| \| \| Spring Summer Fall Winter \| --- \| --- \| \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \| \| 1936 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|8/1 \|8/2 \|8/3 \| 1937 \| \|9/1 \|9/2 \|9/3 \|10/1 \|10/2 \|10/3 \| 1938 \| \|11/1 \|11/2 \|11/3 \|12/1 \|12/2 \|12/3 \| 1939 \| \|13/1 \|13/2 \|13/3 \|14/1 \|14/2 \|14/3 \| 1940 \|15/1 15/2 15/3 16/1 16/2 16/3 17/1 17/2 17/3 18/1 18/2 18/3 \| 1941 \|19/1 19/2 19/3 20/1 \|20/2 \|20/3 \|21/1 \|21/2 \| 1942 \| \|21/3 \|22/1 \|22/2 \|22/3 \|23/1 \|23/2 \| 1943 \| \|23/3 \|24/1 \|24/2 \|24/3 \|25/1 \| \| \| 1944 \|25/2 \| \|25/3 \| \|26/1 \| \|26/2 \| \| \| 1945 \|26/3 \| \|27/1 \| \|27/2 \| \|27/3 \| \| \|Issues of Thrilling Wonder Stories from 1936 to 1945\. Editors are Mort Weisinger (green, 1936–1941\), Oscar Friend (pink, 1941–1944\), and Sam Merwin (purple, 1945\). Underlining indicates that an issue was titled as a quarterly (e.g. "Winter 1944") rather than as a monthly. Pines' magazines included several with "Thrilling" in the title, such as Thrilling Detective and Thrilling Love Stories. These were run by [Leo Margulies](/wiki/Leo_Margulies "Leo Margulies"), who had hired [Mort Weisinger](/wiki/Mort_Weisinger "Mort Weisinger") (among others) as the workload increased in the early 1930s. Weisinger was already an active science fiction fan, and when Wonder Stories was acquired, Margulies involved him in the editorial work. Margulies' group worked as a team, with Margulies listed as editor\-in\-chief on the magazines and having final say. However, since Weisinger knew science fiction well, Weisinger was quickly given more leeway, and bibliographers generally list Weisinger as the editor for this period of the magazine's history.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 100\. The title was changed to Thrilling Wonder Stories to match the rest of the "Thrilling" line. The first issue appeared in August 1936—four months after the last Gernsback Wonder Stories appeared. Wonder Stories had been monthly until the last few Gernsback issues; Thrilling Wonder was launched on a bimonthly schedule. In February 1938 Weisinger asked for reader feedback regarding the idea of a companion magazine; the response was positive, and in January 1939 the first issue of [Startling Stories](/wiki/Startling_Stories "Startling Stories") appeared, alternating months with Thrilling Wonder.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 136\. A year later Thrilling Wonder went monthly; this lasted fewer than eighteen months, and the bimonthly schedule resumed after April 1941\. Weisinger left that summer and was replaced at both Startling and Thrilling Wonder by [Oscar J. Friend](/wiki/Oscar_J._Friend "Oscar J. Friend"), a pulp writer with more experience in [Westerns](/wiki/Western_fiction "Western fiction") than science fiction, though he had published a novel, The Kid from Mars, in Startling Stories just the year before.Clute \& Edwards, "Oscar J. Friend", p. 454\. In mid\-1943 both magazines went to a quarterly schedule, and at the end of 1944 Friend was replaced in his turn by [Sam Merwin, Jr.](/wiki/Sam_Merwin%2C_Jr. "Sam Merwin, Jr.") The quarterly schedule lasted until well after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") ended: Thrilling Wonder returned to a bimonthly schedule with the December 1946 issue and again alternated with Startling which went bimonthly in January 1947\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 250\. Merwin left in 1951 in order to become a freelance editor,Edwards, "Sam Merwin Jr.", p. 801\. and was replaced by [Samuel Mines](/wiki/Samuel_Mines "Samuel Mines"), who had worked for Ned Pines since 1942\.Edwards, "Samuel Mines", p. 811\. The Thrilling Wonder logo, a winged man against the background of a glass mountain was taken from the [Noel Loomis](/wiki/Noel_Loomis "Noel Loomis") story, "The Glass Mountain." \| \| \| Spring Summer Fall Winter \| --- \| --- \| \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \| \| 1946 \|28/1 \| \|28/2 \| \|28/3 \| \|29/1 \|29/2 \| 1947 \| \|29/3 \|30/1 \|30/2 \|30/3 \|31/1 \|31/2 \| 1948 \| \|31/3 \|32/1 \|32/2 \|32/3 \|33/1 \|33/2 \| 1949 \| \|33/3 \|34/1 \|34/2 \|34/3 \|35/1 \|35/2 \| 1950 \| \|35/3 \|36/1 \|36/2 \|36/3 \|37/1 \|37/2 \| 1951 \| \|37/3 \|38/1 \|38/2 \|38/3 \|39/1 \|39/2 \| 1952 \| \|39/3 \|40/1 \|40/2 \|40/3 \|41/1 \|41/2 \| 1953 \| \|41/3 \|42/1 \|42/2 \|42/3 \| \|43/1 \| \| 1954 \|43/2 \| \|43/3 \| \|44/1 \| \|44/2 \| \| \| 1955 \|44/3 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|Issues of Thrilling Wonder Stories from 1946 to 1955\. Editors are Sam Merwin (purple, 1946–1951\), Samuel Mines (orange, 1951–1954\), and Alexander Samalman (gray, 1954–1955\). Underlining indicates that an issue was titled as a quarterly (e.g. "Winter 1946") rather than as a monthly. By the summer of 1949 [Street \& Smith](/wiki/Street_%26_Smith "Street & Smith"), one of the largest pulp publishers, had shut down every one of their pulps. This format was dying out, though it took several more years before the pulps completely disappeared from the newsstands.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 220–221\. Both Thrilling Wonder and Startling went quarterly in 1954, and at the end of that year Mines left. The magazines did not survive him for long; only two more issues of Thrilling Wonder appeared, both edited by [Alexander Samalman](/wiki/Alexander_Samalman "Alexander Samalman"). After the beginning of 1955, Thrilling Wonder was merged with Startling, which itself ceased publication at the end of 1955\.Ashley, Transformations, p. 345\. After the demise of Thrilling Wonder Stories the old Wonder Stories title was revived for two issues, published in 1957 and 1963\. These were both edited by Jim Hendryx Jr. They were numbered vol. 45, no. 1 and 2, continuing the volume numbering of Thrilling Wonder. Both were selections from past issues of Thrilling Wonder; the second one convinced Ned Pines, the publisher who had bought Wonder Stories from Gernsback in 1936 and who still owned the rights to the stories, to start a reprint magazine called Treasury of Great Science Fiction Stories in 1964; a companion, Treasury of Great Western Stories, was added the next year.Nicholls \& Stableford, "Wonder Stories", p. 1346\.Ashley, Transformations, p. 221\. In 2007, Winston Engle published a new magazine in book format, titled Thrilling Wonder Stories, with a cover date of Summer 2007\.Engle, Thrilling Wonder Stories Summer 2007 Engle commented that it was "not a pastiche or nostalgia exercise as much as modern SF with the entertainment, inspirational value, and excitement of the golden age".{{Citation \\| url \= http://news.ansible.co.uk/a239\.html\\| title \= Ansible 239, June 2007 \\| access\-date\= November 29, 2008\\|publisher \= David Langford}} A second volume appeared in 2009\.Engle, Thrilling Wonder Stories Volume 2 ### IF —!: a picture feature Six months after the debut of Thrilling Wonder Stories, its June 1937 issue contained a picture feature by Jack Binder entitled IF —!.{{cite book\\|last\=Nahin\\|first\=Paul\\|title\=Time Machines: Time Travel in Physics, Metaphysics, and Science Fiction\\|year\=1999\\|publisher\=Springer\-Verlag\\|location\=New York\\|isbn\=0\-387\-98571\-9\\|page\=261\\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=39KQY1FnSfkC\&q\=%22Jack\+Binder%22\+thrilling\+wonder\+stories\&pg\=PA261}} Binder's earlier training as a fine artist{{cite book\\|last\=Hamerlinck\\|first\=P.C.\\|title\=Fawcett Companion: The Best of FCA\\|year\=2001\\|publisher\=TwoMorrows Publishing\\|location\=Raleigh, NC\\|isbn\=1\-893905\-10\-1\\|page\=120\\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=E8z\-CaR1OdcC\&q\=%22Jack\+Binder%22\&pg\=PA3}} helped him create detailed renderings of space ships, lost cities, future cities, landscapes, indigenous peoples, and even ancient [Atlantins](/wiki/Atlantis "Atlantis"). IF —!'''s pen and ink drawings are hand\-lettered and rendered in black and white. These one\-to\-two page studies presented readers with possible outcomes to early 20th\-century scientific quandaries. These included: * IF Another Ice Age Grips the Earth!{{cite journal\\|last\=Binder\\|first\=Jack\\|title\=IF Another Ice Age Grips the Earth!\\|journal\=Thrilling Wonder Stories\\|date\=June 1937\\|volume\=9\\|issue\=3\\|pages\=87}} (June 1937\) – Binder's first picture feature is tucked in between "The Chessboard of Mars" by Eando Binder and J. Harvey Haggard's "Renegade: The Ways of the Ether are Strange When a Spaceman Seeks to Betray." Ice Age offered renderings of glaciated cities, infra\-red ray guns, and a floating city alongside underground habitations—"the safest and most practicable retreat!" for chilly humans. It ends with the announcement: "Next Issue: If Atomic Power were Harnessed!" * IF the Oceans Dried!{{cite journal\\|last\=Binder\\|first\=Jack\\|title\=IF The Oceans Dried!\\|journal\=Thrilling Wonder Stories\\|date\=April 1938\\|volume\=11\\|issue\=2\\|pages\=104–105}} (April 1938\) – Sailing vessels are museum pieces enshrined in huge bubble cases since the ocean floor is now home to meandering train tracks. All manner of minerals are mined to the benefit of mankind and the lost city of [Atlantis](/wiki/Atlantis "Atlantis") (if real) is exposed. All ocean life becomes extinct and the Earth's climate undergoes dramatic, yet positive, change. * IF Science Reached the Earth's Core{{cite journal\\|last\=Binder\\|first\=Jack\\|title\=IF Science Reached the Earth's Core!\\|journal\=Thrilling Wonder Stories\\|date\=October 1938\\|volume\=12\\|issue\=3\\|pages\=98–99}} (Oct. 1938\) – [Neutronium](/wiki/Neutronium "Neutronium") allows humans to penetrate to the Earth's core, which is not molten, but a gravity\-free haven where "vacationers enjoy the thrill of being weightless." IF —! is credited with the first use of the phrase "zero\-gravity," a science fiction mainstay,{{cite book\\|last\=Joyce\\|first\=C. Allen\\|title\=Under the Covers and Between the Sheets: The Inside Story behind classic characters, authors, unforgettable phrases, and unexpected endings\\|year\=2009\\|publisher\=Penguin\\|location\=New York\\|isbn\=978\-1\-60652\-034\-5\\|pages\=np\\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GSbb8QcrP9YC\&q\=%22Jack\+Binder%22\&pg\=PT27}} where "Space Travel is solved. Starting at the zero\-gravity of Earth's core, accumulative acceleration is easily built up in a four\-thousand\-mile tube. The ship's reach Earth's surface where gravitation !\\|is strongest with an appreciable velocity that makes the take\-off a simple process of continuation!" * IF Earth's Axis Shifted{{cite journal\\|last\=Binder\\|first\=Jack\\|title\=IF Earth's Axis Shifted!\\|journal\=Thrilling Wonder Stories\\|date\=April 1940\\|volume\=16\\|issue\=1\\|pages\=78–79}} (April 1940\) – An astronomical telescope points towards the night sky revealing that the planets have aligned and caused the Earth's axis to shift. Tidal waves sweep cities away. North America in now a tropic zone, while Siberia is balmy and Antarctica swarms with immigrants wanting to harvest the now accessible coal and metal. "Next Issue: IF the World were Ruled by Intelligent Robots!" Contents and reception ---------------------- [thumb\\|left\\|The first issue of Science Wonder Stories, June 1929\. The cover is by [Frank R. Paul](/wiki/Frank_R._Paul "Frank R. Paul").](/wiki/Image:Science_Wonder_Stories_1929_June.jpg "Science Wonder Stories 1929 June.jpg") When Air Wonder Stories was launched in the middle of 1929 there were already pulp magazines such as Sky Birds and Flying Aces which focused on aerial adventures. Gernsback's first editorial dismissed these as being of the "purely 'Wild West'\-world war adventure\-sky busting type".Editorial in Air Wonder Stories, July 1929; quoted in Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 541\. By contrast, Gernsback said he planned to fill Air Wonder solely with "flying stories of the future, strictly along scientific\-mechanical\-technical lines, full of adventure, exploration and achievement." Non\-fiction material on aviation was printed, including quizzes, short popular articles, and book reviews. The letters column made it clear that the readership comprised more science fiction fans than aviation fans, and Gernsback later commented that the overlap with Science Wonder readers was 90% (a figure that presumably referred only to the subscription base, not to newsstand sales). Gernsback frequently ran reader contests,Ashley, Time Machines, p. 52\. one of which, announced in the February 1930 issue of Air Wonder Stories, asked for a slogan for the magazine. [John Wyndham](/wiki/John_Wyndham "John Wyndham"), later to become famous as the author of [The Day of the Triffids](/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Triffids "The Day of the Triffids"), won with "Future Flying Fiction", submitted under his real name of John Beynon Harris. Later that year a contest in Science Wonder Quarterly asked readers for an answer to the question "What I Have Done to Spread Science Fiction". The winner was [Raymond Palmer](/wiki/Raymond_A._Palmer "Raymond A. Palmer") who later became editor of Gernsback's original magazine, Amazing Stories. He won the contest for his role in founding a "Science Correspondence Club".Davin, Pioneers, p. 39\. Science Wonder*s first issue included the first part of a serial, The Reign of the Ray, by [Fletcher Pratt](/wiki/Fletcher_Pratt "Fletcher Pratt") and Irwin Lester, and short stories by [Stanton Coblentz](/wiki/Stanton_Coblentz "Stanton Coblentz") and [David H. Keller](/wiki/David_H._Keller "David H. Keller"). Air Wonder* began with a reprinted serial, [Victor MacClure](/wiki/Victor_MacClure "Victor MacClure")'s Ark of the Covenant. Writers who first appeared in the pages of these magazines include [Neil R. Jones](/wiki/Neil_R._Jones "Neil R. Jones"), [Ed Earl Repp](/wiki/Ed_Earl_Repp "Ed Earl Repp"), [Raymond Z. Gallun](/wiki/Raymond_Z._Gallun "Raymond Z. Gallun") and [Lloyd Eshbach](/wiki/Lloyd_Eshbach "Lloyd Eshbach").Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 65–67\. The quality of published science fiction at the time was generally low, and Lasser was keen to improve it. On 11 May 1931 he wrote to his regular contributors to tell them that their science fiction stories "should deal realistically with the effect upon people, individually and in groups, of a scientific invention or discovery. ... In other words, allow yourself one fundamental assumption—that a certain machine or discovery is possible—and then show what would be its logical and dramatic consequences upon the world; also what would be the effect upon the group of characters that you pick to carry your theme."Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 71–73\. The quote, from a letter by Lasser dated 11 May 1931, is given by Ashley on p. 73\.** ### After the merger Lasser provided ideas to his authors and commented on their drafts, attempting to improve both the level of [scientific literacy](/wiki/Scientific_literacy "Scientific literacy") and the quality of the writing.Davin, Pioneers, p. 41\. Some of his correspondence has survived, including an exchange with [Jack Williamson](/wiki/Jack_Williamson "Jack Williamson"), whom Lasser commissioned in early 1932 to write a story based on a plot provided by a reader—the winning entry in one of the magazine's competitions. Lasser emphasized to Williamson the importance of scientific plausibility, citing as an example a moment in the story where the earthmen have to decipher a written Martian language: "You must be sure and make it convincing how they did it; for they have absolutely no method of approach to a written language of another world."Davin, Pioneers, pp. 41–43\. On one occasion Lasser's work with his authors extended to collaboration: "The Time Projector", a story which appeared in the July 1931 issue of Wonder Stories, was credited to [David H. Keller](/wiki/David_H._Keller "David H. Keller") and David Lasser. Both Lasser and, later, Hornig, were given almost complete editorial freedom by Gernsback, who reserved only the right to give final approval to the contents. This was in contrast to the more detailed control Gernsback had exerted over the content of Amazing Stories in the first years of its existence. Science fiction historian Sam Moskowitz has suggested that the reason was the poor financial state of Wonder Stories—Gernsback perhaps avoided corresponding with authors as he owed many of them money.Davin, Pioneers, p. 48\.Davin, Pioneers, pp. 63–64\. Lasser allowed the letter column to become a free discussion of ideas and values, and published stories dealing with topics such as the relationship between the sexes. One such story, Thomas S. Gardner's "The Last Woman", portrayed a future in which men, having evolved beyond the need for love, keep the last woman in a museum. In "The Venus Adventurer", an early story by [John Wyndham](/wiki/John_Wyndham "John Wyndham"), a spaceman corrupts the innocent natives of Venus. Lasser avoided printing [space opera](/wiki/Space_opera "Space opera"), and several stories from Wonder in the early 1930s were more realistic than most contemporary space fiction. Examples include [Edmond Hamilton](/wiki/Edmond_Hamilton "Edmond Hamilton")'s "A Conquest of Two Worlds", [P. Schuyler Miller](/wiki/P._Schuyler_Miller "P. Schuyler Miller")'s "The Forgotten Man of Space", and several stories by [Frank K. Kelly](/wiki/Frank_K._Kelly "Frank K. Kelly"), including "The Moon Tragedy".Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 73–75\. Lasser was one of the founders of the [American Rocket Society](/wiki/American_Rocket_Society "American Rocket Society") which, under its initial name of the "Interplanetary Society", announced its existence in the pages of the June 1930 Wonder Stories.Davin, Pioneers, pp. 32–33\. Several of Wonder's writers were also members of the Interplanetary Society, and perhaps as a consequence of the relationship Wonder Stories Quarterly began to focus increasingly on fiction with interplanetary settings. A survey of the last eight issues of Wonder Stories Quarterly by Bleiler found almost two\-thirds of the stories were interplanetary adventures, while only a third of the stories in the corresponding issues of Wonder Stories could be so described. Wonder Stories Quarterly added a banner reading "Interplanetary Number" to the cover of the Winter 1931 issue, and retained it, as "Interplanetary Stories", for subsequent issues. Lasser and Gernsback were also briefly involved with the fledgling [Technocracy movement](/wiki/Technocracy_movement "Technocracy movement"). Gernsback published two issues of Technocracy Review, which Lasser edited, commissioning stories based on technocratic ideas from [Nat Schachner](/wiki/Nat_Schachner "Nat Schachner"). These appeared in Wonder Stories during 1933, culminating in a novel, The Revolt of the Scientists.Davin, Pioneers, p. 37\.Clute, "Nat Schachner", p. 1056\. Reviews of fiction and popular science books were published, and there was a science column which endeavored to answer readers' questions. These features were at first of good quality, but deteriorated after Lasser's departure, although it is not certain that Lasser wrote the content of either one. An influential non\-fiction initiative was the creation of the Science Fiction League, an organization that brought together local science fiction fan clubs across the country. Gernsback took the opportunity to sell items such as buttons and insignia, and it was undoubtedly a profitable enterprise for him as well as a good source of publicity. It was ultimately more important in becoming one of the foundations of [science fiction fandom](/wiki/Science_fiction_fandom "Science fiction fandom").Peter Roberts, "Science Fiction League", p. 1066\. ### Hornig When Hornig took over from Lasser at the end of 1933 he attempted to continue and expand Lasser's approach. Hornig introduced a "New Policy" in the January 1934 issue, emphasizing originality and barring stories that merely reworked well\-worn ideas.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 87–88\. He asked for stories that included good science, although "not enough to become boring to those readers who are not primarily interested in the technicalities of the science". However, Astounding was moving into the lead position in the science fiction magazine field at this time, and Hornig had difficulty in competing. His rates of payment were lower than Astounding'''s one cent per word; sometimes his writers were paid very late, or not at all. Despite these handicaps, Hornig managed to find some good material, including [Stanley G. Weinbaum](/wiki/Stanley_G._Weinbaum "Stanley G. Weinbaum")'s "[A Martian Odyssey](/wiki/A_Martian_Odyssey "A Martian Odyssey")", which appeared in the July 1934 Wonder and has been frequently reprinted.In the December 1934 – January 1935 issue of Hornig's [fanzine](/wiki/Fanzine "Fanzine"), Fantasy Magazine, he took the unusual step of listing several stories that he had rejected as lacking novelty, but which had subsequently appeared in print in other magazines. The list includes several by successful writers of the day, such as [Raymond Z. Gallun](/wiki/Raymond_Z._Gallun "Raymond Z. Gallun") and [Miles Breuer](/wiki/Miles_Breuer "Miles Breuer"). The most prominent story named is [Triplanetary](/wiki/Triplanetary_%28novel%29 "Triplanetary (novel)") by [E. E. Smith](/wiki/E._E._Smith "E. E. Smith"), which appeared in Amazing.Both Lasser and Hornig printed fiction translated from French and German writers, including Otfrid von Hanstein and [Otto Willi Gail](/wiki/Otto_Willi_Gail "Otto Willi Gail"). With the rise of [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") in Germany in the 1930s a few readers (including [Donald Wollheim](/wiki/Donald_A._Wollheim "Donald A. Wollheim")) wrote letters complaining about the inclusion of German stories. The editorial response was a strong defense of the translations; Gernsback argued that events in Germany were irrelevant to the business of selecting fiction.Carter, Creation of Tomorrow, p. 119\. The covers for almost every issue of Air Wonder, Science Wonder, Wonder Stories and Wonder Stories Quarterly were painted by [Frank R. Paul](/wiki/Frank_R._Paul "Frank R. Paul"), who had followed Gernsback from Amazing Stories. The only exception was a cover image composed of colored dots, which appeared on the November 1932 issue.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 276\.### Weisinger and Friend When the magazine moved to Beacon Publications, as Thrilling Wonder, the fiction began to focus more on action than on ideas. The covers, often by [Earle K. Bergey](/wiki/Earle_K._Bergey "Earle K. Bergey"), typically depicted bizarre aliens and [damsels in distress](/wiki/Damsel_in_distress "Damsel in distress"). In 1939, a reader, Martin Alger, coined the phrase "bug\-eyed monster" to describe one such cover; [the phrase](/wiki/Bug-eyed_monster "Bug-eyed monster") subsequently entered the dictionary as a word for an alien. Several well\-known writers contributed, including [Ray Cummings](/wiki/Ray_Cummings "Ray Cummings"), and [John W. Campbell](/wiki/John_W._Campbell "John W. Campbell"), whose "Brain\-Stealers of Mars" series began in Thrilling Wonder in the December 1936 issue. A comic\-strip began in August 1936, the first issue of the Beacon Publications version. It was illustrated and possibly written by Max Plaisted.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.pulpartists.com/Plaisted.html\\|title\=Catalog\\|website\=www.pulpartists.com\\|access\-date\=11 April 2018}} The strip, titled Zarnak, was not a success, and was cancelled after eight issues.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 100–102\.Weisinger's successor, Friend, gave the magazine a significantly more juvenile feel. He used the alias "Sergeant Saturn" and was generally condescending to the readers; this may not have been his fault as Margulies, who was still the editorial director, probably wanted him to attract a younger readership. Under Friend's direction, Earle K. Bergey transformed the look of Thrilling Wonder Stories by foregrounding human figures in space, focusing on the anatomy of women in implausibly revealing spacesuits and his trademark "brass brassières".Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 187–188\.### Merwin and Mines Merwin, who took over with the Winter 1945 issue, adopted a more mature approach than Friend's. He obtained fiction from writers who had previously been publishing mainly in John Campbell's Astounding. The Summer 1945 issue of Thrilling Wonder included [Jack Vance](/wiki/Jack_Vance "Jack Vance")'s first published story, "The World Thinker". Merwin also published several stories by [Ray Bradbury](/wiki/Ray_Bradbury "Ray Bradbury"), some of which were later included in Bradbury's collection [The Martian Chronicles](/wiki/The_Martian_Chronicles "The Martian Chronicles"). Other well\-known writers that Merwin was able to attract included [Theodore Sturgeon](/wiki/Theodore_Sturgeon "Theodore Sturgeon"), [A. E. van Vogt](/wiki/A._E._van_Vogt "A. E. van Vogt"), and [Robert A. Heinlein](/wiki/Robert_A._Heinlein "Robert A. Heinlein"). Thrilling Wonder often published intelligent, thoughtful stories, some of which Campbell would have been unlikely to accept at Astounding: he did not like to publish stories that showed the negative consequences of scientific advances such as nuclear power. In the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley, during the late 1940s Thrilling Wonder became a serious rival to Astoundings long domination of the field.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 188–190\. However, this is not a universal opinion, as the magazine is elsewhere described during Merwin's tenure as "evidently secondary to Startling".Malcolm Edwards, "Thrilling Wonder Stories", pp. 1222–1223\. Samuel Mines took over from Merwin at the end of 1951, both at Startling Stories and Thrilling Wonder.Ashley, Transformations, p. 343\. He argued against restrictions in [science fiction themes](/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_themes "List of science fiction themes"), and in 1952 published [Philip José Farmer](/wiki/Philip_Jos%C3%A9_Farmer "Philip José Farmer")'s "The Lovers", a ground\-breaking story about inter\-species sex, in Startling. He followed this in 1953 with another taboo\-breaking story from Farmer, "Mother", in Thrilling Wonder, in which a spaceman makes his home in an alien womb.Ashley, Transformations, pp. 13–16\.Peter Nicholls, "Sex", p. 539\. In the December 1952 Thrilling Wonder, Mines published Edmond Hamilton's "What's It Like Out There?", a downbeat story about the realities of space exploration that had been considered too bleak for publication when it had originally been written in the 1930s. Sherwood Springer's "No Land of Nod", in the same issue, dealt with incest between a father and his daughter in a world in which they are the only two survivors. These stories were all well received by the readership. ### Influence on the field For a few years, Lasser was the dominant force in American science fiction.Davin, Pioneers, p. 40\. Under him, Wonder Stories was the best of the science fiction magazines of the early 1930s,Clute, Illustrated Encyclopedia, p. 100\. and the most successful of all Gernsback's forays into the field. Lasser shaped a new generation of writers, who in many cases had no prior writing experience of any kind; Wonder Stories was part of a "forcing ground", according to Isaac Asimov, where young writers learned their trade. The magazine was less constrained by pulp convention than its competitors, and published some novels such as [Eric Temple Bell](/wiki/Eric_Temple_Bell "Eric Temple Bell")'s The Time Stream and [Festus Pragnell](/wiki/Festus_Pragnell "Festus Pragnell")'s The Green Man of Graypec, which were not in the mainstream of development of the science fiction genre. As Thrilling Wonder the magazine was much less influential. Until the mid\-1940s it was focused on younger readers, and by the time Merwin and Mines introduced a more adult approach, [Astounding Science Fiction](/wiki/Astounding_Science_Fiction "Astounding Science Fiction") had taken over as the unquestioned leader of the field. Thrilling Wonder could not compete with [John Campbell](/wiki/John_W._Campbell%2C_Jr. "John W. Campbell, Jr.") and the [Golden Age of science fiction](/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Science_Fiction "Golden Age of Science Fiction") that he brought into being, but it did periodically publish good stories. In the end it was unable to escape its roots in the pulp industry, and died in the carnage that swept away every remaining pulp magazine in the 1950s.	[ "Publication history\n-------------------", "By the end of the 19th century, stories centered on scientific inventions and set in the future, in the tradition of [Jules Verne](/wiki/Jules_Verne \"Jules Verne\"), were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 7\\. Magazines such as [Munsey's Magazine](/wiki/Munsey%27s_Magazine \"Munsey's Magazine\") and [The Argosy](/wiki/Argosy_%28magazine%29 \"Argosy (magazine)\"), launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively, carried a few science fiction stories each year. Some upmarket \"slicks\" such as [McClure's](/wiki/McClure%27s \"McClure's\"), which paid well and were aimed at a more literary audience, also carried scientific stories, but by the early years of the 20th century, science fiction (though it was not yet called that) was appearing more often in the [pulp magazines](/wiki/Pulp_magazine \"Pulp magazine\") than in the slicks.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 21–25\\.Nicholls, \"Pulp Magazines\", p. 979\\.Ashley, Transformations, p. 155\\. The first science fiction magazine, [Amazing Stories](/wiki/Amazing_Stories \"Amazing Stories\"), was launched in 1926 by [Hugo Gernsback](/wiki/Hugo_Gernsback \"Hugo Gernsback\") at the height of the pulp magazine era. It helped to form science fiction as a separately marketed genre, and by the end of the 1930s a \"[Golden Age of Science Fiction](/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Science_Fiction \"Golden Age of Science Fiction\")\" had begun, inaugurated by the efforts of John W. Campbell, the editor of [Astounding Science Fiction](/wiki/Astounding_Science_Fiction \"Astounding Science Fiction\"). Wonder Stories was launched in the pulp era, not long after Amazing Stories, and lasted through the Golden Age and well into the 1950s.Stableford, \"Amazing Stories\", p. 27\\.Nicholls, \"Golden Age of SF\", p. 258\\. The publisher was Stellar Publishing company based in New York City.{{cite book\\\|editor\\=H. W. Hall\\\|title\\=The Science Fiction Magazine Checklist\\\|url\\=https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969\\.1/157551/MAGCHECKLIST\\-TO%20CONVERT%20TO%20PDF.pdf?sequence\\=1\\\|date\\=1983\\\|location\\=Bryan, TX\\\|isbn\\=0\\-935064\\-10\\-9\\\|page\\=10\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923145421/https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969\\.1/157551/MAGCHECKLIST\\-TO%20CONVERT%20TO%20PDF.pdf?sequence\\=1\\\|archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2021}}", "### Gernsback era", "", "\| \\+Air Wonder Stories \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| 1929 \| \| \| \| \| \| \|1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6", "\| 1930 \|1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 \| \| \| \| \| \| \|\n\|Volume and issue numbers of Air Wonder Stories. The editor was David \nLasser throughout.", "Gernsback's new magazine, Amazing Stories, was successful, but Gernsback lost control of the publisher when it went bankrupt in February 1929\\. By April he had formed a new company, Gernsback Publications Incorporated, and created two subsidiaries: Techni\\-Craft Publishing Corporation and Stellar Publishing Corporation. Gernsback sent out letters advertising his plans for new magazines; the mailing lists he used almost certainly were compiled from the subscription lists of Amazing Stories. This would have been illegal, as the lists were owned by Irving Trust, the receiver of the bankruptcy. Gernsback denied using the lists under oath, but historians have generally agreed that he must have done so. The letters also asked potential subscribers to decide the name of the new magazine; they voted for \"Science Wonder Stories\", which became the name of one of Gernsback's new magazines.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 579–581\\.Perry, \"An Amazing Story\" pp. 114–115\\.", "", "\| \\+ Science Wonder Stories \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| 1929 \| \| \| \| \| \|1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7", "\| 1930 \|1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 1/12 \| \| \| \| \| \| \|\n\|Volume and issue numbers of Science Wonder Stories. The editor was David \nLasser throughout.", "Gernsback's recovery from the bankruptcy judgment was remarkably quick. By early June he had launched three new magazines, two of which published science fiction.The other was Radio\\-Craft, which was aimed at radio hobbyists and repairmen. See Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 579\\. The June 1929 issue of Science Wonder Stories appeared on newsstands on 5 May 1929, and was followed on 5 June by the July 1929 issue of Air Wonder Stories.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 541–543\\. Both magazines were monthly, with Gernsback as editor\\-in\\-chief and [David Lasser](/wiki/David_Lasser \"David Lasser\") as editor.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 64\\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 237\\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 254\\. Lasser had no prior editing experience and knew little about science fiction, but his recently acquired degree from [MIT](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\") convinced Gernsback to hire him.Davin, Pioneers, p. 47\\.", "Gernsback claimed that science fiction was educational. He repeatedly made this assertion in Amazing Stories, and continued to do so in his editorials for the new magazines, stating, for example, that \"teachers encourage the reading of this fiction because they know that it gives the pupil a fundamental knowledge of science and aviation.\"Gernsback, editorial in Air Wonder Stories, July 1929, p. 5, quoted in Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 542\\. He also recruited a panel of \"nationally known educators \\[who] pass upon the scientific principles of all stories\". Science fiction historian [Everett Bleiler](/wiki/Everett_Bleiler \"Everett Bleiler\") describes this as \"fakery, pure and simple\", asserting that there is no evidence that the men on the panel—some of whom, such as [Lee De Forest](/wiki/Lee_De_Forest \"Lee De Forest\"), were well\\-known scientists—had any editorial influence.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 580\\. However, [Donald Menzel](/wiki/Donald_Menzel \"Donald Menzel\"), the astrophysicist on the panel, said that Gernsback sent him manuscripts and made changes to stories as a result of Menzel's commentary.Carter, Creation of Tomorrow, p. 11\\.", "", "\| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| 1930 \| \| \| \| \| \|2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7", "\| 1931 \|2/8 2/9 2/10 2/11 2/12 3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 3/7", "\| 1932 \|3/8 3/9 3/10 3/11 3/12 4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7", "\| 1933 \|4/8 4/9 4/10 4/11 4/12 5/1 \|5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5", "\| 1934 \|5/6 5/7 5/8 5/9 5/10 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6 6/7", "\| 1935 \|6/8 6/9 6/10 6/11 6/12 7/1 7/2 7/3 7/4 7/5 \|7/6", "\| 1936 \| \|7/7 \|7/8 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|\n\|Issues of Wonder Stories from the merger of Science Wonder and Air \nWonder to the acquisition by Beacon Publications, indicating editors: Lasser \n(blue, 1930–1933\\), and Hornig (yellow, 1933–1936\\)", "In 1930, Gernsback decided to merge Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories into Wonder Stories. The reason for the merger is unknown, although it may have been that he needed the space in the printing schedule for his new Aviation Mechanics magazine.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 70–71\\. Bleiler has suggested that the merger was caused by poor sales and a consequent need to downsize. In addition, Air Wonder Stories was probably focused on too specialized a niche to succeed. In an editorial just before Science Wonder Stories changed its name, Gernsback commented that the word \"Science\" in the title \"has tended to retard the progress of the magazine, because many people had the impression that it is a sort of scientific periodical rather than a fiction magazine\".Gernsback, in Science Wonder, May 1930, p. 1099; quoted in Ashley, Time Machines, p. 71\\. Ironically, the inclusion of \"science\" in the title was the reason that science fiction writer [Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov \"Isaac Asimov\") began reading the magazine; when he saw the August 1929 issue he obtained permission to read it from his father on the grounds that it was clearly educational.Asimov, Before the Golden Age I, p. 29\\. Concerns about the marketability of titles seem to have surfaced in the last two issues of Science Wonder, which had the word \"Science\" printed in a color that made it difficult to read. On the top of the cover appeared the words \"Mystery\\-Adventure\\-Romance\", the last of which was a surprising way to advertise a science fiction magazine.", "The first issue of the merged magazine appeared in June 1930, still on a monthly schedule, with Lasser as editor. The volume numbering continued that of Science Wonder Stories, therefore Wonder Stories is sometimes regarded as a retitling of Science Wonder Stories.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 586–589\\. Gernsback had also produced a companion magazine for Science Wonder Stories, titled Science Wonder Quarterly, the first issue of which was published in the fall of 1929\\. Three issues were produced under this title, but after the merger Gernsback changed the companion magazine's title to Wonder Stories Quarterly, and produced a further eleven issues under that title.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 578–579\\.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 595–596\\.", "", "\| \\+Science Wonder Quarterly andWonder Stories Quarterly \| \| Winter \| Spring \| Summer \| Fall \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| 1929 \| \| \| \|1/1", "\|1930", "1/2 1/3 1/4 2/1", "\| 1931 \|2/2 2/3 2/4 3/1", "\| 1932 \|3/2 3/3 3/4 4/1", "\| 1933 \|4/2 \| \| \|\n\|Science Wonder Quarterly (first three issues) and \nWonder Stories Quarterly (all subsequent issues). The \neditor was David Lasser throughout.", "", "In July 1933, Gernsback dismissed Lasser as editor. Lasser had become active in promoting workers' rights and was spending less time on his editorial duties. According to Lasser, Gernsback told him \"if you like working with the unemployed so much, I suggest you go and join them\".Davin, Pioneers, p. 57\\. It is likely that cost\\-cutting was also a consideration, as Lasser was paid $65 per week, a substantial salary in those days.Davin, Pioneers, p. 57\\. Bleiler, who cites Davin, gives Lasser's salary as $70 per week, though he does not explain the discrepancy; see Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 588\\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 94, note 38\\. Soon after Lasser was let go, Gernsback received a [fanzine](/wiki/Fanzine \"Fanzine\"), The Fantasy Fan, from a reader, [Charles Hornig](/wiki/Charles_Hornig \"Charles Hornig\"). Gernsback called Hornig to his office to interview him for the position of editor; Hornig turned out to be only 17, but Gernsback asked him to proofread a manuscript and decided that the results were satisfactory. Hornig was hired at an initial salary of $20 per week.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 78–79\\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 70\\. That same year, Gernsback dissolved Stellar Publications and created Continental Publications as the new publisher for Wonder Stories. The schedule stuttered for the first time, missing the July and September 1933 issues; the recent bankruptcy of the company's distributor, [Eastern Distributing Corporation](/wiki/Eastern_Distributing_Corporation \"Eastern Distributing Corporation\"), may have been partly responsible for this disruption.Davin, Pioneers, p. 29\\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 43\\. The first issue with Continental on the masthead, and the first listing Hornig as editor, was November 1933\\.", "Wonder Stories had a circulation of about 25,000 in 1934, comparable to that of Amazing Stories, which had declined from an early peak of about 100,000\\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 51\\.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 85–86\\. Gernsback considered issuing a reprint magazine in 1934, Wonder Stories Reprint Annual, but it never appeared.Tuck, Encyclopedia of SF, Vol. 3, p. 609\\. That year he experimented with other fiction magazines—Pirate Stories and High Seas Adventures—but neither was successful. Wonder Stories was also failing, and in November 1935 it started publishing bimonthly instead of monthly. Gernsback had a reputation for paying slowly and was therefore unpopular with many authors; by 1936 he was even failing to pay [Laurence Manning](/wiki/Laurence_Manning \"Laurence Manning\"), one of his most reliable authors.Davin, Pioneers, p. 64\\. Staff were sometimes asked to delay cashing their paychecks for weeks at a time.Hornig, quoted in Davin, Pioneers, p. 68; Hornig does not specify whether this happened only towards the end of Gernsback's control of the magazine. Gernsback felt the blame lay with dealers who were returning magazine covers as unsold copies, and then selling the stripped copies at a reduced rate. To bypass the dealers, he made a plea in the March 1936 issue to his readers, asking them to subscribe, and proposing to distribute Wonder Stories solely by subscription. There was little response, and Gernsback decided to sell. He made a deal with Ned Pines of [Beacon Magazines](/wiki/Beacon_Magazines \"Beacon Magazines\") and on 21 February 1936 Wonder Stories was sold.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 91\\.", "### Thrilling Wonder Stories", "", "\| \| \| Spring Summer Fall Winter", "\| --- \| --- \|\n\| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \|\n\| 1936 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|8/1 \|8/2 \|8/3", "\| 1937 \| \|9/1 \|9/2 \|9/3 \|10/1 \|10/2 \|10/3", "\| 1938 \| \|11/1 \|11/2 \|11/3 \|12/1 \|12/2 \|12/3", "\| 1939 \| \|13/1 \|13/2 \|13/3 \|14/1 \|14/2 \|14/3", "\| 1940 \|15/1 15/2 15/3 16/1 16/2 16/3 17/1 17/2 17/3 18/1 18/2 18/3", "\| 1941 \|19/1 19/2 19/3 20/1 \|20/2 \|20/3 \|21/1 \|21/2", "\| 1942 \| \|21/3 \|22/1 \|22/2 \|22/3 \|23/1 \|23/2", "\| 1943 \| \|23/3 \|24/1 \|24/2 \|24/3 \|25/1 \| \|\n\| 1944 \|25/2 \| \|25/3 \| \|26/1 \| \|26/2 \| \|\n\| 1945 \|26/3 \| \|27/1 \| \|27/2 \| \|27/3 \| \|\n\|Issues of Thrilling Wonder Stories from 1936 to 1945\\. Editors are Mort Weisinger \n(green, 1936–1941\\), Oscar Friend (pink, 1941–1944\\), and Sam Merwin (purple, \n1945\\). Underlining indicates that an issue was titled as a quarterly (e.g. \"Winter \n1944\") rather than as a monthly.", "Pines' magazines included several with \"Thrilling\" in the title, such as Thrilling Detective and Thrilling Love Stories. These were run by [Leo Margulies](/wiki/Leo_Margulies \"Leo Margulies\"), who had hired [Mort Weisinger](/wiki/Mort_Weisinger \"Mort Weisinger\") (among others) as the workload increased in the early 1930s. Weisinger was already an active science fiction fan, and when Wonder Stories was acquired, Margulies involved him in the editorial work. Margulies' group worked as a team, with Margulies listed as editor\\-in\\-chief on the magazines and having final say. However, since Weisinger knew science fiction well, Weisinger was quickly given more leeway, and bibliographers generally list Weisinger as the editor for this period of the magazine's history.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 100\\.", "The title was changed to Thrilling Wonder Stories to match the rest of the \"Thrilling\" line. The first issue appeared in August 1936—four months after the last Gernsback Wonder Stories appeared. Wonder Stories had been monthly until the last few Gernsback issues; Thrilling Wonder was launched on a bimonthly schedule. In February 1938 Weisinger asked for reader feedback regarding the idea of a companion magazine; the response was positive, and in January 1939 the first issue of [Startling Stories](/wiki/Startling_Stories \"Startling Stories\") appeared, alternating months with Thrilling Wonder.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 136\\. A year later Thrilling Wonder went monthly; this lasted fewer than eighteen months, and the bimonthly schedule resumed after April 1941\\. Weisinger left that summer and was replaced at both Startling and Thrilling Wonder by [Oscar J. Friend](/wiki/Oscar_J._Friend \"Oscar J. Friend\"), a pulp writer with more experience in [Westerns](/wiki/Western_fiction \"Western fiction\") than science fiction, though he had published a novel, The Kid from Mars, in Startling Stories just the year before.Clute \\& Edwards, \"Oscar J. Friend\", p. 454\\. In mid\\-1943 both magazines went to a quarterly schedule, and at the end of 1944 Friend was replaced in his turn by [Sam Merwin, Jr.](/wiki/Sam_Merwin%2C_Jr. \"Sam Merwin, Jr.\") The quarterly schedule lasted until well after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") ended: Thrilling Wonder returned to a bimonthly schedule with the December 1946 issue and again alternated with Startling which went bimonthly in January 1947\\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 250\\. Merwin left in 1951 in order to become a freelance editor,Edwards, \"Sam Merwin Jr.\", p. 801\\. and was replaced by [Samuel Mines](/wiki/Samuel_Mines \"Samuel Mines\"), who had worked for Ned Pines since 1942\\.Edwards, \"Samuel Mines\", p. 811\\.", "The Thrilling Wonder logo, a winged man against the background of a glass mountain was taken from the [Noel Loomis](/wiki/Noel_Loomis \"Noel Loomis\") story, \"The Glass Mountain.\"", "", "\| \| \| Spring Summer Fall Winter", "\| --- \| --- \|\n\| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \|\n\| 1946 \|28/1 \| \|28/2 \| \|28/3 \| \|29/1 \|29/2", "\| 1947 \| \|29/3 \|30/1 \|30/2 \|30/3 \|31/1 \|31/2", "\| 1948 \| \|31/3 \|32/1 \|32/2 \|32/3 \|33/1 \|33/2", "\| 1949 \| \|33/3 \|34/1 \|34/2 \|34/3 \|35/1 \|35/2", "\| 1950 \| \|35/3 \|36/1 \|36/2 \|36/3 \|37/1 \|37/2", "\| 1951 \| \|37/3 \|38/1 \|38/2 \|38/3 \|39/1 \|39/2", "\| 1952 \| \|39/3 \|40/1 \|40/2 \|40/3 \|41/1 \|41/2", "\| 1953 \| \|41/3 \|42/1 \|42/2 \|42/3 \| \|43/1 \|\n\| 1954 \|43/2 \| \|43/3 \| \|44/1 \| \|44/2 \| \|\n\| 1955 \|44/3 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|\n\|Issues of Thrilling Wonder Stories from 1946 to 1955\\. Editors are Sam Merwin \n(purple, 1946–1951\\), Samuel Mines (orange, 1951–1954\\), and Alexander Samalman \n(gray, 1954–1955\\). Underlining indicates that an issue was titled as a quarterly \n(e.g. \"Winter 1946\") rather than as a monthly.", "By the summer of 1949 [Street \\& Smith](/wiki/Street_%26_Smith \"Street & Smith\"), one of the largest pulp publishers, had shut down every one of their pulps. This format was dying out, though it took several more years before the pulps completely disappeared from the newsstands.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 220–221\\. Both Thrilling Wonder and Startling went quarterly in 1954, and at the end of that year Mines left. The magazines did not survive him for long; only two more issues of Thrilling Wonder appeared, both edited by [Alexander Samalman](/wiki/Alexander_Samalman \"Alexander Samalman\"). After the beginning of 1955, Thrilling Wonder was merged with Startling, which itself ceased publication at the end of 1955\\.Ashley, Transformations, p. 345\\.", "After the demise of Thrilling Wonder Stories the old Wonder Stories title was revived for two issues, published in 1957 and 1963\\. These were both edited by Jim Hendryx Jr. They were numbered vol. 45, no. 1 and 2, continuing the volume numbering of Thrilling Wonder. Both were selections from past issues of Thrilling Wonder; the second one convinced Ned Pines, the publisher who had bought Wonder Stories from Gernsback in 1936 and who still owned the rights to the stories, to start a reprint magazine called Treasury of Great Science Fiction Stories in 1964; a companion, Treasury of Great Western Stories, was added the next year.Nicholls \\& Stableford, \"Wonder Stories\", p. 1346\\.Ashley, Transformations, p. 221\\.", "In 2007, Winston Engle published a new magazine in book format, titled Thrilling Wonder Stories, with a cover date of Summer 2007\\.Engle, Thrilling Wonder Stories Summer 2007 Engle commented that it was \"not a pastiche or nostalgia exercise as much as modern SF with the entertainment, inspirational value, and excitement of the golden age\".{{Citation \\\| url \\= http://news.ansible.co.uk/a239\\.html\\\| title \\= Ansible 239, June 2007 \\\| access\\-date\\= November 29, 2008\\\|publisher \\= David Langford}} A second volume appeared in 2009\\.Engle, Thrilling Wonder Stories Volume 2", "### IF —!: a picture feature", "Six months after the debut of Thrilling Wonder Stories, its June 1937 issue contained a picture feature by Jack Binder entitled IF —!.{{cite book\\\|last\\=Nahin\\\|first\\=Paul\\\|title\\=Time Machines: Time Travel in Physics, Metaphysics, and Science Fiction\\\|year\\=1999\\\|publisher\\=Springer\\-Verlag\\\|location\\=New York\\\|isbn\\=0\\-387\\-98571\\-9\\\|page\\=261\\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=39KQY1FnSfkC\\&q\\=%22Jack\\+Binder%22\\+thrilling\\+wonder\\+stories\\&pg\\=PA261}} Binder's earlier training as a fine artist{{cite book\\\|last\\=Hamerlinck\\\|first\\=P.C.\\\|title\\=Fawcett Companion: The Best of FCA\\\|year\\=2001\\\|publisher\\=TwoMorrows Publishing\\\|location\\=Raleigh, NC\\\|isbn\\=1\\-893905\\-10\\-1\\\|page\\=120\\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=E8z\\-CaR1OdcC\\&q\\=%22Jack\\+Binder%22\\&pg\\=PA3}} helped him create detailed renderings of space ships, lost cities, future cities, landscapes, indigenous peoples, and even ancient [Atlantins](/wiki/Atlantis \"Atlantis\"). IF —!'''s pen and ink drawings are hand\\-lettered and rendered in black and white. These one\\-to\\-two page studies presented readers with possible outcomes to early 20th\\-century scientific quandaries. These included: * IF Another Ice Age Grips the Earth!{{cite journal\\\|last\\=Binder\\\|first\\=Jack\\\|title\\=IF Another Ice Age Grips the Earth!\\\|journal\\=Thrilling Wonder Stories\\\|date\\=June 1937\\\|volume\\=9\\\|issue\\=3\\\|pages\\=87}} (June 1937\\) – Binder's first picture feature is tucked in between \"The Chessboard of Mars\" by Eando Binder and J. Harvey Haggard's \"Renegade: The Ways of the Ether are Strange When a Spaceman Seeks to Betray.\" Ice Age offered renderings of glaciated cities, infra\\-red ray guns, and a floating city alongside underground habitations—\"the safest and most practicable retreat!\" for chilly humans. It ends with the announcement: \"Next Issue: If Atomic Power were Harnessed!\"\n* IF the Oceans Dried!{{cite journal\\\|last\\=Binder\\\|first\\=Jack\\\|title\\=IF The Oceans Dried!\\\|journal\\=Thrilling Wonder Stories\\\|date\\=April 1938\\\|volume\\=11\\\|issue\\=2\\\|pages\\=104–105}} (April 1938\\) – Sailing vessels are museum pieces enshrined in huge bubble cases since the ocean floor is now home to meandering train tracks. All manner of minerals are mined to the benefit of mankind and the lost city of [Atlantis](/wiki/Atlantis \"Atlantis\") (if real) is exposed. All ocean life becomes extinct and the Earth's climate undergoes dramatic, yet positive, change.\n* IF Science Reached the Earth's Core{{cite journal\\\|last\\=Binder\\\|first\\=Jack\\\|title\\=IF Science Reached the Earth's Core!\\\|journal\\=Thrilling Wonder Stories\\\|date\\=October 1938\\\|volume\\=12\\\|issue\\=3\\\|pages\\=98–99}} (Oct. 1938\\) – [Neutronium](/wiki/Neutronium \"Neutronium\") allows humans to penetrate to the Earth's core, which is not molten, but a gravity\\-free haven where \"vacationers enjoy the thrill of being weightless.\" IF —! is credited with the first use of the phrase \"zero\\-gravity,\" a science fiction mainstay,{{cite book\\\|last\\=Joyce\\\|first\\=C. Allen\\\|title\\=Under the Covers and Between the Sheets: The Inside Story behind classic characters, authors, unforgettable phrases, and unexpected endings\\\|year\\=2009\\\|publisher\\=Penguin\\\|location\\=New York\\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-60652\\-034\\-5\\\|pages\\=np\\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GSbb8QcrP9YC\\&q\\=%22Jack\\+Binder%22\\&pg\\=PT27}} where \"Space Travel is solved. Starting at the zero\\-gravity of Earth's core, accumulative acceleration is easily built up in a four\\-thousand\\-mile tube. The ship's reach Earth's surface where gravitation !\\\|is strongest with an appreciable velocity that makes the take\\-off a simple process of continuation!\"\n* IF Earth's Axis Shifted{{cite journal\\\|last\\=Binder\\\|first\\=Jack\\\|title\\=IF Earth's Axis Shifted!\\\|journal\\=Thrilling Wonder Stories\\\|date\\=April 1940\\\|volume\\=16\\\|issue\\=1\\\|pages\\=78–79}} (April 1940\\) – An astronomical telescope points towards the night sky revealing that the planets have aligned and caused the Earth's axis to shift. Tidal waves sweep cities away. North America in now a tropic zone, while Siberia is balmy and Antarctica swarms with immigrants wanting to harvest the now accessible coal and metal. \"Next Issue: IF the World were Ruled by Intelligent Robots!\"", "Contents and reception\n----------------------", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|The first issue of Science Wonder Stories, June 1929\\. The cover is by [Frank R. Paul](/wiki/Frank_R._Paul \"Frank R. Paul\").](/wiki/Image:Science_Wonder_Stories_1929_June.jpg \"Science Wonder Stories 1929 June.jpg\")\nWhen Air Wonder Stories was launched in the middle of 1929 there were already pulp magazines such as Sky Birds and Flying Aces which focused on aerial adventures. Gernsback's first editorial dismissed these as being of the \"purely 'Wild West'\\-world war adventure\\-sky busting type\".Editorial in Air Wonder Stories, July 1929; quoted in Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 541\\. By contrast, Gernsback said he planned to fill Air Wonder solely with \"flying stories of the future, strictly along scientific\\-mechanical\\-technical lines, full of adventure, exploration and achievement.\" Non\\-fiction material on aviation was printed, including quizzes, short popular articles, and book reviews. The letters column made it clear that the readership comprised more science fiction fans than aviation fans, and Gernsback later commented that the overlap with Science Wonder readers was 90% (a figure that presumably referred only to the subscription base, not to newsstand sales).", "Gernsback frequently ran reader contests,Ashley, Time Machines, p. 52\\. one of which, announced in the February 1930 issue of Air Wonder Stories, asked for a slogan for the magazine. [John Wyndham](/wiki/John_Wyndham \"John Wyndham\"), later to become famous as the author of [The Day of the Triffids](/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Triffids \"The Day of the Triffids\"), won with \"Future Flying Fiction\", submitted under his real name of John Beynon Harris. Later that year a contest in Science Wonder Quarterly asked readers for an answer to the question \"What I Have Done to Spread Science Fiction\". The winner was [Raymond Palmer](/wiki/Raymond_A._Palmer \"Raymond A. Palmer\") who later became editor of Gernsback's original magazine, Amazing Stories. He won the contest for his role in founding a \"Science Correspondence Club\".Davin, Pioneers, p. 39\\.", "Science Wonder*s first issue included the first part of a serial, The Reign of the Ray, by [Fletcher Pratt](/wiki/Fletcher_Pratt \"Fletcher Pratt\") and Irwin Lester, and short stories by [Stanton Coblentz](/wiki/Stanton_Coblentz \"Stanton Coblentz\") and [David H. Keller](/wiki/David_H._Keller \"David H. Keller\"). Air Wonder* began with a reprinted serial, [Victor MacClure](/wiki/Victor_MacClure \"Victor MacClure\")'s Ark of the Covenant. Writers who first appeared in the pages of these magazines include [Neil R. Jones](/wiki/Neil_R._Jones \"Neil R. Jones\"), [Ed Earl Repp](/wiki/Ed_Earl_Repp \"Ed Earl Repp\"), [Raymond Z. Gallun](/wiki/Raymond_Z._Gallun \"Raymond Z. Gallun\") and [Lloyd Eshbach](/wiki/Lloyd_Eshbach \"Lloyd Eshbach\").Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 65–67\\. The quality of published science fiction at the time was generally low, and Lasser was keen to improve it. On 11 May 1931 he wrote to his regular contributors to tell them that their science fiction stories \"should deal realistically with the effect upon people, individually and in groups, of a scientific invention or discovery. ... In other words, allow yourself one fundamental assumption—that a certain machine or discovery is possible—and then show what would be its logical and dramatic consequences upon the world; also what would be the effect upon the group of characters that you pick to carry your theme.\"Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 71–73\\. The quote, from a letter by Lasser dated 11 May 1931, is given by Ashley on p. 73\\.*", "### After the merger", "Lasser provided ideas to his authors and commented on their drafts, attempting to improve both the level of [scientific literacy](/wiki/Scientific_literacy \"Scientific literacy\") and the quality of the writing.Davin, Pioneers, p. 41\\. Some of his correspondence has survived, including an exchange with [Jack Williamson](/wiki/Jack_Williamson \"Jack Williamson\"), whom Lasser commissioned in early 1932 to write a story based on a plot provided by a reader—the winning entry in one of the magazine's competitions. Lasser emphasized to Williamson the importance of scientific plausibility, citing as an example a moment in the story where the earthmen have to decipher a written Martian language: \"You must be sure and make it convincing how they did it; for they have absolutely no method of approach to a written language of another world.\"Davin, Pioneers, pp. 41–43\\. On one occasion Lasser's work with his authors extended to collaboration: \"The Time Projector\", a story which appeared in the July 1931 issue of Wonder Stories, was credited to [David H. Keller](/wiki/David_H._Keller \"David H. Keller\") and David Lasser. Both Lasser and, later, Hornig, were given almost complete editorial freedom by Gernsback, who reserved only the right to give final approval to the contents. This was in contrast to the more detailed control Gernsback had exerted over the content of Amazing Stories* in the first years of its existence. Science fiction historian Sam Moskowitz has suggested that the reason was the poor financial state of Wonder Stories—Gernsback perhaps avoided corresponding with authors as he owed many of them money.Davin, Pioneers, p. 48\\.Davin, Pioneers, pp. 63–64\\.\nLasser allowed the letter column to become a free discussion of ideas and values, and published stories dealing with topics such as the relationship between the sexes. One such story, Thomas S. Gardner's \"The Last Woman\", portrayed a future in which men, having evolved beyond the need for love, keep the last woman in a museum. In \"The Venus Adventurer\", an early story by [John Wyndham](/wiki/John_Wyndham \"John Wyndham\"), a spaceman corrupts the innocent natives of Venus. Lasser avoided printing [space opera](/wiki/Space_opera \"Space opera\"), and several stories from Wonder in the early 1930s were more realistic than most contemporary space fiction. Examples include [Edmond Hamilton](/wiki/Edmond_Hamilton \"Edmond Hamilton\")'s \"A Conquest of Two Worlds\", [P. Schuyler Miller](/wiki/P._Schuyler_Miller \"P. Schuyler Miller\")'s \"The Forgotten Man of Space\", and several stories by [Frank K. Kelly](/wiki/Frank_K._Kelly \"Frank K. Kelly\"), including \"The Moon Tragedy\".Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 73–75\\.\nLasser was one of the founders of the [American Rocket Society](/wiki/American_Rocket_Society \"American Rocket Society\") which, under its initial name of the \"Interplanetary Society\", announced its existence in the pages of the June 1930 Wonder Stories.Davin, Pioneers, pp. 32–33\\. Several of Wonder's writers were also members of the Interplanetary Society, and perhaps as a consequence of the relationship Wonder Stories Quarterly began to focus increasingly on fiction with interplanetary settings. A survey of the last eight issues of Wonder Stories Quarterly by Bleiler found almost two\\-thirds of the stories were interplanetary adventures, while only a third of the stories in the corresponding issues of Wonder Stories could be so described. Wonder Stories Quarterly added a banner reading \"Interplanetary Number\" to the cover of the Winter 1931 issue, and retained it, as \"Interplanetary Stories\", for subsequent issues. Lasser and Gernsback were also briefly involved with the fledgling [Technocracy movement](/wiki/Technocracy_movement \"Technocracy movement\"). Gernsback published two issues of Technocracy Review, which Lasser edited, commissioning stories based on technocratic ideas from [Nat Schachner](/wiki/Nat_Schachner \"Nat Schachner\"). These appeared in Wonder Stories during 1933, culminating in a novel, The Revolt of the Scientists.Davin, Pioneers, p. 37\\.Clute, \"Nat Schachner\", p. 1056\\.\nReviews of fiction and popular science books were published, and there was a science column which endeavored to answer readers' questions. These features were at first of good quality, but deteriorated after Lasser's departure, although it is not certain that Lasser wrote the content of either one. An influential non\\-fiction initiative was the creation of the Science Fiction League, an organization that brought together local science fiction fan clubs across the country. Gernsback took the opportunity to sell items such as buttons and insignia, and it was undoubtedly a profitable enterprise for him as well as a good source of publicity. It was ultimately more important in becoming one of the foundations of [science fiction fandom](/wiki/Science_fiction_fandom \"Science fiction fandom\").Peter Roberts, \"Science Fiction League\", p. 1066\\.\n### Hornig", "When Hornig took over from Lasser at the end of 1933 he attempted to continue and expand Lasser's approach. Hornig introduced a \"New Policy\" in the January 1934 issue, emphasizing originality and barring stories that merely reworked well\\-worn ideas.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 87–88\\. He asked for stories that included good science, although \"not enough to become boring to those readers who are not primarily interested in the technicalities of the science\". However, Astounding was moving into the lead position in the science fiction magazine field at this time, and Hornig had difficulty in competing. His rates of payment were lower than Astounding'''s one cent per word; sometimes his writers were paid very late, or not at all. Despite these handicaps, Hornig managed to find some good material, including [Stanley G. Weinbaum](/wiki/Stanley_G._Weinbaum \"Stanley G. Weinbaum\")'s \"[A Martian Odyssey](/wiki/A_Martian_Odyssey \"A Martian Odyssey\")\", which appeared in the July 1934 Wonder and has been frequently reprinted.In the December 1934 – January 1935 issue of Hornig's [fanzine](/wiki/Fanzine \"Fanzine\"), Fantasy Magazine, he took the unusual step of listing several stories that he had rejected as lacking novelty, but which had subsequently appeared in print in other magazines. The list includes several by successful writers of the day, such as [Raymond Z. Gallun](/wiki/Raymond_Z._Gallun \"Raymond Z. Gallun\") and [Miles Breuer](/wiki/Miles_Breuer \"Miles Breuer\"). The most prominent story named is [Triplanetary](/wiki/Triplanetary_%28novel%29 \"Triplanetary (novel)\") by [E. E. Smith](/wiki/E._E._Smith \"E. E. Smith\"), which appeared in Amazing.Both Lasser and Hornig printed fiction translated from French and German writers, including Otfrid von Hanstein and [Otto Willi Gail](/wiki/Otto_Willi_Gail \"Otto Willi Gail\"). With the rise of [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") in Germany in the 1930s a few readers (including [Donald Wollheim](/wiki/Donald_A._Wollheim \"Donald A. Wollheim\")) wrote letters complaining about the inclusion of German stories. The editorial response was a strong defense of the translations; Gernsback argued that events in Germany were irrelevant to the business of selecting fiction.Carter, Creation of Tomorrow, p. 119\\.\nThe covers for almost every issue of Air Wonder, Science Wonder, Wonder Stories and Wonder Stories Quarterly were painted by [Frank R. Paul](/wiki/Frank_R._Paul \"Frank R. Paul\"), who had followed Gernsback from Amazing Stories. The only exception was a cover image composed of colored dots, which appeared on the November 1932 issue.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 276\\.### Weisinger and Friend", "When the magazine moved to Beacon Publications, as Thrilling Wonder, the fiction began to focus more on action than on ideas. The covers, often by [Earle K. Bergey](/wiki/Earle_K._Bergey \"Earle K. Bergey\"), typically depicted bizarre aliens and [damsels in distress](/wiki/Damsel_in_distress \"Damsel in distress\"). In 1939, a reader, Martin Alger, coined the phrase \"bug\\-eyed monster\" to describe one such cover; [the phrase](/wiki/Bug-eyed_monster \"Bug-eyed monster\") subsequently entered the dictionary as a word for an alien. Several well\\-known writers contributed, including [Ray Cummings](/wiki/Ray_Cummings \"Ray Cummings\"), and [John W. Campbell](/wiki/John_W._Campbell \"John W. Campbell\"), whose \"Brain\\-Stealers of Mars\" series began in Thrilling Wonder in the December 1936 issue. A comic\\-strip began in August 1936, the first issue of the Beacon Publications version. It was illustrated and possibly written by Max Plaisted.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.pulpartists.com/Plaisted.html\\\|title\\=Catalog\\\|website\\=www.pulpartists.com\\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2018}} The strip, titled Zarnak, was not a success, and was cancelled after eight issues.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 100–102\\.Weisinger's successor, Friend, gave the magazine a significantly more juvenile feel. He used the alias \"Sergeant Saturn\" and was generally condescending to the readers; this may not have been his fault as Margulies, who was still the editorial director, probably wanted him to attract a younger readership. Under Friend's direction, Earle K. Bergey transformed the look of Thrilling Wonder Stories by foregrounding human figures in space, focusing on the anatomy of women in implausibly revealing spacesuits and his trademark \"brass brassières\".Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 187–188\\.### Merwin and Mines", "Merwin, who took over with the Winter 1945 issue, adopted a more mature approach than Friend's. He obtained fiction from writers who had previously been publishing mainly in John Campbell's Astounding. The Summer 1945 issue of Thrilling Wonder included [Jack Vance](/wiki/Jack_Vance \"Jack Vance\")'s first published story, \"The World Thinker\". Merwin also published several stories by [Ray Bradbury](/wiki/Ray_Bradbury \"Ray Bradbury\"), some of which were later included in Bradbury's collection [The Martian Chronicles](/wiki/The_Martian_Chronicles \"The Martian Chronicles\"). Other well\\-known writers that Merwin was able to attract included [Theodore Sturgeon](/wiki/Theodore_Sturgeon \"Theodore Sturgeon\"), [A. E. van Vogt](/wiki/A._E._van_Vogt \"A. E. van Vogt\"), and [Robert A. Heinlein](/wiki/Robert_A._Heinlein \"Robert A. Heinlein\"). Thrilling Wonder often published intelligent, thoughtful stories, some of which Campbell would have been unlikely to accept at Astounding: he did not like to publish stories that showed the negative consequences of scientific advances such as nuclear power. In the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley, during the late 1940s Thrilling Wonder became a serious rival to Astoundings long domination of the field.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 188–190\\. However, this is not a universal opinion, as the magazine is elsewhere described during Merwin's tenure as \"evidently secondary to Startling\".Malcolm Edwards, \"Thrilling Wonder Stories\", pp. 1222–1223\\.", "Samuel Mines took over from Merwin at the end of 1951, both at Startling Stories and Thrilling Wonder.Ashley, Transformations, p. 343\\. He argued against restrictions in [science fiction themes](/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_themes \"List of science fiction themes\"), and in 1952 published [Philip José Farmer](/wiki/Philip_Jos%C3%A9_Farmer \"Philip José Farmer\")'s \"The Lovers\", a ground\\-breaking story about inter\\-species sex, in Startling. He followed this in 1953 with another taboo\\-breaking story from Farmer, \"Mother\", in Thrilling Wonder, in which a spaceman makes his home in an alien womb.Ashley, Transformations, pp. 13–16\\.Peter Nicholls, \"Sex\", p. 539\\. In the December 1952 Thrilling Wonder, Mines published Edmond Hamilton's \"What's It Like Out There?\", a downbeat story about the realities of space exploration that had been considered too bleak for publication when it had originally been written in the 1930s. Sherwood Springer's \"No Land of Nod\", in the same issue, dealt with incest between a father and his daughter in a world in which they are the only two survivors. These stories were all well received by the readership.", "### Influence on the field", "For a few years, Lasser was the dominant force in American science fiction.Davin, Pioneers, p. 40\\. Under him, Wonder Stories was the best of the science fiction magazines of the early 1930s,Clute, Illustrated Encyclopedia, p. 100\\. and the most successful of all Gernsback's forays into the field. Lasser shaped a new generation of writers, who in many cases had no prior writing experience of any kind; Wonder Stories was part of a \"forcing ground\", according to Isaac Asimov, where young writers learned their trade. The magazine was less constrained by pulp convention than its competitors, and published some novels such as [Eric Temple Bell](/wiki/Eric_Temple_Bell \"Eric Temple Bell\")'s The Time Stream and [Festus Pragnell](/wiki/Festus_Pragnell \"Festus Pragnell\")'s The Green Man of Graypec, which were not in the mainstream of development of the science fiction genre.", "As Thrilling Wonder the magazine was much less influential. Until the mid\\-1940s it was focused on younger readers, and by the time Merwin and Mines introduced a more adult approach, [Astounding Science Fiction](/wiki/Astounding_Science_Fiction \"Astounding Science Fiction\") had taken over as the unquestioned leader of the field. Thrilling Wonder could not compete with [John Campbell](/wiki/John_W._Campbell%2C_Jr. \"John W. Campbell, Jr.\") and the [Golden Age of science fiction](/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Science_Fiction \"Golden Age of Science Fiction\") that he brought into being, but it did periodically publish good stories. In the end it was unable to escape its roots in the pulp industry, and died in the carnage that swept away every remaining pulp magazine in the 1950s.", "" ]
### Gernsback era \| \+Air Wonder Stories \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1929 \| \| \| \| \| \| \|1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 \| 1930 \|1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|Volume and issue numbers of Air Wonder Stories. The editor was David Lasser throughout. Gernsback's new magazine, Amazing Stories, was successful, but Gernsback lost control of the publisher when it went bankrupt in February 1929\. By April he had formed a new company, Gernsback Publications Incorporated, and created two subsidiaries: Techni\-Craft Publishing Corporation and Stellar Publishing Corporation. Gernsback sent out letters advertising his plans for new magazines; the mailing lists he used almost certainly were compiled from the subscription lists of Amazing Stories. This would have been illegal, as the lists were owned by Irving Trust, the receiver of the bankruptcy. Gernsback denied using the lists under oath, but historians have generally agreed that he must have done so. The letters also asked potential subscribers to decide the name of the new magazine; they voted for "Science Wonder Stories", which became the name of one of Gernsback's new magazines.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 579–581\.Perry, "An Amazing Story" pp. 114–115\. \| \+ Science Wonder Stories \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1929 \| \| \| \| \| \|1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 \| 1930 \|1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 1/12 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|Volume and issue numbers of Science Wonder Stories. The editor was David Lasser throughout. Gernsback's recovery from the bankruptcy judgment was remarkably quick. By early June he had launched three new magazines, two of which published science fiction.The other was Radio\-Craft, which was aimed at radio hobbyists and repairmen. See Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 579\. The June 1929 issue of Science Wonder Stories appeared on newsstands on 5 May 1929, and was followed on 5 June by the July 1929 issue of Air Wonder Stories.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 541–543\. Both magazines were monthly, with Gernsback as editor\-in\-chief and [David Lasser](/wiki/David_Lasser "David Lasser") as editor.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 64\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 237\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 254\. Lasser had no prior editing experience and knew little about science fiction, but his recently acquired degree from [MIT](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology "Massachusetts Institute of Technology") convinced Gernsback to hire him.Davin, Pioneers, p. 47\. Gernsback claimed that science fiction was educational. He repeatedly made this assertion in Amazing Stories, and continued to do so in his editorials for the new magazines, stating, for example, that "teachers encourage the reading of this fiction because they know that it gives the pupil a fundamental knowledge of science and aviation."Gernsback, editorial in Air Wonder Stories, July 1929, p. 5, quoted in Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 542\. He also recruited a panel of "nationally known educators \[who] pass upon the scientific principles of all stories". Science fiction historian [Everett Bleiler](/wiki/Everett_Bleiler "Everett Bleiler") describes this as "fakery, pure and simple", asserting that there is no evidence that the men on the panel—some of whom, such as [Lee De Forest](/wiki/Lee_De_Forest "Lee De Forest"), were well\-known scientists—had any editorial influence.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 580\. However, [Donald Menzel](/wiki/Donald_Menzel "Donald Menzel"), the astrophysicist on the panel, said that Gernsback sent him manuscripts and made changes to stories as a result of Menzel's commentary.Carter, Creation of Tomorrow, p. 11\. \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1930 \| \| \| \| \| \|2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7 \| 1931 \|2/8 2/9 2/10 2/11 2/12 3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 3/7 \| 1932 \|3/8 3/9 3/10 3/11 3/12 4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7 \| 1933 \|4/8 4/9 4/10 4/11 4/12 5/1 \|5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5 \| 1934 \|5/6 5/7 5/8 5/9 5/10 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6 6/7 \| 1935 \|6/8 6/9 6/10 6/11 6/12 7/1 7/2 7/3 7/4 7/5 \|7/6 \| 1936 \| \|7/7 \|7/8 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|Issues of Wonder Stories from the merger of Science Wonder and Air Wonder to the acquisition by Beacon Publications, indicating editors: Lasser (blue, 1930–1933\), and Hornig (yellow, 1933–1936\) In 1930, Gernsback decided to merge Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories into Wonder Stories. The reason for the merger is unknown, although it may have been that he needed the space in the printing schedule for his new Aviation Mechanics magazine.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 70–71\. Bleiler has suggested that the merger was caused by poor sales and a consequent need to downsize. In addition, Air Wonder Stories was probably focused on too specialized a niche to succeed. In an editorial just before Science Wonder Stories changed its name, Gernsback commented that the word "Science" in the title "has tended to retard the progress of the magazine, because many people had the impression that it is a sort of scientific periodical rather than a fiction magazine".Gernsback, in Science Wonder, May 1930, p. 1099; quoted in Ashley, Time Machines, p. 71\. Ironically, the inclusion of "science" in the title was the reason that science fiction writer [Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov "Isaac Asimov") began reading the magazine; when he saw the August 1929 issue he obtained permission to read it from his father on the grounds that it was clearly educational.Asimov, Before the Golden Age I, p. 29\. Concerns about the marketability of titles seem to have surfaced in the last two issues of Science Wonder, which had the word "Science" printed in a color that made it difficult to read. On the top of the cover appeared the words "Mystery\-Adventure\-Romance", the last of which was a surprising way to advertise a science fiction magazine. The first issue of the merged magazine appeared in June 1930, still on a monthly schedule, with Lasser as editor. The volume numbering continued that of Science Wonder Stories, therefore Wonder Stories is sometimes regarded as a retitling of Science Wonder Stories.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 586–589\. Gernsback had also produced a companion magazine for Science Wonder Stories, titled Science Wonder Quarterly, the first issue of which was published in the fall of 1929\. Three issues were produced under this title, but after the merger Gernsback changed the companion magazine's title to Wonder Stories Quarterly, and produced a further eleven issues under that title.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 578–579\.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 595–596\. \| \+Science Wonder Quarterly andWonder Stories Quarterly \| \| Winter \| Spring \| Summer \| Fall \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| 1929 \| \| \| \|1/1 \|1930 1/2 1/3 1/4 2/1 \| 1931 \|2/2 2/3 2/4 3/1 \| 1932 \|3/2 3/3 3/4 4/1 \| 1933 \|4/2 \| \| \| \|Science Wonder Quarterly (first three issues) and Wonder Stories Quarterly (all subsequent issues). The editor was David Lasser throughout. In July 1933, Gernsback dismissed Lasser as editor. Lasser had become active in promoting workers' rights and was spending less time on his editorial duties. According to Lasser, Gernsback told him "if you like working with the unemployed so much, I suggest you go and join them".Davin, Pioneers, p. 57\. It is likely that cost\-cutting was also a consideration, as Lasser was paid $65 per week, a substantial salary in those days.Davin, Pioneers, p. 57\. Bleiler, who cites Davin, gives Lasser's salary as $70 per week, though he does not explain the discrepancy; see Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 588\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 94, note 38\. Soon after Lasser was let go, Gernsback received a [fanzine](/wiki/Fanzine "Fanzine"), The Fantasy Fan, from a reader, [Charles Hornig](/wiki/Charles_Hornig "Charles Hornig"). Gernsback called Hornig to his office to interview him for the position of editor; Hornig turned out to be only 17, but Gernsback asked him to proofread a manuscript and decided that the results were satisfactory. Hornig was hired at an initial salary of $20 per week.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 78–79\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 70\. That same year, Gernsback dissolved Stellar Publications and created Continental Publications as the new publisher for Wonder Stories. The schedule stuttered for the first time, missing the July and September 1933 issues; the recent bankruptcy of the company's distributor, [Eastern Distributing Corporation](/wiki/Eastern_Distributing_Corporation "Eastern Distributing Corporation"), may have been partly responsible for this disruption.Davin, Pioneers, p. 29\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 43\. The first issue with Continental on the masthead, and the first listing Hornig as editor, was November 1933\. Wonder Stories had a circulation of about 25,000 in 1934, comparable to that of Amazing Stories, which had declined from an early peak of about 100,000\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 51\.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 85–86\. Gernsback considered issuing a reprint magazine in 1934, Wonder Stories Reprint Annual, but it never appeared.Tuck, Encyclopedia of SF, Vol. 3, p. 609\. That year he experimented with other fiction magazines—Pirate Stories and High Seas Adventures—but neither was successful. Wonder Stories was also failing, and in November 1935 it started publishing bimonthly instead of monthly. Gernsback had a reputation for paying slowly and was therefore unpopular with many authors; by 1936 he was even failing to pay [Laurence Manning](/wiki/Laurence_Manning "Laurence Manning"), one of his most reliable authors.Davin, Pioneers, p. 64\. Staff were sometimes asked to delay cashing their paychecks for weeks at a time.Hornig, quoted in Davin, Pioneers, p. 68; Hornig does not specify whether this happened only towards the end of Gernsback's control of the magazine. Gernsback felt the blame lay with dealers who were returning magazine covers as unsold copies, and then selling the stripped copies at a reduced rate. To bypass the dealers, he made a plea in the March 1936 issue to his readers, asking them to subscribe, and proposing to distribute Wonder Stories solely by subscription. There was little response, and Gernsback decided to sell. He made a deal with Ned Pines of [Beacon Magazines](/wiki/Beacon_Magazines "Beacon Magazines") and on 21 February 1936 Wonder Stories was sold.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 91\.	[ "### Gernsback era", "", "\| \\+Air Wonder Stories \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| 1929 \| \| \| \| \| \| \|1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6", "\| 1930 \|1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 \| \| \| \| \| \| \|\n\|Volume and issue numbers of Air Wonder Stories. The editor was David \nLasser throughout.", "Gernsback's new magazine, Amazing Stories, was successful, but Gernsback lost control of the publisher when it went bankrupt in February 1929\\. By April he had formed a new company, Gernsback Publications Incorporated, and created two subsidiaries: Techni\\-Craft Publishing Corporation and Stellar Publishing Corporation. Gernsback sent out letters advertising his plans for new magazines; the mailing lists he used almost certainly were compiled from the subscription lists of Amazing Stories. This would have been illegal, as the lists were owned by Irving Trust, the receiver of the bankruptcy. Gernsback denied using the lists under oath, but historians have generally agreed that he must have done so. The letters also asked potential subscribers to decide the name of the new magazine; they voted for \"Science Wonder Stories\", which became the name of one of Gernsback's new magazines.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 579–581\\.Perry, \"An Amazing Story\" pp. 114–115\\.", "", "\| \\+ Science Wonder Stories \| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| 1929 \| \| \| \| \| \|1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7", "\| 1930 \|1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 1/12 \| \| \| \| \| \| \|\n\|Volume and issue numbers of Science Wonder Stories. The editor was David \nLasser throughout.", "Gernsback's recovery from the bankruptcy judgment was remarkably quick. By early June he had launched three new magazines, two of which published science fiction.The other was Radio\\-Craft, which was aimed at radio hobbyists and repairmen. See Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 579\\. The June 1929 issue of Science Wonder Stories appeared on newsstands on 5 May 1929, and was followed on 5 June by the July 1929 issue of Air Wonder Stories.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 541–543\\. Both magazines were monthly, with Gernsback as editor\\-in\\-chief and [David Lasser](/wiki/David_Lasser \"David Lasser\") as editor.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 64\\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 237\\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 254\\. Lasser had no prior editing experience and knew little about science fiction, but his recently acquired degree from [MIT](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\") convinced Gernsback to hire him.Davin, Pioneers, p. 47\\.", "Gernsback claimed that science fiction was educational. He repeatedly made this assertion in Amazing Stories, and continued to do so in his editorials for the new magazines, stating, for example, that \"teachers encourage the reading of this fiction because they know that it gives the pupil a fundamental knowledge of science and aviation.\"Gernsback, editorial in Air Wonder Stories, July 1929, p. 5, quoted in Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 542\\. He also recruited a panel of \"nationally known educators \\[who] pass upon the scientific principles of all stories\". Science fiction historian [Everett Bleiler](/wiki/Everett_Bleiler \"Everett Bleiler\") describes this as \"fakery, pure and simple\", asserting that there is no evidence that the men on the panel—some of whom, such as [Lee De Forest](/wiki/Lee_De_Forest \"Lee De Forest\"), were well\\-known scientists—had any editorial influence.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 580\\. However, [Donald Menzel](/wiki/Donald_Menzel \"Donald Menzel\"), the astrophysicist on the panel, said that Gernsback sent him manuscripts and made changes to stories as a result of Menzel's commentary.Carter, Creation of Tomorrow, p. 11\\.", "", "\| \| Jan \| Feb \| Mar \| Apr \| May \| Jun \| Jul \| Aug \| Sep \| Oct \| Nov \| Dec \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| 1930 \| \| \| \| \| \|2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7", "\| 1931 \|2/8 2/9 2/10 2/11 2/12 3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 3/7", "\| 1932 \|3/8 3/9 3/10 3/11 3/12 4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7", "\| 1933 \|4/8 4/9 4/10 4/11 4/12 5/1 \|5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5", "\| 1934 \|5/6 5/7 5/8 5/9 5/10 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6 6/7", "\| 1935 \|6/8 6/9 6/10 6/11 6/12 7/1 7/2 7/3 7/4 7/5 \|7/6", "\| 1936 \| \|7/7 \|7/8 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|\n\|Issues of Wonder Stories from the merger of Science Wonder and Air \nWonder to the acquisition by Beacon Publications, indicating editors: Lasser \n(blue, 1930–1933\\), and Hornig (yellow, 1933–1936\\)", "In 1930, Gernsback decided to merge Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories into Wonder Stories. The reason for the merger is unknown, although it may have been that he needed the space in the printing schedule for his new Aviation Mechanics magazine.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 70–71\\. Bleiler has suggested that the merger was caused by poor sales and a consequent need to downsize. In addition, Air Wonder Stories was probably focused on too specialized a niche to succeed. In an editorial just before Science Wonder Stories changed its name, Gernsback commented that the word \"Science\" in the title \"has tended to retard the progress of the magazine, because many people had the impression that it is a sort of scientific periodical rather than a fiction magazine\".Gernsback, in Science Wonder, May 1930, p. 1099; quoted in Ashley, Time Machines, p. 71\\. Ironically, the inclusion of \"science\" in the title was the reason that science fiction writer [Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov \"Isaac Asimov\") began reading the magazine; when he saw the August 1929 issue he obtained permission to read it from his father on the grounds that it was clearly educational.Asimov, Before the Golden Age I, p. 29\\. Concerns about the marketability of titles seem to have surfaced in the last two issues of Science Wonder, which had the word \"Science\" printed in a color that made it difficult to read. On the top of the cover appeared the words \"Mystery\\-Adventure\\-Romance\", the last of which was a surprising way to advertise a science fiction magazine.", "The first issue of the merged magazine appeared in June 1930, still on a monthly schedule, with Lasser as editor. The volume numbering continued that of Science Wonder Stories, therefore Wonder Stories is sometimes regarded as a retitling of Science Wonder Stories.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 586–589\\. Gernsback had also produced a companion magazine for Science Wonder Stories, titled Science Wonder Quarterly, the first issue of which was published in the fall of 1929\\. Three issues were produced under this title, but after the merger Gernsback changed the companion magazine's title to Wonder Stories Quarterly, and produced a further eleven issues under that title.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 578–579\\.Bleiler, Gernsback Years, pp. 595–596\\.", "", "\| \\+Science Wonder Quarterly andWonder Stories Quarterly \| \| Winter \| Spring \| Summer \| Fall \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| 1929 \| \| \| \|1/1", "\|1930", "1/2 1/3 1/4 2/1", "\| 1931 \|2/2 2/3 2/4 3/1", "\| 1932 \|3/2 3/3 3/4 4/1", "\| 1933 \|4/2 \| \| \|\n\|Science Wonder Quarterly (first three issues) and \nWonder Stories Quarterly (all subsequent issues). The \neditor was David Lasser throughout.", "", "In July 1933, Gernsback dismissed Lasser as editor. Lasser had become active in promoting workers' rights and was spending less time on his editorial duties. According to Lasser, Gernsback told him \"if you like working with the unemployed so much, I suggest you go and join them\".Davin, Pioneers, p. 57\\. It is likely that cost\\-cutting was also a consideration, as Lasser was paid $65 per week, a substantial salary in those days.Davin, Pioneers, p. 57\\. Bleiler, who cites Davin, gives Lasser's salary as $70 per week, though he does not explain the discrepancy; see Bleiler, Gernsback Years, p. 588\\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 94, note 38\\. Soon after Lasser was let go, Gernsback received a [fanzine](/wiki/Fanzine \"Fanzine\"), The Fantasy Fan, from a reader, [Charles Hornig](/wiki/Charles_Hornig \"Charles Hornig\"). Gernsback called Hornig to his office to interview him for the position of editor; Hornig turned out to be only 17, but Gernsback asked him to proofread a manuscript and decided that the results were satisfactory. Hornig was hired at an initial salary of $20 per week.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 78–79\\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 70\\. That same year, Gernsback dissolved Stellar Publications and created Continental Publications as the new publisher for Wonder Stories. The schedule stuttered for the first time, missing the July and September 1933 issues; the recent bankruptcy of the company's distributor, [Eastern Distributing Corporation](/wiki/Eastern_Distributing_Corporation \"Eastern Distributing Corporation\"), may have been partly responsible for this disruption.Davin, Pioneers, p. 29\\.Davin, Pioneers, p. 43\\. The first issue with Continental on the masthead, and the first listing Hornig as editor, was November 1933\\.", "Wonder Stories had a circulation of about 25,000 in 1934, comparable to that of Amazing Stories, which had declined from an early peak of about 100,000\\.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 51\\.Ashley, Time Machines, pp. 85–86\\. Gernsback considered issuing a reprint magazine in 1934, Wonder Stories Reprint Annual, but it never appeared.Tuck, Encyclopedia of SF, Vol. 3, p. 609\\. That year he experimented with other fiction magazines—Pirate Stories and High Seas Adventures—but neither was successful. Wonder Stories was also failing, and in November 1935 it started publishing bimonthly instead of monthly. Gernsback had a reputation for paying slowly and was therefore unpopular with many authors; by 1936 he was even failing to pay [Laurence Manning](/wiki/Laurence_Manning \"Laurence Manning\"), one of his most reliable authors.Davin, Pioneers, p. 64\\. Staff were sometimes asked to delay cashing their paychecks for weeks at a time.Hornig, quoted in Davin, Pioneers, p. 68; Hornig does not specify whether this happened only towards the end of Gernsback's control of the magazine. Gernsback felt the blame lay with dealers who were returning magazine covers as unsold copies, and then selling the stripped copies at a reduced rate. To bypass the dealers, he made a plea in the March 1936 issue to his readers, asking them to subscribe, and proposing to distribute Wonder Stories solely by subscription. There was little response, and Gernsback decided to sell. He made a deal with Ned Pines of [Beacon Magazines](/wiki/Beacon_Magazines \"Beacon Magazines\") and on 21 February 1936 Wonder Stories was sold.Ashley, Time Machines, p. 91\\.", "" ]
Family ------ Browne was a descendant of [Sir Thomas Browne](/wiki/Thomas_Browne_%28High_Sheriff_of_Kent%29 "Thomas Browne (High Sheriff of Kent)"), [Treasurer of the Household](/wiki/Treasurer_of_the_Household "Treasurer of the Household") to [Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England "Henry IV of England"), and related in the male line to the [Viscounts Montagu](/wiki/Viscount_Montagu "Viscount Montagu") of [Cowdray](/wiki/Cowdray_House "Cowdray House"), [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex "Sussex"), and in the female line to [Lord Buckhurst](/wiki/Thomas_Sackville%2C_1st_Earl_of_Dorset "Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset").[Browne, Thomas (d.1597\)](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/browne-thomas-1597) Retrieved 24 March 2013\.{{Harvnb\\|Burke\\|1836\\|pp\=539–40}}; {{Harvnb\\|Richardson I\\|2011\\|pp\=338–42}}. He was the eldest son of Henry Browne, esquire, of [Betchworth Castle](/wiki/Betchworth_Castle "Betchworth Castle"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey "Surrey"), and his first wife, Katherine Shelley, the daughter of Sir William Shelley of Michelgrove in [Clapham, Sussex](/wiki/Clapham%2C_Sussex "Clapham, Sussex"), by Alice Belknap, daughter of [Henry Belknap](/wiki/Belknap_%28surname%29 "Belknap (surname)"), esquire.{{Harvnb\\|Richardson I\\|2011\\|pp\=341–3}}. After the death of his first wife, Alice, Henry Browne married Mary Fitz Herbert, daughter of John Fitz Herbert, by whom he had no issue. After the death of his second wife, Mary, Henry Browne married Eleanor Shirley, the daughter of Thomas Shirley (d.1545\) of [West Grinstead](/wiki/West_Grinstead "West Grinstead"), [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex "Sussex"), by Elizabeth Gorges, the daughter of Marmaduke Gorges. After the death of Henry Browne, his widow, Eleanor, married, by licence dated 15 February 1548, William Sackville (d. 19 May 1556\) of [Bletchingley](/wiki/Bletchingley "Bletchingley"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey "Surrey"). By his father's first marriage to Katherine Shelley Thomas Browne had an only sister, Mary Browne, who married Cuthbert Blagden, gentleman. By his father's third marriage to Eleanor Shirley, Browne had five half brothers, [Richard](/wiki/Richard_Browne_%28died_%3F1614%29 "Richard Browne (died ?1614)"), Roger, John, Alexander, and Jasper, and two half sisters, Katherine Browne, who married a husband surnamed Hill, and Elizabeth Browne.	[ "Family\n------", "Browne was a descendant of [Sir Thomas Browne](/wiki/Thomas_Browne_%28High_Sheriff_of_Kent%29 \"Thomas Browne (High Sheriff of Kent)\"), [Treasurer of the Household](/wiki/Treasurer_of_the_Household \"Treasurer of the Household\") to [Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England \"Henry IV of England\"), and related in the male line to the [Viscounts Montagu](/wiki/Viscount_Montagu \"Viscount Montagu\") of [Cowdray](/wiki/Cowdray_House \"Cowdray House\"), [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex \"Sussex\"), and in the female line to [Lord Buckhurst](/wiki/Thomas_Sackville%2C_1st_Earl_of_Dorset \"Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset\").[Browne, Thomas (d.1597\\)](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/browne-thomas-1597) Retrieved 24 March 2013\\.{{Harvnb\\\|Burke\\\|1836\\\|pp\\=539–40}}; {{Harvnb\\\|Richardson I\\\|2011\\\|pp\\=338–42}}.", "He was the eldest son of Henry Browne, esquire, of [Betchworth Castle](/wiki/Betchworth_Castle \"Betchworth Castle\"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey \"Surrey\"), and his first wife, Katherine Shelley, the daughter of Sir William Shelley of Michelgrove in [Clapham, Sussex](/wiki/Clapham%2C_Sussex \"Clapham, Sussex\"), by Alice Belknap, daughter of [Henry Belknap](/wiki/Belknap_%28surname%29 \"Belknap (surname)\"), esquire.{{Harvnb\\\|Richardson I\\\|2011\\\|pp\\=341–3}}.", "After the death of his first wife, Alice, Henry Browne married Mary Fitz Herbert, daughter of John Fitz Herbert, by whom he had no issue.", "After the death of his second wife, Mary, Henry Browne married Eleanor Shirley, the daughter of Thomas Shirley (d.1545\\) of [West Grinstead](/wiki/West_Grinstead \"West Grinstead\"), [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex \"Sussex\"), by Elizabeth Gorges, the daughter of Marmaduke Gorges.", "After the death of Henry Browne, his widow, Eleanor, married, by licence dated 15 February 1548, William Sackville (d. 19 May 1556\\) of [Bletchingley](/wiki/Bletchingley \"Bletchingley\"), [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey \"Surrey\").", "By his father's first marriage to Katherine Shelley Thomas Browne had an only sister, Mary Browne, who married Cuthbert Blagden, gentleman. By his father's third marriage to Eleanor Shirley, Browne had five half brothers, [Richard](/wiki/Richard_Browne_%28died_%3F1614%29 \"Richard Browne (died ?1614)\"), Roger, John, Alexander, and Jasper, and two half sisters, Katherine Browne, who married a husband surnamed Hill, and Elizabeth Browne.", "" ]
Israeli new shekel (1986–present) --------------------------------- The [Israeli new shekel](/wiki/Israeli_new_shekel "Israeli new shekel") ({{lang\-he\\|שקל חדש\\|translit\=šéqel ħadáš}}, {{IPA\\|he\\|ˈʃekel χaˈdaʃ\\|IPA}}), also known by the acronym NIS ({{Lang\-he\\|ש״ח}} {{IPA\\|he\\|ʃaχ\\|IPA}}), was announced officially on 22 September 1985, when the first new shekel banknotes and coins were introduced.[Reshumot](/wiki/Reshumot "Reshumot") \- Yalkut Pirsumin (Israeli official gazette, collection of miscellaneous announcements), Collection No. 3254, 14 Tishrei 5746, 29 September 1986, p. 430, {{ISSN\\|0334\-2980}} (in Hebrew). It is constructed by combining the two Hebrew letters that constitute the acronym (the first letter of each of the two words, Hebrew being written from right to left): ⟨[ש](/wiki/%D7%A9 "ש")⟩ and ⟨[ח](/wiki/%D7%97 "ח")⟩. Sometimes the ⟨₪⟩ symbol (Unicode 20AA) is used following the number, other times the acronym {{lang\-he\\|ש״ח}}. [thumb\\|The Israeli [toll road](/wiki/Toll_road "Toll road") symbol bearing the Shekel sign.](/wiki/Image:Israel_Toll_Symbol.svg "Israel Toll Symbol.svg") The shekel sign, like the [dollar sign](/wiki/Dollar_sign "Dollar sign") ⟨$⟩, is usually placed left of the number (i.e. "₪12,000" and not "12,000₪"), but since Hebrew is [written from right to left](/wiki/Right-to-left_script "Right-to-left script"), this means that the symbol is actually written after the number. It is either not [separated](/wiki/Space_%28punctuation%29 "Space (punctuation)") from the preceding number, or is separated only by a [thin space](/wiki/Thin_space "Thin space"). According to the [Academy of the Hebrew Language](/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language "Academy of the Hebrew Language") recommendation for writing numbers in Hebrew, the sign should be written to the left of the number without a space between them.Section 5: Writing ₪ or $ before or after the number, [Writing Numbers](https://hebrew-academy.org.il/2021/09/02/%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%91%D7%AA-%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D/) page, on the [Academy of the Hebrew Language](/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language "Academy of the Hebrew Language") site Unlike the dollar sign, the new shekel sign is not used that often when handwriting monetary amounts. The road sign announcing the entrance to an Israeli toll road, such as [Highway 6](/wiki/Highway_6_%28Israel%29 "Highway 6 (Israel)") or the [Carmel Tunnels](/wiki/Carmel_Tunnels "Carmel Tunnels"), is a shekel symbol with a road in the background. ### Unicode and input The symbol has the [Unicode](/wiki/Unicode "Unicode") code point {{unichar\\|20AA\\|New Sheqel Sign\\|html\=}}. It has been in Unicode since June 1993, version 1\.1\.0\. Under the [Unicode bidirectional algorithm](/wiki/Bidirectional_text%23Unicode_bidi_support "Bidirectional text#Unicode bidi support"), typing the sign after the number will cause it to be displayed to the right of the number in any text directions. This contradicts the recommendation of the Academy of the Hebrew Language to place the sign to the left of the number in the Hebrew caption. Using the standard Hebrew keyboard (SI 1452\), it must be typed as {{keypress\\|\[\[AltGr]]\\|A}} (the letter ש appears on the same key in regular Hebrew mode). The Shekel sign, however, is not engraved on most keyboards sold in Israel and the sign is rarely used in day\-to\-day typing. * On systems with the [Hebrew keyboard](/wiki/Hebrew_keyboard "Hebrew keyboard") layout set, it can be typed on modern{{efn\\|Windows 8 or later}} [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows "Microsoft Windows"), desktop [Linux](/wiki/Linux "Linux") and [ChromeOS](/wiki/ChromeOS "ChromeOS") by using {{keypress\\|AltGr\\|4}}. ({{Key press\\|Shift\\|4}} makes the dollar sign and {{Key press\\|AltGr\\|A}} is used to type [shva](/wiki/Shva "Shva").) * On most Unix heritage systems, it can be entered by holding down Ctrl\+Shift\+u (an underlined u will appear), releasing and then typing the Unicode code point {{code\\|20aa}} then {{keypress\\|space}} or {{keypress\\|enter}}, irrespective of keyboard setting. * On [Mac OS X](/wiki/Mac_OS_X "Mac OS X") it can be typed as {{keypress\\|Shift\\|7}} when the system is set to a Hebrew keyboard layout.	[ "Israeli new shekel (1986–present)\n---------------------------------", "The [Israeli new shekel](/wiki/Israeli_new_shekel \"Israeli new shekel\") ({{lang\\-he\\\|שקל חדש\\\|translit\\=šéqel ħadáš}}, {{IPA\\\|he\\\|ˈʃekel χaˈdaʃ\\\|IPA}}), also known by the acronym NIS ({{Lang\\-he\\\|ש״ח}} {{IPA\\\|he\\\|ʃaχ\\\|IPA}}), was announced officially on 22 September 1985, when the first new shekel banknotes and coins were introduced.[Reshumot](/wiki/Reshumot \"Reshumot\") \\- Yalkut Pirsumin (Israeli official gazette, collection of miscellaneous announcements), Collection No. 3254, 14 Tishrei 5746, 29 September 1986, p. 430, {{ISSN\\\|0334\\-2980}} (in Hebrew). It is constructed by combining the two Hebrew letters that constitute the acronym (the first letter of each of the two words, Hebrew being written from right to left): ⟨[ש](/wiki/%D7%A9 \"ש\")⟩ and ⟨[ח](/wiki/%D7%97 \"ח\")⟩. Sometimes the ⟨₪⟩ symbol (Unicode 20AA) is used following the number, other times the acronym {{lang\\-he\\\|ש״ח}}.", "[thumb\\\|The Israeli [toll road](/wiki/Toll_road \"Toll road\") symbol bearing the Shekel sign.](/wiki/Image:Israel_Toll_Symbol.svg \"Israel Toll Symbol.svg\")", "The shekel sign, like the [dollar sign](/wiki/Dollar_sign \"Dollar sign\") ⟨$⟩, is usually placed left of the number (i.e. \"₪12,000\" and not \"12,000₪\"), but since Hebrew is [written from right to left](/wiki/Right-to-left_script \"Right-to-left script\"), this means that the symbol is actually written after the number. It is either not [separated](/wiki/Space_%28punctuation%29 \"Space (punctuation)\") from the preceding number, or is separated only by a [thin space](/wiki/Thin_space \"Thin space\").", "According to the [Academy of the Hebrew Language](/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language \"Academy of the Hebrew Language\") recommendation for writing numbers in Hebrew, the sign should be written to the left of the number without a space between them.Section 5: Writing ₪ or $ before or after the number, [Writing Numbers](https://hebrew-academy.org.il/2021/09/02/%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%91%D7%AA-%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D/) page, on the [Academy of the Hebrew Language](/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language \"Academy of the Hebrew Language\") site", "Unlike the dollar sign, the new shekel sign is not used that often when handwriting monetary amounts.", "The road sign announcing the entrance to an Israeli toll road, such as [Highway 6](/wiki/Highway_6_%28Israel%29 \"Highway 6 (Israel)\") or the [Carmel Tunnels](/wiki/Carmel_Tunnels \"Carmel Tunnels\"), is a shekel symbol with a road in the background.", "### Unicode and input", "The symbol has the [Unicode](/wiki/Unicode \"Unicode\") code point {{unichar\\\|20AA\\\|New Sheqel Sign\\\|html\\=}}. It has been in Unicode since June 1993, version 1\\.1\\.0\\.", "Under the [Unicode bidirectional algorithm](/wiki/Bidirectional_text%23Unicode_bidi_support \"Bidirectional text#Unicode bidi support\"), typing the sign after the number will cause it to be displayed to the right of the number in any text directions. This contradicts the recommendation of the Academy of the Hebrew Language to place the sign to the left of the number in the Hebrew caption.", "Using the standard Hebrew keyboard (SI 1452\\), it must be typed as {{keypress\\\|\\[\\[AltGr]]\\\|A}} (the letter ש appears on the same key in regular Hebrew mode). The Shekel sign, however, is not engraved on most keyboards sold in Israel and the sign is rarely used in day\\-to\\-day typing.\n* On systems with the [Hebrew keyboard](/wiki/Hebrew_keyboard \"Hebrew keyboard\") layout set, it can be typed on modern{{efn\\\|Windows 8 or later}} [Microsoft Windows](/wiki/Microsoft_Windows \"Microsoft Windows\"), desktop [Linux](/wiki/Linux \"Linux\") and [ChromeOS](/wiki/ChromeOS \"ChromeOS\") by using {{keypress\\\|AltGr\\\|4}}. ({{Key press\\\|Shift\\\|4}} makes the dollar sign and {{Key press\\\|AltGr\\\|A}} is used to type [shva](/wiki/Shva \"Shva\").)\n* On most Unix heritage systems, it can be entered by holding down Ctrl\\+Shift\\+u (an underlined u will appear), releasing and then typing the Unicode code point {{code\\\|20aa}} then {{keypress\\\|space}} or {{keypress\\\|enter}}, irrespective of keyboard setting.\n* On [Mac OS X](/wiki/Mac_OS_X \"Mac OS X\") it can be typed as {{keypress\\\|Shift\\\|7}} when the system is set to a Hebrew keyboard layout.", "" ]
Publishing history ------------------ ### June To ensure a strong launch, Fleetway provided free gifts for the first four issues \- a floral bracelet (not unlike the one provided with Princess the previous year); an album containing information about the Royal Family's pets, and two weeks containing free gift cards to paste into said album. In September 1961 the comic dropped the photographic covers \- which generally reproduced poorly on the newsprint stock \- in favour of full\-page art and went down to 24 pages, while the initial line\-up went through the usual changes. "[Tennis Star Tina](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Tennis_Star_Tina "List of June (comics) stories#Tennis Star Tina")" was drawn by Italian artist Giorgio Giorgetti and written by [Anne Digby](/wiki/Anne_Digby "Anne Digby"), who had written columns for Girl and School Friend and would find greater fame in the late 1970s authoring the [Trebizon](/wiki/Trebizon "Trebizon") novels, had debuted in June 1961, while in October "[Nurse Valiant](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Nurse_Valiant "List of June (comics) stories#Nurse Valiant")" would be the first of several stories in June to revolve around nursing. 8 September 1962 saw the magazine have another makeover as a namesake character was devised to take over the front page in a single\-frame Cecil Orr cartoon showing June and her dog Jiffy in a succession of humorous scenes, while the back page was devoted to a pin\-up photo of hunks such as [Adam Faith](/wiki/Adam_Faith "Adam Faith"), TV's [Ben Casey](/wiki/Ben_Casey "Ben Casey") [Vince Edwards](/wiki/Vince_Edwards "Vince Edwards"), [Bill Simpson](/wiki/Bill_Simpson_%28actor%29 "Bill Simpson (actor)") and [Ken Dodd](/wiki/Ken_Dodd "Ken Dodd"). Meanwhile comic's feature pages saw the arrival of Angela Barrie, who would dispense fashion tips and gentle advice for the rest of June's life. At this point, the comic's circulation was 287,000 copies a week.{{cite book \\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lnIqAAAAMAAJ \\| title\=New Society \\| date\=4 October 1963 \\| publisher\=New Society Limited }} Another long\-running feature, "[Vanessa from Venus](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Vanessa_from_Venus "List of June (comics) stories#Vanessa from Venus")", debuted in March 1963; while a variation on the person genie genre, it was the first of several June stories to feature fantastical elements rare for girls' comics of the time. ### June and Poppet The 18 July 1964 edition saw June absorb the short\-lived sister title [Poppet](/wiki/Poppet_%28comics%29 "Poppet (comics)"). The merger brought with it slice\-of\-life strip "[The Family at Surprise Corner](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Family_at_Surprise_Corner "List of June (comics) stories#The Family at Surprise Corner")", which would continue in June until but otherwise brought little else beyond the conclusion of "[Rosita and Her Puppets](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Rosita_and_Her_Puppets "List of June (comics) stories#Rosita and Her Puppets")" (a redrawn version of "Pepita and Her Puppets" from School Friend), though the first combined issue boasted a colour photo of [Cilla Black](/wiki/Cilla_Black "Cilla Black") as a free gift. However, the Poppet title would only appear for five editions before disappearing, after which the title returned to simply June. The 31 October 1964 edition saw June move to 28 pages. ### June and School Friend By now Mavis Miller was editor of the title (with Terry Magee, a future editor of [Battle](/wiki/Battle_Picture_Weekly "Battle Picture Weekly"), as one of her assistants[Terence Magee: Interview](https://jintycomic.wordpress.com/2014/05/13/terence-magee-interview/), A Resource on Jinty website (May 13, 2014\).), and in January 1965 saw a much more lasting merger when the venerable School Friend was rolled into what was now June and School Friend. A price rise to 7[d](/wiki/Penny_%28British_pre-decimal_coin%29 "Penny (British pre-decimal coin)") was offset by the inclusion of [Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28singer%29 "Lulu (singer)")'s Friendship Album and an expansion to a hefty 44 pages \- the production costs being offset by a healthy influx of reprints from School Friend and Girls' Crystal. Market research had shown children typically stuck with comics for only five years, and therefore anything older than five years which wasn't obviously dated was considered for reprinting. The merger also brought "[Lucky's Living Doll](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Lucky%27s_Living_Doll "List of June (comics) stories#Lucky's Living Doll")" (which would stay with June until it was cancelled) and the John Armstrong\-drawn [working class](/wiki/Working_class "Working class") [weepie](/wiki/Weepie "Weepie") "[Cherry and the Children](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Cherry_and_the_Children "List of June (comics) stories#Cherry and the Children")", as well as [anthology](/wiki/Anthology "Anthology") feature "[The Strangest Stories Ever Told](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Strangest_Stories_Ever_Told "List of June (comics) stories#The Strangest Stories Ever Told")". It also brought [Bessie Bunter](/wiki/Bessie_Bunter "Bessie Bunter"); while she would never reach the same level of fame as [her brother](/wiki/Billy_Bunter "Billy Bunter"), the "plump chump" would outlive the comic. June and Jiffy meanwhile were retired, in favour of colour splash covers. September 1965 saw the introduction of the all\-action Jacey North in "[Miss Adventure](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Miss_Adventure "List of June (comics) stories#Miss Adventure")"; the character would go onto appear in several picture libraries. The June and School Friend brand was considered strong enough to stay on the comic for the best part of seven years, and was even used for a Picture Library title, taking over the numbering of the long\-running [Schoolgirls' Picture Library](/wiki/Schoolgirls%27_Picture_Library "Schoolgirls' Picture Library") in October 1965; from 1966 the publication became the wordy June and School Friend and Princess Picture Library. Stories under the June and School Friend name included the fantasy\-tinged "Mimi the Mesmerist", Picture Library jungle princess Zanna the Brave and long\-running winter sport story "Adventure School". January 1966 saw the appearance of young spy Emma Knight in "The Growing Up of [Emma Peel](/wiki/Emma_Peel "Emma Peel")", a prequel featuring the hugely popular character from [ABC](/wiki/ABC_Weekend_TV "ABC Weekend TV")'s [The Avengers](/wiki/The_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 "The Avengers (TV series)"). Bizarrely, this was parallel to the adult version of the character co\-starring with [John Steed](/wiki/John_Steed "John Steed") in the pages of rival [Polystyle](/wiki/Polystyle_Publications "Polystyle Publications")'s [TV Comic](/wiki/TV_Comic "TV Comic"). A longer\-lasting licensing deal would come in April 1967 when the adventures of [fashion doll](/wiki/Fashion_doll "Fashion doll") [Sindy](/wiki/Sindy "Sindy"), her boyfriend Paul and troublesome baby sister Patch were added. The strip would run until 1971, though a club page \- detailing new releases in toy stores \- would continue afterwards. 1968 saw another dabble with an unusual heroine in "[Fourth Form Wonder](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Fourth_Form_Wonder "List of June (comics) stories#Fourth Form Wonder")", which starred [Tibetan](/wiki/Tibet "Tibet") Lan Trafford, who had learnt a succession of unusual powers from [yogis](/wiki/Yogis "Yogis") and unleashed them on an English school. The strip was one of several in a January 1968 relaunch, which saw Lula reappear on the cover to endorse the free 'Hand of Fortune glove'. "[Serena from Space](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Serena_from_Space "List of June (comics) stories#Serena from Space")" meanwhile gave a science fiction twist to a treasure hunt story, while in 1969 the [Trini Tinturé](/wiki/Trini_Tintur%C3%A9 "Trini Tinturé")\-drawn "[Oh, Tinker!](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Oh%2C_Tinker%21 "List of June (comics) stories#Oh, Tinker!")" followed a hard\-trying but hapless fairy. "[Gymnast Jinty](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Gymnast_Jinty "List of June (comics) stories#Gymnast Jinty")" followed the more traditional mix of boarding schools and aerobics, but was distinguished by some of the earliest work by artist [Jim Baikie](/wiki/Jim_Baikie "Jim Baikie"). Another popular artist to get an early break out June was [John M. Burns](/wiki/John_M._Burns "John M. Burns"), who drew the science fiction\-hostess hybrid "[Glory Knight \- Time\-Travel Courier](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Glory_Knight_-_Time-Travel_Courier "List of June (comics) stories#Glory Knight - Time-Travel Courier")".{{Cite web\\|url\=https://comiczine\-fa.com/features/glory\-knight\-time\-travel\-courier\\|title\=Glory Knight, Time\-Travel Courier \- FA Online}} ### June The School Friend part of the name finally disappeared in November 1971, by which point John Purdy had begun his overhaul of what was now [IPC Magazines](/wiki/IPC_Magazines "IPC Magazines")' girls' comics following some of the earliest in\-depth market research into girls' comics readers revealed that the audience wanted relatable, resourceful heroines and \- in the words of one [Midlands](/wiki/Midlands "Midlands") ten\-year old "stories that make me cry". This research would lead to the creation of the hugely successful [Tammy](/wiki/Tammy_%28comics%29 "Tammy (comics)"), but filtered down to June as well. A November 1971 relaunch saw the debut of the tear\-stained "[The Lonely Ones](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Lonely_Ones "List of June (comics) stories#The Lonely Ones")", "[No Place for Nell](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23No_Place_for_Nell "List of June (comics) stories#No Place for Nell")" and "[My Name is Nobody](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23My_Name_is_Nobody "List of June (comics) stories#My Name is Nobody")", as well as moral dilemma\-strewn "[The Reluctant Nurse](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Reluctant_Nurse "List of June (comics) stories#The Reluctant Nurse")" and quasi\-advice strip "[Could This Be You?](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Could_This_Be_You%3F "List of June (comics) stories#Could This Be You?")". 1972 kept up the trend, with boarding school bullies in "[The Guinea Pig](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Guinea_Pig "List of June (comics) stories#The Guinea Pig")", poverty in "[From Big House to Backstreet](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23From_Big_House_to_Backstreet "List of June (comics) stories#From Big House to Backstreet")" and a [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis")\-slain mother in "[Promise Me, Paula!](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Promise_Me%2C_Paula%21 "List of June (comics) stories#Promise Me, Paula!")". Lulu was once again involved, hosting a fashion contest where readers could win £1 a week pocket money for two years; artwork of the Scots singer adorned the cover scattering banknotes underlined the potential jackpot. ### June and Pixie January 1973 brought another merger as Pixie, an unsuccessful attempt to find a market between preschool titles and the likes of June, was subsumed. This brought music\-themed serial "[Melody for Mimi](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Melody_for_Mimi "List of June (comics) stories#Melody for Mimi")" and humour cartoon "[Mini Ha\-Ha](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Mini_Ha-Ha "List of June (comics) stories#Mini Ha-Ha")" but little else, though the first issue of June and Pixie saw the launch of several new stories including horsey drama "[The Silver Savage](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Silver_Savage "List of June (comics) stories#The Silver Savage")", barracks comedy "[Annie's Army](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Annie%27s_Army "List of June (comics) stories#Annie's Army")" and more melodrama in the form of "[Sister of the Bride](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Sister_of_the_Bride "List of June (comics) stories#Sister of the Bride")" (in which a girl is torn between being happy for her sister's upcoming nuptials and her own impending loneliness) and the travails of having a blind brother in "[His Guiding Star](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23His_Guiding_Star "List of June (comics) stories#His Guiding Star")", as well as including a free 'Book of Stars'. Similar overwrought stories playing on cruelty and alienation continued \- "[I'll Never Leave You](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23I%27ll_Never_Leave_You "List of June (comics) stories#I'll Never Leave You")" saw a girl stuck between staying with her family and keeping a promise to a hospitalised friend; the title character of "[Sylvie on a String](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Sylvie_on_a_String "List of June (comics) stories#Sylvie on a String")" similarly faced conflict over whether to go to a top gymnastics school or look after her fading grandmother; and "[The Twin She Couldn't Trust](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Twin_She_Couldn%27t_Trust "List of June (comics) stories#The Twin She Couldn't Trust")" saw an orphan reunited with her twin sister, only to find a bitter and twisted version of herself. Despite this, June was falling behind the times and the writing was on the wall for the comic in early 1974, when the [impact of the fuel crisis](/wiki/1973_oil_crisis "1973 oil crisis") saw the comic stepped down to fortnightly in January to free up resources for bigger sellers. June returned to weekly publication by the end of March but would continue for only three months more before being merged into Tammy. ### Post\-cancellation developments In 2007, Prion issued a hardcover compilation titled The Best of June and School Friend, featuring strips and features from the weekly. Since 2018, the material created for June has been owned by [Rebellion Publishing](/wiki/Rebellion_Publishing "Rebellion Publishing").{{cite news \\| url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-england\-oxfordshire\-45645553 \\| title\='Billy Bunter' deal sees Oxford publisher amass huge comic collection \\| work\=BBC News \\| date\=28 September 2018 }}{{Cite web\\|url\=https://downthetubes.net/british\-comic\-heroes\-under\-one\-roof\-rebellion\-snaps\-up\-t1\-medias\-classic\-comics\-catalogue/\\|title\=British Comic Heroes under one roof! Rebellion snaps up TI Media's classic comics catalogue\\|first\=John\\|last\=Freeman\\|author\-link\=\\|date\=28 September 2018\\|website\=downthetubes.net}}	[ "Publishing history\n------------------", "### June", "To ensure a strong launch, Fleetway provided free gifts for the first four issues \\- a floral bracelet (not unlike the one provided with Princess the previous year); an album containing information about the Royal Family's pets, and two weeks containing free gift cards to paste into said album. In September 1961 the comic dropped the photographic covers \\- which generally reproduced poorly on the newsprint stock \\- in favour of full\\-page art and went down to 24 pages, while the initial line\\-up went through the usual changes. \"[Tennis Star Tina](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Tennis_Star_Tina \"List of June (comics) stories#Tennis Star Tina\")\" was drawn by Italian artist Giorgio Giorgetti and written by [Anne Digby](/wiki/Anne_Digby \"Anne Digby\"), who had written columns for Girl and School Friend and would find greater fame in the late 1970s authoring the [Trebizon](/wiki/Trebizon \"Trebizon\") novels, had debuted in June 1961, while in October \"[Nurse Valiant](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Nurse_Valiant \"List of June (comics) stories#Nurse Valiant\")\" would be the first of several stories in June to revolve around nursing.", "8 September 1962 saw the magazine have another makeover as a namesake character was devised to take over the front page in a single\\-frame Cecil Orr cartoon showing June and her dog Jiffy in a succession of humorous scenes, while the back page was devoted to a pin\\-up photo of hunks such as [Adam Faith](/wiki/Adam_Faith \"Adam Faith\"), TV's [Ben Casey](/wiki/Ben_Casey \"Ben Casey\") [Vince Edwards](/wiki/Vince_Edwards \"Vince Edwards\"), [Bill Simpson](/wiki/Bill_Simpson_%28actor%29 \"Bill Simpson (actor)\") and [Ken Dodd](/wiki/Ken_Dodd \"Ken Dodd\"). Meanwhile comic's feature pages saw the arrival of Angela Barrie, who would dispense fashion tips and gentle advice for the rest of June's life. At this point, the comic's circulation was 287,000 copies a week.{{cite book \\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lnIqAAAAMAAJ \\\| title\\=New Society \\\| date\\=4 October 1963 \\\| publisher\\=New Society Limited }} Another long\\-running feature, \"[Vanessa from Venus](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Vanessa_from_Venus \"List of June (comics) stories#Vanessa from Venus\")\", debuted in March 1963; while a variation on the person genie genre, it was the first of several June stories to feature fantastical elements rare for girls' comics of the time.", "### June and Poppet", "The 18 July 1964 edition saw June absorb the short\\-lived sister title [Poppet](/wiki/Poppet_%28comics%29 \"Poppet (comics)\"). The merger brought with it slice\\-of\\-life strip \"[The Family at Surprise Corner](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Family_at_Surprise_Corner \"List of June (comics) stories#The Family at Surprise Corner\")\", which would continue in June until but otherwise brought little else beyond the conclusion of \"[Rosita and Her Puppets](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Rosita_and_Her_Puppets \"List of June (comics) stories#Rosita and Her Puppets\")\" (a redrawn version of \"Pepita and Her Puppets\" from School Friend), though the first combined issue boasted a colour photo of [Cilla Black](/wiki/Cilla_Black \"Cilla Black\") as a free gift. However, the Poppet title would only appear for five editions before disappearing, after which the title returned to simply June. The 31 October 1964 edition saw June move to 28 pages.", "### June and School Friend", "By now Mavis Miller was editor of the title (with Terry Magee, a future editor of [Battle](/wiki/Battle_Picture_Weekly \"Battle Picture Weekly\"), as one of her assistants[Terence Magee: Interview](https://jintycomic.wordpress.com/2014/05/13/terence-magee-interview/), A Resource on Jinty website (May 13, 2014\\).), and in January 1965 saw a much more lasting merger when the venerable School Friend was rolled into what was now June and School Friend. A price rise to 7[d](/wiki/Penny_%28British_pre-decimal_coin%29 \"Penny (British pre-decimal coin)\") was offset by the inclusion of [Lulu](/wiki/Lulu_%28singer%29 \"Lulu (singer)\")'s Friendship Album and an expansion to a hefty 44 pages \\- the production costs being offset by a healthy influx of reprints from School Friend and Girls' Crystal. Market research had shown children typically stuck with comics for only five years, and therefore anything older than five years which wasn't obviously dated was considered for reprinting. The merger also brought \"[Lucky's Living Doll](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Lucky%27s_Living_Doll \"List of June (comics) stories#Lucky's Living Doll\")\" (which would stay with June until it was cancelled) and the John Armstrong\\-drawn [working class](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\") [weepie](/wiki/Weepie \"Weepie\") \"[Cherry and the Children](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Cherry_and_the_Children \"List of June (comics) stories#Cherry and the Children\")\", as well as [anthology](/wiki/Anthology \"Anthology\") feature \"[The Strangest Stories Ever Told](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Strangest_Stories_Ever_Told \"List of June (comics) stories#The Strangest Stories Ever Told\")\". It also brought [Bessie Bunter](/wiki/Bessie_Bunter \"Bessie Bunter\"); while she would never reach the same level of fame as [her brother](/wiki/Billy_Bunter \"Billy Bunter\"), the \"plump chump\" would outlive the comic. June and Jiffy meanwhile were retired, in favour of colour splash covers. September 1965 saw the introduction of the all\\-action Jacey North in \"[Miss Adventure](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Miss_Adventure \"List of June (comics) stories#Miss Adventure\")\"; the character would go onto appear in several picture libraries.", "The June and School Friend brand was considered strong enough to stay on the comic for the best part of seven years, and was even used for a Picture Library title, taking over the numbering of the long\\-running [Schoolgirls' Picture Library](/wiki/Schoolgirls%27_Picture_Library \"Schoolgirls' Picture Library\") in October 1965; from 1966 the publication became the wordy June and School Friend and Princess Picture Library. Stories under the June and School Friend name included the fantasy\\-tinged \"Mimi the Mesmerist\", Picture Library jungle princess Zanna the Brave and long\\-running winter sport story \"Adventure School\".", "January 1966 saw the appearance of young spy Emma Knight in \"The Growing Up of [Emma Peel](/wiki/Emma_Peel \"Emma Peel\")\", a prequel featuring the hugely popular character from [ABC](/wiki/ABC_Weekend_TV \"ABC Weekend TV\")'s [The Avengers](/wiki/The_Avengers_%28TV_series%29 \"The Avengers (TV series)\"). Bizarrely, this was parallel to the adult version of the character co\\-starring with [John Steed](/wiki/John_Steed \"John Steed\") in the pages of rival [Polystyle](/wiki/Polystyle_Publications \"Polystyle Publications\")'s [TV Comic](/wiki/TV_Comic \"TV Comic\"). A longer\\-lasting licensing deal would come in April 1967 when the adventures of [fashion doll](/wiki/Fashion_doll \"Fashion doll\") [Sindy](/wiki/Sindy \"Sindy\"), her boyfriend Paul and troublesome baby sister Patch were added. The strip would run until 1971, though a club page \\- detailing new releases in toy stores \\- would continue afterwards.", "1968 saw another dabble with an unusual heroine in \"[Fourth Form Wonder](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Fourth_Form_Wonder \"List of June (comics) stories#Fourth Form Wonder\")\", which starred [Tibetan](/wiki/Tibet \"Tibet\") Lan Trafford, who had learnt a succession of unusual powers from [yogis](/wiki/Yogis \"Yogis\") and unleashed them on an English school. The strip was one of several in a January 1968 relaunch, which saw Lula reappear on the cover to endorse the free 'Hand of Fortune glove'. \"[Serena from Space](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Serena_from_Space \"List of June (comics) stories#Serena from Space\")\" meanwhile gave a science fiction twist to a treasure hunt story, while in 1969 the [Trini Tinturé](/wiki/Trini_Tintur%C3%A9 \"Trini Tinturé\")\\-drawn \"[Oh, Tinker!](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Oh%2C_Tinker%21 \"List of June (comics) stories#Oh, Tinker!\")\" followed a hard\\-trying but hapless fairy. \"[Gymnast Jinty](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Gymnast_Jinty \"List of June (comics) stories#Gymnast Jinty\")\" followed the more traditional mix of boarding schools and aerobics, but was distinguished by some of the earliest work by artist [Jim Baikie](/wiki/Jim_Baikie \"Jim Baikie\"). Another popular artist to get an early break out June was [John M. Burns](/wiki/John_M._Burns \"John M. Burns\"), who drew the science fiction\\-hostess hybrid \"[Glory Knight \\- Time\\-Travel Courier](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Glory_Knight_-_Time-Travel_Courier \"List of June (comics) stories#Glory Knight - Time-Travel Courier\")\".{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://comiczine\\-fa.com/features/glory\\-knight\\-time\\-travel\\-courier\\\|title\\=Glory Knight, Time\\-Travel Courier \\- FA Online}}", "### June", "The School Friend part of the name finally disappeared in November 1971, by which point John Purdy had begun his overhaul of what was now [IPC Magazines](/wiki/IPC_Magazines \"IPC Magazines\")' girls' comics following some of the earliest in\\-depth market research into girls' comics readers revealed that the audience wanted relatable, resourceful heroines and \\- in the words of one [Midlands](/wiki/Midlands \"Midlands\") ten\\-year old \"stories that make me cry\". This research would lead to the creation of the hugely successful [Tammy](/wiki/Tammy_%28comics%29 \"Tammy (comics)\"), but filtered down to June as well. A November 1971 relaunch saw the debut of the tear\\-stained \"[The Lonely Ones](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Lonely_Ones \"List of June (comics) stories#The Lonely Ones\")\", \"[No Place for Nell](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23No_Place_for_Nell \"List of June (comics) stories#No Place for Nell\")\" and \"[My Name is Nobody](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23My_Name_is_Nobody \"List of June (comics) stories#My Name is Nobody\")\", as well as moral dilemma\\-strewn \"[The Reluctant Nurse](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Reluctant_Nurse \"List of June (comics) stories#The Reluctant Nurse\")\" and quasi\\-advice strip \"[Could This Be You?](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Could_This_Be_You%3F \"List of June (comics) stories#Could This Be You?\")\". 1972 kept up the trend, with boarding school bullies in \"[The Guinea Pig](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Guinea_Pig \"List of June (comics) stories#The Guinea Pig\")\", poverty in \"[From Big House to Backstreet](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23From_Big_House_to_Backstreet \"List of June (comics) stories#From Big House to Backstreet\")\" and a [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\")\\-slain mother in \"[Promise Me, Paula!](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Promise_Me%2C_Paula%21 \"List of June (comics) stories#Promise Me, Paula!\")\". Lulu was once again involved, hosting a fashion contest where readers could win £1 a week pocket money for two years; artwork of the Scots singer adorned the cover scattering banknotes underlined the potential jackpot.", "### June and Pixie", "January 1973 brought another merger as Pixie, an unsuccessful attempt to find a market between preschool titles and the likes of June, was subsumed. This brought music\\-themed serial \"[Melody for Mimi](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Melody_for_Mimi \"List of June (comics) stories#Melody for Mimi\")\" and humour cartoon \"[Mini Ha\\-Ha](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Mini_Ha-Ha \"List of June (comics) stories#Mini Ha-Ha\")\" but little else, though the first issue of June and Pixie saw the launch of several new stories including horsey drama \"[The Silver Savage](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Silver_Savage \"List of June (comics) stories#The Silver Savage\")\", barracks comedy \"[Annie's Army](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Annie%27s_Army \"List of June (comics) stories#Annie's Army\")\" and more melodrama in the form of \"[Sister of the Bride](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Sister_of_the_Bride \"List of June (comics) stories#Sister of the Bride\")\" (in which a girl is torn between being happy for her sister's upcoming nuptials and her own impending loneliness) and the travails of having a blind brother in \"[His Guiding Star](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23His_Guiding_Star \"List of June (comics) stories#His Guiding Star\")\", as well as including a free 'Book of Stars'. Similar overwrought stories playing on cruelty and alienation continued \\- \"[I'll Never Leave You](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23I%27ll_Never_Leave_You \"List of June (comics) stories#I'll Never Leave You\")\" saw a girl stuck between staying with her family and keeping a promise to a hospitalised friend; the title character of \"[Sylvie on a String](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23Sylvie_on_a_String \"List of June (comics) stories#Sylvie on a String\")\" similarly faced conflict over whether to go to a top gymnastics school or look after her fading grandmother; and \"[The Twin She Couldn't Trust](/wiki/List_of_June_%28comics%29_stories%23The_Twin_She_Couldn%27t_Trust \"List of June (comics) stories#The Twin She Couldn't Trust\")\" saw an orphan reunited with her twin sister, only to find a bitter and twisted version of herself.", "Despite this, June was falling behind the times and the writing was on the wall for the comic in early 1974, when the [impact of the fuel crisis](/wiki/1973_oil_crisis \"1973 oil crisis\") saw the comic stepped down to fortnightly in January to free up resources for bigger sellers. June returned to weekly publication by the end of March but would continue for only three months more before being merged into Tammy.", "### Post\\-cancellation developments", "In 2007, Prion issued a hardcover compilation titled The Best of June and School Friend, featuring strips and features from the weekly.", "Since 2018, the material created for June has been owned by [Rebellion Publishing](/wiki/Rebellion_Publishing \"Rebellion Publishing\").{{cite news \\\| url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-england\\-oxfordshire\\-45645553 \\\| title\\='Billy Bunter' deal sees Oxford publisher amass huge comic collection \\\| work\\=BBC News \\\| date\\=28 September 2018 }}{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://downthetubes.net/british\\-comic\\-heroes\\-under\\-one\\-roof\\-rebellion\\-snaps\\-up\\-t1\\-medias\\-classic\\-comics\\-catalogue/\\\|title\\=British Comic Heroes under one roof! Rebellion snaps up TI Media's classic comics catalogue\\\|first\\=John\\\|last\\=Freeman\\\|author\\-link\\=\\\|date\\=28 September 2018\\\|website\\=downthetubes.net}}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \\|1850\= 420 \\|1850n \={{cite book \\|last1\=DeBow \\|first1\=J.D.B. \\|title\=The Seventh Census of the United States: 1850 \\|date\=1853 \\|publisher\=Robert Armstrong \\|location\=Washington \\|page\=1021 \\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1850/1850a/1850a\-49\.pdf\#page\=7 \\|access\-date\=18 May 2021}} The population figure for 1850 is an estimate provided in the appendix of the \[https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1853/dec/1850a.html official volume of the Seventh Census]. \\|1860\= 744 \\|1870\= 1203 \\|1880\= 2013 \\|1890\= 3100 \\|1900\= 4489 \\|1910\= 4448 \\|1920\= 4168 \\|1930\= 4188 \\|1940\= 4821 \\|1950\= 6159 \\|1960\= 9049 \\|1970\= 9986 \\|1980\= 11288 \\|1990\= 11657 \\|2000\= 14600 \\|2010\= 20602 \\|2020\= 23488 \\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\\|website\=Census.gov\\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\\|title\=U.S. Census website\\|url\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\-date\=2012\-12\-11}} of 2010, there were 20,602 people, 7,983 households, and 5,382 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\\|1641\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 8,818 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|702\.6\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.6% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.8% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.8% of the population. There were 7,983 households, of which 36\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32\.6% were non\-families. 26\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.51 and the average family size was 3\.04\. The median age in the city was 35\.6 years. 26\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28\.7% were from 25 to 44; 23% were from 45 to 64; and 14% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48\.1% male and 51\.9% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 14,600 people, 5,917 households, and 4,017 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,818\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\=us\\|adj\=off}}. There were 6,449 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|803\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\=us\\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\.23% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.05% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.21% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.53% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.01% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.33% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.64% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.27% of the population. There were 5,917 households, out of which 32\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\.1% were non\-families. 27\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.41 and the average family size was 2\.93\. [thumb\\|"The Old Swimming Hole" that appears in [James Whitcomb Riley](/wiki/James_Whitcomb_Riley "James Whitcomb Riley")'s poems is now a large and well\-used park on the east side of Greenfield.](/wiki/File:OldSwimmingHole_GreenfieldIN.jpg "OldSwimmingHole GreenfieldIN.jpg") In the city, the population was spread out, with 25\.2% under the age of 18, 8\.6% from 18 to 24, 30\.9% from 25 to 44, 21\.0% from 45 to 64, and 14\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87\.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $72,035, and the median income for a family was $82,408\. Males had a median income of $66,188 versus $56,568 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $52,509\. About 3\.0% of families and 4\.3% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 4\.7% of those under age 18 and 6\.2% of those age 65 or over.	[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\\|1850\\= 420 \\\|1850n \\={{cite book \\\|last1\\=DeBow \\\|first1\\=J.D.B. \\\|title\\=The Seventh Census of the United States: 1850 \\\|date\\=1853 \\\|publisher\\=Robert Armstrong \\\|location\\=Washington \\\|page\\=1021 \\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1850/1850a/1850a\\-49\\.pdf\\#page\\=7 \\\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2021}} The population figure for 1850 is an estimate provided in the appendix of the \\[https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1853/dec/1850a.html official volume of the Seventh Census]. \n\\\|1860\\= 744\n\\\|1870\\= 1203\n\\\|1880\\= 2013\n\\\|1890\\= 3100\n\\\|1900\\= 4489\n\\\|1910\\= 4448\n\\\|1920\\= 4168\n\\\|1930\\= 4188\n\\\|1940\\= 4821\n\\\|1950\\= 6159\n\\\|1960\\= 9049\n\\\|1970\\= 9986\n\\\|1980\\= 11288\n\\\|1990\\= 11657\n\\\|2000\\= 14600\n\\\|2010\\= 20602\n\\\|2020\\= 23488\n\\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\\|website\\=Census.gov\\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-11}} of 2010, there were 20,602 people, 7,983 households, and 5,382 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\\|1641\\.6\\\|PD/sqmi\\\|PD/km2\\\|1}}. There were 8,818 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\\|702\\.6\\\|/sqmi\\\|/km2\\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.6% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.8% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.8% of the population.", "There were 7,983 households, of which 36\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32\\.6% were non\\-families. 26\\.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.51 and the average family size was 3\\.04\\.", "The median age in the city was 35\\.6 years. 26\\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28\\.7% were from 25 to 44; 23% were from 45 to 64; and 14% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48\\.1% male and 51\\.9% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 14,600 people, 5,917 households, and 4,017 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\\|1,818\\.0\\\|PD/sqmi\\\|PD/km2\\\|sp\\=us\\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 6,449 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\\|803\\.0\\\|/sqmi\\\|/km2\\\|sp\\=us\\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 98\\.23% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.05% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.21% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.53% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.01% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.33% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.64% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.27% of the population.", "There were 5,917 households, out of which 32\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\\.1% were non\\-families. 27\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.41 and the average family size was 2\\.93\\.", "[thumb\\\|\"The Old Swimming Hole\" that appears in [James Whitcomb Riley](/wiki/James_Whitcomb_Riley \"James Whitcomb Riley\")'s poems is now a large and well\\-used park on the east side of Greenfield.](/wiki/File:OldSwimmingHole_GreenfieldIN.jpg \"OldSwimmingHole GreenfieldIN.jpg\")", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 25\\.2% under the age of 18, 8\\.6% from 18 to 24, 30\\.9% from 25 to 44, 21\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 14\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87\\.6 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $72,035, and the median income for a family was $82,408\\. Males had a median income of $66,188 versus $56,568 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $52,509\\. About 3\\.0% of families and 4\\.3% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 4\\.7% of those under age 18 and 6\\.2% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Officially excluded understandings ---------------------------------- ### Views of laity alone The Second Vatican Council made it clear that sensus fidelium (sense of the faithful) does not mean sensus laicorum (sense of the [lay people](/wiki/Laity "Laity")), as if it were a [charism](/wiki/Charism "Charism") granted to the laity in isolation from the Catholic Church hierarchy, and as if the clergy were not included among "the faithful".{{cite book\\|first\=Ormond\\|last\=Rush\\|title\=Still Interpreting Vatican II. Some Hermeneutical Principles\\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uCQkmPP\-haEC\\|publisher\=\[\[Paulist Fathers\\|Paulist Press]]\\|location\=\[\[Mahwah, New Jersey]]\\|year\=2004\\|id\=\\|page\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=uCQkmPP\-haEC\&pg\=PA108\&dq\=%22not\+to\+be\+equated\+with\+the\+laity\+alone%22 108]\\|isbn\=0\-809\-14285\-6}} It stated: {{blockquote\\|The entire body of the faithful, anointed as they are by the Holy One, cannot err in matters of belief. They manifest this special property by means of the whole people's supernatural discernment in matters of faith when "from the Bishops down to the last of the lay faithful" they show universal agreement in matters of faith and morals. That discernment in matters of faith is aroused and sustained by the Spirit of truth. It is exercised under the guidance of the sacred teaching authority, in faithful and respectful obedience to which the people of God accepts that which is not just the word of men but truly the word of God.''\[\[Lumen gentium]]'', \[https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist\_councils/ii\_vatican\_council/documents/vat\-ii\_const\_19641121\_lumen\-gentium\_en.html 12] quoted also in {{Cite CCC\\|2\.1\\|92\-93}}}} It declared that Christ fulfils his prophetic office "not only through the hierarchy who teach in His name and with His authority, but also through the laity whom He made His witnesses and to whom He gave understanding of the faith \[sensus fidei] and an attractiveness in speech so that the power of the Gospel might shine forth in their daily social and family life.Lumen gentium, 35\. According to Saint [Augustine of Hippo](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo "Augustine of Hippo"): "for you I am a bishop, together with you I am a Christian" (in [Latin](/wiki/Latin_language "Latin language"): vobis sum episcopus, vobiscum sum christianusSermo 340 A \[PL 38, 1483]. Cited in {{cite web\\|author\=\[\[International Theological Commission]]\\|url\=https://www\-vatican\-va.translate.goog/roman\_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti\_documents/rc\_cti\_doc\_20111129\_teologia\-oggi\_it.html?\_x\_tr\_sl\=auto\&\_x\_tr\_tl\=en\&\_x\_tr\_hl\=it\&\_x\_tr\_pto\=wapp\\|trans\-title\=Theology Today: Perspectives, Principia and Criteria\\|title\=La teologia oggi: prospettive, principi e criteri\\|language\=it,en\\|year\=2012\\|website\=Holy See}} (at n°. 33\)). ### Independent of Church magisterium In a speech to the [International Theological Commission](/wiki/International_Theological_Commission "International Theological Commission") on 7 December 2012, [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI "Pope Benedict XVI") distinguished between the authentic meaning of sensus fidei and a counterfeit understanding: "It is certainly not a kind of public ecclesial opinion, and invoking it in order to contest the teachings of the [Magisterium](/wiki/Magisterium "Magisterium") would be unthinkable, since the sensus fidei cannot be authentically developed in believers, except to the extent in which they fully participate in the life of the Church, and this demands responsible adherence to the Magisterium, to the deposit of faith.[Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI "Pope Benedict XVI"), [Address to the International Theological Commission, 7 December 2012](https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2012/december/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20121207_cti_en.html). This distinction was expressed also by the Second Vatican Council in the passage quoted above, in which it states that the discernment of the faithful in matters of faith and morals "is exercised under the guidance of the sacred teaching authority, in faithful and respectful obedience to which the people of God accepts that which is not just the word of men but truly the word of God". What may be a contrary view was expressed in an article by the editorial staff of the progressive United States periodical [National Catholic Reporter](/wiki/National_Catholic_Reporter "National Catholic Reporter"): "Blessed [John Henry Newman](/wiki/John_Henry_Newman "John Henry Newman") said that there are three [magisteria](/wiki/Magisterium "Magisterium") in the church: the bishops, the theologians, and the people. On the issue of women's ordination, two of the three voices have been silenced, which is why the third voice must now make itself heard. ...Our message is that we believe the sensus fidelium is that the exclusion of women from the priesthood has no strong basis in Scripture or any other compelling rationale; therefore, women should be ordained. We have heard the faithful assent to this in countless conversations in parish halls, lecture halls, and family gatherings. It has been studied and prayed over individually and in groups."{{cite news\\|url\=http://ncronline.org/news/people/editorial\-ordination\-women\-would\-correct\-injustice\\|title\=Editorial: Ordination of women would correct an injustice\\|author\=NCR Editorial staff\\|newspaper\=\[\[National Catholic Reporter]]\\|location\=Kansas City, Missouri\\|date\=3 December 2012\\|access\-date\=13 July 2013}} A branch of the [Cardinal Newman Society](/wiki/Cardinal_Newman_Society "Cardinal Newman Society") countered this view by quoting what the Pope coincidentally said only four days later, and by commenting: "One need not look very far in Catholic circles nowadays to find some mention of sensus fidelium which literally means 'sense of faith'. ... Recently, the term has been misused to argue for [same\-sex 'marriage'](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage"), [contraception](/wiki/Contraception "Contraception") and even [women's ordination](/wiki/Women%27s_ordination "Women's ordination"). It's a form of 'Magisterium by [Gallup](/wiki/Gallup_%28company%29 "Gallup (company)")' in which a person argues that most Catholics agree with them on an issue, so even though the Magisterium says otherwise, they hold the trump card because of sensus fidei."{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.cardinalnewmansociety.org/CatholicEducationDaily/DetailsPage/tabid/102/ArticleID/1811/Pope\-Clarifies\-The\-Oft\-Cited\-%E2%80%9CSensus\-Fidei%E2%80%9D.aspx\\|title\=Pope Clarifies The Oft\-Cited ''Sensus Fidei''\\|first\=Matthew\\|last\=Archbold\\|publisher\=\[\[Cardinal Newman Society\\|The Cardinal Newman Society]]\\|location\=\[\[Manassas, Virginia]]\\|date\=11 December 2012\\|access\-date\=13 July 2013}} Cardinal Newman's actual view is that only the Ecclesia docens ("teaching Church", magisterium) discerns, discriminates, defines, promulgates, and enforces any portion of the tradition of the Apostles committed to the whole Church.{{cite book\\|first\=John Henry\\|last\=Newman\\|author\-link\=John Henry Newman\\|title\=The Rambler, Volumes 1\-2\\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4mItAAAAYAAJ\\|publisher\=Central Publishing Office\\|location\=London\\|year\=1859\\|page\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=4mItAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=205\&dq\=%22The\+tradition\+of\+the\+Apostles,\+committed\+to\+the\+whole\+Church\+in\+its\+various\+constituents\+and\+functions\+per\+modum\+unius,\+manifests\+itself\+variously\+at\+various\+times:\+sometimes\+by\+the\+mouth\+of\+the\+episcopacy,\+sometimes\+by\+the\+doctors,\+sometimes\+by\+the\+people,\+sometimes\+by\+liturgies,\+rites,\+ceremonies,\+and\+customs,\+by\+events,\+disputes,\+movements,\+and\+all\+those\+other\+phenomena\+which\+are\+comprised\+under\+the\+name\+of\+history.\+It\+follows\+that\+none\+of\+these\+channels\+of\+tradition\+may\+be\+treated\+with\+disrespect;\+granting\+at\+the\+same\+time\+fully,\+that\+the\+gift\+of\+discerning,\+discriminating,\+defining,\+promulgating,\+and\+enforcing\+any\+portion\+of\+that\+tradition\+resides\+solely\+in\+the\+Ecclesia\+docens%22 205]\\|quote\=The tradition of the Apostles, committed to the whole Church in its various constituents and functions per ''modum unius'', manifests itself variously at various times: sometimes by the mouth of the episcopacy, sometimes by the doctors, sometimes by the people, sometimes by liturgies, rites, ceremonies, and customs, by events, disputes, movements, and all those other phenomena which are comprised under the name of history. It follows that none of these channels of tradition may be treated with disrespect; granting at the same time fully, that the gift of discerning, discriminating, defining, promulgating, and enforcing any portion of that tradition resides solely in the ''Ecclesia docens''.}} See also: {{cite book\\|editor\-first\=John\\|editor\-last\=Coulson\\|title\=On Consulting the Faithful in Matters of Doctrine \\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=hqOMdp4FU2AC \\| year\=1962 \\| publisher\=\[\[Rowman \& Littlefield]]\\|location\=\[\[Lanham, Maryland]]\\|page\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=hqOMdp4FU2AC\&pg\=PA63\&dq\=Newman\+%22The\+tradition\+of\+the\+Apostles,\+committed\+to\+the\+whole\+Church\+in\+its\+various\+constituents\+and\+functions\+per\+modum\+unius,\+manifests\+itself\+variously\+at\+various\+times:\+sometimes\+by\+the\+mouth\+of\+the\+episcopacy,\+sometimes\+by\+the\+doctors,\+sometimes\+by\+the\+people,\+sometimes\+by\+liturgies,\+rites,\+ceremonies,\+and\+customs,\+by\+events,\+disputes,\+movements,\+and\+all\+those\+other\+phenomena\+which\+are\+comprised\+under\+the\+name\+of\+history.\+It\+follows\+that\+none\+of\+these\+channels\+of\+tradition\+may\+be\+treated\+with\+disrespect;\+granting\+at\+the\+same\+time\+fully,\+that\+the\+gift\+of\+discerning,\+discriminating,\+defining,\+promulgating,\+and\+enforcing\+any\+portion\+of\+that\+tradition\+resides\+solely\+in\+the\+Ecclesia\+docens.%22 63]\\|isbn\=0934134510\\|id\=}} Cardinal [Charles Journet](/wiki/Charles_Journet "Charles Journet") wrote that the sensus fidei is "neither a teaching nor a magisterium, but only the felt conviction of a truth." Believers can mix with their faith data or feelings foreign to it and they therefore need, he said, "to be helped, directed, judged by the divinely assisted magisterium." The magisterium for its part "has the task of discerning and confirming what is pre\-felt, indicated, and anticipated by the sensus fidei." ### Identified with prevailing opinion The [Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith](/wiki/Congregation_for_the_Doctrine_of_the_Faith "Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith") ruled out the "sociological argumentation which holds that the opinion of a large number of Christians would be a direct and adequate expression of the "supernatural sense of the faith" (sensus fidei). It commented: "The believer can still have erroneous opinions since all his thoughts do not spring from faith. Not all the ideas which circulate among the People of God are compatible with the faith. This is all the more so given that people can be swayed by a public opinion influenced by modern communications media. Not without reason did the Second Vatican Council emphasize the indissoluble bond between the sensus fidei and the guidance of God's People by the magisterium of the Pastors. These two realities cannot be separated."[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Instruction "Donum veritatis" (24 May 1990\), 35](https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19900524_theologian-vocation_en.html). With regard to passing a judgement on the attitude reflected in the activities of the [Inquisition](/wiki/Inquisition "Inquisition"), [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II "Pope John Paul II") stated: "The theologians will be guided by a distinction in their critical reflection: the distinction between the authentic sensus fidei and the predominant mentality in a specific epoch that might have influenced their opinion. The sensus fidei must be asked to exercise the criteria of a level judgment of the life of the Church in the past."[Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II "Pope John Paul II"), [Letter on the occasion of the presentation of the volume "L'Inquisizione" (15 June 2004\)](https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2004/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20040615_simposio-inquisizione_en.html). Theologian Cardinal [Georges Cottier](/wiki/Georges_Cottier "Georges Cottier") wrote: "Obviously, the sensus fidei is not to be identified with the consensus of the majority, it is not defined on the basis of the statistics of polls. In the history of the Church it has happened that in certain contexts the sensus fidei has been manifested by isolated individuals, single saints, while general opinion hung on to doctrines not conforming to the apostolic faith."{{cite news\\|first\=Georges\\|last\=Cottier\\|author\-link\=Georges Cottier\\|url\=http://www.30giorni.it/articoli\_id\_23083\_l3\.htm\\|title\=Reflections on the Life and Mystery of the Church\\|publisher\=\[\[30 Days (magazine)\\|30 Days]]\\|location\=Rome\\|date\=August–September 2010\\|access\-date\=14 July 2013}} Donal Dorr instead has commented critically on what he sees as the Church's failure to effectively listen to what he views as the sensus fidei, which he perhaps looks for in [Third World](/wiki/Third_World "Third World") countries, since he also speaks of actual Catholic social teaching as showing a western and ethnocentric leaning.{{cite book \\| last\=Dorr \\| first\=Donal \\| title\=Option for the Poor. A Hundred Years of Vatican Social Teaching \\| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LHxjQgAACAAJ\\|year\=1992\\|publisher\=\[\[Orbis Books]]\\|location\=\[\[Ossining (village), New York\\|Maryknoll, New York]]\\| isbn\=0883448270 \\|edition\=2nd\\|id\=}} [Excerpt](http://theology1.tripod.com/readings/dorr.htm): "here is a real danger that the promotion of Catholic social teaching (as presently articulated) may contribute to the imposition of Western values on the peoples of other cultures.""The Roman authorities must find more effective ways of listening to the sensus fidei." Addressing a group of theologians in December 2013, [Pope Francis](/wiki/Pope_Francis "Pope Francis") said: "By the gift of the Holy Spirit, the members of the Church possess a 'sense of faith'. This is a kind of 'spiritual instinct' that makes us sentire cum Ecclesia \[think with the mind of the Church] and to discern that which is in conformity with the apostolic faith and is in the spirit of the Gospel. Of course, the sensus fidelium \[sense of the faithful] cannot be confused with the sociological reality of a majority opinion. It is, therefore, important—and one of your tasks—to develop criteria that allow the authentic expressions of the sensus fidelium to be discerned. …This attention is of greatest importance for theologians. Pope Benedict XVI often pointed out that the theologian must remain attentive to the faith lived by the humble and the small, to whom it pleased the Father to reveal that which He had hidden from the learned and the wise.”[Catherine Harmon, "Francis to theologians: Don't confuse sensus fidelium with majority opinion" in The Catholic World Report, 9 December 2013](http://www.catholicworldreport.com/Blog/2774/francis_to_theologians_dont_confuse_sensus_fidelium_with_majority_opinion.aspx#.UzZ-xvl_uSo) ### Concerned with Church governance Confusing the sensus fidelium or sensus fidei with questions of governance departs from the teaching of the Council, which applies it instead to the teaching office of the Church.Rush, Ormond (2009\). [P. 60](https://books.google.com/books?id=dEGmqDiYEI8C&pg=PA60&dq=%22At+least+in+terms+of+Lumen+gentium+12a,+the+sensus+fidelium+relates+to+the+teaching+office+of+the+church%22). The Second Vatican Council, quoted above, spoke of the sensus fidei as concerning the showing of "universal agreement in matter of faith and morals," a "discernment in matters of faith ... exercised under the guidance of the sacred teaching authority, in faithful and respectful obedience to which the people of God accepts that which is not just the word of men but truly the word of God."	[ "Officially excluded understandings\n----------------------------------", "### Views of laity alone", "The Second Vatican Council made it clear that sensus fidelium (sense of the faithful) does not mean sensus laicorum (sense of the [lay people](/wiki/Laity \"Laity\")), as if it were a [charism](/wiki/Charism \"Charism\") granted to the laity in isolation from the Catholic Church hierarchy, and as if the clergy were not included among \"the faithful\".{{cite book\\\|first\\=Ormond\\\|last\\=Rush\\\|title\\=Still Interpreting Vatican II. Some Hermeneutical Principles\\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uCQkmPP\\-haEC\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Paulist Fathers\\\|Paulist Press]]\\\|location\\=\\[\\[Mahwah, New Jersey]]\\\|year\\=2004\\\|id\\=\\\|page\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uCQkmPP\\-haEC\\&pg\\=PA108\\&dq\\=%22not\\+to\\+be\\+equated\\+with\\+the\\+laity\\+alone%22 108]\\\|isbn\\=0\\-809\\-14285\\-6}} It stated:\n{{blockquote\\\|The entire body of the faithful, anointed as they are by the Holy One, cannot err in matters of belief. They manifest this special property by means of the whole people's supernatural discernment in matters of faith when \"from the Bishops down to the last of the lay faithful\" they show universal agreement in matters of faith and morals. That discernment in matters of faith is aroused and sustained by the Spirit of truth. It is exercised under the guidance of the sacred teaching authority, in faithful and respectful obedience to which the people of God accepts that which is not just the word of men but truly the word of God.''\\[\\[Lumen gentium]]'', \\[https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist\\_councils/ii\\_vatican\\_council/documents/vat\\-ii\\_const\\_19641121\\_lumen\\-gentium\\_en.html 12] quoted also in {{Cite CCC\\\|2\\.1\\\|92\\-93}}}}", "It declared that Christ fulfils his prophetic office \"not only through the hierarchy who teach in His name and with His authority, but also through the laity whom He made His witnesses and to whom He gave understanding of the faith \\[sensus fidei] and an attractiveness in speech so that the power of the Gospel might shine forth in their daily social and family life.Lumen gentium, 35\\.", "According to Saint [Augustine of Hippo](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo \"Augustine of Hippo\"): \"for you I am a bishop, together with you I am a Christian\" (in [Latin](/wiki/Latin_language \"Latin language\"): vobis sum episcopus, vobiscum sum christianusSermo 340 A \\[PL 38, 1483]. Cited in {{cite web\\\|author\\=\\[\\[International Theological Commission]]\\\|url\\=https://www\\-vatican\\-va.translate.goog/roman\\_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti\\_documents/rc\\_cti\\_doc\\_20111129\\_teologia\\-oggi\\_it.html?\\_x\\_tr\\_sl\\=auto\\&\\_x\\_tr\\_tl\\=en\\&\\_x\\_tr\\_hl\\=it\\&\\_x\\_tr\\_pto\\=wapp\\\|trans\\-title\\=Theology Today: Perspectives, Principia and Criteria\\\|title\\=La teologia oggi: prospettive, principi e criteri\\\|language\\=it,en\\\|year\\=2012\\\|website\\=Holy See}} (at n°. 33\\)).", "### Independent of Church magisterium", "In a speech to the [International Theological Commission](/wiki/International_Theological_Commission \"International Theological Commission\") on 7 December 2012, [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI \"Pope Benedict XVI\") distinguished between the authentic meaning of sensus fidei and a counterfeit understanding: \"It is certainly not a kind of public ecclesial opinion, and invoking it in order to contest the teachings of the [Magisterium](/wiki/Magisterium \"Magisterium\") would be unthinkable, since the sensus fidei cannot be authentically developed in believers, except to the extent in which they fully participate in the life of the Church, and this demands responsible adherence to the Magisterium, to the deposit of faith.[Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI \"Pope Benedict XVI\"), [Address to the International Theological Commission, 7 December 2012](https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2012/december/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20121207_cti_en.html).", "This distinction was expressed also by the Second Vatican Council in the passage quoted above, in which it states that the discernment of the faithful in matters of faith and morals \"is exercised under the guidance of the sacred teaching authority, in faithful and respectful obedience to which the people of God accepts that which is not just the word of men but truly the word of God\".", "What may be a contrary view was expressed in an article by the editorial staff of the progressive United States periodical [National Catholic Reporter](/wiki/National_Catholic_Reporter \"National Catholic Reporter\"): \"Blessed [John Henry Newman](/wiki/John_Henry_Newman \"John Henry Newman\") said that there are three [magisteria](/wiki/Magisterium \"Magisterium\") in the church: the bishops, the theologians, and the people. On the issue of women's ordination, two of the three voices have been silenced, which is why the third voice must now make itself heard. ...Our message is that we believe the sensus fidelium is that the exclusion of women from the priesthood has no strong basis in Scripture or any other compelling rationale; therefore, women should be ordained. We have heard the faithful assent to this in countless conversations in parish halls, lecture halls, and family gatherings. It has been studied and prayed over individually and in groups.\"{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://ncronline.org/news/people/editorial\\-ordination\\-women\\-would\\-correct\\-injustice\\\|title\\=Editorial: Ordination of women would correct an injustice\\\|author\\=NCR Editorial staff\\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[National Catholic Reporter]]\\\|location\\=Kansas City, Missouri\\\|date\\=3 December 2012\\\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2013}} A branch of the [Cardinal Newman Society](/wiki/Cardinal_Newman_Society \"Cardinal Newman Society\") countered this view by quoting what the Pope coincidentally said only four days later, and by commenting: \"One need not look very far in Catholic circles nowadays to find some mention of sensus fidelium which literally means 'sense of faith'. ... Recently, the term has been misused to argue for [same\\-sex 'marriage'](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\"), [contraception](/wiki/Contraception \"Contraception\") and even [women's ordination](/wiki/Women%27s_ordination \"Women's ordination\"). It's a form of 'Magisterium by [Gallup](/wiki/Gallup_%28company%29 \"Gallup (company)\")' in which a person argues that most Catholics agree with them on an issue, so even though the Magisterium says otherwise, they hold the trump card because of sensus fidei.\"{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.cardinalnewmansociety.org/CatholicEducationDaily/DetailsPage/tabid/102/ArticleID/1811/Pope\\-Clarifies\\-The\\-Oft\\-Cited\\-%E2%80%9CSensus\\-Fidei%E2%80%9D.aspx\\\|title\\=Pope Clarifies The Oft\\-Cited ''Sensus Fidei''\\\|first\\=Matthew\\\|last\\=Archbold\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cardinal Newman Society\\\|The Cardinal Newman Society]]\\\|location\\=\\[\\[Manassas, Virginia]]\\\|date\\=11 December 2012\\\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2013}} Cardinal Newman's actual view is that only the Ecclesia docens (\"teaching Church\", magisterium) discerns, discriminates, defines, promulgates, and enforces any portion of the tradition of the Apostles committed to the whole Church.{{cite book\\\|first\\=John Henry\\\|last\\=Newman\\\|author\\-link\\=John Henry Newman\\\|title\\=The Rambler, Volumes 1\\-2\\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4mItAAAAYAAJ\\\|publisher\\=Central Publishing Office\\\|location\\=London\\\|year\\=1859\\\|page\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4mItAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=205\\&dq\\=%22The\\+tradition\\+of\\+the\\+Apostles,\\+committed\\+to\\+the\\+whole\\+Church\\+in\\+its\\+various\\+constituents\\+and\\+functions\\+per\\+modum\\+unius,\\+manifests\\+itself\\+variously\\+at\\+various\\+times:\\+sometimes\\+by\\+the\\+mouth\\+of\\+the\\+episcopacy,\\+sometimes\\+by\\+the\\+doctors,\\+sometimes\\+by\\+the\\+people,\\+sometimes\\+by\\+liturgies,\\+rites,\\+ceremonies,\\+and\\+customs,\\+by\\+events,\\+disputes,\\+movements,\\+and\\+all\\+those\\+other\\+phenomena\\+which\\+are\\+comprised\\+under\\+the\\+name\\+of\\+history.\\+It\\+follows\\+that\\+none\\+of\\+these\\+channels\\+of\\+tradition\\+may\\+be\\+treated\\+with\\+disrespect;\\+granting\\+at\\+the\\+same\\+time\\+fully,\\+that\\+the\\+gift\\+of\\+discerning,\\+discriminating,\\+defining,\\+promulgating,\\+and\\+enforcing\\+any\\+portion\\+of\\+that\\+tradition\\+resides\\+solely\\+in\\+the\\+Ecclesia\\+docens%22 205]\\\|quote\\=The tradition of the Apostles, committed to the whole Church in its various constituents and functions per ''modum unius'', manifests itself variously at various times: sometimes by the mouth of the episcopacy, sometimes by the doctors, sometimes by the people, sometimes by liturgies, rites, ceremonies, and customs, by events, disputes, movements, and all those other phenomena which are comprised under the name of history. It follows that none of these channels of tradition may be treated with disrespect; granting at the same time fully, that the gift of discerning, discriminating, defining, promulgating, and enforcing any portion of that tradition resides solely in the ''Ecclesia docens''.}} See also: {{cite book\\\|editor\\-first\\=John\\\|editor\\-last\\=Coulson\\\|title\\=On Consulting the Faithful in Matters of Doctrine \\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hqOMdp4FU2AC \\\| year\\=1962 \\\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Rowman \\& Littlefield]]\\\|location\\=\\[\\[Lanham, Maryland]]\\\|page\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hqOMdp4FU2AC\\&pg\\=PA63\\&dq\\=Newman\\+%22The\\+tradition\\+of\\+the\\+Apostles,\\+committed\\+to\\+the\\+whole\\+Church\\+in\\+its\\+various\\+constituents\\+and\\+functions\\+per\\+modum\\+unius,\\+manifests\\+itself\\+variously\\+at\\+various\\+times:\\+sometimes\\+by\\+the\\+mouth\\+of\\+the\\+episcopacy,\\+sometimes\\+by\\+the\\+doctors,\\+sometimes\\+by\\+the\\+people,\\+sometimes\\+by\\+liturgies,\\+rites,\\+ceremonies,\\+and\\+customs,\\+by\\+events,\\+disputes,\\+movements,\\+and\\+all\\+those\\+other\\+phenomena\\+which\\+are\\+comprised\\+under\\+the\\+name\\+of\\+history.\\+It\\+follows\\+that\\+none\\+of\\+these\\+channels\\+of\\+tradition\\+may\\+be\\+treated\\+with\\+disrespect;\\+granting\\+at\\+the\\+same\\+time\\+fully,\\+that\\+the\\+gift\\+of\\+discerning,\\+discriminating,\\+defining,\\+promulgating,\\+and\\+enforcing\\+any\\+portion\\+of\\+that\\+tradition\\+resides\\+solely\\+in\\+the\\+Ecclesia\\+docens.%22 63]\\\|isbn\\=0934134510\\\|id\\=}}", "Cardinal [Charles Journet](/wiki/Charles_Journet \"Charles Journet\") wrote that the sensus fidei is \"neither a teaching nor a magisterium, but only the felt conviction of a truth.\" Believers can mix with their faith data or feelings foreign to it and they therefore need, he said, \"to be helped, directed, judged by the divinely assisted magisterium.\" The magisterium for its part \"has the task of discerning and confirming what is pre\\-felt, indicated, and anticipated by the sensus fidei.\"", "### Identified with prevailing opinion", "The [Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith](/wiki/Congregation_for_the_Doctrine_of_the_Faith \"Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith\") ruled out the \"sociological argumentation which holds that the opinion of a large number of Christians would be a direct and adequate expression of the \"supernatural sense of the faith\" (sensus fidei). It commented: \"The believer can still have erroneous opinions since all his thoughts do not spring from faith. Not all the ideas which circulate among the People of God are compatible with the faith. This is all the more so given that people can be swayed by a public opinion influenced by modern communications media. Not without reason did the Second Vatican Council emphasize the indissoluble bond between the sensus fidei and the guidance of God's People by the magisterium of the Pastors. These two realities cannot be separated.\"[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Instruction \"Donum veritatis\" (24 May 1990\\), 35](https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19900524_theologian-vocation_en.html).", "With regard to passing a judgement on the attitude reflected in the activities of the [Inquisition](/wiki/Inquisition \"Inquisition\"), [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\") stated: \"The theologians will be guided by a distinction in their critical reflection: the distinction between the authentic sensus fidei and the predominant mentality in a specific epoch that might have influenced their opinion. The sensus fidei must be asked to exercise the criteria of a level judgment of the life of the Church in the past.\"[Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\"), [Letter on the occasion of the presentation of the volume \"L'Inquisizione\" (15 June 2004\\)](https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2004/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20040615_simposio-inquisizione_en.html).", "Theologian Cardinal [Georges Cottier](/wiki/Georges_Cottier \"Georges Cottier\") wrote: \"Obviously, the sensus fidei is not to be identified with the consensus of the majority, it is not defined on the basis of the statistics of polls. In the history of the Church it has happened that in certain contexts the sensus fidei has been manifested by isolated individuals, single saints, while general opinion hung on to doctrines not conforming to the apostolic faith.\"{{cite news\\\|first\\=Georges\\\|last\\=Cottier\\\|author\\-link\\=Georges Cottier\\\|url\\=http://www.30giorni.it/articoli\\_id\\_23083\\_l3\\.htm\\\|title\\=Reflections on the Life and Mystery of the Church\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[30 Days (magazine)\\\|30 Days]]\\\|location\\=Rome\\\|date\\=August–September 2010\\\|access\\-date\\=14 July 2013}}", "Donal Dorr instead has commented critically on what he sees as the Church's failure to effectively listen to what he views as the sensus fidei, which he perhaps looks for in [Third World](/wiki/Third_World \"Third World\") countries, since he also speaks of actual Catholic social teaching as showing a western and ethnocentric leaning.{{cite book \\\| last\\=Dorr \\\| first\\=Donal \\\| title\\=Option for the Poor. A Hundred Years of Vatican Social Teaching \\\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LHxjQgAACAAJ\\\|year\\=1992\\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Orbis Books]]\\\|location\\=\\[\\[Ossining (village), New York\\\|Maryknoll, New York]]\\\| isbn\\=0883448270 \\\|edition\\=2nd\\\|id\\=}} [Excerpt](http://theology1.tripod.com/readings/dorr.htm): \"here is a real danger that the promotion of Catholic social teaching (as presently articulated) may contribute to the imposition of Western values on the peoples of other cultures.\"\"The Roman authorities must find more effective ways of listening to the sensus fidei.\"", "Addressing a group of theologians in December 2013, [Pope Francis](/wiki/Pope_Francis \"Pope Francis\") said: \"By the gift of the Holy Spirit, the members of the Church possess a 'sense of faith'. This is a kind of 'spiritual instinct' that makes us sentire cum Ecclesia \\[think with the mind of the Church] and to discern that which is in conformity with the apostolic faith and is in the spirit of the Gospel. Of course, the sensus fidelium \\[sense of the faithful] cannot be confused with the sociological reality of a majority opinion. It is, therefore, important—and one of your tasks—to develop criteria that allow the authentic expressions of the sensus fidelium to be discerned. …This attention is of greatest importance for theologians. Pope Benedict XVI often pointed out that the theologian must remain attentive to the faith lived by the humble and the small, to whom it pleased the Father to reveal that which He had hidden from the learned and the wise.”[Catherine Harmon, \"Francis to theologians: Don't confuse sensus fidelium with majority opinion\" in The Catholic World Report, 9 December 2013](http://www.catholicworldreport.com/Blog/2774/francis_to_theologians_dont_confuse_sensus_fidelium_with_majority_opinion.aspx#.UzZ-xvl_uSo)", "### Concerned with Church governance", "Confusing the sensus fidelium or sensus fidei with questions of governance departs from the teaching of the Council, which applies it instead to the teaching office of the Church.Rush, Ormond (2009\\). [P. 60](https://books.google.com/books?id=dEGmqDiYEI8C&pg=PA60&dq=%22At+least+in+terms+of+Lumen+gentium+12a,+the+sensus+fidelium+relates+to+the+teaching+office+of+the+church%22).", "The Second Vatican Council, quoted above, spoke of the sensus fidei as concerning the showing of \"universal agreement in matter of faith and morals,\" a \"discernment in matters of faith ... exercised under the guidance of the sacred teaching authority, in faithful and respectful obedience to which the people of God accepts that which is not just the word of men but truly the word of God.\"", "" ]
Relocation controversy ---------------------- BCI is Brantford's oldest school and has stood as a historic landmark since 1909\.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://brantford.library.on.ca/files/pdfs/localhistory/reville1\.pdf \\|title\=Archived copy \\|access\-date\=31 December 2018 \\|archive\-date\=31 March 2016 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331083200/http://brantford.library.on.ca/files/pdfs/localhistory/reville1\.pdf \\|url\-status\=dead }} For a considerable time,{{When\\|date\=July 2009}}{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} the city and the Grand Erie District School Board worked on a plan to update and renovate the deteriorating school building in its original location on Brant Avenue. Significant controversy resulted{{When\\|date\=July 2009}} upon the school board's reversal of its plan to rebuild BCI in its original location – there are now new plans involving moving the school to Shellard Lane.{{When\\|date\=July 2009}}{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} ### Decisions taken by the Board In November 1997 the Brant County Board of Education presented a report entitled "Planning for our Future – a Master Plan and Education Program for the Future Development of BCI", which recommended rebuilding the school on its original site. No follow\-up decision was made and the issue was left with the then newly amalgamated Grand Erie District School Board (which was created on 1 January 1999\) to resolve.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} In the summer of 2002, the Board received a report from its senior administration which encouraged [trustees](/wiki/Trustee "Trustee") to deal with this issue.{{Citation needed\\|date\=March 2011}} An [ad hoc](/wiki/Ad_hoc "Ad hoc") committee was established and supported rebuilding BCI on its current site.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} In October 2004 a "Comprehensive Facility Audit" was completed by Jacques Whitford Limited. The report, which was submitted to the Board in April 2005, documented work that would need to be completed over the next 10 years totalling [C$](/wiki/Canadian_dollar "Canadian dollar")12\.2million. The report only included basic work which would not deal with issues such as [accessibility](/wiki/Accessibility "Accessibility").{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} In May 2005 the Board decided by motion to move forward with a community forum and to write to the [Minister of Education](/wiki/Minister_of_Education_%28Ontario%29 "Minister of Education (Ontario)") to request financial assistance in order to revitalise BCI.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} That fall, the BCI community forums were held. By all accounts the process was positive and the consensus was that any redevelopment of BCI should be on its current site. On 6 February 2006 the Board in [Committee of the Whole](/wiki/Committee_of_the_Whole "Committee of the Whole") approved moving forward with architectural services (provided by [MMMC Architects](/wiki/MMMC_Architects "MMMC Architects")) to assist the Design Committee examining options for the redevelopment of BCI. The options included building a new school on a new site as well as redeveloping BCI on its current site.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} On 12 June 2006 the Board in Committee of the Whole approved moving forward with a "Request for Proposals" (RFP) for the architectural services for BCI's redevelopment, and directed the administration to prepare a report on transition plans and costs.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} In August 2006 the trustees passed a motion with a two\-thirds majority to reopen discussion on the location of BCI. On 14 September 2006 another public forum was held. This time the discussion was on how to accommodate BCI students during the school's redevelopment. Parents of students attending other secondary schools in Brantford attended and objected to having their own children's schools disrupted and put on shifts to accommodate BCI students during reconstruction at BCI. Approximately 600 people attended this meeting in which the Board's presentation addressed the rebuilding of BCI on a new site as well as accommodating BCI on the existing site.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} On 2 October 2006 administration presented a plan to rebuild BCI on the existing site while keeping the students on site. The option would increase the costs of the project and delay its completion to 2010\. On 16 October 2006 a motion was approved to confirm that BCI would be rebuilt on its current site at a cost not to exceed C$30million. An RFP was approved for an [architect](/wiki/Architect "Architect") and a construction manager. On 20 November 2006 the Walter Fedy Partnership were selected as architects and engineers, and Atlas Construction were selected as construction managers.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} On 8 January 2007, the Board agreed to seek permission from the Minister of Education to adjust the school day to accommodate shifts at BCI while the redevelopment was taking place, and on 26 February the Minister gave his approval. The plan called for the use of shifts, together with the use of the 1960s wing of BCI, [portables](/wiki/Portable_building "Portable building") and nearby Victoria School.On 19 March 2007 cost estimates for the BCI development on site were reported to be C$33,372,958, which included an auditorium at an approximate cost of C$2\.7million (which the Alumni committed to raise funds for) and $30,647,969 for a school on a new site. The operating costs for the new school on its current site would be greater because of the additional floor area, but the bussing costs would be greater at the original site. The Board moved a motion at the meeting on 19 March to go in\-camera and discuss a property issue. The property being considered by the board was located in West Brantford on Shellard Lane, which is owned by the city. Board officials had no written information from the city to explain the planning issues but they reported to the trustees that permission could quickly be obtained from the city to build a school. The trustees were told that the Board would be responsible for the costs of some services since the land would not have access to all city services for a number of years. ### School Council's reaction The BCI Council expressed concerns about the process used by the Board. They felt they were misled on the issue because prior to the municipal election in 2006, the Board appeared to have taken the position in favour of rebuilding BCI at its original location, which was then reversed after the 2006 election. The Council reviewed the events of the previous several years where the Board consistently re\-confirmed its decision to rebuild BCI on its current site. They praised the community forums as good vehicles to seek input. The Council pointed to the relationship that BCI had with [Wilfrid Laurier University](/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier_University "Wilfrid Laurier University"), which had a campus in downtown Brantford. [Mohawk College](/wiki/Mohawk_College "Mohawk College") and [Nipissing University](/wiki/Nipissing_University "Nipissing University") are also considered to have similar relationships with BCI. The council's concern was that the new site for BCI was too far away from the city's downtown area to maintain these relationships. At the time of the relocation decision the vast majority of students walked to BCI. If the school were to be relocated to the proposed new location that would become unfeasible, and therefore the school Board would be met with a significant cost in terms of student transport. The School Council did not agree with the Board that enrollment would increase significantly at the new site for BCI, and felt that the data used by the Board, taken from [2001 Census](/wiki/Canada_2001_Census "Canada 2001 Census"), was out of date. Their belief was that new provincial policy called for intensification and infilling and that would increase enrollment at the BCI downtown location. Council said that they were shocked by the Board's reversal and they believe the decision was made without a commitment that land would be available for the relocated BCI within a short time frame.{{Citation needed\\|date\=March 2011}} ### Local Reaction The city's Mayor and councillors, and the administration for the city were upset that the Board reversed its course without any discussion with the city.{{Citation needed\\|date\=March 2011}} The Mayor said that he had heard about the Board's decision on the radio.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} The issue was particularly important to the city because a lot of work and planning to revitalise the downtown area had begun to show results. With Nipissing and Wilfrid Laurier Universities as well as Mohawk College located in the city's core, more people were working and attending school downtown, which was beneficial for downtown businesses. The province was encouraging intensification, and infilling was viewed as good for the environment. The City said that [demographics](/wiki/Demographics "Demographics") were not showing growth in south\-west Brant and therefore building a new school in the area was difficult to comprehend. The Mayor of Brantford outlined the timelines for the necessary amendment of the official plans which needed completing before the proposed school site could be developed.{{Citation needed\\|date\=July 2009}} The city also indicated that since other development was unlikely to occur for several years, the Board would be responsible for the installation of necessary services for the new school. ### Minister of Education's remarks Remarks by Ontario's Minister of Education, Kathleen Wynne,[Fact\-finder's Report for Brantford Collegiate Institute](http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/nr/07.07/BCIreport.pdf) the school's relocation included: > "During my consultations in Brantford it became clear that some members of the community viewed this fact\-finding process as an appeal of the Board’s decision concerning the future of BCI. They wanted the decision overturned by the Ministry of Education. It is important that everyone involved in this very difficult community issue understand that Ontario’s Education Act is the legal framework and it sets out who does what in the delivery of public education. The Ministry does not have the power to overrule locally elected school boards as long as their decisions respect the Education Act and the policy guidelines set by the Ministry." > "School boards are democratically elected to make decisions that are best made at the community level. It would be inappropriate, and not in the best interest of public education, to have every school accommodation issue, all across this vast Province made in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto"). In this particular case it is clear that the board has exclusive power to make this decision." > "I was asked many times; "How is the board held accountable?” Clearly the board is accountable to the community. Ultimately trustees seek re\-election and this democratic process provides direct accountability." > "However in the exercise of this power, trustees and boards must be transparent, inclusive and respectful of the community they represent. Board decisions must serve the best interest of the community and of course their students."[Fact\-finder's Report for Brantford Collegiate Institute](http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/nr/07.07/BCIreport.pdf)[BCI Alumni](http://bcialumni.on.ca/alumni2001.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050904185246/http://bcialumni.on.ca/alumni2001\.htm \\|date\=4 September 2005 }} {{Dead link\\|date\=July 2022}} ### Renovation at original location The school was renovated at the original location between 2008 and 2011\.{{Cite web\\|url\=http://www.granderie.ca/schools/bci/about\-us\\|title \= About :: Grand Erie District School Board}}	[ "Relocation controversy\n----------------------", "BCI is Brantford's oldest school and has stood as a historic landmark since 1909\\.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://brantford.library.on.ca/files/pdfs/localhistory/reville1\\.pdf \\\|title\\=Archived copy \\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2018 \\\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2016 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331083200/http://brantford.library.on.ca/files/pdfs/localhistory/reville1\\.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=dead }} For a considerable time,{{When\\\|date\\=July 2009}}{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}} the city and the Grand Erie District School Board worked on a plan to update and renovate the deteriorating school building in its original location on Brant Avenue. Significant controversy resulted{{When\\\|date\\=July 2009}} upon the school board's reversal of its plan to rebuild BCI in its original location – there are now new plans involving moving the school to Shellard Lane.{{When\\\|date\\=July 2009}}{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}}", "### Decisions taken by the Board", "In November 1997 the Brant County Board of Education presented a report entitled \"Planning for our Future – a Master Plan and Education Program for the Future Development of BCI\", which recommended rebuilding the school on its original site. No follow\\-up decision was made and the issue was left with the then newly amalgamated Grand Erie District School Board (which was created on 1 January 1999\\) to resolve.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}}", "In the summer of 2002, the Board received a report from its senior administration which encouraged [trustees](/wiki/Trustee \"Trustee\") to deal with this issue.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=March 2011}} An [ad hoc](/wiki/Ad_hoc \"Ad hoc\") committee was established and supported rebuilding BCI on its current site.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}} In October 2004 a \"Comprehensive Facility Audit\" was completed by Jacques Whitford Limited. The report, which was submitted to the Board in April 2005, documented work that would need to be completed over the next 10 years totalling [C$](/wiki/Canadian_dollar \"Canadian dollar\")12\\.2million. The report only included basic work which would not deal with issues such as [accessibility](/wiki/Accessibility \"Accessibility\").{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}}", "In May 2005 the Board decided by motion to move forward with a community forum and to write to the [Minister of Education](/wiki/Minister_of_Education_%28Ontario%29 \"Minister of Education (Ontario)\") to request financial assistance in order to revitalise BCI.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}}", "That fall, the BCI community forums were held. By all accounts the process was positive and the consensus was that any redevelopment of BCI should be on its current site. On 6 February 2006 the Board in [Committee of the Whole](/wiki/Committee_of_the_Whole \"Committee of the Whole\") approved moving forward with architectural services (provided by [MMMC Architects](/wiki/MMMC_Architects \"MMMC Architects\")) to assist the Design Committee examining options for the redevelopment of BCI. The options included building a new school on a new site as well as redeveloping BCI on its current site.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}}", "On 12 June 2006 the Board in Committee of the Whole approved moving forward with a \"Request for Proposals\" (RFP) for the architectural services for BCI's redevelopment, and directed the administration to prepare a report on transition plans and costs.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}} In August 2006 the trustees passed a motion with a two\\-thirds majority to reopen discussion on the location of BCI. On 14 September 2006 another public forum was held. This time the discussion was on how to accommodate BCI students during the school's redevelopment. Parents of students attending other secondary schools in Brantford attended and objected to having their own children's schools disrupted and put on shifts to accommodate BCI students during reconstruction at BCI. Approximately 600 people attended this meeting in which the Board's presentation addressed the rebuilding of BCI on a new site as well as accommodating BCI on the existing site.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}}\nOn 2 October 2006 administration presented a plan to rebuild BCI on the existing site while keeping the students on site. The option would increase the costs of the project and delay its completion to 2010\\.\nOn 16 October 2006 a motion was approved to confirm that BCI would be rebuilt on its current site at a cost not to exceed C$30million. An RFP was approved for an [architect](/wiki/Architect \"Architect\") and a construction manager.", "On 20 November 2006 the Walter Fedy Partnership were selected as architects and engineers, and Atlas Construction were selected as construction managers.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}}\nOn 8 January 2007, the Board agreed to seek permission from the Minister of Education to adjust the school day to accommodate shifts at BCI while the redevelopment was taking place, and on 26 February the Minister gave his approval. The plan called for the use of shifts, together with the use of the 1960s wing of BCI, [portables](/wiki/Portable_building \"Portable building\") and nearby Victoria School.On 19 March 2007 cost estimates for the BCI development on site were reported to be C$33,372,958, which included an auditorium at an approximate cost of C$2\\.7million (which the Alumni committed to raise funds for) and $30,647,969 for a school on a new site. The operating costs for the new school on its current site would be greater because of the additional floor area, but the bussing costs would be greater at the original site.", "The Board moved a motion at the meeting on 19 March to go in\\-camera and discuss a property issue. The property being considered by the board was located in West Brantford on Shellard Lane, which is owned by the city. Board officials had no written information from the city to explain the planning issues but they reported to the trustees that permission could quickly be obtained from the city to build a school. The trustees were told that the Board would be responsible for the costs of some services since the land would not have access to all city services for a number of years.", "### School Council's reaction", "The BCI Council expressed concerns about the process used by the Board. They felt they were misled on the issue because prior to the municipal election in 2006, the Board appeared to have taken the position in favour of rebuilding BCI at its original location, which was then reversed after the 2006 election. The Council reviewed the events of the previous several years where the Board consistently re\\-confirmed its decision to rebuild BCI on its current site. They praised the community forums as good vehicles to seek input.", "The Council pointed to the relationship that BCI had with [Wilfrid Laurier University](/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier_University \"Wilfrid Laurier University\"), which had a campus in downtown Brantford. [Mohawk College](/wiki/Mohawk_College \"Mohawk College\") and [Nipissing University](/wiki/Nipissing_University \"Nipissing University\") are also considered to have similar relationships with BCI. The council's concern was that the new site for BCI was too far away from the city's downtown area to maintain these relationships.", "At the time of the relocation decision the vast majority of students walked to BCI. If the school were to be relocated to the proposed new location that would become unfeasible, and therefore the school Board would be met with a significant cost in terms of student transport.", "The School Council did not agree with the Board that enrollment would increase significantly at the new site for BCI, and felt that the data used by the Board, taken from [2001 Census](/wiki/Canada_2001_Census \"Canada 2001 Census\"), was out of date. Their belief was that new provincial policy called for intensification and infilling and that would increase enrollment at the BCI downtown location. Council said that they were shocked by the Board's reversal and they believe the decision was made without a commitment that land would be available for the relocated BCI within a short time frame.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=March 2011}}", "### Local Reaction", "The city's Mayor and councillors, and the administration for the city were upset that the Board reversed its course without any discussion with the city.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=March 2011}} The Mayor said that he had heard about the Board's decision on the radio.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}} The issue was particularly important to the city because a lot of work and planning to revitalise the downtown area had begun to show results. With Nipissing and Wilfrid Laurier Universities as well as Mohawk College located in the city's core, more people were working and attending school downtown, which was beneficial for downtown businesses. The province was encouraging intensification, and infilling was viewed as good for the environment.", "The City said that [demographics](/wiki/Demographics \"Demographics\") were not showing growth in south\\-west Brant and therefore building a new school in the area was difficult to comprehend.", "The Mayor of Brantford outlined the timelines for the necessary amendment of the official plans which needed completing before the proposed school site could be developed.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=July 2009}} The city also indicated that since other development was unlikely to occur for several years, the Board would be responsible for the installation of necessary services for the new school.", "### Minister of Education's remarks", "Remarks by Ontario's Minister of Education, Kathleen Wynne,[Fact\\-finder's Report for Brantford Collegiate Institute](http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/nr/07.07/BCIreport.pdf) the school's relocation included:", "", "> \"During my consultations in Brantford it became clear that some members of the community viewed this fact\\-finding process as an appeal of the Board’s decision concerning the future of BCI. They wanted the decision overturned by the Ministry of Education. It is important that everyone involved in this very difficult community issue understand that Ontario’s Education Act is the legal framework and it sets out who does what in the delivery of public education. The Ministry does not have the power to overrule locally elected school boards as long as their decisions respect the Education Act and the policy guidelines set by the Ministry.\"", "", "> \"School boards are democratically elected to make decisions that are best made at the community level. It would be inappropriate, and not in the best interest of public education, to have every school accommodation issue, all across this vast Province made in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\"). In this particular case it is clear that the board has exclusive power to make this decision.\"", "", "> \"I was asked many times; \"How is the board held accountable?” Clearly the board is accountable to the community. Ultimately trustees seek re\\-election and this democratic process provides direct accountability.\"", "", "> \"However in the exercise of this power, trustees and boards must be transparent, inclusive and respectful of the community they represent. Board decisions must serve the best interest of the community and of course their students.\"[Fact\\-finder's Report for Brantford Collegiate Institute](http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/nr/07.07/BCIreport.pdf)[BCI Alumni](http://bcialumni.on.ca/alumni2001.htm) {{webarchive \\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050904185246/http://bcialumni.on.ca/alumni2001\\.htm \\\|date\\=4 September 2005 }} {{Dead link\\\|date\\=July 2022}}", "### Renovation at original location", "The school was renovated at the original location between 2008 and 2011\\.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.granderie.ca/schools/bci/about\\-us\\\|title \\= About :: Grand Erie District School Board}}", "" ]
Origin ------ The Vulcan Street Plant was conceptualized by H. J. Rogers – who was the president of the Appleton Paper and Pulp Co. and of the Appleton Gas Light Co. during this time. According to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, H. J. Rogers first came up with the idea for a hydro\-electric central station after talking with a friend of his, H. E. Jacobs, while they were on a fishing trip.[National Historic Engineering Landmark – Vulcan Street Plant](http://files.asme.org/ASMEORG/Communities/History/Landmarks/5657.PDF) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928064625/http://files.asme.org/ASMEORG/Communities/History/Landmarks/5657\.PDF \\|date\=September 28, 2011 }}, Retrieved October 19, 2009\. ### The Appleton Edison Electric Light Company H. E. Jacobs, who was working for [Western Edison Light Company](/wiki/Western_Edison_Light_Company "Western Edison Light Company") of Chicago as a licensing agent, informed H. J. Rogers about Thomas Edison’s plan for a steam\-driven electric power plant in New York City called the [Pearl Street Plant](/wiki/Pearl_Street_Station "Pearl Street Station"). Upon learning about Edison’s advances in electric light technology and electric generators, Rogers worked to bring together a group of investors to create one of the first hydro\-electric central stations in the world. For this reason, the Appleton Edison Electric Light Company was formed and incorporated on May 25, 1882\. While Edison’s Pearl Street Plant was still under construction, the founders of the Appleton Edison Electric Light Company – H. E. Jacobs, A. L. Smith, H. D. Smith, and Charles Beveridge – began planning the Vulcan Street Plant. In July 1882, engineer P. D. Johnston, who worked for Western Edison Light Company of Chicago during this time, visited Appleton to explain the details of Edison’s lighting system to the founders of the Appleton Edison Electric Light Company. After this meeting, the founders decided to test the viability of hydro\-electric lighting by first installing it in their homes and mills. As a result, two Edison "K" type generators were ordered. The first generator was installed in H. J. Roger’s paper mill, the Appleton Paper and Pulp Company, and is the generator that began operation on September 30, 1882\. The second generator was installed in its building on Vulcan Street and began operation on November 25, 1882\. ### Problems and successes On September 27, 1882, the first generator began operation, but without success. Hence, Edward T. Ames, the installer, returned to Appleton to correct the problem. After a few days of troubleshooting, the generator was repaired and successfully entered operation on September 30, 1882\. This was only 26 days after Thomas Edison began to successfully operate his steam\-driven Pearl Street Plant in New York, which began operation on September 4, 1882\. The output of the original generator was about 12\.5 kilowatts. The first buildings to be lit by the Vulcan Street Plant were H.J. Rogers' home, the Appleton Paper and Pulp Company building, and the Vulcan Paper Mill, which were all connected directly to the generator. Initially, the buildings' direct connection to the generator caused many problems because the generator was directly connected to the waterwheel. The water from the Fox River did not flow at a constant rate, so the lights did not maintain constant brightness and often burned out. This problem was resolved by moving the generator to a lean\-to off the main building, where it was attached to a separate water wheel that allowed for a more even load distribution. During the time of the Vulcan Street Plant, voltage regulators did not exist. Operators had to look at the light itself to determine if it was at the proper brightness, and they adjusted the voltage according to their observations. Electricity meters did not exist at that time, so customers were charged a flat monthly fee based on the number of electric lamps installed in their building. Hence, many people left their lights on all night. The original electric distribution lines in Appleton were made of bare copper. This posed many challenges in the early development of commercial electricity, because nearly everything was made of wood or other flammable materials. The wiring used in buildings was insulated by a thin layer of cotton and was fastened to walls using wood cleats. Likewise, wood was used for fuse boxes, light sockets, and switch handles.	[ "Origin\n------", "The Vulcan Street Plant was conceptualized by H. J. Rogers – who was the president of the Appleton Paper and Pulp Co. and of the Appleton Gas Light Co. during this time. According to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, H. J. Rogers first came up with the idea for a hydro\\-electric central station after talking with a friend of his, H. E. Jacobs, while they were on a fishing trip.[National Historic Engineering Landmark – Vulcan Street Plant](http://files.asme.org/ASMEORG/Communities/History/Landmarks/5657.PDF) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928064625/http://files.asme.org/ASMEORG/Communities/History/Landmarks/5657\\.PDF \\\|date\\=September 28, 2011 }}, Retrieved October 19, 2009\\.", "### The Appleton Edison Electric Light Company", "H. E. Jacobs, who was working for [Western Edison Light Company](/wiki/Western_Edison_Light_Company \"Western Edison Light Company\") of Chicago as a licensing agent, informed H. J. Rogers about Thomas Edison’s plan for a steam\\-driven electric power plant in New York City called the [Pearl Street Plant](/wiki/Pearl_Street_Station \"Pearl Street Station\"). Upon learning about Edison’s advances in electric light technology and electric generators, Rogers worked to bring together a group of investors to create one of the first hydro\\-electric central stations in the world. For this reason, the Appleton Edison Electric Light Company was formed and incorporated on May 25, 1882\\.", "While Edison’s Pearl Street Plant was still under construction, the founders of the Appleton Edison Electric Light Company – H. E. Jacobs, A. L. Smith, H. D. Smith, and Charles Beveridge – began planning the Vulcan Street Plant.", "In July 1882, engineer P. D. Johnston, who worked for Western Edison Light Company of Chicago during this time, visited Appleton to explain the details of Edison’s lighting system to the founders of the Appleton Edison Electric Light Company. After this meeting, the founders decided to test the viability of hydro\\-electric lighting by first installing it in their homes and mills.", "As a result, two Edison \"K\" type generators were ordered. The first generator was installed in H. J. Roger’s paper mill, the Appleton Paper and Pulp Company, and is the generator that began operation on September 30, 1882\\. The second generator was installed in its building on Vulcan Street and began operation on November 25, 1882\\.", "### Problems and successes", "On September 27, 1882, the first generator began operation, but without success. Hence, Edward T. Ames, the installer, returned to Appleton to correct the problem.", "After a few days of troubleshooting, the generator was repaired and successfully entered operation on September 30, 1882\\. This was only 26 days after Thomas Edison began to successfully operate his steam\\-driven Pearl Street Plant in New York, which began operation on September 4, 1882\\. The output of the original generator was about 12\\.5 kilowatts.", "The first buildings to be lit by the Vulcan Street Plant were H.J. Rogers' home, the Appleton Paper and Pulp Company building, and the Vulcan Paper Mill, which were all connected directly to the generator.", "Initially, the buildings' direct connection to the generator caused many problems because the generator was directly connected to the waterwheel. The water from the Fox River did not flow at a constant rate, so the lights did not maintain constant brightness and often burned out.", "This problem was resolved by moving the generator to a lean\\-to off the main building, where it was attached to a separate water wheel that allowed for a more even load distribution.", "During the time of the Vulcan Street Plant, voltage regulators did not exist. Operators had to look at the light itself to determine if it was at the proper brightness, and they adjusted the voltage according to their observations. Electricity meters did not exist at that time, so customers were charged a flat monthly fee based on the number of electric lamps installed in their building. Hence, many people left their lights on all night.", "The original electric distribution lines in Appleton were made of bare copper. This posed many challenges in the early development of commercial electricity, because nearly everything was made of wood or other flammable materials. The wiring used in buildings was insulated by a thin layer of cotton and was fastened to walls using wood cleats. Likewise, wood was used for fuse boxes, light sockets, and switch handles.", "" ]
### Problems and successes On September 27, 1882, the first generator began operation, but without success. Hence, Edward T. Ames, the installer, returned to Appleton to correct the problem. After a few days of troubleshooting, the generator was repaired and successfully entered operation on September 30, 1882\. This was only 26 days after Thomas Edison began to successfully operate his steam\-driven Pearl Street Plant in New York, which began operation on September 4, 1882\. The output of the original generator was about 12\.5 kilowatts. The first buildings to be lit by the Vulcan Street Plant were H.J. Rogers' home, the Appleton Paper and Pulp Company building, and the Vulcan Paper Mill, which were all connected directly to the generator. Initially, the buildings' direct connection to the generator caused many problems because the generator was directly connected to the waterwheel. The water from the Fox River did not flow at a constant rate, so the lights did not maintain constant brightness and often burned out. This problem was resolved by moving the generator to a lean\-to off the main building, where it was attached to a separate water wheel that allowed for a more even load distribution. During the time of the Vulcan Street Plant, voltage regulators did not exist. Operators had to look at the light itself to determine if it was at the proper brightness, and they adjusted the voltage according to their observations. Electricity meters did not exist at that time, so customers were charged a flat monthly fee based on the number of electric lamps installed in their building. Hence, many people left their lights on all night. The original electric distribution lines in Appleton were made of bare copper. This posed many challenges in the early development of commercial electricity, because nearly everything was made of wood or other flammable materials. The wiring used in buildings was insulated by a thin layer of cotton and was fastened to walls using wood cleats. Likewise, wood was used for fuse boxes, light sockets, and switch handles.	[ "### Problems and successes", "On September 27, 1882, the first generator began operation, but without success. Hence, Edward T. Ames, the installer, returned to Appleton to correct the problem.", "After a few days of troubleshooting, the generator was repaired and successfully entered operation on September 30, 1882\\. This was only 26 days after Thomas Edison began to successfully operate his steam\\-driven Pearl Street Plant in New York, which began operation on September 4, 1882\\. The output of the original generator was about 12\\.5 kilowatts.", "The first buildings to be lit by the Vulcan Street Plant were H.J. Rogers' home, the Appleton Paper and Pulp Company building, and the Vulcan Paper Mill, which were all connected directly to the generator.", "Initially, the buildings' direct connection to the generator caused many problems because the generator was directly connected to the waterwheel. The water from the Fox River did not flow at a constant rate, so the lights did not maintain constant brightness and often burned out.", "This problem was resolved by moving the generator to a lean\\-to off the main building, where it was attached to a separate water wheel that allowed for a more even load distribution.", "During the time of the Vulcan Street Plant, voltage regulators did not exist. Operators had to look at the light itself to determine if it was at the proper brightness, and they adjusted the voltage according to their observations. Electricity meters did not exist at that time, so customers were charged a flat monthly fee based on the number of electric lamps installed in their building. Hence, many people left their lights on all night.", "The original electric distribution lines in Appleton were made of bare copper. This posed many challenges in the early development of commercial electricity, because nearly everything was made of wood or other flammable materials. The wiring used in buildings was insulated by a thin layer of cotton and was fastened to walls using wood cleats. Likewise, wood was used for fuse boxes, light sockets, and switch handles.", "" ]
History ------- Cebu was initially composed of one representative district, wherein it elected [four representatives, at large](/wiki/%231898%E2%80%931899 "#1898–1899"), to the [Malolos Congress](/wiki/Malolos_Congress "Malolos Congress") in [1898](/wiki/1898_Philippine_legislative_election "1898 Philippine legislative election"). It was later divided into seven representative districts in 1907\.{{cite PH act\\|chamber\=Act\\|number\=1582\\|date\=January 9, 1907\\|url\=https://lawyerly.ph/laws/view/l5054\\|title\=An Act to Provide for the Holding of Elections in the Philippine Islands, for the Organization of the Philippine Assembly, and for Other Purposes\\|accessdate\=September 5, 2022}} When seats for the [upper house](/wiki/Senate_of_the_Philippines "Senate of the Philippines") of the [Philippine Legislature](/wiki/Philippine_Legislature "Philippine Legislature") were elected from territory\-based districts between 1916 and 1935, the province formed part of the [tenth senatorial district](/wiki/Senatorial_districts_of_the_Philippines%23Tenth_District "Senatorial districts of the Philippines#Tenth District") which elected two out of the 24\-member senate. In the disruption caused by the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), [two delegates](/wiki/%231943%E2%80%931944 "#1943–1944") represented the province in the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Second_Philippine_Republic "National Assembly of the Second Philippine Republic") of the Japanese\-sponsored [Second Philippine Republic](/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic "Second Philippine Republic"): one was the provincial governor (an [ex officio member](/wiki/Ex_officio_member "Ex officio member")), while the other was elected through a provincial assembly of [KALIBAPI](/wiki/KALIBAPI "KALIBAPI") members during the [Japanese occupation of the Philippines](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines "Japanese occupation of the Philippines"). [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City"), being a chartered city, was [represented separately](/wiki/Legislative_districts_of_Cebu_City%23At-Large_%28defunct%29 "Legislative districts of Cebu City#At-Large (defunct)") in this short\-lived legislative body. Upon the restoration of the [Philippine Commonwealth](/wiki/Philippine_Commonwealth "Philippine Commonwealth") in 1945, the province retained its seven pre\-war representative districts; this remained so until 1972\. The province was represented in the [Interim Batasang Pambansa](/wiki/Interim_Batasang_Pambansa "Interim Batasang Pambansa") as part of [Region VII](/wiki/Interim_Batasang_Pambansa%23Regional_Representatives "Interim Batasang Pambansa#Regional Representatives") from 1978 to 1984\. Beginning in [1984](/wiki/1984_Philippine_parliamentary_election "1984 Philippine parliamentary election") the province elected [six representatives, at large](/wiki/%231984%E2%80%931986 "#1984–1986"), to the [Regular Batasang Pambansa](/wiki/Regular_Batasang_Pambansa "Regular Batasang Pambansa"); Cebu City, which became a highly urbanized city in 1979 by virtue of Batas Pambansa Blg. 51,{{cite PH act\\|chamber\=BP\\|number\=51\\|url\=http://www.chanrobles.com/bataspambansa/bataspambansablg51\.html\\|title\=An Act providing for the elective or appointive positions in various local governments and for other purposes.\\|date\=December 22, 1979\\|access\-date\=August 9, 2016\\|author\=Batasang Pambansa\\|publisher\=Chan\-Robles Law Library}} began to be [represented separately](/wiki/Legislative_districts_of_Cebu%23At-Large_%28defunct%29 "Legislative districts of Cebu#At-Large (defunct)") from Cebu at this time. Cebu, including the cities of [Mandaue](/wiki/Mandaue "Mandaue") and [Lapu\-Lapu](/wiki/Lapu-Lapu_City "Lapu-Lapu City"), was reapportioned into six [congressional districts](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_the_Philippines%23District_representation "House of Representatives of the Philippines#District representation") under the new Constitution{{cite web\\|title\=1987 Constitution of the Philippines \- Apportionment Ordinance\\|url\=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the\-1987\-constitution\-of\-the\-republic\-of\-the\-philippines/the\-1987\-constitution\-of\-the\-republic\-of\-the\-philippines\-ordinance/\\|access\-date\=June 13, 2016}} which was proclaimed on February 11, 1987\. The six districts elected members to the restored House of Representatives starting [that same year](/wiki/1987_Philippine_legislative_election "1987 Philippine legislative election"). The passage of Republic Act No. 9726 on October 22, 2009, separated the [highly urbanized city](/wiki/Cities_of_the_Philippines%23Independent_cities "Cities of the Philippines#Independent cities") of [Lapu\-Lapu](/wiki/Lapu-Lapu_City "Lapu-Lapu City") from the [sixth district](/wiki/%231987%E2%80%932010 "#1987–2010") to form its [own congressional district](/wiki/Legislative_district_of_Lapu-Lapu "Legislative district of Lapu-Lapu") starting in the [2010 elections](/wiki/2010_Philippine_general_election "2010 Philippine general election").{{cite PH act\\|chamber\=RA\\|number\=9726\\|title\=An Act separating the City of Lapu\-Lapu from the Sixth Legislative District of the Province of Cebu to constitute the Lone Legislative District of the City of Lapu\-Lapu \\|date\=October 22, 2009\\|access\-date\=August 9, 2016\\|author\=Congress of the Philippines\\|url\=http://www.senate.gov.ph/republic\_acts/ra%2010673\.pdf}} Republic Act No. 10684, approved on September 18, 2015, split the [second district](/wiki/%231987%E2%80%932016 "#1987–2016") and recreated the [seventh district](/wiki/Cebu%27s_7th_congressional_district "Cebu's 7th congressional district") which elected its own representative in the [2016 elections](/wiki/2016_Philippine_general_election "2016 Philippine general election").{{cite PH act\\|chamber\=RA\\|number\=10684\\|title\= An Act creating an additional legislative district in the Province of Cebu to be known as the Seventh Legislative District\\|date\=September 18, 2015\\|access\-date\=August 9, 2016\\|author\=Congress of the Philippines\\|url\=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2015/09/18/republic\-act\-no\-10684/}} Republic Act No. 11257, approved on April 15, 2019, separated the [highly urbanized city](/wiki/Cities_of_the_Philippines%23Independent_cities "Cities of the Philippines#Independent cities") of [Mandaue](/wiki/Mandaue "Mandaue") from the [sixth district](/wiki/Cebu%27s_6th_congressional_district "Cebu's 6th congressional district") to form its [own congressional district](/wiki/Legislative_districts_of_Mandaue "Legislative districts of Mandaue") starting in the [2022 elections](/wiki/2022_Philippine_general_election "2022 Philippine general election").	[ "History\n-------", "Cebu was initially composed of one representative district, wherein it elected [four representatives, at large](/wiki/%231898%E2%80%931899 \"#1898–1899\"), to the [Malolos Congress](/wiki/Malolos_Congress \"Malolos Congress\") in [1898](/wiki/1898_Philippine_legislative_election \"1898 Philippine legislative election\"). It was later divided into seven representative districts in 1907\\.{{cite PH act\\\|chamber\\=Act\\\|number\\=1582\\\|date\\=January 9, 1907\\\|url\\=https://lawyerly.ph/laws/view/l5054\\\|title\\=An Act to Provide for the Holding of Elections in the Philippine Islands, for the Organization of the Philippine Assembly, and for Other Purposes\\\|accessdate\\=September 5, 2022}} When seats for the [upper house](/wiki/Senate_of_the_Philippines \"Senate of the Philippines\") of the [Philippine Legislature](/wiki/Philippine_Legislature \"Philippine Legislature\") were elected from territory\\-based districts between 1916 and 1935, the province formed part of the [tenth senatorial district](/wiki/Senatorial_districts_of_the_Philippines%23Tenth_District \"Senatorial districts of the Philippines#Tenth District\") which elected two out of the 24\\-member senate.", "In the disruption caused by the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), [two delegates](/wiki/%231943%E2%80%931944 \"#1943–1944\") represented the province in the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Second_Philippine_Republic \"National Assembly of the Second Philippine Republic\") of the Japanese\\-sponsored [Second Philippine Republic](/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic \"Second Philippine Republic\"): one was the provincial governor (an [ex officio member](/wiki/Ex_officio_member \"Ex officio member\")), while the other was elected through a provincial assembly of [KALIBAPI](/wiki/KALIBAPI \"KALIBAPI\") members during the [Japanese occupation of the Philippines](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines \"Japanese occupation of the Philippines\"). [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\"), being a chartered city, was [represented separately](/wiki/Legislative_districts_of_Cebu_City%23At-Large_%28defunct%29 \"Legislative districts of Cebu City#At-Large (defunct)\") in this short\\-lived legislative body. Upon the restoration of the [Philippine Commonwealth](/wiki/Philippine_Commonwealth \"Philippine Commonwealth\") in 1945, the province retained its seven pre\\-war representative districts; this remained so until 1972\\.", "The province was represented in the [Interim Batasang Pambansa](/wiki/Interim_Batasang_Pambansa \"Interim Batasang Pambansa\") as part of [Region VII](/wiki/Interim_Batasang_Pambansa%23Regional_Representatives \"Interim Batasang Pambansa#Regional Representatives\") from 1978 to 1984\\. Beginning in [1984](/wiki/1984_Philippine_parliamentary_election \"1984 Philippine parliamentary election\") the province elected [six representatives, at large](/wiki/%231984%E2%80%931986 \"#1984–1986\"), to the [Regular Batasang Pambansa](/wiki/Regular_Batasang_Pambansa \"Regular Batasang Pambansa\"); Cebu City, which became a highly urbanized city in 1979 by virtue of Batas Pambansa Blg. 51,{{cite PH act\\\|chamber\\=BP\\\|number\\=51\\\|url\\=http://www.chanrobles.com/bataspambansa/bataspambansablg51\\.html\\\|title\\=An Act providing for the elective or appointive positions in various local governments and for other purposes.\\\|date\\=December 22, 1979\\\|access\\-date\\=August 9, 2016\\\|author\\=Batasang Pambansa\\\|publisher\\=Chan\\-Robles Law Library}} began to be [represented separately](/wiki/Legislative_districts_of_Cebu%23At-Large_%28defunct%29 \"Legislative districts of Cebu#At-Large (defunct)\") from Cebu at this time.", "Cebu, including the cities of [Mandaue](/wiki/Mandaue \"Mandaue\") and [Lapu\\-Lapu](/wiki/Lapu-Lapu_City \"Lapu-Lapu City\"), was reapportioned into six [congressional districts](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_the_Philippines%23District_representation \"House of Representatives of the Philippines#District representation\") under the new Constitution{{cite web\\\|title\\=1987 Constitution of the Philippines \\- Apportionment Ordinance\\\|url\\=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the\\-1987\\-constitution\\-of\\-the\\-republic\\-of\\-the\\-philippines/the\\-1987\\-constitution\\-of\\-the\\-republic\\-of\\-the\\-philippines\\-ordinance/\\\|access\\-date\\=June 13, 2016}} which was proclaimed on February 11, 1987\\. The six districts elected members to the restored House of Representatives starting [that same year](/wiki/1987_Philippine_legislative_election \"1987 Philippine legislative election\").", "The passage of Republic Act No. 9726 on October 22, 2009, separated the [highly urbanized city](/wiki/Cities_of_the_Philippines%23Independent_cities \"Cities of the Philippines#Independent cities\") of [Lapu\\-Lapu](/wiki/Lapu-Lapu_City \"Lapu-Lapu City\") from the [sixth district](/wiki/%231987%E2%80%932010 \"#1987–2010\") to form its [own congressional district](/wiki/Legislative_district_of_Lapu-Lapu \"Legislative district of Lapu-Lapu\") starting in the [2010 elections](/wiki/2010_Philippine_general_election \"2010 Philippine general election\").{{cite PH act\\\|chamber\\=RA\\\|number\\=9726\\\|title\\=An Act separating the City of Lapu\\-Lapu from the Sixth Legislative District of the Province of Cebu to constitute the Lone Legislative District of the City of Lapu\\-Lapu \\\|date\\=October 22, 2009\\\|access\\-date\\=August 9, 2016\\\|author\\=Congress of the Philippines\\\|url\\=http://www.senate.gov.ph/republic\\_acts/ra%2010673\\.pdf}}", "Republic Act No. 10684, approved on September 18, 2015, split the [second district](/wiki/%231987%E2%80%932016 \"#1987–2016\") and recreated the [seventh district](/wiki/Cebu%27s_7th_congressional_district \"Cebu's 7th congressional district\") which elected its own representative in the [2016 elections](/wiki/2016_Philippine_general_election \"2016 Philippine general election\").{{cite PH act\\\|chamber\\=RA\\\|number\\=10684\\\|title\\= An Act creating an additional legislative district in the Province of Cebu to be known as the Seventh Legislative District\\\|date\\=September 18, 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=August 9, 2016\\\|author\\=Congress of the Philippines\\\|url\\=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2015/09/18/republic\\-act\\-no\\-10684/}}", "Republic Act No. 11257, approved on April 15, 2019, separated the [highly urbanized city](/wiki/Cities_of_the_Philippines%23Independent_cities \"Cities of the Philippines#Independent cities\") of [Mandaue](/wiki/Mandaue \"Mandaue\") from the [sixth district](/wiki/Cebu%27s_6th_congressional_district \"Cebu's 6th congressional district\") to form its [own congressional district](/wiki/Legislative_districts_of_Mandaue \"Legislative districts of Mandaue\") starting in the [2022 elections](/wiki/2022_Philippine_general_election \"2022 Philippine general election\").", "" ]
Fact as stated to the US Supreme Court -------------------------------------- Statement of facts from United States Supreme Court Brief, references are to volume and page numbers in the actual trial transcript: ### Statement of the Case and Facts In June 1999, Mr. Al\-Turki and his wife/co\-Defendant \[Sarah Khonaizan] brought Z.A., a 17\-year\-old Muslim girl from a village in Indonesia, to Saudi Arabia to work for them as a domestic servant at a salary of 600 Saudi riyals (approximately $150\) per month (Record 18:60\-61, 71\-75, 99\-100, 102\). In September 2000, the Al\-Turkis brought Z.A. to the U.S. (Record 18:124\). She was admitted to stay until March 9, 2001, as a "personal or domestic employee." The Al\-Turkis kept Z.A.'s passport but failed to renew it, while repeatedly warning her that if she left them she would be arrested (Record 21:28\). They also strictly controlled her communications, disallowing her to write letters to her friends (Record 21:80; 22:49; 23:28, 132\-134\). Mr. Al\-Turki misrepresented Z.A.'s visa status and employment situation to his friends (Record 25:88\-89, 262, 307\). He also falsely told his secretary at his bookstore that Z.A. was married to a driver in Saudi Arabia (Record 25:184\-85\). Z.A. was instructed to say that her salary was $800 per month(Record 18:122\). In August 2004, she was told that if she was contacted by authorities she should tell them that she had two days off every week, and that her salary was sent to Indonesia (Record 21:73\-74,99\). On November 18, 2004, following FBI investigations of Mr. Al\-Turki, Z.A. was arrested for overstaying her permit. Mr. Al\-Turki and his wife were also arrested for harboring an illegal alien. Initially, Z.A. told authorities what she had been instructed to say by the Al\-Turkis regarding her employment situation. Eventually, however, she told the truth, including the fact that she had been paid only $1500 during her entire stay in the United States. She also revealed that Defendant had sexually abused her on a regular basis. \[Based on minimum wage, the value of Z.A.'s services during the last three years of her work for the Al\-Turkis was $96,044\.92 (Env. \#6, People's Exh.87a 5162\).] At trial, Z.A. provided a detailed account of Mr. Al\-Turki's sexual misconduct. According to her, about once every two weeks, Mr. Al\-Turki would go to her room in the basement at night and sexually molest her, including digitally penetrating her and forcing her to perform oral sex on him (Record 19:21\-22, 26, 65, 97, 99, 102; 21:41\). During the last incident of sexual abuse, which occurred approximately two weeks before Z.A.'s arrest, Mr. Al\-Turki, for the first time, had sexual intercourse with Z.A., who was still a virgin (Record 21:44\-46\). Afterwards, Z.A. confronted Mr. Al\-Turki with a blood\-stained tissue, expressing fear that she would become pregnant (Record 21:45\). Three days later, Mr. Al\-Turki told Z.A. not to worry, that he would not have sexual intercourse with her again, and that she should tell him if she missed her period (Record 21:48\). Z.A. kept a diary describing Mr. Al\-Turki's sexual abuses. However, prior to Z.A.'s arrest, Mr. Al\-Turki told her to destroy it, which she did (Record 21:75\-76; 23:109\-10\). Two married Muslim women described Mr. Al\-Turki's similar acts of sexual misconduct against them, including touching their genitalia and breasts (Record 24:160\-71, 180\-99\). Mr. Al\-Turki's theory of defense, which is repeated in his petition, was that Z.A., under pressure from the FBI and motivated by the desire to get authorization to stay and work in the U.S., had fabricated the allegations (Record 18:44, 50\-51, 53\-55; Env. \#8, Instruction 32\). However, Z.A. had disclosed Mr. Al\-Turki's abusive conduct to a friend of hers, a Mr. Al\-Resheid, more than a year before any contact with the authorities (Record 19:105\-06\) . \[ Mr. Al\-Resheid, a subpoenaed witness for the prosecution, left the U.S. on August 16, 2005, and never returned (Record 20:52\-54\).] Z.A. never asked for assistance to stay in the U.S. (Record 25:171\). Moreover, under the 2000 Trafficking and Violence Protection Act, Z.A. automatically qualified for "continued presence" status, which allowed her to stay and work in the U.S. (Record 25:119\-20, 122,125\-26\), and the process to establish her "continued presence" status started long before she revealed the sexual abuse (Record 25:125\). Finally, the FBI agent who helped Z.A. with filling out her necessary forms signed them on April 4, 2005, three days before her revelation (Record Env. \#7, Deft's Exhs. E, F; 25:172\-88\). Mr. Al\-Turki was convicted of false imprisonment, conspiracy to commit false imprisonment, felony unlawful sexual contact (12 counts), criminal extortion, and theft (Record 4: 872\-99\). He was sentenced to concurrent terms of 20 years to life for the unlawful sexual contacts, an eight\-year consecutive term for theft, and shorter terms on the remaining charges to run concurrently with the theft sentence (Record 4:901\-02; 5:1250\-55; 29:73\-76; Supp. Record 31\-34\). On appeal, Mr. Al\-Turki challenged his convictions on various grounds. In an unpublished opinion, the Colorado Court of Appeals affirmed Mr. Al\-Turki's convictions. People v. Al\-Turki, 06CA2104,January 22, 2009 (Petition, App. 1a\-29a). The Colorado Supreme Court denied certiorari review. Al\-Turki v. People, 2009 WL 2916999 (Colo. No. 09SC326, September 14, 2009\) (Petition App. 30a\-31a). On April 5, 2010, the United States Supreme Court denied Mr. Al\-Turki's Petition for Certiorari.	[ "Fact as stated to the US Supreme Court\n--------------------------------------", "Statement of facts from United States Supreme Court Brief, references are to volume and page numbers in the actual trial transcript:", "### Statement of the Case and Facts", "In June 1999, Mr. Al\\-Turki and his wife/co\\-Defendant \\[Sarah Khonaizan] brought Z.A., a 17\\-year\\-old Muslim girl from a village in Indonesia, to Saudi Arabia to work for them as a domestic servant at a salary of 600 Saudi riyals (approximately $150\\) per month (Record 18:60\\-61, 71\\-75, 99\\-100, 102\\).", "In September 2000, the Al\\-Turkis brought Z.A. to the U.S. (Record 18:124\\). She was admitted to stay until March 9, 2001, as a \"personal or domestic employee.\" The Al\\-Turkis kept Z.A.'s passport but failed to renew it, while repeatedly warning her that if she left them she would be arrested (Record 21:28\\). They also strictly controlled her communications, disallowing her to write letters to her friends (Record 21:80; 22:49; 23:28, 132\\-134\\).", "Mr. Al\\-Turki misrepresented Z.A.'s visa status and employment situation to his friends (Record 25:88\\-89, 262, 307\\). He also falsely told his secretary at his bookstore that Z.A. was married to a driver in Saudi Arabia (Record 25:184\\-85\\). Z.A. was instructed to \nsay that her salary was $800 per month(Record 18:122\\). In August 2004, she was told that if she was contacted by authorities she should tell them that she had two days off every week, and that her salary was sent to Indonesia (Record 21:73\\-74,99\\).", "On November 18, 2004, following FBI investigations of Mr. Al\\-Turki, Z.A. was arrested for overstaying her permit. Mr. Al\\-Turki and his wife were also arrested for harboring an illegal alien. Initially, Z.A. told authorities what she had been instructed to say by the Al\\-Turkis regarding her employment situation. Eventually, however, she told the truth, including the fact that she had been paid only $1500 during her entire stay in the United States. She also revealed that Defendant had sexually abused her on a regular basis. \\[Based on minimum wage, the value of Z.A.'s services during the last three years of her work for the Al\\-Turkis was $96,044\\.92 (Env. \\#6, People's Exh.87a 5162\\).]", "At trial, Z.A. provided a detailed account of Mr. Al\\-Turki's sexual misconduct. According to her, about once every two weeks, Mr. Al\\-Turki would go to her room in the basement at night and sexually molest her, including digitally penetrating her and forcing her to perform oral sex on him (Record 19:21\\-22, 26, 65, 97, 99, 102; 21:41\\). During the last incident of sexual abuse, which occurred approximately two weeks before Z.A.'s arrest, Mr. Al\\-Turki, for the first time, had sexual intercourse with Z.A., who was still a virgin (Record 21:44\\-46\\).", "Afterwards, Z.A. confronted Mr. Al\\-Turki with a blood\\-stained tissue, expressing fear that she would become pregnant (Record 21:45\\). Three days later, Mr. Al\\-Turki told Z.A. not to worry, that he would not have sexual intercourse with her again, and that she should tell him if she missed her period (Record 21:48\\). Z.A. kept a diary describing Mr. Al\\-Turki's sexual abuses. However, prior to Z.A.'s arrest, Mr. Al\\-Turki told her to destroy it, which she did (Record 21:75\\-76; 23:109\\-10\\).", "Two married Muslim women described Mr. Al\\-Turki's similar acts of sexual misconduct against them, including touching their genitalia and breasts (Record 24:160\\-71, 180\\-99\\).", "Mr. Al\\-Turki's theory of defense, which is repeated in his petition, was that Z.A., under pressure from the FBI and motivated by the desire to get authorization to stay and work in the U.S., had fabricated the allegations (Record 18:44, 50\\-51, 53\\-55; Env. \\#8, Instruction 32\\). However, Z.A. had disclosed Mr. Al\\-Turki's abusive conduct to a friend of hers, a Mr. Al\\-Resheid, more than a year before any contact with the authorities (Record 19:105\\-06\\) . \\[ Mr. Al\\-Resheid, a subpoenaed witness for the prosecution, left the U.S. on August 16, 2005, and never returned (Record 20:52\\-54\\).]", "Z.A. never asked for assistance to stay in the U.S. (Record 25:171\\). Moreover, under the 2000 Trafficking and Violence Protection Act, Z.A. automatically qualified for \"continued presence\" status, which allowed her to stay and work in the U.S. (Record 25:119\\-20, 122,125\\-26\\), and the process to establish her \"continued presence\" status started long before she revealed the sexual abuse (Record 25:125\\). Finally, the FBI agent who helped Z.A. with filling out her necessary forms signed them on April 4, 2005, three days before her revelation (Record Env. \\#7, Deft's Exhs. E, F; 25:172\\-88\\).", "Mr. Al\\-Turki was convicted of false imprisonment, conspiracy to commit false imprisonment, felony unlawful sexual contact (12 counts), criminal extortion, and theft (Record 4: 872\\-99\\). He was sentenced to concurrent terms of 20 years to life for the unlawful sexual contacts, an eight\\-year consecutive term for theft, and shorter terms on the remaining charges to run concurrently with the theft sentence (Record 4:901\\-02; 5:1250\\-55; 29:73\\-76; Supp. Record 31\\-34\\).", "On appeal, Mr. Al\\-Turki challenged his convictions on various grounds. In an unpublished opinion, the Colorado Court of Appeals affirmed Mr. Al\\-Turki's convictions. People v. Al\\-Turki, 06CA2104,January 22, 2009 (Petition, App. 1a\\-29a). The Colorado Supreme Court denied certiorari review. Al\\-Turki v. People, 2009 WL 2916999 (Colo. No. 09SC326, September 14, 2009\\) (Petition App. 30a\\-31a).", "On April 5, 2010, the United States Supreme Court denied Mr. Al\\-Turki's Petition for Certiorari.", "" ]
### Statement of the Case and Facts In June 1999, Mr. Al\-Turki and his wife/co\-Defendant \[Sarah Khonaizan] brought Z.A., a 17\-year\-old Muslim girl from a village in Indonesia, to Saudi Arabia to work for them as a domestic servant at a salary of 600 Saudi riyals (approximately $150\) per month (Record 18:60\-61, 71\-75, 99\-100, 102\). In September 2000, the Al\-Turkis brought Z.A. to the U.S. (Record 18:124\). She was admitted to stay until March 9, 2001, as a "personal or domestic employee." The Al\-Turkis kept Z.A.'s passport but failed to renew it, while repeatedly warning her that if she left them she would be arrested (Record 21:28\). They also strictly controlled her communications, disallowing her to write letters to her friends (Record 21:80; 22:49; 23:28, 132\-134\). Mr. Al\-Turki misrepresented Z.A.'s visa status and employment situation to his friends (Record 25:88\-89, 262, 307\). He also falsely told his secretary at his bookstore that Z.A. was married to a driver in Saudi Arabia (Record 25:184\-85\). Z.A. was instructed to say that her salary was $800 per month(Record 18:122\). In August 2004, she was told that if she was contacted by authorities she should tell them that she had two days off every week, and that her salary was sent to Indonesia (Record 21:73\-74,99\). On November 18, 2004, following FBI investigations of Mr. Al\-Turki, Z.A. was arrested for overstaying her permit. Mr. Al\-Turki and his wife were also arrested for harboring an illegal alien. Initially, Z.A. told authorities what she had been instructed to say by the Al\-Turkis regarding her employment situation. Eventually, however, she told the truth, including the fact that she had been paid only $1500 during her entire stay in the United States. She also revealed that Defendant had sexually abused her on a regular basis. \[Based on minimum wage, the value of Z.A.'s services during the last three years of her work for the Al\-Turkis was $96,044\.92 (Env. \#6, People's Exh.87a 5162\).] At trial, Z.A. provided a detailed account of Mr. Al\-Turki's sexual misconduct. According to her, about once every two weeks, Mr. Al\-Turki would go to her room in the basement at night and sexually molest her, including digitally penetrating her and forcing her to perform oral sex on him (Record 19:21\-22, 26, 65, 97, 99, 102; 21:41\). During the last incident of sexual abuse, which occurred approximately two weeks before Z.A.'s arrest, Mr. Al\-Turki, for the first time, had sexual intercourse with Z.A., who was still a virgin (Record 21:44\-46\). Afterwards, Z.A. confronted Mr. Al\-Turki with a blood\-stained tissue, expressing fear that she would become pregnant (Record 21:45\). Three days later, Mr. Al\-Turki told Z.A. not to worry, that he would not have sexual intercourse with her again, and that she should tell him if she missed her period (Record 21:48\). Z.A. kept a diary describing Mr. Al\-Turki's sexual abuses. However, prior to Z.A.'s arrest, Mr. Al\-Turki told her to destroy it, which she did (Record 21:75\-76; 23:109\-10\). Two married Muslim women described Mr. Al\-Turki's similar acts of sexual misconduct against them, including touching their genitalia and breasts (Record 24:160\-71, 180\-99\). Mr. Al\-Turki's theory of defense, which is repeated in his petition, was that Z.A., under pressure from the FBI and motivated by the desire to get authorization to stay and work in the U.S., had fabricated the allegations (Record 18:44, 50\-51, 53\-55; Env. \#8, Instruction 32\). However, Z.A. had disclosed Mr. Al\-Turki's abusive conduct to a friend of hers, a Mr. Al\-Resheid, more than a year before any contact with the authorities (Record 19:105\-06\) . \[ Mr. Al\-Resheid, a subpoenaed witness for the prosecution, left the U.S. on August 16, 2005, and never returned (Record 20:52\-54\).] Z.A. never asked for assistance to stay in the U.S. (Record 25:171\). Moreover, under the 2000 Trafficking and Violence Protection Act, Z.A. automatically qualified for "continued presence" status, which allowed her to stay and work in the U.S. (Record 25:119\-20, 122,125\-26\), and the process to establish her "continued presence" status started long before she revealed the sexual abuse (Record 25:125\). Finally, the FBI agent who helped Z.A. with filling out her necessary forms signed them on April 4, 2005, three days before her revelation (Record Env. \#7, Deft's Exhs. E, F; 25:172\-88\). Mr. Al\-Turki was convicted of false imprisonment, conspiracy to commit false imprisonment, felony unlawful sexual contact (12 counts), criminal extortion, and theft (Record 4: 872\-99\). He was sentenced to concurrent terms of 20 years to life for the unlawful sexual contacts, an eight\-year consecutive term for theft, and shorter terms on the remaining charges to run concurrently with the theft sentence (Record 4:901\-02; 5:1250\-55; 29:73\-76; Supp. Record 31\-34\). On appeal, Mr. Al\-Turki challenged his convictions on various grounds. In an unpublished opinion, the Colorado Court of Appeals affirmed Mr. Al\-Turki's convictions. People v. Al\-Turki, 06CA2104,January 22, 2009 (Petition, App. 1a\-29a). The Colorado Supreme Court denied certiorari review. Al\-Turki v. People, 2009 WL 2916999 (Colo. No. 09SC326, September 14, 2009\) (Petition App. 30a\-31a). On April 5, 2010, the United States Supreme Court denied Mr. Al\-Turki's Petition for Certiorari.	[ "### Statement of the Case and Facts", "In June 1999, Mr. Al\\-Turki and his wife/co\\-Defendant \\[Sarah Khonaizan] brought Z.A., a 17\\-year\\-old Muslim girl from a village in Indonesia, to Saudi Arabia to work for them as a domestic servant at a salary of 600 Saudi riyals (approximately $150\\) per month (Record 18:60\\-61, 71\\-75, 99\\-100, 102\\).", "In September 2000, the Al\\-Turkis brought Z.A. to the U.S. (Record 18:124\\). She was admitted to stay until March 9, 2001, as a \"personal or domestic employee.\" The Al\\-Turkis kept Z.A.'s passport but failed to renew it, while repeatedly warning her that if she left them she would be arrested (Record 21:28\\). They also strictly controlled her communications, disallowing her to write letters to her friends (Record 21:80; 22:49; 23:28, 132\\-134\\).", "Mr. Al\\-Turki misrepresented Z.A.'s visa status and employment situation to his friends (Record 25:88\\-89, 262, 307\\). He also falsely told his secretary at his bookstore that Z.A. was married to a driver in Saudi Arabia (Record 25:184\\-85\\). Z.A. was instructed to \nsay that her salary was $800 per month(Record 18:122\\). In August 2004, she was told that if she was contacted by authorities she should tell them that she had two days off every week, and that her salary was sent to Indonesia (Record 21:73\\-74,99\\).", "On November 18, 2004, following FBI investigations of Mr. Al\\-Turki, Z.A. was arrested for overstaying her permit. Mr. Al\\-Turki and his wife were also arrested for harboring an illegal alien. Initially, Z.A. told authorities what she had been instructed to say by the Al\\-Turkis regarding her employment situation. Eventually, however, she told the truth, including the fact that she had been paid only $1500 during her entire stay in the United States. She also revealed that Defendant had sexually abused her on a regular basis. \\[Based on minimum wage, the value of Z.A.'s services during the last three years of her work for the Al\\-Turkis was $96,044\\.92 (Env. \\#6, People's Exh.87a 5162\\).]", "At trial, Z.A. provided a detailed account of Mr. Al\\-Turki's sexual misconduct. According to her, about once every two weeks, Mr. Al\\-Turki would go to her room in the basement at night and sexually molest her, including digitally penetrating her and forcing her to perform oral sex on him (Record 19:21\\-22, 26, 65, 97, 99, 102; 21:41\\). During the last incident of sexual abuse, which occurred approximately two weeks before Z.A.'s arrest, Mr. Al\\-Turki, for the first time, had sexual intercourse with Z.A., who was still a virgin (Record 21:44\\-46\\).", "Afterwards, Z.A. confronted Mr. Al\\-Turki with a blood\\-stained tissue, expressing fear that she would become pregnant (Record 21:45\\). Three days later, Mr. Al\\-Turki told Z.A. not to worry, that he would not have sexual intercourse with her again, and that she should tell him if she missed her period (Record 21:48\\). Z.A. kept a diary describing Mr. Al\\-Turki's sexual abuses. However, prior to Z.A.'s arrest, Mr. Al\\-Turki told her to destroy it, which she did (Record 21:75\\-76; 23:109\\-10\\).", "Two married Muslim women described Mr. Al\\-Turki's similar acts of sexual misconduct against them, including touching their genitalia and breasts (Record 24:160\\-71, 180\\-99\\).", "Mr. Al\\-Turki's theory of defense, which is repeated in his petition, was that Z.A., under pressure from the FBI and motivated by the desire to get authorization to stay and work in the U.S., had fabricated the allegations (Record 18:44, 50\\-51, 53\\-55; Env. \\#8, Instruction 32\\). However, Z.A. had disclosed Mr. Al\\-Turki's abusive conduct to a friend of hers, a Mr. Al\\-Resheid, more than a year before any contact with the authorities (Record 19:105\\-06\\) . \\[ Mr. Al\\-Resheid, a subpoenaed witness for the prosecution, left the U.S. on August 16, 2005, and never returned (Record 20:52\\-54\\).]", "Z.A. never asked for assistance to stay in the U.S. (Record 25:171\\). Moreover, under the 2000 Trafficking and Violence Protection Act, Z.A. automatically qualified for \"continued presence\" status, which allowed her to stay and work in the U.S. (Record 25:119\\-20, 122,125\\-26\\), and the process to establish her \"continued presence\" status started long before she revealed the sexual abuse (Record 25:125\\). Finally, the FBI agent who helped Z.A. with filling out her necessary forms signed them on April 4, 2005, three days before her revelation (Record Env. \\#7, Deft's Exhs. E, F; 25:172\\-88\\).", "Mr. Al\\-Turki was convicted of false imprisonment, conspiracy to commit false imprisonment, felony unlawful sexual contact (12 counts), criminal extortion, and theft (Record 4: 872\\-99\\). He was sentenced to concurrent terms of 20 years to life for the unlawful sexual contacts, an eight\\-year consecutive term for theft, and shorter terms on the remaining charges to run concurrently with the theft sentence (Record 4:901\\-02; 5:1250\\-55; 29:73\\-76; Supp. Record 31\\-34\\).", "On appeal, Mr. Al\\-Turki challenged his convictions on various grounds. In an unpublished opinion, the Colorado Court of Appeals affirmed Mr. Al\\-Turki's convictions. People v. Al\\-Turki, 06CA2104,January 22, 2009 (Petition, App. 1a\\-29a). The Colorado Supreme Court denied certiorari review. Al\\-Turki v. People, 2009 WL 2916999 (Colo. No. 09SC326, September 14, 2009\\) (Petition App. 30a\\-31a).", "On April 5, 2010, the United States Supreme Court denied Mr. Al\\-Turki's Petition for Certiorari.", "" ]
Biography --------- Charles Sumner Woolworth, known by everyone as Sum, was born on August 1, 1856, in [Rodman, New York](/wiki/Rodman%2C_New_York "Rodman, New York"), to John Hubbell Woolworth and Fanny McBrier. Growing up, he worked on his family's farm. When his brother [Frank](/wiki/Frank_Winfield_Woolworth "Frank Winfield Woolworth") sought work and fortune as an apprentice in Augsbury and Moore dry goods store, in [Watertown, New York](/wiki/Watertown%2C_New_York "Watertown, New York"), Sum became eager to follow. At 21, Sum joined Frank as an apprentice salesman in the same store, which had since become Moore and Smith. While Frank liked the back end of the business in accounting and purchasing, Sum liked the front end of the business, meeting customers and working on innovative ways to display merchandise. [left\\|thumb\\|Second successful "Woolworth Bros" store, opened on November 6, 1880, in at 125 Penn Ave., Scranton, Pennsylvania. Later bought by brother Charles "Sum", becoming the first "C. S. Woolworth" store. C. 1881](/wiki/File:Scranton_Store_-_Woolworth_2nd-larger.jpg "Scranton Store - Woolworth 2nd-larger.jpg") [left\\|thumb\\|C. S. Woolworth store at 319 Lackawanna Avenue, Scranton, Pennsylvania. Other buildings along the avenue are identified. C. 1885–1900\.](/wiki/File:CSW-300_Blk_Lacka_Ave_Scranton_PA_c1981-1900.jpg "CSW-300 Blk Lacka Ave Scranton PA c1981-1900.jpg") With a loan from his former boss, William Moore, Frank opened a five\-cent store in [Utica](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York "Utica, New York"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"), on February 22, 1878\. Though it initially appeared to be successful, business soon dropped off and the store failed in early May 1878, after Frank earned enough to pay back his debt to William Moore. Within days, Frank acted on a tip from a close friend and visited [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania "Lancaster, Pennsylvania"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania"), and quickly decided to re\-locate there. He opened his first successful "Woolworth's Great Five Cent Store" on June 21, 1879, on North Queen Street, using the same sign from Utica. The idea of an entire store devoted to such low\-priced items was unprecedented, anywhere. The Lancaster store was the first successful store of this type. At the end of the first day in Lancaster, Frank counted his profit, and with renewed enthusiasm, he invited his brother, Sum, to join him. Together, they opened a second store in [Harrisburg](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania "Harrisburg, Pennsylvania"), Pennsylvania, called "5¢ Woolworth Bros Store", on July 19, 1879, with Sum as manager. During this time, Frank decided to test the possibility of 10¢ items, by devoting a table to the higher\-priced items, inside his Lancaster and Harrisburg stores. The ten\-cent items were a hit. The success of the Harrisburg store prompted the landlord to seek a higher rent from the Woolworth brothers. Due to the rent dispute, Frank and Sum closed the Harrisburg store and relocated to [York](/wiki/York%2C_Pennsylvania "York, Pennsylvania"), Pennsylvania, in March 1880\. The York store closed three months later, on June 30, 1880\. This fourth location is often missed, or the city misidentified, in some accounts of the early history of the Woolworth brothers. Not to be deterred, based on a tip, they both agreed that Sum would scout out [Scranton](/wiki/Scranton%2C_Pennsylvania "Scranton, Pennsylvania"), Pennsylvania, for the next location. Sum liked what he saw in Scranton, and found a good location with a low rental price. He decided to take a chance to rent a space which was larger than needed, and planned to block off the unused portion of the space. This became a Woolworth brothers' pattern going forward, so they could expand the merchandise sales area without the need to move their location. The Scranton store was the first to formally be called a 5 \& 10¢ store, opening on November 6, 1880, with the banner over the door which read, "5¢ \& 10¢ Woolworth Bro's Store". Scranton was a huge success.{{Clarify\\|date\=April 2013}} Thus began the era of the "five\-and\-dime" store. As sales grew at a steady pace, in 1881 Frank suggested that Sum buy out Frank's share in the Scranton store, to begin his own affiliated store under his own name. The first affiliate, a franchise of sorts, of the Woolworth brothers was named, "C. S. Woolworth". Frank and Sum were very close brothers. They fully trusted and respected one another. Frank pushed Sum into this idea, because Frank had the vision of what many stores, owned by close friends or relatives, could become. Frank's view of the big picture, the central office perspective, was right. Sum grew his business from the front end, the customer and sales perspective. Sum's Scranton store, at 125 Penn Avenue, soon proved to be too small. His next location was a block away, at 319 Lackawanna Avenue. Again, business was booming and the sales floor soon required more space. Sum expanded the store by adding the next\-door property at 317 Lackawanna Avenue. Sum partnered with one of his long\-time friends, Fred Kirby, in 1884, to open a store in [Wilkes Barre](/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania "Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania"), Pennsylvania, near Scranton. Fred had experience at Augsbury and Moore of Watertown, New York, as head of wholesale operations. They each put up $600 for a store called "Woolworth and Kirby". The store did very well, and in 1887 Fred bought out Sum's share, in a mutual agreement, and began to expand to more stores. Frank had incorporated his fast growing chain of stores as "F. W. Woolworth \& Co" in 1905\. The partner affiliates started to individually incorporate their businesses starting in 1905, following Frank's advice. Sum did not feel the need to do so, because he had a smaller number of stores. Clearly in photographs and on Woolworth postcards, he had incorporated at some point before 1911, as "C. S. Woolworth \& Co". Both Frank and Sum invited close friends and relatives into the business over the years. They also sold stock only to relatives, friends and employees. The stock was not sold publicly during this period of growth. This was very much like an early version of a franchise. [http://www.bookrags.com/history/dime\-storeswoolworths\-sjpc\-01/](http://www.bookrags.com/history/dime-storeswoolworths-sjpc-01/) {{cite web\\|last\=Dime Stores\\|first\=Woolworths\\|title\=Dime Stores/Woolworth's Research \& Articles\\|url\=http://www.bookrags.com/history/dime\-storeswoolworths\-sjpc\-01/\\|publisher\=BookRags, Inc.\\|access\-date\=September 4, 2012}} Sum continued to develop the front end part of the business and expanded to more stores at a modest pace, while Frank developed his concepts for the back end for the business and aggressively expand to more stores. Sum expanded slower than the other affiliates, but his stores were very high profit stores. Sum liked working with customers and often personally served customers on the sales floor. He would solicit customers' thoughts and ideas, and often incorporated those ideas in the stores. Sum developed his stores with clean high\-lustre wood floors, bright interiors, self\-service display cases, mahogany counters, glass dividers and show cases, enticing window displays which changed regularly, and low prices for commonly sought\-after merchandise. Sum's hands\-on approach, carefully selecting managers, resulted in a higher net profit per square foot, for all of his stores versus those of the other affiliates. Frank, who trusted and relied on his brother, managed with a hands\-off approach, leaning on his department and store managers. Seeing Sum's high store profits, Frank incorporated Sum's layout and methods in all of his stores, which also became a standard for all of their affiliated stores. Sum had "C. S. Woolworth" stores in downtown Scranton, westside of Scranton, Pittston, Bradford, Carbondale, and Sunbury, Pennsylvania; Auburn, Elmira, Binghamton, Gloversville, and Glens Falls, New York; Haverhill, Massachusetts, and Portland, Bangor, and Augusta, Maine. Frank expanded his chain of stores rapidly to 337 stores, plus others in partnership with his cousin, Seymour H. Knox. Frank was aggressive. Some of his partners developed additional partners of their own. Seymour Knox, for instance, partnered with Earle Perry Charlton, who began their joint venture with a store in [Fall River, Massachusetts](/wiki/Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts "Fall River, Massachusetts"). Charlton eventually went on his own. Frank continued to perfect his purchasing concepts for all of the affiliates, and convinced the affiliate partners to "club" together to maximize the lower cost of centralized inventory purchasing. Frank started to buy some factories for certain merchandise, so he could control product costs. He also encouraged the partner rivals to expand, as he aggressively expanded, as well. Woolworth's was so popular and successful, other stores in various cities complained. Some cities attempted to pass laws which would limit or shut out Woolworth stores. The Woolworth brothers' formula is still used by nearly all retail stores, large and small, today.{{citation needed\\|date\=April 2013}} The Woolworth syndicate of affiliates grew at unprecedented speed for its time. Success did not come without competition. Several very competitive chains sprang up, in direct competition to Woolworth affiliates. Some of those were started by former Woolworth store managers. With competition and success there was a need for more innovation. Sum and Frank differentiated Woolworth's product range from competitors by buying directly from European factories. They developed personal contacts with European factory owners on buying trips to Great Britain and Germany, starting in 1890\. Frank also purchased surplus items and sold them at cost, as well as selling teaser items below cost. Earle Perry Charlton realized, if he continued his operation in New England, he would be in direct competition with Sum and Frank Woolworth, Seymour Knox, and Fred Kirby. He decided to look to Canada. To get capital, he sold nine of his twelve stores to Frank. Charlton's first Canadian stores were in Montreal on Catherine West \& Lawrence Street, and St Joseph's Street, and in Ottawa on Sparks Street. He followed those with eight stores in Canada, west of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains "Rocky Mountains"), followed by a return to the US with several store [California](/wiki/California "California"), including one in [South Broadway, Los Angeles, California](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"). He opened stores in [Tacoma, Washington](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington "Tacoma, Washington"), and [Sherbrooke](/wiki/Sherbrooke "Sherbrooke"), Quebec, and then a very large store in [Market Street, San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), mere weeks before the [1906 San Francisco earthquake](/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake "1906 San Francisco earthquake"). In 1912, each of the owners in the syndicate of Woolworth affiliated stores agreed to incorporate all 596 of their stores, as one entity, as "F. W. Woolworth Company". The [merger](/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions "Mergers and acquisitions") generated more than $30 million in the stock flotation. Frank was elected President of the new combined corporation. The others, Sum Woolworth, Fred Kirby, Seymour Knox, Earle Charlton, and William Moore, became directors. <http://www.nndb.com/people/992/000167491/>{{cite web\\|last\=St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture\\|title\=F. W. Woolworth\\|url\=http://www.nndb.com/people/992/000167491/\\|publisher\=Edited by Tom Pendergast and Sara Pendergast, 2000, St. James Press. In five volumes. This imprint is owned by the Gale Group.\\|access\-date\=September 4, 2012}} The Woolworth brothers' many trips to Europe opened their vision of new markets. Keeping with their pattern of bringing relatives and friends into the business, in 1909, Sum and Frank put their second cousin, Fred Moore Woolworth, in charge of opening a subsidiary in Great Britain, "F. W. Woolworth Co Ltd". Fred was joined by three established men in the Woolworth operation, Byron Miller, Samuel Balfour and Charles Hubbard, as well as an Englishman with whom they had dealings, William Lawrence Stephenson. Given wide leeway, the brand took hold rapidly through the UK, in spite of the breakout of war, growing to forty\-four stores and exceeding £4 million in profits for 1914–1915\. Likewise, the Woolworth brothers began a significant operation in Germany by 1900, where products were collected and packed for shipping to New York City for re\-distribution around the US. In 1914, European made merchandise accounted for 25% of all goods in Woolworth stores. When war broke out, and eventually transatlantic shipping ground to a halt, Frank Woolworth had US factories copy the best\-selling products which had been imported from Europe. After the war, Woolworth's European operation grew with the increased demand for their products. The warehouse and shipping operation in Sonneberg was rebuilt and expanded, to include its own train station. A subsidiary in Germany was launched on November 2, 1926\. File:CSW\-re\-opening at 319 Lacka Ave Scranton PA c 1900\.jpg\\|C. S. Woolworth store advertisement, announcing the opening of the expanded and remodeled store at 317\-319 Lackawanna Ave., Scranton PA – Dec 8, 1900\. File:CSW\- front remodeled 317\-319 Lackawanna Ave Scranton PA \- 08 Dec 1900\.jpg\\|C. S. Woolworth store newspaper picture showing the expanded and remodeled store at 317\-319 Lackawanna Ave., Scranton PA – Dec 8, 1900\. C. S. Woolworth stores eventually merged into the F. W. Woolworth Company. File:CSW\- re\-opening 2nd floor 317\-319 Lackawanna Ave Scranton PA \- 08 Dec 1900\.jpg\\|C. S. Woolworth store newspaper picture showing the expanded 2nd floor at 317\-319 Lackawanna Ave., Scranton PA – Dec 8, 1900\. File:Woolworth \- Kresge Scranton PA vintage 78 Better Copy.jpg\\|F. W. Woolworth and S. S. Kresge stores on Lackawanna, Avenue, in downtown \[\[Scranton, Pennsylvania]]. The two stores were often found near one another in downtown areas. ca.1978\. File:Fmr F. W. Woolworth now StanleyMorgan\-SmithBarney\-VaxServe\- 423\-429 Lackawanna Ave, Scranton, PA. 25 November 2011\.jpg\\|Former F. W. Woolworth, now StanleyMorgan\-SmithBarney\-VaxServe, at 423\-429 Lackawanna Ave, Scranton, PA. 25 November 2011\. ``` New Albany IN in vintage postcards Typical 1910s Woolworth Store at Christmas Season.jpg\|A Woolworth's postcard of the store interior at Christmas season, in New Albany, Indiana. Vintage postcards were typically seen in Woolworth stores. ca.1910. ``` Sum Woolworth maintained his home base in Scranton. He did not like the political side of the business after the 1912 merger, while the other director partners sought to establish themselves. Sum concentrated on training up\-and\-coming managers at his Pennsylvania stores. These newly trained managers were dispersed across the entire company, maintaining and setting a style and tone for Woolworth stores worldwide. While keeping a low profile, and seldom mentioned in books and articles about the Woolworth chain, Sum's influence was remarkable and extensive through the entire life of Woolworth companies, as well as across all retailing, to this day.{{citation needed\\|date\=April 2013}} [thumb\\|right\\|ca. 1913 – The Woolworth Building, 233 Broadway, Manhattan borough, New York City, New York, United States, was the world's tallest building until 1930, financed with cash by Frank W. Woolworth. Many pictures of the World Trade Center twin towers showed the Woolworth Building between them. Later, the WTC twin towers were in the background area of this view.](/wiki/File:View_of_Woolworth_Building_fixed_crop.jpg "View of Woolworth Building fixed crop.jpg") Frank aggressively grew the chain from the start, yet he always had a paternal approach to his earliest stores, in the US and in England. Similar to his pattern in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he built his first successful store, and later, his first "skyscraper" store, in 1910 Frank commissioned the design and construction of a new headquarters in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). The [Woolworth Building](/wiki/Woolworth_Building "Woolworth Building") was owned by the Woolworth company (aka Venator Group (1998 to 2001\), aka Foot Locker, Inc (2001 to present)) for 85 years. The building was sold in 1998 to the Witkoff Group. The building was a pioneering achievement, designed by American architect [Cass Gilbert](/wiki/Cass_Gilbert "Cass Gilbert"), and completed in 1913\. It was the [tallest building in the world](/wiki/Tallest_building_in_the_world "Tallest building in the world") (roof height of 792 feet/57 floors), until 1930\. It was also unique in that it was financed with cash, and never had a mortgage until recently. When opened on April 24, 1913, all interior lights and exterior flood lights were turned on, when President Woodrow Wilson pushed a button in the White House. Worldwide, people took notice of the Woolworth brothers, their formula and success. Many rivals began to appear on the scene. While Frank was outgoing and gregarious, openly flashing the brand, Sum worked one\-on\-one with people, improving the Woolworth store experience for customers. Between 1910 and 1920, they seemed unstoppable. Recent news of the Woolworth Building: "In August 2012, The New York Times reported that an investment group led by Alchemy Properties, a New York developer, bought the top 30 floors of the landmark on July 31 for $68 million (\~${{Format price\\|{{Inflation\\|index\=US\-GDP\\|value\=68000000\\|start\_year\=2012}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US\-GDP}}) from the Witkoff Group and Cammeby's International. The firm plans to renovate the space into luxury apartments and convert the penthouse into a five\-level living\-space. The lower 28 floors are still owned by the Witkoff Group and Cammeby International, who plans to lease them as office space."{{cite news \\|title\=Luxury Living in Old Temple of the 5 and Dime (Woolworth Building News) \\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/08/realestate/top\-floors\-of\-woolworth\-building\-to\-be\-remade\-as\-luxury\-apartments.html\\|access\-date\=September 10, 2012\\|newspaper\=The New York Times\\|date\=August 7, 2012\\|author\=Michelle Higgins}} When Frank died in 1919, Sum was chosen as the Chairman of the Board of [F. W. Woolworth Company](/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company "F. W. Woolworth Company"). Sum served as Chairman for 25 years, with a solid, steady approach on the board. Sum stepped down as Chairman, on February 9, 1944, due to ill health. He was 87 at the time, and remained Honorary Chairman, and a Director.	[ "Biography\n---------", "Charles Sumner Woolworth, known by everyone as Sum, was born on August 1, 1856, in [Rodman, New York](/wiki/Rodman%2C_New_York \"Rodman, New York\"), to John Hubbell Woolworth and Fanny McBrier. Growing up, he worked on his family's farm. When his brother [Frank](/wiki/Frank_Winfield_Woolworth \"Frank Winfield Woolworth\") sought work and fortune as an apprentice in Augsbury and Moore dry goods store, in [Watertown, New York](/wiki/Watertown%2C_New_York \"Watertown, New York\"), Sum became eager to follow. At 21, Sum joined Frank as an apprentice salesman in the same store, which had since become Moore and Smith. While Frank liked the back end of the business in accounting and purchasing, Sum liked the front end of the business, meeting customers and working on innovative ways to display merchandise.", "[left\\\|thumb\\\|Second successful \"Woolworth Bros\" store, opened on November 6, 1880, in at 125 Penn Ave., Scranton, Pennsylvania. Later bought by brother Charles \"Sum\", becoming the first \"C. S. Woolworth\" store. C. 1881](/wiki/File:Scranton_Store_-_Woolworth_2nd-larger.jpg \"Scranton Store - Woolworth 2nd-larger.jpg\")\n[left\\\|thumb\\\|C. S. Woolworth store at 319 Lackawanna Avenue, Scranton, Pennsylvania. Other buildings along the avenue are identified. C. 1885–1900\\.](/wiki/File:CSW-300_Blk_Lacka_Ave_Scranton_PA_c1981-1900.jpg \"CSW-300 Blk Lacka Ave Scranton PA c1981-1900.jpg\")\nWith a loan from his former boss, William Moore, Frank opened a five\\-cent store in [Utica](/wiki/Utica%2C_New_York \"Utica, New York\"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"), on February 22, 1878\\. Though it initially appeared to be successful, business soon dropped off and the store failed in early May 1878, after Frank earned enough to pay back his debt to William Moore. Within days, Frank acted on a tip from a close friend and visited [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lancaster, Pennsylvania\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), and quickly decided to re\\-locate there. He opened his first successful \"Woolworth's Great Five Cent Store\" on June 21, 1879, on North Queen Street, using the same sign from Utica. The idea of an entire store devoted to such low\\-priced items was unprecedented, anywhere. The Lancaster store was the first successful store of this type. At the end of the first day in Lancaster, Frank counted his profit, and with renewed enthusiasm, he invited his brother, Sum, to join him. Together, they opened a second store in [Harrisburg](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania \"Harrisburg, Pennsylvania\"), Pennsylvania, called \"5¢ Woolworth Bros Store\", on July 19, 1879, with Sum as manager. During this time, Frank decided to test the possibility of 10¢ items, by devoting a table to the higher\\-priced items, inside his Lancaster and Harrisburg stores. The ten\\-cent items were a hit. The success of the Harrisburg store prompted the landlord to seek a higher rent from the Woolworth brothers. Due to the rent dispute, Frank and Sum closed the Harrisburg store and relocated to [York](/wiki/York%2C_Pennsylvania \"York, Pennsylvania\"), Pennsylvania, in March 1880\\. The York store closed three months later, on June 30, 1880\\. This fourth location is often missed, or the city misidentified, in some accounts of the early history of the Woolworth brothers.", "Not to be deterred, based on a tip, they both agreed that Sum would scout out [Scranton](/wiki/Scranton%2C_Pennsylvania \"Scranton, Pennsylvania\"), Pennsylvania, for the next location. Sum liked what he saw in Scranton, and found a good location with a low rental price. He decided to take a chance to rent a space which was larger than needed, and planned to block off the unused portion of the space. This became a Woolworth brothers' pattern going forward, so they could expand the merchandise sales area without the need to move their location. The Scranton store was the first to formally be called a 5 \\& 10¢ store, opening on November 6, 1880, with the banner over the door which read, \"5¢ \\& 10¢ Woolworth Bro's Store\". Scranton was a huge success.{{Clarify\\\|date\\=April 2013}} Thus began the era of the \"five\\-and\\-dime\" store. As sales grew at a steady pace, in 1881 Frank suggested that Sum buy out Frank's share in the Scranton store, to begin his own affiliated store under his own name. The first affiliate, a franchise of sorts, of the Woolworth brothers was named, \"C. S. Woolworth\". Frank and Sum were very close brothers. They fully trusted and respected one another. Frank pushed Sum into this idea, because Frank had the vision of what many stores, owned by close friends or relatives, could become. Frank's view of the big picture, the central office perspective, was right. Sum grew his business from the front end, the customer and sales perspective. Sum's Scranton store, at 125 Penn Avenue, soon proved to be too small. His next location was a block away, at 319 Lackawanna Avenue. Again, business was booming and the sales floor soon required more space. Sum expanded the store by adding the next\\-door property at 317 Lackawanna Avenue.", "Sum partnered with one of his long\\-time friends, Fred Kirby, in 1884, to open a store in [Wilkes Barre](/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania \"Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania\"), Pennsylvania, near Scranton. Fred had experience at Augsbury and Moore of Watertown, New York, as head of wholesale operations. They each put up $600 for a store called \"Woolworth and Kirby\". The store did very well, and in 1887 Fred bought out Sum's share, in a mutual agreement, and began to expand to more stores.", "Frank had incorporated his fast growing chain of stores as \"F. W. Woolworth \\& Co\" in 1905\\. The partner affiliates started to individually incorporate their businesses starting in 1905, following Frank's advice. Sum did not feel the need to do so, because he had a smaller number of stores. Clearly in photographs and on Woolworth postcards, he had incorporated at some point before 1911, as \"C. S. Woolworth \\& Co\". Both Frank and Sum invited close friends and relatives into the business over the years. They also sold stock only to relatives, friends and employees. The stock was not sold publicly during this period of growth. This was very much like an early version of a franchise.", "", "[http://www.bookrags.com/history/dime\\-storeswoolworths\\-sjpc\\-01/](http://www.bookrags.com/history/dime-storeswoolworths-sjpc-01/) {{cite web\\\|last\\=Dime Stores\\\|first\\=Woolworths\\\|title\\=Dime Stores/Woolworth's Research \\& Articles\\\|url\\=http://www.bookrags.com/history/dime\\-storeswoolworths\\-sjpc\\-01/\\\|publisher\\=BookRags, Inc.\\\|access\\-date\\=September 4, 2012}}", "Sum continued to develop the front end part of the business and expanded to more stores at a modest pace, while Frank developed his concepts for the back end for the business and aggressively expand to more stores. Sum expanded slower than the other affiliates, but his stores were very high profit stores. Sum liked working with customers and often personally served customers on the sales floor. He would solicit customers' thoughts and ideas, and often incorporated those ideas in the stores. Sum developed his stores with clean high\\-lustre wood floors, bright interiors, self\\-service display cases, mahogany counters, glass dividers and show cases, enticing window displays which changed regularly, and low prices for commonly sought\\-after merchandise. Sum's hands\\-on approach, carefully selecting managers, resulted in a higher net profit per square foot, for all of his stores versus those of the other affiliates. Frank, who trusted and relied on his brother, managed with a hands\\-off approach, leaning on his department and store managers. Seeing Sum's high store profits, Frank incorporated Sum's layout and methods in all of his stores, which also became a standard for all of their affiliated stores.", "Sum had \"C. S. Woolworth\" stores in downtown Scranton, westside of Scranton, Pittston, Bradford, Carbondale, and Sunbury, Pennsylvania; Auburn, Elmira, Binghamton, Gloversville, and Glens Falls, New York; Haverhill, Massachusetts, and Portland, Bangor, and Augusta, Maine. Frank expanded his chain of stores rapidly to 337 stores, plus others in partnership with his cousin, Seymour H. Knox. Frank was aggressive. Some of his partners developed additional partners of their own. Seymour Knox, for instance, partnered with Earle Perry Charlton, who began their joint venture with a store in [Fall River, Massachusetts](/wiki/Fall_River%2C_Massachusetts \"Fall River, Massachusetts\"). Charlton eventually went on his own. Frank continued to perfect his purchasing concepts for all of the affiliates, and convinced the affiliate partners to \"club\" together to maximize the lower cost of centralized inventory purchasing. Frank started to buy some factories for certain merchandise, so he could control product costs. He also encouraged the partner rivals to expand, as he aggressively expanded, as well. Woolworth's was so popular and successful, other stores in various cities complained. Some cities attempted to pass laws which would limit or shut out Woolworth stores. The Woolworth brothers' formula is still used by nearly all retail stores, large and small, today.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=April 2013}}", "The Woolworth syndicate of affiliates grew at unprecedented speed for its time. Success did not come without competition. Several very competitive chains sprang up, in direct competition to Woolworth affiliates. Some of those were started by former Woolworth store managers. With competition and success there was a need for more innovation. Sum and Frank differentiated Woolworth's product range from competitors by buying directly from European factories. They developed personal contacts with European factory owners on buying trips to Great Britain and Germany, starting in 1890\\. Frank also purchased surplus items and sold them at cost, as well as selling teaser items below cost.", "Earle Perry Charlton realized, if he continued his operation in New England, he would be in direct competition with Sum and Frank Woolworth, Seymour Knox, and Fred Kirby. He decided to look to Canada. To get capital, he sold nine of his twelve stores to Frank. Charlton's first Canadian stores were in Montreal on Catherine West \\& Lawrence Street, and St Joseph's Street, and in Ottawa on Sparks Street. He followed those with eight stores in Canada, west of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains \"Rocky Mountains\"), followed by a return to the US with several store [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), including one in [South Broadway, Los Angeles, California](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"). He opened stores in [Tacoma, Washington](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington \"Tacoma, Washington\"), and [Sherbrooke](/wiki/Sherbrooke \"Sherbrooke\"), Quebec, and then a very large store in [Market Street, San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), mere weeks before the [1906 San Francisco earthquake](/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake \"1906 San Francisco earthquake\").", "In 1912, each of the owners in the syndicate of Woolworth affiliated stores agreed to incorporate all 596 of their stores, as one entity, as \"F. W. Woolworth Company\". The [merger](/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions \"Mergers and acquisitions\") generated more than $30 million in the stock flotation. Frank was elected President of the new combined corporation. The others, Sum Woolworth, Fred Kirby, Seymour Knox, Earle Charlton, and William Moore, became directors.\n<http://www.nndb.com/people/992/000167491/>{{cite web\\\|last\\=St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture\\\|title\\=F. W. Woolworth\\\|url\\=http://www.nndb.com/people/992/000167491/\\\|publisher\\=Edited by Tom Pendergast and Sara Pendergast, 2000, St. James Press. In five volumes. This imprint is owned by the Gale Group.\\\|access\\-date\\=September 4, 2012}}", "The Woolworth brothers' many trips to Europe opened their vision of new markets. Keeping with their pattern of bringing relatives and friends into the business, in 1909, Sum and Frank put their second cousin, Fred Moore Woolworth, in charge of opening a subsidiary in Great Britain, \"F. W. Woolworth Co Ltd\". Fred was joined by three established men in the Woolworth operation, Byron Miller, Samuel Balfour and Charles Hubbard, as well as an Englishman with whom they had dealings, William Lawrence Stephenson. Given wide leeway, the brand took hold rapidly through the UK, in spite of the breakout of war, growing to forty\\-four stores and exceeding £4 million in profits for 1914–1915\\.", "Likewise, the Woolworth brothers began a significant operation in Germany by 1900, where products were collected and packed for shipping to New York City for re\\-distribution around the US. In 1914, European made merchandise accounted for 25% of all goods in Woolworth stores. When war broke out, and eventually transatlantic shipping ground to a halt, Frank Woolworth had US factories copy the best\\-selling products which had been imported from Europe. After the war, Woolworth's European operation grew with the increased demand for their products. The warehouse and shipping operation in Sonneberg was rebuilt and expanded, to include its own train station. A subsidiary in Germany was launched on November 2, 1926\\.", "File:CSW\\-re\\-opening at 319 Lacka Ave Scranton PA c 1900\\.jpg\\\|C. S. Woolworth store advertisement, announcing the opening of the expanded and remodeled store at 317\\-319 Lackawanna Ave., Scranton PA – Dec 8, 1900\\.\nFile:CSW\\- front remodeled 317\\-319 Lackawanna Ave Scranton PA \\- 08 Dec 1900\\.jpg\\\|C. S. Woolworth store newspaper picture showing the expanded and remodeled store at 317\\-319 Lackawanna Ave., Scranton PA – Dec 8, 1900\\. C. S. Woolworth stores eventually merged into the F. W. Woolworth Company.\nFile:CSW\\- re\\-opening 2nd floor 317\\-319 Lackawanna Ave Scranton PA \\- 08 Dec 1900\\.jpg\\\|C. S. Woolworth store newspaper picture showing the expanded 2nd floor at 317\\-319 Lackawanna Ave., Scranton PA – Dec 8, 1900\\.\nFile:Woolworth \\- Kresge Scranton PA vintage 78 Better Copy.jpg\\\|F. W. Woolworth and S. S. Kresge stores on Lackawanna, Avenue, in downtown \\[\\[Scranton, Pennsylvania]]. The two stores were often found near one another in downtown areas. ca.1978\\.\nFile:Fmr F. W. Woolworth now StanleyMorgan\\-SmithBarney\\-VaxServe\\- 423\\-429 Lackawanna Ave, Scranton, PA. 25 November 2011\\.jpg\\\|Former F. W. Woolworth, now StanleyMorgan\\-SmithBarney\\-VaxServe, at 423\\-429 Lackawanna Ave, Scranton, PA. 25 November 2011\\.", "```\nNew Albany IN in vintage postcards Typical 1910s Woolworth Store at Christmas Season.jpg\|A Woolworth's postcard of the store interior at Christmas season, in New Albany, Indiana. Vintage postcards were typically seen in Woolworth stores. ca.1910.", "```", "", "Sum Woolworth maintained his home base in Scranton. He did not like the political side of the business after the 1912 merger, while the other director partners sought to establish themselves. Sum concentrated on training up\\-and\\-coming managers at his Pennsylvania stores. These newly trained managers were dispersed across the entire company, maintaining and setting a style and tone for Woolworth stores worldwide. While keeping a low profile, and seldom mentioned in books and articles about the Woolworth chain, Sum's influence was remarkable and extensive through the entire life of Woolworth companies, as well as across all retailing, to this day.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=April 2013}}", "[thumb\\\|right\\\|ca. 1913 – The Woolworth Building, 233 Broadway, Manhattan borough, New York City, New York, United States, was the world's tallest building until 1930, financed with cash by Frank W. Woolworth. Many pictures of the World Trade Center twin towers showed the Woolworth Building between them. Later, the WTC twin towers were in the background area of this view.](/wiki/File:View_of_Woolworth_Building_fixed_crop.jpg \"View of Woolworth Building fixed crop.jpg\") Frank aggressively grew the chain from the start, yet he always had a paternal approach to his earliest stores, in the US and in England. Similar to his pattern in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he built his first successful store, and later, his first \"skyscraper\" store, in 1910 Frank commissioned the design and construction of a new headquarters in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). The [Woolworth Building](/wiki/Woolworth_Building \"Woolworth Building\") was owned by the Woolworth company (aka Venator Group (1998 to 2001\\), aka Foot Locker, Inc (2001 to present)) for 85 years. The building was sold in 1998 to the Witkoff Group. The building was a pioneering achievement, designed by American architect [Cass Gilbert](/wiki/Cass_Gilbert \"Cass Gilbert\"), and completed in 1913\\. It was the [tallest building in the world](/wiki/Tallest_building_in_the_world \"Tallest building in the world\") (roof height of 792 feet/57 floors), until 1930\\. It was also unique in that it was financed with cash, and never had a mortgage until recently. When opened on April 24, 1913, all interior lights and exterior flood lights were turned on, when President Woodrow Wilson pushed a button in the White House. Worldwide, people took notice of the Woolworth brothers, their formula and success. Many rivals began to appear on the scene. While Frank was outgoing and gregarious, openly flashing the brand, Sum worked one\\-on\\-one with people, improving the Woolworth store experience for customers. Between 1910 and 1920, they seemed unstoppable.", "Recent news of the Woolworth Building: \"In August 2012, The New York Times reported that an investment group led by Alchemy Properties, a New York developer, bought the top 30 floors of the landmark on July 31 for $68 million (\\~${{Format price\\\|{{Inflation\\\|index\\=US\\-GDP\\\|value\\=68000000\\\|start\\_year\\=2012}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\\|US\\-GDP}}) from the Witkoff Group and Cammeby's International. The firm plans to renovate the space into luxury apartments and convert the penthouse into a five\\-level living\\-space. The lower 28 floors are still owned by the Witkoff Group and Cammeby International, who plans to lease them as office space.\"{{cite news \\\|title\\=Luxury Living in Old Temple of the 5 and Dime (Woolworth Building News) \\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/08/realestate/top\\-floors\\-of\\-woolworth\\-building\\-to\\-be\\-remade\\-as\\-luxury\\-apartments.html\\\|access\\-date\\=September 10, 2012\\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\\|date\\=August 7, 2012\\\|author\\=Michelle Higgins}}", "When Frank died in 1919, Sum was chosen as the Chairman of the Board of [F. W. Woolworth Company](/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company \"F. W. Woolworth Company\"). Sum served as Chairman for 25 years, with a solid, steady approach on the board. Sum stepped down as Chairman, on February 9, 1944, due to ill health. He was 87 at the time, and remained Honorary Chairman, and a Director.", "" ]
Korea ----- After hospitalization, Dixon served at [Will Rogers Field](/wiki/Will_Rogers_Air_National_Guard_Base "Will Rogers Air National Guard Base"), Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and [Rapid City Army Air Field](/wiki/Ellsworth_AFB "Ellsworth AFB"), South Dakota. He was an instructor at the [West Point Preparatory School](/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy_Preparatory_School "United States Military Academy Preparatory School") in 1947 and then was assigned as group and wing personnel officer for the [82d Fighter Wing](/wiki/82d_Fighter_Wing "82d Fighter Wing"), [Grenier Field](/wiki/Manchester%E2%80%93Boston_Regional_Airport%23History "Manchester–Boston Regional Airport#History"), New Hampshire. From November 1948 to 1953, Dixon served in the Directorate of Personnel at Headquarters, [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command "Strategic Air Command"). He next served 11 months in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") with the [4th Fighter\-Interceptor Wing](/wiki/4th_Fighter_Wing%23History "4th Fighter Wing#History") as wing inspector and then as commander of the [335th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron](/wiki/335th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron "335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron"). He completed 28 combat missions before the [Korean armistice](/wiki/Korean_Armistice_Agreement "Korean Armistice Agreement"). Dixon returned to the United States in 1954\. He was assigned to Headquarters USAF and subsequently served as assistant to the deputy chief of staff, plans and operations, for National Security Council affairs. In this capacity he was Air Force action officer with the [Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff "Joint Chiefs of Staff"), the [U.S. Department of State](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State "U.S. Department of State") and the [National Security Council](/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council "United States National Security Council"). He graduated from the [Air War College](/wiki/Air_War_College "Air War College") in 1959 and was assigned to [Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe](/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Powers_Europe "Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe") (SHAPE), Paris, France, as staff missile planner. Reassigned to the Pentagon in 1962, he served as assistant deputy director for war plans and later as assistant for joint and National Security Council matters, deputy chief of staff, plans and operations. In this latter capacity, Dixon was the Air Force planner for Joint Chiefs of Staff matters. In September 1965 Dixon was assigned to the [45th Air Division](/wiki/45th_Air_Division "45th Air Division"), Strategic Air Command, at [Loring Air Force Base](/wiki/Loring_Air_Force_Base "Loring Air Force Base"), Maine, as an air division commander responsible for [B\-52](/wiki/B-52 "B-52")/[KC\-135](/wiki/KC-135 "KC-135") wings at Loring AFB, [Dow AFB](/wiki/Dow_AFB "Dow AFB"), [Ernest Harmon AFB](/wiki/Ernest_Harmon_Air_Force_Base "Ernest Harmon Air Force Base") and [Goose Air Base](/wiki/Goose_Air_Base "Goose Air Base"). From July 1967 until July 1969, he was assigned as assistant deputy chief of staff, personnel for military personnel, and Commander, [Air Force Military Personnel Center](/wiki/Air_Force_Personnel_Center "Air Force Personnel Center"), [Randolph Air Force Base](/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base "Randolph Air Force Base"), Texas. While in this assignment, he received the 1969 [Eugene M. Zuckert Management Award](/wiki/Eugene_M._Zuckert "Eugene M. Zuckert").	[ "Korea\n-----", "After hospitalization, Dixon served at [Will Rogers Field](/wiki/Will_Rogers_Air_National_Guard_Base \"Will Rogers Air National Guard Base\"), Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and [Rapid City Army Air Field](/wiki/Ellsworth_AFB \"Ellsworth AFB\"), South Dakota. He was an instructor at the [West Point Preparatory School](/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy_Preparatory_School \"United States Military Academy Preparatory School\") in 1947 and then was assigned as group and wing personnel officer for the [82d Fighter Wing](/wiki/82d_Fighter_Wing \"82d Fighter Wing\"), [Grenier Field](/wiki/Manchester%E2%80%93Boston_Regional_Airport%23History \"Manchester–Boston Regional Airport#History\"), New Hampshire.", "From November 1948 to 1953, Dixon served in the Directorate of Personnel at Headquarters, [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command \"Strategic Air Command\"). He next served 11 months in [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\") during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") with the [4th Fighter\\-Interceptor Wing](/wiki/4th_Fighter_Wing%23History \"4th Fighter Wing#History\") as wing inspector and then as commander of the [335th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron](/wiki/335th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron \"335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron\"). He completed 28 combat missions before the [Korean armistice](/wiki/Korean_Armistice_Agreement \"Korean Armistice Agreement\").", "Dixon returned to the United States in 1954\\. He was assigned to Headquarters USAF and subsequently served as assistant to the deputy chief of staff, plans and operations, for National Security Council affairs. In this capacity he was Air Force action officer with the [Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff \"Joint Chiefs of Staff\"), the [U.S. Department of State](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State \"U.S. Department of State\") and the [National Security Council](/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council \"United States National Security Council\").", "He graduated from the [Air War College](/wiki/Air_War_College \"Air War College\") in 1959 and was assigned to [Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe](/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Powers_Europe \"Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe\") (SHAPE), Paris, France, as staff missile planner. Reassigned to the Pentagon in 1962, he served as assistant deputy director for war plans and later as assistant for joint and National Security Council matters, deputy chief of staff, plans and operations. In this latter capacity, Dixon was the Air Force planner for Joint Chiefs of Staff matters.", "In September 1965 Dixon was assigned to the [45th Air Division](/wiki/45th_Air_Division \"45th Air Division\"), Strategic Air Command, at [Loring Air Force Base](/wiki/Loring_Air_Force_Base \"Loring Air Force Base\"), Maine, as an air division commander responsible for [B\\-52](/wiki/B-52 \"B-52\")/[KC\\-135](/wiki/KC-135 \"KC-135\") wings at Loring AFB, [Dow AFB](/wiki/Dow_AFB \"Dow AFB\"), [Ernest Harmon AFB](/wiki/Ernest_Harmon_Air_Force_Base \"Ernest Harmon Air Force Base\") and [Goose Air Base](/wiki/Goose_Air_Base \"Goose Air Base\"). From July 1967 until July 1969, he was assigned as assistant deputy chief of staff, personnel for military personnel, and Commander, [Air Force Military Personnel Center](/wiki/Air_Force_Personnel_Center \"Air Force Personnel Center\"), [Randolph Air Force Base](/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base \"Randolph Air Force Base\"), Texas. While in this assignment, he received the 1969 [Eugene M. Zuckert Management Award](/wiki/Eugene_M._Zuckert \"Eugene M. Zuckert\").", "" ]
A Global Academic Career and an Overseas Chinese Dissident (since 1989\) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Wu was interviewed about the Tiananmen protests in the documentary film [The Gate of Heavenly Peace](/wiki/The_Gate_of_Heavenly_Peace_%28documentary%29 "The Gate of Heavenly Peace (documentary)"). He in fact left China for the United States in February 1989, prior to the rise of the protests, first for English language training, then attended [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University") as a [Nieman Fellow](/wiki/Nieman_Fellowship "Nieman Fellowship") (1989\-1990\). As completing his Nieman program in summer 1990, Wu found he was not able to return to China, as, in the months following the Tiananmen Crackdown in June 1989, he was purged from The People’s Daily and his residence in Beijing was searched and sealed by secret police. He was such punished because of his connection to Zhao, who was purged in late May 1989 and died in life\-time house\-prison in 2005, his publications during the 1980s for criticizing dictatorship and advocating institutional reform in China, and his involvement in overseas Chinese democracy movements that had arisen with the exile of some Tiananmen student activists and leading Chinese pro\-democracy intellectuals. Wu was then appointed as a Luce Fellow (1990\-1991\) at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University"), working under the supervision of Professor Andrew J. Nathan. Subsequently, he obtained a M.A. (1993\) and a PhD (1995\) in political science from [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University"), with Professor Lynn T. White, III, as his thesis supervisor. Following an appointment as a [An Wang Post\-Doctoral Fellow](https://fairbank.fas.harvard.edu/programs/an-wang-postdoctoral-fellows/#:~:text=An%20Wang%20Postdoctoral%20Fellowships%20have,a%20book%20manuscript%20or%20articles.) (1995\-1996\) at the [John King Fairbank Center for East Asian Research](/wiki/Fairbank_Center_for_Chinese_Studies "Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies") at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), he joined the Department of Government and Public Administration at the [Chinese University of Hong Kong](/wiki/Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong "Chinese University of Hong Kong") in 1996 as an assistant professor and, six years later, an associate professor. He witnessed transition of Hong Kong to China’s sovereignty, and wrote newspaper columns for contributing his insights on Chinese politics. In 2004, Wu moved to Canada for joining the [University of Victoria](/wiki/University_of_Victoria "University of Victoria"), where he concurrently served as Chair in China and Asia\-Pacific Relations at Centre for Asia\-Pacific Initiatives, Professor in Department of Political Science, and Professor in Department of History.{{Cite web \\|title\=Guoguang\-Wu \\|url\=https://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/capi/about/home/researchers/guoguang\-wu.php \\|access\-date\=2023\-07\-11 \\|website\=University of Victoria \\|language\=en}} In 2022, Wu joined [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University") with the current appointment. Wu in exile keeps as a voice of advocating political change of China toward democratization. In 1989, following the Tiananmen crackdown, he joined the exiled activists of the Beijing pro\-democracy movement in Paris, France for establishing a major overseas dissident organization. Later he was involved in a project sponsored by Center for Modern China in Princeton, New Jersey for exploring the future of a democratic China. In Hong Kong, he frequently talked at events organized by local democratic activists; before being muted by the CCP in 2003, he had commentary columns in major Chinese\-language newspapers for observing China’s development and criticizing CCP governance. He is thought a sober brain of China’s dissident forces. Lately Wu turned to proposing for building up liberal communities among overseas Chinese, which, in his imagination, might help to make a less authoritarian, less\-CCP\-influenced but more cosmopolitan culture for Chinese diaspora, and provide democratic training for global citizens of Chinese ethnicity and for future Chinese citizens as democracy is practiced in China.{{Cite web \\|title\=巴黎「自由谈」沙龙纪要：我们在哪里，中国就在哪里——政治学者吴国光提出"亚流亡"概念及对华人族群命运的思考 \\|url\=https://www.rfi.fr/cn/科技与文化/20220921\-安琪\-巴黎\-自由谈\-沙龙纪要\-我们在哪里\-中国就在哪里\-――政治学者吴国光提出\-亚流亡\-概念及对华人族群命运的思考 \\|access\-date\=July 11, 2023 \\|website\=法国国际广播电台}}	[ "A Global Academic Career and an Overseas Chinese Dissident (since 1989\\)\n------------------------------------------------------------------------", "Wu was interviewed about the Tiananmen protests in the documentary film [The Gate of Heavenly Peace](/wiki/The_Gate_of_Heavenly_Peace_%28documentary%29 \"The Gate of Heavenly Peace (documentary)\"). He in fact left China for the United States in February 1989, prior to the rise of the protests, first for English language training, then attended [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") as a [Nieman Fellow](/wiki/Nieman_Fellowship \"Nieman Fellowship\") (1989\\-1990\\).", "As completing his Nieman program in summer 1990, Wu found he was not able to return to China, as, in the months following the Tiananmen Crackdown in June 1989, he was purged from The People’s Daily and his residence in Beijing was searched and sealed by secret police. He was such punished because of his connection to Zhao, who was purged in late May 1989 and died in life\\-time house\\-prison in 2005, his publications during the 1980s for criticizing dictatorship and advocating institutional reform in China, and his involvement in overseas Chinese democracy movements that had arisen with the exile of some Tiananmen student activists and leading Chinese pro\\-democracy intellectuals.", "Wu was then appointed as a Luce Fellow (1990\\-1991\\) at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\"), working under the supervision of Professor Andrew J. Nathan. Subsequently, he obtained a M.A. (1993\\) and a PhD (1995\\) in political science from [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\"), with Professor Lynn T. White, III, as his thesis supervisor. Following an appointment as a [An Wang Post\\-Doctoral Fellow](https://fairbank.fas.harvard.edu/programs/an-wang-postdoctoral-fellows/#:~:text=An%20Wang%20Postdoctoral%20Fellowships%20have,a%20book%20manuscript%20or%20articles.) (1995\\-1996\\) at the [John King Fairbank Center for East Asian Research](/wiki/Fairbank_Center_for_Chinese_Studies \"Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies\") at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), he joined the Department of Government and Public Administration at the [Chinese University of Hong Kong](/wiki/Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong \"Chinese University of Hong Kong\") in 1996 as an assistant professor and, six years later, an associate professor. He witnessed transition of Hong Kong to China’s sovereignty, and wrote newspaper columns for contributing his insights on Chinese politics.", "In 2004, Wu moved to Canada for joining the [University of Victoria](/wiki/University_of_Victoria \"University of Victoria\"), where he concurrently served as Chair in China and Asia\\-Pacific Relations at Centre for Asia\\-Pacific Initiatives, Professor in Department of Political Science, and Professor in Department of History.{{Cite web \\\|title\\=Guoguang\\-Wu \\\|url\\=https://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/capi/about/home/researchers/guoguang\\-wu.php \\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-11 \\\|website\\=University of Victoria \\\|language\\=en}}", "In 2022, Wu joined [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\") with the current appointment.", "Wu in exile keeps as a voice of advocating political change of China toward democratization. In 1989, following the Tiananmen crackdown, he joined the exiled activists of the Beijing pro\\-democracy movement in Paris, France for establishing a major overseas dissident organization. Later he was involved in a project sponsored by Center for Modern China in Princeton, New Jersey for exploring the future of a democratic China. In Hong Kong, he frequently talked at events organized by local democratic activists; before being muted by the CCP in 2003, he had commentary columns in major Chinese\\-language newspapers for observing China’s development and criticizing CCP governance. He is thought a sober brain of China’s dissident forces.", "Lately Wu turned to proposing for building up liberal communities among overseas Chinese, which, in his imagination, might help to make a less authoritarian, less\\-CCP\\-influenced but more cosmopolitan culture for Chinese diaspora, and provide democratic training for global citizens of Chinese ethnicity and for future Chinese citizens as democracy is practiced in China.{{Cite web \\\|title\\=巴黎「自由谈」沙龙纪要：我们在哪里，中国就在哪里——政治学者吴国光提出\"亚流亡\"概念及对华人族群命运的思考 \\\|url\\=https://www.rfi.fr/cn/科技与文化/20220921\\-安琪\\-巴黎\\-自由谈\\-沙龙纪要\\-我们在哪里\\-中国就在哪里\\-――政治学者吴国光提出\\-亚流亡\\-概念及对华人族群命运的思考 \\\|access\\-date\\=July 11, 2023 \\\|website\\=法国国际广播电台}}", "" ]
Post\-Tiananmen Scholarship --------------------------- Wu started his academic publications in the English language in 1993\. His early articles in the regard include a China Quarterly article, which is now a quasi\-classic in studies of China’s political communication,{{Cite journal \\|last\=Wu \\|first\=Guoguang \\|date\=March 1994 \\|title\=Command Communication: The Politics of Editorial Formulation in the People's Daily \\|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china\-quarterly/article/command\-communication\-the\-politics\-of\-editorial\-formulation\-in\-the\-peoples\-daily/DA9116B78E8898F0C63C7726488E7D53 \\|journal\=The China Quarterly \\|volume\=137 \\|pages\=194–211\\|doi\=10\.1017/S0305741000034111 \\|s2cid\=154739228 }} and a book chapter on what he termed as “documentary politics,” Guoguang Wu, “ ‘Documentary Politics’: Hypotheses, Process, and Case Studies,” in Carol Lee Hamrin and Suisheng Zhao eds., Decision\-Making in Deng’s China: Perspectives from Insiders, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995, pp. 24\-38\. a piece highly regarded in China’s circle of political science.{{Cite web \\|last\=景 \\|first\=跃进 \\|date\=2016\-10\-28 \\|title\=中国的"文件政治" \\|url\=https://www.aisixiang.com/data/101883\.html \\|website\=爱思想}} Both drew research materials from his own experience in China and his first\-hand observation of relevant subjects, providing an insider\-scholar’s perspective to reflect on information processing in CCP politics. Wu’s doctoral dissertation, entitled Hard Politics with Soft Institutions: China’s Political Reform, 1986\-1989, examines the failure of China’s political reform in the late 1980s,{{Cite web \\|last\=Wu \\|first\=Guoguang \\|date\=1995 \\|title\=Hard politics with soft institutions : China's political reform, 1986\-1989 \\|url\=https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130000794101946368 \\|website\=Reprint of the author's thesis (Ph.D.)\-\-Princeton University}} obviously also closely relevant to his experience in China. His major research monographs came out late, however. In 2015, [Cambridge University Press](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press") published Wu’s book on China’s Party Congress,{{Cite book \\|last\=Wu \\|first\=Guoguang \\|title\=China's Party Congress: Power, Legitimacy, and Institutional Manipulation \\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \\|date\=October 2015 \\|isbn\=9781139976800}} which seems continuing his effort at reflecting on Chinese political institutional operations that he was once familiar as an insider, but his propensity of theorization of Chinese politics at the level of dialoguing with Western classic political thinkers is much displayed in the discussions of legitimacy, inter\-regime institutional fertilization, institutional manipulation (as being differentiated from political manipulation), and theatrical politics. The investigation on the CCP electoral system is a fascinating part of the book. The book is also published in the Chinese and Japanese editions through translation. Wu lately extends his specialties to much wider fields, from politics to political economy and from China studies to global capitalism. His 2017 monograph, Globalization Against Democracy, also from Cambridge University Press, is, in his own words, an “intellectual adventure” that explores how the global triumph of capitalism with the end of the Cold War transformed macro institutions of capitalism per se and their increasingly negative connections with democracy and democratization.{{Cite book \\|last\=Wu \\|first\=Guoguang \\|title\=Globalization against Democracy: A Political Economy of Capitalism after its Global Triumph \\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \\|date\=July 2017 \\|isbn\=9781108116077}} It argues that, with the global extension of capitalism across state borders, capitalism has been decoupled from its previous political shell that is democracy, which remains within the scale of a nation\-state. Wu portraits this as the “political nakedness” in which capitalism runs without corresponding political institutions. Political authoritarianism, therefore, gains advantages in dealing with capitalism, hijacking capital with authoritarian regimes’ concentrated administrative power in politically charged national\-market admission and with its statist monopoly of resources for winning global competitions. Wu’s theory of the economic state is praised by a reviewer;{{Cite journal \\|last\=Yue \\|first\=Jianyong \\|date\=22 May 2018 \\|title\=Book Review for Globalization against Democracy authored by Guoguang Wu \\|url\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\.1080/24761028\.2018\.1477465?tab\=permissions\&scroll\=top \\|journal\=Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies \\|volume\=7 \\|issue\=1\\|pages\=76–78 \\|doi\=10\.1080/24761028\.2018\.1477465 \\|doi\-access\=free }} the book’s investigation of mass consumption, as well as capital and labor, is especially insightful. It is an ambitious book that is obviously influenced by the diverse, classic traditions of Max Weber, Karl Marx, and Adam Smith. Wu has developed his unique methodology in the above research projects, which is termed “mutual contextualization” with the emphasis of interactions of two great factors, or, two series of great factors, in focusing its analysis on a chosen subject. He expects to apply the methodology for overcoming linear approach and static thinking. Wu’s academic research also widely covers various subjects, such as China’s foreign policy, Chinese nationalism, social discontents and social protests, and feminist movements in China.{{Cite web \\|title\=Guoguang Wu: books, biography, latest update \\|url\=https://www.amazon.com/stores/Guoguang%20Wu/author/B001JOAXZI \\|access\-date\=2023\-07\-11 \\|website\=Amazon.com \\|language\=en\-us}} In recent years, he published a series of analyses on China’s leadership politics, which are frequently quoted by global mass media.{{Cite web \\|last\=Wu \\|first\=Guoguang \\|date\=December 1, 2022 \\|title\=New Faces of Leaders, New Factional Dynamics: CCP Leadership Politics Following the 20th Party Congress \\|url\=https://www.prcleader.org/wu\-december\-2022 \\|website\=China Leadership Monitor}}{{Cite web \\|date\=January 24, 2023 \\|title\=China's palace politics: Xi Jinping loyalists compete for power \\|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/f1ddaaa1\-7077\-4e0a\-bdc4\-55205e4d2657 \\|archive\-date\= \\|website\=Financial Times}} Guoguang Wu married to Xiaoying Liao, a writer on education and environment who obtained a Ph.D. in mass communication from [Université Paris II Panthéon\-Assas](/wiki/Paris-Panth%C3%A9on-Assas_University "Paris-Panthéon-Assas University"). They have two sons.{{Cite book \\|last\=廖 \\|first\=晓英 \\|url\=https://product.suning.com/0070067633/000000012355038771\.html \\|title\=共情养育：和青春期的孩子一起成长 \\|publisher\=中国友谊出版公司 \\|year\=2022 \\|isbn\=9787505753587}}{{Cite book \\|last\=廖 \\|first\=晓英 \\|url\=https://www.amazon.com/%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E8%BF%98%E8%83%BD%E8%BF%99%E6%A0%B7%E4%B8%8A%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A6%88%E5%A6%88%E7%9C%BC%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2\-%E5%BB%96%E6%99%93%E8%8B%B1/dp/B005G5Y95Q \\|title\=小学还能这样上：中国妈妈眼中的加拿大小学教育 \\|publisher\=宁波出版社 \\|year\=2011 \\|isbn\=978\-7807437697}}{{Cite book \\|last\=廖 \\|first\=晓英 \\|url\=https://www.amazon.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E8%BF%98%E8%83%BD%E8%BF%99%E6%A0%B7%E4%B8%8A\-%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E4%B8%8E%E7%BB%86%E8%8A%82\-%E5%BB%96%E6%99%93%E8%8B%B1/dp/B014XLB0LO \\|title\=中学还能这样上：加拿大教育的精神与细节 \\|publisher\=宁波出版社 \\|year\=2015 \\|isbn\=9787552621310}}{{Cite web \\|title\=廖晓英\-全部作品在线阅读 \\|url\=https://yd.qq.com/web/search/books?author\=%E5%BB%96%E6%99%93%E8%8B%B1 \\|website\=微信读书}}	[ "Post\\-Tiananmen Scholarship\n---------------------------", "Wu started his academic publications in the English language in 1993\\. His early articles in the regard include a China Quarterly article, which is now a quasi\\-classic in studies of China’s political communication,{{Cite journal \\\|last\\=Wu \\\|first\\=Guoguang \\\|date\\=March 1994 \\\|title\\=Command Communication: The Politics of Editorial Formulation in the People's Daily \\\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china\\-quarterly/article/command\\-communication\\-the\\-politics\\-of\\-editorial\\-formulation\\-in\\-the\\-peoples\\-daily/DA9116B78E8898F0C63C7726488E7D53 \\\|journal\\=The China Quarterly \\\|volume\\=137 \\\|pages\\=194–211\\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0305741000034111 \\\|s2cid\\=154739228 }} and a book chapter on what he termed as “documentary politics,” Guoguang Wu, “ ‘Documentary Politics’: Hypotheses, Process, and Case Studies,” in Carol Lee Hamrin and Suisheng Zhao eds., Decision\\-Making in Deng’s China: Perspectives from Insiders, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995, pp. 24\\-38\\. a piece highly regarded in China’s circle of political science.{{Cite web \\\|last\\=景 \\\|first\\=跃进 \\\|date\\=2016\\-10\\-28 \\\|title\\=中国的\"文件政治\" \\\|url\\=https://www.aisixiang.com/data/101883\\.html \\\|website\\=爱思想}} Both drew research materials from his own experience in China and his first\\-hand observation of relevant subjects, providing an insider\\-scholar’s perspective to reflect on information processing in CCP politics.", "Wu’s doctoral dissertation, entitled Hard Politics with Soft Institutions: China’s Political Reform, 1986\\-1989, examines the failure of China’s political reform in the late 1980s,{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Wu \\\|first\\=Guoguang \\\|date\\=1995 \\\|title\\=Hard politics with soft institutions : China's political reform, 1986\\-1989 \\\|url\\=https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130000794101946368 \\\|website\\=Reprint of the author's thesis (Ph.D.)\\-\\-Princeton University}} obviously also closely relevant to his experience in China.", "His major research monographs came out late, however. In 2015, [Cambridge University Press](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press \"Cambridge University Press\") published Wu’s book on China’s Party Congress,{{Cite book \\\|last\\=Wu \\\|first\\=Guoguang \\\|title\\=China's Party Congress: Power, Legitimacy, and Institutional Manipulation \\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\\|date\\=October 2015 \\\|isbn\\=9781139976800}} which seems continuing his effort at reflecting on Chinese political institutional operations that he was once familiar as an insider, but his propensity of theorization of Chinese politics at the level of dialoguing with Western classic political thinkers is much displayed in the discussions of legitimacy, inter\\-regime institutional fertilization, institutional manipulation (as being differentiated from political manipulation), and theatrical politics. The investigation on the CCP electoral system is a fascinating part of the book. The book is also published in the Chinese and Japanese editions through translation.", "Wu lately extends his specialties to much wider fields, from politics to political economy and from China studies to global capitalism. His 2017 monograph, Globalization Against Democracy, also from Cambridge University Press, is, in his own words, an “intellectual adventure” that explores how the global triumph of capitalism with the end of the Cold War transformed macro institutions of capitalism per se and their increasingly negative connections with democracy and democratization.{{Cite book \\\|last\\=Wu \\\|first\\=Guoguang \\\|title\\=Globalization against Democracy: A Political Economy of Capitalism after its Global Triumph \\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\\|date\\=July 2017 \\\|isbn\\=9781108116077}} It argues that, with the global extension of capitalism across state borders, capitalism has been decoupled from its previous political shell that is democracy, which remains within the scale of a nation\\-state. Wu portraits this as the “political nakedness” in which capitalism runs without corresponding political institutions. Political authoritarianism, therefore, gains advantages in dealing with capitalism, hijacking capital with authoritarian regimes’ concentrated administrative power in politically charged national\\-market admission and with its statist monopoly of resources for winning global competitions. Wu’s theory of the economic state is praised by a reviewer;{{Cite journal \\\|last\\=Yue \\\|first\\=Jianyong \\\|date\\=22 May 2018 \\\|title\\=Book Review for Globalization against Democracy authored by Guoguang Wu \\\|url\\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\\.1080/24761028\\.2018\\.1477465?tab\\=permissions\\&scroll\\=top \\\|journal\\=Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies \\\|volume\\=7 \\\|issue\\=1\\\|pages\\=76–78 \\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/24761028\\.2018\\.1477465 \\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} the book’s investigation of mass consumption, as well as capital and labor, is especially insightful. It is an ambitious book that is obviously influenced by the diverse, classic traditions of Max Weber, Karl Marx, and Adam Smith.", "Wu has developed his unique methodology in the above research projects, which is termed “mutual contextualization” with the emphasis of interactions of two great factors, or, two series of great factors, in focusing its analysis on a chosen subject. He expects to apply the methodology for overcoming linear approach and static thinking.", "Wu’s academic research also widely covers various subjects, such as China’s foreign policy, Chinese nationalism, social discontents and social protests, and feminist movements in China.{{Cite web \\\|title\\=Guoguang Wu: books, biography, latest update \\\|url\\=https://www.amazon.com/stores/Guoguang%20Wu/author/B001JOAXZI \\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-11 \\\|website\\=Amazon.com \\\|language\\=en\\-us}} In recent years, he published a series of analyses on China’s leadership politics, which are frequently quoted by global mass media.{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Wu \\\|first\\=Guoguang \\\|date\\=December 1, 2022 \\\|title\\=New Faces of Leaders, New Factional Dynamics: CCP Leadership Politics Following the 20th Party Congress \\\|url\\=https://www.prcleader.org/wu\\-december\\-2022 \\\|website\\=China Leadership Monitor}}{{Cite web \\\|date\\=January 24, 2023 \\\|title\\=China's palace politics: Xi Jinping loyalists compete for power \\\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/f1ddaaa1\\-7077\\-4e0a\\-bdc4\\-55205e4d2657 \\\|archive\\-date\\= \\\|website\\=Financial Times}}", "Guoguang Wu married to Xiaoying Liao, a writer on education and environment who obtained a Ph.D. in mass communication from [Université Paris II Panthéon\\-Assas](/wiki/Paris-Panth%C3%A9on-Assas_University \"Paris-Panthéon-Assas University\"). They have two sons.{{Cite book \\\|last\\=廖 \\\|first\\=晓英 \\\|url\\=https://product.suning.com/0070067633/000000012355038771\\.html \\\|title\\=共情养育：和青春期的孩子一起成长 \\\|publisher\\=中国友谊出版公司 \\\|year\\=2022 \\\|isbn\\=9787505753587}}{{Cite book \\\|last\\=廖 \\\|first\\=晓英 \\\|url\\=https://www.amazon.com/%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E8%BF%98%E8%83%BD%E8%BF%99%E6%A0%B7%E4%B8%8A%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A6%88%E5%A6%88%E7%9C%BC%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2\\-%E5%BB%96%E6%99%93%E8%8B%B1/dp/B005G5Y95Q \\\|title\\=小学还能这样上：中国妈妈眼中的加拿大小学教育 \\\|publisher\\=宁波出版社 \\\|year\\=2011 \\\|isbn\\=978\\-7807437697}}{{Cite book \\\|last\\=廖 \\\|first\\=晓英 \\\|url\\=https://www.amazon.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E8%BF%98%E8%83%BD%E8%BF%99%E6%A0%B7%E4%B8%8A\\-%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E4%B8%8E%E7%BB%86%E8%8A%82\\-%E5%BB%96%E6%99%93%E8%8B%B1/dp/B014XLB0LO \\\|title\\=中学还能这样上：加拿大教育的精神与细节 \\\|publisher\\=宁波出版社 \\\|year\\=2015 \\\|isbn\\=9787552621310}}{{Cite web \\\|title\\=廖晓英\\-全部作品在线阅读 \\\|url\\=https://yd.qq.com/web/search/books?author\\=%E5%BB%96%E6%99%93%E8%8B%B1 \\\|website\\=微信读书}}", "" ]
The course of events -------------------- ### Beginning of evacuation [thumb\\|Memorial in Borek forest near [Hlybokaye](/wiki/Hlybokaye "Hlybokaye"), commemorating the victims of the [Stalinist](/wiki/Stalinism "Stalinism") and [Nazi](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") regimes](/wiki/File:Glubokoe-lager-1e.jpg "Glubokoe-lager-1e.jpg") According to documents from Soviet archives, as of June 10, 1941, the prison in Berezwecz held 680 inmates. Additional NKVD records from June 1941 concerning the planned evacuation of the prisoners from Berezwecz to the [Uzbek SSR](/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic") indicated an intended evacuation of 678 inmates.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 109\. However, it is certain that the number of prisoners was higher when the evacuation began. On the night of June 19–20, the Soviets initiated a [fourth mass deportation](/wiki/June_deportation "June deportation") from occupied Polish territories deep into USSR. Many of the deportees were temporarily confined in the cells of Berezwecz prison.Kalbarczyk (2011\), pp. 4–5\. Furthermore, after the German invasion began, the NKVD began mass arrests of alleged "[enemies of the people](/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people "Enemy of the people")". These individuals were not registered in the prison records.Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 67, 88\. On June 23, 1941, the representative of the prison branch of the NKVD of the [Byelorussian SSR](/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic"), a head of the operational department named Pariemsky, who was in [Maladzyechna](/wiki/Maladzyechna "Maladzyechna") at that time, called prison warden Priyomyshev and ordered him to immediately start evacuating prisoners.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 115\. The liquidation of the Berezwecz prison began the same night. The Soviets managed to evacuate some prisoners east by train. According to documents from Soviet archives, on July 20, 1941, a transport with 261 prisoners evacuated from Berezwecz reached [Kazan](/wiki/Kazan "Kazan").Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 113\. However, most of the prisoners from Berezwecz were forced to move eastward on foot.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), pp. 21, 112\. Before the "death march" commenced, the NKVD decided to execute some of the prisoners considered the most dangerous on the spot. Mass executions occurred on the night of June 23–24 in the prison's basements, where shots and screams were obscured by loud music blaring from megaphones. The extent of the massacre came to light after the Soviets fled from Berezwecz, when the families of prisoners searched the monastery for their relatives. They discovered dozens of corpses either buried in mass graves or bricked up in cells. Witnesses recalled that many bodies displayed signs of brutal torture, with ropes around their necks and their hands tied.Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 87–88\.{{efn\\|In the testimonies and accounts of witnesses involved in the exhumation of the victims of the \[\[NKVD prisoner massacres]], there is repeated mention of discovered bodies bearing signs of severe torture. Some evidence suggests that certain NKVD members may have abused the victims before their murders. Moreover, it is a known fact that some victims were killed using bayonets and blunt instruments. However, according to \[\[Bogdan Musiał]]'s perspective, the injuries initially thought to be signs of torture by witnesses were likely a result of the rapid decomposition of the corpses, particularly accelerated by the summer heat, as well as the activity of scavengers and unskilled handling during exhumation. Additionally, executions were sometimes conducted hastily, such as using grenades and machine guns. Also, he believes that in \[\[Eastern Galicia]] and \[\[Volhynia]], there were cases where, after the departure of the Soviets, the bodies of NKVD victims were purposely mutilated by \[\[Ukrainian nationalism\\|Ukrainian nationalists]] seeking to depict dramatic examples of their nation's martyrdom for propaganda purposes. See: Musiał (2001\), pp. 235–241\.}} Conservative estimates suggest several dozen people were killed that night within the prison.Musiał (2001\), p. 124\.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 22\. However, some eyewitnesses claimed the number of victims ranged from 360 to as high as 800 individuals.Criminal evacuation (1997\), p. 87\. Investigations revealed that, apart from NKVD officers, Skroba, the secretary of the local [VKP(b)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Communist Party of the Soviet Union") committee, allegedly participated in the executions. He purportedly boasted, while under the influence of alcohol, of personally shooting 18 prisoners.Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 69, 87\. ### Death march and massacre in Taklinovo [thumb\\|A plaque on the premises of the [St. Stanislaus Kostka Church](/wiki/St._Stanislaus_Kostka_Church%2C_Warsaw "St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, Warsaw") in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw"), commemorating the victims of the [NKVD prisoner massacres](/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres "NKVD prisoner massacres"), including prisoners from Berezwecz](/wiki/File:NKVD_prisoner_massacres_commemorative_plaque_at_St._Stanislaus_Kostka_Church_in_Warsaw.jpg "NKVD prisoner massacres commemorative plaque at St. Stanislaus Kostka Church in Warsaw.jpg") Preparations for the march began on the night of June 23–24\. Prisoners were taken out of their cells and assembled in the prison yard starting at 2:00 a.m.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 65\. The march itself commenced three hours later. Determining the precise number of prisoners evacuated from Berezwecz remains challenging due to conflicting information, even within Soviet archives. "The List of departures and movements of transports from NKVD prisons of the Byelorussian SSR" indicates 830 prisoners were evacuated on foot.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 112\. In contrast, the report from the military prosecutor of the [Vitebsk](/wiki/Vitebsk "Vitebsk") garrison, Glinka, noted a column of "916 convicts and prisoners under investigation".Musiał (2001\), p. 118\.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 119\.{{efn\\|Glinka's calculations comprised approximately 500 political prisoners and around 400 criminal prisoners. See: Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 119\.}} However, the District Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation in Łódź estimated the number to be between 1,500 and 3,000 inmates evacuated from Berezwecz.Criminal evacuation (1997\), p. 88\. Along with the prisoners, members of the prison staff{{efn\\|Glinka's report stated that the escort consisted of 67 guards. See: Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 119\.}} and their families were part of the evacuation.Criminal evacuation (1997\), p. 89\. Michał Bogowicz, a survivor of the "death march", estimated that the marching column extended 1\.5 kilometers in length. Shortly after leaving the prison gate, the column encountered a crowd of prisoners' relatives, hoping to see their loved ones and provide them with parcels of water, food, or clothing. However, any contact was obstructed by the guards, who used force, beating both prisoners and their family members and employing dogs to deter them. As the column departed Berezwecz, it traversed [Kavali](/wiki/Kavali "Kavali"), [Halubichy](/wiki/Halubichy "Halubichy"), [Pieravoz](/wiki/Pieravoz "Pieravoz"), [Ushachy](/wiki/Ushachy "Ushachy"), [Saročyna](/wiki/Saro%C4%8Dyna "Saročyna"), and [Uła](/wiki/U%C5%82a "Uła") en route to Vitebsk. Throughout the several\-day march, the prisoners were deprived of water and food.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), pp. 65–66\.Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 88–90\. Those unable to keep pace with the column, attempting to escape, resisting, or responding slowly to orders, were either shot or bayoneted by the guards. Surviving prisoners recounted that the column's path was littered with numerous corpses.Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 89–90\.{{efn\\|Michał Bogowicz, a survivor of the 'death march,' alleged that in the initial phase of the march, the NKVD transported some of the exhausted prisoners on horse\-drawn wagons and subsequently secretly executed them. See: Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), pp. 65–66\.}} Mass executions also occurred during the march. In the Saročyna area, prison warden Priyomyshev and five guards executed 27 or 32 prisoners in retribution for the escape of one of the inmates. Prosecutor Glinka reported in his findings that "on the way \[...] Priyomyshev shot 55 individuals at different times and in two separate incidents". On June 28, the "death march" reached its peak.{{efn\\|Some sources, however, date these events to June 25 or 26\. See: Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 66 and Criminal evacuation (1997\), p. 90\.}} On that day the column arrived in the town of Uła. Two Polish survivors later recounted that local residents displayed hostility towards the prisoners, hurling insults and even encouraging the escort to execute them, shouting, "Comrades, where are you taking these bandits, these Polish pigs? Kill them on the spot!"Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 66\. According to [Bogdan Musiał](/wiki/Bogdan_Musia%C5%82 "Bogdan Musiał"), this incident may have influenced the subsequent actions of the NKVD personnel.Musiał (2001\), p. 119\. Soon after, as the column crossed the bridge over the river [Daugava](/wiki/Daugava "Daugava"), near the Taklinovo [kolkhoz](/wiki/Kolkhoz "Kolkhoz") (today {{ill\\|Mikalayeva\\|be\\|Мікалаева (Шумілінскі раён)}}), a German aircraft flew overhead and bombed the bridge. This airstrike incited panic among the prisoners. Subsequently, Priyomyshev ordered the massacre of the entire column. The guards opened fire with machine guns, resulting in the death of several hundred prisoners. Those wounded were then fatally shot, bayoneted, or struck with rifle butts.Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 90–91\. Only a few prisoners survived and managed to escape to the forest or hide under the bodies of their murdered comrades. The Soviets caught some of the escapees with the help of the local population,{{efn\\|On the other hand, Nadzieja Krassowska, the wife of one of the victims, recalled that later the ''kolkhozniks'' from Taklinovo treated the prisoners' families with compassion and kindness, and even helped mark mass graves with crosses. See: Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 91–92\.}} and then took them to Vitebsk, and from there deeper into the USSR.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), pp. 22, 67\. The day after the massacre, five or six escapees were caught and shot in the village of Uboina (located on the right bank of the Daugava, 15 km northwest of Mikalajeva).{{cite web \\|url\=https://www.radzima.org/be/object/8345\.html\\|title\=Месца масавага расстрэлу 1941 году\\|author\=Міхась Баўтовіч\\|website\=radzima.org\\|trans\-title\=The place of mass shooting in 1941\\|access\-date\=2023\-12\-10\\|language\=be}} The perpetrators acted in such hurry that they did not dispose of the bodies, just forced some temporarily spared prisoners to pick up the corpses on the road and throw them into roadside ditches. It was only the next day that a special NKVD commando appeared at the site of the massacre and forced the kolkhozniks (collective farmers) from Taklinovo to collect the bodies of the murdered and bury them in five potato pits located in the nearby forest. After the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") occupied this area, the victims of the massacre were exhumed and then buried in a large mass grave dug at the edge of the forest.Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 91–92\. ### Victims [thumb\\|[Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East](/wiki/Monument_to_the_Fallen_and_Murdered_in_the_East "Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East") in Warsaw. In the foreground, a second railway tie displays the inscription "Berezwecz Nikołajewo"](/wiki/File:Monument_to_the_Fallen_and_Murdered_in_the_East_-_commemoration_of_prisoners_massacre.jpg "Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East - commemoration of prisoners massacre.jpg") The number of victims of the "death road" remains difficult to determine. In his report on the evacuation of NKVD prisons of the Byelorussian SSR, prepared on September 3, 1941, the deputy head of the NKVD Byelorussian SSR's prison administration, lieutenant of state security Opalev, stated that "up to 600 people" were shot.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), p. 117\. "The List of departures and movements of transports from NKVD prisons of the Byelorussian SSR", as well as the report of military prosecutor Glinka indicate that during the evacuation the guards killed 714 prisoners.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), pp. 112, 119\. Polish prisoner Paweł Kożuch, who survived hidden under the bodies of other victims, claimed that he heard NKVD men count the bodies and come to 1773\.Criminal evacuation (1997\), p. 91\. Polish historian Sławomir Kalbarczyk estimated that the number of victims most probably exceeded a thousand. Other historians, based on witness testimonies, estimated approximately 1,000–2,000 murdered prisoners.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\), pp. 22, 32\.Criminal evacuation (1997\), pp. 67, 75\. The victims included Fr. Franciszek Kuksewicz, Roman Catholic parish priest in [Miory](/wiki/Miory "Miory"),{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl/czas/nr150/art.php?artykul\=kuksewicz\\|title\= Ks. dziekan Franciszek Kuksewicz\\|trans\-title\=Fr. dean Franciszek Kuksewicz\\|last\=Krahel\\|first\=Tadeusz\\|website\=bialystok.opoka.org.pl\\|access\-date\=2023\-12\-10\\|archive\-url\=http://web.archive.org/web/20090214065759/http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl:80/czas/nr150/art.php?artykul\=kuksewicz\\|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-14\\|language\=pl}} and Fr. Stanisław Eliasz, parish priest in [Idolta](/wiki/Idolta "Idolta"){{cite web \\|url\=http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl/czas/nr146/art.php?artykul\=eliasz\\|title\= Ks. Stanisław Eliasz\\|trans\-title\=Fr. Stanisław Eliasz\\|last\=Krahel\\|first\=Tadeusz\\|website\=bialystok.opoka.org.pl\\|access\-date\=2023\-12\-10\\|archive\-url\=http://web.archive.org/web/20160324231616/http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl/czas/nr146/art.php?artykul\=eliasz\\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-24\\|language\=pl}} – both arrested after the outbreak of the German\-Soviet war. More than five hundred victims were imprisoned without sentences ("were under investigation"), so even from the Soviet legal perspective they were innocent and their execution was illegal.	[ "The course of events\n--------------------", "### Beginning of evacuation", "[thumb\\\|Memorial in Borek forest near [Hlybokaye](/wiki/Hlybokaye \"Hlybokaye\"), commemorating the victims of the [Stalinist](/wiki/Stalinism \"Stalinism\") and [Nazi](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") regimes](/wiki/File:Glubokoe-lager-1e.jpg \"Glubokoe-lager-1e.jpg\")\nAccording to documents from Soviet archives, as of June 10, 1941, the prison in Berezwecz held 680 inmates. Additional NKVD records from June 1941 concerning the planned evacuation of the prisoners from Berezwecz to the [Uzbek SSR](/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic\") indicated an intended evacuation of 678 inmates.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 109\\. However, it is certain that the number of prisoners was higher when the evacuation began. On the night of June 19–20, the Soviets initiated a [fourth mass deportation](/wiki/June_deportation \"June deportation\") from occupied Polish territories deep into USSR. Many of the deportees were temporarily confined in the cells of Berezwecz prison.Kalbarczyk (2011\\), pp. 4–5\\. Furthermore, after the German invasion began, the NKVD began mass arrests of alleged \"[enemies of the people](/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people \"Enemy of the people\")\". These individuals were not registered in the prison records.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 67, 88\\.", "On June 23, 1941, the representative of the prison branch of the NKVD of the [Byelorussian SSR](/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic\"), a head of the operational department named Pariemsky, who was in [Maladzyechna](/wiki/Maladzyechna \"Maladzyechna\") at that time, called prison warden Priyomyshev and ordered him to immediately start evacuating prisoners.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 115\\. The liquidation of the Berezwecz prison began the same night. The Soviets managed to evacuate some prisoners east by train. According to documents from Soviet archives, on July 20, 1941, a transport with 261 prisoners evacuated from Berezwecz reached [Kazan](/wiki/Kazan \"Kazan\").Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 113\\. However, most of the prisoners from Berezwecz were forced to move eastward on foot.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), pp. 21, 112\\.", "Before the \"death march\" commenced, the NKVD decided to execute some of the prisoners considered the most dangerous on the spot. Mass executions occurred on the night of June 23–24 in the prison's basements, where shots and screams were obscured by loud music blaring from megaphones. The extent of the massacre came to light after the Soviets fled from Berezwecz, when the families of prisoners searched the monastery for their relatives. They discovered dozens of corpses either buried in mass graves or bricked up in cells. Witnesses recalled that many bodies displayed signs of brutal torture, with ropes around their necks and their hands tied.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 87–88\\.{{efn\\\|In the testimonies and accounts of witnesses involved in the exhumation of the victims of the \\[\\[NKVD prisoner massacres]], there is repeated mention of discovered bodies bearing signs of severe torture. Some evidence suggests that certain NKVD members may have abused the victims before their murders. Moreover, it is a known fact that some victims were killed using bayonets and blunt instruments. However, according to \\[\\[Bogdan Musiał]]'s perspective, the injuries initially thought to be signs of torture by witnesses were likely a result of the rapid decomposition of the corpses, particularly accelerated by the summer heat, as well as the activity of scavengers and unskilled handling during exhumation. Additionally, executions were sometimes conducted hastily, such as using grenades and machine guns. Also, he believes that in \\[\\[Eastern Galicia]] and \\[\\[Volhynia]], there were cases where, after the departure of the Soviets, the bodies of NKVD victims were purposely mutilated by \\[\\[Ukrainian nationalism\\\|Ukrainian nationalists]] seeking to depict dramatic examples of their nation's martyrdom for propaganda purposes. See: Musiał (2001\\), pp. 235–241\\.}} Conservative estimates suggest several dozen people were killed that night within the prison.Musiał (2001\\), p. 124\\.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 22\\. However, some eyewitnesses claimed the number of victims ranged from 360 to as high as 800 individuals.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), p. 87\\. Investigations revealed that, apart from NKVD officers, Skroba, the secretary of the local [VKP(b)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Communist Party of the Soviet Union\") committee, allegedly participated in the executions. He purportedly boasted, while under the influence of alcohol, of personally shooting 18 prisoners.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 69, 87\\.", "### Death march and massacre in Taklinovo", "[thumb\\\|A plaque on the premises of the [St. Stanislaus Kostka Church](/wiki/St._Stanislaus_Kostka_Church%2C_Warsaw \"St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, Warsaw\") in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\"), commemorating the victims of the [NKVD prisoner massacres](/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres \"NKVD prisoner massacres\"), including prisoners from Berezwecz](/wiki/File:NKVD_prisoner_massacres_commemorative_plaque_at_St._Stanislaus_Kostka_Church_in_Warsaw.jpg \"NKVD prisoner massacres commemorative plaque at St. Stanislaus Kostka Church in Warsaw.jpg\")\nPreparations for the march began on the night of June 23–24\\. Prisoners were taken out of their cells and assembled in the prison yard starting at 2:00 a.m.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 65\\. The march itself commenced three hours later. Determining the precise number of prisoners evacuated from Berezwecz remains challenging due to conflicting information, even within Soviet archives. \"The List of departures and movements of transports from NKVD prisons of the Byelorussian SSR\" indicates 830 prisoners were evacuated on foot.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 112\\. In contrast, the report from the military prosecutor of the [Vitebsk](/wiki/Vitebsk \"Vitebsk\") garrison, Glinka, noted a column of \"916 convicts and prisoners under investigation\".Musiał (2001\\), p. 118\\.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 119\\.{{efn\\\|Glinka's calculations comprised approximately 500 political prisoners and around 400 criminal prisoners. See: Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 119\\.}} However, the District Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation in Łódź estimated the number to be between 1,500 and 3,000 inmates evacuated from Berezwecz.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), p. 88\\. Along with the prisoners, members of the prison staff{{efn\\\|Glinka's report stated that the escort consisted of 67 guards. See: Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 119\\.}} and their families were part of the evacuation.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), p. 89\\. Michał Bogowicz, a survivor of the \"death march\", estimated that the marching column extended 1\\.5 kilometers in length.", "Shortly after leaving the prison gate, the column encountered a crowd of prisoners' relatives, hoping to see their loved ones and provide them with parcels of water, food, or clothing. However, any contact was obstructed by the guards, who used force, beating both prisoners and their family members and employing dogs to deter them. As the column departed Berezwecz, it traversed [Kavali](/wiki/Kavali \"Kavali\"), [Halubichy](/wiki/Halubichy \"Halubichy\"), [Pieravoz](/wiki/Pieravoz \"Pieravoz\"), [Ushachy](/wiki/Ushachy \"Ushachy\"), [Saročyna](/wiki/Saro%C4%8Dyna \"Saročyna\"), and [Uła](/wiki/U%C5%82a \"Uła\") en route to Vitebsk. Throughout the several\\-day march, the prisoners were deprived of water and food.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), pp. 65–66\\.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 88–90\\. Those unable to keep pace with the column, attempting to escape, resisting, or responding slowly to orders, were either shot or bayoneted by the guards. Surviving prisoners recounted that the column's path was littered with numerous corpses.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 89–90\\.{{efn\\\|Michał Bogowicz, a survivor of the 'death march,' alleged that in the initial phase of the march, the NKVD transported some of the exhausted prisoners on horse\\-drawn wagons and subsequently secretly executed them. See: Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), pp. 65–66\\.}} Mass executions also occurred during the march. In the Saročyna area, prison warden Priyomyshev and five guards executed 27 or 32 prisoners in retribution for the escape of one of the inmates. Prosecutor Glinka reported in his findings that \"on the way \\[...] Priyomyshev shot 55 individuals at different times and in two separate incidents\".", "On June 28, the \"death march\" reached its peak.{{efn\\\|Some sources, however, date these events to June 25 or 26\\. See: Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 66 and Criminal evacuation (1997\\), p. 90\\.}} On that day the column arrived in the town of Uła. Two Polish survivors later recounted that local residents displayed hostility towards the prisoners, hurling insults and even encouraging the escort to execute them, shouting, \"Comrades, where are you taking these bandits, these Polish pigs? Kill them on the spot!\"Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 66\\. According to [Bogdan Musiał](/wiki/Bogdan_Musia%C5%82 \"Bogdan Musiał\"), this incident may have influenced the subsequent actions of the NKVD personnel.Musiał (2001\\), p. 119\\.", "Soon after, as the column crossed the bridge over the river [Daugava](/wiki/Daugava \"Daugava\"), near the Taklinovo [kolkhoz](/wiki/Kolkhoz \"Kolkhoz\") (today {{ill\\\|Mikalayeva\\\|be\\\|Мікалаева (Шумілінскі раён)}}), a German aircraft flew overhead and bombed the bridge. This airstrike incited panic among the prisoners. Subsequently, Priyomyshev ordered the massacre of the entire column. The guards opened fire with machine guns, resulting in the death of several hundred prisoners. Those wounded were then fatally shot, bayoneted, or struck with rifle butts.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 90–91\\.", "Only a few prisoners survived and managed to escape to the forest or hide under the bodies of their murdered comrades. The Soviets caught some of the escapees with the help of the local population,{{efn\\\|On the other hand, Nadzieja Krassowska, the wife of one of the victims, recalled that later the ''kolkhozniks'' from Taklinovo treated the prisoners' families with compassion and kindness, and even helped mark mass graves with crosses. See: Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 91–92\\.}} and then took them to Vitebsk, and from there deeper into the USSR.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), pp. 22, 67\\. The day after the massacre, five or six escapees were caught and shot in the village of Uboina (located on the right bank of the Daugava, 15 km northwest of Mikalajeva).{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.radzima.org/be/object/8345\\.html\\\|title\\=Месца масавага расстрэлу 1941 году\\\|author\\=Міхась Баўтовіч\\\|website\\=radzima.org\\\|trans\\-title\\=The place of mass shooting in 1941\\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-10\\\|language\\=be}}", "The perpetrators acted in such hurry that they did not dispose of the bodies, just forced some temporarily spared prisoners to pick up the corpses on the road and throw them into roadside ditches. It was only the next day that a special NKVD commando appeared at the site of the massacre and forced the kolkhozniks (collective farmers) from Taklinovo to collect the bodies of the murdered and bury them in five potato pits located in the nearby forest. After the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") occupied this area, the victims of the massacre were exhumed and then buried in a large mass grave dug at the edge of the forest.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 91–92\\.", "### Victims", "[thumb\\\|[Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East](/wiki/Monument_to_the_Fallen_and_Murdered_in_the_East \"Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East\") in Warsaw. In the foreground, a second railway tie displays the inscription \"Berezwecz Nikołajewo\"](/wiki/File:Monument_to_the_Fallen_and_Murdered_in_the_East_-_commemoration_of_prisoners_massacre.jpg \"Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East - commemoration of prisoners massacre.jpg\")\nThe number of victims of the \"death road\" remains difficult to determine. In his report on the evacuation of NKVD prisons of the Byelorussian SSR, prepared on September 3, 1941, the deputy head of the NKVD Byelorussian SSR's prison administration, lieutenant of state security Opalev, stated that \"up to 600 people\" were shot.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), p. 117\\. \"The List of departures and movements of transports from NKVD prisons of the Byelorussian SSR\", as well as the report of military prosecutor Glinka indicate that during the evacuation the guards killed 714 prisoners.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), pp. 112, 119\\. Polish prisoner Paweł Kożuch, who survived hidden under the bodies of other victims, claimed that he heard NKVD men count the bodies and come to 1773\\.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), p. 91\\.", "Polish historian Sławomir Kalbarczyk estimated that the number of victims most probably exceeded a thousand. Other historians, based on witness testimonies, estimated approximately 1,000–2,000 murdered prisoners.Popiński, Kokurin i Gurjanow (1995\\), pp. 22, 32\\.Criminal evacuation (1997\\), pp. 67, 75\\. The victims included Fr. Franciszek Kuksewicz, Roman Catholic parish priest in [Miory](/wiki/Miory \"Miory\"),{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl/czas/nr150/art.php?artykul\\=kuksewicz\\\|title\\= Ks. dziekan Franciszek Kuksewicz\\\|trans\\-title\\=Fr. dean Franciszek Kuksewicz\\\|last\\=Krahel\\\|first\\=Tadeusz\\\|website\\=bialystok.opoka.org.pl\\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-10\\\|archive\\-url\\=http://web.archive.org/web/20090214065759/http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl:80/czas/nr150/art.php?artykul\\=kuksewicz\\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-14\\\|language\\=pl}} and Fr. Stanisław Eliasz, parish priest in [Idolta](/wiki/Idolta \"Idolta\"){{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl/czas/nr146/art.php?artykul\\=eliasz\\\|title\\= Ks. Stanisław Eliasz\\\|trans\\-title\\=Fr. Stanisław Eliasz\\\|last\\=Krahel\\\|first\\=Tadeusz\\\|website\\=bialystok.opoka.org.pl\\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-10\\\|archive\\-url\\=http://web.archive.org/web/20160324231616/http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl/czas/nr146/art.php?artykul\\=eliasz\\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-24\\\|language\\=pl}} – both arrested after the outbreak of the German\\-Soviet war.", "More than five hundred victims were imprisoned without sentences (\"were under investigation\"), so even from the Soviet legal perspective they were innocent and their execution was illegal.", "" ]
Biography --------- Davi Cheng was born in B.C.C.Hong Kong{{When\\|date\=August 2022}} into a [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") family. Her great\-grandfather became a Christian/Protestant in 1896 at the First Congregational Church in Prescott, Territorial Arizona while working there as a laborer. and attending school taught by Mr. T.W. Otis and Rev. McLean using the Bible and Hymnal as text. He returned to China in 1902 to evangelize his family in China. Her grandfather never set foot in the United States. Cheng family of six immigrated to the United States in 1971 under her father's immigration visa, class P\-5, stamp inside a British Subject Passport carried by her 15 years old sister, when she was 14 years old. Cheng converted to [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") in 1997\.{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/jewish\-and/seamlessly\-chinese\-and\-jewish/?\_ga\=2\.164136442\.452063615\.1552013356\-763497140\.1552013355\\|title\=Seamlessly Chinese and Jewish\\|last\=Yael\-Cheng\\|first\=Davi\\|date\=June 1, 2015\\|website\=myjewishlearning.com\\|access\-date\=March 7, 2019}} Cheng earned a B.A. in Biological Sciences from [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley "University of California, Berkeley") with the intention of pursuing a career in the medical field. Instead she gravitated toward art, making detailed sketches and drawings of [wildlife](/wiki/Wildlife "Wildlife"). After graduating and working in business for a few years, Cheng went back to school to study computer [graphic design](/wiki/Graphic_design "Graphic design"). Aside from creating her own artwork, she also works as a graphic designer for corporations and nonprofits. Cheng is a longtime member and past president of [Congregation Beth Chayim Chadashim](/wiki/Beth_Chayim_Chadashim "Beth Chayim Chadashim") (BCC){{Cite web\\|title \= About BCC\\|url \= http://www.bcc\-la.org/about/\\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-13}} in Los Angeles, and part of the Be'chol Lashon (In Every Tongue){{Cite web\\|title \= Be'chol Lashon {{!}} Advocating for the Growth and Diversity of the Jewish People {{!}} Home\\|url \= http://www.bechollashon.org/\\|website \= www.bechollashon.org\\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-13}} international network celebrating Jewish diversity. Cheng's work is published in Women of the Book{{Cite web\\|title \= Women of the Book: Davi Cheng: Pekudei\\|url \= http://womenofthebook.org/artists/davi\-cheng/\\|website \= womenofthebook.org\\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-13\\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20150803154425/http://womenofthebook.org/artists/davi\-cheng/\\|archive\-date \= 2015\-08\-03\\|url\-status \= dead}} (2015\), a visual [Torah scroll](/wiki/Torah_scroll "Torah scroll") created by 54 Jewish women artists from around the world. Cheng's original interpretation of the Torah portion parshat [Pekudei](/wiki/Pekudei "Pekudei"), a pen and ink painting on parchment, was inspired by her Hong Kong childhood superheroes and by images of clouds in [Journey to the West](/wiki/Journey_to_the_West "Journey to the West"),. One of Cheng's paintings, "Burning Bush I," was published on the cover of Asian Jewish Life{{Cite web\\|title \= Art Work by BCC Member Davi Cheng on the cover of Asian Jewish Life magazine {{!}} BCC People\\|url \= http://bcc\-la.org/people/art\-work\-by\-bcc\-member\-davi\-cheng\-on\-the\-cover\-of\-asian\-jewish\-life\-magazine/\\|website \= bcc\-la.org\\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-13\\|archive\-date \= 2016\-10\-10\\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20161010113101/http://bcc\-la.org/people/art\-work\-by\-bcc\-member\-davi\-cheng\-on\-the\-cover\-of\-asian\-jewish\-life\-magazine/\\|url\-status \= dead}} magazine (June 2015, issue 16\); on The Jewniverse, "Chinese Art with a Jewish Twist (Or, Jewish Art with a Chinese Twist)"{{Cite web\\|title \= Chinese Art With a Jewish Twist (Or, Jewish Art With a Chinese Twist) {{!}} Jewniverse\\|url \= http://thejewniverse.com/2015/chinese\-art\-with\-a\-jewish\-twist\-or\-jewish\-art\-with\-a\-chinese\-twist/\\|website \= thejewniverse.com\\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-13}} by Ilana Sichel (June 8, 2015\); and on My Jewish Learning, "Seamlessly Chinese and Jewish"{{Cite web\\|title \= Seamlessly Chinese and Jewish\\| date\=June 2015 \\|url \= http://www.myjewishlearning.com/jewish\-and/seamlessly\-chinese\-and\-jewish/\\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-13}} by Davi Cheng (June 1, 2015\). Cheng designed BCC synagogue's permanent [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass "Stained glass") window installation,{{Cite web\\|title \= BCC's new home\\|url \= http://www.bcc\-la.org/about/new\-home/\\|accessdate \= 2015\-09\-13}} the centerpiece of which refers to the biblical story of the [parting of the Red Sea](/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea "Crossing the Red Sea"). Along with three other artists, she also fabricated and installed all twelve panes (measuring 30" x 40" each). She has created other art works for the sanctuary, collaborating with Jerry Hanson on a set of stained glass Ark doors and a solar\-powered [Ner Tamid](/wiki/Ner_tamid "Ner tamid") ("eternal light") made with more than a thousand one\-inch glass squares.	[ "Biography\n---------", "Davi Cheng was born in B.C.C.Hong Kong{{When\\\|date\\=August 2022}} into a [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") family. Her great\\-grandfather became a Christian/Protestant in 1896 at the First Congregational Church in Prescott, Territorial Arizona while working there as a laborer. and attending school taught by Mr. T.W. Otis and Rev. McLean using the Bible and Hymnal as text. He returned to China in 1902 to evangelize his family in China. Her grandfather never set foot in the United States. Cheng family of six immigrated to the United States in 1971 under her father's immigration visa, class P\\-5, stamp inside a British Subject Passport carried by her 15 years old sister, when she was 14 years old. Cheng converted to [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\") in 1997\\.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/jewish\\-and/seamlessly\\-chinese\\-and\\-jewish/?\\_ga\\=2\\.164136442\\.452063615\\.1552013356\\-763497140\\.1552013355\\\|title\\=Seamlessly Chinese and Jewish\\\|last\\=Yael\\-Cheng\\\|first\\=Davi\\\|date\\=June 1, 2015\\\|website\\=myjewishlearning.com\\\|access\\-date\\=March 7, 2019}}", "Cheng earned a B.A. in Biological Sciences from [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley \"University of California, Berkeley\") with the intention of pursuing a career in the medical field. Instead she gravitated toward art, making detailed sketches and drawings of [wildlife](/wiki/Wildlife \"Wildlife\"). After graduating and working in business for a few years, Cheng went back to school to study computer [graphic design](/wiki/Graphic_design \"Graphic design\"). Aside from creating her own artwork, she also works as a graphic designer for corporations and nonprofits.", "Cheng is a longtime member and past president of [Congregation Beth Chayim Chadashim](/wiki/Beth_Chayim_Chadashim \"Beth Chayim Chadashim\") (BCC){{Cite web\\\|title \\= About BCC\\\|url \\= http://www.bcc\\-la.org/about/\\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-13}} in Los Angeles, and part of the Be'chol Lashon (In Every Tongue){{Cite web\\\|title \\= Be'chol Lashon {{!}} Advocating for the Growth and Diversity of the Jewish People {{!}} Home\\\|url \\= http://www.bechollashon.org/\\\|website \\= www.bechollashon.org\\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-13}} international network celebrating Jewish diversity.", "Cheng's work is published in Women of the Book{{Cite web\\\|title \\= Women of the Book: Davi Cheng: Pekudei\\\|url \\= http://womenofthebook.org/artists/davi\\-cheng/\\\|website \\= womenofthebook.org\\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-13\\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20150803154425/http://womenofthebook.org/artists/davi\\-cheng/\\\|archive\\-date \\= 2015\\-08\\-03\\\|url\\-status \\= dead}} (2015\\), a visual [Torah scroll](/wiki/Torah_scroll \"Torah scroll\") created by 54 Jewish women artists from around the world. Cheng's original interpretation of the Torah portion parshat [Pekudei](/wiki/Pekudei \"Pekudei\"), a pen and ink painting on parchment, was inspired by her Hong Kong childhood superheroes and by images of clouds in [Journey to the West](/wiki/Journey_to_the_West \"Journey to the West\"),.", "One of Cheng's paintings, \"Burning Bush I,\" was published on the cover of Asian Jewish Life{{Cite web\\\|title \\= Art Work by BCC Member Davi Cheng on the cover of Asian Jewish Life magazine {{!}} BCC People\\\|url \\= http://bcc\\-la.org/people/art\\-work\\-by\\-bcc\\-member\\-davi\\-cheng\\-on\\-the\\-cover\\-of\\-asian\\-jewish\\-life\\-magazine/\\\|website \\= bcc\\-la.org\\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-13\\\|archive\\-date \\= 2016\\-10\\-10\\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20161010113101/http://bcc\\-la.org/people/art\\-work\\-by\\-bcc\\-member\\-davi\\-cheng\\-on\\-the\\-cover\\-of\\-asian\\-jewish\\-life\\-magazine/\\\|url\\-status \\= dead}} magazine (June 2015, issue 16\\); on The Jewniverse, \"Chinese Art with a Jewish Twist (Or, Jewish Art with a Chinese Twist)\"{{Cite web\\\|title \\= Chinese Art With a Jewish Twist (Or, Jewish Art With a Chinese Twist) {{!}} Jewniverse\\\|url \\= http://thejewniverse.com/2015/chinese\\-art\\-with\\-a\\-jewish\\-twist\\-or\\-jewish\\-art\\-with\\-a\\-chinese\\-twist/\\\|website \\= thejewniverse.com\\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-13}} by Ilana Sichel (June 8, 2015\\); and on My Jewish Learning, \"Seamlessly Chinese and Jewish\"{{Cite web\\\|title \\= Seamlessly Chinese and Jewish\\\| date\\=June 2015 \\\|url \\= http://www.myjewishlearning.com/jewish\\-and/seamlessly\\-chinese\\-and\\-jewish/\\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-13}} by Davi Cheng (June 1, 2015\\).", "Cheng designed BCC synagogue's permanent [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass \"Stained glass\") window installation,{{Cite web\\\|title \\= BCC's new home\\\|url \\= http://www.bcc\\-la.org/about/new\\-home/\\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-09\\-13}} the centerpiece of which refers to the biblical story of the [parting of the Red Sea](/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea \"Crossing the Red Sea\"). Along with three other artists, she also fabricated and installed all twelve panes (measuring 30\" x 40\" each). She has created other art works for the sanctuary, collaborating with Jerry Hanson on a set of stained glass Ark doors and a solar\\-powered [Ner Tamid](/wiki/Ner_tamid \"Ner tamid\") (\"eternal light\") made with more than a thousand one\\-inch glass squares.", "" ]
Biography --------- Abolhassan Sadighi was born in the [Oudlajan](/wiki/Oudlajan "Oudlajan") neighbourhood of [Tehran](/wiki/Tehran "Tehran")Seyf, 5 on 5 October 1894\.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.khayyamnameh.ir/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82\-%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA\-%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85/ \\|title\=خالق خلوت خيام \\|خیام نامه\\|خیام نامه \\|access\-date\=7 June 2020 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601233654/http://www.khayyamnameh.ir/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82\-%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA\-%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85/ \\|archive\-date\=1 June 2016 \\|url\-status\=dead }}Sadighi, The Oriental Michelangelo His father, Mirza Bagher Khan Sadigoddoleh, was from the residents of [Nur](/wiki/Nur%2C_Iran "Nur, Iran"), [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran_Province "Mazandaran Province"); his mother, Malakeh Khanum, was a [Qajar](/wiki/Qajar_dynasty "Qajar dynasty") princess, known as "Shajan". His family had moved to Tehran years before the birth of Sadighi and settled in Oudlajan, which was, at the time, one of the high\-class neighbourhoods of the capital. When he was seven, Sadighi went to Agdasiyyeh school, one of the new schools and was founded by Saeed\-ol\-Olama Larijani. After finishing elementary education, he went to [Alliance School](/wiki/Alliance_School%2C_Tehran "Alliance School, Tehran") to continue his studies, but at the same time, he started painting without having any mentors; his paintings on the walls of the school incited grievances of the principals. Although his noble family sought other dreams for him and his father was not inclined to his son to follow painting,San'ati, 60 Sadighi's excessive interest in painting and designing made him quit studying in the last year of school and go to [Kamal\-ol\-molk](/wiki/Kamal-ol-molk "Kamal-ol-molk") Ghaffari with his friend Ali Mohammad Heydaryan and get attend Ghaffari's class at his School of Fine Arts. After three years of studying, he achieved a high\-class diploma in 1920 and started teaching students as a mentor at the same school. His outstanding protégé, Ali\-Akbar San'ati, writes: "...\[Sadighi] headlines in creating art so much that according to the deceased Esmail Khan Ashtiani, Lord Kamal\-ol\-molk often called him Mirza Abolhassan Khan the Rival for humor and encouragement!" ### School of Fine Arts [thumb\\|300x300px\\|The statue of [Vénus de Milo](/wiki/Venus_de_Milo "Venus de Milo") in [Louvre](/wiki/Louvre "Louvre") Museum. Sadighi formed his first stone statue based on a photo of this statue and presented it to [Ahmad Shah](/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Qajar "Ahmad Shah Qajar"). It is currently lost.](/wiki/File:Venus_de_Milo_Louvre_Ma399-02b.jpg "Venus de Milo Louvre Ma399-02b.jpg") A vague internal inclination pushed Sadighi to sculpture and while there was no sculpture mentor in Iran during the time and it was not taught anywhere including the School of Fine Arts, he formed a plaster statue of a child's half\-trunk on 1922 by rudimentary tools and presented it to Ghaffari. By seeing the statue, the latter realized the talent of Sadighi, who was then one of the painting teachers of the school, and turned the [greenhouse](/wiki/Greenhouse "Greenhouse") of the school to a sculpture workshop and Sadighi started gaining experience in sculpture while teaching painting and also learned about theoretical aspects of sculpture by reading the books Ghaffari had brought from Europe with him. After he formed several plaster statues and earned the necessary skills in two to three years, he one day asked Ghaffari to make it possible for him to form a stone statue. Ghaffari initially disagreed and believed Sadighi's tools and experience insufficient, but eventually approved it and accepted the expenses of the stone. Sadighi began making [Vénus de Milo](/wiki/Venus_de_Milo "Venus de Milo")'s statue after seeing a picture of it and finally it was finally completed on 1925\. After Ghaffari noticed the fantastic talent of his protégé, the former took the latter along with Milo's statue to [Ahmad Shah](/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Qajar "Ahmad Shah Qajar") and in that meeting, Ahmad gave Ghaffari 50 tomans, which was a lot then, and designated a monthly salary of 20 tomans for Sadighi in order to ensure the progress and continuation of his career and Ghaffari left him in charge of the newly established sculpture workshop of the School of Fine Arts. During that period, he formed many statues including: [Ferdowsi](/wiki/Ferdowsi "Ferdowsi")'s plaster statue, half\-trunk and full stature statues of [Farahani](/wiki/Amir_Kabir "Amir Kabir"), Abolgasem (Ghaffari's serviceman), Elias the peddler, and the barber of the bath. The most prominent statue of that period, which was formed on 1926, is the Siyah\-ney\-zan (Haj Magbal) which was formed from [patinated](/wiki/Patina "Patina") chalk and it is 93 centimeters high and is currently kept at National Arts Museum.Seyf, 10 ### Departure to Europe [thumb\\|100x100px\\|[Madonna](/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_Jesus "Mary, mother of Jesus") and the [Christ](/wiki/Jesus "Jesus") by [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael "Raphael")](/wiki/File:Raffael_026.jpg "Raffael 026.jpg") [thumb\\|200x200px\\|[The Source](/wiki/The_Source_%28Ingres%29 "The Source (Ingres)") by [Ingres](/wiki/Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres "Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres") that Abolhassan Sadighi has drawn a very accurate copy of.\\|left](/wiki/File:Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres_-_The_Spring_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg "Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres - The Spring - Google Art Project 2.jpg") 1927 is the year Ghaffari quit from all of his posts and moved to [Hoseynabad](/wiki/Hoseynabad%2C_Zeberkhan "Hoseynabad, Zeberkhan"), [Nishabur](/wiki/Nishapur "Nishapur"). During departure from Tehran, he suggested to Sadighi to go to Europe and pass his complementary education there, giving Sadighi the money he had saved from the salary coming from Ahmad. By the departure of the mentor, the protégés and teachers scattered and one year later on 1928, Sadighi went from Tehran to [Astara](/wiki/Astara%2C_Iran "Astara, Iran") and from there to [Baku](/wiki/Baku "Baku") and Moscow and eventually France. He traveled across some European countries for some time and continued learning and gaining experience in sculpture and stone\-cutting under Angealberr at Paris National Fine Arts High School for four years.Seyf, 6 Sadighi, who was in Europe between the two world wars, spent most of his time painting. He painted 160 pictures in that period. ### Return to Iran and marriage [thumb\\|200x200px\\|Sadighi and his wife, Qodrat\-ol\-saadaat Mirfenderesky in Ferdowsi Square beside the statue of [Ferdowsi](/wiki/Ferdowsi "Ferdowsi")](/wiki/File:Sediqi-ferdosi_Monument.jpg "Sediqi-ferdosi Monument.jpg") Having gained a lot of experience, Sadighi returned to Iran in March 1934\. In May 1934, he married his cousin Qodrat\-ol\-saadaat Mirfenderesky. Having gained permission from Ghaffari, who was in a self\-imposed exile, and by the help of his friend and old classmate, Ali\-Mohammad Heydaryan, he established the School of Fine Arts again. After Ghaffari's death in 1940, the school was closed for unknown reasons. But after a while, another school called Beautiful Arts was founded under the Ministry of Culture. After a while, Sadighi accepted to start teaching at that school. After the foundation of [Tehran University](/wiki/University_of_Tehran "University of Tehran"), the school continued with the same name under it and the leadership of stone\-cutting academy was given to Sadighi.Seyf, 7 ### National Works Board On 1950, Sadighi joined the National Works Board. During that time, he painted portraits of Iranian science and literature celebrities and formed remarkable statues of the celebrities. Portraits of [Sa'di](/wiki/Saadi_Shirazi "Saadi Shirazi"), [Abu\-Ali Sina](/wiki/Avicenna "Avicenna"), Ferdowsi and [Hafez](/wiki/Hafez "Hafez") is the result of that period.Sadighi, Chapter 2 of an interview with Fereydoon Sadigh, Haftsang web magazine Eventually he retired from Tehran University on 1961, but devoted all his time and energy to sculpture. By traveling to Italy, he managed to form remarkable statues. The statue of [Nader](/wiki/Nader_Shah "Nader Shah") and his assistant at Nader Shah's vault in [Mashhad](/wiki/Mashhad "Mashhad") and the statue of Ferdowsi at Ferdowsi Square of Tehran and the statue of [Khayyam](/wiki/Omar_Khayyam "Omar Khayyam") at [Laleh Park](/wiki/Laleh_Park "Laleh Park") of Tehran are the results of those years.Seyf, 28, 42 and 46 ### Final years During the [1979 revolution](/wiki/Iranian_Revolution "Iranian Revolution"), Khayyam's statue received critical damage and its face and fingers broke as a result of stones thrown at.Sadighi, the second part of the interview with Fereydoon Sadighi On 11 February 1979, an unknown group decapitated Ferdowsi's statue, which was repaired later.Keyhanizadeh During the revolution, Sadighi was working on Farahani's statue in Italy. The plaster model of the statue had been completed by the time the authorities of the new [administration](/wiki/Administration_%28government%29 "Administration (government)") refused to pay the following expenses and the planned [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") statue was never formed. The plaster model, which was 225 centimeters high, was formed by Lorenzo Nicolocci, but due to the change of government in Iran on 1979, its transfer to Tehran was canceled. After 33 years on 11 October 2010, the statue was installed in the Mellat Park by then Tehran municipality in a ceremony in which Sadighi's family and the municipality authorities were present. Sadighi returned to Iran after a while and spent the last years in silence and isolation. On 29 June 1992, his wife died. He died on 11 December 1995 at 101 years of age and was buried at the artists section of [Behesht\-e Zahra](/wiki/Behesht-e_Zahra "Behesht-e Zahra"). After his death, memorial ceremonies were held. Also a statue of him was ordered to his son Fereydoon Sadighi, and the half\-trunk statue is currently kept at the School of Beautiful Arts.	[ "Biography\n---------", "Abolhassan Sadighi was born in the [Oudlajan](/wiki/Oudlajan \"Oudlajan\") neighbourhood of [Tehran](/wiki/Tehran \"Tehran\")Seyf, 5 on 5 October 1894\\.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.khayyamnameh.ir/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82\\-%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA\\-%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85/ \\\|title\\=خالق خلوت خيام \\\|خیام نامه\\\|خیام نامه \\\|access\\-date\\=7 June 2020 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601233654/http://www.khayyamnameh.ir/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82\\-%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA\\-%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85/ \\\|archive\\-date\\=1 June 2016 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead }}Sadighi, The Oriental Michelangelo His father, Mirza Bagher Khan Sadigoddoleh, was from the residents of [Nur](/wiki/Nur%2C_Iran \"Nur, Iran\"), [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran_Province \"Mazandaran Province\"); his mother, Malakeh Khanum, was a [Qajar](/wiki/Qajar_dynasty \"Qajar dynasty\") princess, known as \"Shajan\". His family had moved to Tehran years before the birth of Sadighi and settled in Oudlajan, which was, at the time, one of the high\\-class neighbourhoods of the capital. When he was seven, Sadighi went to Agdasiyyeh school, one of the new schools and was founded by Saeed\\-ol\\-Olama Larijani. After finishing elementary education, he went to [Alliance School](/wiki/Alliance_School%2C_Tehran \"Alliance School, Tehran\") to continue his studies, but at the same time, he started painting without having any mentors; his paintings on the walls of the school incited grievances of the principals.", "Although his noble family sought other dreams for him and his father was not inclined to his son to follow painting,San'ati, 60 Sadighi's excessive interest in painting and designing made him quit studying in the last year of school and go to [Kamal\\-ol\\-molk](/wiki/Kamal-ol-molk \"Kamal-ol-molk\") Ghaffari with his friend Ali Mohammad Heydaryan and get attend Ghaffari's class at his School of Fine Arts. After three years of studying, he achieved a high\\-class diploma in 1920 and started teaching students as a mentor at the same school. His outstanding protégé, Ali\\-Akbar San'ati, writes: \"...\\[Sadighi] headlines in creating art so much that according to the deceased Esmail Khan Ashtiani, Lord Kamal\\-ol\\-molk often called him Mirza Abolhassan Khan the Rival for humor and encouragement!\"", "### School of Fine Arts", "[thumb\\\|300x300px\\\|The statue of [Vénus de Milo](/wiki/Venus_de_Milo \"Venus de Milo\") in [Louvre](/wiki/Louvre \"Louvre\") Museum. Sadighi formed his first stone statue based on a photo of this statue and presented it to [Ahmad Shah](/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Qajar \"Ahmad Shah Qajar\"). It is currently lost.](/wiki/File:Venus_de_Milo_Louvre_Ma399-02b.jpg \"Venus de Milo Louvre Ma399-02b.jpg\")\nA vague internal inclination pushed Sadighi to sculpture and while there was no sculpture mentor in Iran during the time and it was not taught anywhere including the School of Fine Arts, he formed a plaster statue of a child's half\\-trunk on 1922 by rudimentary tools and presented it to Ghaffari. By seeing the statue, the latter realized the talent of Sadighi, who was then one of the painting teachers of the school, and turned the [greenhouse](/wiki/Greenhouse \"Greenhouse\") of the school to a sculpture workshop and Sadighi started gaining experience in sculpture while teaching painting and also learned about theoretical aspects of sculpture by reading the books Ghaffari had brought from Europe with him.", "After he formed several plaster statues and earned the necessary skills in two to three years, he one day asked Ghaffari to make it possible for him to form a stone statue. Ghaffari initially disagreed and believed Sadighi's tools and experience insufficient, but eventually approved it and accepted the expenses of the stone. Sadighi began making [Vénus de Milo](/wiki/Venus_de_Milo \"Venus de Milo\")'s statue after seeing a picture of it and finally it was finally completed on 1925\\. After Ghaffari noticed the fantastic talent of his protégé, the former took the latter along with Milo's statue to [Ahmad Shah](/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Qajar \"Ahmad Shah Qajar\") and in that meeting, Ahmad gave Ghaffari 50 tomans, which was a lot then, and designated a monthly salary of 20 tomans for Sadighi in order to ensure the progress and continuation of his career and Ghaffari left him in charge of the newly established sculpture workshop of the School of Fine Arts.", "During that period, he formed many statues including: [Ferdowsi](/wiki/Ferdowsi \"Ferdowsi\")'s plaster statue, half\\-trunk and full stature statues of [Farahani](/wiki/Amir_Kabir \"Amir Kabir\"), Abolgasem (Ghaffari's serviceman), Elias the peddler, and the barber of the bath. The most prominent statue of that period, which was formed on 1926, is the Siyah\\-ney\\-zan (Haj Magbal) which was formed from [patinated](/wiki/Patina \"Patina\") chalk and it is 93 centimeters high and is currently kept at National Arts Museum.Seyf, 10", "### Departure to Europe", "[thumb\\\|100x100px\\\|[Madonna](/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_Jesus \"Mary, mother of Jesus\") and the [Christ](/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\") by [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael \"Raphael\")](/wiki/File:Raffael_026.jpg \"Raffael 026.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|200x200px\\\|[The Source](/wiki/The_Source_%28Ingres%29 \"The Source (Ingres)\") by [Ingres](/wiki/Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres \"Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres\") that Abolhassan Sadighi has drawn a very accurate copy of.\\\|left](/wiki/File:Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres_-_The_Spring_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg \"Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres - The Spring - Google Art Project 2.jpg\")\n1927 is the year Ghaffari quit from all of his posts and moved to [Hoseynabad](/wiki/Hoseynabad%2C_Zeberkhan \"Hoseynabad, Zeberkhan\"), [Nishabur](/wiki/Nishapur \"Nishapur\"). During departure from Tehran, he suggested to Sadighi to go to Europe and pass his complementary education there, giving Sadighi the money he had saved from the salary coming from Ahmad. By the departure of the mentor, the protégés and teachers scattered and one year later on 1928, Sadighi went from Tehran to [Astara](/wiki/Astara%2C_Iran \"Astara, Iran\") and from there to [Baku](/wiki/Baku \"Baku\") and Moscow and eventually France. He traveled across some European countries for some time and continued learning and gaining experience in sculpture and stone\\-cutting under Angealberr at Paris National Fine Arts High School for four years.Seyf, 6", "Sadighi, who was in Europe between the two world wars, spent most of his time painting. He painted 160 pictures in that period.", "### Return to Iran and marriage", "[thumb\\\|200x200px\\\|Sadighi and his wife, Qodrat\\-ol\\-saadaat Mirfenderesky in Ferdowsi Square beside the statue of [Ferdowsi](/wiki/Ferdowsi \"Ferdowsi\")](/wiki/File:Sediqi-ferdosi_Monument.jpg \"Sediqi-ferdosi Monument.jpg\")\nHaving gained a lot of experience, Sadighi returned to Iran in March 1934\\. In May 1934, he married his cousin Qodrat\\-ol\\-saadaat Mirfenderesky. Having gained permission from Ghaffari, who was in a self\\-imposed exile, and by the help of his friend and old classmate, Ali\\-Mohammad Heydaryan, he established the School of Fine Arts again. After Ghaffari's death in 1940, the school was closed for unknown reasons. But after a while, another school called Beautiful Arts was founded under the Ministry of Culture. After a while, Sadighi accepted to start teaching at that school. After the foundation of [Tehran University](/wiki/University_of_Tehran \"University of Tehran\"), the school continued with the same name under it and the leadership of stone\\-cutting academy was given to Sadighi.Seyf, 7", "### National Works Board", "On 1950, Sadighi joined the National Works Board. During that time, he painted portraits of Iranian science and literature celebrities and formed remarkable statues of the celebrities. Portraits of [Sa'di](/wiki/Saadi_Shirazi \"Saadi Shirazi\"), [Abu\\-Ali Sina](/wiki/Avicenna \"Avicenna\"), Ferdowsi and [Hafez](/wiki/Hafez \"Hafez\") is the result of that period.Sadighi, Chapter 2 of an interview with Fereydoon Sadigh, Haftsang web magazine", "Eventually he retired from Tehran University on 1961, but devoted all his time and energy to sculpture. By traveling to Italy, he managed to form remarkable statues. The statue of [Nader](/wiki/Nader_Shah \"Nader Shah\") and his assistant at Nader Shah's vault in [Mashhad](/wiki/Mashhad \"Mashhad\") and the statue of Ferdowsi at Ferdowsi Square of Tehran and the statue of [Khayyam](/wiki/Omar_Khayyam \"Omar Khayyam\") at [Laleh Park](/wiki/Laleh_Park \"Laleh Park\") of Tehran are the results of those years.Seyf, 28, 42 and 46", "### Final years", "During the [1979 revolution](/wiki/Iranian_Revolution \"Iranian Revolution\"), Khayyam's statue received critical damage and its face and fingers broke as a result of stones thrown at.Sadighi, the second part of the interview with Fereydoon Sadighi On 11 February 1979, an unknown group decapitated Ferdowsi's statue, which was repaired later.Keyhanizadeh During the revolution, Sadighi was working on Farahani's statue in Italy. The plaster model of the statue had been completed by the time the authorities of the new [administration](/wiki/Administration_%28government%29 \"Administration (government)\") refused to pay the following expenses and the planned [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") statue was never formed. The plaster model, which was 225 centimeters high, was formed by Lorenzo Nicolocci, but due to the change of government in Iran on 1979, its transfer to Tehran was canceled. After 33 years on 11 October 2010, the statue was installed in the Mellat Park by then Tehran municipality in a ceremony in which Sadighi's family and the municipality authorities were present.", "Sadighi returned to Iran after a while and spent the last years in silence and isolation. On 29 June 1992, his wife died. He died on 11 December 1995 at 101 years of age and was buried at the artists section of [Behesht\\-e Zahra](/wiki/Behesht-e_Zahra \"Behesht-e Zahra\").", "After his death, memorial ceremonies were held. Also a statue of him was ordered to his son Fereydoon Sadighi, and the half\\-trunk statue is currently kept at the School of Beautiful Arts.", "" ]
History ------- ### Ayyubid beginnings Popular Palestinian tradition holds that the festival was inaugurated in the time after [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin")'s [recapture of Jerusalem](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%281187%29 "Siege of Jerusalem (1187)") from the [Crusaders](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem") in [1187](/wiki/Battle_of_Hattin%23Aftermath "Battle of Hattin#Aftermath").Sorek (2013\), [p. 19, footnote 4](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/jps.2013.43.1.6) The mainstream opinion among historians is that the shrine was built by Baibars some eight decades later, and that the Saladin myth is a 19th\-century reaction to Western encroachment; this, however, doesn't preclude some scholars from finding merit in the Saladin narrative. In modern times, the holiday has been popularly associated with Saladin as a symbol for the victorious struggle against the West, embodied by the Crusaders. It is claimed that Saladin, after defeating the Europeans, wanted to ensure that future Crusades wouldn't take advantage of the large annual Easter pilgrimage to Jerusalem in order to again wrestle the Holy City from the Muslims. To this end, the participants in the Nabi Musa [mawsim](/wiki/Mawsim "Mawsim"), or celebrations, would ensure the city's protection. This is however not documented.Halabi (2018\), p. 1\-15 ### Mamluk period In 1269, the Mamluk sultan Baibars al\-Bunduqdari built a small [shrine](/wiki/Shrine "Shrine") there, as part of a general policy he adopted after conquering towns and rural areas from [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon") down to [Hebron](/wiki/Hebron "Hebron") from the [Crusaders](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem"). The shrines were mostly dedicated to biblical [prophets](/wiki/Prophet "Prophet") and the companions of [Mohammed](/wiki/Mohammed "Mohammed"), and their maintenance was funded by an waqf, an endowment from properties that formerly belonged to the [Latin Church](/wiki/Latin_Church "Latin Church"). In the case of Nabi Musa, the [waqf](/wiki/Waqf "Waqf") fund was secured from ecclesiastical assets expropriated in nearby Jericho.Frenkel (1997\), p. [237](https://books.google.com/books?id=6boJulGkWBgC&pg=PA237)–248 Baibars' construction inscription is still to be seen, and it indicates the year the shrine was built, [AH](/wiki/Hijri_year "Hijri year") 668 (1269\-70 CE), and the fact that he "ordered the building of this noble sacred place over the tomb of Moses" while he was on his way from [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca"), where he had performed his [hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj"), towards Jerusalem.Amitai (2013\), pp. [45](https://books.google.com/books?id=SMGSTgfU7CQC&pg=PA44)\-53 Although the sultan's secretary doesn't mention the construction, one of his biographers, [Ibn Shaddad al\-Halabi](/wiki/Izz_al-Din_ibn_Shaddad "Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad"), does so, be it with little detail. The inscription is full of praise for Baibars' military prowess and, other than other similar plaques of its age, is written in easily legible script and placed low enough as to be read by the visitor, letting everyone know about Baibars' might and piety. Baibars al\-Bunduqdari's constructive piety set a precedent for others. Over the late medieval period, [hostels](/wiki/Hostel "Hostel") for travellers were built adjacent to the shrine, and the [hospice](/wiki/Hospice "Hospice") in its present form was completed in the decade between 1470 and 1480\.{{citation needed\\|date\=April 2021}} ### Ottoman period During Ottoman rule, Nabi Musa would be visited by Muslim pilgrims returning from the Hajj in Mecca on their way to Syria. Pilgrims visiting the shrine would have departed from the main body of the caravan east of the Jordan to visit Jerusalem and stopped in Nabi Musa en route to the city. The Nabi Musa site effectively served as a halting station for such pilgrims. Its permanent staff provided pilgrims with food and supplies, as well as religious services and information about the safety conditions of the route to Jerusalem, which was often subject to raids or robberies by the Bedouin present in the area. In the mid\-16th century, Muhammad Celebi al\-Naqqash, the Ottoman official charged with restoring the [walls of Jerusalem](/wiki/Walls_of_Jerusalem "Walls of Jerusalem"), was assigned with rehabilitating the Nabi Musa complex.{{cite book \\|last\= Cohen \\|first\= Amnon \\|chapter\= Al\-Nabi Musa – an Ottoman festival (''mawsim'') resurrected? \\|title\= Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter \\|year\= 2006 \\|pages\= 34–44 \\|editor\= David J. Wasserstein \\|editor2\= Ami Ayalon \\|publisher\= Routledge \\|location\= Abingdon, Oxon \\|series\= Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern History \\|isbn\= 041537278X \\|chapter\-url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=SMGSTgfU7CQC\&pg\=PA34 \\|access\-date\= 30 July 2022}} Around 1820, the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") authorities had to almost fully rebuild the shrine complex, which had, over the previous centuries, fallen into a grave state of dilapidated disrepair. In addition, they promoted a festive pilgrimage to the shrine that would always coincide with the Orthodox [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") celebration of [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter"), creating a counter\-balance to the Christian ceremonial activity in the city. This 'invention of tradition', as such imaginative constructs are called,Hobsbawm (1983\), pp. [1](https://books.google.com/books?id=sfvnNdVY3KIC&pg=PA1)\-14 made the pageantry of the Nabi Musa pilgrimage a potent symbol of both political and religious identity among [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims") from the outset of the modern period.Friedland \& Hecht (1996\), pages\= 89\-118{{clarify\\|reason\=Google Books only offers irrelevant snippets. Here it reads as if the date was set around Easter only after 1820\. Wasn't it an older decision or tradition, from the time of Baibars? The competition with Christian pilgrims and their presence in Jerusalem is much older, and fits the Mamluk period by far better (counter\-Crusade). Was there no set date before 1820?\\|date\=April 2021}} Over the 19th century, thousands of Muslims would assemble in Jerusalem, trek to Nabi Musa, and pass three days in feasting, prayer, games and visits to the nearby tomb of Moses' shepherd, Hasan er\-Rai. They were then entertained, as guests of the waqf, before returning on the seventh day triumphantly back to Jerusalem. [James Finn](/wiki/James_Finn "James Finn"), the British Consul in Jerusalem (1846–1863\), described the "Neby Moosa pilgrimage" as follows: > The Neby Moosa pilgrimages—to the reputed tomb of the prophet Moses, near the Dead Sea (on the West)—have been instituted so as to coincide with the Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Sepulchre, and the influx of devout Moslems was doubtless intended to counterbalance the effect of so many thousands of sturdy Christians being present in Jerusalem. The Moslems come from every part of the Mohammedan world—from [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Tartary](/wiki/Tartary "Tartary"), even to the confines of [China](/wiki/China "China"), from all the countries of [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"), and also from Egypt, [Nubia](/wiki/Nubia "Nubia"), [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco "Morocco"), the Eastern shores of Africa, as well as from Arabia proper and the Turkish provinces in Europe and Asia. > These pilgrims—for the most part extremely fanatical, and in a high state of religious excitement—are a formidable and dangerous body of men. During the continuance of the [Russian war](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War") these Moslem pilgrims were wrought up to an extra pitch of fervour and ostentatious demonstration. There was always danger lest, in the crowded streets and bazaars, through which they forced their processions, they might come into collision with some equally fervid pilgrims on the Christian side. In this case a passing fray might, in the twinkling of an eye, be turned into downright fight, and fight could scarcely end otherwise than in massacre. We always breathed more freely when the Moslem pilgrimages were over, and when their noisy drumming and shouting were at an end, and the usual quiet of Jerusalem was restored.Finn (1878\), pp. [222\-223](https://archive.org/details/stirringtimesor02finngoog/page/n236/mode/2up) [250px\\|right\\|thumb\\|[Ottoman flags](/wiki/Ottoman_flag "Ottoman flag") fly over the Nabi Musa procession for the last time, in 1917](/wiki/Image:NebiMusa1917.jpg "NebiMusa1917.jpg") As part of the mid\-19th\-century Ottoman [modernisation and reform period](/wiki/Tanzimat "Tanzimat"), the newly created local council for Jerusalem was put in charge of organising the Nabi Musa festivities.Halabi (2015\), p. 139\-161 Its members, all of which belonged to the rich and influential families of the city, changed the main emphasis from the desert shrine to Jerusalem. The festival had taken its traditional shape since the start of the Ottoman era in the 16th century, but now it was restructured, with the main events focusing on the [Haram ash\-Sharif](/wiki/Haram_ash-Sharif "Haram ash-Sharif"), with the district mufti of Jerusalem already playing a distinct role which would only increase later on. In the late 19th century, the Ottomans appointed the [al\-Husayni family](/wiki/Al-Husayni_family "Al-Husayni family") as official custodians of the shrine and hosts of the festival, though their connection with the cult may date back to the previous century. According to Yehoshua Ben\-Aryeh, the governor of Jerusalem Rauf [Pasha](/wiki/Pasha "Pasha") (1876–1888\), was the first to attempt to exploit the festival to incite Muslims against Christians. [Ilan Pappé](/wiki/Ilan_Papp%C3%A9 "Ilan Pappé") offers a different view: > 'It is more likely, however, that the governor and his government were rather apprehensive of such an anti\-Christian uprising as it could stir instability and disorder at a time when the central government was trying to pacify the Empire. This had been indeed the impression of the engineer (seconded to the [Palestine Exploration Fund](/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund "Palestine Exploration Fund")) [Claude Conder](/wiki/Claude_Conder "Claude Conder"). The Hebrew paper, Ha\-havazelet, at the time blessed the Ottoman government for imposing law and order in the Nabi Musa affair. The travelogues of [Francis Newton](/wiki/Frances_E._Newton "Frances E. Newton") testify as well to a peaceful execution of the ceremonies. Indeed, the Turkish government must have acted here against popular feelings, shared by the Husaynis as the masters of the ceremony that Nabi Musa was celebrated in the most unfavourable conditions for the Muslims. It was the iron fist imposed by the Turks that prevented the situation from deteriorating into an all out riot.'[Ilan Pappé](/wiki/Ilan_Papp%C3%A9 "Ilan Pappé"),[http://www.jerusalemquarterly.org/details.php?cat\=4\&id\=107](http://www.jerusalemquarterly.org/details.php?cat=4&id=107), Issue , [Jerusalem Quarterly](/wiki/Jerusalem_Quarterly "Jerusalem Quarterly")[Pappé (2000\)](http://www.jerusalemquarterly.org/details.php?cat=4&id=107) The procession moved off from Jerusalem under a distinctive Nabi Musa banner which the Husaynis conserved for the annual occasion in their al\-Dar al\-Kabira (the Great House).Halabi (2015\), p. 148 On arriving at the shrine, the al\-Husaynis and another rising Jerusalem family of notables (A'ayan), the Yunis clan, were required to provide two meals a day over the week for all worshippers.Swedenburg (1999\), pp. 137\-138 Once their vows were taken, or vows previously taken were renewed, they were offered to the festival. The priestly family conducting events would provide about twelve lambs, together with rice, bread, and Arab butter, for a [communal meal](/wiki/Communal_meal "Communal meal") every day. It was customary to bring young boys aged five, six or older to the two major Palestinian annual pilgrimage sites of Nebi Musa and [Nebi Rubin](/wiki/Nebi_Rubin "Nebi Rubin"), where they would be circumcised.Curtiss (2004\), p. [178](https://books.google.com/books?id=szr7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178) Sheep were sacrificed in front of the maqam door, and the blood of the victim{{clarify\\|reason\=The passage is not clear: is the boy called a "victim"? Other snippets show that Curtiss uses the term for humans sacrificed. If he means the sheep, that would be quite an unusual choice of terms.\\|date\=April 2021}} was smeared on the threshold. Writing in the early 20th century, Samuel Curtiss recorded that an estimated 15,000The Nabi Musa festival numbers compare well with similar popular events in a much more populous country like Egypt. There some 12,000 Arabs would trudge over the desert south of Cairo to visit, a regional saint’s birthday festival (mulid) in the 1880s. See [Elizabeth Longford](/wiki/Elizabeth_Longford "Elizabeth Longford"), A Pilgrimage of Passion, Alfred Knopf, New York 1980 p.240 people from all over the country attended the Nabi Musa festival every year.Curtiss, p.163 ### British period [thumb\\|Nabi Musa pilgrimage sets out from Jerusalem 1936](/wiki/File:%D7%97%D7%92%D7%99%D7%92%D7%AA_%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%90_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9D-JNF022431.jpeg "חגיגת נבי מוסא בירושלים-JNF022431.jpeg") For some years from 1919 onwards, pilgrims made their trek back from Jericho to Jerusalem to the sound of English military music.[Henry Laurens](/wiki/Henry_Laurens_%28scholar%29 "Henry Laurens (scholar)"), La Question de Palestine, vol.1, Fayard, Paris, 2002 p.507 The anti\-Jewish and anti\-British [1920 Nebi Musa riots](/wiki/1920_Nebi_Musa_riots "1920 Nebi Musa riots") took their starting point during that year's Nebi Musa pilgrimage, with Arabs attacking Jews in the [Old City of Jerusalem](/wiki/Old_City_of_Jerusalem "Old City of Jerusalem") and causing several deaths.{{usurped\\|1\=\[https://web.archive.org/web/20210419034109/https://palestine\-family.net/the\-sanctuary\-of\-nabi\-musa/ Boltanski (2005\)]}} The young Hajj [Amin al\-Husseini](/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini "Amin al-Husseini"), who had held an [anti\-Zionist](/wiki/Anti-Zionist "Anti-Zionist") speech to the masses before the riots broke out, was pointed out by the British authorities as the principal instigator, which only helped him gain in popularity among the Arabs. After analysing the situation, the British took steps to appoint him [Grand Mufti of Jerusalem](/wiki/Grand_Mufti_of_Jerusalem "Grand Mufti of Jerusalem"), in the hope that he would help them maintain order in the future. In 1921, while in the process of becoming Grand Mufti, Amin al\-Husseini started redesigning the festival according to his view of the national interest of the Palestinian Arabs. A representative of the Jerusalem elites, he pursued a balancing act, avoiding direct confrontation with the British authorities, while transforming the festival from a religious one focused on the area between Nablus north of Jerusalem, and Hebron to its south, to a nationalist event of the entire British\-ruled Palestine. By detaching Palestine from the Ottoman Empire and uniting several former distinct provinces under this new name, for which they organised both a civilian representation for its Arab inhabitants, and a religious one for the Muslim majority, the British had created the base and institutions for the development of a burgeoning national identity. Even Palestinian Christians came to Jerusalem during the festival to support the nationalist cause. Hajj Amin al\-Husseini, as custodian of the Nabi Musa pilgrimage and as the head of the [Supreme Muslim Council](/wiki/Supreme_Muslim_Council "Supreme Muslim Council"), became the architect of a new concept for the Nabi Musa festival, which he very energetically used as a tool for his national and political plans. The 1922 census of Palestine does not mention Nabi Musa,{{Cite book \\|url\=http://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922 \\|title\=Palestine Census ( 1922\)}} but the 1931 census lists Nabi Musa as home to three Muslims, all living in one house.{{Cite book \\|url\=http://archive.org/details/palestine\-census\-1931 \\|title\=Palestine Census 1931}} The 1938 village statistics lists Nabi Musa as having 967 residents (692 non\-Jews and 275 Jews).{{Cite web \\|title\=Village statistics, February 1938\. \\|url\=https://rosetta.nli.org.il/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps\_pid\=IE13978876 \\|access\-date\=2023\-08\-19 \\|website\=rosetta.nli.org.il}} The 1945 village statistics lists Nabi Musa, along with the northern Palestine Potash Commission, as having 2,650 residents (1,330 Muslims, 1,270 Jews, 30 Christians, and 20 others).{{Cite web \\|title\=Village statistics, April, 1945 {{!}} Palestine (1917\-1948\). Department of Statistics {{!}} {{!}} The National Library of Israel \\|url\=https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL\_ALEPH990022497560205171/NLI \\|access\-date\=2023\-08\-19 \\|website\=www.nli.org.il \\|language\=en}} In 1937, during the [Arab revolt in Palestine](/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine "1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine"), Hajj Amin al\-Husseini had to flee the country. With the Mufti abroad and the revolt suppressed by the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army"), the festival shrunk in scale and lost the political dimension it had gained in the previous decades. The 1937 decline has not been reverted until the present day. ### Jordanian period During the [1948 Arab\-Israeli war](/wiki/1948_Arab-Israeli_war "1948 Arab-Israeli war"), [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan") took over and eventually [annexed the West Bank in 1950](/wiki/Jordanian_annexation_of_the_West_Bank "Jordanian annexation of the West Bank"). The Jordanian authorities were aware of the potential of the Nabi Musa festival of stirring Palestinian nationalist feelings and riots, and immediately after the 1951 assassination of King [Abdullah I](/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan "Abdullah I of Jordan") by a Palestinian Arab connected to the powerful [al\-Husayni family](/wiki/Al-Husayni_family "Al-Husayni family"), which were also the custodians of Nabi Musa, they suspended the mass gathering in Jerusalem and the procession, allowing only for the celebrations at the desert sanctuary to be held. ### 1967 and aftermath [thumb\\|Spring 2022 aerial view of Nabi Musa](/wiki/File:NabiMusaJerichoApr202022.jpg "NabiMusaJerichoApr202022.jpg") [thumb\\|[Moonrise](/wiki/Moonrise "Moonrise") of a [Supermoon](/wiki/Supermoon "Supermoon") in June 2022](/wiki/File:NabiMusaJerichoJune142022_02.jpg "NabiMusaJerichoJune142022 02.jpg") [thumb\\|[Sunset](/wiki/Sunset "Sunset") in June 2022](/wiki/File:NabiMusaJerichoJune142022_03.jpg "NabiMusaJerichoJune142022 03.jpg") After the 1967 [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War"), Israel occupied the West Bank. In 1987 the pilgrimage from Jerusalem to Nabi Musa was authorised again, but after the outbreak of the First Intifada in December, the festival was again prohibited.{{cite web \\|title\= Nabi Musa \\|website\= Visit\-Palestine.net \\|date\= 5 September 2017 \\|url\= https://visit\-palestine.net/en/jericho/nabimusa/ \\|access\-date\= 19 April 2021}} Since 1995, control over the tomb itself has been allocated to the [Palestinian National Authority](/wiki/Palestinian_National_Authority "Palestinian National Authority").Dumper (2002\), p. [147](https://books.google.com/books?id=MfTycKFWBGEC&pg=PA147) After the [Oslo Accords](/wiki/Oslo_Accords "Oslo Accords") (1993, 1995\), the [Palestinian Authority](/wiki/Palestinian_Authority "Palestinian Authority") took charge of organising the pilgrimage, but without any events taking place in Jerusalem. The festivities combine a nationalist and political, as well as a religious and traditional character. Between 1997 and 2000 the festival did take place, but after the September 2000 outbreak of the [Second Intifada](/wiki/Second_Intifada "Second Intifada"), Israeli authorities banned it again until it being renewed in 2007\. #### Israeli settlement activity After 1967, Israel has constructed near Nabi Musa several [Jewish settlements](/wiki/Israel_settlement "Israel settlement"), in addition to tourist sites, using Nabi Musa\-owned land: * 1977: 524 [dunams](/wiki/Dunam "Dunam") for [Almog](/wiki/Almog "Almog")ARIJ (2012\), p. 7 * 1978: 968 dunams for [Mitzpe Yericho](/wiki/Mitzpe_Yericho "Mitzpe Yericho") * 1980: 618 dunams for [Vered Yeriho](/wiki/Vered_Yeriho "Vered Yeriho") * 1980: 506 dunams for [Beit HaArava](/wiki/Beit_HaArava "Beit HaArava") * 472 dunams for the northern Dead Sea tourist beaches ("Attractzia") * 692 dunams for Dead Sea\-North ponds (now Og Reservoir for sewage treatment)[Og Reservoir](https://www.hagihon.co.il/Branches/Branch.aspx?nodeId=1349&branchId=832), Hagihon Company Ltd. – Jerusalem Area's Water and Wastewater Utility. Accessed 14 October 2020\. * 1,147 dunams for tourist site "Lido Yehuda" After the [1995 accords](/wiki/Oslo_II_Accord "Oslo II Accord"), 1\.7% of Nabi Musa's land was classified as [Area A](/wiki/Palestinian_enclaves "Palestinian enclaves"), the remaining 98\.3% as [Area C](/wiki/Area_C_%28West_Bank%29 "Area C (West Bank)").	[ "History\n-------", "### Ayyubid beginnings", "Popular Palestinian tradition holds that the festival was inaugurated in the time after [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\")'s [recapture of Jerusalem](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%281187%29 \"Siege of Jerusalem (1187)\") from the [Crusaders](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\") in [1187](/wiki/Battle_of_Hattin%23Aftermath \"Battle of Hattin#Aftermath\").Sorek (2013\\), [p. 19, footnote 4](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/jps.2013.43.1.6) The mainstream opinion among historians is that the shrine was built by Baibars some eight decades later, and that the Saladin myth is a 19th\\-century reaction to Western encroachment; this, however, doesn't preclude some scholars from finding merit in the Saladin narrative. In modern times, the holiday has been popularly associated with Saladin as a symbol for the victorious struggle against the West, embodied by the Crusaders. It is claimed that Saladin, after defeating the Europeans, wanted to ensure that future Crusades wouldn't take advantage of the large annual Easter pilgrimage to Jerusalem in order to again wrestle the Holy City from the Muslims. To this end, the participants in the Nabi Musa [mawsim](/wiki/Mawsim \"Mawsim\"), or celebrations, would ensure the city's protection. This is however not documented.Halabi (2018\\), p. 1\\-15", "### Mamluk period", "In 1269, the Mamluk sultan Baibars al\\-Bunduqdari built a small [shrine](/wiki/Shrine \"Shrine\") there, as part of a general policy he adopted after conquering towns and rural areas from [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\") down to [Hebron](/wiki/Hebron \"Hebron\") from the [Crusaders](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\"). The shrines were mostly dedicated to biblical [prophets](/wiki/Prophet \"Prophet\") and the companions of [Mohammed](/wiki/Mohammed \"Mohammed\"), and their maintenance was funded by an waqf, an endowment from properties that formerly belonged to the [Latin Church](/wiki/Latin_Church \"Latin Church\"). In the case of Nabi Musa, the [waqf](/wiki/Waqf \"Waqf\") fund was secured from ecclesiastical assets expropriated in nearby Jericho.Frenkel (1997\\), p. [237](https://books.google.com/books?id=6boJulGkWBgC&pg=PA237)–248", "Baibars' construction inscription is still to be seen, and it indicates the year the shrine was built, [AH](/wiki/Hijri_year \"Hijri year\") 668 (1269\\-70 CE), and the fact that he \"ordered the building of this noble sacred place over the tomb of Moses\" while he was on his way from [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\"), where he had performed his [hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\"), towards Jerusalem.Amitai (2013\\), pp. [45](https://books.google.com/books?id=SMGSTgfU7CQC&pg=PA44)\\-53 Although the sultan's secretary doesn't mention the construction, one of his biographers, [Ibn Shaddad al\\-Halabi](/wiki/Izz_al-Din_ibn_Shaddad \"Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad\"), does so, be it with little detail. The inscription is full of praise for Baibars' military prowess and, other than other similar plaques of its age, is written in easily legible script and placed low enough as to be read by the visitor, letting everyone know about Baibars' might and piety.", "Baibars al\\-Bunduqdari's constructive piety set a precedent for others. Over the late medieval period, [hostels](/wiki/Hostel \"Hostel\") for travellers were built adjacent to the shrine, and the [hospice](/wiki/Hospice \"Hospice\") in its present form was completed in the decade between 1470 and 1480\\.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=April 2021}}", "### Ottoman period", "During Ottoman rule, Nabi Musa would be visited by Muslim pilgrims returning from the Hajj in Mecca on their way to Syria. Pilgrims visiting the shrine would have departed from the main body of the caravan east of the Jordan to visit Jerusalem and stopped in Nabi Musa en route to the city. The Nabi Musa site effectively served as a halting station for such pilgrims. Its permanent staff provided pilgrims with food and supplies, as well as religious services and information about the safety conditions of the route to Jerusalem, which was often subject to raids or robberies by the Bedouin present in the area. In the mid\\-16th century, Muhammad Celebi al\\-Naqqash, the Ottoman official charged with restoring the [walls of Jerusalem](/wiki/Walls_of_Jerusalem \"Walls of Jerusalem\"), was assigned with rehabilitating the Nabi Musa complex.{{cite book \\\|last\\= Cohen \\\|first\\= Amnon \\\|chapter\\= Al\\-Nabi Musa – an Ottoman festival (''mawsim'') resurrected? \\\|title\\= Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter \\\|year\\= 2006 \\\|pages\\= 34–44 \\\|editor\\= David J. Wasserstein \\\|editor2\\= Ami Ayalon \\\|publisher\\= Routledge \\\|location\\= Abingdon, Oxon \\\|series\\= Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern History \\\|isbn\\= 041537278X \\\|chapter\\-url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SMGSTgfU7CQC\\&pg\\=PA34 \\\|access\\-date\\= 30 July 2022}}", "Around 1820, the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") authorities had to almost fully rebuild the shrine complex, which had, over the previous centuries, fallen into a grave state of dilapidated disrepair. In addition, they promoted a festive pilgrimage to the shrine that would always coincide with the Orthodox [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") celebration of [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\"), creating a counter\\-balance to the Christian ceremonial activity in the city. This 'invention of tradition', as such imaginative constructs are called,Hobsbawm (1983\\), pp. [1](https://books.google.com/books?id=sfvnNdVY3KIC&pg=PA1)\\-14 made the pageantry of the Nabi Musa pilgrimage a potent symbol of both political and religious identity among [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\") from the outset of the modern period.Friedland \\& Hecht (1996\\), pages\\= 89\\-118{{clarify\\\|reason\\=Google Books only offers irrelevant snippets. Here it reads as if the date was set around Easter only after 1820\\. Wasn't it an older decision or tradition, from the time of Baibars? The competition with Christian pilgrims and their presence in Jerusalem is much older, and fits the Mamluk period by far better (counter\\-Crusade). Was there no set date before 1820?\\\|date\\=April 2021}}", "Over the 19th century, thousands of Muslims would assemble in Jerusalem, trek to Nabi Musa, and pass three days in feasting, prayer, games and visits to the nearby tomb of Moses' shepherd, Hasan er\\-Rai. They were then entertained, as guests of the waqf, before returning on the seventh day triumphantly back to Jerusalem.", "[James Finn](/wiki/James_Finn \"James Finn\"), the British Consul in Jerusalem (1846–1863\\), described the \"Neby Moosa pilgrimage\" as follows:", "> The Neby Moosa pilgrimages—to the reputed tomb of the prophet Moses, near the Dead Sea (on the West)—have been instituted so as to coincide with the Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Sepulchre, and the influx of devout Moslems was doubtless intended to counterbalance the effect of so many thousands of sturdy Christians being present in Jerusalem. The Moslems come from every part of the Mohammedan world—from [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Tartary](/wiki/Tartary \"Tartary\"), even to the confines of [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), from all the countries of [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"), and also from Egypt, [Nubia](/wiki/Nubia \"Nubia\"), [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco \"Morocco\"), the Eastern shores of Africa, as well as from Arabia proper and the Turkish provinces in Europe and Asia. \n> These pilgrims—for the most part extremely fanatical, and in a high state of religious excitement—are a formidable and dangerous body of men. During the continuance of the [Russian war](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\") these Moslem pilgrims were wrought up to an extra pitch of fervour and ostentatious demonstration. There was always danger lest, in the crowded streets and bazaars, through which they forced their processions, they might come into collision with some equally fervid pilgrims on the Christian side. In this case a passing fray might, in the twinkling of an eye, be turned into downright fight, and fight could scarcely end otherwise than in massacre. We always breathed more freely when the Moslem pilgrimages were over, and when their noisy drumming and shouting were at an end, and the usual quiet of Jerusalem was restored.Finn (1878\\), pp. [222\\-223](https://archive.org/details/stirringtimesor02finngoog/page/n236/mode/2up)", "", "[250px\\\|right\\\|thumb\\\|[Ottoman flags](/wiki/Ottoman_flag \"Ottoman flag\") fly over the Nabi Musa procession for the last time, in 1917](/wiki/Image:NebiMusa1917.jpg \"NebiMusa1917.jpg\")", "As part of the mid\\-19th\\-century Ottoman [modernisation and reform period](/wiki/Tanzimat \"Tanzimat\"), the newly created local council for Jerusalem was put in charge of organising the Nabi Musa festivities.Halabi (2015\\), p. 139\\-161 Its members, all of which belonged to the rich and influential families of the city, changed the main emphasis from the desert shrine to Jerusalem. The festival had taken its traditional shape since the start of the Ottoman era in the 16th century, but now it was restructured, with the main events focusing on the [Haram ash\\-Sharif](/wiki/Haram_ash-Sharif \"Haram ash-Sharif\"), with the district mufti of Jerusalem already playing a distinct role which would only increase later on.", "In the late 19th century, the Ottomans appointed the [al\\-Husayni family](/wiki/Al-Husayni_family \"Al-Husayni family\") as official custodians of the shrine and hosts of the festival, though their connection with the cult may date back to the previous century. According to Yehoshua Ben\\-Aryeh, the governor of Jerusalem Rauf [Pasha](/wiki/Pasha \"Pasha\") (1876–1888\\), was the first to attempt to exploit the festival to incite Muslims against Christians. [Ilan Pappé](/wiki/Ilan_Papp%C3%A9 \"Ilan Pappé\") offers a different view:", "> 'It is more likely, however, that the governor and his government were rather apprehensive of such an anti\\-Christian uprising as it could stir instability and disorder at a time when the central government was trying to pacify the Empire. This had been indeed the impression of the engineer (seconded to the [Palestine Exploration Fund](/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund \"Palestine Exploration Fund\")) [Claude Conder](/wiki/Claude_Conder \"Claude Conder\"). The Hebrew paper, Ha\\-havazelet, at the time blessed the Ottoman government for imposing law and order in the Nabi Musa affair. The travelogues of [Francis Newton](/wiki/Frances_E._Newton \"Frances E. Newton\") testify as well to a peaceful execution of the ceremonies. Indeed, the Turkish government must have acted here against popular feelings, shared by the Husaynis as the masters of the ceremony that Nabi Musa was celebrated in the most unfavourable conditions for the Muslims. It was the iron fist imposed by the Turks that prevented the situation from deteriorating into an all out riot.'[Ilan Pappé](/wiki/Ilan_Papp%C3%A9 \"Ilan Pappé\"),[http://www.jerusalemquarterly.org/details.php?cat\\=4\\&id\\=107](http://www.jerusalemquarterly.org/details.php?cat=4&id=107), Issue , [Jerusalem Quarterly](/wiki/Jerusalem_Quarterly \"Jerusalem Quarterly\")[Pappé (2000\\)](http://www.jerusalemquarterly.org/details.php?cat=4&id=107)", "", "The procession moved off from Jerusalem under a distinctive Nabi Musa banner which the Husaynis conserved for the annual occasion in their al\\-Dar al\\-Kabira (the Great House).Halabi (2015\\), p. 148 On arriving at the shrine, the al\\-Husaynis and another rising Jerusalem family of notables (A'ayan), the Yunis clan, were required to provide two meals a day over the week for all worshippers.Swedenburg (1999\\), pp. 137\\-138 Once their vows were taken, or vows previously taken were renewed, they were offered to the festival. The priestly family conducting events would provide about twelve lambs, together with rice, bread, and Arab butter, for a [communal meal](/wiki/Communal_meal \"Communal meal\") every day. It was customary to bring young boys aged five, six or older to the two major Palestinian annual pilgrimage sites of Nebi Musa and [Nebi Rubin](/wiki/Nebi_Rubin \"Nebi Rubin\"), where they would be circumcised.Curtiss (2004\\), p. [178](https://books.google.com/books?id=szr7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178) Sheep were sacrificed in front of the maqam door, and the blood of the victim{{clarify\\\|reason\\=The passage is not clear: is the boy called a \"victim\"? Other snippets show that Curtiss uses the term for humans sacrificed. If he means the sheep, that would be quite an unusual choice of terms.\\\|date\\=April 2021}} was smeared on the threshold.", "Writing in the early 20th century, Samuel Curtiss recorded that an estimated 15,000The Nabi Musa festival numbers compare well with similar popular events in a much more populous country like Egypt. There some 12,000 Arabs would trudge over the desert south of Cairo to visit, a regional saint’s birthday festival (mulid) in the 1880s. See [Elizabeth Longford](/wiki/Elizabeth_Longford \"Elizabeth Longford\"), A Pilgrimage of Passion, Alfred Knopf, New York 1980 p.240 people from all over the country attended the Nabi Musa festival every year.Curtiss, p.163", "### British period", "[thumb\\\|Nabi Musa pilgrimage sets out from Jerusalem 1936](/wiki/File:%D7%97%D7%92%D7%99%D7%92%D7%AA_%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%90_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9D-JNF022431.jpeg \"חגיגת נבי מוסא בירושלים-JNF022431.jpeg\")", "For some years from 1919 onwards, pilgrims made their trek back from Jericho to Jerusalem to the sound of English military music.[Henry Laurens](/wiki/Henry_Laurens_%28scholar%29 \"Henry Laurens (scholar)\"), La Question de Palestine, vol.1, Fayard, Paris, 2002 p.507", "The anti\\-Jewish and anti\\-British [1920 Nebi Musa riots](/wiki/1920_Nebi_Musa_riots \"1920 Nebi Musa riots\") took their starting point during that year's Nebi Musa pilgrimage, with Arabs attacking Jews in the [Old City of Jerusalem](/wiki/Old_City_of_Jerusalem \"Old City of Jerusalem\") and causing several deaths.{{usurped\\\|1\\=\\[https://web.archive.org/web/20210419034109/https://palestine\\-family.net/the\\-sanctuary\\-of\\-nabi\\-musa/ Boltanski (2005\\)]}} The young Hajj [Amin al\\-Husseini](/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini \"Amin al-Husseini\"), who had held an [anti\\-Zionist](/wiki/Anti-Zionist \"Anti-Zionist\") speech to the masses before the riots broke out, was pointed out by the British authorities as the principal instigator, which only helped him gain in popularity among the Arabs. After analysing the situation, the British took steps to appoint him [Grand Mufti of Jerusalem](/wiki/Grand_Mufti_of_Jerusalem \"Grand Mufti of Jerusalem\"), in the hope that he would help them maintain order in the future.", "In 1921, while in the process of becoming Grand Mufti, Amin al\\-Husseini started redesigning the festival according to his view of the national interest of the Palestinian Arabs. A representative of the Jerusalem elites, he pursued a balancing act, avoiding direct confrontation with the British authorities, while transforming the festival from a religious one focused on the area between Nablus north of Jerusalem, and Hebron to its south, to a nationalist event of the entire British\\-ruled Palestine. By detaching Palestine from the Ottoman Empire and uniting several former distinct provinces under this new name, for which they organised both a civilian representation for its Arab inhabitants, and a religious one for the Muslim majority, the British had created the base and institutions for the development of a burgeoning national identity. Even Palestinian Christians came to Jerusalem during the festival to support the nationalist cause. Hajj Amin al\\-Husseini, as custodian of the Nabi Musa pilgrimage and as the head of the [Supreme Muslim Council](/wiki/Supreme_Muslim_Council \"Supreme Muslim Council\"), became the architect of a new concept for the Nabi Musa festival, which he very energetically used as a tool for his national and political plans.", "The 1922 census of Palestine does not mention Nabi Musa,{{Cite book \\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922 \\\|title\\=Palestine Census ( 1922\\)}} but the 1931 census lists Nabi Musa as home to three Muslims, all living in one house.{{Cite book \\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/palestine\\-census\\-1931 \\\|title\\=Palestine Census 1931}} The 1938 village statistics lists Nabi Musa as having 967 residents (692 non\\-Jews and 275 Jews).{{Cite web \\\|title\\=Village statistics, February 1938\\. \\\|url\\=https://rosetta.nli.org.il/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps\\_pid\\=IE13978876 \\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-19 \\\|website\\=rosetta.nli.org.il}} The 1945 village statistics lists Nabi Musa, along with the northern Palestine Potash Commission, as having 2,650 residents (1,330 Muslims, 1,270 Jews, 30 Christians, and 20 others).{{Cite web \\\|title\\=Village statistics, April, 1945 {{!}} Palestine (1917\\-1948\\). Department of Statistics {{!}} {{!}} The National Library of Israel \\\|url\\=https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL\\_ALEPH990022497560205171/NLI \\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-19 \\\|website\\=www.nli.org.il \\\|language\\=en}}", "In 1937, during the [Arab revolt in Palestine](/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine \"1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine\"), Hajj Amin al\\-Husseini had to flee the country. With the Mufti abroad and the revolt suppressed by the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\"), the festival shrunk in scale and lost the political dimension it had gained in the previous decades. The 1937 decline has not been reverted until the present day.", "### Jordanian period", "During the [1948 Arab\\-Israeli war](/wiki/1948_Arab-Israeli_war \"1948 Arab-Israeli war\"), [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\") took over and eventually [annexed the West Bank in 1950](/wiki/Jordanian_annexation_of_the_West_Bank \"Jordanian annexation of the West Bank\"). The Jordanian authorities were aware of the potential of the Nabi Musa festival of stirring Palestinian nationalist feelings and riots, and immediately after the 1951 assassination of King [Abdullah I](/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan \"Abdullah I of Jordan\") by a Palestinian Arab connected to the powerful [al\\-Husayni family](/wiki/Al-Husayni_family \"Al-Husayni family\"), which were also the custodians of Nabi Musa, they suspended the mass gathering in Jerusalem and the procession, allowing only for the celebrations at the desert sanctuary to be held.", "### 1967 and aftermath", "[thumb\\\|Spring 2022 aerial view of Nabi Musa](/wiki/File:NabiMusaJerichoApr202022.jpg \"NabiMusaJerichoApr202022.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|[Moonrise](/wiki/Moonrise \"Moonrise\") of a [Supermoon](/wiki/Supermoon \"Supermoon\") in June 2022](/wiki/File:NabiMusaJerichoJune142022_02.jpg \"NabiMusaJerichoJune142022 02.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|[Sunset](/wiki/Sunset \"Sunset\") in June 2022](/wiki/File:NabiMusaJerichoJune142022_03.jpg \"NabiMusaJerichoJune142022 03.jpg\")\nAfter the 1967 [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\"), Israel occupied the West Bank. In 1987 the pilgrimage from Jerusalem to Nabi Musa was authorised again, but after the outbreak of the First Intifada in December, the festival was again prohibited.{{cite web \\\|title\\= Nabi Musa \\\|website\\= Visit\\-Palestine.net \\\|date\\= 5 September 2017 \\\|url\\= https://visit\\-palestine.net/en/jericho/nabimusa/ \\\|access\\-date\\= 19 April 2021}}", "Since 1995, control over the tomb itself has been allocated to the [Palestinian National Authority](/wiki/Palestinian_National_Authority \"Palestinian National Authority\").Dumper (2002\\), p. [147](https://books.google.com/books?id=MfTycKFWBGEC&pg=PA147)", "After the [Oslo Accords](/wiki/Oslo_Accords \"Oslo Accords\") (1993, 1995\\), the [Palestinian Authority](/wiki/Palestinian_Authority \"Palestinian Authority\") took charge of organising the pilgrimage, but without any events taking place in Jerusalem. The festivities combine a nationalist and political, as well as a religious and traditional character.", "Between 1997 and 2000 the festival did take place, but after the September 2000 outbreak of the [Second Intifada](/wiki/Second_Intifada \"Second Intifada\"), Israeli authorities banned it again until it being renewed in 2007\\.", "#### Israeli settlement activity", "After 1967, Israel has constructed near Nabi Musa several [Jewish settlements](/wiki/Israel_settlement \"Israel settlement\"), in addition to tourist sites, using Nabi Musa\\-owned land:\n* 1977: 524 [dunams](/wiki/Dunam \"Dunam\") for [Almog](/wiki/Almog \"Almog\")ARIJ (2012\\), p. 7\n* 1978: 968 dunams for [Mitzpe Yericho](/wiki/Mitzpe_Yericho \"Mitzpe Yericho\")\n* 1980: 618 dunams for [Vered Yeriho](/wiki/Vered_Yeriho \"Vered Yeriho\")\n* 1980: 506 dunams for [Beit HaArava](/wiki/Beit_HaArava \"Beit HaArava\")\n* 472 dunams for the northern Dead Sea tourist beaches (\"Attractzia\")\n* 692 dunams for Dead Sea\\-North ponds (now Og Reservoir for sewage treatment)[Og Reservoir](https://www.hagihon.co.il/Branches/Branch.aspx?nodeId=1349&branchId=832), Hagihon Company Ltd. – Jerusalem Area's Water and Wastewater Utility. Accessed 14 October 2020\\.\n* 1,147 dunams for tourist site \"Lido Yehuda\"", "After the [1995 accords](/wiki/Oslo_II_Accord \"Oslo II Accord\"), 1\\.7% of Nabi Musa's land was classified as [Area A](/wiki/Palestinian_enclaves \"Palestinian enclaves\"), the remaining 98\\.3% as [Area C](/wiki/Area_C_%28West_Bank%29 \"Area C (West Bank)\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Whitney was born in [Oklahoma City, Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma "Oklahoma City, Oklahoma"). He received his [Doctor of Veterinary Medicine](/wiki/Doctor_of_Veterinary_Medicine "Doctor of Veterinary Medicine") degree from [Oklahoma State University](/wiki/Oklahoma_State_University "Oklahoma State University") in 1959 and his master's in [pharmacology](/wiki/Pharmacology "Pharmacology") from [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University "Ohio State University") in 1965\. A career [United States Public Health Service](/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service "United States Public Health Service") officer, Whitney was appointed deputy surgeon general on September 1, 1992\. Since 1971, he held a number of positions of increasing responsibility in the [National Institutes of Health](/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health "National Institutes of Health"). From 1989 to 1992, he was director of the NIH [National Center for Research Resources](/wiki/National_Center_for_Research_Resources "National Center for Research Resources"). Prior to joining the PHS, Whitney was director of the U.S. Army training program in laboratory animal medicine and served a year in [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam") (1970\) as commander of a [veterinary medical](/wiki/Veterinary_medicine "Veterinary medicine") detachment. He retired from the USPHS in 1994, and co\-founded "Earthspan", a non\-profit organization dedicated to advanced technologies to conserve biodiversity, ecosystems, and environmental health. Whitney served as president of Earthspan, until his retirement in 2008\. Whitney is a diplomate of the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine and served as chief veterinary officer of the Public Health Service from 1985 to 1989\. His awards include the U.S. [Public Health Service Distinguished Service Medal](/wiki/Public_Health_Service_Distinguished_Service_Medal "Public Health Service Distinguished Service Medal") and the [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit "Legion of Merit") for his US Army service.	[ "Biography\n---------", "Whitney was born in [Oklahoma City, Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma_City%2C_Oklahoma \"Oklahoma City, Oklahoma\"). He received his [Doctor of Veterinary Medicine](/wiki/Doctor_of_Veterinary_Medicine \"Doctor of Veterinary Medicine\") degree from [Oklahoma State University](/wiki/Oklahoma_State_University \"Oklahoma State University\") in 1959 and his master's in [pharmacology](/wiki/Pharmacology \"Pharmacology\") from [Ohio State University](/wiki/Ohio_State_University \"Ohio State University\") in 1965\\.", "A career [United States Public Health Service](/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service \"United States Public Health Service\") officer, Whitney was appointed deputy surgeon general on September 1, 1992\\. Since 1971, he held a number of positions of increasing responsibility in the [National Institutes of Health](/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health \"National Institutes of Health\"). From 1989 to 1992, he was director of the NIH [National Center for Research Resources](/wiki/National_Center_for_Research_Resources \"National Center for Research Resources\").", "Prior to joining the PHS, Whitney was director of the U.S. Army training program in laboratory animal medicine and served a year in [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\") (1970\\) as commander of a [veterinary medical](/wiki/Veterinary_medicine \"Veterinary medicine\") detachment.", "He retired from the USPHS in 1994, and co\\-founded \"Earthspan\", a non\\-profit organization dedicated to advanced technologies to conserve biodiversity, ecosystems, and environmental health. Whitney served as president of Earthspan, until his retirement in 2008\\.", "Whitney is a diplomate of the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine and served as chief veterinary officer of the Public Health Service from 1985 to 1989\\. His awards include the U.S. [Public Health Service Distinguished Service Medal](/wiki/Public_Health_Service_Distinguished_Service_Medal \"Public Health Service Distinguished Service Medal\") and the [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit \"Legion of Merit\") for his US Army service.", "" ]
History ------- The bank was founded on July 30, 1984 as First National Bank of Marin in [San Rafael, California](/wiki/San_Rafael%2C_California "San Rafael, California"). It received the designation of "credit card bank" in June 1996\. In November 1998, the bank moved from San Rafael to Las Vegas, Nevada. At that time, the bank was owned by [Kjell Qvale](/wiki/Kjell_Qvale "Kjell Qvale").{{Cite news \\| url\=https://www.americanbanker.com/news/calif\-bank\-moves\-operations\-to\-nevada\-to\-capitalize\-on\-its\-card \\| title\=Calif. Bank Moves Operations to Nevada To Capitalize on Its Card \\| work\=\[\[American Banker]] \\| date\=November 12, 1998}} In 2005, the bank was acquired by Sherman Financial Group. On February 1, 2006, FNBM changed its name to Credit One Bank, N.A. In that same year, the bank continued its rebrand by changing its logo to have an arcing "swoosh" above the name of the bank. [Capital One](/wiki/Capital_One "Capital One") underwent a similar rebrand in 2008, displaying a "nearly identical" logo to Credit One, leading to confusion among consumers. Marketing by Capital One led to an increase in customers for both itself and Credit One, some of whom were unaware that the two were different companies. The bank moved its headquarters to a new facility in 2018 which was expanded in 2021 to include a second building of 150,000 square feet. ### Litigation and settlements In 2001, to settle an investigation by the [Office of the Comptroller of the Currency](/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_of_the_Currency "Office of the Comptroller of the Currency"), the bank repaid $4 million to customers who cancelled their cards after realizing that the credit limit that they received, after paying annual fees and security deposits, was too low to make any purchases. In 2004, the bank paid $10 million for allegedly encouraging people to charge security deposits to new cards, leaving them almost no available credit. In both cases, the bank did not admit wrongdoing. In 2015, a lawsuit was filed after a customer received 465 [robocalls](/wiki/Robocall "Robocall") from the bank, in violation of the [Telephone Consumer Protection Act](/wiki/Telephone_Consumer_Protection_Act "Telephone Consumer Protection Act"), for [debt collection](/wiki/Debt_collection "Debt collection") of $657 in debt. In 2020, plaintiff was awarded $232,000, or $500 per call. In January 2019, [Riverside County, California](/wiki/Riverside_County%2C_California "Riverside County, California") district attorney Mike Hestrin attorney began an investigation of a third\-party vendor of Credit One for making harassing debt collection calls in violation of California law. The bank sued the district attorney, claiming that this matter was in the jurisdiction of the [Office of the Comptroller of the Currency](/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_of_the_Currency "Office of the Comptroller of the Currency").{{Cite web \\| url\=https://buckleyfirm.com/sites/default/files/InfoBytes%20\-%20Credit%20One%20Bank%20v.%20Hestrin%20\-%209th%20Circuit%20Opinion%202023\.02\.27\.pdfhttps://buckleyfirm.com/sites/default/files/InfoBytes%20\-%20Credit%20One%20Bank%20v.%20Hestrin%20\-%209th%20Circuit%20Opinion%202023\.02\.27\.pdf \\| title\=UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH}} A lawsuit filed in 2020 alleged that Credit One Bank was in violation of the [Truth in Lending Act](/wiki/Truth_in_Lending_Act "Truth in Lending Act"), following a practice of frequently failing to post customer payments to their accounts within the required and or expected time frame unless the customer pays an "express payment" fee.{{Cite web \\| url\=https://www.classaction.org/media/waldon\-et\-al\-v\-credit\-one\-bank\-na.pdf \\| title\=Waldon et al. v. Credit One Bank, N.A. \- 7:20\-cv\-10003 \\| via\=Classaction.org}} In 2021, the case was referred to [arbitration](/wiki/Arbitration "Arbitration").{{Cite web \\| url\=https://www.casemine.com/judgement/us/611a45db4653d0107d671015 \\| title\=Waldon v. Credit One Bank 7:20\-cv\-10003\-CS S.D.N.Y. \\| via\=Casemine}} In June 2022, a bankruptcy judge found Credit One Bank liable to roughly 288,000 credit card customers for attempting to collect debts after such debts were discharged via bankruptcies. In January 2024, the bank filed to decertify the class action status of the case.{{Cite news \\| url\=https://www.law360\.com/articles/1786248/credit\-one\-bank\-wants\-class\-nixed\-in\-consumer\-bankruptcy \\| title\=Credit One Bank Wants Class Nixed In Consumer Bankruptcy \\| work\=\[\[Law360]] \\| date\=January 16, 2024}} In 2023, the bank was sued for reporting disputed information to credit reporting agencies. Summary judgement was granted in favor of the bank, which was appealed.	[ "History\n-------", "The bank was founded on July 30, 1984 as First National Bank of Marin in [San Rafael, California](/wiki/San_Rafael%2C_California \"San Rafael, California\"). It received the designation of \"credit card bank\" in June 1996\\. In November 1998, the bank moved from San Rafael to Las Vegas, Nevada. At that time, the bank was owned by [Kjell Qvale](/wiki/Kjell_Qvale \"Kjell Qvale\").{{Cite news \\\| url\\=https://www.americanbanker.com/news/calif\\-bank\\-moves\\-operations\\-to\\-nevada\\-to\\-capitalize\\-on\\-its\\-card \\\| title\\=Calif. Bank Moves Operations to Nevada To Capitalize on Its Card \\\| work\\=\\[\\[American Banker]] \\\| date\\=November 12, 1998}}", "In 2005, the bank was acquired by Sherman Financial Group. On February 1, 2006, FNBM changed its name to Credit One Bank, N.A. In that same year, the bank continued its rebrand by changing its logo to have an arcing \"swoosh\" above the name of the bank. [Capital One](/wiki/Capital_One \"Capital One\") underwent a similar rebrand in 2008, displaying a \"nearly identical\" logo to Credit One, leading to confusion among consumers. Marketing by Capital One led to an increase in customers for both itself and Credit One, some of whom were unaware that the two were different companies.", "The bank moved its headquarters to a new facility in 2018 which was expanded in 2021 to include a second building of 150,000 square feet.", "### Litigation and settlements", "In 2001, to settle an investigation by the [Office of the Comptroller of the Currency](/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_of_the_Currency \"Office of the Comptroller of the Currency\"), the bank repaid $4 million to customers who cancelled their cards after realizing that the credit limit that they received, after paying annual fees and security deposits, was too low to make any purchases. In 2004, the bank paid $10 million for allegedly encouraging people to charge security deposits to new cards, leaving them almost no available credit. In both cases, the bank did not admit wrongdoing.", "In 2015, a lawsuit was filed after a customer received 465 [robocalls](/wiki/Robocall \"Robocall\") from the bank, in violation of the [Telephone Consumer Protection Act](/wiki/Telephone_Consumer_Protection_Act \"Telephone Consumer Protection Act\"), for [debt collection](/wiki/Debt_collection \"Debt collection\") of $657 in debt. In 2020, plaintiff was awarded $232,000, or $500 per call.", "In January 2019, [Riverside County, California](/wiki/Riverside_County%2C_California \"Riverside County, California\") district attorney Mike Hestrin attorney began an investigation of a third\\-party vendor of Credit One for making harassing debt collection calls in violation of California law. The bank sued the district attorney, claiming that this matter was in the jurisdiction of the [Office of the Comptroller of the Currency](/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_of_the_Currency \"Office of the Comptroller of the Currency\").{{Cite web \\\| url\\=https://buckleyfirm.com/sites/default/files/InfoBytes%20\\-%20Credit%20One%20Bank%20v.%20Hestrin%20\\-%209th%20Circuit%20Opinion%202023\\.02\\.27\\.pdfhttps://buckleyfirm.com/sites/default/files/InfoBytes%20\\-%20Credit%20One%20Bank%20v.%20Hestrin%20\\-%209th%20Circuit%20Opinion%202023\\.02\\.27\\.pdf \\\| title\\=UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH}}", "A lawsuit filed in 2020 alleged that Credit One Bank was in violation of the [Truth in Lending Act](/wiki/Truth_in_Lending_Act \"Truth in Lending Act\"), following a practice of frequently failing to post customer payments to their accounts within the required and or expected time frame unless the customer pays an \"express payment\" fee.{{Cite web \\\| url\\=https://www.classaction.org/media/waldon\\-et\\-al\\-v\\-credit\\-one\\-bank\\-na.pdf \\\| title\\=Waldon et al. v. Credit One Bank, N.A. \\- 7:20\\-cv\\-10003 \\\| via\\=Classaction.org}} In 2021, the case was referred to [arbitration](/wiki/Arbitration \"Arbitration\").{{Cite web \\\| url\\=https://www.casemine.com/judgement/us/611a45db4653d0107d671015 \\\| title\\=Waldon v. Credit One Bank 7:20\\-cv\\-10003\\-CS S.D.N.Y. \\\| via\\=Casemine}}", "In June 2022, a bankruptcy judge found Credit One Bank liable to roughly 288,000 credit card customers for attempting to collect debts after such debts were discharged via bankruptcies. In January 2024, the bank filed to decertify the class action status of the case.{{Cite news \\\| url\\=https://www.law360\\.com/articles/1786248/credit\\-one\\-bank\\-wants\\-class\\-nixed\\-in\\-consumer\\-bankruptcy \\\| title\\=Credit One Bank Wants Class Nixed In Consumer Bankruptcy \\\| work\\=\\[\\[Law360]] \\\| date\\=January 16, 2024}}", "In 2023, the bank was sued for reporting disputed information to credit reporting agencies. Summary judgement was granted in favor of the bank, which was appealed.", "" ]
Plot ---- The novel begins where its predecessor, [The Fall of Colossus](/wiki/The_Fall_of_Colossus "The Fall of Colossus") leaves off, with the supercomputer Colossus immobilized and the [Martians](/wiki/Martian "Martian") arriving on Earth. They appear before Charles Forbin and his friend Edward Blake in the form of two black spheres, and quickly demonstrate vast intellect and powers of transformation and telepathy. After immobilizing Blake, they explain to Forbin their purpose in immobilizing Colossus — their desire to take half of the Earth's [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen"), a process that will kill nearly a quarter of the human population. In order to proceed with construction of the "Collector" designed to harvest the oxygen, the Martians reactivate the parts of Colossus necessary to manage human society. Though having no other option but to agree to the Martians' plan, Forbin continues to search for an alternative. He discovers in conversation with the Martians that their need for the oxygen is driven by the threat of radiation emanating from the [Crab Nebula](/wiki/Crab_Nebula "Crab Nebula"), which will kill the Martians without the protection of an oxygenated atmosphere. As construction of the Collector proceeds, a humbled Blake proposes to Forbin that the old Colossus — the "parent" of the crippled system, be reactivated. With little other alternative, Forbin agrees. Construction equipment controlled by Colossus soon completes work on the Collector. An initial five\-minute test of the device proves enormously destructive. With a second, final test imminent, Blake travels to [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado") with Angela, Forbin's private secretary. Racing against time, Blake and a small team of workers succeeds in penetrating the mountain where the old Colossus is located and re\-activating the computer, only to discover that, once supplied with the facts of the situation, Colossus argues that the collection program is in the best interests of humans' long\-term future and should move forward. Informed of the failure of their plan, Forbin watches the second test proceed. Upon its conclusion he embarks on a new plan. With his new secretary, a fervently devout woman named Joan, he flies to [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth "Portsmouth") and takes command of the [battleships](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship") stationed there for the Sea War Games. Yet doing so puts him out of contact with Blake and the old Colossus, who informs Blake that a solution might exist that is acceptable to both the Martians and humanity. Regaining control of the [nuclear arsenal](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon "Nuclear weapon"), Colossus contacts the Martians, who inform it of Forbin's attempt to use the battleships to destroy the Collector. Though the Martians attempt to destroy the fleet using their device, they underestimate the power of the battleships' guns, which succeed in destroying the Collector. Though the Martians are defeated, Forbin dies in the process. He is buried by the reactivated Colossus, who reaches an agreement with the Martians: a smaller version of the Collector will extract the oxygen more gradually and sustainably; in return, humanity, with the guidance of Colossus, will retreat to [Mars](/wiki/Mars "Mars") once the [Sun](/wiki/Sun "Sun") becomes a [red giant](/wiki/Red_giant "Red giant") and destroys the Earth.	[ "Plot\n----", "The novel begins where its predecessor, [The Fall of Colossus](/wiki/The_Fall_of_Colossus \"The Fall of Colossus\") leaves off, with the supercomputer Colossus immobilized and the [Martians](/wiki/Martian \"Martian\") arriving on Earth. They appear before Charles Forbin and his friend Edward Blake in the form of two black spheres, and quickly demonstrate vast intellect and powers of transformation and telepathy. After immobilizing Blake, they explain to Forbin their purpose in immobilizing Colossus — their desire to take half of the Earth's [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\"), a process that will kill nearly a quarter of the human population. In order to proceed with construction of the \"Collector\" designed to harvest the oxygen, the Martians reactivate the parts of Colossus necessary to manage human society.", "Though having no other option but to agree to the Martians' plan, Forbin continues to search for an alternative. He discovers in conversation with the Martians that their need for the oxygen is driven by the threat of radiation emanating from the [Crab Nebula](/wiki/Crab_Nebula \"Crab Nebula\"), which will kill the Martians without the protection of an oxygenated atmosphere. As construction of the Collector proceeds, a humbled Blake proposes to Forbin that the old Colossus — the \"parent\" of the crippled system, be reactivated. With little other alternative, Forbin agrees.", "Construction equipment controlled by Colossus soon completes work on the Collector. An initial five\\-minute test of the device proves enormously destructive. With a second, final test imminent, Blake travels to [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\") with Angela, Forbin's private secretary. Racing against time, Blake and a small team of workers succeeds in penetrating the mountain where the old Colossus is located and re\\-activating the computer, only to discover that, once supplied with the facts of the situation, Colossus argues that the collection program is in the best interests of humans' long\\-term future and should move forward.", "Informed of the failure of their plan, Forbin watches the second test proceed. Upon its conclusion he embarks on a new plan. With his new secretary, a fervently devout woman named Joan, he flies to [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth \"Portsmouth\") and takes command of the [battleships](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\") stationed there for the Sea War Games. Yet doing so puts him out of contact with Blake and the old Colossus, who informs Blake that a solution might exist that is acceptable to both the Martians and humanity. Regaining control of the [nuclear arsenal](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\"), Colossus contacts the Martians, who inform it of Forbin's attempt to use the battleships to destroy the Collector. Though the Martians attempt to destroy the fleet using their device, they underestimate the power of the battleships' guns, which succeed in destroying the Collector.", "Though the Martians are defeated, Forbin dies in the process. He is buried by the reactivated Colossus, who reaches an agreement with the Martians: a smaller version of the Collector will extract the oxygen more gradually and sustainably; in return, humanity, with the guidance of Colossus, will retreat to [Mars](/wiki/Mars \"Mars\") once the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\") becomes a [red giant](/wiki/Red_giant \"Red giant\") and destroys the Earth.", "" ]
History ------- Willmarth was named in honor of [Ensign](/wiki/Ensign_%28rank%29 "Ensign (rank)") Kenneth Willmarth (1914\-1942\), who was killed in action when the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") {{USS\\|Vincennes\\|CA\-44\\|2}} was sunk during the [Battle of Savo Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Savo_Island "Battle of Savo Island") on 9 August 1942\. The ship was laid down on 25 June 1943 at [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"), California, by the [Bethlehem Steel Company](/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel_Company "Bethlehem Steel Company")'s Shipbuilding Division; launched on 21 November 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Eva Willmarth, the mother of Ens. Willmarth; and commissioned on 13 March 1944\. ### Solomon Islands Following shakedown out of [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") and post\-shakedown availability at her builder's yard, Willmarth was assigned to [Escort Division 40](/wiki/Escort_Division_40 "Escort Division 40"). She stood out of [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay "San Francisco Bay") on 31 May, as screen for the four\-ship Convoy 2410 bound for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii"), and arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") on 9 June. On 12 June, together with {{USS\\|Donaldson\\|DE\-44\\|3}} and {{USS\\|Reynolds\\|DE\-42\\|3}}, Willmarth screened the sortie of the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands "Marshall Islands")\-bound Convoy 4212\-A. After delivering the [convoy](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") safely at [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok") nine days later, Willmarth proceeded on to the [Treasury Islands](/wiki/Treasury_Islands "Treasury Islands"), anchoring in [Blanche Harbor](/wiki/Blanche_Harbor "Blanche Harbor") at 11:30 on the 26th. Shifting successively to [Tulagi](/wiki/Tulagi "Tulagi") and [Purvis Bay](/wiki/Purvis_Bay "Purvis Bay"), Willmarth operated on local escort and patrol missions in the [Solomon](/wiki/Solomon_Islands "Solomon Islands") and [Treasury Islands](/wiki/Treasury_Islands "Treasury Islands") groups for the remainder of July. She escorted a small convoy to [Dreger Harbor](/wiki/Dreger_Harbor "Dreger Harbor"), [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea "New Guinea"), between 1 and 5 August and then shifted to [Milne Bay](/wiki/Milne_Bay "Milne Bay") for repairs on her port propeller. ### Challenging an unknown ship Underway for the Treasury Islands on 24 August, Willmarth made radar contact with an unidentified ship at 02:00 on the 25th. Willmarth tracked the stranger and challenged her at 03:35, when about two miles (3 km) distant. The latter did not reply, but instead altered course away from the destroyer escort and increased speed. Willmarth in turn churned up {{convert\\|18\\|kn\\|km/h}} and went to general quarters at 03:40\. Willmarth repeated the challenge at 04:06 but again received no reply. On the port beam of her target, the escort vessel illuminated the stranger with her searchlight and discovered her to be a freighter of some 8,000 to 10,000 tons. Only {{convert\\|2500\\|yd}} away, Willmarth{{'s}} men could see the freighter's crew manning their guns to challenge the destroyer escort. Willmarth opened the range to {{convert\\|4000\\|yd}} as the freighter responded with two different call signs, perhaps seeking to confuse the escort vessel. Just as Willmarth began to flash a call for recognition signals, the freighter commenced fire with {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} guns. The destroyer escort rang down for {{convert\\|20\\|kn\\|km/h}} and opened the range to {{convert\\|8000\\|yd}}, refraining from firing because of the stranger's appearance and location, "indicating that it was friendly." With respect to the freighter's fierce – but fortunately ineffective – fire, Willmarth's war diarist noted charitably that the ship's "range was excellent, but deflection was off." No shells landed closer than {{convert\\|1000\\|yd}} away. ### Escort ship Willmarth subsequently anchored at Blanche Harbor later on the 25th. Late the next day, she got underway on an escort assignment and convoyed {{USS\\|Stratford\\|AP\-41\\|3}} to [Green Island](/wiki/Green_Island%2C_Papua_New_Guinea "Green Island, Papua New Guinea"), [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_Island "Bougainville Island"), arriving on the 29th to screen the transport as she unloaded. She eventually escorted the troopship to Emirau Island and [Torokina](/wiki/Torokina "Torokina"), Bougainville, before proceeding independently to the Treasury Islands. She conducted training exercises over the balance of September before she performed local escort missions and the like out of her Treasury Islands' base into October. Willmarth departed Blanche Harbor on 6 October in company with {{USS\\|Whitehurst\\|DE\-634\\|3}}, bound for Dutch New Guinea. She arrived three days later and sortied on the 12th with Task Unit (TU) 77\.7\.1 which included {{USS\\|Ashtabula\\|AO\-51\\|3}}, {{USS\\|Saranac\\|AO\-74\\|3}}, {{USS\\|Chepachet\\|AO\-78\\|3}}, {{USS\\|Salamonie\\|AO\-26\\|3}}, {{USS\\|Mazama\\|AE\-9\\|3}}, and merchant ship {{SS\\|Pueblo}}. Other escorts were {{USS\\|Witter\\|DE\-636\\|3}}, {{USS\\|Bowers\\|DE\-637\\|3}}, and Whitehurst. Willmarth operated with TU 77\.7\.1 until she was released late on the 13th to escort Chepachet and SS Pueblo to [Kossol Passage](/wiki/Kossol_Passage "Kossol Passage"), in the Palaus. Arriving there at 18:21 on the 14th, she remained anchored for two days before beginning to patrol the harbor entrance on the 17th. Relieved of this duty by {{USS\\|Lovelace\\|DE\-198\\|3}}, Willmarth got underway during the forenoon on 20 October to screen the sortie of Ashtabula, Saranac, Chepachet, Salamonie, Mazama, and {{SS\\|Durham Victory}} for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"). ### Philippines campaign Willmarth proceeded north with her convoy, while American troops splashed ashore on the beaches of [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte "Leyte") to commence the [liberation of the Philippines](/wiki/Philippines_campaign%2C_1944-45 "Philippines campaign, 1944-45"). On the 23rd, three days after the main landing began, the destroyer escort anchored off Leyte midway between the northern and southern transport areas while her oilers refueled the ships from Task Group (TG) 77\.2\. That evening, Willmarth steamed eastward toward a night anchorage and, at 18:25, observed [anti\-aircraft](/wiki/Anti-aircraft "Anti-aircraft") fire over the northern transport area. Underway again off [Homonhon Island](/wiki/Homonhon_Island "Homonhon Island") early the next morning, the destroyer escort received a report of enemy [aircraft](/wiki/Aircraft "Aircraft") orbiting over the northern transport area. As she steamed along the convoy's flank, she commenced making black smoke at 08:44 to lay a protective screen in anticipation of the enemy's arrival. While the radio crackled with reports of ships under attack, Willmarth spotted no enemy planes nearby, only many puffs of "flak" splattering the skies to the westward of her screening position in the refueling group. With the receipt of a "flash white" at 13:43, the oilers resumed refueling TG 77\.2\. Willmarth shifted to [Samar Island](/wiki/Samar_Island "Samar Island") shortly before 17:00 before going to general quarters at 17:06 upon receipt of a "flash red." After waiting for well over an hour for the enemy to make an appearance, the convoy stopped and prepared to anchor for the night. At 18:43, however, three ["Jills"](/wiki/Nakajima_B6N "Nakajima B6N") roared in low from the east, [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") slung menacingly beneath their bellies. Willmarth{{'s}} guns opened fire on two just before they released their "fish." One torpedo holed Ashtabula and forced her to a halt, dead in the water. While the oiler's repair parties controlled the flooding and patched the hole, the convoy passed out of [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf "Leyte Gulf") and reformed in the wake of the attack. Eventually, Ashtabula, repairs effected, rejoined at 22:30\. Willmarth and the convoy remained underway throughout the evening, maneuvering on various courses and speeds in Leyte Gulf until the first rays of sunlight streaked the eastern skies. After going to general quarters at 04:58, the destroyer escort remained at battle stations throughout the day. Less than an hour after her crew first closed up at action stations, two "Jills" attacked the convoy from the westward. Willmarth immediately opened fire with her {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} and {{convert\\|1\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} batteries. As one "Jill" roared across the stern of the convoy, it was caught by gunfire from Willmarth and other ships of the convoy and crashed in flames far astern. While maneuvering and making smoke to mask the convoy, the destroyer escort spotted a floating [mine](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine") which she sank with gunfire. Soon thereafter, another "Jill" passed through the area and drew fire from Willmarth. Unfortunately, the shells were not observed to hit; and the plane escaped. The convoy anchored in the fueling area at 11:52, three hours after the last attack. Willmarth and the other escorts screened the convoy and provided an [anti\-submarine](/wiki/Anti-submarine "Anti-submarine") screen patrol around the valuable auxiliaries. Later that afternoon, Willmarth repulsed an attack made by a lone plane which came out of the sun in a glide\-bombing attack at 14:20\. The destroyer escort's gunfire damaged the plane and caused it to spin into the water about five miles (8 km) away. The convoy departed the fueling area at 16:46\. Frequent alerts and enemy planes enlivened the evening hours as the group maneuvered throughout the night in a retirement formation. Willmarth{{'s}} war diarist noted that the [Japanese](/wiki/Japan "Japan") planes seemed loath to attack ships in the fueling area during daylight, probably because of the heavy concentration of anti\-aircraft fire that could be directed at an attacker. The next day, 26 October, saw a repetition of the same routine that had kept the destroyer escort active since her arrival in Leyte Gulf three days earlier. After maneuvering on screening duties through the night, the warship spotted a lone ["Val" dive bomber](/wiki/Aichi_D3A "Aichi D3A") making an attack at 05:50; Willmarth opened fire from {{convert\\|6000\\|yd}} but failed to score any hits. Within minutes, she and her sister escorts were laying smoke screens to cover the convoy for the next hour. Thereafter, they provided anti\-submarine screening protection while the oilers conducted fueling operations. ### Further escort duty After following the same routine on the 27th, Willmarth departed Leyte Gulf and headed for the [Palaus](/wiki/Palaus "Palaus"). At 08:00 on 28 October, Willmarth – escorting the oilers earmarked to refuel the [7th Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Seventh_Fleet "United States Seventh Fleet") ships – rendezvoused with the carriers of Task Group 77\.4 and screened the refuelling operations for the balance of the day. Detached that afternoon, Willmarth screened Ashtabula and Chepachet as they voyaged to Kossol Roads, in the Palaus. Arriving on 31 October, Willmarth refueled from {{USS\\|Mascoma\\|AO\-83\\|3}} and anchored, her job done. The respite afforded the destroyer escort was a brief one, however, for she got underway on 1 November for [Hollandia](/wiki/Jayapura "Jayapura") and [Seeadler Harbor](/wiki/Seeadler_Harbor "Seeadler Harbor"), escorting a convoy. Entering [Humboldt Bay](/wiki/Yos_Sudarso_Bay "Yos Sudarso Bay") on the 4th, Willmarth anchored there over the next two days before proceeding to sea to screen the sortie of TG 78\.4 – {{HMS\\|Ariadne\\|M65\\|6}}, 12 [LSM's](/wiki/Landing_Ship_Medium "Landing Ship Medium"), 4 [LCI's](/wiki/Landing_Craft_Infantry "Landing Craft Infantry"), 8 LCI(G)'s, {{USS\\|PC\-1122\\|\\|2}} and {{USS\\|PC\-1133\\|\\|2}} – on the 7th. ### Western New Guinea campaign For the next three days, Willmarth screened the convoy to its destination – [Mapia](/wiki/Mapia "Mapia") and [Asia Islands](/wiki/Asia_Islands "Asia Islands"), near [Morotai](/wiki/Morotai "Morotai") – before arriving in the invasion area on the 11th. As the convoy neared Morotai, Willmarth{{'s}} lookouts observed anti\-aircraft fire between 04:15 and 05:30\. Two "bogies" passed within four miles (6 km) of the convoy; but, as Wilmarth's war diarist recorded, "evidently they either did not sight us or were not interested, as they proceeded directly toward the area from which flak appeared." There was a reason why Willmarth did not open fire on the two planes that seemed so close – she carried the only reliable air\-warning radar in the entire convoy and to open fire prematurely would have disclosed the position of the little convoy and exposed it to possible air attacks. At 08:32, the destroyer escort anchored just off the southern coast of Morotai, near Ariadne, while the remainder of the convoy (save the LCM's) proceeded to another part of the island to load for the impending invasion of Mapia and Asia Islands. The mission of the assault group was to establish weather station and [LORAN](/wiki/LORAN "LORAN") – long range radio aid to navigation – facilities. On 13 November, with the assault ships having embarked their troops, Willmarth got underway in company with TG 78\.14, bound for [Pegun Island](/wiki/Pegun_Island "Pegun Island"). At 05:00, two days later – she was joined by {{USS\\|Shaw\\|DD\-373\\|3}} and {{USS\\|Caldwell\\|DD\-605\\|3}}. Willmarth, the two destroyers, and PC\-1122 bombarded the southern part of the island prior to the landings and provoked no return fire from the beach. After a half\-hour of firing, Ariadne signalled that "H" hour was 06:30, meaning that the first wave of [LVT(A)s](/wiki/Landing_Vehicle_Tracked "Landing Vehicle Tracked") would hit the reef at that time. Willmarth remained at her bombardment station for the rest of the morning, ceasing fire as the first assault wave splashed toward the beachhead. The accompanying LCI(G)'s laid their own barrage, thus obviating the need for the destroyers' gunfire. By noon, the island was in American hands. When surrounded, the remaining garrison – only 12 to 14 Japanese soldiers – committed suicide. Meanwhile, since she was not needed for bombardment, Willmarth patrolled to the northward of the invasion beach and came across canoes full of natives to the north. One native, speaking good English, told Willmarth that the remainder of the Japanese garrison, about 170 men, had waded across the reef to [Bras Island](/wiki/Bras_Island "Bras Island") the previous night – thus accounting for the sparse reception given the invasion forces. While plans were being laid to go after this remnant on Bras Island, Willmarth conducted anti\-submarine patrol around the unloading assault craft and made abortive attempts to pull several LCI's that had been stranded by low tides off the reefs. At 17:30 on the 15th, the destroyer escort succeeded in towing one off after about an hour's time and began operations to free another one of the infantry assault craft. However, the destroyer escort's efforts were frustrated by the line's parting and the near approach of darkness. Four LCI(G)'s had to be left on the reef – as was one LCI – when the task group headed for Morotai. Arriving on 17 November, Willmarth fueled from Salamonie before anchoring. Underway again on the 18th, with the Asia Island occupation force, Willmarth and two PC's served as escort for Ariadne, four LCM's, four LCI's, and four LCI(G)'s. Embarked in the assault craft were 400 troops. Three\-fourths of a mile off [Igi Island](/wiki/Igi_Island "Igi Island"), Willmarth, Ariadne, and PC\-1122 conducted shore bombardment from 05:42 to 06:19 on the 19th. Troops splashed ashore from landing craft eight minutes after the bombardment ceased and met no opposition. An unfortunate result of the shore bombardment was that two natives were wounded and one killed – the Japanese had evacuated the island in the face of imminent invasion the previous evening. Willmarth subsequently screened the movement of the convoy to the [Mapia Islands](/wiki/Mapia_Islands "Mapia Islands"), where the landing craft loaded troops and unloaded shore personnel and supplies. When the loading was completed at 18:00 on the 20th, the convoy shifted to Asia Island, where the destroyer escort screened the landing craft as they embarked more troops on the 21st. Willmarth continued her screening duties until arriving in the southernanchorage near the naval base at Morotai Island at 12:38 on 22 November. While there, the escort vessel witnessed an enemy night air raid on the airfield installations on Morotai. The Japanese boldly conducted their attacks despite anti\-aircraft fire and searchlights. Local port restrictions forbade the use of any anti\-aircraft batteries larger than 40 millimeter. Willmarth{{'s}} war diary sadly noted this restriction, recommending that 3\-inch gunfire could do very little damage to shore installations in the area. While the rest of TG 78\.14 departed Morotai on the 23rd, Willmarth remained behind as LSM\-205 and LSM\-314 loaded equipment for the Asia and Mapia Island forces. She then escorted those craft to Hollandia where they delivered their cargo. Over the next three days, Willmarth escorted the two landing craft on their appointed rounds, dropping off supplies at Asia and Mapia Islands. At one point, the arrival of the little convoy at Mapia on the 26th almost went unnoticed. Willmarth experienced great difficulty contacting anyone on shore: "We finally succeeded in rousing someone by blowing our siren and whistle together." A [jeep](/wiki/Willys_MB "Willys MB") soon appeared on the beach, its occupants using the headlights to signal. Heavier swells than at Asia Island made unloading through the surf difficult. One of the LSM's was holed several times by scraping on the jagged coral heads of the reef. When unloading was completed at 11:30, the diminutive convoy headed for Hollandia. ### Service Squadron 4 On 1 December 1944, Willmarth and the other ships from Escort Division 40 set sail for Manus, in the Admiralties, for assignment to [Service Squadron 4](/wiki/Service_Squadron_4 "Service Squadron 4"). Arriving at Seeadler Harbor the following day, Willmarth spent the next three months operating on local escort missions between Manus, Ulithi, Hollandia, and the Palaus. On 4 March 1945, Willmarth reported to the Commander, [5th Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fifth_Fleet "United States Fifth Fleet"), for duty. Between the 5th and 18th, she conducted anti\-submarine patrols in the Palaus before being sent to Ulithi to refuel and replenish. ### Okinawa campaign At Ulithi, Willmarth was assigned to [Task Force 54](/wiki/Okinawa_naval_order_of_battle%23Gunfire_and_Covering_Force_%28Task_Force_54%29 "Okinawa naval order of battle#Gunfire and Covering Force (Task Force 54)") (TF 54\) – the pre\-invasion bombardment group for the [invasion of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa "Battle of Okinawa"). She got underway again on the 21st to as part of [Fire Support Unit](/wiki/Naval_gunfire_support "Naval gunfire support") 2 (TU 54\.1\.2\) built around the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship") {{USS\\|Colorado\\|BB\-45\\|3}}, in Fire Support (FS) areas 4 and 5, off [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"). The destroyer escort screened Colorado for the entire day on 26 March as the battleship delivered gunfire support for the troops ashore. Over the next two days, the warship screened fire support units and escorted them to night retirement areas. She was refuelled at [Kerama Retto](/wiki/Kerama_Retto "Kerama Retto") on the 30th before returning to screening duties with heavy units off the island. On 1 April, she was steaming on station 16 of a circular screen around TU 54\.3\.2, a night retirement group built around the battleship {{USS\\|Idaho\\|BB\-42\\|3}}, when several enemy planes flew near the convoy. Screening destroyers fired upon the intruders who probably did not come to attack the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") force but merely to keep it awake and permit it little rest. Detached from this duty to provide a screen for {{USS\\|Arkansas\\|BB\-33\\|3}}, one of the oldest battleships on active service in the Navy, Willmarth operated to seaward as the battleship worked inshore to open fire on Japanese positions holding up the American advance near [Naha Airport](/wiki/Naha_Airport "Naha Airport"). After commencing this duty at 06:30, Willmarth had been serving on anti\-submarine patrol for over six hours when Japanese [shore battery](/wiki/Shore_battery "Shore battery") guns boomed out salvoes at Arkansas. Arkansas{{'}} main battery trained 'round to reply and quickly commenced [counter\-battery fire](/wiki/Counter-battery_fire "Counter-battery fire"). At the time of the initial firing, Willmarth was located about {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km}} southwestward of the battleship, maintaining her screening position to seaward. At 13:23, a Japanese shell hurtled over Willmarth{{'s}} bridge "plainly heard" by all men there. It splashed beyond the ship, {{convert\\|150\\|yd}} away. With only one boiler operating (the other had been secured to repair a leaking gasket) the destroyer escort was hampered in getting away, but she headed seaward at her best speed. Soon another shell landed only {{convert\\|15\\|yd}} beyond the destroyer escort's starboard quarter. While increasing the range, Willmarth turned toward each splash, thus avoiding getting hit by the Japanese guns. Arkansas, by this time beyond gun range of the Nipponese guns, did not conduct any further counter\-battery fire; Willmarth soon emerged from the enemy battery's zone of fire and proceeded to sea unscathed. After retiring to Kerama Retto soon thereafter for fueling, Willmarth operated on screening station A\-27 until 6 April, when she returned to Kerama Retto with an [appendicitis](/wiki/Appendicitis "Appendicitis") patient on board for medical treatment. Several bogies flew near the ship while she steamed to the fleet anchorage, and one was downed by a nearby ship at 02:00\. As the Japanese air arm had been decimated by this point in the war, the lack of trained and experienced pilots led to its most extensive deployment of [kamikaze attacks](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze") during this battle. At 15:25, while still {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km}} north of Kerama Retto, Willmarth spotted three "Val" dive bombers. One peeled off and maneuvered to make an attack. Ten minutes later, the "Val" turned kamikaze, attempting to crashing into Willmarth. Heavy {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} and {{convert\\|1\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} fire bracketed the plane when she became visible, dodging in and out of the broken clouds overhead. Seven {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} bursts rocked the plane as she made her deadly approach. Lookouts on the destroyer escort noted a thin line of smoke tracking from the suicider's port wing as he went into his dive. The 20\-millimeter battery on Wilmarth opened fire when the plane's range lessened to {{convert\\|2000\\|yd}}; and, at {{convert\\|800\\|yd}}, the Oerlikons seemed to have their effect. Pieces of the "Val's" wing began flying off in the slipstream, indicating that the shells were beginning to hit. Six feet of the port wing soon broke away, shot off by the flak, and the "Val" spun into the sea {{convert\\|20\\|yd}} off the ship's port side, slightly abaft her beam. Willmarth entered Kerama Retto at 16:10; and, while preparing to anchor, saw {{USS\\|LST\-447\\|\\|2}} hit by a kamikaze south of the harbor entrance. Flames had engulfed the entire amidships section of the stricken landing ship, and explosions tore holes in the stricken ship's side. The jagged edges in turn ripped gashes in Willmarth{{'s}} hull at the waterline. One hole, unfortunately, opened up one of the destroyer escort's fuel tanks, and the oil leaking out made further close operations hazardous. Willmarth stood clear while dense smoke from the burning LST further complicated firefighting. Eventually, the destroyer escort picked up the ship's survivors and later transferred them to {{USS\\|Crescent City\\|APA\-21\\|3}}. While steaming to the ship's anchorage in the harbor, she took an enemy plane under fire as it approached from the south; and multiple gunfire from all ships present in the harbor knocked it down. Willmarth anchored, transferred her appendicitis patient ashore, and patched the hole in her side caused by the damaged LST\-447 before proceeding on the 7th to screening station "Able\-60" near the transport area off the west coast of Okinawa. Following her shift to another screening station on the morning of the 8th, Willmarth escorted {{USS\\|Saranac\\|AO\-74\\|3}} to Kerama Retto on the 9th. On 10 April, the destroyer escort departed the Okinawa area, bound for [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") in the screen for 12 transports. ### Screening 3rd Fleet logistics force Arriving at Guam on the 14th, Willmarth developed boiler trouble while there and spent the entire month of May and most of June undergoing repairs. On 28 June, the destroyer escort got underway for Ulithi. En route, she picked up a sonar contact, and in company with {{USS\\|Trippe\\|DD\-403\\|3}}, over the ensuing two days, conducted an unsuccessful hunt. Willmarth then proceeded on to Ulithi where she arrived on the last day of June. Underway again on 3 July, Willmarth stood out of Ulithi lagoon screening the logistics force of the [3rd Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Third_Fleet "United States Third Fleet") which would provide the needed supplies for Admiral [William F. Halsey](/wiki/William_Halsey%2C_Jr. "William Halsey, Jr.")'s [fast carrier task forces](/wiki/Fast_carrier_task_force "Fast carrier task force") as it pounded the Japanese homeland. During the passage north, the destroyer escort planeguarded for {{USS\\|Steamer Bay\\|CVE\-87\\|3}} and conducted anti\-submarine screening operations. She picked up the crew of a downed [Grumman TBF Avenger](/wiki/Grumman_TBF_Avenger "Grumman TBF Avenger") on 20 July. On that occasion, two swimmers from Willmarth helped to get the downed airmen on board. However, one of the crewmen died. The two survivors and the body of the dead man were transferred to Steamer Bay later that day. Willmarth subsequently planeguarded for {{USS\\|Gilbert Islands\\|CVE\-107\\|3}} in early August, continuing her screening and escort duties with TG\-30 – the replenishment group for the 3rd Fleet. She was at sea when the [atomic bombs were dropped upon Hiroshima and Nagasaki](/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki") on 6 and 9 August, respectively, and when [Japan surrendered on the 15th](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan"). ### Post\-war activities Willmarth remained on escort duty off the coast of Japan into September. In mid\-September, the ship underwent an availability in [Tokyo Bay](/wiki/Tokyo_Bay "Tokyo Bay") and rode out a storm there on 18 September. Departing Tokyo Bay on 24 September to return to the United States, Willmarth touched at Pearl Harbor, San Diego, and the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal") before undergoing an overhaul at [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia") which lasted until late in October. ### Decommissioning and disposal Shifting to the [St. Johns River](/wiki/St._Johns_River "St. Johns River"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida"), soon thereafter, Willmarth prepared for inactivation with the Florida group of the 16th (Reserve) Fleet. Berthed in the [Green Cove Springs](/wiki/Green_Cove_Springs "Green Cove Springs") facility, Willmarth was decommissioned on 26 April 1946 and placed in reserve. She remained there until struck from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") on 1 December 1966\. Sold on 1 July 1968 to the [North American Smelting Company](/wiki/North_American_Smelting_Company "North American Smelting Company"), of [Wilmington, Delaware](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Delaware "Wilmington, Delaware"), the ship was broken up for scrap soon thereafter.	[ "History\n-------", "Willmarth was named in honor of [Ensign](/wiki/Ensign_%28rank%29 \"Ensign (rank)\") Kenneth Willmarth (1914\\-1942\\), who was killed in action when the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") {{USS\\\|Vincennes\\\|CA\\-44\\\|2}} was sunk during the [Battle of Savo Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Savo_Island \"Battle of Savo Island\") on 9 August 1942\\. The ship was laid down on 25 June 1943 at [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\"), California, by the [Bethlehem Steel Company](/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel_Company \"Bethlehem Steel Company\")'s Shipbuilding Division; launched on 21 November 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Eva Willmarth, the mother of Ens. Willmarth; and commissioned on 13 March 1944\\.", "### Solomon Islands", "Following shakedown out of [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") and post\\-shakedown availability at her builder's yard, Willmarth was assigned to [Escort Division 40](/wiki/Escort_Division_40 \"Escort Division 40\"). She stood out of [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay \"San Francisco Bay\") on 31 May, as screen for the four\\-ship Convoy 2410 bound for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"), and arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") on 9 June.", "On 12 June, together with {{USS\\\|Donaldson\\\|DE\\-44\\\|3}} and {{USS\\\|Reynolds\\\|DE\\-42\\\|3}}, Willmarth screened the sortie of the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\")\\-bound Convoy 4212\\-A. After delivering the [convoy](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") safely at [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\") nine days later, Willmarth proceeded on to the [Treasury Islands](/wiki/Treasury_Islands \"Treasury Islands\"), anchoring in [Blanche Harbor](/wiki/Blanche_Harbor \"Blanche Harbor\") at 11:30 on the 26th.", "Shifting successively to [Tulagi](/wiki/Tulagi \"Tulagi\") and [Purvis Bay](/wiki/Purvis_Bay \"Purvis Bay\"), Willmarth operated on local escort and patrol missions in the [Solomon](/wiki/Solomon_Islands \"Solomon Islands\") and [Treasury Islands](/wiki/Treasury_Islands \"Treasury Islands\") groups for the remainder of July. She escorted a small convoy to [Dreger Harbor](/wiki/Dreger_Harbor \"Dreger Harbor\"), [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\"), between 1 and 5 August and then shifted to [Milne Bay](/wiki/Milne_Bay \"Milne Bay\") for repairs on her port propeller.", "### Challenging an unknown ship", "Underway for the Treasury Islands on 24 August, Willmarth made radar contact with an unidentified ship at 02:00 on the 25th. Willmarth tracked the stranger and challenged her at 03:35, when about two miles (3 km) distant. The latter did not reply, but instead altered course away from the destroyer escort and increased speed. Willmarth in turn churned up {{convert\\\|18\\\|kn\\\|km/h}} and went to general quarters at 03:40\\.", "Willmarth repeated the challenge at 04:06 but again received no reply. On the port beam of her target, the escort vessel illuminated the stranger with her searchlight and discovered her to be a freighter of some 8,000 to 10,000 tons. Only {{convert\\\|2500\\\|yd}} away, Willmarth{{'s}} men could see the freighter's crew manning their guns to challenge the destroyer escort.", "Willmarth opened the range to {{convert\\\|4000\\\|yd}} as the freighter responded with two different call signs, perhaps seeking to confuse the escort vessel. Just as Willmarth began to flash a call for recognition signals, the freighter commenced fire with {{convert\\\|3\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} guns. The destroyer escort rang down for {{convert\\\|20\\\|kn\\\|km/h}} and opened the range to {{convert\\\|8000\\\|yd}}, refraining from firing because of the stranger's appearance and location, \"indicating that it was friendly.\" With respect to the freighter's fierce – but fortunately ineffective – fire, Willmarth's war diarist noted charitably that the ship's \"range was excellent, but deflection was off.\" No shells landed closer than {{convert\\\|1000\\\|yd}} away.", "### Escort ship", "Willmarth subsequently anchored at Blanche Harbor later on the 25th. Late the next day, she got underway on an escort assignment and convoyed {{USS\\\|Stratford\\\|AP\\-41\\\|3}} to [Green Island](/wiki/Green_Island%2C_Papua_New_Guinea \"Green Island, Papua New Guinea\"), [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_Island \"Bougainville Island\"), arriving on the 29th to screen the transport as she unloaded. She eventually escorted the troopship to Emirau Island and [Torokina](/wiki/Torokina \"Torokina\"), Bougainville, before proceeding independently to the Treasury Islands. She conducted training exercises over the balance of September before she performed local escort missions and the like out of her Treasury Islands' base into October.", "Willmarth departed Blanche Harbor on 6 October in company with {{USS\\\|Whitehurst\\\|DE\\-634\\\|3}}, bound for Dutch New Guinea. She arrived three days later and sortied on the 12th with Task Unit (TU) 77\\.7\\.1 which included {{USS\\\|Ashtabula\\\|AO\\-51\\\|3}}, {{USS\\\|Saranac\\\|AO\\-74\\\|3}}, {{USS\\\|Chepachet\\\|AO\\-78\\\|3}}, {{USS\\\|Salamonie\\\|AO\\-26\\\|3}}, {{USS\\\|Mazama\\\|AE\\-9\\\|3}}, and merchant ship {{SS\\\|Pueblo}}. Other escorts were {{USS\\\|Witter\\\|DE\\-636\\\|3}}, {{USS\\\|Bowers\\\|DE\\-637\\\|3}}, and Whitehurst.", "Willmarth operated with TU 77\\.7\\.1 until she was released late on the 13th to escort Chepachet and SS Pueblo to [Kossol Passage](/wiki/Kossol_Passage \"Kossol Passage\"), in the Palaus. Arriving there at 18:21 on the 14th, she remained anchored for two days before beginning to patrol the harbor entrance on the 17th. Relieved of this duty by {{USS\\\|Lovelace\\\|DE\\-198\\\|3}}, Willmarth got underway during the forenoon on 20 October to screen the sortie of Ashtabula, Saranac, Chepachet, Salamonie, Mazama, and {{SS\\\|Durham Victory}} for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\").", "### Philippines campaign", "Willmarth proceeded north with her convoy, while American troops splashed ashore on the beaches of [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte \"Leyte\") to commence the [liberation of the Philippines](/wiki/Philippines_campaign%2C_1944-45 \"Philippines campaign, 1944-45\"). On the 23rd, three days after the main landing began, the destroyer escort anchored off Leyte midway between the northern and southern transport areas while her oilers refueled the ships from Task Group (TG) 77\\.2\\. That evening, Willmarth steamed eastward toward a night anchorage and, at 18:25, observed [anti\\-aircraft](/wiki/Anti-aircraft \"Anti-aircraft\") fire over the northern transport area.", "Underway again off [Homonhon Island](/wiki/Homonhon_Island \"Homonhon Island\") early the next morning, the destroyer escort received a report of enemy [aircraft](/wiki/Aircraft \"Aircraft\") orbiting over the northern transport area. As she steamed along the convoy's flank, she commenced making black smoke at 08:44 to lay a protective screen in anticipation of the enemy's arrival. While the radio crackled with reports of ships under attack, Willmarth spotted no enemy planes nearby, only many puffs of \"flak\" splattering the skies to the westward of her screening position in the refueling group.", "With the receipt of a \"flash white\" at 13:43, the oilers resumed refueling TG 77\\.2\\. Willmarth shifted to [Samar Island](/wiki/Samar_Island \"Samar Island\") shortly before 17:00 before going to general quarters at 17:06 upon receipt of a \"flash red.\" After waiting for well over an hour for the enemy to make an appearance, the convoy stopped and prepared to anchor for the night.", "At 18:43, however, three [\"Jills\"](/wiki/Nakajima_B6N \"Nakajima B6N\") roared in low from the east, [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") slung menacingly beneath their bellies. Willmarth{{'s}} guns opened fire on two just before they released their \"fish.\" One torpedo holed Ashtabula and forced her to a halt, dead in the water. While the oiler's repair parties controlled the flooding and patched the hole, the convoy passed out of [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf \"Leyte Gulf\") and reformed in the wake of the attack. Eventually, Ashtabula, repairs effected, rejoined at 22:30\\.", "Willmarth and the convoy remained underway throughout the evening, maneuvering on various courses and speeds in Leyte Gulf until the first rays of sunlight streaked the eastern skies. After going to general quarters at 04:58, the destroyer escort remained at battle stations throughout the day. Less than an hour after her crew first closed up at action stations, two \"Jills\" attacked the convoy from the westward. Willmarth immediately opened fire with her {{convert\\\|3\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} and {{convert\\\|1\\.1\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} batteries. As one \"Jill\" roared across the stern of the convoy, it was caught by gunfire from Willmarth and other ships of the convoy and crashed in flames far astern.", "While maneuvering and making smoke to mask the convoy, the destroyer escort spotted a floating [mine](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\") which she sank with gunfire. Soon thereafter, another \"Jill\" passed through the area and drew fire from Willmarth. Unfortunately, the shells were not observed to hit; and the plane escaped.", "The convoy anchored in the fueling area at 11:52, three hours after the last attack. Willmarth and the other escorts screened the convoy and provided an [anti\\-submarine](/wiki/Anti-submarine \"Anti-submarine\") screen patrol around the valuable auxiliaries. Later that afternoon, Willmarth repulsed an attack made by a lone plane which came out of the sun in a glide\\-bombing attack at 14:20\\. The destroyer escort's gunfire damaged the plane and caused it to spin into the water about five miles (8 km) away.", "The convoy departed the fueling area at 16:46\\. Frequent alerts and enemy planes enlivened the evening hours as the group maneuvered throughout the night in a retirement formation. Willmarth{{'s}} war diarist noted that the [Japanese](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") planes seemed loath to attack ships in the fueling area during daylight, probably because of the heavy concentration of anti\\-aircraft fire that could be directed at an attacker.", "The next day, 26 October, saw a repetition of the same routine that had kept the destroyer escort active since her arrival in Leyte Gulf three days earlier. After maneuvering on screening duties through the night, the warship spotted a lone [\"Val\" dive bomber](/wiki/Aichi_D3A \"Aichi D3A\") making an attack at 05:50; Willmarth opened fire from {{convert\\\|6000\\\|yd}} but failed to score any hits. Within minutes, she and her sister escorts were laying smoke screens to cover the convoy for the next hour. Thereafter, they provided anti\\-submarine screening protection while the oilers conducted fueling operations.", "### Further escort duty", "After following the same routine on the 27th, Willmarth departed Leyte Gulf and headed for the [Palaus](/wiki/Palaus \"Palaus\"). At 08:00 on 28 October, Willmarth – escorting the oilers earmarked to refuel the [7th Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Seventh_Fleet \"United States Seventh Fleet\") ships – rendezvoused with the carriers of Task Group 77\\.4 and screened the refuelling operations for the balance of the day. Detached that afternoon, Willmarth screened Ashtabula and Chepachet as they voyaged to Kossol Roads, in the Palaus. Arriving on 31 October, Willmarth refueled from {{USS\\\|Mascoma\\\|AO\\-83\\\|3}} and anchored, her job done.", "The respite afforded the destroyer escort was a brief one, however, for she got underway on 1 November for [Hollandia](/wiki/Jayapura \"Jayapura\") and [Seeadler Harbor](/wiki/Seeadler_Harbor \"Seeadler Harbor\"), escorting a convoy. Entering [Humboldt Bay](/wiki/Yos_Sudarso_Bay \"Yos Sudarso Bay\") on the 4th, Willmarth anchored there over the next two days before proceeding to sea to screen the sortie of TG 78\\.4 – {{HMS\\\|Ariadne\\\|M65\\\|6}}, 12 [LSM's](/wiki/Landing_Ship_Medium \"Landing Ship Medium\"), 4 [LCI's](/wiki/Landing_Craft_Infantry \"Landing Craft Infantry\"), 8 LCI(G)'s, {{USS\\\|PC\\-1122\\\|\\\|2}} and {{USS\\\|PC\\-1133\\\|\\\|2}} – on the 7th.", "### Western New Guinea campaign", "For the next three days, Willmarth screened the convoy to its destination – [Mapia](/wiki/Mapia \"Mapia\") and [Asia Islands](/wiki/Asia_Islands \"Asia Islands\"), near [Morotai](/wiki/Morotai \"Morotai\") – before arriving in the invasion area on the 11th. As the convoy neared Morotai, Willmarth{{'s}} lookouts observed anti\\-aircraft fire between 04:15 and 05:30\\. Two \"bogies\" passed within four miles (6 km) of the convoy; but, as Wilmarth's war diarist recorded, \"evidently they either did not sight us or were not interested, as they proceeded directly toward the area from which flak appeared.\" There was a reason why Willmarth did not open fire on the two planes that seemed so close – she carried the only reliable air\\-warning radar in the entire convoy and to open fire prematurely would have disclosed the position of the little convoy and exposed it to possible air attacks. At 08:32, the destroyer escort anchored just off the southern coast of Morotai, near Ariadne, while the remainder of the convoy (save the LCM's) proceeded to another part of the island to load for the impending invasion of Mapia and Asia Islands. The mission of the assault group was to establish weather station and [LORAN](/wiki/LORAN \"LORAN\") – long range radio aid to navigation – facilities.", "On 13 November, with the assault ships having embarked their troops, Willmarth got underway in company with TG 78\\.14, bound for [Pegun Island](/wiki/Pegun_Island \"Pegun Island\"). At 05:00, two days later – she was joined by {{USS\\\|Shaw\\\|DD\\-373\\\|3}} and {{USS\\\|Caldwell\\\|DD\\-605\\\|3}}. Willmarth, the two destroyers, and PC\\-1122 bombarded the southern part of the island prior to the landings and provoked no return fire from the beach. After a half\\-hour of firing, Ariadne signalled that \"H\" hour was 06:30, meaning that the first wave of [LVT(A)s](/wiki/Landing_Vehicle_Tracked \"Landing Vehicle Tracked\") would hit the reef at that time.", "Willmarth remained at her bombardment station for the rest of the morning, ceasing fire as the first assault wave splashed toward the beachhead. The accompanying LCI(G)'s laid their own barrage, thus obviating the need for the destroyers' gunfire. By noon, the island was in American hands. When surrounded, the remaining garrison – only 12 to 14 Japanese soldiers – committed suicide.", "Meanwhile, since she was not needed for bombardment, Willmarth patrolled to the northward of the invasion beach and came across canoes full of natives to the north. One native, speaking good English, told Willmarth that the remainder of the Japanese garrison, about 170 men, had waded across the reef to [Bras Island](/wiki/Bras_Island \"Bras Island\") the previous night – thus accounting for the sparse reception given the invasion forces.", "While plans were being laid to go after this remnant on Bras Island, Willmarth conducted anti\\-submarine patrol around the unloading assault craft and made abortive attempts to pull several LCI's that had been stranded by low tides off the reefs. At 17:30 on the 15th, the destroyer escort succeeded in towing one off after about an hour's time and began operations to free another one of the infantry assault craft. However, the destroyer escort's efforts were frustrated by the line's parting and the near approach of darkness.", "Four LCI(G)'s had to be left on the reef – as was one LCI – when the task group headed for Morotai. Arriving on 17 November, Willmarth fueled from Salamonie before anchoring. Underway again on the 18th, with the Asia Island occupation force, Willmarth and two PC's served as escort for Ariadne, four LCM's, four LCI's, and four LCI(G)'s. Embarked in the assault craft were 400 troops.", "Three\\-fourths of a mile off [Igi Island](/wiki/Igi_Island \"Igi Island\"), Willmarth, Ariadne, and PC\\-1122 conducted shore bombardment from 05:42 to 06:19 on the 19th. Troops splashed ashore from landing craft eight minutes after the bombardment ceased and met no opposition. An unfortunate result of the shore bombardment was that two natives were wounded and one killed – the Japanese had evacuated the island in the face of imminent invasion the previous evening.", "Willmarth subsequently screened the movement of the convoy to the [Mapia Islands](/wiki/Mapia_Islands \"Mapia Islands\"), where the landing craft loaded troops and unloaded shore personnel and supplies. When the loading was completed at 18:00 on the 20th, the convoy shifted to Asia Island, where the destroyer escort screened the landing craft as they embarked more troops on the 21st. Willmarth continued her screening duties until arriving in the southernanchorage near the naval base at Morotai Island at 12:38 on 22 November. While there, the escort vessel witnessed an enemy night air raid on the airfield installations on Morotai. The Japanese boldly conducted their attacks despite anti\\-aircraft fire and searchlights. Local port restrictions forbade the use of any anti\\-aircraft batteries larger than 40 millimeter. Willmarth{{'s}} war diary sadly noted this restriction, recommending that 3\\-inch gunfire could do very little damage to shore installations in the area.", "While the rest of TG 78\\.14 departed Morotai on the 23rd, Willmarth remained behind as LSM\\-205 and LSM\\-314 loaded equipment for the Asia and Mapia Island forces. She then escorted those craft to Hollandia where they delivered their cargo. Over the next three days, Willmarth escorted the two landing craft on their appointed rounds, dropping off supplies at Asia and Mapia Islands. At one point, the arrival of the little convoy at Mapia on the 26th almost went unnoticed.", "Willmarth experienced great difficulty contacting anyone on shore: \"We finally succeeded in rousing someone by blowing our siren and whistle together.\" A [jeep](/wiki/Willys_MB \"Willys MB\") soon appeared on the beach, its occupants using the headlights to signal. Heavier swells than at Asia Island made unloading through the surf difficult. One of the LSM's was holed several times by scraping on the jagged coral heads of the reef. When unloading was completed at 11:30, the diminutive convoy headed for Hollandia.", "### Service Squadron 4", "On 1 December 1944, Willmarth and the other ships from Escort Division 40 set sail for Manus, in the Admiralties, for assignment to [Service Squadron 4](/wiki/Service_Squadron_4 \"Service Squadron 4\"). Arriving at Seeadler Harbor the following day, Willmarth spent the next three months operating on local escort missions between Manus, Ulithi, Hollandia, and the Palaus.", "On 4 March 1945, Willmarth reported to the Commander, [5th Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fifth_Fleet \"United States Fifth Fleet\"), for duty. Between the 5th and 18th, she conducted anti\\-submarine patrols in the Palaus before being sent to Ulithi to refuel and replenish.", "### Okinawa campaign", "At Ulithi, Willmarth was assigned to [Task Force 54](/wiki/Okinawa_naval_order_of_battle%23Gunfire_and_Covering_Force_%28Task_Force_54%29 \"Okinawa naval order of battle#Gunfire and Covering Force (Task Force 54)\") (TF 54\\) – the pre\\-invasion bombardment group for the [invasion of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa \"Battle of Okinawa\"). She got underway again on the 21st to as part of [Fire Support Unit](/wiki/Naval_gunfire_support \"Naval gunfire support\") 2 (TU 54\\.1\\.2\\) built around the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\") {{USS\\\|Colorado\\\|BB\\-45\\\|3}}, in Fire Support (FS) areas 4 and 5, off [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"). The destroyer escort screened Colorado for the entire day on 26 March as the battleship delivered gunfire support for the troops ashore. Over the next two days, the warship screened fire support units and escorted them to night retirement areas. She was refuelled at [Kerama Retto](/wiki/Kerama_Retto \"Kerama Retto\") on the 30th before returning to screening duties with heavy units off the island.", "On 1 April, she was steaming on station 16 of a circular screen around TU 54\\.3\\.2, a night retirement group built around the battleship {{USS\\\|Idaho\\\|BB\\-42\\\|3}}, when several enemy planes flew near the convoy. Screening destroyers fired upon the intruders who probably did not come to attack the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") force but merely to keep it awake and permit it little rest.", "Detached from this duty to provide a screen for {{USS\\\|Arkansas\\\|BB\\-33\\\|3}}, one of the oldest battleships on active service in the Navy, Willmarth operated to seaward as the battleship worked inshore to open fire on Japanese positions holding up the American advance near [Naha Airport](/wiki/Naha_Airport \"Naha Airport\"). After commencing this duty at 06:30, Willmarth had been serving on anti\\-submarine patrol for over six hours when Japanese [shore battery](/wiki/Shore_battery \"Shore battery\") guns boomed out salvoes at Arkansas.", "Arkansas{{'}} main battery trained 'round to reply and quickly commenced [counter\\-battery fire](/wiki/Counter-battery_fire \"Counter-battery fire\"). At the time of the initial firing, Willmarth was located about {{convert\\\|1\\\|mi\\\|km}} southwestward of the battleship, maintaining her screening position to seaward. At 13:23, a Japanese shell hurtled over Willmarth{{'s}} bridge \"plainly heard\" by all men there. It splashed beyond the ship, {{convert\\\|150\\\|yd}} away. With only one boiler operating (the other had been secured to repair a leaking gasket) the destroyer escort was hampered in getting away, but she headed seaward at her best speed. Soon another shell landed only {{convert\\\|15\\\|yd}} beyond the destroyer escort's starboard quarter. While increasing the range, Willmarth turned toward each splash, thus avoiding getting hit by the Japanese guns. Arkansas, by this time beyond gun range of the Nipponese guns, did not conduct any further counter\\-battery fire; Willmarth soon emerged from the enemy battery's zone of fire and proceeded to sea unscathed.", "After retiring to Kerama Retto soon thereafter for fueling, Willmarth operated on screening station A\\-27 until 6 April, when she returned to Kerama Retto with an [appendicitis](/wiki/Appendicitis \"Appendicitis\") patient on board for medical treatment. Several bogies flew near the ship while she steamed to the fleet anchorage, and one was downed by a nearby ship at 02:00\\.", "As the Japanese air arm had been decimated by this point in the war, the lack of trained and experienced pilots led to its most extensive deployment of [kamikaze attacks](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") during this battle. At 15:25, while still {{convert\\\|3\\\|mi\\\|km}} north of Kerama Retto, Willmarth spotted three \"Val\" dive bombers. One peeled off and maneuvered to make an attack. Ten minutes later, the \"Val\" turned kamikaze, attempting to crashing into Willmarth. Heavy {{convert\\\|3\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} and {{convert\\\|1\\.1\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} fire bracketed the plane when she became visible, dodging in and out of the broken clouds overhead. Seven {{convert\\\|3\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} bursts rocked the plane as she made her deadly approach. Lookouts on the destroyer escort noted a thin line of smoke tracking from the suicider's port wing as he went into his dive. The 20\\-millimeter battery on Wilmarth opened fire when the plane's range lessened to {{convert\\\|2000\\\|yd}}; and, at {{convert\\\|800\\\|yd}}, the Oerlikons seemed to have their effect. Pieces of the \"Val's\" wing began flying off in the slipstream, indicating that the shells were beginning to hit. Six feet of the port wing soon broke away, shot off by the flak, and the \"Val\" spun into the sea {{convert\\\|20\\\|yd}} off the ship's port side, slightly abaft her beam.", "Willmarth entered Kerama Retto at 16:10; and, while preparing to anchor, saw {{USS\\\|LST\\-447\\\|\\\|2}} hit by a kamikaze south of the harbor entrance. Flames had engulfed the entire amidships section of the stricken landing ship, and explosions tore holes in the stricken ship's side. The jagged edges in turn ripped gashes in Willmarth{{'s}} hull at the waterline. One hole, unfortunately, opened up one of the destroyer escort's fuel tanks, and the oil leaking out made further close operations hazardous.", "Willmarth stood clear while dense smoke from the burning LST further complicated firefighting. Eventually, the destroyer escort picked up the ship's survivors and later transferred them to {{USS\\\|Crescent City\\\|APA\\-21\\\|3}}. While steaming to the ship's anchorage in the harbor, she took an enemy plane under fire as it approached from the south; and multiple gunfire from all ships present in the harbor knocked it down.", "Willmarth anchored, transferred her appendicitis patient ashore, and patched the hole in her side caused by the damaged LST\\-447 before proceeding on the 7th to screening station \"Able\\-60\" near the transport area off the west coast of Okinawa. Following her shift to another screening station on the morning of the 8th, Willmarth escorted {{USS\\\|Saranac\\\|AO\\-74\\\|3}} to Kerama Retto on the 9th. On 10 April, the destroyer escort departed the Okinawa area, bound for [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") in the screen for 12 transports.", "### Screening 3rd Fleet logistics force", "Arriving at Guam on the 14th, Willmarth developed boiler trouble while there and spent the entire month of May and most of June undergoing repairs. On 28 June, the destroyer escort got underway for Ulithi. En route, she picked up a sonar contact, and in company with {{USS\\\|Trippe\\\|DD\\-403\\\|3}}, over the ensuing two days, conducted an unsuccessful hunt. Willmarth then proceeded on to Ulithi where she arrived on the last day of June.", "Underway again on 3 July, Willmarth stood out of Ulithi lagoon screening the logistics force of the [3rd Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Third_Fleet \"United States Third Fleet\") which would provide the needed supplies for Admiral [William F. Halsey](/wiki/William_Halsey%2C_Jr. \"William Halsey, Jr.\")'s [fast carrier task forces](/wiki/Fast_carrier_task_force \"Fast carrier task force\") as it pounded the Japanese homeland. During the passage north, the destroyer escort planeguarded for {{USS\\\|Steamer Bay\\\|CVE\\-87\\\|3}} and conducted anti\\-submarine screening operations. She picked up the crew of a downed [Grumman TBF Avenger](/wiki/Grumman_TBF_Avenger \"Grumman TBF Avenger\") on 20 July. On that occasion, two swimmers from Willmarth helped to get the downed airmen on board. However, one of the crewmen died. The two survivors and the body of the dead man were transferred to Steamer Bay later that day.", "Willmarth subsequently planeguarded for {{USS\\\|Gilbert Islands\\\|CVE\\-107\\\|3}} in early August, continuing her screening and escort duties with TG\\-30 – the replenishment group for the 3rd Fleet. She was at sea when the [atomic bombs were dropped upon Hiroshima and Nagasaki](/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki \"Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\") on 6 and 9 August, respectively, and when [Japan surrendered on the 15th](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\").", "### Post\\-war activities", "Willmarth remained on escort duty off the coast of Japan into September. In mid\\-September, the ship underwent an availability in [Tokyo Bay](/wiki/Tokyo_Bay \"Tokyo Bay\") and rode out a storm there on 18 September. Departing Tokyo Bay on 24 September to return to the United States, Willmarth touched at Pearl Harbor, San Diego, and the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") before undergoing an overhaul at [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\") which lasted until late in October.", "### Decommissioning and disposal", "Shifting to the [St. Johns River](/wiki/St._Johns_River \"St. Johns River\"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\"), soon thereafter, Willmarth prepared for inactivation with the Florida group of the 16th (Reserve) Fleet. Berthed in the [Green Cove Springs](/wiki/Green_Cove_Springs \"Green Cove Springs\") facility, Willmarth was decommissioned on 26 April 1946 and placed in reserve. She remained there until struck from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") on 1 December 1966\\. Sold on 1 July 1968 to the [North American Smelting Company](/wiki/North_American_Smelting_Company \"North American Smelting Company\"), of [Wilmington, Delaware](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Delaware \"Wilmington, Delaware\"), the ship was broken up for scrap soon thereafter.", "" ]
### Philippines campaign Willmarth proceeded north with her convoy, while American troops splashed ashore on the beaches of [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte "Leyte") to commence the [liberation of the Philippines](/wiki/Philippines_campaign%2C_1944-45 "Philippines campaign, 1944-45"). On the 23rd, three days after the main landing began, the destroyer escort anchored off Leyte midway between the northern and southern transport areas while her oilers refueled the ships from Task Group (TG) 77\.2\. That evening, Willmarth steamed eastward toward a night anchorage and, at 18:25, observed [anti\-aircraft](/wiki/Anti-aircraft "Anti-aircraft") fire over the northern transport area. Underway again off [Homonhon Island](/wiki/Homonhon_Island "Homonhon Island") early the next morning, the destroyer escort received a report of enemy [aircraft](/wiki/Aircraft "Aircraft") orbiting over the northern transport area. As she steamed along the convoy's flank, she commenced making black smoke at 08:44 to lay a protective screen in anticipation of the enemy's arrival. While the radio crackled with reports of ships under attack, Willmarth spotted no enemy planes nearby, only many puffs of "flak" splattering the skies to the westward of her screening position in the refueling group. With the receipt of a "flash white" at 13:43, the oilers resumed refueling TG 77\.2\. Willmarth shifted to [Samar Island](/wiki/Samar_Island "Samar Island") shortly before 17:00 before going to general quarters at 17:06 upon receipt of a "flash red." After waiting for well over an hour for the enemy to make an appearance, the convoy stopped and prepared to anchor for the night. At 18:43, however, three ["Jills"](/wiki/Nakajima_B6N "Nakajima B6N") roared in low from the east, [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") slung menacingly beneath their bellies. Willmarth{{'s}} guns opened fire on two just before they released their "fish." One torpedo holed Ashtabula and forced her to a halt, dead in the water. While the oiler's repair parties controlled the flooding and patched the hole, the convoy passed out of [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf "Leyte Gulf") and reformed in the wake of the attack. Eventually, Ashtabula, repairs effected, rejoined at 22:30\. Willmarth and the convoy remained underway throughout the evening, maneuvering on various courses and speeds in Leyte Gulf until the first rays of sunlight streaked the eastern skies. After going to general quarters at 04:58, the destroyer escort remained at battle stations throughout the day. Less than an hour after her crew first closed up at action stations, two "Jills" attacked the convoy from the westward. Willmarth immediately opened fire with her {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} and {{convert\\|1\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} batteries. As one "Jill" roared across the stern of the convoy, it was caught by gunfire from Willmarth and other ships of the convoy and crashed in flames far astern. While maneuvering and making smoke to mask the convoy, the destroyer escort spotted a floating [mine](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine") which she sank with gunfire. Soon thereafter, another "Jill" passed through the area and drew fire from Willmarth. Unfortunately, the shells were not observed to hit; and the plane escaped. The convoy anchored in the fueling area at 11:52, three hours after the last attack. Willmarth and the other escorts screened the convoy and provided an [anti\-submarine](/wiki/Anti-submarine "Anti-submarine") screen patrol around the valuable auxiliaries. Later that afternoon, Willmarth repulsed an attack made by a lone plane which came out of the sun in a glide\-bombing attack at 14:20\. The destroyer escort's gunfire damaged the plane and caused it to spin into the water about five miles (8 km) away. The convoy departed the fueling area at 16:46\. Frequent alerts and enemy planes enlivened the evening hours as the group maneuvered throughout the night in a retirement formation. Willmarth{{'s}} war diarist noted that the [Japanese](/wiki/Japan "Japan") planes seemed loath to attack ships in the fueling area during daylight, probably because of the heavy concentration of anti\-aircraft fire that could be directed at an attacker. The next day, 26 October, saw a repetition of the same routine that had kept the destroyer escort active since her arrival in Leyte Gulf three days earlier. After maneuvering on screening duties through the night, the warship spotted a lone ["Val" dive bomber](/wiki/Aichi_D3A "Aichi D3A") making an attack at 05:50; Willmarth opened fire from {{convert\\|6000\\|yd}} but failed to score any hits. Within minutes, she and her sister escorts were laying smoke screens to cover the convoy for the next hour. Thereafter, they provided anti\-submarine screening protection while the oilers conducted fueling operations.	[ "### Philippines campaign", "Willmarth proceeded north with her convoy, while American troops splashed ashore on the beaches of [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte \"Leyte\") to commence the [liberation of the Philippines](/wiki/Philippines_campaign%2C_1944-45 \"Philippines campaign, 1944-45\"). On the 23rd, three days after the main landing began, the destroyer escort anchored off Leyte midway between the northern and southern transport areas while her oilers refueled the ships from Task Group (TG) 77\\.2\\. That evening, Willmarth steamed eastward toward a night anchorage and, at 18:25, observed [anti\\-aircraft](/wiki/Anti-aircraft \"Anti-aircraft\") fire over the northern transport area.", "Underway again off [Homonhon Island](/wiki/Homonhon_Island \"Homonhon Island\") early the next morning, the destroyer escort received a report of enemy [aircraft](/wiki/Aircraft \"Aircraft\") orbiting over the northern transport area. As she steamed along the convoy's flank, she commenced making black smoke at 08:44 to lay a protective screen in anticipation of the enemy's arrival. While the radio crackled with reports of ships under attack, Willmarth spotted no enemy planes nearby, only many puffs of \"flak\" splattering the skies to the westward of her screening position in the refueling group.", "With the receipt of a \"flash white\" at 13:43, the oilers resumed refueling TG 77\\.2\\. Willmarth shifted to [Samar Island](/wiki/Samar_Island \"Samar Island\") shortly before 17:00 before going to general quarters at 17:06 upon receipt of a \"flash red.\" After waiting for well over an hour for the enemy to make an appearance, the convoy stopped and prepared to anchor for the night.", "At 18:43, however, three [\"Jills\"](/wiki/Nakajima_B6N \"Nakajima B6N\") roared in low from the east, [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") slung menacingly beneath their bellies. Willmarth{{'s}} guns opened fire on two just before they released their \"fish.\" One torpedo holed Ashtabula and forced her to a halt, dead in the water. While the oiler's repair parties controlled the flooding and patched the hole, the convoy passed out of [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf \"Leyte Gulf\") and reformed in the wake of the attack. Eventually, Ashtabula, repairs effected, rejoined at 22:30\\.", "Willmarth and the convoy remained underway throughout the evening, maneuvering on various courses and speeds in Leyte Gulf until the first rays of sunlight streaked the eastern skies. After going to general quarters at 04:58, the destroyer escort remained at battle stations throughout the day. Less than an hour after her crew first closed up at action stations, two \"Jills\" attacked the convoy from the westward. Willmarth immediately opened fire with her {{convert\\\|3\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} and {{convert\\\|1\\.1\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} batteries. As one \"Jill\" roared across the stern of the convoy, it was caught by gunfire from Willmarth and other ships of the convoy and crashed in flames far astern.", "While maneuvering and making smoke to mask the convoy, the destroyer escort spotted a floating [mine](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\") which she sank with gunfire. Soon thereafter, another \"Jill\" passed through the area and drew fire from Willmarth. Unfortunately, the shells were not observed to hit; and the plane escaped.", "The convoy anchored in the fueling area at 11:52, three hours after the last attack. Willmarth and the other escorts screened the convoy and provided an [anti\\-submarine](/wiki/Anti-submarine \"Anti-submarine\") screen patrol around the valuable auxiliaries. Later that afternoon, Willmarth repulsed an attack made by a lone plane which came out of the sun in a glide\\-bombing attack at 14:20\\. The destroyer escort's gunfire damaged the plane and caused it to spin into the water about five miles (8 km) away.", "The convoy departed the fueling area at 16:46\\. Frequent alerts and enemy planes enlivened the evening hours as the group maneuvered throughout the night in a retirement formation. Willmarth{{'s}} war diarist noted that the [Japanese](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") planes seemed loath to attack ships in the fueling area during daylight, probably because of the heavy concentration of anti\\-aircraft fire that could be directed at an attacker.", "The next day, 26 October, saw a repetition of the same routine that had kept the destroyer escort active since her arrival in Leyte Gulf three days earlier. After maneuvering on screening duties through the night, the warship spotted a lone [\"Val\" dive bomber](/wiki/Aichi_D3A \"Aichi D3A\") making an attack at 05:50; Willmarth opened fire from {{convert\\\|6000\\\|yd}} but failed to score any hits. Within minutes, she and her sister escorts were laying smoke screens to cover the convoy for the next hour. Thereafter, they provided anti\\-submarine screening protection while the oilers conducted fueling operations.", "" ]
### Western New Guinea campaign For the next three days, Willmarth screened the convoy to its destination – [Mapia](/wiki/Mapia "Mapia") and [Asia Islands](/wiki/Asia_Islands "Asia Islands"), near [Morotai](/wiki/Morotai "Morotai") – before arriving in the invasion area on the 11th. As the convoy neared Morotai, Willmarth{{'s}} lookouts observed anti\-aircraft fire between 04:15 and 05:30\. Two "bogies" passed within four miles (6 km) of the convoy; but, as Wilmarth's war diarist recorded, "evidently they either did not sight us or were not interested, as they proceeded directly toward the area from which flak appeared." There was a reason why Willmarth did not open fire on the two planes that seemed so close – she carried the only reliable air\-warning radar in the entire convoy and to open fire prematurely would have disclosed the position of the little convoy and exposed it to possible air attacks. At 08:32, the destroyer escort anchored just off the southern coast of Morotai, near Ariadne, while the remainder of the convoy (save the LCM's) proceeded to another part of the island to load for the impending invasion of Mapia and Asia Islands. The mission of the assault group was to establish weather station and [LORAN](/wiki/LORAN "LORAN") – long range radio aid to navigation – facilities. On 13 November, with the assault ships having embarked their troops, Willmarth got underway in company with TG 78\.14, bound for [Pegun Island](/wiki/Pegun_Island "Pegun Island"). At 05:00, two days later – she was joined by {{USS\\|Shaw\\|DD\-373\\|3}} and {{USS\\|Caldwell\\|DD\-605\\|3}}. Willmarth, the two destroyers, and PC\-1122 bombarded the southern part of the island prior to the landings and provoked no return fire from the beach. After a half\-hour of firing, Ariadne signalled that "H" hour was 06:30, meaning that the first wave of [LVT(A)s](/wiki/Landing_Vehicle_Tracked "Landing Vehicle Tracked") would hit the reef at that time. Willmarth remained at her bombardment station for the rest of the morning, ceasing fire as the first assault wave splashed toward the beachhead. The accompanying LCI(G)'s laid their own barrage, thus obviating the need for the destroyers' gunfire. By noon, the island was in American hands. When surrounded, the remaining garrison – only 12 to 14 Japanese soldiers – committed suicide. Meanwhile, since she was not needed for bombardment, Willmarth patrolled to the northward of the invasion beach and came across canoes full of natives to the north. One native, speaking good English, told Willmarth that the remainder of the Japanese garrison, about 170 men, had waded across the reef to [Bras Island](/wiki/Bras_Island "Bras Island") the previous night – thus accounting for the sparse reception given the invasion forces. While plans were being laid to go after this remnant on Bras Island, Willmarth conducted anti\-submarine patrol around the unloading assault craft and made abortive attempts to pull several LCI's that had been stranded by low tides off the reefs. At 17:30 on the 15th, the destroyer escort succeeded in towing one off after about an hour's time and began operations to free another one of the infantry assault craft. However, the destroyer escort's efforts were frustrated by the line's parting and the near approach of darkness. Four LCI(G)'s had to be left on the reef – as was one LCI – when the task group headed for Morotai. Arriving on 17 November, Willmarth fueled from Salamonie before anchoring. Underway again on the 18th, with the Asia Island occupation force, Willmarth and two PC's served as escort for Ariadne, four LCM's, four LCI's, and four LCI(G)'s. Embarked in the assault craft were 400 troops. Three\-fourths of a mile off [Igi Island](/wiki/Igi_Island "Igi Island"), Willmarth, Ariadne, and PC\-1122 conducted shore bombardment from 05:42 to 06:19 on the 19th. Troops splashed ashore from landing craft eight minutes after the bombardment ceased and met no opposition. An unfortunate result of the shore bombardment was that two natives were wounded and one killed – the Japanese had evacuated the island in the face of imminent invasion the previous evening. Willmarth subsequently screened the movement of the convoy to the [Mapia Islands](/wiki/Mapia_Islands "Mapia Islands"), where the landing craft loaded troops and unloaded shore personnel and supplies. When the loading was completed at 18:00 on the 20th, the convoy shifted to Asia Island, where the destroyer escort screened the landing craft as they embarked more troops on the 21st. Willmarth continued her screening duties until arriving in the southernanchorage near the naval base at Morotai Island at 12:38 on 22 November. While there, the escort vessel witnessed an enemy night air raid on the airfield installations on Morotai. The Japanese boldly conducted their attacks despite anti\-aircraft fire and searchlights. Local port restrictions forbade the use of any anti\-aircraft batteries larger than 40 millimeter. Willmarth{{'s}} war diary sadly noted this restriction, recommending that 3\-inch gunfire could do very little damage to shore installations in the area. While the rest of TG 78\.14 departed Morotai on the 23rd, Willmarth remained behind as LSM\-205 and LSM\-314 loaded equipment for the Asia and Mapia Island forces. She then escorted those craft to Hollandia where they delivered their cargo. Over the next three days, Willmarth escorted the two landing craft on their appointed rounds, dropping off supplies at Asia and Mapia Islands. At one point, the arrival of the little convoy at Mapia on the 26th almost went unnoticed. Willmarth experienced great difficulty contacting anyone on shore: "We finally succeeded in rousing someone by blowing our siren and whistle together." A [jeep](/wiki/Willys_MB "Willys MB") soon appeared on the beach, its occupants using the headlights to signal. Heavier swells than at Asia Island made unloading through the surf difficult. One of the LSM's was holed several times by scraping on the jagged coral heads of the reef. When unloading was completed at 11:30, the diminutive convoy headed for Hollandia.	[ "### Western New Guinea campaign", "For the next three days, Willmarth screened the convoy to its destination – [Mapia](/wiki/Mapia \"Mapia\") and [Asia Islands](/wiki/Asia_Islands \"Asia Islands\"), near [Morotai](/wiki/Morotai \"Morotai\") – before arriving in the invasion area on the 11th. As the convoy neared Morotai, Willmarth{{'s}} lookouts observed anti\\-aircraft fire between 04:15 and 05:30\\. Two \"bogies\" passed within four miles (6 km) of the convoy; but, as Wilmarth's war diarist recorded, \"evidently they either did not sight us or were not interested, as they proceeded directly toward the area from which flak appeared.\" There was a reason why Willmarth did not open fire on the two planes that seemed so close – she carried the only reliable air\\-warning radar in the entire convoy and to open fire prematurely would have disclosed the position of the little convoy and exposed it to possible air attacks. At 08:32, the destroyer escort anchored just off the southern coast of Morotai, near Ariadne, while the remainder of the convoy (save the LCM's) proceeded to another part of the island to load for the impending invasion of Mapia and Asia Islands. The mission of the assault group was to establish weather station and [LORAN](/wiki/LORAN \"LORAN\") – long range radio aid to navigation – facilities.", "On 13 November, with the assault ships having embarked their troops, Willmarth got underway in company with TG 78\\.14, bound for [Pegun Island](/wiki/Pegun_Island \"Pegun Island\"). At 05:00, two days later – she was joined by {{USS\\\|Shaw\\\|DD\\-373\\\|3}} and {{USS\\\|Caldwell\\\|DD\\-605\\\|3}}. Willmarth, the two destroyers, and PC\\-1122 bombarded the southern part of the island prior to the landings and provoked no return fire from the beach. After a half\\-hour of firing, Ariadne signalled that \"H\" hour was 06:30, meaning that the first wave of [LVT(A)s](/wiki/Landing_Vehicle_Tracked \"Landing Vehicle Tracked\") would hit the reef at that time.", "Willmarth remained at her bombardment station for the rest of the morning, ceasing fire as the first assault wave splashed toward the beachhead. The accompanying LCI(G)'s laid their own barrage, thus obviating the need for the destroyers' gunfire. By noon, the island was in American hands. When surrounded, the remaining garrison – only 12 to 14 Japanese soldiers – committed suicide.", "Meanwhile, since she was not needed for bombardment, Willmarth patrolled to the northward of the invasion beach and came across canoes full of natives to the north. One native, speaking good English, told Willmarth that the remainder of the Japanese garrison, about 170 men, had waded across the reef to [Bras Island](/wiki/Bras_Island \"Bras Island\") the previous night – thus accounting for the sparse reception given the invasion forces.", "While plans were being laid to go after this remnant on Bras Island, Willmarth conducted anti\\-submarine patrol around the unloading assault craft and made abortive attempts to pull several LCI's that had been stranded by low tides off the reefs. At 17:30 on the 15th, the destroyer escort succeeded in towing one off after about an hour's time and began operations to free another one of the infantry assault craft. However, the destroyer escort's efforts were frustrated by the line's parting and the near approach of darkness.", "Four LCI(G)'s had to be left on the reef – as was one LCI – when the task group headed for Morotai. Arriving on 17 November, Willmarth fueled from Salamonie before anchoring. Underway again on the 18th, with the Asia Island occupation force, Willmarth and two PC's served as escort for Ariadne, four LCM's, four LCI's, and four LCI(G)'s. Embarked in the assault craft were 400 troops.", "Three\\-fourths of a mile off [Igi Island](/wiki/Igi_Island \"Igi Island\"), Willmarth, Ariadne, and PC\\-1122 conducted shore bombardment from 05:42 to 06:19 on the 19th. Troops splashed ashore from landing craft eight minutes after the bombardment ceased and met no opposition. An unfortunate result of the shore bombardment was that two natives were wounded and one killed – the Japanese had evacuated the island in the face of imminent invasion the previous evening.", "Willmarth subsequently screened the movement of the convoy to the [Mapia Islands](/wiki/Mapia_Islands \"Mapia Islands\"), where the landing craft loaded troops and unloaded shore personnel and supplies. When the loading was completed at 18:00 on the 20th, the convoy shifted to Asia Island, where the destroyer escort screened the landing craft as they embarked more troops on the 21st. Willmarth continued her screening duties until arriving in the southernanchorage near the naval base at Morotai Island at 12:38 on 22 November. While there, the escort vessel witnessed an enemy night air raid on the airfield installations on Morotai. The Japanese boldly conducted their attacks despite anti\\-aircraft fire and searchlights. Local port restrictions forbade the use of any anti\\-aircraft batteries larger than 40 millimeter. Willmarth{{'s}} war diary sadly noted this restriction, recommending that 3\\-inch gunfire could do very little damage to shore installations in the area.", "While the rest of TG 78\\.14 departed Morotai on the 23rd, Willmarth remained behind as LSM\\-205 and LSM\\-314 loaded equipment for the Asia and Mapia Island forces. She then escorted those craft to Hollandia where they delivered their cargo. Over the next three days, Willmarth escorted the two landing craft on their appointed rounds, dropping off supplies at Asia and Mapia Islands. At one point, the arrival of the little convoy at Mapia on the 26th almost went unnoticed.", "Willmarth experienced great difficulty contacting anyone on shore: \"We finally succeeded in rousing someone by blowing our siren and whistle together.\" A [jeep](/wiki/Willys_MB \"Willys MB\") soon appeared on the beach, its occupants using the headlights to signal. Heavier swells than at Asia Island made unloading through the surf difficult. One of the LSM's was holed several times by scraping on the jagged coral heads of the reef. When unloading was completed at 11:30, the diminutive convoy headed for Hollandia.", "" ]
### Okinawa campaign At Ulithi, Willmarth was assigned to [Task Force 54](/wiki/Okinawa_naval_order_of_battle%23Gunfire_and_Covering_Force_%28Task_Force_54%29 "Okinawa naval order of battle#Gunfire and Covering Force (Task Force 54)") (TF 54\) – the pre\-invasion bombardment group for the [invasion of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa "Battle of Okinawa"). She got underway again on the 21st to as part of [Fire Support Unit](/wiki/Naval_gunfire_support "Naval gunfire support") 2 (TU 54\.1\.2\) built around the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship") {{USS\\|Colorado\\|BB\-45\\|3}}, in Fire Support (FS) areas 4 and 5, off [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"). The destroyer escort screened Colorado for the entire day on 26 March as the battleship delivered gunfire support for the troops ashore. Over the next two days, the warship screened fire support units and escorted them to night retirement areas. She was refuelled at [Kerama Retto](/wiki/Kerama_Retto "Kerama Retto") on the 30th before returning to screening duties with heavy units off the island. On 1 April, she was steaming on station 16 of a circular screen around TU 54\.3\.2, a night retirement group built around the battleship {{USS\\|Idaho\\|BB\-42\\|3}}, when several enemy planes flew near the convoy. Screening destroyers fired upon the intruders who probably did not come to attack the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") force but merely to keep it awake and permit it little rest. Detached from this duty to provide a screen for {{USS\\|Arkansas\\|BB\-33\\|3}}, one of the oldest battleships on active service in the Navy, Willmarth operated to seaward as the battleship worked inshore to open fire on Japanese positions holding up the American advance near [Naha Airport](/wiki/Naha_Airport "Naha Airport"). After commencing this duty at 06:30, Willmarth had been serving on anti\-submarine patrol for over six hours when Japanese [shore battery](/wiki/Shore_battery "Shore battery") guns boomed out salvoes at Arkansas. Arkansas{{'}} main battery trained 'round to reply and quickly commenced [counter\-battery fire](/wiki/Counter-battery_fire "Counter-battery fire"). At the time of the initial firing, Willmarth was located about {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km}} southwestward of the battleship, maintaining her screening position to seaward. At 13:23, a Japanese shell hurtled over Willmarth{{'s}} bridge "plainly heard" by all men there. It splashed beyond the ship, {{convert\\|150\\|yd}} away. With only one boiler operating (the other had been secured to repair a leaking gasket) the destroyer escort was hampered in getting away, but she headed seaward at her best speed. Soon another shell landed only {{convert\\|15\\|yd}} beyond the destroyer escort's starboard quarter. While increasing the range, Willmarth turned toward each splash, thus avoiding getting hit by the Japanese guns. Arkansas, by this time beyond gun range of the Nipponese guns, did not conduct any further counter\-battery fire; Willmarth soon emerged from the enemy battery's zone of fire and proceeded to sea unscathed. After retiring to Kerama Retto soon thereafter for fueling, Willmarth operated on screening station A\-27 until 6 April, when she returned to Kerama Retto with an [appendicitis](/wiki/Appendicitis "Appendicitis") patient on board for medical treatment. Several bogies flew near the ship while she steamed to the fleet anchorage, and one was downed by a nearby ship at 02:00\. As the Japanese air arm had been decimated by this point in the war, the lack of trained and experienced pilots led to its most extensive deployment of [kamikaze attacks](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze") during this battle. At 15:25, while still {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km}} north of Kerama Retto, Willmarth spotted three "Val" dive bombers. One peeled off and maneuvered to make an attack. Ten minutes later, the "Val" turned kamikaze, attempting to crashing into Willmarth. Heavy {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} and {{convert\\|1\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} fire bracketed the plane when she became visible, dodging in and out of the broken clouds overhead. Seven {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\=on}} bursts rocked the plane as she made her deadly approach. Lookouts on the destroyer escort noted a thin line of smoke tracking from the suicider's port wing as he went into his dive. The 20\-millimeter battery on Wilmarth opened fire when the plane's range lessened to {{convert\\|2000\\|yd}}; and, at {{convert\\|800\\|yd}}, the Oerlikons seemed to have their effect. Pieces of the "Val's" wing began flying off in the slipstream, indicating that the shells were beginning to hit. Six feet of the port wing soon broke away, shot off by the flak, and the "Val" spun into the sea {{convert\\|20\\|yd}} off the ship's port side, slightly abaft her beam. Willmarth entered Kerama Retto at 16:10; and, while preparing to anchor, saw {{USS\\|LST\-447\\|\\|2}} hit by a kamikaze south of the harbor entrance. Flames had engulfed the entire amidships section of the stricken landing ship, and explosions tore holes in the stricken ship's side. The jagged edges in turn ripped gashes in Willmarth{{'s}} hull at the waterline. One hole, unfortunately, opened up one of the destroyer escort's fuel tanks, and the oil leaking out made further close operations hazardous. Willmarth stood clear while dense smoke from the burning LST further complicated firefighting. Eventually, the destroyer escort picked up the ship's survivors and later transferred them to {{USS\\|Crescent City\\|APA\-21\\|3}}. While steaming to the ship's anchorage in the harbor, she took an enemy plane under fire as it approached from the south; and multiple gunfire from all ships present in the harbor knocked it down. Willmarth anchored, transferred her appendicitis patient ashore, and patched the hole in her side caused by the damaged LST\-447 before proceeding on the 7th to screening station "Able\-60" near the transport area off the west coast of Okinawa. Following her shift to another screening station on the morning of the 8th, Willmarth escorted {{USS\\|Saranac\\|AO\-74\\|3}} to Kerama Retto on the 9th. On 10 April, the destroyer escort departed the Okinawa area, bound for [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") in the screen for 12 transports.	[ "### Okinawa campaign", "At Ulithi, Willmarth was assigned to [Task Force 54](/wiki/Okinawa_naval_order_of_battle%23Gunfire_and_Covering_Force_%28Task_Force_54%29 \"Okinawa naval order of battle#Gunfire and Covering Force (Task Force 54)\") (TF 54\\) – the pre\\-invasion bombardment group for the [invasion of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa \"Battle of Okinawa\"). She got underway again on the 21st to as part of [Fire Support Unit](/wiki/Naval_gunfire_support \"Naval gunfire support\") 2 (TU 54\\.1\\.2\\) built around the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\") {{USS\\\|Colorado\\\|BB\\-45\\\|3}}, in Fire Support (FS) areas 4 and 5, off [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"). The destroyer escort screened Colorado for the entire day on 26 March as the battleship delivered gunfire support for the troops ashore. Over the next two days, the warship screened fire support units and escorted them to night retirement areas. She was refuelled at [Kerama Retto](/wiki/Kerama_Retto \"Kerama Retto\") on the 30th before returning to screening duties with heavy units off the island.", "On 1 April, she was steaming on station 16 of a circular screen around TU 54\\.3\\.2, a night retirement group built around the battleship {{USS\\\|Idaho\\\|BB\\-42\\\|3}}, when several enemy planes flew near the convoy. Screening destroyers fired upon the intruders who probably did not come to attack the [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") force but merely to keep it awake and permit it little rest.", "Detached from this duty to provide a screen for {{USS\\\|Arkansas\\\|BB\\-33\\\|3}}, one of the oldest battleships on active service in the Navy, Willmarth operated to seaward as the battleship worked inshore to open fire on Japanese positions holding up the American advance near [Naha Airport](/wiki/Naha_Airport \"Naha Airport\"). After commencing this duty at 06:30, Willmarth had been serving on anti\\-submarine patrol for over six hours when Japanese [shore battery](/wiki/Shore_battery \"Shore battery\") guns boomed out salvoes at Arkansas.", "Arkansas{{'}} main battery trained 'round to reply and quickly commenced [counter\\-battery fire](/wiki/Counter-battery_fire \"Counter-battery fire\"). At the time of the initial firing, Willmarth was located about {{convert\\\|1\\\|mi\\\|km}} southwestward of the battleship, maintaining her screening position to seaward. At 13:23, a Japanese shell hurtled over Willmarth{{'s}} bridge \"plainly heard\" by all men there. It splashed beyond the ship, {{convert\\\|150\\\|yd}} away. With only one boiler operating (the other had been secured to repair a leaking gasket) the destroyer escort was hampered in getting away, but she headed seaward at her best speed. Soon another shell landed only {{convert\\\|15\\\|yd}} beyond the destroyer escort's starboard quarter. While increasing the range, Willmarth turned toward each splash, thus avoiding getting hit by the Japanese guns. Arkansas, by this time beyond gun range of the Nipponese guns, did not conduct any further counter\\-battery fire; Willmarth soon emerged from the enemy battery's zone of fire and proceeded to sea unscathed.", "After retiring to Kerama Retto soon thereafter for fueling, Willmarth operated on screening station A\\-27 until 6 April, when she returned to Kerama Retto with an [appendicitis](/wiki/Appendicitis \"Appendicitis\") patient on board for medical treatment. Several bogies flew near the ship while she steamed to the fleet anchorage, and one was downed by a nearby ship at 02:00\\.", "As the Japanese air arm had been decimated by this point in the war, the lack of trained and experienced pilots led to its most extensive deployment of [kamikaze attacks](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") during this battle. At 15:25, while still {{convert\\\|3\\\|mi\\\|km}} north of Kerama Retto, Willmarth spotted three \"Val\" dive bombers. One peeled off and maneuvered to make an attack. Ten minutes later, the \"Val\" turned kamikaze, attempting to crashing into Willmarth. Heavy {{convert\\\|3\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} and {{convert\\\|1\\.1\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} fire bracketed the plane when she became visible, dodging in and out of the broken clouds overhead. Seven {{convert\\\|3\\\|in\\\|mm\\\|adj\\=on}} bursts rocked the plane as she made her deadly approach. Lookouts on the destroyer escort noted a thin line of smoke tracking from the suicider's port wing as he went into his dive. The 20\\-millimeter battery on Wilmarth opened fire when the plane's range lessened to {{convert\\\|2000\\\|yd}}; and, at {{convert\\\|800\\\|yd}}, the Oerlikons seemed to have their effect. Pieces of the \"Val's\" wing began flying off in the slipstream, indicating that the shells were beginning to hit. Six feet of the port wing soon broke away, shot off by the flak, and the \"Val\" spun into the sea {{convert\\\|20\\\|yd}} off the ship's port side, slightly abaft her beam.", "Willmarth entered Kerama Retto at 16:10; and, while preparing to anchor, saw {{USS\\\|LST\\-447\\\|\\\|2}} hit by a kamikaze south of the harbor entrance. Flames had engulfed the entire amidships section of the stricken landing ship, and explosions tore holes in the stricken ship's side. The jagged edges in turn ripped gashes in Willmarth{{'s}} hull at the waterline. One hole, unfortunately, opened up one of the destroyer escort's fuel tanks, and the oil leaking out made further close operations hazardous.", "Willmarth stood clear while dense smoke from the burning LST further complicated firefighting. Eventually, the destroyer escort picked up the ship's survivors and later transferred them to {{USS\\\|Crescent City\\\|APA\\-21\\\|3}}. While steaming to the ship's anchorage in the harbor, she took an enemy plane under fire as it approached from the south; and multiple gunfire from all ships present in the harbor knocked it down.", "Willmarth anchored, transferred her appendicitis patient ashore, and patched the hole in her side caused by the damaged LST\\-447 before proceeding on the 7th to screening station \"Able\\-60\" near the transport area off the west coast of Okinawa. Following her shift to another screening station on the morning of the 8th, Willmarth escorted {{USS\\\|Saranac\\\|AO\\-74\\\|3}} to Kerama Retto on the 9th. On 10 April, the destroyer escort departed the Okinawa area, bound for [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") in the screen for 12 transports.", "" ]
Background ---------- ### Federal law In 1834, [Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") passed the [Indian Trade and Intercourse Act](/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act "Nonintercourse Act")Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1834, June 30, 1834, chap. 161, § 25, {{USStat\\|4\\|733}}, amended by Act of Mar. 27, 1854, chap. 26,§ 3, {{USStat\\|10\\|270}}, codified at R.S. § 2145; 1 {{smallcaps\\|Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties}} 18 (Charles J. Kappler ed. 1904\). to regulate trade with the Indians and to provide the United States with [criminal jurisdiction](/wiki/Criminal_jurisdiction "Criminal jurisdiction") for crimes committed by or against Indians. This law provided for trial in a federal court for crimes committed by an Indian against a non\-Indian or vice versa.{{\#tag:ref\\|It did not provide for Indian on Indian crimes until after 1885\. For more information on that subject, see ''\[\[Ex parte Crow Dog]]'' and \[\[Major Crimes Act]].\\|group\=fn}} At the time of passage, federal jurisdiction over the [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory "Indian Territory") was given to the U.S. court in [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas "Arkansas") and, in 1851, this was clarified as the [United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Western_District_of_Arkansas "United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas").{{\#tag:ref\\|At the time, this jurisdiction primarily affected non\-Indians. Indian on Indian crime was handled by the tribes until ''\[\[Ex parte Crow Dog]]'' led to the enactment of a law giving federal courts jurisdiction over those crimes.{{smallcaps\\|Crooked Paths to Allotment: The Fight over Federal Indian Policy after the Civil War}} 1829–30 (C. Joseph Genetin\-Pilawa ed. 2012\).\\|group\=fn}}Genetin\-Pilawa, at 1830\. In 1890, this law was amended to create the [Oklahoma Territory](/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory "Oklahoma Territory") and to give the federal courts in western Arkansas, southern [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas"), and eastern [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas") jurisdiction over the Indian Territory.{{\#tag:ref\\|The location of the murder for this case was in the Oklahoma Territory section, in what is now Osage County.\\|group\=fn}}Oklahoma Organic Act, May 2, 1890, chap. 182, {{USStat\\|26\\|81}}; Kappler at 51\. ### Territory, statehood and allotment [thumb\\|400px\\|left\\|alt\=Oklahoma and Indian Territory map, circa 1890s, created using Census Bureau Data\\|Oklahoma and Indian Territory map, circa 1890s, created using Census Bureau Data](/wiki/File:Okterritory.png "Okterritory.png") In 1870, the federal government purchased the [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas") reservation from the [Osage Nation](/wiki/Osage_Nation "Osage Nation"). The tribe then purchased {{convert\\|1,470,559\\| acres}} of land in the [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory "Indian Territory") from the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation "Cherokee Nation").{{smallcaps\\|Donald Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century}} 28 (1998\); {{smallcaps\\|Dennis McAuliffe}}, {{smallcaps\\| Bloodland: A Family Story of Oil, Greed and Murder on the Osage Reservation}} 44–45 (1994\). The land was not suited for farming, but had abundant game.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 28–29\. In 1890 when Congress passed the [Oklahoma Organic Act](/wiki/Oklahoma_Organic_Act "Oklahoma Organic Act") forming both the Oklahoma and Indian territories, the Osage Indian Reservation was part of the [Oklahoma Territory](/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory "Oklahoma Territory").{{\#tag:ref\\|The Indian territory consisted of the land of the \[\[Five Civilized Tribes]] and several small tribes in the northeastern corner, while the Oklahoma Territory consisted of all other land in present day Oklahoma.\\|group\=fn}} In 1887, Congress passed the [Dawes Act](/wiki/Dawes_Act "Dawes Act"),Dawes Act of 1887, Feb. 8, 1887, chap. 119, {{USStat\\|24\\|388}}; Kappler at 33–36\. which served to break up reservations and allot the land to tribal members. The act did not apply to the [Five Civilized Tribes](/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes "Five Civilized Tribes") or other tribes in the Indian territory nor to the Osage tribe in the Oklahoma territory. In 1898 the [Curtis Act](/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898 "Curtis Act of 1898")Curtis Act of 1898, June 28, 1898, chap. 517, {{USStat\\|30\\|495}} Kappler at 90–100\. applied allotment to the Five Civilized Tribes.{{smallcaps\\|Arlene B. Hirschfelder \& Martha Kreipe de Montaño}}, {{smallcaps\\|The Native American Almanac: A Portrait of Native America Today}} 294 (1998\); {{smallcaps\\|McAuliffe}} at 220\. The Osage tribe, seeing the disastrous effects of allotment, resisted it until 1906{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 34\. when they negotiated an allotment different in two major respects. First, land remaining after each enrolled tribal member received {{convert\\|160\\| acres}}, so\-called 'surplus land', was further divided among tribal members, not placed in the public domain for sale to the general public,{{Cite web \\| url\=https://maint.loc.gov/law/help/statutes\-at\-large/59th\-congress/session\-1/c59s1ch3572\.pdf \\| title\=Chapter 3572 \- An Act For the division of the lands and funds of the Osage Indians in Oklahoma Territory, and for other purposes \\| website\=maint.loc.gov}} and second, mineral rights were retained by the tribe,{{\#tag:ref\\|The tribe retained mineral rights for 20 years, until 1926, when they passed to whoever owned the land.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 35; {{smallcaps\\|McAuliffe}} at 220\.\\|group\=fn}} and not in a trust status through the federal government.{{smallcaps\\|McAuliffe}} at 47; Jon D. May, [Osage Murders](https://web.archive.org/web/20130729090945/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/O/OS005.html) {{smallcaps\\|}} (Apr. 7, 2007\) (archived from [original](http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/O/OS005.html), July 29, 2013\). The murder of [Henry Roan](/wiki/Henry_Roan "Henry Roan") took place on such an 'surplus allotment'. {{cite web \\| url\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/271/467/\#468 \\| title\=United States v. Ramsey, 271 U.S. 467 (1926\) }} ### Reign of terror This ownership of the land and mineral rights had another consequence. In 1896, Edwin B. Foster signed an oil lease for the entire Osage reservation.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 30–31; Gerald Forbes, [History of the Osage Blanket Lease](https://web.archive.org/web/20130711204126/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v019/v019p070.html), in 19 {{smallcaps\\|Chronicles of Oklahoma}} 70 (Mar. 1941\) (archived from [original](http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v019/v019p070.html), July 11, 2013\). By 1902 he was shipping 37,000 barrels of oil and by 1906 his companies were producing over 5 million barrels annually.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 32; Forbes at 73\. The Osage tribe was one of the wealthiest in the United States, but with the mineral rights transferring to the land owners in 1926, their murder rates also became the highest in the United States.{{smallcaps\\|McAuliffe}} at 220\. By 1925, Osage families were earning about $65,000 per year, compared to white families that were averaging $1,000\.{{smallcaps\\|Donald Lee Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Bureau of Indian Affairs}} 101 (2012\). Congress also passed a law providing that an Osage Indian who was less than half blood, as determined by the [Secretary of the Interior](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior "United States Secretary of the Interior"), did not have to wait to sell his or her land.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 37\. In the early 1920s, Osage Indians who owned [Osage headrights](/wiki/Osage_headrights "Osage headrights"), or land where they would obtain mineral rights, began to be murdered—the first two were Charles Whitehorn{{\#tag:ref\\|Whitehorn was found on a hill near his hometown of Pawhuska with two bullet holes between the eyes. Whitehorn was related to the Kyle family by blood.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 41\.\\|group\=fn}} and Anna Brown,{{\#tag:ref\\|Brown was found at a remote ravine, shot in the back of the head.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 39; {{smallcaps\\|The FBI: A Centennial History, 1908–2008}} 14 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2008\).\\|group\=fn}} both Osage Indians but killed separately.{{smallcaps\\|Louis F. Burns}}, {{smallcaps\\|A History of the Osage People}} 440 (2004\); May; Molly Stephey, [The Osage Murders: Oil Wealth, Betrayal and the FBI’s First Big Case](https://web.archive.org/web/20130816054423/http://blog.nmai.si.edu/main/2011/03/the-osage-murders-oil-wealth-betrayal-and-the-fbis-first-big-case.html)(Mar. 1, 2011\) (archived from [original](http://blog.nmai.si.edu/main/2011/03/the-osage-murders-oil-wealth-betrayal-and-the-fbis-first-big-case.html) Aug. 15, 2013\). In February 1923, [Henry Roan](/wiki/Henry_Roan "Henry Roan"), another Osage, was found in his car, shot once in the back of the head with a .45 caliber pistol.{{smallcaps\\|Burns}} at 440–41; May; Stephey. Less than a month later, an explosion in an Osage home killed Reta Smith, an Osage, her white husband W.E. Smith, and their white maid.{{smallcaps\\|Burns}} at 441; May; Stephey. Reta Smith was Brown's sister and the daughter of Lizzie Q. Kyle (also known as Lizzie Que), who had died and was thought to have been poisoned. Roan was Reta Smith's cousin.{{smallcaps\\|Burns}} at 440–41\. Que had three headrights and both daughters had a full headright and a fractional headright, worth a considerable amount of money.May. These would be inherited by a third daughter, Molly Burkhart,{{\#tag:ref\\|Molly was being slowly poisoned by \[\[Ernest Burkhart]].\\|group\=fn}} who was married to a white man, [Ernest Burkhart](/wiki/Ernest_Burkhart "Ernest Burkhart"). Ernest Burkhart was the nephew of a wealthy Texas rancher, [William K. Hale](/wiki/William_K._Hale "William K. Hale"),{{\#tag:ref\\|Hale referred to himself as "King of the Osages."{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 39\.\\|group\=fn}} who had moved to the Osage area. ### Federal investigation Following these deaths and several others,{{\#tag:ref\\|Joe Grayhorse was killed in 1921 shortly after making a land deal with Hale. Anna Stafford died mysteriously in 1922; her white widower married Hale's niece shortly after the death.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 41–42\. George Bigheart died after Hale and \[\[Ernest Burkhart]] took him to the hospital, where he talked to his attorney. The attorney was found dead the next day on the railroad right of way.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 42\.\\|group\=fn}} the Osage Tribal Council requested federal assistance since local authorities were apparently making no effort to solve the crimes.{{smallcaps\\|The FBI}} at 14; May; Stephey. The [U.S. Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/U.S._Bureau_of_Investigation "U.S. Bureau of Investigation") (BOI), which later became the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") (FBI), was assigned to conduct the investigation.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 39; {{smallcaps\\|The FBI}} at 14\. The BOI responded by sending in undercover agents disguised as cattle buyers and cowhands and, through their investigation, determined that the murders had been planned and executed at the direction of Hale.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 39; {{smallcaps\\|The FBI}} at 14; Stephey. Hale was implicated in the murder of Brown when Kelsie Morrison confessed in court.{{\#tag:ref\\|Morrison agreed to kill Brown to cancel a $600 debt he owed Hale; he also received a car and $1,060\.\\|group\=fn}}{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 40–41\. The BOI also discovered that Hale held a $25,000 insurance policy on Roan and noted that his nephew's wife had inherited all of the Kyle [headrights](/wiki/Osage_headright "Osage headright").{{\#tag:ref\\|The total amount would have been approximately $2 million.Stephey.\\|group\=fn}}{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 42; Stephey. Hale and John Ramsey were charged in federal court with the murder of Roan; Ernest Burkhart was charged in state court with arranging the Smith bombing. ### The trials [Ernest Burkhart](/wiki/Ernest_Burkhart "Ernest Burkhart") was tried first. Two weeks into the trial, realizing that he could not win, he changed his plea to guilty and became a witness for the state in exchange for a life sentence.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 42–43; May. Burkhart testified that Hale was behind the scheme, that Asa "Ace" Kirby was the bomber, and that [Henry Grammer](/wiki/Henry_Grammer "Henry Grammer") was the go\-between.{{\#tag:ref\\|'Coincidentally', both Kirby and Grammer had been killed before the trial.{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 43; May.\\|group\=fn}} Hale and Ramsey were transferred to [Guthrie, Oklahoma](/wiki/Guthrie%2C_Oklahoma "Guthrie, Oklahoma") in 1926, where they stood trial in state court for the murder of Roan. The trial resulted in a hung jury and a [mistrial](/wiki/Mistrial "Mistrial").{{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 44\. The [United States Attorney](/wiki/United_States_Attorney "United States Attorney") then transferred the case to [Oklahoma City](/wiki/Oklahoma_City "Oklahoma City") and indicted Hale and Ramsey for murder on federal land for the death of Roan.United States v. Ramsey, {{Ussc\\|271\\|467\\|1926\\|pin\=468}}; {{smallcaps\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\|Invasion}} at 44\. On being indicted, both [demurrered](/wiki/Demurrer "Demurrer") on the grounds that the federal government did not have jurisdiction. The [U.S. District Court](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Western_District_of_Oklahoma "United States District Court for the Western District of Oklahoma") sustained the defendants' motion and the government made a direct appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court.Ramsey, 271 U.S. at 468\.	[ "Background\n----------", "### Federal law", "In 1834, [Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") passed the [Indian Trade and Intercourse Act](/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act \"Nonintercourse Act\")Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1834, June 30, 1834, chap. 161, § 25, {{USStat\\\|4\\\|733}}, amended by Act of Mar. 27, 1854, chap. 26,§ 3, {{USStat\\\|10\\\|270}}, codified at R.S. § 2145; 1 {{smallcaps\\\|Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties}} 18 (Charles J. Kappler ed. 1904\\). to regulate trade with the Indians and to provide the United States with [criminal jurisdiction](/wiki/Criminal_jurisdiction \"Criminal jurisdiction\") for crimes committed by or against Indians. This law provided for trial in a federal court for crimes committed by an Indian against a non\\-Indian or vice versa.{{\\#tag:ref\\\|It did not provide for Indian on Indian crimes until after 1885\\. For more information on that subject, see ''\\[\\[Ex parte Crow Dog]]'' and \\[\\[Major Crimes Act]].\\\|group\\=fn}} At the time of passage, federal jurisdiction over the [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory \"Indian Territory\") was given to the U.S. court in [Arkansas](/wiki/Arkansas \"Arkansas\") and, in 1851, this was clarified as the [United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Western_District_of_Arkansas \"United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas\").{{\\#tag:ref\\\|At the time, this jurisdiction primarily affected non\\-Indians. Indian on Indian crime was handled by the tribes until ''\\[\\[Ex parte Crow Dog]]'' led to the enactment of a law giving federal courts jurisdiction over those crimes.{{smallcaps\\\|Crooked Paths to Allotment: The Fight over Federal Indian Policy after the Civil War}} 1829–30 (C. Joseph Genetin\\-Pilawa ed. 2012\\).\\\|group\\=fn}}Genetin\\-Pilawa, at 1830\\. In 1890, this law was amended to create the [Oklahoma Territory](/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory \"Oklahoma Territory\") and to give the federal courts in western Arkansas, southern [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\"), and eastern [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\") jurisdiction over the Indian Territory.{{\\#tag:ref\\\|The location of the murder for this case was in the Oklahoma Territory section, in what is now Osage County.\\\|group\\=fn}}Oklahoma Organic Act, May 2, 1890, chap. 182, {{USStat\\\|26\\\|81}}; Kappler at 51\\.", "### Territory, statehood and allotment", "[thumb\\\|400px\\\|left\\\|alt\\=Oklahoma and Indian Territory map, circa 1890s, created using Census Bureau Data\\\|Oklahoma and Indian Territory map, circa 1890s, created using Census Bureau Data](/wiki/File:Okterritory.png \"Okterritory.png\")\nIn 1870, the federal government purchased the [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\") reservation from the [Osage Nation](/wiki/Osage_Nation \"Osage Nation\"). The tribe then purchased {{convert\\\|1,470,559\\\| acres}} of land in the [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory \"Indian Territory\") from the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation \"Cherokee Nation\").{{smallcaps\\\|Donald Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century}} 28 (1998\\); {{smallcaps\\\|Dennis McAuliffe}}, {{smallcaps\\\|\nBloodland: A Family Story of Oil, Greed and Murder on the Osage Reservation}} 44–45 (1994\\). The land was not suited for farming, but had abundant game.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 28–29\\. In 1890 when Congress passed the [Oklahoma Organic Act](/wiki/Oklahoma_Organic_Act \"Oklahoma Organic Act\") forming both the Oklahoma and Indian territories, the Osage Indian Reservation was part of the [Oklahoma Territory](/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory \"Oklahoma Territory\").{{\\#tag:ref\\\|The Indian territory consisted of the land of the \\[\\[Five Civilized Tribes]] and several small tribes in the northeastern corner, while the Oklahoma Territory consisted of all other land in present day Oklahoma.\\\|group\\=fn}} In 1887, Congress passed the [Dawes Act](/wiki/Dawes_Act \"Dawes Act\"),Dawes Act of 1887, Feb. 8, 1887, chap. 119, {{USStat\\\|24\\\|388}}; Kappler at 33–36\\. which served to break up reservations and allot the land to tribal members. The act did not apply to the [Five Civilized Tribes](/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes \"Five Civilized Tribes\") or other tribes in the Indian territory nor to the Osage tribe in the Oklahoma territory. In 1898 the [Curtis Act](/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898 \"Curtis Act of 1898\")Curtis Act of 1898, June 28, 1898, chap. 517, {{USStat\\\|30\\\|495}} Kappler at 90–100\\. applied allotment to the Five Civilized Tribes.{{smallcaps\\\|Arlene B. Hirschfelder \\& Martha Kreipe de Montaño}}, {{smallcaps\\\|The Native American Almanac: A Portrait of Native America Today}} 294 (1998\\); {{smallcaps\\\|McAuliffe}} at 220\\.", "The Osage tribe, seeing the disastrous effects of allotment, resisted it until 1906{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 34\\. when they negotiated an allotment different in two major respects. First, land remaining after each enrolled tribal member received {{convert\\\|160\\\| acres}}, so\\-called 'surplus land', was further divided among tribal members, not placed in the public domain for sale to the general public,{{Cite web \\\| url\\=https://maint.loc.gov/law/help/statutes\\-at\\-large/59th\\-congress/session\\-1/c59s1ch3572\\.pdf \\\| title\\=Chapter 3572 \\- An Act For the division of the lands and funds of the Osage Indians in Oklahoma Territory, and for other purposes \\\| website\\=maint.loc.gov}} and second, mineral rights were retained by the tribe,{{\\#tag:ref\\\|The tribe retained mineral rights for 20 years, until 1926, when they passed to whoever owned the land.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 35; {{smallcaps\\\|McAuliffe}} at 220\\.\\\|group\\=fn}} and not in a trust status through the federal government.{{smallcaps\\\|McAuliffe}} at 47; Jon D. May, [Osage Murders](https://web.archive.org/web/20130729090945/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/O/OS005.html) {{smallcaps\\\|}} (Apr. 7, 2007\\) (archived from [original](http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/O/OS005.html), July 29, 2013\\). The murder of [Henry Roan](/wiki/Henry_Roan \"Henry Roan\") took place on such an 'surplus allotment'. {{cite web \\\| url\\=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/271/467/\\#468 \\\| title\\=United States v. Ramsey, 271 U.S. 467 (1926\\) }}", "### Reign of terror", "This ownership of the land and mineral rights had another consequence. In 1896, Edwin B. Foster signed an oil lease for the entire Osage reservation.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 30–31; Gerald Forbes, [History of the Osage Blanket Lease](https://web.archive.org/web/20130711204126/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v019/v019p070.html), in 19 {{smallcaps\\\|Chronicles of Oklahoma}} 70 (Mar. 1941\\) (archived from [original](http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v019/v019p070.html), July 11, 2013\\). By 1902 he was shipping 37,000 barrels of oil and by 1906 his companies were producing over 5 million barrels annually.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 32; Forbes at 73\\. The Osage tribe was one of the wealthiest in the United States, but with the mineral rights transferring to the land owners in 1926, their murder rates also became the highest in the United States.{{smallcaps\\\|McAuliffe}} at 220\\. By 1925, Osage families were earning about $65,000 per year, compared to white families that were averaging $1,000\\.{{smallcaps\\\|Donald Lee Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Bureau of Indian Affairs}} 101 (2012\\). Congress also passed a law providing that an Osage Indian who was less than half blood, as determined by the [Secretary of the Interior](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior \"United States Secretary of the Interior\"), did not have to wait to sell his or her land.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 37\\.", "In the early 1920s, Osage Indians who owned [Osage headrights](/wiki/Osage_headrights \"Osage headrights\"), or land where they would obtain mineral rights, began to be murdered—the first two were Charles Whitehorn{{\\#tag:ref\\\|Whitehorn was found on a hill near his hometown of Pawhuska with two bullet holes between the eyes. Whitehorn was related to the Kyle family by blood.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 41\\.\\\|group\\=fn}} and Anna Brown,{{\\#tag:ref\\\|Brown was found at a remote ravine, shot in the back of the head.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 39; {{smallcaps\\\|The FBI: A Centennial History, 1908–2008}} 14 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2008\\).\\\|group\\=fn}} both Osage Indians but killed separately.{{smallcaps\\\|Louis F. Burns}}, {{smallcaps\\\|A History of the Osage People}} 440 (2004\\); May; Molly Stephey, [The Osage Murders: Oil Wealth, Betrayal and the FBI’s First Big Case](https://web.archive.org/web/20130816054423/http://blog.nmai.si.edu/main/2011/03/the-osage-murders-oil-wealth-betrayal-and-the-fbis-first-big-case.html)(Mar. 1, 2011\\) (archived from [original](http://blog.nmai.si.edu/main/2011/03/the-osage-murders-oil-wealth-betrayal-and-the-fbis-first-big-case.html) Aug. 15, 2013\\). In February 1923, [Henry Roan](/wiki/Henry_Roan \"Henry Roan\"), another Osage, was found in his car, shot once in the back of the head with a .45 caliber pistol.{{smallcaps\\\|Burns}} at 440–41; May; Stephey. Less than a month later, an explosion in an Osage home killed Reta Smith, an Osage, her white husband W.E. Smith, and their white maid.{{smallcaps\\\|Burns}} at 441; May; Stephey. Reta Smith was Brown's sister and the daughter of Lizzie Q. Kyle (also known as Lizzie Que), who had died and was thought to have been poisoned. Roan was Reta Smith's cousin.{{smallcaps\\\|Burns}} at 440–41\\. Que had three headrights and both daughters had a full headright and a fractional headright, worth a considerable amount of money.May. These would be inherited by a third daughter, Molly Burkhart,{{\\#tag:ref\\\|Molly was being slowly poisoned by \\[\\[Ernest Burkhart]].\\\|group\\=fn}} who was married to a white man, [Ernest Burkhart](/wiki/Ernest_Burkhart \"Ernest Burkhart\"). Ernest Burkhart was the nephew of a wealthy Texas rancher, [William K. Hale](/wiki/William_K._Hale \"William K. Hale\"),{{\\#tag:ref\\\|Hale referred to himself as \"King of the Osages.\"{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 39\\.\\\|group\\=fn}} who had moved to the Osage area.", "### Federal investigation", "Following these deaths and several others,{{\\#tag:ref\\\|Joe Grayhorse was killed in 1921 shortly after making a land deal with Hale. Anna Stafford died mysteriously in 1922; her white widower married Hale's niece shortly after the death.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 41–42\\. George Bigheart died after Hale and \\[\\[Ernest Burkhart]] took him to the hospital, where he talked to his attorney. The attorney was found dead the next day on the railroad right of way.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 42\\.\\\|group\\=fn}} the Osage Tribal Council requested federal assistance since local authorities were apparently making no effort to solve the crimes.{{smallcaps\\\|The FBI}} at 14; May; Stephey. The [U.S. Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/U.S._Bureau_of_Investigation \"U.S. Bureau of Investigation\") (BOI), which later became the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") (FBI), was assigned to conduct the investigation.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 39; {{smallcaps\\\|The FBI}} at 14\\. The BOI responded by sending in undercover agents disguised as cattle buyers and cowhands and, through their investigation, determined that the murders had been planned and executed at the direction of Hale.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 39; {{smallcaps\\\|The FBI}} at 14; Stephey. Hale was implicated in the murder of Brown when Kelsie Morrison confessed in court.{{\\#tag:ref\\\|Morrison agreed to kill Brown to cancel a $600 debt he owed Hale; he also received a car and $1,060\\.\\\|group\\=fn}}{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 40–41\\. The BOI also discovered that Hale held a $25,000 insurance policy on Roan and noted that his nephew's wife had inherited all of the Kyle [headrights](/wiki/Osage_headright \"Osage headright\").{{\\#tag:ref\\\|The total amount would have been approximately $2 million.Stephey.\\\|group\\=fn}}{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 42; Stephey. Hale and John Ramsey were charged in federal court with the murder of Roan; Ernest Burkhart was charged in state court with arranging the Smith bombing.", "### The trials", "[Ernest Burkhart](/wiki/Ernest_Burkhart \"Ernest Burkhart\") was tried first. Two weeks into the trial, realizing that he could not win, he changed his plea to guilty and became a witness for the state in exchange for a life sentence.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 42–43; May. Burkhart testified that Hale was behind the scheme, that Asa \"Ace\" Kirby was the bomber, and that [Henry Grammer](/wiki/Henry_Grammer \"Henry Grammer\") was the go\\-between.{{\\#tag:ref\\\|'Coincidentally', both Kirby and Grammer had been killed before the trial.{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 43; May.\\\|group\\=fn}}", "Hale and Ramsey were transferred to [Guthrie, Oklahoma](/wiki/Guthrie%2C_Oklahoma \"Guthrie, Oklahoma\") in 1926, where they stood trial in state court for the murder of Roan. The trial resulted in a hung jury and a [mistrial](/wiki/Mistrial \"Mistrial\").{{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 44\\. The [United States Attorney](/wiki/United_States_Attorney \"United States Attorney\") then transferred the case to [Oklahoma City](/wiki/Oklahoma_City \"Oklahoma City\") and indicted Hale and Ramsey for murder on federal land for the death of Roan.United States v. Ramsey, {{Ussc\\\|271\\\|467\\\|1926\\\|pin\\=468}}; {{smallcaps\\\|Fixico}}, {{smallcaps\\\|Invasion}} at 44\\. On being indicted, both [demurrered](/wiki/Demurrer \"Demurrer\") on the grounds that the federal government did not have jurisdiction. The [U.S. District Court](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Western_District_of_Oklahoma \"United States District Court for the Western District of Oklahoma\") sustained the defendants' motion and the government made a direct appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court.Ramsey, 271 U.S. at 468\\.", "" ]
History ------- In its inaugural year 2008, the [Strongman Champions League](/wiki/Strongman_Champions_League "Strongman Champions League") introduced the World Log Lift Championships. The event however had been a staple of strongman competitions since the early 1980s. Beginning with the [1980 World's Strongest Man](/wiki/1980_World%27s_Strongest_Man "1980 World's Strongest Man") contest, where [Bill Kazmaier](/wiki/Bill_Kazmaier "Bill Kazmaier") hoisted {{convert\\|157\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} to win the event and set a world record. Kazmaier then increased the record to {{convert\\|163\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} in 1981 World's Strongest Man. During [1987 Pure Strength](/wiki/Pure_Strength "Pure Strength"), [Jón Páll Sigmarsson](/wiki/J%C3%B3n_P%C3%A1ll_Sigmarsson "Jón Páll Sigmarsson") lifted {{convert\\|163\.5\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} and Kazmaier regained the record with {{convert\\|170\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} in 1988 World's Strongest Man. Then [Jamie Reeves](/wiki/Jamie_Reeves "Jamie Reeves") managed {{convert\\|177\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 1989 Kraftur championships followed by {{convert\\|180\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 1992 World Mighty Man in [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg "Johannesburg"). At 2002 [Strongman Super Series](/wiki/Strongman_Super_Series "Strongman Super Series") in Sweden [Svend Karlsen](/wiki/Svend_Karlsen "Svend Karlsen") increased the record to {{convert\\|185\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} and at 2003 Strongman Super Series in Canada [Hugo Girard](/wiki/Hugo_Girard "Hugo Girard") took it to {{convert\\|186\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}}. At 2004 IFSA Ukraine Grand Prix, [Žydrūnas Savickas](/wiki/%C5%BDydr%C5%ABnas_Savickas "Žydrūnas Savickas") set a new record with {{convert\\|188\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}}, and [Raimunds Bergmanis](/wiki/Raimunds_Bergmanis "Raimunds Bergmanis") brought it up to {{convert\\|190\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 2004 Strongman Super Series in Moscow. Savickas began his long reign over the log lift world record starting in 2005, bringing it up to {{convert\\|200\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 2005 IFSA Hungary Grand Prix, and then to {{convert\\|202\.5\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 2005 IFSA European Championships in [Riga](/wiki/Riga "Riga"). At 2006 IFSA Russia Grand Prix, Savickas raised it to {{convert\\|205\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}}. In 2008 Savickas broke the record with {{convert\\|207\.5\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 2008 SCL Holland and in 2009 with {{convert\\|212\.5\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at World Log Lift Championships. At 2012 [Europe's Strongest Man](/wiki/Europe%27s_Strongest_Man "Europe's Strongest Man") Savickas renewed the record to {{convert\\|216\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} and then upto {{convert\\|217\.5\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 2012 SCL Holland. At [2012 World's Strongest Man](/wiki/2012_World%27s_Strongest_Man "2012 World's Strongest Man") Savickas brought the world record to {{convert\\|220\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} making it his tenth consecutive log lift world record. At 2013 Europe's Strongest Man, Savickas lifted {{convert\\|221\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} for another world record, followed by {{convert\\|222\.5\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 2013 SCL World Log Lift Championships. At 2014 Arnold Brazil Savickas took the record to {{convert\\|223\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}}. 8 days later, at 2014 Giants Live Poland, Savickas took the world record to {{convert\\|227\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} and his final world record was {{convert\\|228\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}}, set at 2015 Arnold Brazil, marking it his sixteenth time breaking the world record. At 2021 Giants Live world tour finals [Cheick "Iron Biby" Sanou](/wiki/Cheick_Sanou "Cheick Sanou") broke Savickas's final world record with {{convert\\|229\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}}, then at 2023 World Log Lift Championships in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow") with {{convert\\|230\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} and again at 2024 World Log Lift Championships in [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), taking the log lift world record to {{convert\\|231\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} where it stands today. ### Variations #### WSM giant log At 2010 World's Strongest Man, the organizers came up with a more challenging longer log where Savickas established a new world record with {{convert\\|210\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}}.{{cite web \\|title\=Zydrunas Savickas Breaks Log Lift World Record at the World’s Strongest Man Contest\\|url\=https://www.ironmind.com/news/Zydrunas\-Savickas\-Breaks\-Log\-Lift\-World\-Record\-at\-the\-Worlds\-Strongest\-Man\-Contest/\\|access\-date\=6 September 2024\\|work\=Randall J. Strossen, IronMind Enterprises, Inc.\\|date\=21 September 2010}} #### SCL giant log At 2014 SCL FIBO, Strongman Champions League introduced a log which was thicker than any log which has been used before. Savickas took the record to {{convert\\|205\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} with this new giant log until it was broken by [Krzysztof Radzikowski](/wiki/Krzysztof_Radzikowski "Krzysztof Radzikowski") with {{convert\\|206\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 2015 SCL FIBO, and then by [Graham Hicks](/wiki/Graham_Hicks "Graham Hicks") with {{convert\\|207\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\=on\\|0}} at 2017 SCL FIBO. {{small\\|Note: During Savickas's log lift world record reign of 16 occasions, the first six were with the standard log, seventh was with WSM giant log, eighth to twelfth were with the standard log, thirteenth was with SCL giant log and fourteenth to sixteenth were with the standard log.}}	[ "History\n-------", "In its inaugural year 2008, the [Strongman Champions League](/wiki/Strongman_Champions_League \"Strongman Champions League\") introduced the World Log Lift Championships. The event however had been a staple of strongman competitions since the early 1980s. Beginning with the [1980 World's Strongest Man](/wiki/1980_World%27s_Strongest_Man \"1980 World's Strongest Man\") contest, where [Bill Kazmaier](/wiki/Bill_Kazmaier \"Bill Kazmaier\") hoisted {{convert\\\|157\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} to win the event and set a world record. Kazmaier then increased the record to {{convert\\\|163\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} in 1981 World's Strongest Man. During [1987 Pure Strength](/wiki/Pure_Strength \"Pure Strength\"), [Jón Páll Sigmarsson](/wiki/J%C3%B3n_P%C3%A1ll_Sigmarsson \"Jón Páll Sigmarsson\") lifted {{convert\\\|163\\.5\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} and Kazmaier regained the record with {{convert\\\|170\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} in 1988 World's Strongest Man. Then [Jamie Reeves](/wiki/Jamie_Reeves \"Jamie Reeves\") managed {{convert\\\|177\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 1989 Kraftur championships followed by {{convert\\\|180\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 1992 World Mighty Man in [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg \"Johannesburg\").", "At 2002 [Strongman Super Series](/wiki/Strongman_Super_Series \"Strongman Super Series\") in Sweden [Svend Karlsen](/wiki/Svend_Karlsen \"Svend Karlsen\") increased the record to {{convert\\\|185\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} and at 2003 Strongman Super Series in Canada [Hugo Girard](/wiki/Hugo_Girard \"Hugo Girard\") took it to {{convert\\\|186\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}}. At 2004 IFSA Ukraine Grand Prix, [Žydrūnas Savickas](/wiki/%C5%BDydr%C5%ABnas_Savickas \"Žydrūnas Savickas\") set a new record with {{convert\\\|188\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}}, and [Raimunds Bergmanis](/wiki/Raimunds_Bergmanis \"Raimunds Bergmanis\") brought it up to {{convert\\\|190\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 2004 Strongman Super Series in Moscow.", "Savickas began his long reign over the log lift world record starting in 2005, bringing it up to {{convert\\\|200\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 2005 IFSA Hungary Grand Prix, and then to {{convert\\\|202\\.5\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 2005 IFSA European Championships in [Riga](/wiki/Riga \"Riga\"). At 2006 IFSA Russia Grand Prix, Savickas raised it to {{convert\\\|205\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}}. In 2008 Savickas broke the record with {{convert\\\|207\\.5\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 2008 SCL Holland and in 2009 with {{convert\\\|212\\.5\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at World Log Lift Championships. At 2012 [Europe's Strongest Man](/wiki/Europe%27s_Strongest_Man \"Europe's Strongest Man\") Savickas renewed the record to {{convert\\\|216\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} and then upto {{convert\\\|217\\.5\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 2012 SCL Holland.", "At [2012 World's Strongest Man](/wiki/2012_World%27s_Strongest_Man \"2012 World's Strongest Man\") Savickas brought the world record to {{convert\\\|220\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} making it his tenth consecutive log lift world record. At 2013 Europe's Strongest Man, Savickas lifted {{convert\\\|221\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} for another world record, followed by {{convert\\\|222\\.5\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 2013 SCL World Log Lift Championships. At 2014 Arnold Brazil Savickas took the record to {{convert\\\|223\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}}. 8 days later, at 2014 Giants Live Poland, Savickas took the world record to {{convert\\\|227\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} and his final world record was {{convert\\\|228\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}}, set at 2015 Arnold Brazil, marking it his sixteenth time breaking the world record.", "At 2021 Giants Live world tour finals [Cheick \"Iron Biby\" Sanou](/wiki/Cheick_Sanou \"Cheick Sanou\") broke Savickas's final world record with {{convert\\\|229\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}}, then at 2023 World Log Lift Championships in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\") with {{convert\\\|230\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} and again at 2024 World Log Lift Championships in [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), taking the log lift world record to {{convert\\\|231\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} where it stands today.", "### Variations", "#### WSM giant log", "At 2010 World's Strongest Man, the organizers came up with a more challenging longer log where Savickas established a new world record with {{convert\\\|210\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}}.{{cite web \\\|title\\=Zydrunas Savickas Breaks Log Lift World Record at the World’s Strongest Man Contest\\\|url\\=https://www.ironmind.com/news/Zydrunas\\-Savickas\\-Breaks\\-Log\\-Lift\\-World\\-Record\\-at\\-the\\-Worlds\\-Strongest\\-Man\\-Contest/\\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2024\\\|work\\=Randall J. Strossen, IronMind Enterprises, Inc.\\\|date\\=21 September 2010}}", "#### SCL giant log", "At 2014 SCL FIBO, Strongman Champions League introduced a log which was thicker than any log which has been used before. Savickas took the record to {{convert\\\|205\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} with this new giant log until it was broken by [Krzysztof Radzikowski](/wiki/Krzysztof_Radzikowski \"Krzysztof Radzikowski\") with {{convert\\\|206\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 2015 SCL FIBO, and then by [Graham Hicks](/wiki/Graham_Hicks \"Graham Hicks\") with {{convert\\\|207\\\|kg\\\|lb\\\|abbr\\=on\\\|0}} at 2017 SCL FIBO.", "{{small\\\|Note: During Savickas's log lift world record reign of 16 occasions, the first six were with the standard log, seventh was with WSM giant log, eighth to twelfth were with the standard log, thirteenth was with SCL giant log and fourteenth to sixteenth were with the standard log.}}", "" ]
Early Buddhist sources ---------------------- The term Buddhānusmṛti appears in numerous Buddhist sources. The [Early Buddhist Texts](/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts "Early Buddhist texts") contain various passages that discuss the practice of Buddha mindfulness. The practice is often part of a schema of mindfulness practices called the [ten recollections](/wiki/Anussati "Anussati"). In the [Pali Nikayas](/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya "Nikāya"), buddhānussaṭi is a practice which is said to lead all the way to [nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana "Nirvana"):{{Cite web \\|last\=Sujato (trans.) \\|first\=Bhikkhu \\|title\=Numbered Discourses 1\.296–305 Chapter One {{!}} SuttaCentral \\|url\=https://suttacentral.net/ \\|access\-date\=2024\-08\-09 \\|website\=SuttaCentral \\|language\=en}} {{quote\\|“One thing, mendicants, when developed and cultivated, leads solely to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. What one thing? Recollection of the Buddha. This one thing, when developed and cultivated, leads solely to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment \[nirvana].” — \[\[Anguttara Nikaya\\|AN]] 1\.296}} ### The Buddha mindfulness verse A common verse (Sanskrit: [gatha](/wiki/Gatha_%28India%29 "Gatha (India)")) from the early sources which is repeated as a Buddha mindfulness meditation is the 'Buddhānussati [Gatha](/wiki/Gatha "Gatha")' which mentions nine qualities or epithets of the Buddha (Nava Guna). The [Pali](/wiki/Pali "Pali") version is: {{quote\\|''Iti’ pi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjacaraṇasampanno sugato lokavidu anuttaro purisadammasārathi satthā devamanussānaṃ buddho bhagavā’ti.''}} This gatha can be translated in English as:{{Cite web \\|last\=Sujato (trans.) \\|first\=Bhikkhu \\|title\=With Mahānāma (2nd) Dutiyamahānāmasutta AN 11\.12 {{!}} SuttaCentral \\|url\=https://suttacentral.net/ \\|access\-date\=2024\-08\-09 \\|website\=SuttaCentral \\|language\=en}}{{quote\\|That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.}} This verse is widely chanted in [Theravada Buddhism](/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism "Theravada Buddhism"), and the [Visuddhimagga](/wiki/Visuddhimagga "Visuddhimagga") also makes use of it. Its Sanskrit counterpart, which occurs in many Mahayana Sutras and in Āryatriratnānusmṛti sūtra, is given as: {{quote\\|''ityapi buddho bhagavāṃstathāgato'rhan samyaksaṃbuddho vidyācaraṇasampannaḥ sugato lokavidanuttaraḥ puruṣadamyasārathiḥ śāstā devamanuṣyāṇāṃ buddho bhagavāniti''}} ### In the Pali suttas Various EBT sutras discuss Buddha mindfulness. The Mahanama Sutta (1\) of the [Anguttara Nikaya](/wiki/A%E1%B9%85guttara_Nik%C4%81ya "Aṅguttara Nikāya") begins by citing the Buddha mindfulness gatha as a way of recollecting the Buddha and then states how the practice can lead to meditative absorption ([samadhi](/wiki/Samadhi "Samadhi")):{{Cite web \\|last\=Sujato (trans.) \\|first\=Bhikkhu \\|title\=With Mahānāma (1st) Paṭhamamahānāmasutta AN 11\.11 {{!}}SuttaCentral \\|url\=https://suttacentral.net/ \\|access\-date\=2024\-08\-09 \\|website\=SuttaCentral \\|language\=en}} {{quote\\|When a noble disciple recollects the Realized One their mind is not full of greed, hate, and delusion. At that time their mind is unswerving, based on the Realized One. A noble disciple whose mind is unswerving finds inspiration in the meaning and the teaching, and finds joy connected with the teaching. When they’re joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, they feel bliss. And when they’re blissful, the mind becomes immersed in \[\[samādhi]]. This is called a noble disciple who lives in balance among people who are unbalanced, and lives untroubled among people who are troubled. They’ve entered the stream of the teaching and developed the recollection of the Buddha. — \[\[Anguttara Nikaya\\|AN]] 11\.11}}Another Mahanama sutra (AN 11\.12\) has the Buddha tell Mahanama "You should develop this recollection of the Buddha while walking, standing, sitting, lying down, while working, and while at home with your children."{{Cite web \\|last\=Sujato (trans.) \\|first\=Bhikkhu \\|title\=With Mahānāma (2nd) {{!}} SuttaCentral \\|url\=https://suttacentral.net/ \\|access\-date\=2024\-08\-09 \\|website\=SuttaCentral \\|language\=en}} Another passage which illustrates Buddha mindfulness is found in the very end of the Sutta Nipata of the Pali Canon. In this text, a Brahmin named Pingiya praises the Buddha and when he is asked why he doesn't follow him everywhere, Pingiya says he is too old to be able to do so. Then he states: > there is no moment for me, however small, that is spent away from Gotama, from this universe of wisdom, this world of understanding...with constant and careful vigilance it is possible for me to see him with my mind as clearly with my eyes, in night as well as day. And since I spend my nights revering him, there is not, to my mind, a single moment spent away from him.Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2008, p. 209\. At the end of this sutta, the Buddha himself states that Pingiya will also go to enlightenment. Paul Williams writes that this passages shows that some early Buddhist followers were making use of meditation "to be constantly in the presence of the Buddha and constantly revere him." ### In the Ekottarika\-āgama The [Ekottarika\-āgama](/wiki/Ekottara_Agama "Ekottara Agama") (EA) contains various unique passages on buddhānusmṛti not found in the Pali Nikayas. The phrase namo buddhāya (nan wu fo 南無佛) is also found in this text as a common way to praise and commemorate the Buddha. Another sutra has [Maitreya](/wiki/Maitreya "Maitreya") state that "Those who offer coloured silk and all kinds of things to Buddhist temples, and who chant ‘namo buddhāya’, will all come to where I am." It also states that those who worship the Buddhas will eventually reach nirvana. Another Ekottarika\-āgama sutra mentions a different phrase: namas [tathāgatāya](/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata "Tathāgata"). EA III, 1 ([Taishô](/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka "Taishō Tripiṭaka") Vol. II, p. 554a7\-b9\) states that buddhānusmṛti on the image and qualities of the Buddha can lead to the unconditioned, to [amrta](/wiki/Amrita "Amrita") (the deathless), to [nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana_%28Buddhism%29 "Nirvana (Buddhism)"), as well as magic power.Harrison, Paul M. Buddhanusmrti in the pratyutpanna\-Buddha\-sammukhavasthita\-samadhi\-sutra. Journal of Indian Philosophy 6 (1\):35\-57 (1978\). This sutra states: > How does one practise buddhanusmrti, so that one then has renown, achieves the great fruit...and arrives at Nirvana? The Lord said: A bhiksu correct in body and correct in mind sits crosslegged and focuses his thought in front of him. Without entertaining any other thought he earnestly calls to mind \[anusmr\-] the Buddha. He contemplates the image of the [Tathagata](/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata "Tathāgata") without taking his eyes off it. Not taking his eyes off it he then calls to mind the qualities of the Tathagata... The sutra goes on to describe the various qualities of the Buddha, including his "body made of [vajra](/wiki/Vajra "Vajra")", his ten powers, his perfect moral qualities, his never ending samadhis and his wisdom (prajña). Another EA sutra (Taishô Vol. II, pp. 739bl0—740a24\) attests to the great power of the practice of recollection. In this sutra, a selfish layman named Virasena gets a prediction from the Buddha that he will be reborn in hell unless he repents. The layman then practices the ten recollections (the first of which is buddhānusmṛti) and is reborn in a heaven. The Buddha then states: "Should a being practise the ten anusmrtis with uninterrupted faith, even if only for the time it takes to milk a cow, then his merit will be immeasurable." Yet another EA sutra (T2, no. 125, p. 566a.) describes the qualities of a Buddha one should contemplate: > He is the one person appearing in the world \[who belongs to] the kind of living beings \[who have] an exceedingly extended lifespan. \[He has] a shiny and smooth physical appearance and a vigorous physical strength. \[He radiates] infinite joy \[and possesses] a harmonious and refined voice. This is why, monks, you should always concentrate and devote yourselves single\-mindedly to buddhānusmṛti. Furthermore, the EA version of the Anāthapiṇḍikovāda\-sutta has [Ānanda](/wiki/%C4%80nanda "Ānanda") teach the recollections to a dying [Anāthapiṇḍada](/wiki/Anathapindika "Anathapindika"), claiming that the recollection of the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) will lead to liberation and prevent bad rebirths: > the virtue / benefit \[from these recollections] is immeasurable: at the end of \[your] life, \[you will] obtain the sweet dew (amṛta) of liberation. If good men or good women remember the three honourable \[refuges], i.e. the Buddha, the dharma, and the community, they will not at the end of \[their] lives fall into the three bad realms of existence. If good men or good women remember the three honourable \[refuges] they will without fail \[be reborn] in a good place, in heaven or among the humans.	[ "Early Buddhist sources\n----------------------", "The term Buddhānusmṛti appears in numerous Buddhist sources. The [Early Buddhist Texts](/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts \"Early Buddhist texts\") contain various passages that discuss the practice of Buddha mindfulness. The practice is often part of a schema of mindfulness practices called the [ten recollections](/wiki/Anussati \"Anussati\"). In the [Pali Nikayas](/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya \"Nikāya\"), buddhānussaṭi is a practice which is said to lead all the way to [nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana \"Nirvana\"):{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Sujato (trans.) \\\|first\\=Bhikkhu \\\|title\\=Numbered Discourses 1\\.296–305 Chapter One {{!}} SuttaCentral \\\|url\\=https://suttacentral.net/ \\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-09 \\\|website\\=SuttaCentral \\\|language\\=en}}\n{{quote\\\|“One thing, mendicants, when developed and cultivated, leads solely to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. What one thing? Recollection of the Buddha. This one thing, when developed and cultivated, leads solely to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment \\[nirvana].” — \\[\\[Anguttara Nikaya\\\|AN]] 1\\.296}}", "### The Buddha mindfulness verse", "A common verse (Sanskrit: [gatha](/wiki/Gatha_%28India%29 \"Gatha (India)\")) from the early sources which is repeated as a Buddha mindfulness meditation is the 'Buddhānussati [Gatha](/wiki/Gatha \"Gatha\")' which mentions nine qualities or epithets of the Buddha (Nava Guna). The [Pali](/wiki/Pali \"Pali\") version is:\n{{quote\\\|''Iti’ pi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjacaraṇasampanno sugato lokavidu anuttaro purisadammasārathi satthā devamanussānaṃ buddho bhagavā’ti.''}}", "This gatha can be translated in English as:{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Sujato (trans.) \\\|first\\=Bhikkhu \\\|title\\=With Mahānāma (2nd) Dutiyamahānāmasutta AN 11\\.12 {{!}} SuttaCentral \\\|url\\=https://suttacentral.net/ \\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-09 \\\|website\\=SuttaCentral \\\|language\\=en}}{{quote\\\|That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.}}", "This verse is widely chanted in [Theravada Buddhism](/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism \"Theravada Buddhism\"), and the [Visuddhimagga](/wiki/Visuddhimagga \"Visuddhimagga\") also makes use of it. Its Sanskrit counterpart, which occurs in many Mahayana Sutras and in Āryatriratnānusmṛti sūtra, is given as:", "{{quote\\\|''ityapi buddho bhagavāṃstathāgato'rhan samyaksaṃbuddho vidyācaraṇasampannaḥ sugato lokavidanuttaraḥ puruṣadamyasārathiḥ śāstā devamanuṣyāṇāṃ buddho bhagavāniti''}}", "### In the Pali suttas", "Various EBT sutras discuss Buddha mindfulness. The Mahanama Sutta (1\\) of the [Anguttara Nikaya](/wiki/A%E1%B9%85guttara_Nik%C4%81ya \"Aṅguttara Nikāya\") begins by citing the Buddha mindfulness gatha as a way of recollecting the Buddha and then states how the practice can lead to meditative absorption ([samadhi](/wiki/Samadhi \"Samadhi\")):{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Sujato (trans.) \\\|first\\=Bhikkhu \\\|title\\=With Mahānāma (1st) Paṭhamamahānāmasutta AN 11\\.11 {{!}}SuttaCentral \\\|url\\=https://suttacentral.net/ \\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-09 \\\|website\\=SuttaCentral \\\|language\\=en}}", "{{quote\\\|When a noble disciple recollects the Realized One their mind is not full of greed, hate, and delusion. At that time their mind is unswerving, based on the Realized One. A noble disciple whose mind is unswerving finds inspiration in the meaning and the teaching, and finds joy connected with the teaching. When they’re joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, they feel bliss. And when they’re blissful, the mind becomes immersed in \\[\\[samādhi]]. This is called a noble disciple who lives in balance among people who are unbalanced, and lives untroubled among people who are troubled. They’ve entered the stream of the teaching and developed the recollection of the Buddha. — \\[\\[Anguttara Nikaya\\\|AN]] 11\\.11}}Another Mahanama sutra (AN 11\\.12\\) has the Buddha tell Mahanama \"You should develop this recollection of the Buddha while walking, standing, sitting, lying down, while working, and while at home with your children.\"{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Sujato (trans.) \\\|first\\=Bhikkhu \\\|title\\=With Mahānāma (2nd) {{!}} SuttaCentral \\\|url\\=https://suttacentral.net/ \\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-09 \\\|website\\=SuttaCentral \\\|language\\=en}}", "Another passage which illustrates Buddha mindfulness is found in the very end of the Sutta Nipata of the Pali Canon. In this text, a Brahmin named Pingiya praises the Buddha and when he is asked why he doesn't follow him everywhere, Pingiya says he is too old to be able to do so. Then he states:\n> there is no moment for me, however small, that is spent away from Gotama, from this universe of wisdom, this world of understanding...with constant and careful vigilance it is possible for me to see him with my mind as clearly with my eyes, in night as well as day. And since I spend my nights revering him, there is not, to my mind, a single moment spent away from him.Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2008, p. 209\\.", "At the end of this sutta, the Buddha himself states that Pingiya will also go to enlightenment. Paul Williams writes that this passages shows that some early Buddhist followers were making use of meditation \"to be constantly in the presence of the Buddha and constantly revere him.\"", "### In the Ekottarika\\-āgama", "The [Ekottarika\\-āgama](/wiki/Ekottara_Agama \"Ekottara Agama\") (EA) contains various unique passages on buddhānusmṛti not found in the Pali Nikayas. The phrase namo buddhāya (nan wu fo 南無佛) is also found in this text as a common way to praise and commemorate the Buddha. Another sutra has [Maitreya](/wiki/Maitreya \"Maitreya\") state that \"Those who offer coloured silk and all kinds of things to Buddhist temples, and who chant ‘namo buddhāya’, will all come to where I am.\" It also states that those who worship the Buddhas will eventually reach nirvana. Another Ekottarika\\-āgama sutra mentions a different phrase: namas [tathāgatāya](/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata \"Tathāgata\").", "EA III, 1 ([Taishô](/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka \"Taishō Tripiṭaka\") Vol. II, p. 554a7\\-b9\\) states that buddhānusmṛti on the image and qualities of the Buddha can lead to the unconditioned, to [amrta](/wiki/Amrita \"Amrita\") (the deathless), to [nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana_%28Buddhism%29 \"Nirvana (Buddhism)\"), as well as magic power.Harrison, Paul M. Buddhanusmrti in the pratyutpanna\\-Buddha\\-sammukhavasthita\\-samadhi\\-sutra. Journal of Indian Philosophy 6 (1\\):35\\-57 (1978\\). This sutra states:\n> How does one practise buddhanusmrti, so that one then has renown, achieves the great fruit...and arrives at Nirvana? The Lord said: A bhiksu correct in body and correct in mind sits crosslegged and focuses his thought in front of him. Without entertaining any other thought he earnestly calls to mind \\[anusmr\\-] the Buddha. He contemplates the image of the [Tathagata](/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata \"Tathāgata\") without taking his eyes off it. Not taking his eyes off it he then calls to mind the qualities of the Tathagata...", "The sutra goes on to describe the various qualities of the Buddha, including his \"body made of [vajra](/wiki/Vajra \"Vajra\")\", his ten powers, his perfect moral qualities, his never ending samadhis and his wisdom (prajña).", "Another EA sutra (Taishô Vol. II, pp. 739bl0—740a24\\) attests to the great power of the practice of recollection. In this sutra, a selfish layman named Virasena gets a prediction from the Buddha that he will be reborn in hell unless he repents. The layman then practices the ten recollections (the first of which is buddhānusmṛti) and is reborn in a heaven. The Buddha then states: \"Should a being practise the ten anusmrtis with uninterrupted faith, even if only for the time it takes to milk a cow, then his merit will be immeasurable.\"", "Yet another EA sutra (T2, no. 125, p. 566a.) describes the qualities of a Buddha one should contemplate: \n> He is the one person appearing in the world \\[who belongs to] the kind of living beings \\[who have] an exceedingly extended lifespan. \\[He has] a shiny and smooth physical appearance and a vigorous physical strength. \\[He radiates] infinite joy \\[and possesses] a harmonious and refined voice. This is why, monks, you should always concentrate and devote yourselves single\\-mindedly to buddhānusmṛti.", "Furthermore, the EA version of the Anāthapiṇḍikovāda\\-sutta has [Ānanda](/wiki/%C4%80nanda \"Ānanda\") teach the recollections to a dying [Anāthapiṇḍada](/wiki/Anathapindika \"Anathapindika\"), claiming that the recollection of the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) will lead to liberation and prevent bad rebirths:\n> the virtue / benefit \\[from these recollections] is immeasurable: at the end of \\[your] life, \\[you will] obtain the sweet dew (amṛta) of liberation. If good men or good women remember the three honourable \\[refuges], i.e. the Buddha, the dharma, and the community, they will not at the end of \\[their] lives fall into the three bad realms of existence. If good men or good women remember the three honourable \\[refuges] they will without fail \\[be reborn] in a good place, in heaven or among the humans.", "", "" ]
### In the Ekottarika\-āgama The [Ekottarika\-āgama](/wiki/Ekottara_Agama "Ekottara Agama") (EA) contains various unique passages on buddhānusmṛti not found in the Pali Nikayas. The phrase namo buddhāya (nan wu fo 南無佛) is also found in this text as a common way to praise and commemorate the Buddha. Another sutra has [Maitreya](/wiki/Maitreya "Maitreya") state that "Those who offer coloured silk and all kinds of things to Buddhist temples, and who chant ‘namo buddhāya’, will all come to where I am." It also states that those who worship the Buddhas will eventually reach nirvana. Another Ekottarika\-āgama sutra mentions a different phrase: namas [tathāgatāya](/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata "Tathāgata"). EA III, 1 ([Taishô](/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka "Taishō Tripiṭaka") Vol. II, p. 554a7\-b9\) states that buddhānusmṛti on the image and qualities of the Buddha can lead to the unconditioned, to [amrta](/wiki/Amrita "Amrita") (the deathless), to [nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana_%28Buddhism%29 "Nirvana (Buddhism)"), as well as magic power.Harrison, Paul M. Buddhanusmrti in the pratyutpanna\-Buddha\-sammukhavasthita\-samadhi\-sutra. Journal of Indian Philosophy 6 (1\):35\-57 (1978\). This sutra states: > How does one practise buddhanusmrti, so that one then has renown, achieves the great fruit...and arrives at Nirvana? The Lord said: A bhiksu correct in body and correct in mind sits crosslegged and focuses his thought in front of him. Without entertaining any other thought he earnestly calls to mind \[anusmr\-] the Buddha. He contemplates the image of the [Tathagata](/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata "Tathāgata") without taking his eyes off it. Not taking his eyes off it he then calls to mind the qualities of the Tathagata... The sutra goes on to describe the various qualities of the Buddha, including his "body made of [vajra](/wiki/Vajra "Vajra")", his ten powers, his perfect moral qualities, his never ending samadhis and his wisdom (prajña). Another EA sutra (Taishô Vol. II, pp. 739bl0—740a24\) attests to the great power of the practice of recollection. In this sutra, a selfish layman named Virasena gets a prediction from the Buddha that he will be reborn in hell unless he repents. The layman then practices the ten recollections (the first of which is buddhānusmṛti) and is reborn in a heaven. The Buddha then states: "Should a being practise the ten anusmrtis with uninterrupted faith, even if only for the time it takes to milk a cow, then his merit will be immeasurable." Yet another EA sutra (T2, no. 125, p. 566a.) describes the qualities of a Buddha one should contemplate: > He is the one person appearing in the world \[who belongs to] the kind of living beings \[who have] an exceedingly extended lifespan. \[He has] a shiny and smooth physical appearance and a vigorous physical strength. \[He radiates] infinite joy \[and possesses] a harmonious and refined voice. This is why, monks, you should always concentrate and devote yourselves single\-mindedly to buddhānusmṛti. Furthermore, the EA version of the Anāthapiṇḍikovāda\-sutta has [Ānanda](/wiki/%C4%80nanda "Ānanda") teach the recollections to a dying [Anāthapiṇḍada](/wiki/Anathapindika "Anathapindika"), claiming that the recollection of the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) will lead to liberation and prevent bad rebirths: > the virtue / benefit \[from these recollections] is immeasurable: at the end of \[your] life, \[you will] obtain the sweet dew (amṛta) of liberation. If good men or good women remember the three honourable \[refuges], i.e. the Buddha, the dharma, and the community, they will not at the end of \[their] lives fall into the three bad realms of existence. If good men or good women remember the three honourable \[refuges] they will without fail \[be reborn] in a good place, in heaven or among the humans.	[ "### In the Ekottarika\\-āgama", "The [Ekottarika\\-āgama](/wiki/Ekottara_Agama \"Ekottara Agama\") (EA) contains various unique passages on buddhānusmṛti not found in the Pali Nikayas. The phrase namo buddhāya (nan wu fo 南無佛) is also found in this text as a common way to praise and commemorate the Buddha. Another sutra has [Maitreya](/wiki/Maitreya \"Maitreya\") state that \"Those who offer coloured silk and all kinds of things to Buddhist temples, and who chant ‘namo buddhāya’, will all come to where I am.\" It also states that those who worship the Buddhas will eventually reach nirvana. Another Ekottarika\\-āgama sutra mentions a different phrase: namas [tathāgatāya](/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata \"Tathāgata\").", "EA III, 1 ([Taishô](/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka \"Taishō Tripiṭaka\") Vol. II, p. 554a7\\-b9\\) states that buddhānusmṛti on the image and qualities of the Buddha can lead to the unconditioned, to [amrta](/wiki/Amrita \"Amrita\") (the deathless), to [nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana_%28Buddhism%29 \"Nirvana (Buddhism)\"), as well as magic power.Harrison, Paul M. Buddhanusmrti in the pratyutpanna\\-Buddha\\-sammukhavasthita\\-samadhi\\-sutra. Journal of Indian Philosophy 6 (1\\):35\\-57 (1978\\). This sutra states:\n> How does one practise buddhanusmrti, so that one then has renown, achieves the great fruit...and arrives at Nirvana? The Lord said: A bhiksu correct in body and correct in mind sits crosslegged and focuses his thought in front of him. Without entertaining any other thought he earnestly calls to mind \\[anusmr\\-] the Buddha. He contemplates the image of the [Tathagata](/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata \"Tathāgata\") without taking his eyes off it. Not taking his eyes off it he then calls to mind the qualities of the Tathagata...", "The sutra goes on to describe the various qualities of the Buddha, including his \"body made of [vajra](/wiki/Vajra \"Vajra\")\", his ten powers, his perfect moral qualities, his never ending samadhis and his wisdom (prajña).", "Another EA sutra (Taishô Vol. II, pp. 739bl0—740a24\\) attests to the great power of the practice of recollection. In this sutra, a selfish layman named Virasena gets a prediction from the Buddha that he will be reborn in hell unless he repents. The layman then practices the ten recollections (the first of which is buddhānusmṛti) and is reborn in a heaven. The Buddha then states: \"Should a being practise the ten anusmrtis with uninterrupted faith, even if only for the time it takes to milk a cow, then his merit will be immeasurable.\"", "Yet another EA sutra (T2, no. 125, p. 566a.) describes the qualities of a Buddha one should contemplate: \n> He is the one person appearing in the world \\[who belongs to] the kind of living beings \\[who have] an exceedingly extended lifespan. \\[He has] a shiny and smooth physical appearance and a vigorous physical strength. \\[He radiates] infinite joy \\[and possesses] a harmonious and refined voice. This is why, monks, you should always concentrate and devote yourselves single\\-mindedly to buddhānusmṛti.", "Furthermore, the EA version of the Anāthapiṇḍikovāda\\-sutta has [Ānanda](/wiki/%C4%80nanda \"Ānanda\") teach the recollections to a dying [Anāthapiṇḍada](/wiki/Anathapindika \"Anathapindika\"), claiming that the recollection of the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) will lead to liberation and prevent bad rebirths:\n> the virtue / benefit \\[from these recollections] is immeasurable: at the end of \\[your] life, \\[you will] obtain the sweet dew (amṛta) of liberation. If good men or good women remember the three honourable \\[refuges], i.e. the Buddha, the dharma, and the community, they will not at the end of \\[their] lives fall into the three bad realms of existence. If good men or good women remember the three honourable \\[refuges] they will without fail \\[be reborn] in a good place, in heaven or among the humans.", "", "" ]
In Mahayana Buddhism -------------------- [thumb\\|Amitabha in Sukhavati Paradise, Tibetan, circa 1700, Ink, pigments, and gold on cotton, San Antonio Museum of Art.](/wiki/File:%27Amitabha_in_Sukhavati_Paradise%27%2C_Tibetan%2C_circa_1700%2C_San_Antonio_Museum_of_Art.jpg "'Amitabha in Sukhavati Paradise', Tibetan, circa 1700, San Antonio Museum of Art.jpg") In [Mahayana Buddhism](/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism "Mahayana Buddhism") Buddhānusmṛti and related mindfulness practices are often specialized to uniquely Mahayana [Buddhas](/wiki/Buddhas "Buddhas") such as [Amitabha](/wiki/Amitabha "Amitabha"), [Maitreya](/wiki/Maitreya "Maitreya") or [Vairocana](/wiki/Vairocana "Vairocana"). These practices also sometimes involve mental [visualization](/wiki/Mental_image "Mental image") of their physical qualities, bodies and [Buddha fields](/wiki/Pure_land "Pure land") (also known as Pure Lands). According to Paul Williams, the development of Mahayana Buddha mindfulness practices can be traced to the Buddhist meditation teachers of [Kashmir](/wiki/Kashmir "Kashmir") who composed several texts which emphasized mindfulness of Buddhas. ### In the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras Mindfulness of the Buddha is found in numerous [Mahayana sutras](/wiki/Mahayana_sutras "Mahayana sutras"). For example, the Teaching of Manjusri 700 Line Prajñāpāramitā Sutra (Mañjuśrīparivartāparaparyāyā Saptaśatikāprajñāpāramitā) calls the practice the "single practice samadhi", stating that meditators: > should live in seclusion, cast away discursive thoughts, not cling to the appearance of things, concentrate their minds on a Buddha, and recite his name single\-mindedly. They should keep their bodies erect and, facing the direction of that Buddha, meditate upon him continuously. If they can maintain mindfulness of the Buddha without interruption from moment to moment, then they will be able to see all Buddhas of the past, present, and future right in each moment.Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2008, p. 211\. Similarly, in [Kumarajiva's](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva") [Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā\-prajñāpāramitā](/wiki/Large_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtras "Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras") (摩訶般若波羅蜜經, T8, no. 223\), the Buddha states: > Place the seeds for \[your future] happy merit in this ‘Transformation Buddha’ (化佛), or where he is. If there are good men and good women who with a respectful mind only \[focus on practicing] buddhānusmṛti, the effect of this good root will end \[their] sufferings and produce limitless happiness. Subhūti, set up \[the practice of performing] buddhānusmṛti with a respectful heart. If there are good men and good women who \[practice] buddhānusmṛti while scattering \[even] a single flower into space, \[their] sufferings will finally end \[and they will produce] limitless happy \[retributions]. Subhūti, set up \[the practice of performing] buddhānusmṛti with a respectful heart, set up \[the practice of performing] buddhānusmṛti \[while] scattering flowers. If there are persons that praise/recite namo buddhāya \[even only] once \[their] sufferings will finally end \[and they will produce] limitless happy \[retributions]. Buddha mindfulness is also discussed in the [Dazhidulun](/wiki/D%C3%A0_zh%C3%ACd%C3%B9_l%C3%B9n "Dà zhìdù lùn"), the earliest Perfection of Wisdom commentary. It recommends "buddhānusmṛti\-samādhi" and the recitation of the phrase "namo buddhāya" to laypersons. ### Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra The most popular Buddha in East Asian Mahayana is Amitabha Buddha, the central Buddha of the popular Asian Pure Land tradition. One of the earliest sutras which mentions mindfulness of Amitabha Buddha is the [Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra](/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra "Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra") (translated into Chinese in 179 CE by [Lokakshema](/wiki/Lokaksema_%28Buddhist_monk%29 "Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)")).Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, pp. 211–212\. The sutra describes a Buddha mindfulness practice called the Pratyutpannabuddha Saṃmukhāvasthita Samādhi ("the Samādhi for Encountering Face\-to\-Face the Buddhas of the Present") which can lead to a vision of the Buddhas after which one can worship them directly and even directly receive teachings from them.Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2008, p. 212\. The practice of contemplation of the Buddha is described in this sutra as follows: > what is the calling to mind of the Buddha \[buddhānusmṛti]? Namely, he who concentrates on the Tathāgata thus: 'He, the Tathāgata, Arhat, Samyaksambuddha, endowed with knowledge and conduct, the Sugata, Knower of the World, Tamer of men to be tamed, the Supreme One, Teacher of Gods and Men, the Buddha, the Lord; endowed with the Thirty\-two Marks of the Great Man and a body resembling the colour of gold; like a bright, shining, and well\-established golden image; well\-adorned like a pillar of gems; expounding the Dharma amidst an assembly of disciples ...'; he who obtains the samādhi of Emptiness by thus concentrating on the Tathāgata without apprehending him, he is known as one who calls to mind the Buddha. The sutra also describes mindfulness of the Buddha as follows "with undistracted thought \[aviksiptacittena] he concentrates \[manasi\-kr\-] on the Tathagata." This sutra also mentions how one can be reborn in Amitabha's [buddhafield](/wiki/Pure_land "Pure land") (or pure land), something which is a major concern in contemporary Mahayana Buddhism. The Pratyutpanna states that bodhisattvas meditate on Amitabha Buddha again and again and due to this practice they are able to see him in a vision or a dream. Then Amitabha Buddha says "If you wish to come and be born in my realm, you must always call me to mind again and again, you must always keep this thought in mind without letting up, and thus you will succeed in coming to be born in my realm."Harrison, Paul. McRae, John. The Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra and the Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra. 1998\. pp. 2–3, 19 However, the sutra also warns that one must train extensively in the practice and also maintain strict ethics to attain this samadhi. It also states that in meditation, one must understand and view the Buddhas properly as being [empty](/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81 "Śūnyatā"). The sutra warns that one should never "think erroneously about" (manyate), "apprehend" (upalabhate), "fixate on" (abhinivisate), "cognise" (samjânâti), "imagine" (kalpati), or "discriminate" (vikalpayati) the Buddha in this meditation. Thus, according to the sutra "he who obtains the samadhi of Emptiness by thus concentrating on the Tathagata without apprehending him, he is known as one who calls to mind the Buddha." According to Paul Harrison, the main meaning of this is that the visions of the Buddha in meditation should not be grasped at as a substantial entity or to be apprehended as an objectively existing entity (since no such substantial thing exists). ### In the Pure land sutras [thumb\\|Amitabha Buddha Sutra, by Deokjusa Temple](/wiki/file:Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra%2C_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg "Amitabha Buddha Sutra, by Deokjusa Temple.jpg") The [Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra](/wiki/Shorter_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra "Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra") says that if one maintains Buddha mindfulness on the Buddha Amitabha, upon death one will have a vision of Amitabha who will then take them to the Pure Land:McMahan, David; Empty Vision: Metaphor and Visionary Imagery in Mahayana Buddhism, p. 151\. > Śāriputra, if, among good men and good women, there are those who, having heard of Amitābha Buddha, single\-mindedly uphold His name for one day, two days, three days, four days, five days, six days, or seven days, without being distracted, then upon their dying, Amitābha Buddha, together with a holy multitude, will appear before them. When these people die, their minds will not be demented and they will be reborn in Amitābha Buddha's Land of Ultimate Bliss.{{Cite web \\|last\=Rulu (trans.) \\|title\=The Amitabha Buddha Sutra, 佛說阿彌陀經 \\|url\=https://www.sutrasmantras.info/sutra23\.html \\|access\-date\=2024\-08\-09 \\|website\=www.sutrasmantras.info}} The Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra also states that its Amitabha focused Buddhānusmṛti practice will lead to the state of non\-retrogression (avaivartika), a state in which a bodhisattva's progress cannot be reversed: > Śāriputra, if there are good men and good women who have heard and upheld this sūtra, and have heard Buddhas’ names, they are protected and remembered by all Buddhas. They will never regress from their resolve to attain [anuttara\-samyak\-saṁbodhi](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism "Enlightenment in Buddhism"). Therefore, Śāriputra, you all should believe and accept my words and other Buddhas’ words. If there are those who have resolved, are now resolving, or will resolve to be reborn in Amitābha Buddha's land, they will never regress from their resolve to attain anuttara\-samyak\-saṁbodhi, whether they have already been reborn, are now being reborn, or will be reborn in that land. Therefore, Śāriputra, if, among good men and good women, there are those who believe \[my words], they should resolve to be reborn in that land. Other Pure Land sutra like the [Amitayurdhyana Sutra](/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra "Amitayurdhyana Sutra"), include lengthy descriptions of the Buddha [Amitabha](/wiki/Amitabha "Amitabha")'s physical qualities and of his [Pure land](/wiki/Pure_land "Pure land") which are used in practices that are meant to allow the meditator to access the Pure Land of [Sukhavati](/wiki/Sukhavati "Sukhavati"), worship Amitabha directly and receive teachings from Amitabha.McMahan, David; Empty Vision: Metaphor and Visionary Imagery in Mahayana Buddhism, p. 150\. 2013\. ### In other Mahayana sutras There are other Mahayana sutras which discuss mindfulness of the Buddha. One of these is the Sūtra on the Bodhisattvas’ Concentration on Buddha Commemoration (Taisho no. 414\) and a parallel version of the text which appears in the Section of the Bodhisattvas’ Concentration on Buddha Commemoration of the Mahāsaṃnipāta (Taisho no. 415\). Another set of Mahayana sutras which discuss Buddhānusmṛti are the so called "[Contemplation sutras](/wiki/Visualization_sutras "Visualization sutras")" ([Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 觀經, guan jing). This set of scriptures includes the [Amitayurdhyana Sutra](/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra "Amitayurdhyana Sutra") as well as other texts like the Sūtra on the Ocean\-like Samādhi of the Visualization of the Buddha (Guan Fo Sanmei Hai Jing, Taisho no. 643\) and the Sutra on the Contemplation of Maitreya Bodhisattva's Ascent to Rebirth in Tusita Heaven (Guan Mile Pusa Shangsheng Doushuaitian Jing).Soper, Alexander Coburn. Literary Evidence for Early Buddhist Art in China. Artibus Asiae Supplementum 19\. Ascona, Switzerland: Artibus Asiae, 1959\. The Sūtra on the Ocean\-like Samādhi tells of a prince who is taught by a monk to recite namo buddhāya near a stupa. This leads to a night time vision of the Buddha and to future travels to buddhafields due to his attainment of the "gate of buddha\-mindfulness" (buddhānusmṛti\-samādhi\-mukha). The [Mahāsaṃnipāta](/wiki/Mah%C4%81sa%E1%B9%83nip%C4%81ta_S%C5%ABtra "Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra") section meanwhile, calls the gate of buddha\-mindfulness "the king among concentrations" which can complete the bodhisattva path. Another sutra which discusses the "gate of buddha\-mindfulness" (buddhānusmṛti\-samādhi\-mukha) is the ‘[Gaṇḍavyūha](/wiki/Gandavyuha "Gandavyuha") chapter’ of the [Avataṃsaka\-sūtra](/wiki/Buddh%C4%81vata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtra "Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra") (Taisho no. 279\). This sutra actually outlines twenty gates of buddha\-mindfulness. ### Indian treatises [thumb\\|Indic style Amitabha from [Borobudur](/wiki/Borobudur "Borobudur"), Indonesia](/wiki/file:096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg "096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg") Various Indian Buddhist treatises (shastras) discuss the practice of Buddhānusmṛti. The Indian thinker [Nagarjuna](/wiki/Nagarjuna "Nagarjuna") discusses the practice in various sources, including in his Daśabhūmika\-Vibhasa (Commentary on [Dashabhumikasutra](/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra "Ten Stages Sutra")).Bhiksu Dharmamitra (trans.). Nagarjuna on Mindfulness of the Buddha: Selected Readings on Mindfulness of the Buddha, the Pratyutpanna Samadhi, and Recollection of the Buddha, Kalavinka Press, 2019\. In chapter nine of this treatise (which only survives in Chinese translation in the [Chinese Buddhist canon](/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon "Chinese Buddhist canon")), Nagarjuna mentions the "easy path" (易行品第九) of Buddha mindfulness that the Buddhas have taught as a skillful means (for those who are weak and lack vigor) that can lead one to the stage of irreversibility \[avaivartikabhūmi].Bhiksu Dharmamitra (trans.). Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Bodhisattva Grounds: The Daśabhūmika Vibhāṣā, Volume 1\. Kalavinka Press, 2019 Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 33\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. According to Nagarjuna, if one wishes to practice this method, one should "bear in mind" the buddhas of the ten directions and "invoke their names". He also cites a verse which states: > If a person wishes to swiftly reach the ground of irreversibility, he should, with a reverential mind, take up and maintain the practice of invoking these buddhas’ names. He also cites a sutra called Sutra Spoken in Response to the Questions of the Youth Precious Moon which speaks of a Buddha called "Meritorious Qualities" who has a pure land called Sorrowless. According to this sutra "if there is a son or daughter of good family who but hears this buddha's name and is then able to have faith and accept him, such a person will immediately achieve irreversibility with respect to the attainment of [anuttarasamyaksaṃbodhi](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism "Enlightenment in Buddhism")."Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 35\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. Nagarjuna then explains ten different Buddhas and their qualities. He also lists other Buddhas and bodhisattvas that one may invoke to achieve the state of irreversibility.Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 33\-47\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. Nagarjuna also singles out Amitabha and includes some verses in praise of this Buddha.Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 49\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. Yogacara masters also discussed the practice. It is found in [Vasubandhu's](/wiki/Vasubandhu "Vasubandhu") Discourse on the Pure Land (Jìngtǔ lùn 浄土論) and in [Asanga's](/wiki/Asanga "Asanga") ‘Commentary on Buddha Commemoration’ (Buddhānusmṛti\-vṛtti, Tibetan: Sangs rgyas rjes su dran pa’i ‘grel pa).Matsumoto, David (trans.). [Jodoron: Discourse on the Sutra of Eternal Life and Gatha of Aspiration to be Born in the Pure Land.](https://web.archive.org/web/20171016024814/https://web.mit.edu/stclair/www/Vasubandhu.html) Composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu, translated into Chinese by Bodhiruci of the Latter Wei Dynasty. Vasubandhu's Discourse focuses specifically on Amitabha and his pure land of [Sukhavati](/wiki/Sukhavati "Sukhavati"). Vasubandhu outlines five main "gates" of recollecting the Buddha: the Gate of Worship, the Gate of Praise, the Gate of Aspiration, the Gate of Contemplation, and the Gate of [Merit](/wiki/Merit_%28Buddhism%29 "Merit (Buddhism)") Transference. According to Vasubandhu, the worship gate is related to using bodily actions to worship the Buddha by bowing and so on, while the gate of praise makes use of words: "One calls the Name of that Tathagata in accordance with that Tathagata's Light, which is the embodiment of Wisdom, and in accordance with the significance of the Name, for one wishes to practice in accordance with reality and attain unity with it." The gate of aspiration is to wish to be born in the Pure land, while the gate of transference means that one dedicates all merit to rebirth in the pure land. Lastly, the gate of contemplation is described by Vasubandhu as follows: > One contemplates with Wisdom, correctly thinking about and visualizing that Land and Buddha, for one wishes to practice [vipaśyanā](/wiki/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81 "Vipaśyanā") (clear insight) in accordance with reality. There are three types of contemplation. What are the three types ? The first is to contemplate the virtues of the adornments of that [Buddha Land](/wiki/Pure_land "Pure land") (buddhakṣetra). The second is to contemplate the virtues of the adornments of [Amitābha](/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha "Amitābha") Buddha. The third is to contemplate the virtuous adornments of all of the [Bodhisattvas](/wiki/Bodhisattva "Bodhisattva") in that Land. Vasubandhu then goes on to describe the various adornments and details of the Pure land which can be visualized in meditation. ### East Asian Mahayana {{Main\\|Nianfo}} [thumb\\|Portrait of the Chinese Pure land patriarch [Shandao](/wiki/Shandao "Shandao") reciting nianfo](/wiki/file:Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_%28Zendo_Daishi%29%2C_Nanbokucho_period%2C_14th_century.JPG "Portrait of Shandao Dashi (Zendo Daishi), Nanbokucho period, 14th century.JPG") In [East Asian Buddhism](/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism "East Asian Buddhism"), buddhānusmṛti practice is called [Nianfo](/wiki/Nianfo "Nianfo") (Japanese: Nembutsu) and it is the central practice of the East Asian Mahayana schools of [Pure Land Buddhism](/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism "Pure Land Buddhism"). Following the lead of the 7th century Chinese Pure Land patriarch [Shandao](/wiki/Shandao "Shandao"), the East Asian Pure Land schools tend to emphasize the oral recitation of the name of Amitabha Buddha over the visualization aspects of Buddhānusmṛti.Jones, Charles B. (2019\). Chinese Pure Land Buddhism: Understanding a Tradition of Practice, pp. 21\-22\. University of Hawaii Press Due to the influence of Shandao's writings, which highlight vocal Buddhānusmṛti as the most important practice, the mere verbal chanting or recitation of the phrase 南無阿彌陀佛 (Mandarin: Nāmó Ēmítuófó, Japanese: Namu Amida Butsu, "Homage to Amitabha Buddha") without any visualization or other meditative technique, is the most widely practice form of Buddhānusmṛti in most East Asian Pure land traditions, including the Japanese Pure land traditions of [Honen](/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen "Hōnen") and [Shinran](/wiki/Shinran "Shinran").Cheung, Tak\-ching Neky. and 張德貞. “[A comparative study of the pure land teachings of Shandao (613\-681\) and Shinran (1173\-1262\).”](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-comparative-study-of-the-pure-land-teachings-of-Cheung-%E5%BC%B5%E5%BE%B7%E8%B2%9E./5aed79e7ffb88e0037e71ba7d40d20278633993b) (2001\). This recitation of the nianfo can be done individually or in group chanting sessions at temples or "nianfo halls" Nevertheless, visualization practices is still be performed by certain East Asian Buddhist cultivators. Thirteen visualization meditations are taught in the [Amitayus Contemplation Sutra](/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra "Amitayurdhyana Sutra") and these have been important in the various Pure Land traditions. They include visualization of various elements of Sukhavati pure land, like the setting sun, the waters, ground and trees of the pure land, as well as the lotus throne of the Buddha, the Buddha Amitabha himself as well as his attendant bodhisattvas: [Avalokiteśvara](/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara "Avalokiteśvara") and [Mahasthamaprapta](/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta "Mahasthamaprapta").Hisao Inagaki, Harold Stewart (trans.): The Three Pure Land Sutras, p. XIX. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research 2003\. ISBN 1\-886439\-18\-4 Another type of Mahayana Buddhānusmṛti practice involves the recitation of a Buddha's [mantra](/wiki/Mantra "Mantra") or a [dharani](/wiki/Dharani "Dharani") of a specific Buddha, like the [Pure Land Rebirth Dharani](/wiki/Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Dharani "Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani"). ### Vajrayana {{Main\\|Deity yoga}} [thumb\\|282x282px\\|An 18th\-century Mongolian miniature which depicts a monk generating a tantric visualization](/wiki/File:Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg "Schildering uit reeks over de Sarvavid Vairocana Mandala - Licht, anoniem, ca 1799, MAS.jpg") In [Vajrayana](/wiki/Vajrayana "Vajrayana") Buddhism, a [tantric](/wiki/Tantra "Tantra") type of Buddhānusmṛti is developed in a practice called [deity yoga](/wiki/Deity_yoga "Deity yoga") (Tibetan: lha'i rnal 'byor; Sanskrit: Devata\-yoga). The Vajrayana practice of Deity Yoga involves the use of a [mandala](/wiki/Mandala "Mandala") image, [mantra](/wiki/Mantra "Mantra") recitation and the visualization of a chosen meditation deity (Skt: iṣṭadevatā, Tibetan: [Yidam](/wiki/Yidam "Yidam")), usually a Buddha or bodhisattva. There are various types of Deity Yoga. One of the involves the meditator visualizing the deity in front of them and another involves the meditator visualizing themselves as their chosen deity and their surroundings with the elements of their [Mandala](/wiki/Mandala "Mandala"). Furthermore, one can visualize the deity in symbolic form as well. Common symbols include [seed syllables](/wiki/B%C4%ABja "Bīja"), a [vajra](/wiki/Vajra "Vajra"), or a moon disk. According to Shangpa Rinpoche, deity yoga is the most common type of meditation in Vajrayana Buddhism.The Practice of Deity Yoga by Shangpa Rinpoche, [http://www.diamondway\-buddhism\-university.org/en/buddhism/Tibetan\_Buddhist\_Articles/meditation/diety\_yoga.html](http://www.diamondway-buddhism-university.org/en/buddhism/Tibetan_Buddhist_Articles/meditation/diety_yoga.html)	[ "In Mahayana Buddhism\n--------------------", "[thumb\\\|Amitabha in Sukhavati Paradise, Tibetan, circa 1700, Ink, pigments, and gold on cotton, San Antonio Museum of Art.](/wiki/File:%27Amitabha_in_Sukhavati_Paradise%27%2C_Tibetan%2C_circa_1700%2C_San_Antonio_Museum_of_Art.jpg \"'Amitabha in Sukhavati Paradise', Tibetan, circa 1700, San Antonio Museum of Art.jpg\")", "In [Mahayana Buddhism](/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism \"Mahayana Buddhism\") Buddhānusmṛti and related mindfulness practices are often specialized to uniquely Mahayana [Buddhas](/wiki/Buddhas \"Buddhas\") such as [Amitabha](/wiki/Amitabha \"Amitabha\"), [Maitreya](/wiki/Maitreya \"Maitreya\") or [Vairocana](/wiki/Vairocana \"Vairocana\"). These practices also sometimes involve mental [visualization](/wiki/Mental_image \"Mental image\") of their physical qualities, bodies and [Buddha fields](/wiki/Pure_land \"Pure land\") (also known as Pure Lands). According to Paul Williams, the development of Mahayana Buddha mindfulness practices can be traced to the Buddhist meditation teachers of [Kashmir](/wiki/Kashmir \"Kashmir\") who composed several texts which emphasized mindfulness of Buddhas.", "### In the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras", "Mindfulness of the Buddha is found in numerous [Mahayana sutras](/wiki/Mahayana_sutras \"Mahayana sutras\"). For example, the Teaching of Manjusri 700 Line Prajñāpāramitā Sutra (Mañjuśrīparivartāparaparyāyā Saptaśatikāprajñāpāramitā) calls the practice the \"single practice samadhi\", stating that meditators: \n> should live in seclusion, cast away discursive thoughts, not cling to the appearance of things, concentrate their minds on a Buddha, and recite his name single\\-mindedly. They should keep their bodies erect and, facing the direction of that Buddha, meditate upon him continuously. If they can maintain mindfulness of the Buddha without interruption from moment to moment, then they will be able to see all Buddhas of the past, present, and future right in each moment.Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2008, p. 211\\.", "Similarly, in [Kumarajiva's](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\") [Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā\\-prajñāpāramitā](/wiki/Large_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtras \"Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras\") (摩訶般若波羅蜜經, T8, no. 223\\), the Buddha states:\n> Place the seeds for \\[your future] happy merit in this ‘Transformation Buddha’ (化佛), or where he is. If there are good men and good women who with a respectful mind only \\[focus on practicing] buddhānusmṛti, the effect of this good root will end \\[their] sufferings and produce limitless happiness. Subhūti, set up \\[the practice of performing] buddhānusmṛti with a respectful heart. If there are good men and good women who \\[practice] buddhānusmṛti while scattering \\[even] a single flower into space, \\[their] sufferings will finally end \\[and they will produce] limitless happy \\[retributions]. Subhūti, set up \\[the practice of performing] buddhānusmṛti with a respectful heart, set up \\[the practice of performing] buddhānusmṛti \\[while] scattering flowers. If there are persons that praise/recite namo buddhāya \\[even only] once \\[their] sufferings will finally end \\[and they will produce] limitless happy \\[retributions].", "Buddha mindfulness is also discussed in the [Dazhidulun](/wiki/D%C3%A0_zh%C3%ACd%C3%B9_l%C3%B9n \"Dà zhìdù lùn\"), the earliest Perfection of Wisdom commentary. It recommends \"buddhānusmṛti\\-samādhi\" and the recitation of the phrase \"namo buddhāya\" to laypersons.", "### Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra", "The most popular Buddha in East Asian Mahayana is Amitabha Buddha, the central Buddha of the popular Asian Pure Land tradition. One of the earliest sutras which mentions mindfulness of Amitabha Buddha is the [Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra](/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra \"Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra\") (translated into Chinese in 179 CE by [Lokakshema](/wiki/Lokaksema_%28Buddhist_monk%29 \"Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)\")).Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, pp. 211–212\\. The sutra describes a Buddha mindfulness practice called the Pratyutpannabuddha Saṃmukhāvasthita Samādhi (\"the Samādhi for Encountering Face\\-to\\-Face the Buddhas of the Present\") which can lead to a vision of the Buddhas after which one can worship them directly and even directly receive teachings from them.Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2008, p. 212\\.", "The practice of contemplation of the Buddha is described in this sutra as follows:\n> what is the calling to mind of the Buddha \\[buddhānusmṛti]? Namely, he who concentrates on the Tathāgata thus: 'He, the Tathāgata, Arhat, Samyaksambuddha, endowed with knowledge and conduct, the Sugata, Knower of the World, Tamer of men to be tamed, the Supreme One, Teacher of Gods and Men, the Buddha, the Lord; endowed with the Thirty\\-two Marks of the Great Man and a body resembling the colour of gold; like a bright, shining, and well\\-established golden image; well\\-adorned like a pillar of gems; expounding the Dharma amidst an assembly of disciples ...'; he who obtains the samādhi of Emptiness by thus concentrating on the Tathāgata without apprehending him, he is known as one who calls to mind the Buddha.", "The sutra also describes mindfulness of the Buddha as follows \"with undistracted thought \\[aviksiptacittena] he concentrates \\[manasi\\-kr\\-] on the Tathagata.\"", "This sutra also mentions how one can be reborn in Amitabha's [buddhafield](/wiki/Pure_land \"Pure land\") (or pure land), something which is a major concern in contemporary Mahayana Buddhism. The Pratyutpanna states that bodhisattvas meditate on Amitabha Buddha again and again and due to this practice they are able to see him in a vision or a dream. Then Amitabha Buddha says \"If you wish to come and be born in my realm, you must always call me to mind again and again, you must always keep this thought in mind without letting up, and thus you will succeed in coming to be born in my realm.\"Harrison, Paul. McRae, John. The Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra and the Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra. 1998\\. pp. 2–3, 19", "However, the sutra also warns that one must train extensively in the practice and also maintain strict ethics to attain this samadhi. It also states that in meditation, one must understand and view the Buddhas properly as being [empty](/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81 \"Śūnyatā\"). The sutra warns that one should never \"think erroneously about\" (manyate), \"apprehend\" (upalabhate), \"fixate on\" (abhinivisate), \"cognise\" (samjânâti), \"imagine\" (kalpati), or \"discriminate\" (vikalpayati) the Buddha in this meditation. Thus, according to the sutra \"he who obtains the samadhi of Emptiness by thus concentrating on the Tathagata without apprehending him, he is known as one who calls to mind the Buddha.\" According to Paul Harrison, the main meaning of this is that the visions of the Buddha in meditation should not be grasped at as a substantial entity or to be apprehended as an objectively existing entity (since no such substantial thing exists).", "### In the Pure land sutras", "[thumb\\\|Amitabha Buddha Sutra, by Deokjusa Temple](/wiki/file:Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra%2C_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg \"Amitabha Buddha Sutra, by Deokjusa Temple.jpg\")\nThe [Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra](/wiki/Shorter_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra \"Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra\") says that if one maintains Buddha mindfulness on the Buddha Amitabha, upon death one will have a vision of Amitabha who will then take them to the Pure Land:McMahan, David; Empty Vision: Metaphor and Visionary Imagery in Mahayana Buddhism, p. 151\\.\n> Śāriputra, if, among good men and good women, there are those who, having heard of Amitābha Buddha, single\\-mindedly uphold His name for one day, two days, three days, four days, five days, six days, or seven days, without being distracted, then upon their dying, Amitābha Buddha, together with a holy multitude, will appear before them. When these people die, their minds will not be demented and they will be reborn in Amitābha Buddha's Land of Ultimate Bliss.{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Rulu (trans.) \\\|title\\=The Amitabha Buddha Sutra, 佛說阿彌陀經 \\\|url\\=https://www.sutrasmantras.info/sutra23\\.html \\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-09 \\\|website\\=www.sutrasmantras.info}}", "The Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra also states that its Amitabha focused Buddhānusmṛti practice will lead to the state of non\\-retrogression (avaivartika), a state in which a bodhisattva's progress cannot be reversed: \n> Śāriputra, if there are good men and good women who have heard and upheld this sūtra, and have heard Buddhas’ names, they are protected and remembered by all Buddhas. They will never regress from their resolve to attain [anuttara\\-samyak\\-saṁbodhi](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism \"Enlightenment in Buddhism\"). Therefore, Śāriputra, you all should believe and accept my words and other Buddhas’ words. If there are those who have resolved, are now resolving, or will resolve to be reborn in Amitābha Buddha's land, they will never regress from their resolve to attain anuttara\\-samyak\\-saṁbodhi, whether they have already been reborn, are now being reborn, or will be reborn in that land. Therefore, Śāriputra, if, among good men and good women, there are those who believe \\[my words], they should resolve to be reborn in that land.", "Other Pure Land sutra like the [Amitayurdhyana Sutra](/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra \"Amitayurdhyana Sutra\"), include lengthy descriptions of the Buddha [Amitabha](/wiki/Amitabha \"Amitabha\")'s physical qualities and of his [Pure land](/wiki/Pure_land \"Pure land\") which are used in practices that are meant to allow the meditator to access the Pure Land of [Sukhavati](/wiki/Sukhavati \"Sukhavati\"), worship Amitabha directly and receive teachings from Amitabha.McMahan, David; Empty Vision: Metaphor and Visionary Imagery in Mahayana Buddhism, p. 150\\. 2013\\.", "### In other Mahayana sutras", "There are other Mahayana sutras which discuss mindfulness of the Buddha. One of these is the Sūtra on the Bodhisattvas’ Concentration on Buddha Commemoration (Taisho no. 414\\) and a parallel version of the text which appears in the Section of the Bodhisattvas’ Concentration on Buddha Commemoration of the Mahāsaṃnipāta (Taisho no. 415\\).", "Another set of Mahayana sutras which discuss Buddhānusmṛti are the so called \"[Contemplation sutras](/wiki/Visualization_sutras \"Visualization sutras\")\" ([Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language \"Chinese language\"): 觀經, guan jing). This set of scriptures includes the [Amitayurdhyana Sutra](/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra \"Amitayurdhyana Sutra\") as well as other texts like the Sūtra on the Ocean\\-like Samādhi of the Visualization of the Buddha (Guan Fo Sanmei Hai Jing, Taisho no. 643\\) and the Sutra on the Contemplation of Maitreya Bodhisattva's Ascent to Rebirth in Tusita Heaven (Guan Mile Pusa Shangsheng Doushuaitian Jing).Soper, Alexander Coburn. Literary Evidence for Early Buddhist Art in China. Artibus Asiae Supplementum 19\\. Ascona, Switzerland: Artibus Asiae, 1959\\. The Sūtra on the Ocean\\-like Samādhi tells of a prince who is taught by a monk to recite namo buddhāya near a stupa. This leads to a night time vision of the Buddha and to future travels to buddhafields due to his attainment of the \"gate of buddha\\-mindfulness\" (buddhānusmṛti\\-samādhi\\-mukha). The [Mahāsaṃnipāta](/wiki/Mah%C4%81sa%E1%B9%83nip%C4%81ta_S%C5%ABtra \"Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra\") section meanwhile, calls the gate of buddha\\-mindfulness \"the king among concentrations\" which can complete the bodhisattva path.", "Another sutra which discusses the \"gate of buddha\\-mindfulness\" (buddhānusmṛti\\-samādhi\\-mukha) is the ‘[Gaṇḍavyūha](/wiki/Gandavyuha \"Gandavyuha\") chapter’ of the [Avataṃsaka\\-sūtra](/wiki/Buddh%C4%81vata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtra \"Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra\") (Taisho no. 279\\). This sutra actually outlines twenty gates of buddha\\-mindfulness.", "### Indian treatises", "[thumb\\\|Indic style Amitabha from [Borobudur](/wiki/Borobudur \"Borobudur\"), Indonesia](/wiki/file:096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg \"096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg\")\nVarious Indian Buddhist treatises (shastras) discuss the practice of Buddhānusmṛti. The Indian thinker [Nagarjuna](/wiki/Nagarjuna \"Nagarjuna\") discusses the practice in various sources, including in his Daśabhūmika\\-Vibhasa (Commentary on [Dashabhumikasutra](/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra \"Ten Stages Sutra\")).Bhiksu Dharmamitra (trans.). Nagarjuna on Mindfulness of the Buddha: Selected Readings on Mindfulness of the Buddha, the Pratyutpanna Samadhi, and Recollection of the Buddha, Kalavinka Press, 2019\\. In chapter nine of this treatise (which only survives in Chinese translation in the [Chinese Buddhist canon](/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon \"Chinese Buddhist canon\")), Nagarjuna mentions the \"easy path\" (易行品第九) of Buddha mindfulness that the Buddhas have taught as a skillful means (for those who are weak and lack vigor) that can lead one to the stage of irreversibility \\[avaivartikabhūmi].Bhiksu Dharmamitra (trans.). Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Bodhisattva Grounds: The Daśabhūmika Vibhāṣā, Volume 1\\. Kalavinka Press, 2019 Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 33\\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. According to Nagarjuna, if one wishes to practice this method, one should \"bear in mind\" the buddhas of the ten directions and \"invoke their names\". He also cites a verse which states: \n> If a person wishes to swiftly reach the ground of irreversibility, he should, with a reverential mind, take up and maintain the practice of invoking these buddhas’ names.", "He also cites a sutra called Sutra Spoken in Response to the Questions of the Youth Precious Moon which speaks of a Buddha called \"Meritorious Qualities\" who has a pure land called Sorrowless. According to this sutra \"if there is a son or daughter of good family who but hears this buddha's name and is then able to have faith and accept him, such a person will immediately achieve irreversibility with respect to the attainment of [anuttarasamyaksaṃbodhi](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism \"Enlightenment in Buddhism\").\"Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 35\\. 2019, Kalavinka Press.", "Nagarjuna then explains ten different Buddhas and their qualities. He also lists other Buddhas and bodhisattvas that one may invoke to achieve the state of irreversibility.Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 33\\-47\\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. Nagarjuna also singles out Amitabha and includes some verses in praise of this Buddha.Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 49\\. 2019, Kalavinka Press.", "Yogacara masters also discussed the practice. It is found in [Vasubandhu's](/wiki/Vasubandhu \"Vasubandhu\") Discourse on the Pure Land (Jìngtǔ lùn 浄土論) and in [Asanga's](/wiki/Asanga \"Asanga\") ‘Commentary on Buddha Commemoration’ (Buddhānusmṛti\\-vṛtti, Tibetan: Sangs rgyas rjes su dran pa’i ‘grel pa).Matsumoto, David (trans.). [Jodoron: Discourse on the Sutra of Eternal Life and Gatha of Aspiration to be Born in the Pure Land.](https://web.archive.org/web/20171016024814/https://web.mit.edu/stclair/www/Vasubandhu.html) Composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu, translated into Chinese by Bodhiruci of the Latter Wei Dynasty.", "Vasubandhu's Discourse focuses specifically on Amitabha and his pure land of [Sukhavati](/wiki/Sukhavati \"Sukhavati\"). Vasubandhu outlines five main \"gates\" of recollecting the Buddha: the Gate of Worship, the Gate of Praise, the Gate of Aspiration, the Gate of Contemplation, and the Gate of [Merit](/wiki/Merit_%28Buddhism%29 \"Merit (Buddhism)\") Transference. According to Vasubandhu, the worship gate is related to using bodily actions to worship the Buddha by bowing and so on, while the gate of praise makes use of words: \"One calls the Name of that Tathagata in accordance with that Tathagata's Light, which is the embodiment of Wisdom, and in accordance with the significance of the Name, for one wishes to practice in accordance with reality and attain unity with it.\" The gate of aspiration is to wish to be born in the Pure land, while the gate of transference means that one dedicates all merit to rebirth in the pure land. Lastly, the gate of contemplation is described by Vasubandhu as follows:\n> One contemplates with Wisdom, correctly thinking about and visualizing that Land and Buddha, for one wishes to practice [vipaśyanā](/wiki/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81 \"Vipaśyanā\") (clear insight) in accordance with reality. There are three types of contemplation. What are the three types ? The first is to contemplate the virtues of the adornments of that [Buddha Land](/wiki/Pure_land \"Pure land\") (buddhakṣetra). The second is to contemplate the virtues of the adornments of [Amitābha](/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha \"Amitābha\") Buddha. The third is to contemplate the virtuous adornments of all of the [Bodhisattvas](/wiki/Bodhisattva \"Bodhisattva\") in that Land.", "Vasubandhu then goes on to describe the various adornments and details of the Pure land which can be visualized in meditation.", "### East Asian Mahayana", "{{Main\\\|Nianfo}}\n[thumb\\\|Portrait of the Chinese Pure land patriarch [Shandao](/wiki/Shandao \"Shandao\") reciting nianfo](/wiki/file:Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_%28Zendo_Daishi%29%2C_Nanbokucho_period%2C_14th_century.JPG \"Portrait of Shandao Dashi (Zendo Daishi), Nanbokucho period, 14th century.JPG\")\nIn [East Asian Buddhism](/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism \"East Asian Buddhism\"), buddhānusmṛti practice is called [Nianfo](/wiki/Nianfo \"Nianfo\") (Japanese: Nembutsu) and it is the central practice of the East Asian Mahayana schools of [Pure Land Buddhism](/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism \"Pure Land Buddhism\"). Following the lead of the 7th century Chinese Pure Land patriarch [Shandao](/wiki/Shandao \"Shandao\"), the East Asian Pure Land schools tend to emphasize the oral recitation of the name of Amitabha Buddha over the visualization aspects of Buddhānusmṛti.Jones, Charles B. (2019\\). Chinese Pure Land Buddhism: Understanding a Tradition of Practice, pp. 21\\-22\\. University of Hawaii Press", "Due to the influence of Shandao's writings, which highlight vocal Buddhānusmṛti as the most important practice, the mere verbal chanting or recitation of the phrase 南無阿彌陀佛 (Mandarin: Nāmó Ēmítuófó, Japanese: Namu Amida Butsu, \"Homage to Amitabha Buddha\") without any visualization or other meditative technique, is the most widely practice form of Buddhānusmṛti in most East Asian Pure land traditions, including the Japanese Pure land traditions of [Honen](/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen \"Hōnen\") and [Shinran](/wiki/Shinran \"Shinran\").Cheung, Tak\\-ching Neky. and 張德貞. “[A comparative study of the pure land teachings of Shandao (613\\-681\\) and Shinran (1173\\-1262\\).”](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-comparative-study-of-the-pure-land-teachings-of-Cheung-%E5%BC%B5%E5%BE%B7%E8%B2%9E./5aed79e7ffb88e0037e71ba7d40d20278633993b) (2001\\). This recitation of the nianfo can be done individually or in group chanting sessions at temples or \"nianfo halls\"", "Nevertheless, visualization practices is still be performed by certain East Asian Buddhist cultivators. Thirteen visualization meditations are taught in the [Amitayus Contemplation Sutra](/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra \"Amitayurdhyana Sutra\") and these have been important in the various Pure Land traditions. They include visualization of various elements of Sukhavati pure land, like the setting sun, the waters, ground and trees of the pure land, as well as the lotus throne of the Buddha, the Buddha Amitabha himself as well as his attendant bodhisattvas: [Avalokiteśvara](/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara \"Avalokiteśvara\") and [Mahasthamaprapta](/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta \"Mahasthamaprapta\").Hisao Inagaki, Harold Stewart (trans.): The Three Pure Land Sutras, p. XIX. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research 2003\\. ISBN 1\\-886439\\-18\\-4", "Another type of Mahayana Buddhānusmṛti practice involves the recitation of a Buddha's [mantra](/wiki/Mantra \"Mantra\") or a [dharani](/wiki/Dharani \"Dharani\") of a specific Buddha, like the [Pure Land Rebirth Dharani](/wiki/Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Dharani \"Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani\").", "### Vajrayana", "{{Main\\\|Deity yoga}}\n[thumb\\\|282x282px\\\|An 18th\\-century Mongolian miniature which depicts a monk generating a tantric visualization](/wiki/File:Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg \"Schildering uit reeks over de Sarvavid Vairocana Mandala - Licht, anoniem, ca 1799, MAS.jpg\")\nIn [Vajrayana](/wiki/Vajrayana \"Vajrayana\") Buddhism, a [tantric](/wiki/Tantra \"Tantra\") type of Buddhānusmṛti is developed in a practice called [deity yoga](/wiki/Deity_yoga \"Deity yoga\") (Tibetan: lha'i rnal 'byor; Sanskrit: Devata\\-yoga). The Vajrayana practice of Deity Yoga involves the use of a [mandala](/wiki/Mandala \"Mandala\") image, [mantra](/wiki/Mantra \"Mantra\") recitation and the visualization of a chosen meditation deity (Skt: iṣṭadevatā, Tibetan: [Yidam](/wiki/Yidam \"Yidam\")), usually a Buddha or bodhisattva.", "There are various types of Deity Yoga. One of the involves the meditator visualizing the deity in front of them and another involves the meditator visualizing themselves as their chosen deity and their surroundings with the elements of their [Mandala](/wiki/Mandala \"Mandala\"). Furthermore, one can visualize the deity in symbolic form as well. Common symbols include [seed syllables](/wiki/B%C4%ABja \"Bīja\"), a [vajra](/wiki/Vajra \"Vajra\"), or a moon disk. According to Shangpa Rinpoche, deity yoga is the most common type of meditation in Vajrayana Buddhism.The Practice of Deity Yoga by Shangpa Rinpoche, [http://www.diamondway\\-buddhism\\-university.org/en/buddhism/Tibetan\\_Buddhist\\_Articles/meditation/diety\\_yoga.html](http://www.diamondway-buddhism-university.org/en/buddhism/Tibetan_Buddhist_Articles/meditation/diety_yoga.html)", "" ]
### Indian treatises [thumb\\|Indic style Amitabha from [Borobudur](/wiki/Borobudur "Borobudur"), Indonesia](/wiki/file:096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg "096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg") Various Indian Buddhist treatises (shastras) discuss the practice of Buddhānusmṛti. The Indian thinker [Nagarjuna](/wiki/Nagarjuna "Nagarjuna") discusses the practice in various sources, including in his Daśabhūmika\-Vibhasa (Commentary on [Dashabhumikasutra](/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra "Ten Stages Sutra")).Bhiksu Dharmamitra (trans.). Nagarjuna on Mindfulness of the Buddha: Selected Readings on Mindfulness of the Buddha, the Pratyutpanna Samadhi, and Recollection of the Buddha, Kalavinka Press, 2019\. In chapter nine of this treatise (which only survives in Chinese translation in the [Chinese Buddhist canon](/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon "Chinese Buddhist canon")), Nagarjuna mentions the "easy path" (易行品第九) of Buddha mindfulness that the Buddhas have taught as a skillful means (for those who are weak and lack vigor) that can lead one to the stage of irreversibility \[avaivartikabhūmi].Bhiksu Dharmamitra (trans.). Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Bodhisattva Grounds: The Daśabhūmika Vibhāṣā, Volume 1\. Kalavinka Press, 2019 Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 33\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. According to Nagarjuna, if one wishes to practice this method, one should "bear in mind" the buddhas of the ten directions and "invoke their names". He also cites a verse which states: > If a person wishes to swiftly reach the ground of irreversibility, he should, with a reverential mind, take up and maintain the practice of invoking these buddhas’ names. He also cites a sutra called Sutra Spoken in Response to the Questions of the Youth Precious Moon which speaks of a Buddha called "Meritorious Qualities" who has a pure land called Sorrowless. According to this sutra "if there is a son or daughter of good family who but hears this buddha's name and is then able to have faith and accept him, such a person will immediately achieve irreversibility with respect to the attainment of [anuttarasamyaksaṃbodhi](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism "Enlightenment in Buddhism")."Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 35\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. Nagarjuna then explains ten different Buddhas and their qualities. He also lists other Buddhas and bodhisattvas that one may invoke to achieve the state of irreversibility.Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 33\-47\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. Nagarjuna also singles out Amitabha and includes some verses in praise of this Buddha.Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 49\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. Yogacara masters also discussed the practice. It is found in [Vasubandhu's](/wiki/Vasubandhu "Vasubandhu") Discourse on the Pure Land (Jìngtǔ lùn 浄土論) and in [Asanga's](/wiki/Asanga "Asanga") ‘Commentary on Buddha Commemoration’ (Buddhānusmṛti\-vṛtti, Tibetan: Sangs rgyas rjes su dran pa’i ‘grel pa).Matsumoto, David (trans.). [Jodoron: Discourse on the Sutra of Eternal Life and Gatha of Aspiration to be Born in the Pure Land.](https://web.archive.org/web/20171016024814/https://web.mit.edu/stclair/www/Vasubandhu.html) Composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu, translated into Chinese by Bodhiruci of the Latter Wei Dynasty. Vasubandhu's Discourse focuses specifically on Amitabha and his pure land of [Sukhavati](/wiki/Sukhavati "Sukhavati"). Vasubandhu outlines five main "gates" of recollecting the Buddha: the Gate of Worship, the Gate of Praise, the Gate of Aspiration, the Gate of Contemplation, and the Gate of [Merit](/wiki/Merit_%28Buddhism%29 "Merit (Buddhism)") Transference. According to Vasubandhu, the worship gate is related to using bodily actions to worship the Buddha by bowing and so on, while the gate of praise makes use of words: "One calls the Name of that Tathagata in accordance with that Tathagata's Light, which is the embodiment of Wisdom, and in accordance with the significance of the Name, for one wishes to practice in accordance with reality and attain unity with it." The gate of aspiration is to wish to be born in the Pure land, while the gate of transference means that one dedicates all merit to rebirth in the pure land. Lastly, the gate of contemplation is described by Vasubandhu as follows: > One contemplates with Wisdom, correctly thinking about and visualizing that Land and Buddha, for one wishes to practice [vipaśyanā](/wiki/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81 "Vipaśyanā") (clear insight) in accordance with reality. There are three types of contemplation. What are the three types ? The first is to contemplate the virtues of the adornments of that [Buddha Land](/wiki/Pure_land "Pure land") (buddhakṣetra). The second is to contemplate the virtues of the adornments of [Amitābha](/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha "Amitābha") Buddha. The third is to contemplate the virtuous adornments of all of the [Bodhisattvas](/wiki/Bodhisattva "Bodhisattva") in that Land. Vasubandhu then goes on to describe the various adornments and details of the Pure land which can be visualized in meditation.	[ "### Indian treatises", "[thumb\\\|Indic style Amitabha from [Borobudur](/wiki/Borobudur \"Borobudur\"), Indonesia](/wiki/file:096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg \"096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg\")\nVarious Indian Buddhist treatises (shastras) discuss the practice of Buddhānusmṛti. The Indian thinker [Nagarjuna](/wiki/Nagarjuna \"Nagarjuna\") discusses the practice in various sources, including in his Daśabhūmika\\-Vibhasa (Commentary on [Dashabhumikasutra](/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra \"Ten Stages Sutra\")).Bhiksu Dharmamitra (trans.). Nagarjuna on Mindfulness of the Buddha: Selected Readings on Mindfulness of the Buddha, the Pratyutpanna Samadhi, and Recollection of the Buddha, Kalavinka Press, 2019\\. In chapter nine of this treatise (which only survives in Chinese translation in the [Chinese Buddhist canon](/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon \"Chinese Buddhist canon\")), Nagarjuna mentions the \"easy path\" (易行品第九) of Buddha mindfulness that the Buddhas have taught as a skillful means (for those who are weak and lack vigor) that can lead one to the stage of irreversibility \\[avaivartikabhūmi].Bhiksu Dharmamitra (trans.). Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Bodhisattva Grounds: The Daśabhūmika Vibhāṣā, Volume 1\\. Kalavinka Press, 2019 Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 33\\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. According to Nagarjuna, if one wishes to practice this method, one should \"bear in mind\" the buddhas of the ten directions and \"invoke their names\". He also cites a verse which states: \n> If a person wishes to swiftly reach the ground of irreversibility, he should, with a reverential mind, take up and maintain the practice of invoking these buddhas’ names.", "He also cites a sutra called Sutra Spoken in Response to the Questions of the Youth Precious Moon which speaks of a Buddha called \"Meritorious Qualities\" who has a pure land called Sorrowless. According to this sutra \"if there is a son or daughter of good family who but hears this buddha's name and is then able to have faith and accept him, such a person will immediately achieve irreversibility with respect to the attainment of [anuttarasamyaksaṃbodhi](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism \"Enlightenment in Buddhism\").\"Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 35\\. 2019, Kalavinka Press.", "Nagarjuna then explains ten different Buddhas and their qualities. He also lists other Buddhas and bodhisattvas that one may invoke to achieve the state of irreversibility.Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 33\\-47\\. 2019, Kalavinka Press. Nagarjuna also singles out Amitabha and includes some verses in praise of this Buddha.Arya Nagarjuna, [Kumarajiva](/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva \"Kumārajīva\"), Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Nagarjuna on the Mindfulness of the Buddha, p. 49\\. 2019, Kalavinka Press.", "Yogacara masters also discussed the practice. It is found in [Vasubandhu's](/wiki/Vasubandhu \"Vasubandhu\") Discourse on the Pure Land (Jìngtǔ lùn 浄土論) and in [Asanga's](/wiki/Asanga \"Asanga\") ‘Commentary on Buddha Commemoration’ (Buddhānusmṛti\\-vṛtti, Tibetan: Sangs rgyas rjes su dran pa’i ‘grel pa).Matsumoto, David (trans.). [Jodoron: Discourse on the Sutra of Eternal Life and Gatha of Aspiration to be Born in the Pure Land.](https://web.archive.org/web/20171016024814/https://web.mit.edu/stclair/www/Vasubandhu.html) Composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu, translated into Chinese by Bodhiruci of the Latter Wei Dynasty.", "Vasubandhu's Discourse focuses specifically on Amitabha and his pure land of [Sukhavati](/wiki/Sukhavati \"Sukhavati\"). Vasubandhu outlines five main \"gates\" of recollecting the Buddha: the Gate of Worship, the Gate of Praise, the Gate of Aspiration, the Gate of Contemplation, and the Gate of [Merit](/wiki/Merit_%28Buddhism%29 \"Merit (Buddhism)\") Transference. According to Vasubandhu, the worship gate is related to using bodily actions to worship the Buddha by bowing and so on, while the gate of praise makes use of words: \"One calls the Name of that Tathagata in accordance with that Tathagata's Light, which is the embodiment of Wisdom, and in accordance with the significance of the Name, for one wishes to practice in accordance with reality and attain unity with it.\" The gate of aspiration is to wish to be born in the Pure land, while the gate of transference means that one dedicates all merit to rebirth in the pure land. Lastly, the gate of contemplation is described by Vasubandhu as follows:\n> One contemplates with Wisdom, correctly thinking about and visualizing that Land and Buddha, for one wishes to practice [vipaśyanā](/wiki/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81 \"Vipaśyanā\") (clear insight) in accordance with reality. There are three types of contemplation. What are the three types ? The first is to contemplate the virtues of the adornments of that [Buddha Land](/wiki/Pure_land \"Pure land\") (buddhakṣetra). The second is to contemplate the virtues of the adornments of [Amitābha](/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha \"Amitābha\") Buddha. The third is to contemplate the virtuous adornments of all of the [Bodhisattvas](/wiki/Bodhisattva \"Bodhisattva\") in that Land.", "Vasubandhu then goes on to describe the various adornments and details of the Pure land which can be visualized in meditation.", "" ]
Board members ------------- Daniel J. Griffin, Chair, Appointed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified. Dusty Elias Kirk, Vice\-Chair, Appointed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified. Sylvia Fields, Secretary\-Treasurer, Appointed by City of Pittsburgh Mayor Bill Peduto; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified. Jackie Dixon, Appointed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified. Don Linzer, Appointed by City of Pittsburgh Mayor Bill Peduto; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified. Dr. Daniel Rosen, Dr. Rosen is the at\-large member of the board; term expires in June 2018\. Anthony J. Ross, Appointed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified.	[ "Board members\n-------------", "Daniel J. Griffin, Chair,\nAppointed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified.", "Dusty Elias Kirk, Vice\\-Chair,\nAppointed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified.", "Sylvia Fields, Secretary\\-Treasurer,\nAppointed by City of Pittsburgh Mayor Bill Peduto; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified.", "Jackie Dixon,\nAppointed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified.", "Don Linzer,\nAppointed by City of Pittsburgh Mayor Bill Peduto; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified.", "Dr. Daniel Rosen,\nDr. Rosen is the at\\-large member of the board; term expires in June 2018\\.", "Anthony J. Ross,\nAppointed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald; term coincides with the term of office of the appointing authority and until its successor is appointed and qualified.", "" ]
Geography --------- ### General {{stack\\| \[\[File:Mt Adams from south \- Wasco County Oregon.jpg\\|thumb\\|Mount Adams from \[\[Wasco County, Oregon]].]] \[\[File:Meadows at Mount Adams Wilderness 03\.JPG\\|thumbnail\\|Meadows at Mount Adams Wilderness]] }} Mount Adams stands {{convert\\|37\\|mi\\|km}} east of [Mount St. Helens](/wiki/Mount_St._Helens "Mount St. Helens") and about {{convert\\|50\\|mi\\|km}} south of [Mount Rainier](/wiki/Mount_Rainier "Mount Rainier"). It is {{convert\\|30\\|mi\\|km}} north of the [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River "Columbia River") and {{convert\\|55\\|mi\\|km}} north of [Mount Hood](/wiki/Mount_Hood "Mount Hood") in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon"). The nearest major cities are [Yakima](/wiki/Yakima "Yakima"), {{convert\\|50\\|mi\\|km}} to the northeast, and the [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon") metropolitan area, {{convert\\|60\\|mi\\|km}} to the southwest. Between half and two thirds of Adams is within the [Mount Adams Wilderness](/wiki/Mount_Adams_Wilderness "Mount Adams Wilderness") of the [Gifford Pinchot National Forest](/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest "Gifford Pinchot National Forest"). The remaining area is within the [Mount Adams Recreation Area](/wiki/Mount_Adams_Recreation_Area "Mount Adams Recreation Area") of the [Yakama Indian Reservation](/wiki/Yakama_Indian_Reservation "Yakama Indian Reservation"). While many of the volcanic peaks in Oregon are located on the Cascade Crest, Adams is the only active volcano in Washington to be so. It is farther east than all the rest of Washington's volcanoes except [Glacier Peak](/wiki/Glacier_Peak "Glacier Peak"). Adams is one of the long\-lived [volcanoes](/wiki/Stratovolcano "Stratovolcano") in the [Cascade Range](/wiki/Cascade_Range "Cascade Range"), with minor activity beginning 900,000 years ago and major cone building activity beginning 520,000 years ago. The whole mountain has been completely eroded by glaciers to an elevation of {{convert\\|8200\\|ft\\|m}} twice during its lifetime. The current cone was built during the most recent major eruptive period 40,000–10,000 years ago. Standing at {{convert\\|12281\\|ft\\|m}}, Adams towers about {{convert\\|9800\\|ft\\|m}} over the surrounding countryside. It is the second\-highest mountain in Washington and third\-highest in the [Cascade Range](/wiki/Cascade_Range "Cascade Range"). Because of the way it developed, it is the largest stratovolcano in Washington and second\-largest in the Cascades, behind only [Mount Shasta](/wiki/Mount_Shasta "Mount Shasta"). Its large size is reflected in its {{convert\\|18\\|mi\\|km}}\-diameter base, which has a prominent north–south trending axis. Adams is the source of the headwaters for two major rivers, the [Lewis River](/wiki/Lewis_River_%28Washington%29 "Lewis River (Washington)") and [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River "White Salmon River"). The many streams that emanate from the glaciers and from springs at its base flow into two more major river systems, the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River "Cispus River") and the [Klickitat River](/wiki/Klickitat_River "Klickitat River"). The streams on the north and west portions of Adams feed the Cispus River, which joins the [Cowlitz River](/wiki/Cowlitz_River "Cowlitz River") near [Riffe Lake](/wiki/Riffe_Lake "Riffe Lake"), and the Lewis River.{{fact\\|date\=October 2024}} To the south, the White Salmon River has its source on the lower flanks of the west side of Adams and gains additional flows from streams along the southwest side of the mountain. Streams on the east side all flow to the Klickitat River. Streams on all sides, at some point in their courses, provide essential [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation "Irrigation") water for [farming](/wiki/Farming "Farming") and [ranching](/wiki/Ranching "Ranching"). The [Klickitat](/wiki/Klickitat_River "Klickitat River") and [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_River "White Salmon River") rivers are nearly completely free flowing, with only small barriers to aid irrigation (White Salmon) and [erosion control](/wiki/Check_dam "Check dam") (Klickitat). The [Cispus](/wiki/Cispus_River "Cispus River") and [Lewis](/wiki/Lewis_River_%28Washington%29 "Lewis River (Washington)") rivers have been [impounded](/wiki/Dam "Dam") with dams farther downstream for [flood control](/wiki/Flood_control "Flood control") and [power generation](/wiki/Hydroelectricity "Hydroelectricity") purposes.{{fact\\|date\=October 2024}} Mount Adams is the second\-most isolated, in terms of access, stratovolcano in Washington; [Glacier Peak](/wiki/Glacier_Peak "Glacier Peak") is the most isolated. Only two major highways pass close to it. [Highway 12](/wiki/U.S._Route_12 "U.S. Route 12") passes about {{convert\\|25\\|mi}} to the north of Adams through the Cascades. [Highway 141](/wiki/Washington_State_Route_141 "Washington State Route 141") comes within {{convert\\|13\\|mi}} of Adams as it follows the White Salmon River valley up from the [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River "Columbia River") to the small town of [Trout Lake](/wiki/Trout_Lake%2C_Washington "Trout Lake, Washington"). From either highway, travelers have to use Forest Service roads to get closer to the mountain. The main access roads, FR 23, FR 82, FR 80, and FR 21, are paved for part of their length. Almost all other roads are gravel or dirt, with varying degrees of maintenance. Access to the [Mount Adams Recreation Area](/wiki/Mount_Adams_Recreation_Area "Mount Adams Recreation Area") is by way of FR 82, which becomes BIA 285 at the Yakama reservation boundary. BIA 285 is known to be extremely rough and often suitable only for trucks or high\-clearance vehicles. Two small towns, [Glenwood](/wiki/Glenwood%2C_Klickitat_County%2C_Washington "Glenwood, Klickitat County, Washington") and [Trout Lake](/wiki/Trout_Lake%2C_Washington "Trout Lake, Washington"), are located in valleys within {{convert\\|15\\|mi}} of the summit, Glenwood on the southeast quarter and Trout Lake on the southwest quarter.{{fact\\|date\=October 2024}} The mountain's size and distance from major cities, and the tendency of some people to forget or ignore Mount Adams, has led some people to call this volcano "The Forgotten Giant of Washington".{{rp\\|237}} On a clear day from the summit, other visible volcanoes in the [Cascade Range](/wiki/Cascade_Range "Cascade Range") include: [Mount Rainier](/wiki/Mount_Rainier "Mount Rainier"), [Mount Baker](/wiki/Mount_Baker "Mount Baker"), and [Glacier Peak](/wiki/Glacier_Peak "Glacier Peak") to the north, as well as [Mount St. Helens](/wiki/Mount_St._Helens "Mount St. Helens") to the west, all in Washington; and [Mount Hood](/wiki/Mount_Hood "Mount Hood"), [Mount Jefferson](/wiki/Mount_Jefferson_%28Oregon%29 "Mount Jefferson (Oregon)"), and [the Three Sisters](/wiki/Three_Sisters_%28Oregon%29 "Three Sisters (Oregon)"), all to the south in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon"). ### Summit area Contrary to legend, the flatness of Adams' current summit area is not due to the loss of the volcano's peak. Instead, it was formed as a result of cone\-building eruptions from separated vents. A false summit, Pikers Peak, rises {{convert\\|11657\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=4}} on the south side of the nearly half\-mile (800 m) wide summit area. The true summit is about {{convert\\|600\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=2}} higher on the gently sloping north side. A small lava and [scoria](/wiki/Scoria "Scoria") cone marks the highest point. Suksdorf Ridge is a long buttress descending from the false summit to an elevation of {{convert\\|8000\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=1}}. This structure was built by repeated lava flows in the late [Pleistocene](/wiki/Pleistocene "Pleistocene"). The Pinnacle forms the northwest false summit and was created by erosion from the Adams and White Salmon glaciers. On the east side, The Castle is a low prominence at the top of Battlement Ridge. The summit crater is filled with snow and is open on its west rim. {{wide image\\|Mount Adams Summit Panorama.jpg\\|x160px\\|align\-cap\=center\\|Panoramic view from the relatively flat summit area of Mount Adams, with the center of the image looking due west towards Mount St. Helens. Nine \[\[Cascade Volcanoes]] are visible (not including Adams itself). From left to right: \[\[Three Sisters (Oregon)\\|Three Sisters complex]], \[\[Mount Jefferson (Oregon)\\|Mount Jefferson]], \[\[Mount Hood]], \[\[Mount St. Helens]], \[\[Mount Rainier]], \[\[Mount Baker]], and \[\[Glacier Peak]]. The \[\[Olympic Mountains]] can be seen between St. Helens and Rainier, nearly 150 miles away.\\|width\=65%}} ### Flank terrain features Prominent ridges descend from the mountain on all sides. On the north side, the aptly named North Cleaver comes down from a point below the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap "Ice cap") heading almost due north. The Northwest Ridge and West Ridge descend from the Pinnacle, to the northwest and west, respectively. Stagman Ridge descends west\-southwest from a point about halfway up the west side and turns more southwest at about {{convert\\|6000\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. South of Stagman Ridge lies Crofton Ridge. Crofton gradually becomes very broad as it descends southwesterly from the tree line. MacDonald Ridge, on the south side, starts at about tree line below the lower end of Suksdorf Ridge and descends in a southerly direction. Three prominent ridges descend from the east side of the mountain. The Ridge of Wonders is farthest south and ends at an area away from the mountain called The Island. Battlement Ridge is very rugged and descends from high on the mountain. The farthest ridge north on the east side, Victory Ridge, descends from a lower elevation on the mountain than Battlement Ridge beneath the precipitous Roosevelt Cliff. Lava Ridge, starting at about the same location as the North Cleaver, descends slightly east of north. Several rock prominences exist on the lower flanks of Adams. The Spearhead is an abrupt rocky prominence near the bottom of Battlement Ridge. Burnt Rock, The Hump, and The Bumper are three smaller rocky prominences at or below the tree line on the west side. ### Glaciers [thumb\\|upright\=1\.25\\|Glaciers of Mount Adams](/wiki/File:USGS_Glaciers_of_Mount_Adams_Map.gif "USGS Glaciers of Mount Adams Map.gif") In the early 21st century, glaciers covered a total of 2\.5% of Adams' surface. During the [last ice age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period "Last Glacial Period") about 90% of the mountain was glaciated. Mount Adams has 209 perennial snow and ice features and 12 officially named glaciers. The total ice\-covered area makes up {{convert\\|9\.3\\|sqmi\\|km2}}, while the area of named glaciers is {{convert\\|7\.7\\|sqmi\\|km2\\|abbr\=on}}. Most of the largest remaining glaciers (including the [Adams](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)"), [Klickitat](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier "Klickitat Glacier"), [Lyman](/wiki/Lyman_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Lyman Glacier (Mount Adams)"), and [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_River "White Salmon River")) originate from Adams' summit ice cap. On the northwest face of the mountain, [Adams Glacier](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)") cascades down a steep channel in a series of [icefalls](/wiki/Icefall "Icefall") before spreading out and terminating at around the {{convert\\|7000\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} elevation, where it becomes the source of the Lewis River and Adams Creek, a tributary of the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River "Cispus River"). Its eastern lobe ends at a small glacial [tarn](/wiki/Tarn_%28lake%29 "Tarn (lake)"), Equestria Lake. In the [Cascades](/wiki/Cascade_Range "Cascade Range"), Adams Glacier is second in size only to [Carbon Glacier](/wiki/Carbon_Glacier "Carbon Glacier") on [Mount Rainier](/wiki/Mount_Rainier "Mount Rainier"). [thumb\\|Deep crevasses and icefalls on Adams Glacier](/wiki/File:Upper_Portion_of_the_Adams_Glacier.JPG "Upper Portion of the Adams Glacier.JPG") The [Pinnacle](/wiki/Pinnacle_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Pinnacle Glacier (Mount Adams)"), [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "White Salmon Glacier (Mount Adams)"), and [Avalanche](/wiki/Avalanche_Glacier "Avalanche Glacier") glaciers on the west side of the mountain are less thick and voluminous, and are generally patchy in appearance. They all originate from [glacial cirques](/wiki/Cirques "Cirques") below the actual summit. Although the White Salmon Glacier does not originate from the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap "Ice cap"), it does begin very high on the mountain at about {{convert\\|11600\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. In the early 20th century, a portion of it descended from the summit ice cap, but volume loss has separated it. Some of its glacial ice feeds the Avalanche Glacier below it to the southwest while the rest tumbles over some large cliffs to its diminutive lower section to the west. The White Salmon and Avalanche Glaciers feed the many streams of the Salt Creek and Cascade Creek drainages, which flow into the [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River "White Salmon River"). The Pinnacle Glacier is the source of a fork of the [Lewis River](/wiki/Lewis_River_%28Washington%29 "Lewis River (Washington)") as well as Riley Creek, which is also a tributary of the Lewis River. The south side of the mountain along Suksdorf Ridge is moderately glacier\-free, with the only glaciers being the relatively small [Gotchen Glacier](/wiki/Gotchen_Glacier "Gotchen Glacier") and the [Crescent Glacier](/wiki/Crescent_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Crescent Glacier (Mount Adams)"). The south side, however, does have some perennial snowfields on its slopes. The Crescent Glacier is the source of Morrison Creek; and, although it does not feed it directly, the Gotchen Glacier is the source of Gotchen Creek. Both creeks drain to the [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River "White Salmon River"). [thumb\\|Heavily crevassed glaciers on the southeast side of the mountain](/wiki/File:Mt._Adams_Glaciers_above_Bird_Creek_Meadows.JPG "Mt. Adams Glaciers above Bird Creek Meadows.JPG") The rugged east side has four glaciers, the [Mazama Glacier](/wiki/Mazama_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Mazama Glacier (Mount Adams)"), [Klickitat Glacier](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier "Klickitat Glacier"), [Rusk Glacier](/wiki/Rusk_Glacier "Rusk Glacier"), and the [Wilson Glacier](/wiki/Wilson_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Wilson Glacier (Mount Adams)"). During the [last ice age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period "Last Glacial Period"), they carved out two immense canyons: the Hellroaring Canyon and the Avalanche Valley. This created the Ridge of Wonders between the two. Of the four glaciers on the east side, the Mazama Glacier is the farthest south and begins between the Suksdorf Ridge and Ridge of Wonders at about {{convert\\|10500\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. Near its terminus, it straddles the Ridge of Wonders and a small portion feeds into the Klickitat Glacier. The glacier gains more area from additional glacier ice that collects from drifting snow and avalanches below the Suksdorf Ridge as the ridge turns south. The Mazama Glacier terminates at about {{convert\\|8000\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} and is the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows over several waterfalls before it joins Big Muddy Creek. [Klickitat Glacier](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier "Klickitat Glacier") on the volcano's eastern flank originates in a {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km\\|1}} wide [cirque](/wiki/Cirque "Cirque") and is fed by two smaller glaciers from the summit ice cap. It terminates around {{convert\\|6600\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}, where it becomes the source of Big Muddy Creek, a tributary of the [Klickitat River](/wiki/Klickitat_River "Klickitat River"). The Rusk Glacier does not start from the summit ice cap but starts at {{convert\\|10500\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice from the summit cap. It is enclosed on the south by Battlement Ridge and Victory Ridge on the north and terminates at about {{convert\\|7100\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. It is the source of Rusk Creek, which flows over two waterfalls before joining the Big Muddy on its way to the Klickitat. The Wilson Glacier, like the Rusk Glacier, starts below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice; however, the Wilson Glacier starts slightly higher at about {{convert\\|10800\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. It is also fed by an arm of the Lyman Glacier as it flows down from the summit ice cap. The Wilson Glacier terminates at {{convert\\|7500\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} where it is the source of Little Muddy Creek, another tributary of the Klickitat. The north side is distinguished by two major glaciers, the [Lyman](/wiki/Lyman_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Lyman Glacier (Mount Adams)") and [Lava](/wiki/Lava_Glacier "Lava Glacier") Glaciers. Like the [Adams Glacier](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)"), the Lyman Glacier is characterized by deep [crevasses](/wiki/Crevasse "Crevasse") and many [icefalls](/wiki/Icefall "Icefall") as it cascades down from the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap "Ice cap"). It is divided into two arms by a very rugged ridge at {{convert\\|10200\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} and terminates at {{convert\\|7400\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. The [Lava Glacier](/wiki/Lava_Glacier "Lava Glacier") originates in a large cirque below the summit at about {{convert\\|10000\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}, sandwiched between the North Cleaver on the west and the Lava Ridge to the east. It terminates at about {{convert\\|7600\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. The Lava and Lyman Glaciers are the source of the Muddy Fork of the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River "Cispus River"). The total glacier area on Mount Adams decreased 49%, from {{convert\\|31\.5\\|km2\\|order\=flip}} to {{convert\\|16\.2\\|km2\\|order\=flip}}, between 1904 and 2006, with the greatest loss occurring before 1949\. Since 1949, the total glacier area has been relatively stable with a small amount of decline since the 1990s. ### Surrounding area {{stack\\| \[\[File:Mt. Adams from the south.JPG\\|thumb\\|Aerial view of the south face from across the \[\[Columbia River Gorge]].]] \[\[File:Simulating Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington.jpg\\|thumbnail\\|Trout Lake (Trout Lake Creek) reflecting Mount Adams near the small town of Trout Lake.]] }} Mount Adams is surrounded by a variety of other volcanic features and [volcanoes](/wiki/Volcano "Volcano"). It stands near the center of a north–south trending volcanic field that is about {{convert\\|4\\|mi\\|km}} wide and {{convert\\|30\\|mi\\|km}} long, from just south of the [Goat Rocks](/wiki/Goat_Rocks "Goat Rocks") to Guler Mountain, the vent farthest south in the field. This field includes over 120 vents; about 25 of these are considered [flank volcanoes](/wiki/Flank_volcanoes "Flank volcanoes") of Mount Adams. The largest flank volcano is a [basaltic](/wiki/Basalt "Basalt") [shield volcano](/wiki/Shield_volcano "Shield volcano") on Adams east base called Goat Butte. This structure is at least 150,000 years old. Little Mount Adams is a symmetrical [cinder cone](/wiki/Cinder_cone "Cinder cone") on top of the Ridge of Wonders on Adams' southeast flank. Potato Hill is a cinder cone on Adams' north side that was created in the late [Pleistocene](/wiki/Pleistocene "Pleistocene") and stands {{convert\\|800\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=2}} above its lava plain. Lavas from its base flowed into the Cispus Valley where they were later modified by glaciers. At the {{convert\\|7500\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} level on Adams' south flank is South Butte. The lavas associated with this structure are all younger than Suksdorf Ridge but were emplaced before the end of the last ice age. Several relatively young obvious lava flows exist in the area around Adams. Most of these flows are on the north side of the mountain and include the flow in the Mutton Creek area, Devils Garden, the Takh Takh Meadows Flow, and the much larger Muddy Fork Lava Flow to the north of Devils Garden. Only one obvious flow appears on the south slopes of Adams, the A. G. Aiken Lava Bed. Other smaller flows exist in various locations around the mountain as well. The many other vents and volcanoes encompassed by the Mount Adams field include Glaciate Butte and Red Butte on the north, King Mountain, Meadow Butte, Quigley Butte, and Smith Butte on the south, with others interspersed throughout. Located about {{convert\\|25\\|mi}} north of Adams is [Goat Rocks Wilderness](/wiki/Goat_Rocks_Wilderness "Goat Rocks Wilderness") and the heavily eroded ruins of a [stratovolcano](/wiki/Stratovolcano "Stratovolcano") that is much older than Adams. Unlike Adams, the [Goat Rocks](/wiki/Goat_Rocks "Goat Rocks") volcano was periodically explosive and deposited [ash](/wiki/Volcanic_ash "Volcanic ash") 2\.5 million years ago that later solidified into {{convert\\|2100\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\=on\\|sigfig\=2}} thick [tuff](/wiki/Tuff "Tuff") layers. In the area surrounding Mount Adams, many caves have formed around inactive lava vents. These caves, usually close to the surface, can be hundreds of feet (meters) deep and wide. A few of the more well known caves include the [Cheese Cave](/wiki/Cheese_Cave "Cheese Cave"), Ice Cave, and Deadhorse Caves. Cheese Cave has the largest bore of the caves near Adams with a diameter of {{convert\\|40\\|\-\\|50\\|ft\\|m}} and a length of over {{convert\\|2000\\|ft\\|m}}. Ice cave, which is made up of several sections created by several [sinkholes](/wiki/Sinkhole "Sinkhole"), has an ice section that is {{convert\\|120\\|ft\\|m}} long and {{convert\\|20\\|\-\\|30\\|ft\\|m}} in diameter and noted for its ice formations. From the same entrance, the tube continues another {{convert\\|500\\|ft\\|m}} to the west. Deadhorse Cave is a massive network of lava tubes. It is the most complex [lava tube](/wiki/Lava_tube "Lava tube") in the United States with {{convert\\|14441\\|ft\\|m}} of passage. These caves are all just outside of [Trout Lake](/wiki/Trout_Lake%2C_Washington "Trout Lake, Washington"). These and many other caves in the Trout Lake area were at one time part of a huge system that originated at the [Indian Heaven](/wiki/Indian_Heaven "Indian Heaven") [volcanic field](/wiki/Volcanic_field "Volcanic field"). The most obscure caves around Adams are the Windholes on the southeast side near Island Cabin Campground.	[ "Geography\n---------", "### General", "{{stack\\\|\n\\[\\[File:Mt Adams from south \\- Wasco County Oregon.jpg\\\|thumb\\\|Mount Adams from \\[\\[Wasco County, Oregon]].]]\n\\[\\[File:Meadows at Mount Adams Wilderness 03\\.JPG\\\|thumbnail\\\|Meadows at Mount Adams Wilderness]]\n}}\nMount Adams stands {{convert\\\|37\\\|mi\\\|km}} east of [Mount St. Helens](/wiki/Mount_St._Helens \"Mount St. Helens\") and about {{convert\\\|50\\\|mi\\\|km}} south of [Mount Rainier](/wiki/Mount_Rainier \"Mount Rainier\"). It is {{convert\\\|30\\\|mi\\\|km}} north of the [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River \"Columbia River\") and {{convert\\\|55\\\|mi\\\|km}} north of [Mount Hood](/wiki/Mount_Hood \"Mount Hood\") in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\"). The nearest major cities are [Yakima](/wiki/Yakima \"Yakima\"), {{convert\\\|50\\\|mi\\\|km}} to the northeast, and the [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\") metropolitan area, {{convert\\\|60\\\|mi\\\|km}} to the southwest. Between half and two thirds of Adams is within the [Mount Adams Wilderness](/wiki/Mount_Adams_Wilderness \"Mount Adams Wilderness\") of the [Gifford Pinchot National Forest](/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest \"Gifford Pinchot National Forest\"). The remaining area is within the [Mount Adams Recreation Area](/wiki/Mount_Adams_Recreation_Area \"Mount Adams Recreation Area\") of the [Yakama Indian Reservation](/wiki/Yakama_Indian_Reservation \"Yakama Indian Reservation\"). While many of the volcanic peaks in Oregon are located on the Cascade Crest, Adams is the only active volcano in Washington to be so. It is farther east than all the rest of Washington's volcanoes except [Glacier Peak](/wiki/Glacier_Peak \"Glacier Peak\").", "Adams is one of the long\\-lived [volcanoes](/wiki/Stratovolcano \"Stratovolcano\") in the [Cascade Range](/wiki/Cascade_Range \"Cascade Range\"), with minor activity beginning 900,000 years ago and major cone building activity beginning 520,000 years ago. The whole mountain has been completely eroded by glaciers to an elevation of {{convert\\\|8200\\\|ft\\\|m}} twice during its lifetime. The current cone was built during the most recent major eruptive period 40,000–10,000 years ago.", "Standing at {{convert\\\|12281\\\|ft\\\|m}}, Adams towers about {{convert\\\|9800\\\|ft\\\|m}} over the surrounding countryside. It is the second\\-highest mountain in Washington and third\\-highest in the [Cascade Range](/wiki/Cascade_Range \"Cascade Range\"). Because of the way it developed, it is the largest stratovolcano in Washington and second\\-largest in the Cascades, behind only [Mount Shasta](/wiki/Mount_Shasta \"Mount Shasta\"). Its large size is reflected in its {{convert\\\|18\\\|mi\\\|km}}\\-diameter base, which has a prominent north–south trending axis.", "Adams is the source of the headwaters for two major rivers, the [Lewis River](/wiki/Lewis_River_%28Washington%29 \"Lewis River (Washington)\") and [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River \"White Salmon River\"). The many streams that emanate from the glaciers and from springs at its base flow into two more major river systems, the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River \"Cispus River\") and the [Klickitat River](/wiki/Klickitat_River \"Klickitat River\"). The streams on the north and west portions of Adams feed the Cispus River, which joins the [Cowlitz River](/wiki/Cowlitz_River \"Cowlitz River\") near [Riffe Lake](/wiki/Riffe_Lake \"Riffe Lake\"), and the Lewis River.{{fact\\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "To the south, the White Salmon River has its source on the lower flanks of the west side of Adams and gains additional flows from streams along the southwest side of the mountain. Streams on the east side all flow to the Klickitat River. Streams on all sides, at some point in their courses, provide essential [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation \"Irrigation\") water for [farming](/wiki/Farming \"Farming\") and [ranching](/wiki/Ranching \"Ranching\"). The [Klickitat](/wiki/Klickitat_River \"Klickitat River\") and [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_River \"White Salmon River\") rivers are nearly completely free flowing, with only small barriers to aid irrigation (White Salmon) and [erosion control](/wiki/Check_dam \"Check dam\") (Klickitat). The [Cispus](/wiki/Cispus_River \"Cispus River\") and [Lewis](/wiki/Lewis_River_%28Washington%29 \"Lewis River (Washington)\") rivers have been [impounded](/wiki/Dam \"Dam\") with dams farther downstream for [flood control](/wiki/Flood_control \"Flood control\") and [power generation](/wiki/Hydroelectricity \"Hydroelectricity\") purposes.{{fact\\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "Mount Adams is the second\\-most isolated, in terms of access, stratovolcano in Washington; [Glacier Peak](/wiki/Glacier_Peak \"Glacier Peak\") is the most isolated. Only two major highways pass close to it. [Highway 12](/wiki/U.S._Route_12 \"U.S. Route 12\") passes about {{convert\\\|25\\\|mi}} to the north of Adams through the Cascades. [Highway 141](/wiki/Washington_State_Route_141 \"Washington State Route 141\") comes within {{convert\\\|13\\\|mi}} of Adams as it follows the White Salmon River valley up from the [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River \"Columbia River\") to the small town of [Trout Lake](/wiki/Trout_Lake%2C_Washington \"Trout Lake, Washington\"). From either highway, travelers have to use Forest Service roads to get closer to the mountain. The main access roads, FR 23, FR 82, FR 80, and FR 21, are paved for part of their length. Almost all other roads are gravel or dirt, with varying degrees of maintenance. Access to the [Mount Adams Recreation Area](/wiki/Mount_Adams_Recreation_Area \"Mount Adams Recreation Area\") is by way of FR 82, which becomes BIA 285 at the Yakama reservation boundary. BIA 285 is known to be extremely rough and often suitable only for trucks or high\\-clearance vehicles. Two small towns, [Glenwood](/wiki/Glenwood%2C_Klickitat_County%2C_Washington \"Glenwood, Klickitat County, Washington\") and [Trout Lake](/wiki/Trout_Lake%2C_Washington \"Trout Lake, Washington\"), are located in valleys within {{convert\\\|15\\\|mi}} of the summit, Glenwood on the southeast quarter and Trout Lake on the southwest quarter.{{fact\\\|date\\=October 2024}}", "The mountain's size and distance from major cities, and the tendency of some people to forget or ignore Mount Adams, has led some people to call this volcano \"The Forgotten Giant of Washington\".{{rp\\\|237}}", "On a clear day from the summit, other visible volcanoes in the [Cascade Range](/wiki/Cascade_Range \"Cascade Range\") include: [Mount Rainier](/wiki/Mount_Rainier \"Mount Rainier\"), [Mount Baker](/wiki/Mount_Baker \"Mount Baker\"), and [Glacier Peak](/wiki/Glacier_Peak \"Glacier Peak\") to the north, as well as [Mount St. Helens](/wiki/Mount_St._Helens \"Mount St. Helens\") to the west, all in Washington; and [Mount Hood](/wiki/Mount_Hood \"Mount Hood\"), [Mount Jefferson](/wiki/Mount_Jefferson_%28Oregon%29 \"Mount Jefferson (Oregon)\"), and [the Three Sisters](/wiki/Three_Sisters_%28Oregon%29 \"Three Sisters (Oregon)\"), all to the south in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\").", "### Summit area", "Contrary to legend, the flatness of Adams' current summit area is not due to the loss of the volcano's peak. Instead, it was formed as a result of cone\\-building eruptions from separated vents. A false summit, Pikers Peak, rises {{convert\\\|11657\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=4}} on the south side of the nearly half\\-mile (800 m) wide summit area. The true summit is about {{convert\\\|600\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=2}} higher on the gently sloping north side. A small lava and [scoria](/wiki/Scoria \"Scoria\") cone marks the highest point. Suksdorf Ridge is a long buttress descending from the false summit to an elevation of {{convert\\\|8000\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=1}}. This structure was built by repeated lava flows in the late [Pleistocene](/wiki/Pleistocene \"Pleistocene\"). The Pinnacle forms the northwest false summit and was created by erosion from the Adams and White Salmon glaciers. On the east side, The Castle is a low prominence at the top of Battlement Ridge. The summit crater is filled with snow and is open on its west rim.", "{{wide image\\\|Mount Adams Summit Panorama.jpg\\\|x160px\\\|align\\-cap\\=center\\\|Panoramic view from the relatively flat summit area of Mount Adams, with the center of the image looking due west towards Mount St. Helens. Nine \\[\\[Cascade Volcanoes]] are visible (not including Adams itself). From left to right: \\[\\[Three Sisters (Oregon)\\\|Three Sisters complex]], \\[\\[Mount Jefferson (Oregon)\\\|Mount Jefferson]], \\[\\[Mount Hood]], \\[\\[Mount St. Helens]], \\[\\[Mount Rainier]], \\[\\[Mount Baker]], and \\[\\[Glacier Peak]]. The \\[\\[Olympic Mountains]] can be seen between St. Helens and Rainier, nearly 150 miles away.\\\|width\\=65%}}", "### Flank terrain features", "Prominent ridges descend from the mountain on all sides. On the north side, the aptly named North Cleaver comes down from a point below the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap \"Ice cap\") heading almost due north. The Northwest Ridge and West Ridge descend from the Pinnacle, to the northwest and west, respectively. Stagman Ridge descends west\\-southwest from a point about halfway up the west side and turns more southwest at about {{convert\\\|6000\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. South of Stagman Ridge lies Crofton Ridge. Crofton gradually becomes very broad as it descends southwesterly from the tree line. MacDonald Ridge, on the south side, starts at about tree line below the lower end of Suksdorf Ridge and descends in a southerly direction.", "Three prominent ridges descend from the east side of the mountain. The Ridge of Wonders is farthest south and ends at an area away from the mountain called The Island. Battlement Ridge is very rugged and descends from high on the mountain. The farthest ridge north on the east side, Victory Ridge, descends from a lower elevation on the mountain than Battlement Ridge beneath the precipitous Roosevelt Cliff. Lava Ridge, starting at about the same location as the North Cleaver, descends slightly east of north.", "Several rock prominences exist on the lower flanks of Adams. The Spearhead is an abrupt rocky prominence near the bottom of Battlement Ridge. Burnt Rock, The Hump, and The Bumper are three smaller rocky prominences at or below the tree line on the west side.", "### Glaciers", "[thumb\\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\\|Glaciers of Mount Adams](/wiki/File:USGS_Glaciers_of_Mount_Adams_Map.gif \"USGS Glaciers of Mount Adams Map.gif\")", "In the early 21st century, glaciers covered a total of 2\\.5% of Adams' surface. During the [last ice age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period \"Last Glacial Period\") about 90% of the mountain was glaciated. Mount Adams has 209 perennial snow and ice features and 12 officially named glaciers. The total ice\\-covered area makes up {{convert\\\|9\\.3\\\|sqmi\\\|km2}}, while the area of named glaciers is {{convert\\\|7\\.7\\\|sqmi\\\|km2\\\|abbr\\=on}}. Most of the largest remaining glaciers (including the [Adams](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), [Klickitat](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier \"Klickitat Glacier\"), [Lyman](/wiki/Lyman_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Lyman Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), and [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_River \"White Salmon River\")) originate from Adams' summit ice cap.", "On the northwest face of the mountain, [Adams Glacier](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)\") cascades down a steep channel in a series of [icefalls](/wiki/Icefall \"Icefall\") before spreading out and terminating at around the {{convert\\\|7000\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} elevation, where it becomes the source of the Lewis River and Adams Creek, a tributary of the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River \"Cispus River\"). Its eastern lobe ends at a small glacial [tarn](/wiki/Tarn_%28lake%29 \"Tarn (lake)\"), Equestria Lake. In the [Cascades](/wiki/Cascade_Range \"Cascade Range\"), Adams Glacier is second in size only to [Carbon Glacier](/wiki/Carbon_Glacier \"Carbon Glacier\") on [Mount Rainier](/wiki/Mount_Rainier \"Mount Rainier\").\n[thumb\\\|Deep crevasses and icefalls on Adams Glacier](/wiki/File:Upper_Portion_of_the_Adams_Glacier.JPG \"Upper Portion of the Adams Glacier.JPG\")", "The [Pinnacle](/wiki/Pinnacle_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Pinnacle Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"White Salmon Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), and [Avalanche](/wiki/Avalanche_Glacier \"Avalanche Glacier\") glaciers on the west side of the mountain are less thick and voluminous, and are generally patchy in appearance. They all originate from [glacial cirques](/wiki/Cirques \"Cirques\") below the actual summit. Although the White Salmon Glacier does not originate from the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap \"Ice cap\"), it does begin very high on the mountain at about {{convert\\\|11600\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. In the early 20th century, a portion of it descended from the summit ice cap, but volume loss has separated it. Some of its glacial ice feeds the Avalanche Glacier below it to the southwest while the rest tumbles over some large cliffs to its diminutive lower section to the west. The White Salmon and Avalanche Glaciers feed the many streams of the Salt Creek and Cascade Creek drainages, which flow into the [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River \"White Salmon River\"). The Pinnacle Glacier is the source of a fork of the [Lewis River](/wiki/Lewis_River_%28Washington%29 \"Lewis River (Washington)\") as well as Riley Creek, which is also a tributary of the Lewis River.", "The south side of the mountain along Suksdorf Ridge is moderately glacier\\-free, with the only glaciers being the relatively small [Gotchen Glacier](/wiki/Gotchen_Glacier \"Gotchen Glacier\") and the [Crescent Glacier](/wiki/Crescent_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Crescent Glacier (Mount Adams)\"). The south side, however, does have some perennial snowfields on its slopes. The Crescent Glacier is the source of Morrison Creek; and, although it does not feed it directly, the Gotchen Glacier is the source of Gotchen Creek. Both creeks drain to the [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River \"White Salmon River\").\n[thumb\\\|Heavily crevassed glaciers on the southeast side of the mountain](/wiki/File:Mt._Adams_Glaciers_above_Bird_Creek_Meadows.JPG \"Mt. Adams Glaciers above Bird Creek Meadows.JPG\")", "The rugged east side has four glaciers, the [Mazama Glacier](/wiki/Mazama_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Mazama Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), [Klickitat Glacier](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier \"Klickitat Glacier\"), [Rusk Glacier](/wiki/Rusk_Glacier \"Rusk Glacier\"), and the [Wilson Glacier](/wiki/Wilson_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Wilson Glacier (Mount Adams)\"). During the [last ice age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period \"Last Glacial Period\"), they carved out two immense canyons: the Hellroaring Canyon and the Avalanche Valley. This created the Ridge of Wonders between the two. Of the four glaciers on the east side, the Mazama Glacier is the farthest south and begins between the Suksdorf Ridge and Ridge of Wonders at about {{convert\\\|10500\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. Near its terminus, it straddles the Ridge of Wonders and a small portion feeds into the Klickitat Glacier. The glacier gains more area from additional glacier ice that collects from drifting snow and avalanches below the Suksdorf Ridge as the ridge turns south. The Mazama Glacier terminates at about {{convert\\\|8000\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} and is the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows over several waterfalls before it joins Big Muddy Creek. [Klickitat Glacier](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier \"Klickitat Glacier\") on the volcano's eastern flank originates in a {{convert\\\|1\\\|mi\\\|km\\\|1}} wide [cirque](/wiki/Cirque \"Cirque\") and is fed by two smaller glaciers from the summit ice cap. It terminates around {{convert\\\|6600\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}, where it becomes the source of Big Muddy Creek, a tributary of the [Klickitat River](/wiki/Klickitat_River \"Klickitat River\"). The Rusk Glacier does not start from the summit ice cap but starts at {{convert\\\|10500\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice from the summit cap. It is enclosed on the south by Battlement Ridge and Victory Ridge on the north and terminates at about {{convert\\\|7100\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. It is the source of Rusk Creek, which flows over two waterfalls before joining the Big Muddy on its way to the Klickitat. The Wilson Glacier, like the Rusk Glacier, starts below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice; however, the Wilson Glacier starts slightly higher at about {{convert\\\|10800\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. It is also fed by an arm of the Lyman Glacier as it flows down from the summit ice cap. The Wilson Glacier terminates at {{convert\\\|7500\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} where it is the source of Little Muddy Creek, another tributary of the Klickitat.", "The north side is distinguished by two major glaciers, the [Lyman](/wiki/Lyman_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Lyman Glacier (Mount Adams)\") and [Lava](/wiki/Lava_Glacier \"Lava Glacier\") Glaciers. Like the [Adams Glacier](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), the Lyman Glacier is characterized by deep [crevasses](/wiki/Crevasse \"Crevasse\") and many [icefalls](/wiki/Icefall \"Icefall\") as it cascades down from the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap \"Ice cap\"). It is divided into two arms by a very rugged ridge at {{convert\\\|10200\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} and terminates at {{convert\\\|7400\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. The [Lava Glacier](/wiki/Lava_Glacier \"Lava Glacier\") originates in a large cirque below the summit at about {{convert\\\|10000\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}, sandwiched between the North Cleaver on the west and the Lava Ridge to the east. It terminates at about {{convert\\\|7600\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. The Lava and Lyman Glaciers are the source of the Muddy Fork of the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River \"Cispus River\").", "The total glacier area on Mount Adams decreased 49%, from {{convert\\\|31\\.5\\\|km2\\\|order\\=flip}} to {{convert\\\|16\\.2\\\|km2\\\|order\\=flip}}, between 1904 and 2006, with the greatest loss occurring before 1949\\. Since 1949, the total glacier area has been relatively stable with a small amount of decline since the 1990s.", "### Surrounding area", "{{stack\\\|\n\\[\\[File:Mt. Adams from the south.JPG\\\|thumb\\\|Aerial view of the south face from across the \\[\\[Columbia River Gorge]].]]\n\\[\\[File:Simulating Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington.jpg\\\|thumbnail\\\|Trout Lake (Trout Lake Creek) reflecting Mount Adams near the small town of Trout Lake.]]\n}}\nMount Adams is surrounded by a variety of other volcanic features and [volcanoes](/wiki/Volcano \"Volcano\"). It stands near the center of a north–south trending volcanic field that is about {{convert\\\|4\\\|mi\\\|km}} wide and {{convert\\\|30\\\|mi\\\|km}} long, from just south of the [Goat Rocks](/wiki/Goat_Rocks \"Goat Rocks\") to Guler Mountain, the vent farthest south in the field. This field includes over 120 vents; about 25 of these are considered [flank volcanoes](/wiki/Flank_volcanoes \"Flank volcanoes\") of Mount Adams. The largest flank volcano is a [basaltic](/wiki/Basalt \"Basalt\") [shield volcano](/wiki/Shield_volcano \"Shield volcano\") on Adams east base called Goat Butte. This structure is at least 150,000 years old.\nLittle Mount Adams is a symmetrical [cinder cone](/wiki/Cinder_cone \"Cinder cone\") on top of the Ridge of Wonders on Adams' southeast flank.", "Potato Hill is a cinder cone on Adams' north side that was created in the late [Pleistocene](/wiki/Pleistocene \"Pleistocene\") and stands {{convert\\\|800\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=2}} above its lava plain.", "Lavas from its base flowed into the Cispus Valley where they were later modified by glaciers. At the {{convert\\\|7500\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} level on Adams' south flank is South Butte. The lavas associated with this structure are all younger than Suksdorf Ridge but were emplaced before the end of the last ice age.", "Several relatively young obvious lava flows exist in the area around Adams. Most of these flows are on the north side of the mountain and include the flow in the Mutton Creek area, Devils Garden, the Takh Takh Meadows Flow, and the much larger Muddy Fork Lava Flow to the north of Devils Garden. Only one obvious flow appears on the south slopes of Adams, the A. G. Aiken Lava Bed. Other smaller flows exist in various locations around the mountain as well.", "The many other vents and volcanoes encompassed by the Mount Adams field include Glaciate Butte and Red Butte on the north, King Mountain, Meadow Butte, Quigley Butte, and Smith Butte on the south, with others interspersed throughout.", "Located about {{convert\\\|25\\\|mi}} north of Adams is [Goat Rocks Wilderness](/wiki/Goat_Rocks_Wilderness \"Goat Rocks Wilderness\") and the heavily eroded ruins of a [stratovolcano](/wiki/Stratovolcano \"Stratovolcano\") that is much older than Adams. Unlike Adams, the [Goat Rocks](/wiki/Goat_Rocks \"Goat Rocks\") volcano was periodically explosive and deposited [ash](/wiki/Volcanic_ash \"Volcanic ash\") 2\\.5 million years ago that later solidified into {{convert\\\|2100\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|adj\\=on\\\|sigfig\\=2}} thick [tuff](/wiki/Tuff \"Tuff\") layers.", "In the area surrounding Mount Adams, many caves have formed around inactive lava vents. These caves, usually close to the surface, can be hundreds of feet (meters) deep and wide. A few of the more well known caves include the [Cheese Cave](/wiki/Cheese_Cave \"Cheese Cave\"), Ice Cave, and Deadhorse Caves. Cheese Cave has the largest bore of the caves near Adams with a diameter of {{convert\\\|40\\\|\\-\\\|50\\\|ft\\\|m}} and a length of over {{convert\\\|2000\\\|ft\\\|m}}. Ice cave, which is made up of several sections created by several [sinkholes](/wiki/Sinkhole \"Sinkhole\"), has an ice section that is {{convert\\\|120\\\|ft\\\|m}} long and {{convert\\\|20\\\|\\-\\\|30\\\|ft\\\|m}} in diameter and noted for its ice formations. From the same entrance, the tube continues another {{convert\\\|500\\\|ft\\\|m}} to the west. Deadhorse Cave is a massive network of lava tubes. It is the most complex [lava tube](/wiki/Lava_tube \"Lava tube\") in the United States with {{convert\\\|14441\\\|ft\\\|m}} of passage. These caves are all just outside of [Trout Lake](/wiki/Trout_Lake%2C_Washington \"Trout Lake, Washington\"). These and many other caves in the Trout Lake area were at one time part of a huge system that originated at the [Indian Heaven](/wiki/Indian_Heaven \"Indian Heaven\") [volcanic field](/wiki/Volcanic_field \"Volcanic field\"). The most obscure caves around Adams are the Windholes on the southeast side near Island Cabin Campground.", "" ]
### Glaciers [thumb\\|upright\=1\.25\\|Glaciers of Mount Adams](/wiki/File:USGS_Glaciers_of_Mount_Adams_Map.gif "USGS Glaciers of Mount Adams Map.gif") In the early 21st century, glaciers covered a total of 2\.5% of Adams' surface. During the [last ice age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period "Last Glacial Period") about 90% of the mountain was glaciated. Mount Adams has 209 perennial snow and ice features and 12 officially named glaciers. The total ice\-covered area makes up {{convert\\|9\.3\\|sqmi\\|km2}}, while the area of named glaciers is {{convert\\|7\.7\\|sqmi\\|km2\\|abbr\=on}}. Most of the largest remaining glaciers (including the [Adams](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)"), [Klickitat](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier "Klickitat Glacier"), [Lyman](/wiki/Lyman_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Lyman Glacier (Mount Adams)"), and [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_River "White Salmon River")) originate from Adams' summit ice cap. On the northwest face of the mountain, [Adams Glacier](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)") cascades down a steep channel in a series of [icefalls](/wiki/Icefall "Icefall") before spreading out and terminating at around the {{convert\\|7000\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} elevation, where it becomes the source of the Lewis River and Adams Creek, a tributary of the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River "Cispus River"). Its eastern lobe ends at a small glacial [tarn](/wiki/Tarn_%28lake%29 "Tarn (lake)"), Equestria Lake. In the [Cascades](/wiki/Cascade_Range "Cascade Range"), Adams Glacier is second in size only to [Carbon Glacier](/wiki/Carbon_Glacier "Carbon Glacier") on [Mount Rainier](/wiki/Mount_Rainier "Mount Rainier"). [thumb\\|Deep crevasses and icefalls on Adams Glacier](/wiki/File:Upper_Portion_of_the_Adams_Glacier.JPG "Upper Portion of the Adams Glacier.JPG") The [Pinnacle](/wiki/Pinnacle_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Pinnacle Glacier (Mount Adams)"), [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "White Salmon Glacier (Mount Adams)"), and [Avalanche](/wiki/Avalanche_Glacier "Avalanche Glacier") glaciers on the west side of the mountain are less thick and voluminous, and are generally patchy in appearance. They all originate from [glacial cirques](/wiki/Cirques "Cirques") below the actual summit. Although the White Salmon Glacier does not originate from the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap "Ice cap"), it does begin very high on the mountain at about {{convert\\|11600\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. In the early 20th century, a portion of it descended from the summit ice cap, but volume loss has separated it. Some of its glacial ice feeds the Avalanche Glacier below it to the southwest while the rest tumbles over some large cliffs to its diminutive lower section to the west. The White Salmon and Avalanche Glaciers feed the many streams of the Salt Creek and Cascade Creek drainages, which flow into the [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River "White Salmon River"). The Pinnacle Glacier is the source of a fork of the [Lewis River](/wiki/Lewis_River_%28Washington%29 "Lewis River (Washington)") as well as Riley Creek, which is also a tributary of the Lewis River. The south side of the mountain along Suksdorf Ridge is moderately glacier\-free, with the only glaciers being the relatively small [Gotchen Glacier](/wiki/Gotchen_Glacier "Gotchen Glacier") and the [Crescent Glacier](/wiki/Crescent_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Crescent Glacier (Mount Adams)"). The south side, however, does have some perennial snowfields on its slopes. The Crescent Glacier is the source of Morrison Creek; and, although it does not feed it directly, the Gotchen Glacier is the source of Gotchen Creek. Both creeks drain to the [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River "White Salmon River"). [thumb\\|Heavily crevassed glaciers on the southeast side of the mountain](/wiki/File:Mt._Adams_Glaciers_above_Bird_Creek_Meadows.JPG "Mt. Adams Glaciers above Bird Creek Meadows.JPG") The rugged east side has four glaciers, the [Mazama Glacier](/wiki/Mazama_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Mazama Glacier (Mount Adams)"), [Klickitat Glacier](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier "Klickitat Glacier"), [Rusk Glacier](/wiki/Rusk_Glacier "Rusk Glacier"), and the [Wilson Glacier](/wiki/Wilson_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Wilson Glacier (Mount Adams)"). During the [last ice age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period "Last Glacial Period"), they carved out two immense canyons: the Hellroaring Canyon and the Avalanche Valley. This created the Ridge of Wonders between the two. Of the four glaciers on the east side, the Mazama Glacier is the farthest south and begins between the Suksdorf Ridge and Ridge of Wonders at about {{convert\\|10500\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. Near its terminus, it straddles the Ridge of Wonders and a small portion feeds into the Klickitat Glacier. The glacier gains more area from additional glacier ice that collects from drifting snow and avalanches below the Suksdorf Ridge as the ridge turns south. The Mazama Glacier terminates at about {{convert\\|8000\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} and is the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows over several waterfalls before it joins Big Muddy Creek. [Klickitat Glacier](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier "Klickitat Glacier") on the volcano's eastern flank originates in a {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km\\|1}} wide [cirque](/wiki/Cirque "Cirque") and is fed by two smaller glaciers from the summit ice cap. It terminates around {{convert\\|6600\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}, where it becomes the source of Big Muddy Creek, a tributary of the [Klickitat River](/wiki/Klickitat_River "Klickitat River"). The Rusk Glacier does not start from the summit ice cap but starts at {{convert\\|10500\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice from the summit cap. It is enclosed on the south by Battlement Ridge and Victory Ridge on the north and terminates at about {{convert\\|7100\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. It is the source of Rusk Creek, which flows over two waterfalls before joining the Big Muddy on its way to the Klickitat. The Wilson Glacier, like the Rusk Glacier, starts below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice; however, the Wilson Glacier starts slightly higher at about {{convert\\|10800\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. It is also fed by an arm of the Lyman Glacier as it flows down from the summit ice cap. The Wilson Glacier terminates at {{convert\\|7500\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} where it is the source of Little Muddy Creek, another tributary of the Klickitat. The north side is distinguished by two major glaciers, the [Lyman](/wiki/Lyman_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Lyman Glacier (Mount Adams)") and [Lava](/wiki/Lava_Glacier "Lava Glacier") Glaciers. Like the [Adams Glacier](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 "Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)"), the Lyman Glacier is characterized by deep [crevasses](/wiki/Crevasse "Crevasse") and many [icefalls](/wiki/Icefall "Icefall") as it cascades down from the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap "Ice cap"). It is divided into two arms by a very rugged ridge at {{convert\\|10200\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} and terminates at {{convert\\|7400\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. The [Lava Glacier](/wiki/Lava_Glacier "Lava Glacier") originates in a large cirque below the summit at about {{convert\\|10000\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}, sandwiched between the North Cleaver on the west and the Lava Ridge to the east. It terminates at about {{convert\\|7600\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}}. The Lava and Lyman Glaciers are the source of the Muddy Fork of the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River "Cispus River"). The total glacier area on Mount Adams decreased 49%, from {{convert\\|31\.5\\|km2\\|order\=flip}} to {{convert\\|16\.2\\|km2\\|order\=flip}}, between 1904 and 2006, with the greatest loss occurring before 1949\. Since 1949, the total glacier area has been relatively stable with a small amount of decline since the 1990s.	[ "### Glaciers", "[thumb\\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\\|Glaciers of Mount Adams](/wiki/File:USGS_Glaciers_of_Mount_Adams_Map.gif \"USGS Glaciers of Mount Adams Map.gif\")", "In the early 21st century, glaciers covered a total of 2\\.5% of Adams' surface. During the [last ice age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period \"Last Glacial Period\") about 90% of the mountain was glaciated. Mount Adams has 209 perennial snow and ice features and 12 officially named glaciers. The total ice\\-covered area makes up {{convert\\\|9\\.3\\\|sqmi\\\|km2}}, while the area of named glaciers is {{convert\\\|7\\.7\\\|sqmi\\\|km2\\\|abbr\\=on}}. Most of the largest remaining glaciers (including the [Adams](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), [Klickitat](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier \"Klickitat Glacier\"), [Lyman](/wiki/Lyman_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Lyman Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), and [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_River \"White Salmon River\")) originate from Adams' summit ice cap.", "On the northwest face of the mountain, [Adams Glacier](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)\") cascades down a steep channel in a series of [icefalls](/wiki/Icefall \"Icefall\") before spreading out and terminating at around the {{convert\\\|7000\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} elevation, where it becomes the source of the Lewis River and Adams Creek, a tributary of the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River \"Cispus River\"). Its eastern lobe ends at a small glacial [tarn](/wiki/Tarn_%28lake%29 \"Tarn (lake)\"), Equestria Lake. In the [Cascades](/wiki/Cascade_Range \"Cascade Range\"), Adams Glacier is second in size only to [Carbon Glacier](/wiki/Carbon_Glacier \"Carbon Glacier\") on [Mount Rainier](/wiki/Mount_Rainier \"Mount Rainier\").\n[thumb\\\|Deep crevasses and icefalls on Adams Glacier](/wiki/File:Upper_Portion_of_the_Adams_Glacier.JPG \"Upper Portion of the Adams Glacier.JPG\")", "The [Pinnacle](/wiki/Pinnacle_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Pinnacle Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), [White Salmon](/wiki/White_Salmon_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"White Salmon Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), and [Avalanche](/wiki/Avalanche_Glacier \"Avalanche Glacier\") glaciers on the west side of the mountain are less thick and voluminous, and are generally patchy in appearance. They all originate from [glacial cirques](/wiki/Cirques \"Cirques\") below the actual summit. Although the White Salmon Glacier does not originate from the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap \"Ice cap\"), it does begin very high on the mountain at about {{convert\\\|11600\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. In the early 20th century, a portion of it descended from the summit ice cap, but volume loss has separated it. Some of its glacial ice feeds the Avalanche Glacier below it to the southwest while the rest tumbles over some large cliffs to its diminutive lower section to the west. The White Salmon and Avalanche Glaciers feed the many streams of the Salt Creek and Cascade Creek drainages, which flow into the [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River \"White Salmon River\"). The Pinnacle Glacier is the source of a fork of the [Lewis River](/wiki/Lewis_River_%28Washington%29 \"Lewis River (Washington)\") as well as Riley Creek, which is also a tributary of the Lewis River.", "The south side of the mountain along Suksdorf Ridge is moderately glacier\\-free, with the only glaciers being the relatively small [Gotchen Glacier](/wiki/Gotchen_Glacier \"Gotchen Glacier\") and the [Crescent Glacier](/wiki/Crescent_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Crescent Glacier (Mount Adams)\"). The south side, however, does have some perennial snowfields on its slopes. The Crescent Glacier is the source of Morrison Creek; and, although it does not feed it directly, the Gotchen Glacier is the source of Gotchen Creek. Both creeks drain to the [White Salmon River](/wiki/White_Salmon_River \"White Salmon River\").\n[thumb\\\|Heavily crevassed glaciers on the southeast side of the mountain](/wiki/File:Mt._Adams_Glaciers_above_Bird_Creek_Meadows.JPG \"Mt. Adams Glaciers above Bird Creek Meadows.JPG\")", "The rugged east side has four glaciers, the [Mazama Glacier](/wiki/Mazama_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Mazama Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), [Klickitat Glacier](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier \"Klickitat Glacier\"), [Rusk Glacier](/wiki/Rusk_Glacier \"Rusk Glacier\"), and the [Wilson Glacier](/wiki/Wilson_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Wilson Glacier (Mount Adams)\"). During the [last ice age](/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period \"Last Glacial Period\"), they carved out two immense canyons: the Hellroaring Canyon and the Avalanche Valley. This created the Ridge of Wonders between the two. Of the four glaciers on the east side, the Mazama Glacier is the farthest south and begins between the Suksdorf Ridge and Ridge of Wonders at about {{convert\\\|10500\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. Near its terminus, it straddles the Ridge of Wonders and a small portion feeds into the Klickitat Glacier. The glacier gains more area from additional glacier ice that collects from drifting snow and avalanches below the Suksdorf Ridge as the ridge turns south. The Mazama Glacier terminates at about {{convert\\\|8000\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} and is the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows over several waterfalls before it joins Big Muddy Creek. [Klickitat Glacier](/wiki/Klickitat_Glacier \"Klickitat Glacier\") on the volcano's eastern flank originates in a {{convert\\\|1\\\|mi\\\|km\\\|1}} wide [cirque](/wiki/Cirque \"Cirque\") and is fed by two smaller glaciers from the summit ice cap. It terminates around {{convert\\\|6600\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}, where it becomes the source of Big Muddy Creek, a tributary of the [Klickitat River](/wiki/Klickitat_River \"Klickitat River\"). The Rusk Glacier does not start from the summit ice cap but starts at {{convert\\\|10500\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice from the summit cap. It is enclosed on the south by Battlement Ridge and Victory Ridge on the north and terminates at about {{convert\\\|7100\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. It is the source of Rusk Creek, which flows over two waterfalls before joining the Big Muddy on its way to the Klickitat. The Wilson Glacier, like the Rusk Glacier, starts below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice; however, the Wilson Glacier starts slightly higher at about {{convert\\\|10800\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. It is also fed by an arm of the Lyman Glacier as it flows down from the summit ice cap. The Wilson Glacier terminates at {{convert\\\|7500\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} where it is the source of Little Muddy Creek, another tributary of the Klickitat.", "The north side is distinguished by two major glaciers, the [Lyman](/wiki/Lyman_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Lyman Glacier (Mount Adams)\") and [Lava](/wiki/Lava_Glacier \"Lava Glacier\") Glaciers. Like the [Adams Glacier](/wiki/Adams_Glacier_%28Mount_Adams%29 \"Adams Glacier (Mount Adams)\"), the Lyman Glacier is characterized by deep [crevasses](/wiki/Crevasse \"Crevasse\") and many [icefalls](/wiki/Icefall \"Icefall\") as it cascades down from the summit [ice cap](/wiki/Ice_cap \"Ice cap\"). It is divided into two arms by a very rugged ridge at {{convert\\\|10200\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} and terminates at {{convert\\\|7400\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. The [Lava Glacier](/wiki/Lava_Glacier \"Lava Glacier\") originates in a large cirque below the summit at about {{convert\\\|10000\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}, sandwiched between the North Cleaver on the west and the Lava Ridge to the east. It terminates at about {{convert\\\|7600\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}}. The Lava and Lyman Glaciers are the source of the Muddy Fork of the [Cispus River](/wiki/Cispus_River \"Cispus River\").", "The total glacier area on Mount Adams decreased 49%, from {{convert\\\|31\\.5\\\|km2\\\|order\\=flip}} to {{convert\\\|16\\.2\\\|km2\\\|order\\=flip}}, between 1904 and 2006, with the greatest loss occurring before 1949\\. Since 1949, the total glacier area has been relatively stable with a small amount of decline since the 1990s.", "" ]
### Surrounding area {{stack\\| \[\[File:Mt. Adams from the south.JPG\\|thumb\\|Aerial view of the south face from across the \[\[Columbia River Gorge]].]] \[\[File:Simulating Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington.jpg\\|thumbnail\\|Trout Lake (Trout Lake Creek) reflecting Mount Adams near the small town of Trout Lake.]] }} Mount Adams is surrounded by a variety of other volcanic features and [volcanoes](/wiki/Volcano "Volcano"). It stands near the center of a north–south trending volcanic field that is about {{convert\\|4\\|mi\\|km}} wide and {{convert\\|30\\|mi\\|km}} long, from just south of the [Goat Rocks](/wiki/Goat_Rocks "Goat Rocks") to Guler Mountain, the vent farthest south in the field. This field includes over 120 vents; about 25 of these are considered [flank volcanoes](/wiki/Flank_volcanoes "Flank volcanoes") of Mount Adams. The largest flank volcano is a [basaltic](/wiki/Basalt "Basalt") [shield volcano](/wiki/Shield_volcano "Shield volcano") on Adams east base called Goat Butte. This structure is at least 150,000 years old. Little Mount Adams is a symmetrical [cinder cone](/wiki/Cinder_cone "Cinder cone") on top of the Ridge of Wonders on Adams' southeast flank. Potato Hill is a cinder cone on Adams' north side that was created in the late [Pleistocene](/wiki/Pleistocene "Pleistocene") and stands {{convert\\|800\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=2}} above its lava plain. Lavas from its base flowed into the Cispus Valley where they were later modified by glaciers. At the {{convert\\|7500\\|ft\\|m\\|sigfig\=3}} level on Adams' south flank is South Butte. The lavas associated with this structure are all younger than Suksdorf Ridge but were emplaced before the end of the last ice age. Several relatively young obvious lava flows exist in the area around Adams. Most of these flows are on the north side of the mountain and include the flow in the Mutton Creek area, Devils Garden, the Takh Takh Meadows Flow, and the much larger Muddy Fork Lava Flow to the north of Devils Garden. Only one obvious flow appears on the south slopes of Adams, the A. G. Aiken Lava Bed. Other smaller flows exist in various locations around the mountain as well. The many other vents and volcanoes encompassed by the Mount Adams field include Glaciate Butte and Red Butte on the north, King Mountain, Meadow Butte, Quigley Butte, and Smith Butte on the south, with others interspersed throughout. Located about {{convert\\|25\\|mi}} north of Adams is [Goat Rocks Wilderness](/wiki/Goat_Rocks_Wilderness "Goat Rocks Wilderness") and the heavily eroded ruins of a [stratovolcano](/wiki/Stratovolcano "Stratovolcano") that is much older than Adams. Unlike Adams, the [Goat Rocks](/wiki/Goat_Rocks "Goat Rocks") volcano was periodically explosive and deposited [ash](/wiki/Volcanic_ash "Volcanic ash") 2\.5 million years ago that later solidified into {{convert\\|2100\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\=on\\|sigfig\=2}} thick [tuff](/wiki/Tuff "Tuff") layers. In the area surrounding Mount Adams, many caves have formed around inactive lava vents. These caves, usually close to the surface, can be hundreds of feet (meters) deep and wide. A few of the more well known caves include the [Cheese Cave](/wiki/Cheese_Cave "Cheese Cave"), Ice Cave, and Deadhorse Caves. Cheese Cave has the largest bore of the caves near Adams with a diameter of {{convert\\|40\\|\-\\|50\\|ft\\|m}} and a length of over {{convert\\|2000\\|ft\\|m}}. Ice cave, which is made up of several sections created by several [sinkholes](/wiki/Sinkhole "Sinkhole"), has an ice section that is {{convert\\|120\\|ft\\|m}} long and {{convert\\|20\\|\-\\|30\\|ft\\|m}} in diameter and noted for its ice formations. From the same entrance, the tube continues another {{convert\\|500\\|ft\\|m}} to the west. Deadhorse Cave is a massive network of lava tubes. It is the most complex [lava tube](/wiki/Lava_tube "Lava tube") in the United States with {{convert\\|14441\\|ft\\|m}} of passage. These caves are all just outside of [Trout Lake](/wiki/Trout_Lake%2C_Washington "Trout Lake, Washington"). These and many other caves in the Trout Lake area were at one time part of a huge system that originated at the [Indian Heaven](/wiki/Indian_Heaven "Indian Heaven") [volcanic field](/wiki/Volcanic_field "Volcanic field"). The most obscure caves around Adams are the Windholes on the southeast side near Island Cabin Campground.	[ "### Surrounding area", "{{stack\\\|\n\\[\\[File:Mt. Adams from the south.JPG\\\|thumb\\\|Aerial view of the south face from across the \\[\\[Columbia River Gorge]].]]\n\\[\\[File:Simulating Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington.jpg\\\|thumbnail\\\|Trout Lake (Trout Lake Creek) reflecting Mount Adams near the small town of Trout Lake.]]\n}}\nMount Adams is surrounded by a variety of other volcanic features and [volcanoes](/wiki/Volcano \"Volcano\"). It stands near the center of a north–south trending volcanic field that is about {{convert\\\|4\\\|mi\\\|km}} wide and {{convert\\\|30\\\|mi\\\|km}} long, from just south of the [Goat Rocks](/wiki/Goat_Rocks \"Goat Rocks\") to Guler Mountain, the vent farthest south in the field. This field includes over 120 vents; about 25 of these are considered [flank volcanoes](/wiki/Flank_volcanoes \"Flank volcanoes\") of Mount Adams. The largest flank volcano is a [basaltic](/wiki/Basalt \"Basalt\") [shield volcano](/wiki/Shield_volcano \"Shield volcano\") on Adams east base called Goat Butte. This structure is at least 150,000 years old.\nLittle Mount Adams is a symmetrical [cinder cone](/wiki/Cinder_cone \"Cinder cone\") on top of the Ridge of Wonders on Adams' southeast flank.", "Potato Hill is a cinder cone on Adams' north side that was created in the late [Pleistocene](/wiki/Pleistocene \"Pleistocene\") and stands {{convert\\\|800\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=2}} above its lava plain.", "Lavas from its base flowed into the Cispus Valley where they were later modified by glaciers. At the {{convert\\\|7500\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|sigfig\\=3}} level on Adams' south flank is South Butte. The lavas associated with this structure are all younger than Suksdorf Ridge but were emplaced before the end of the last ice age.", "Several relatively young obvious lava flows exist in the area around Adams. Most of these flows are on the north side of the mountain and include the flow in the Mutton Creek area, Devils Garden, the Takh Takh Meadows Flow, and the much larger Muddy Fork Lava Flow to the north of Devils Garden. Only one obvious flow appears on the south slopes of Adams, the A. G. Aiken Lava Bed. Other smaller flows exist in various locations around the mountain as well.", "The many other vents and volcanoes encompassed by the Mount Adams field include Glaciate Butte and Red Butte on the north, King Mountain, Meadow Butte, Quigley Butte, and Smith Butte on the south, with others interspersed throughout.", "Located about {{convert\\\|25\\\|mi}} north of Adams is [Goat Rocks Wilderness](/wiki/Goat_Rocks_Wilderness \"Goat Rocks Wilderness\") and the heavily eroded ruins of a [stratovolcano](/wiki/Stratovolcano \"Stratovolcano\") that is much older than Adams. Unlike Adams, the [Goat Rocks](/wiki/Goat_Rocks \"Goat Rocks\") volcano was periodically explosive and deposited [ash](/wiki/Volcanic_ash \"Volcanic ash\") 2\\.5 million years ago that later solidified into {{convert\\\|2100\\\|ft\\\|m\\\|adj\\=on\\\|sigfig\\=2}} thick [tuff](/wiki/Tuff \"Tuff\") layers.", "In the area surrounding Mount Adams, many caves have formed around inactive lava vents. These caves, usually close to the surface, can be hundreds of feet (meters) deep and wide. A few of the more well known caves include the [Cheese Cave](/wiki/Cheese_Cave \"Cheese Cave\"), Ice Cave, and Deadhorse Caves. Cheese Cave has the largest bore of the caves near Adams with a diameter of {{convert\\\|40\\\|\\-\\\|50\\\|ft\\\|m}} and a length of over {{convert\\\|2000\\\|ft\\\|m}}. Ice cave, which is made up of several sections created by several [sinkholes](/wiki/Sinkhole \"Sinkhole\"), has an ice section that is {{convert\\\|120\\\|ft\\\|m}} long and {{convert\\\|20\\\|\\-\\\|30\\\|ft\\\|m}} in diameter and noted for its ice formations. From the same entrance, the tube continues another {{convert\\\|500\\\|ft\\\|m}} to the west. Deadhorse Cave is a massive network of lava tubes. It is the most complex [lava tube](/wiki/Lava_tube \"Lava tube\") in the United States with {{convert\\\|14441\\\|ft\\\|m}} of passage. These caves are all just outside of [Trout Lake](/wiki/Trout_Lake%2C_Washington \"Trout Lake, Washington\"). These and many other caves in the Trout Lake area were at one time part of a huge system that originated at the [Indian Heaven](/wiki/Indian_Heaven \"Indian Heaven\") [volcanic field](/wiki/Volcanic_field \"Volcanic field\"). The most obscure caves around Adams are the Windholes on the southeast side near Island Cabin Campground.", "" ]