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Television career
-----------------
### Early career
After World War II, Jones moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") and began working as a director on early television shows that included *Voice of the People* and *[One Man's Family](/wiki/One_Man%27s_Family "One Man's Family")*. In 1949, he directed an [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") jazz show that was originally called the *Floor Show* and later renamed the *Eddie Condon Video Show*. The shows featured performances by jazz musician and bandleader [Eddie Condon](/wiki/Eddie_Condon "Eddie Condon") and guest stars, including [Billie Holiday](/wiki/Billie_Holiday "Billie Holiday"), [Louis Armstrong](/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong"), [Jack Teagarden](/wiki/Jack_Teagarden "Jack Teagarden"), and [Earl Hines](/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines").{{cite news\|title\=Jazz Players Will Be Condon Guests\|newspaper\=The Daily Record\|date\=July 30, 1949\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60170796/the\-daily\-record/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news\|title\=Photograph\|newspaper\=Chicago World\|date\=October 1, 1949\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60170537/eddie\-condon\-and\-billie\-holiday/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} For one episode, he worked on a novel idea of preparing a special script depicting Holiday's life story.{{cite news\|title\=Billie Holiday Highlights Video Program\|newspaper\=Alabama Citizen\|date\=October 1, 1949\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60171414/billie\-holiday\-highlights\-video\-program/}}
### *Your Hit Parade*
In 1951, he became the director of the television show *[Your Hit Parade](/wiki/Your_Hit_Parade "Your Hit Parade")*, a popular show in which a regular cast of singers performed the weeks top hits, sometimes in elaborate productions.{{cite news\|title\=Youngsters Invade Television Fields\|newspaper\=Journal and Courier\|date\=December 26, 1951\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60172139/youngsters\-invade\-television\-fields/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} [Ed Sullivan](/wiki/Ed_Sullivan "Ed Sullivan") in October 1952 called Jones' direction one of the keys to the show's "professional savvy." He continued as the regular director of the *Hit Parade* until 1954\.{{cite news\|title\=Watch Events Go by on Ford TV Show\|newspaper\=The Indianapolis News\|date\=June 15, 1953\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60167188/ford\-tv\-show/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} He received his first Emmy nomination in 1955 for best television director for his work on the program.
### *Carmen* and the *Ford Show*
By the fall of 1952, Jones had built a reputation as "one of the most imaginative and creative of all TV directors today." While working on *Your Hit Parade*, he also directed several special event programs. In November 1952, he directed "a precedent\-breaking" performance of *[Carmen](/wiki/Carmen "Carmen")* by the [Metropolitan Opera](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera "Metropolitan Opera"). Cameras were placed in the "Diamond Horeshoe" boxes to capture a production that featured a 92\-piece orchestra and as many as 120 persons on stage at the same time\> It broadcast live via closed circuit to movie screens across the country.
In June 1953, Jones took a two\-week leave of absence from *Your Hit Parade* to direct *[The Ford 50th Anniversary Show](/wiki/The_Ford_50th_Anniversary_Show "The Ford 50th Anniversary Show")*. The Ford show was a two\-hour special broadcast simultaneously on both [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") and [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") and involved the coordination of three studios, eight cameras, 45 engineers, 25 stagehands, a 24\-piece orchestra, and a large cast.{{cite news\|title\=Radiopinion and Televisionotes\|newspaper\=The Tablet\|author\=Bill Colemna\|date\=June 13, 1953\|page\=19\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60167826/radiopinion\-and\-televisionotes/}} Forty years after the broadcast, television critic [Tom Shales](/wiki/Tom_Shales "Tom Shales") recalled the broadcast as both "a landmark in television" and "a milestone in the cultural life of the '50s." He called it "the most stupendous" in an era of "super special shows."{{cite news\|title\=Ford's 50th anniversary show was milestone of '50s culture\|newspaper\=Palm Beach Daily News\|date\=December 26, 1993\|page\=B3\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59934494/fords\-50th\-anniversary\-show\-was/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Jones himself described it as "the very first television spectacular" and "the most exciting show" he ever did.{{cite news\|title\=Benefit features all the stars you'd want to see\|newspaper\=The Gasette\|date\=March 6, 1982\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60151937/benefit\-features\-all\-the\-stars\-youd/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
### Mid to late 1950s
In the fall of 1954, Jones began directing for *[Caesar's Hour](/wiki/Caesar%27s_Hour "Caesar's Hour")*, a popular comedy and variety show.{{cite news\|title\=Caesar Debuts Show Monday\|newspaper\=The Scrantonian\|date\=September 26, 1954\|page\=10\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60172819/caesar\-debuts\-show\-monday/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} He directed at least 20 episodes of *Caesar's Hour* From 1954 to 1956\.
Jones also directed several episodes of *[Producers' Showcase](/wiki/Producers%27_Showcase "Producers' Showcase")* between 1955 and 1957\. The most successful was the March 1955 television broadcast of *Peter Pan* starring [Mary Martin](/wiki/Mary_Martin "Mary Martin"). Jones took over as director from [Jerome Robbins](/wiki/Jerome_Robbins "Jerome Robbins") who directed the show on Broadway and received his second Emmy nomination for the project.{{cite news\|title\=Channel Chatter\|newspaper\=The Rock Island Argus\|date\=March 9, 1955\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60174039/peter\-pan/}} Jones' other projects for *Producers' Showcase* included a musical adaptation of *[Jack and the Beanstalk](/wiki/Jack_and_the_Beanstalk_%28Producers%27_Showcase%29 "Jack and the Beanstalk (Producers' Showcase)")* (1956\) starring [Joel Grey](/wiki/Joel_Grey "Joel Grey") and the [Royal Ballet](/wiki/Royal_Ballet "Royal Ballet")'s April 1957 performance of Prokofiev's *[Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella_%28Prokofiev%29 "Cinderella (Prokofiev)")*.{{cite news\|title\=Royal Ballet presentation scheduled for TV April 28\|newspaper\=The Province\|date\=April 6, 1957\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60181186/royal\-ballet/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
During the 1957\-58 season, Jones directed *[The Patrice Munsel Show](/wiki/The_Patrice_Munsel_Show_%28TV_series%29 "The Patrice Munsel Show (TV series)")*, a variety show starring opera singer [Patrice Munsel](/wiki/Patrice_Munsel "Patrice Munsel").{{cite news\|title\=Patrice Munsel's Producer Is A Professor of Psychology\|newspaper\=Tampa Bay Times\|date\=January 26, 1958\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60179922/patrice\-munsels\-producer\-is\-a/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Jones received his third Emmy for his work on that series.
### 1960s
In 1958, Jones began directing the *[Perry Como Show](/wiki/Kraft_Music_Hall_%28TV_series%29 "Kraft Music Hall (TV series)")*, later known as *Perry Como's Kraft Music Hall*. He received his fourth Emmy nomination in 1959 for Best Direction of a Single Musical Or Variety Program for his work on an episode of Como's show featuring Maureen O'Hara and Robert Preston.{{cite news\|title\=Peter Gunn, With 8 Nominations, Leads Contenders for Emmy Awards\|newspaper\=The Progress\-Index\|date\=May 2, 1959\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/1049040/silvio\-dalisera\-emmy\-award\-1959/}} Jones also served as producer of Como's show in the late 1950s.{{cite news\|title\=The Old Show's Return \-\- Como Leads Fall Parade\|newspaper\=New York Daily News\|date\=September 15, 1958\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60181420/perry\-como/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} His association with the Como show continued until 1967, though his work was limited to specials in the later years.{{cite news\|title\=Woody Allen to Appear As Guest of Perry Como\|newspaper\=The Hartford Courant\|date\=March 19, 1967\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60180861/perry\-como/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
From 1960 to 1967, Jones also directed *[The Bell Telephone Hour](/wiki/The_Bell_Telephone_Hour "The Bell Telephone Hour")*, a concert series featuring performances by stars of opera, musical theater and ballet. He also directed *The Sammy Davis Jr. Show* in 1966,{{cite news\|title\=Director Named For Davis Show\|newspaper\=Valley Times\|date\=November 19, 1965\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60182703/clark\-jones/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}} but it was cancelled after a three\-month run.{{cite news\|title\=Sammy's One\-Man SHow\|newspaper\=Tampa Bay Times\|date\=April 17, 1966\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60183678/sammys\-one\-man\-show/\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
In 1967, Jones moved to Los Angeles to direct the first season of *[The Carol Burnett Show](/wiki/The_Carol_Burnett_Show "The Carol Burnett Show")*. He left the show after the first season to return to New York. For his work on the show, he was nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award (DGA Award) for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Television.
### Special events
Jones also remained in demand during the 1960s for musical specials, directing [Dinah Shore](/wiki/Dinah_Shore "Dinah Shore") and [Robert Goulet](/wiki/Robert_Goulet "Robert Goulet") specials in 1964, and two [Carol Channing](/wiki/Carol_Channing "Carol Channing") specials in 1969\. He also directed two [Frank Sinatra](/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra") specials: *[Francis Albert Sinatra Does His Thing](/wiki/Francis_Albert_Sinatra_Does_His_Thing "Francis Albert Sinatra Does His Thing") in 1968, and* Frank Sinatra: The Man and His Music (1981\). He was nominated for a DGA Award for the second Sinatra special.
Jones also directed the 1982 broadcast of *Night of 100 Stars* and its 1984 sequel *Night of 100 Stars II*. He received Emmy nominations for both productions.
In 1967, Jones began a 20\-year association with the [Tony Awards](/wiki/Tony_Award "Tony Award"). He directed the television broadcast of the award ceremony 19 times between 1967 and 1986\.{{cite news\|title\=Clark Jones, 81, Director in TV's Early Days\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=April 5, 2002\|page\=C11\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/arts/clark\-jones\-81\-director\-in\-tv\-s\-early\-days.html}} He was twice nominated for Emmy Awards and once for a DGA Award for his handling of the Tony Awards. He also directed other award ceremonies and pageants, including the Emmy Awards and the Miss Universe and Miss USA pageants.
|
[
"Television career\n-----------------",
"### Early career",
"After World War II, Jones moved to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") and began working as a director on early television shows that included *Voice of the People* and *[One Man's Family](/wiki/One_Man%27s_Family \"One Man's Family\")*. In 1949, he directed an [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") jazz show that was originally called the *Floor Show* and later renamed the *Eddie Condon Video Show*. The shows featured performances by jazz musician and bandleader [Eddie Condon](/wiki/Eddie_Condon \"Eddie Condon\") and guest stars, including [Billie Holiday](/wiki/Billie_Holiday \"Billie Holiday\"), [Louis Armstrong](/wiki/Louis_Armstrong \"Louis Armstrong\"), [Jack Teagarden](/wiki/Jack_Teagarden \"Jack Teagarden\"), and [Earl Hines](/wiki/Earl_Hines \"Earl Hines\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Jazz Players Will Be Condon Guests\\|newspaper\\=The Daily Record\\|date\\=July 30, 1949\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60170796/the\\-daily\\-record/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Photograph\\|newspaper\\=Chicago World\\|date\\=October 1, 1949\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60170537/eddie\\-condon\\-and\\-billie\\-holiday/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} For one episode, he worked on a novel idea of preparing a special script depicting Holiday's life story.{{cite news\\|title\\=Billie Holiday Highlights Video Program\\|newspaper\\=Alabama Citizen\\|date\\=October 1, 1949\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60171414/billie\\-holiday\\-highlights\\-video\\-program/}}",
"### *Your Hit Parade*",
"In 1951, he became the director of the television show *[Your Hit Parade](/wiki/Your_Hit_Parade \"Your Hit Parade\")*, a popular show in which a regular cast of singers performed the weeks top hits, sometimes in elaborate productions.{{cite news\\|title\\=Youngsters Invade Television Fields\\|newspaper\\=Journal and Courier\\|date\\=December 26, 1951\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60172139/youngsters\\-invade\\-television\\-fields/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} [Ed Sullivan](/wiki/Ed_Sullivan \"Ed Sullivan\") in October 1952 called Jones' direction one of the keys to the show's \"professional savvy.\" He continued as the regular director of the *Hit Parade* until 1954\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Watch Events Go by on Ford TV Show\\|newspaper\\=The Indianapolis News\\|date\\=June 15, 1953\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60167188/ford\\-tv\\-show/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} He received his first Emmy nomination in 1955 for best television director for his work on the program.",
"### *Carmen* and the *Ford Show*",
"By the fall of 1952, Jones had built a reputation as \"one of the most imaginative and creative of all TV directors today.\" While working on *Your Hit Parade*, he also directed several special event programs. In November 1952, he directed \"a precedent\\-breaking\" performance of *[Carmen](/wiki/Carmen \"Carmen\")* by the [Metropolitan Opera](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera \"Metropolitan Opera\"). Cameras were placed in the \"Diamond Horeshoe\" boxes to capture a production that featured a 92\\-piece orchestra and as many as 120 persons on stage at the same time\\> It broadcast live via closed circuit to movie screens across the country.",
"In June 1953, Jones took a two\\-week leave of absence from *Your Hit Parade* to direct *[The Ford 50th Anniversary Show](/wiki/The_Ford_50th_Anniversary_Show \"The Ford 50th Anniversary Show\")*. The Ford show was a two\\-hour special broadcast simultaneously on both [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") and [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") and involved the coordination of three studios, eight cameras, 45 engineers, 25 stagehands, a 24\\-piece orchestra, and a large cast.{{cite news\\|title\\=Radiopinion and Televisionotes\\|newspaper\\=The Tablet\\|author\\=Bill Colemna\\|date\\=June 13, 1953\\|page\\=19\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60167826/radiopinion\\-and\\-televisionotes/}} Forty years after the broadcast, television critic [Tom Shales](/wiki/Tom_Shales \"Tom Shales\") recalled the broadcast as both \"a landmark in television\" and \"a milestone in the cultural life of the '50s.\" He called it \"the most stupendous\" in an era of \"super special shows.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Ford's 50th anniversary show was milestone of '50s culture\\|newspaper\\=Palm Beach Daily News\\|date\\=December 26, 1993\\|page\\=B3\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59934494/fords\\-50th\\-anniversary\\-show\\-was/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Jones himself described it as \"the very first television spectacular\" and \"the most exciting show\" he ever did.{{cite news\\|title\\=Benefit features all the stars you'd want to see\\|newspaper\\=The Gasette\\|date\\=March 6, 1982\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60151937/benefit\\-features\\-all\\-the\\-stars\\-youd/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"### Mid to late 1950s",
"In the fall of 1954, Jones began directing for *[Caesar's Hour](/wiki/Caesar%27s_Hour \"Caesar's Hour\")*, a popular comedy and variety show.{{cite news\\|title\\=Caesar Debuts Show Monday\\|newspaper\\=The Scrantonian\\|date\\=September 26, 1954\\|page\\=10\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60172819/caesar\\-debuts\\-show\\-monday/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} He directed at least 20 episodes of *Caesar's Hour* From 1954 to 1956\\.",
"Jones also directed several episodes of *[Producers' Showcase](/wiki/Producers%27_Showcase \"Producers' Showcase\")* between 1955 and 1957\\. The most successful was the March 1955 television broadcast of *Peter Pan* starring [Mary Martin](/wiki/Mary_Martin \"Mary Martin\"). Jones took over as director from [Jerome Robbins](/wiki/Jerome_Robbins \"Jerome Robbins\") who directed the show on Broadway and received his second Emmy nomination for the project.{{cite news\\|title\\=Channel Chatter\\|newspaper\\=The Rock Island Argus\\|date\\=March 9, 1955\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60174039/peter\\-pan/}} Jones' other projects for *Producers' Showcase* included a musical adaptation of *[Jack and the Beanstalk](/wiki/Jack_and_the_Beanstalk_%28Producers%27_Showcase%29 \"Jack and the Beanstalk (Producers' Showcase)\")* (1956\\) starring [Joel Grey](/wiki/Joel_Grey \"Joel Grey\") and the [Royal Ballet](/wiki/Royal_Ballet \"Royal Ballet\")'s April 1957 performance of Prokofiev's *[Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella_%28Prokofiev%29 \"Cinderella (Prokofiev)\")*.{{cite news\\|title\\=Royal Ballet presentation scheduled for TV April 28\\|newspaper\\=The Province\\|date\\=April 6, 1957\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60181186/royal\\-ballet/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"During the 1957\\-58 season, Jones directed *[The Patrice Munsel Show](/wiki/The_Patrice_Munsel_Show_%28TV_series%29 \"The Patrice Munsel Show (TV series)\")*, a variety show starring opera singer [Patrice Munsel](/wiki/Patrice_Munsel \"Patrice Munsel\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Patrice Munsel's Producer Is A Professor of Psychology\\|newspaper\\=Tampa Bay Times\\|date\\=January 26, 1958\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60179922/patrice\\-munsels\\-producer\\-is\\-a/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Jones received his third Emmy for his work on that series.",
"### 1960s",
"In 1958, Jones began directing the *[Perry Como Show](/wiki/Kraft_Music_Hall_%28TV_series%29 \"Kraft Music Hall (TV series)\")*, later known as *Perry Como's Kraft Music Hall*. He received his fourth Emmy nomination in 1959 for Best Direction of a Single Musical Or Variety Program for his work on an episode of Como's show featuring Maureen O'Hara and Robert Preston.{{cite news\\|title\\=Peter Gunn, With 8 Nominations, Leads Contenders for Emmy Awards\\|newspaper\\=The Progress\\-Index\\|date\\=May 2, 1959\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/1049040/silvio\\-dalisera\\-emmy\\-award\\-1959/}} Jones also served as producer of Como's show in the late 1950s.{{cite news\\|title\\=The Old Show's Return \\-\\- Como Leads Fall Parade\\|newspaper\\=New York Daily News\\|date\\=September 15, 1958\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60181420/perry\\-como/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} His association with the Como show continued until 1967, though his work was limited to specials in the later years.{{cite news\\|title\\=Woody Allen to Appear As Guest of Perry Como\\|newspaper\\=The Hartford Courant\\|date\\=March 19, 1967\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60180861/perry\\-como/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"From 1960 to 1967, Jones also directed *[The Bell Telephone Hour](/wiki/The_Bell_Telephone_Hour \"The Bell Telephone Hour\")*, a concert series featuring performances by stars of opera, musical theater and ballet. He also directed *The Sammy Davis Jr. Show* in 1966,{{cite news\\|title\\=Director Named For Davis Show\\|newspaper\\=Valley Times\\|date\\=November 19, 1965\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60182703/clark\\-jones/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} but it was cancelled after a three\\-month run.{{cite news\\|title\\=Sammy's One\\-Man SHow\\|newspaper\\=Tampa Bay Times\\|date\\=April 17, 1966\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60183678/sammys\\-one\\-man\\-show/\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"In 1967, Jones moved to Los Angeles to direct the first season of *[The Carol Burnett Show](/wiki/The_Carol_Burnett_Show \"The Carol Burnett Show\")*. He left the show after the first season to return to New York. For his work on the show, he was nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award (DGA Award) for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Television.",
"### Special events",
"Jones also remained in demand during the 1960s for musical specials, directing [Dinah Shore](/wiki/Dinah_Shore \"Dinah Shore\") and [Robert Goulet](/wiki/Robert_Goulet \"Robert Goulet\") specials in 1964, and two [Carol Channing](/wiki/Carol_Channing \"Carol Channing\") specials in 1969\\. He also directed two [Frank Sinatra](/wiki/Frank_Sinatra \"Frank Sinatra\") specials: *[Francis Albert Sinatra Does His Thing](/wiki/Francis_Albert_Sinatra_Does_His_Thing \"Francis Albert Sinatra Does His Thing\") in 1968, and* Frank Sinatra: The Man and His Music (1981\\). He was nominated for a DGA Award for the second Sinatra special.",
"Jones also directed the 1982 broadcast of *Night of 100 Stars* and its 1984 sequel *Night of 100 Stars II*. He received Emmy nominations for both productions.",
"In 1967, Jones began a 20\\-year association with the [Tony Awards](/wiki/Tony_Award \"Tony Award\"). He directed the television broadcast of the award ceremony 19 times between 1967 and 1986\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Clark Jones, 81, Director in TV's Early Days\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=April 5, 2002\\|page\\=C11\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/arts/clark\\-jones\\-81\\-director\\-in\\-tv\\-s\\-early\\-days.html}} He was twice nominated for Emmy Awards and once for a DGA Award for his handling of the Tony Awards. He also directed other award ceremonies and pageants, including the Emmy Awards and the Miss Universe and Miss USA pageants.",
""
] |
Broadcasting career
-------------------
Herbstreit joined ESPN in 1996, and has since gained roles as lead analyst on *[College GameDay](/wiki/College_GameDay_%28football%29 "College GameDay (football)")* with host [Rece Davis](/wiki/Rece_Davis "Rece Davis"), [Desmond Howard](/wiki/Desmond_Howard "Desmond Howard"), [Pat McAfee](/wiki/Pat_McAfee "Pat McAfee"), [Lee Corso](/wiki/Lee_Corso "Lee Corso"), and [Nick Saban](/wiki/Nick_Saban "Nick Saban"). He serves as the analyst for ABC’s [Saturday college football primetime games](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Football "Saturday Night Football") alongside former *GameDay* host and longtime colleague [Chris Fowler](/wiki/Chris_Fowler "Chris Fowler") and sideline reporter [Holly Rowe](/wiki/Holly_Rowe "Holly Rowe").
Herbstreit was nominated for a 1997 [Sports Emmy Award](/wiki/Sports_Emmy_Awards "Sports Emmy Awards") as television's top studio analyst{{cite web\|url\=https://espnpressroom.com/us/bios/herbstreit\_kirk/\|title\=Kirk Herbstreit \- ESPN Press Room\|work\=ESPN.com\|accessdate\=6 July 2021}} and wrote a weekly in\-season column, "Inside The Game With Kirk Herbstreit," for *[The Sporting News](/wiki/The_Sporting_News "The Sporting News")*.
A frequent contributor to ESPN.com and *[ESPN The Magazine](/wiki/ESPN_The_Magazine "ESPN The Magazine")*, Herbstreit has worked as a [color commentator](/wiki/Color_commentator "Color commentator") for [ESPN's Thursday night college football games](/wiki/ESPN_College_Football_Thursday_Primetime "ESPN College Football Thursday Primetime").
In July 2007, Herbstreit served as a panelist for the series *Who's Now* alongside [Keyshawn Johnson](/wiki/Keyshawn_Johnson "Keyshawn Johnson") and [Michael Wilbon](/wiki/Michael_Wilbon "Michael Wilbon").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.mcall.com/news/mc\-xpm\-2007\-07\-10\-3744232\-story.html \| title\=ESPN has reached new low with "Who's Now?' \| first\=Jay \| last\=Hart \| date\=July 10, 2007 \| work\=\[\[The Morning Call]] \| location\=\[\[Allentown, Pennsylvania]] \| accessdate\=6 July 2021}}
[thumb\|[Nick Saban](/wiki/Nick_Saban "Nick Saban"), Lee Corso and Herbstreit during a 2024 taping of College GameDay](/wiki/File:MBN_S24G02_TEXAS-14.jpg "MBN S24G02 TEXAS-14.jpg")
Herbstreit contributes to the [97\.1 The Fan](/wiki/WBNS-FM "WBNS-FM"), an [ESPN Radio](/wiki/ESPN_Radio "ESPN Radio") affiliate out of [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio "Columbus, Ohio").
In [2018](/wiki/2018_NFL_Draft "2018 NFL Draft"), Herbstreit was announced to replace [Jon Gruden](/wiki/Jon_Gruden "Jon Gruden") for night one of ESPN’s [NFL Draft](/wiki/NFL_Draft "NFL Draft") coverage, as Gruden left to return to the then\-Oakland, now [Las Vegas Raiders](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Raiders "Las Vegas Raiders"). When ABC picked up rights to air the first two nights of the Draft, Herbstreit moved to ABC’s coverage with his *GameDay* colleagues.
In 2020, Herbstreit announced the first game of the *[Monday Night Football](/wiki/Monday_Night_Football "Monday Night Football")* Kickoff Week doubleheader alongside Chris Fowler.{{cite web\|title\=Why are Kirk Herbstreit, Chris Fowler announcing 'Monday Night Football'?\|url\=https://www.sportingnews.com/us/nfl/news/kirk\-herbstreit\-chris\-fowler\-monday\-night\-football/1bwlbgfark411da5b7l18dvk1\|date\=September 14, 2020\|first\=Zac\|last\=Al\-Khateeb}} A week later, Herbstreit and Rece Davis worked a special *Monday Night Football* [MegaCast](/wiki/ESPN_Megacast "ESPN Megacast") on ESPN2 for the Saints–Raiders game, the first ever NFL game to be played in Las Vegas, on the night in which *Monday Night Football* celebrated its 50th anniversary. In 2022, Fowler and Herbstreit again called the first game of an *MNF* doubleheader, this time during the final week of the [2021 season](/wiki/2021_NFL_season "2021 NFL season").
On March 23, 2022, Herbstreit was announced as the new color commentator for *[Thursday Night Football](/wiki/Thursday_Night_Football "Thursday Night Football")* on [Prime Video](/wiki/NFL_on_Prime_Video "NFL on Prime Video"), alongside NFL play\-by\-play announcer [Al Michaels](/wiki/Al_Michaels "Al Michaels").{{cite news \|title\=Showbiz Stocks \|work\=Hollywood Reporter \|volume\=428 \|issue\=11 \|location\=Prometheus Global \|date\=March 30, 2022 \|publisher\=Cengage \|page\=13 \|quote\=Gale Document Number A700265015}} That same day, Herbstreit agreed to an extension of his contract with ESPN to allow him to continue on *GameDay*, Saturday Night Football, and the NFL Draft, to go along with his new NFL duties for Amazon.
[thumb\|Herbstreit pets his dog Ben during a College GameDay commercial break, 2024](/wiki/File:MBN_S24G02_TEXAS-21_Herbstreit_dog.jpg "MBN S24G02 TEXAS-21 Herbstreit dog.jpg")
|
[
"Broadcasting career\n-------------------",
"Herbstreit joined ESPN in 1996, and has since gained roles as lead analyst on *[College GameDay](/wiki/College_GameDay_%28football%29 \"College GameDay (football)\")* with host [Rece Davis](/wiki/Rece_Davis \"Rece Davis\"), [Desmond Howard](/wiki/Desmond_Howard \"Desmond Howard\"), [Pat McAfee](/wiki/Pat_McAfee \"Pat McAfee\"), [Lee Corso](/wiki/Lee_Corso \"Lee Corso\"), and [Nick Saban](/wiki/Nick_Saban \"Nick Saban\"). He serves as the analyst for ABC’s [Saturday college football primetime games](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Football \"Saturday Night Football\") alongside former *GameDay* host and longtime colleague [Chris Fowler](/wiki/Chris_Fowler \"Chris Fowler\") and sideline reporter [Holly Rowe](/wiki/Holly_Rowe \"Holly Rowe\").",
"Herbstreit was nominated for a 1997 [Sports Emmy Award](/wiki/Sports_Emmy_Awards \"Sports Emmy Awards\") as television's top studio analyst{{cite web\\|url\\=https://espnpressroom.com/us/bios/herbstreit\\_kirk/\\|title\\=Kirk Herbstreit \\- ESPN Press Room\\|work\\=ESPN.com\\|accessdate\\=6 July 2021}} and wrote a weekly in\\-season column, \"Inside The Game With Kirk Herbstreit,\" for *[The Sporting News](/wiki/The_Sporting_News \"The Sporting News\")*.",
"A frequent contributor to ESPN.com and *[ESPN The Magazine](/wiki/ESPN_The_Magazine \"ESPN The Magazine\")*, Herbstreit has worked as a [color commentator](/wiki/Color_commentator \"Color commentator\") for [ESPN's Thursday night college football games](/wiki/ESPN_College_Football_Thursday_Primetime \"ESPN College Football Thursday Primetime\").",
"In July 2007, Herbstreit served as a panelist for the series *Who's Now* alongside [Keyshawn Johnson](/wiki/Keyshawn_Johnson \"Keyshawn Johnson\") and [Michael Wilbon](/wiki/Michael_Wilbon \"Michael Wilbon\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.mcall.com/news/mc\\-xpm\\-2007\\-07\\-10\\-3744232\\-story.html \\| title\\=ESPN has reached new low with \"Who's Now?' \\| first\\=Jay \\| last\\=Hart \\| date\\=July 10, 2007 \\| work\\=\\[\\[The Morning Call]] \\| location\\=\\[\\[Allentown, Pennsylvania]] \\| accessdate\\=6 July 2021}}\n[thumb\\|[Nick Saban](/wiki/Nick_Saban \"Nick Saban\"), Lee Corso and Herbstreit during a 2024 taping of College GameDay](/wiki/File:MBN_S24G02_TEXAS-14.jpg \"MBN S24G02 TEXAS-14.jpg\")\nHerbstreit contributes to the [97\\.1 The Fan](/wiki/WBNS-FM \"WBNS-FM\"), an [ESPN Radio](/wiki/ESPN_Radio \"ESPN Radio\") affiliate out of [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio \"Columbus, Ohio\").",
"In [2018](/wiki/2018_NFL_Draft \"2018 NFL Draft\"), Herbstreit was announced to replace [Jon Gruden](/wiki/Jon_Gruden \"Jon Gruden\") for night one of ESPN’s [NFL Draft](/wiki/NFL_Draft \"NFL Draft\") coverage, as Gruden left to return to the then\\-Oakland, now [Las Vegas Raiders](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Raiders \"Las Vegas Raiders\"). When ABC picked up rights to air the first two nights of the Draft, Herbstreit moved to ABC’s coverage with his *GameDay* colleagues.",
"In 2020, Herbstreit announced the first game of the *[Monday Night Football](/wiki/Monday_Night_Football \"Monday Night Football\")* Kickoff Week doubleheader alongside Chris Fowler.{{cite web\\|title\\=Why are Kirk Herbstreit, Chris Fowler announcing 'Monday Night Football'?\\|url\\=https://www.sportingnews.com/us/nfl/news/kirk\\-herbstreit\\-chris\\-fowler\\-monday\\-night\\-football/1bwlbgfark411da5b7l18dvk1\\|date\\=September 14, 2020\\|first\\=Zac\\|last\\=Al\\-Khateeb}} A week later, Herbstreit and Rece Davis worked a special *Monday Night Football* [MegaCast](/wiki/ESPN_Megacast \"ESPN Megacast\") on ESPN2 for the Saints–Raiders game, the first ever NFL game to be played in Las Vegas, on the night in which *Monday Night Football* celebrated its 50th anniversary. In 2022, Fowler and Herbstreit again called the first game of an *MNF* doubleheader, this time during the final week of the [2021 season](/wiki/2021_NFL_season \"2021 NFL season\").",
"On March 23, 2022, Herbstreit was announced as the new color commentator for *[Thursday Night Football](/wiki/Thursday_Night_Football \"Thursday Night Football\")* on [Prime Video](/wiki/NFL_on_Prime_Video \"NFL on Prime Video\"), alongside NFL play\\-by\\-play announcer [Al Michaels](/wiki/Al_Michaels \"Al Michaels\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Showbiz Stocks \\|work\\=Hollywood Reporter \\|volume\\=428 \\|issue\\=11 \\|location\\=Prometheus Global \\|date\\=March 30, 2022 \\|publisher\\=Cengage \\|page\\=13 \\|quote\\=Gale Document Number A700265015}} That same day, Herbstreit agreed to an extension of his contract with ESPN to allow him to continue on *GameDay*, Saturday Night Football, and the NFL Draft, to go along with his new NFL duties for Amazon.\n[thumb\\|Herbstreit pets his dog Ben during a College GameDay commercial break, 2024](/wiki/File:MBN_S24G02_TEXAS-21_Herbstreit_dog.jpg \"MBN S24G02 TEXAS-21 Herbstreit dog.jpg\")",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Akhtar Raza Saleemi was born on 16 June 1974, at Kekot, a village of [Haripur](/wiki/Haripur%2C_Pakistan "Haripur, Pakistan") district, [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa"), Pakistan. His father, Sardar Sher Zaman, is a part\-time businessman.
He received his early education from his native village. When he was in fifth grade due to the strict behavior and the subsequent punishment of the teacher, he left his education. Afterwards was sent to [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi "Karachi"), where his elder brother, Sardar Muhammad Saleem lived and owned a hotel. He resumed his education and in 1991 received his matriculation certificate with 2nd position.
Then he moved again to [Rawalpindi](/wiki/Rawalpindi "Rawalpindi"), from where he cleared his [FA](/wiki/Fair_use "Fair use") examination in 1995\.
Then he moved to [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad "Islamabad") and is now settled there. He graduated from [Allama Iqbal Open University](/wiki/Allama_Iqbal_Open_University "Allama Iqbal Open University") in the Fall 2003\. He also did his Masters in [Urdu](/wiki/Urdu "Urdu") from [University of Sargodha](/wiki/University_of_Sargodha "University of Sargodha") in 2011\.
### Personal life
He is married to his distant relative's daughter on 24 April 2004\. They have two sons \- Ayaan Raza Saleemi and Hannan Raza Saleemi \- and one daughter, Midhat Raza Saleemi. They live in Islamabad.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Akhtar Raza Saleemi was born on 16 June 1974, at Kekot, a village of [Haripur](/wiki/Haripur%2C_Pakistan \"Haripur, Pakistan\") district, [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa \"Khyber Pakhtunkhwa\"), Pakistan. His father, Sardar Sher Zaman, is a part\\-time businessman.",
"He received his early education from his native village. When he was in fifth grade due to the strict behavior and the subsequent punishment of the teacher, he left his education. Afterwards was sent to [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi \"Karachi\"), where his elder brother, Sardar Muhammad Saleem lived and owned a hotel. He resumed his education and in 1991 received his matriculation certificate with 2nd position.",
"Then he moved again to [Rawalpindi](/wiki/Rawalpindi \"Rawalpindi\"), from where he cleared his [FA](/wiki/Fair_use \"Fair use\") examination in 1995\\.",
"Then he moved to [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad \"Islamabad\") and is now settled there. He graduated from [Allama Iqbal Open University](/wiki/Allama_Iqbal_Open_University \"Allama Iqbal Open University\") in the Fall 2003\\. He also did his Masters in [Urdu](/wiki/Urdu \"Urdu\") from [University of Sargodha](/wiki/University_of_Sargodha \"University of Sargodha\") in 2011\\.",
"### Personal life",
"He is married to his distant relative's daughter on 24 April 2004\\. They have two sons \\- Ayaan Raza Saleemi and Hannan Raza Saleemi \\- and one daughter, Midhat Raza Saleemi. They live in Islamabad.",
""
] |
Research
--------
### Western scrub jays (*Aphelocoma californica*)
[thumb\|alt\=California western scrub\-jay in Seattle, Washington\|Episodic\-like memory was first demonstrated in the western scrub jay (*Aphelocoma californica*).](/wiki/Image:Aphelocoma_californica_in_Seattle_cropped.jpg "Aphelocoma californica in Seattle cropped.jpg")
Recent research regarding mental time travel and episodic\-like memory has focused on determining whether there are any non\-human animals that demonstrate future planning and under what conditions they do so. One species that has frequently been considered is the western scrub jay (*Aphelocoma californica*), a member of the [corvid](/wiki/Corvidae "Corvidae") family of birds native to western [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"). These large\-brained, long\-lived, and highly social birds hide food caches for future consumption and rely on memory to recover their caches of hidden food at a later date, typically weeks if not months into the future.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Dally \| first1 \= J.M. \| last2 \= Emery \| first2 \= N.J. \| last3 \= Clayton \| first3 \= N.S. \| year \= 2005 \| title \= The social suppression of caching in western scrub\-jays (aphelicoma californica) \| doi \= 10\.1163/1568539055010084\| journal \= Behaviour \| volume \= 142 \| issue \= 7\| pages \= 961–977 }} They show an ability to form what\-where\-when memories characteristic of episodic memory as they remember the spatial location and contents of their caches as well as recalling which [conspecifics](/wiki/Conspecificity "Conspecificity") were watching during caching.
Flexibility within episodic\-like memory has been demonstrated within a study by Clayton et al. involving the caching of perishable and non\-perishable foods. The jays were allowed to cache perishable and non\-perishable items but then discovered, in the interval between caching and recovery, that the perishable food type degraded more quickly than originally thought. They reasoned that, if the birds do use a flexible [declarative memory system](/wiki/Declarative_memory "Declarative memory"), they should be able to update their knowledge about the rate of perishability of the food and change their search behaviour at recovery accordingly, even though the episodic information about what they cached where and when was encoded before gaining the new knowledge about the decay rates. Results confirmed this reasoning demonstrating that these birds possess a flexible episodic like memory system where they can update their information after the time of encoding.
An experiment conducted by Dally et al. examined the importance of social living in scrub jays by testing whether storer birds remember the status of the observer bird who watched them during caching – adding a 'who' to the what\-where\-when memory framework. They found that, as predicted, storer birds' adjusted their behaviour during the initial caching period according to the rank of the observer bird. In the dominant observer bird condition, where they experienced the highest risk of cache theft, storers cached predominantly in the tray farthest away from the observer bird and recached the greatest proportion of items during the recovery period. In a second part of this study, they tested whether scrub jays remember which particular individual was present when they made specific caches. Birds cached in front of observer birds as they did the first part of this study, but then hours later were separated into three conditions where they either recovered their caches in private, in front of an observer bird that watched them cache initially, or in front of a new control bird. They found that the proportion of caches that were recached at recovery differed significantly between conditions and significantly more caches were recached during the observed condition relative to the control condition. This suggests that during the recovery stage, storer birds remember whether the observer bird watching them recover their cache was the same bird who watched them cache initially and engage in additional behaviours to prevent cache theft.
### Hummingbirds
A study of the [rufous hummingbird](/wiki/Rufous_hummingbird "Rufous hummingbird") found they were able to learn and remember which flowers in an arrangement contained a nectar reward. Although visual cues such as the type and colour of flower increased how quickly the locations were learned, they weren't necessary for learning. Hummingbirds could remember that only the center flower contained a reward even in arrangements of identical flowers. Artificial flowers were created using small cardboard disks painted in unique colours, the center of which contained a syringe tip filled with a small amount of sucrose solution.{{cite journal\|last\=Healy\|first\=S. D.\|author2\=Hurly, T. A.\|title\=Rufous hummingbirds' (Selasphorus rufus) memory for flowers: Patterns or actual spatial locations?\|journal\=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes\|year\=1998\|volume\=24\|issue\=4\|pages\=396–404\|doi\=10\.1037/0097\-7403\.24\.4\.396}} When spacing between the flowers was increased, hummingbirds still remembered the relative locations of the flowers in arrangement. When the arrangements of artificial flowers were moved, the hummingbirds remembered which flowers contained nectar, even when the new location of the arrangement placed an empty flower in the location previously occupied by a reward flower.
[thumb\|left\|alt\=Hovering hummingbird\|Hummingbirds demonstrate the ability to recall where certain flowers were located and how recently they were visited.](/wiki/File:Selasphorus_rufus_on_Saltspring_Island.jpg "Selasphorus rufus on Saltspring Island.jpg")
Rufous hummingbirds are also able to adjust their [foraging](/wiki/Foraging "Foraging") strategies based on when they've last visited flowers and how often the flower's nectar is renewed. Artificial flowers were refilled in either ten\- or twenty\-minute intervals upon being emptied. The hummingbirds were able to distinguish between the types of flower and adjust their foraging strategies accordingly. Over time the hummingbirds learned the schedule of renewal and visited the flowers renewed every ten minutes much more frequently than the flowers renewed every twenty minutes.{{cite journal\|last\=Henderson\|first\=J.\|author2\=Hurly, T. A. \|author3\=Bateson, M. \|author4\=Healy, S. D. \|title\=Timing in Free\-Living Rufous Hummingbirds, (Selasphorus rufus)\|journal\=Current Biology\|year\=2006\|volume\=16\|issue\=5\|pages\=512–515\|doi\=10\.1016/j.cub.2006\.01\.054\|pmid\=16527747\|doi\-access\=free}} This implies planning on the part of the hummingbird in order to avoid redundant trips and avoid wasting energy. Similar cognitive abilities and foraging strategies were also observed in a study of the [green\-backed firecrown](/wiki/Green-backed_firecrown "Green-backed firecrown"), another species of hummingbird.{{cite journal\|last\=González\-Gómez\|first\=P. L.\|author2\=Vásquez, R. A. \|author3\=Bozinovic, F. \|title\=Flexibility of Foraging Behavior in Hummingbirds: The Role of Energy Constraints and Cognitive Abilities\|journal\=The Auk\|year\=2011\|volume\=128\|issue\=1\|pages\=36–42\|doi\=10\.1525/auk.2011\.10024\|hdl\=10533/138679\|s2cid\=86070195\|hdl\-access\=free}}
### Pigeons
[thumb\|alt\=Photograph of a pigeon\|Pigeons have been shown to think back on past experience to generate positive future outcomes.](/wiki/File:Indian_Pigeon.jpg "Indian Pigeon.jpg")
The [pigeon](/wiki/Pigeon "Pigeon") has also been shown to exhibit qualities similar to episodic\-like memory. Pigeons respond to a stimulus shown before the presentation of food by thereafter pecking future examples of the stimulus. In the event that a stimulus is presented without food, pigeons will choose not to peck at future presentations of the stimulus. A study at the University of Kentucky aimed to determine whether pigeons could recall their previous actions with regard to certain hues presented either with or without food. The first phase of the experiment involved training the pigeons to peck in response to one stimulus (vertical lines) and refrain from pecking for at least four seconds in response to another stimulus (horizontal lines).{{cite journal \| last1 \= Zentall \| first1 \= T. R. \| last2 \= Clement \| first2 \= T. S. \| last3 \= Bhatt \| first3 \= R. S. \| last4 \= Allen \| first4 \= J. \| year \= 2001 \| title \= Episodic\-like memory in pigeons \| journal \= Psychonomic Bulletin and Review \| volume \= 8 \| issue \= 4\| pages \= 685–690 \| doi\=10\.3758/bf03196204\| pmid \= 11848586 \| doi\-access \= free }} The presented stimuli were then followed by both a red and green key. Pecking the green key following a pecking stimulus (vertical lines) resulted in a food reward, as did pecking the red stimulus following a non\-pecking stimulus (horizontal lines). This allowed the experimenters to effectively pose questions to the pigeons on their past actions. The pigeons were required to recall what the previous stimulus had been and how they had reacted in order to formulate a correct response and receive a reward.
This differs from other memory tasks where the aim was simply to determine whether a stimulus and response could be paired as a learned association and then testing the memory for that association. This experiment showed a clear use of episodic memory or a similar construct, pigeons were shown to think back on past experience to generate a positive future outcome.
### Primates
Due to their similarities to [humans](/wiki/Human "Human"), researchers have been interested in looking into the episodic memory abilities of non\-human [primates](/wiki/Primate "Primate").{{cite journal\|author\=Scarf, D. \|author2\=Smith, C. \|author3\=Stuart, M.\|title\=A spoon full of studies helps the comparison go down: A comparative analysis of Tulving's Spoon Test.\|journal\=Frontiers in Psychology\|year\=2014\|volume\=5\|pages\=893\|doi\=10\.3389/fpsyg.2014\.00893\|pmid\=25161644 \|pmc\=4130454\|doi\-access\=free }} However, little uncriticized research has previously been done. For example, Schwartz performed an experiment with [gorillas](/wiki/Gorilla "Gorilla") in a task requiring the animal to select the appropriate card that represented the food he had just eaten and who had given it to him.{{cite journal\|last\=Schwartz\|first\=B. L.\|author2\=Colon, M. R. \|author3\=Sanchez, I. C. \|author4\=Rodriguez, I. A. \|author5\=Evans, S. \|title\=Single\-trial learning of "what" and "who" information in a gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla): implications for episodic memory\|journal\=Animal Cognition\|year\=2002\|volume\=5\|issue\=2\|pages\=85–90\|doi\=10\.1007/s10071\-002\-0132\-0\|pmid\=12150040\|s2cid\=5048191\|url\=http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/ccs/pubs/files/2000\-King7\.pdf\|access\-date\=21 March 2012}} While the gorilla appropriately identified the food items and trainer, it is unclear if he recalled the event or chose the answer most familiar to him. Menzel also showed evidence of episodic memory in [apes](/wiki/Ape "Ape"), however, an alternative explanation is that the chimpanzees were displaying spatial semantic memory.{{cite journal\|last\=Menzel\|first\=C.\|title\=Progress in the Study of Chimpanzee Recall and Episodic Memory\|year\=2005\|pages\=188–224}} Furthermore, Hampton had mixed results when testing [rhesus monkeys](/wiki/Rhesus_macaque "Rhesus macaque"); while demonstrating memory for the location and type of food, they lacked sensitivity to when they acquired the knowledge.{{cite journal\|last\=Hampton \|first\=R. R. \|author2\=Hampstead, B. M. \|author3\=Murray, E. A. \|title\=Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) demonstrate robust memory for what and where, but not when, in an open\-field test of memory \|journal\=Learning and Motivation \|year\=2005 \|volume\=36 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=245–259 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.lmot.2005\.02\.004 \|url\=http://lnpsych.nimh.nih.gov/murray/hampton\_et\_al\_www\_2005\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131202417/http://lnpsych.nimh.nih.gov/murray/hampton\_et\_al\_www\_2005\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=31 January 2009 \|access\-date\=21 March 2012 }} Thus, more research was required for this type of memory in non\-human primates.
[thumb\|left\|alt\= Three chimpanzees with apple\|Humans and primates may possess some of the same information encoding and storage mechanisms related to episodic memory.](/wiki/File:Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg "Three chimpanzees with apple.jpg")
[Chimpanzees](/wiki/Chimpanzee "Chimpanzee") and [orangutans](/wiki/Orangutan "Orangutan") were tested using an adapted design by Clayton and colleagues for experimenting with scrub jays.{{cite journal\|author\=Martin\-Ordas, G. \|author2\=Haun, D. \|author3\=Colmenares, F. \|author4\=Call, J.\|title\=Keeping track of time: evidence for episodic memory in great apes\|journal\=Animal Cognition\|year\=2010\|volume\=13\|issue\=2\|pages\=331–340\|doi\=10\.1007/s10071\-009\-0282\-4\|pmid\=19784852\|pmc\=2822233}} After five minutes and again at one hour, the apes were presented with the choice of selecting hidden frozen juice, less\-preferred grapes, or an empty platform. While the juice was the preferred item, it would melt before the hour. Subjects were both male and female. Food item placement was changed during multiple trials so that the study was not accidentally measuring familiarity. The primates rarely chose the empty platform, and after five minutes preferred the juice solution over the grape. After an hour, while a smaller number of primates chose the juice, the majority of apes still reached for melted juice.
The study also wanted to compare human and primate performance on the task to show episodic memory. Humans exhibit age\-dependent performance with inverted U\-shaped results, meaning ability increases in childhood, stabilizes for a few years and then descends as adulthood progresses. The similarities in findings found may indicate these primates and humans share some information encoding and storage mechanisms. Future research may be done with a larger sample size and different experiments to replicate the inverted U\-shape findings.
### Fruit bats
Most examples of episodic\-like memory are based on animals in captivity, however a study on free\-foraging Egyptian fruit bats (*[Rousettus aegyptiacus](/wiki/Egyptian_fruit_bat "Egyptian fruit bat")*) has found evidence for planning of foraging based on both their knowledge of the location and availability of food, but also temporal understanding of food tree seasonality.{{cite journal \|last1\=Harten \|first1\=Lee \|last2\=Chen \|first2\=Xing \|last3\=de Marcas \|first3\=Lior \|last4\=Rachum \|first4\=Adi \|last5\=Handel \|first5\=Michal \|last6\=Goldshtein \|first6\=Aya \|last7\=Levi \|first7\=Maya Fenigstein \|last8\=Rosencwaig \|first8\=Shira \|last9\=Yovel \|first9\=Yossi \|title\=Time\-mapping and future\-oriented behavior in free\-ranging wild fruit bats \|journal\=Current Biology \|date\=July 2024 \|volume\=34 \|issue\=13 \|pages\=3005–3010\.e4 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.cub.2024\.05\.046\|doi\-access\=free }} This study conducted two experiments.
The first explored 'time\-mapping' (i.e., whether bats track time since they last visited a tree). The authors hypothesised that if bats had the ability to keep track of time they would revisit different tree species at different frequencies after periods of captivity of different durations (i.e., that they would not visit short\-fruiting trees after long periods in captivity, as they would likely no longer provide food). Results from the study showed that this prediction was true, but, interestingly, only in 'experienced' bats (those that had greater experience to the outdoors prior to the experiment).
The second experiment investigated 'future planning'. Throughout the study a bowl of fruit was placed at the colony at the beginning of every evening; some bats ignore this offering and leave the roost early in the evening, whereas others choose to feed from the bowl first. As the bats that left early would likely be seeking water, and the bats that fed and left later would likely be seeking protein, the authors hypothesised that the bats that left at different times would display different food choices if they had the capacity for 'future planning'. 15 bats were tracked for an average of 45 nights each. The results showed that bats that left the colony early visited trees with higher water content in their fruit first, and that those that left late first sought trees with protein\-rich fruit. The authors argue that this shows that the bats choose what to eat, and where to fly, before leaving the roost.
### Rats
[thumb\|alt\=Common brown rat\|Rats demonstrate the ability to discriminate based on the what, where, and when components of episodic\-like memory.](/wiki/File:Rattus_norvegicus_1.jpg "Rattus norvegicus 1.jpg")
A study by Babb and Crystal (2005\) provided evidence that [rats](/wiki/Rat "Rat") also demonstrate the ability to discriminate based on what, where, and when.Babb, S.J., Crystal, J.D., 2005\. Discrimination of what, when, and where: implications
for episodic\-like memory in rats. Learning \& Motivation 36, 177–189\. In experiments using a [radial arm maze](/wiki/Radial_arm_maze "Radial arm maze"), four of the eight arms of the maze contained food. The other arms were made inaccessible to the rats. Of the food containing corridors of the maze, three contained standard rat\-chow pellets while one arm contained high value chocolate\-flavoured pellets. This was the first phase of the experiment, defined as the forced\-choice phase (some corridors were inaccessible). The second phase was defined as the free\-choice phase (all corridors were now accessible to the rats). The period of time between each phase served as a discriminating cue. Some days the interval between phases would be short (30 minutes) other days the interval would be long (4 hours), but only one type of interval was tested each day. On days when a short interval was used, the previously inaccessible corridors were made accessible and were the only corridors to contain regular pellets and no chocolate pellets were refilled. On days using a long interval, pellets were refilled as on short interval days, but in addition, the chocolate pellets were refilled in the location they had originally been found. The rats were able to discriminate based on the length of interval before the test phase, with the phases following a long interval having the rats immediately search in the arm of the maze associated with the location of the high value (chocolate\-flavoured) pellets.
### Honey Bees
[thumb\|left\|Research suggests that honey bees possess Circadian timed episodic\-like memory.](/wiki/Image:Pollinationn.jpg "Pollinationn.jpg")
Researchers in Australia found what they consider to be Circadian timed episodic\-like memory in [honey bees](/wiki/Honey_bee "Honey bee"). In their study they examined foraging bees in three Y\-mazes. Two mazes represented training and testing zones with different time placements. Maze C acted as the location for transfer tests. The bees were placed in Maze A in the afternoon hours of 2:30 to 5:30, whereas Maze B held bees in the morning hours of 9:30 to 12:30\. All of the three mazes had two compartments, and in Mazes A and B, one held a sugar solution as a reward for making the positive decision. During training, the compartment containing the positive pattern was changed every thirty minutes. In Maze A, the positive (rewarded) pattern was a blue horizontal pattern, while the negative (non\-rewarded) pattern was a blue vertical pattern. Additionally, the positive pattern for Maze B was a yellow vertical (rewarded) pattern, with a yellow horizontal pattern as a negative (non\-rewarded) pattern. The three aspects of episodic\-like memory in this experiment are the morning or afternoon times (when), either Maze A or B (where), and by using horizontal/vertical patterns (what).
In the first of four experiments, the colour cue was removed by using black patterns, but the shape cues remained the same. The scientists tested whether the bees would still choose the positive pattern; this decision would then be based on the what, where, and when components. Through the other three experiments, one of the cues was examined independently from the others.
They found that, on average, 96% of bees learned to forage at each maze at the appropriate time. The experimenters suggest the error rate can be accounted for by a [foraging](/wiki/Foraging "Foraging") strategy, in which multiple feeding locations are visited at fixed times.{{cite journal\|author\=Pahl, M. \|author2\=Zhu, H. \|author3\=Pix, W. \|author4\=Tautz, J. \|author5\=Zhang, S.\|title\=Circadian timed episodic\-like memory – a bee knows what to do when, and also where.\|journal\=The Journal of Experimental Biology\|date\=August 14, 2007\|volume\=210\|pages\=3559–3567\|doi\=10\.1242/jeb.005488\|issue\=20\|pmid\=17921157\|doi\-access\=free\|hdl\=1885/18210\|hdl\-access\=free}} Only a small number of bees visited the incorrect compartment during these times, and usually by only briefly hovered outside of it, instead of entering it. With the addition of visual pattern in this test, the bees also showed 80\-88% of the time to have learned which maze to enter at the correct time. With the removal of the colour cue in both of these tests, the results remained consistent. The bees then showed they had learnt these rules by applying them to the new context, Maze C, in experiment 2\. In experiment 3, based on colour cue alone, having excluded the pattern and maze location cues, the forager bees could still make a correct decision. In the final experiment, the bees used only pattern orientation cues; the lowered performance showed how much more difficult this was than when the colour cue was still present.
The researchers were uncertain, however, if the honey bees have a sense of time governed by their [circadian rhythm](/wiki/Circadian_rhythm "Circadian rhythm") by connecting a specific memory to a certain time period in the 24\-hour cycle, or if they can measure elapsed time between two events. The difference in this type of memory from other episodic\-like memory in animals is the presence of circadian timing, since normally interval timing is displayed.
Randolf Menzel also provided evidence for episodic memory in honey bees by examining their learning of spatio\-temporal tasks. The bees showed learning of serial positioning, turning serial patterns into episodes. The bees showed evidence of discrimination, thus at three out of four serial positions, stimuli were independently learned. Menzel suggests strong results may be found by further isolating the configural components. Such serial pattern configuration in mammals has been interpreted as indicative of mental representations of time and space.{{cite journal\|last\=Menzel\|first\=R.\|title\=Serial Position Learning in Honeybees\|journal\=PLOS ONE\|year\=2009\|volume\=4\|issue\=3\|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pone.0004694\|pmid\=19259265\|pmc\=2649506\|pages\=e4694\|doi\-access\=free}}
|
[
"Research\n--------",
"### Western scrub jays (*Aphelocoma californica*)",
"[thumb\\|alt\\=California western scrub\\-jay in Seattle, Washington\\|Episodic\\-like memory was first demonstrated in the western scrub jay (*Aphelocoma californica*).](/wiki/Image:Aphelocoma_californica_in_Seattle_cropped.jpg \"Aphelocoma californica in Seattle cropped.jpg\")\nRecent research regarding mental time travel and episodic\\-like memory has focused on determining whether there are any non\\-human animals that demonstrate future planning and under what conditions they do so. One species that has frequently been considered is the western scrub jay (*Aphelocoma californica*), a member of the [corvid](/wiki/Corvidae \"Corvidae\") family of birds native to western [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"). These large\\-brained, long\\-lived, and highly social birds hide food caches for future consumption and rely on memory to recover their caches of hidden food at a later date, typically weeks if not months into the future.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Dally \\| first1 \\= J.M. \\| last2 \\= Emery \\| first2 \\= N.J. \\| last3 \\= Clayton \\| first3 \\= N.S. \\| year \\= 2005 \\| title \\= The social suppression of caching in western scrub\\-jays (aphelicoma californica) \\| doi \\= 10\\.1163/1568539055010084\\| journal \\= Behaviour \\| volume \\= 142 \\| issue \\= 7\\| pages \\= 961–977 }} They show an ability to form what\\-where\\-when memories characteristic of episodic memory as they remember the spatial location and contents of their caches as well as recalling which [conspecifics](/wiki/Conspecificity \"Conspecificity\") were watching during caching.",
"Flexibility within episodic\\-like memory has been demonstrated within a study by Clayton et al. involving the caching of perishable and non\\-perishable foods. The jays were allowed to cache perishable and non\\-perishable items but then discovered, in the interval between caching and recovery, that the perishable food type degraded more quickly than originally thought. They reasoned that, if the birds do use a flexible [declarative memory system](/wiki/Declarative_memory \"Declarative memory\"), they should be able to update their knowledge about the rate of perishability of the food and change their search behaviour at recovery accordingly, even though the episodic information about what they cached where and when was encoded before gaining the new knowledge about the decay rates. Results confirmed this reasoning demonstrating that these birds possess a flexible episodic like memory system where they can update their information after the time of encoding. \n \nAn experiment conducted by Dally et al. examined the importance of social living in scrub jays by testing whether storer birds remember the status of the observer bird who watched them during caching – adding a 'who' to the what\\-where\\-when memory framework. They found that, as predicted, storer birds' adjusted their behaviour during the initial caching period according to the rank of the observer bird. In the dominant observer bird condition, where they experienced the highest risk of cache theft, storers cached predominantly in the tray farthest away from the observer bird and recached the greatest proportion of items during the recovery period. In a second part of this study, they tested whether scrub jays remember which particular individual was present when they made specific caches. Birds cached in front of observer birds as they did the first part of this study, but then hours later were separated into three conditions where they either recovered their caches in private, in front of an observer bird that watched them cache initially, or in front of a new control bird. They found that the proportion of caches that were recached at recovery differed significantly between conditions and significantly more caches were recached during the observed condition relative to the control condition. This suggests that during the recovery stage, storer birds remember whether the observer bird watching them recover their cache was the same bird who watched them cache initially and engage in additional behaviours to prevent cache theft.",
"### Hummingbirds",
"A study of the [rufous hummingbird](/wiki/Rufous_hummingbird \"Rufous hummingbird\") found they were able to learn and remember which flowers in an arrangement contained a nectar reward. Although visual cues such as the type and colour of flower increased how quickly the locations were learned, they weren't necessary for learning. Hummingbirds could remember that only the center flower contained a reward even in arrangements of identical flowers. Artificial flowers were created using small cardboard disks painted in unique colours, the center of which contained a syringe tip filled with a small amount of sucrose solution.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Healy\\|first\\=S. D.\\|author2\\=Hurly, T. A.\\|title\\=Rufous hummingbirds' (Selasphorus rufus) memory for flowers: Patterns or actual spatial locations?\\|journal\\=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes\\|year\\=1998\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=396–404\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0097\\-7403\\.24\\.4\\.396}} When spacing between the flowers was increased, hummingbirds still remembered the relative locations of the flowers in arrangement. When the arrangements of artificial flowers were moved, the hummingbirds remembered which flowers contained nectar, even when the new location of the arrangement placed an empty flower in the location previously occupied by a reward flower.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Hovering hummingbird\\|Hummingbirds demonstrate the ability to recall where certain flowers were located and how recently they were visited.](/wiki/File:Selasphorus_rufus_on_Saltspring_Island.jpg \"Selasphorus rufus on Saltspring Island.jpg\")",
"Rufous hummingbirds are also able to adjust their [foraging](/wiki/Foraging \"Foraging\") strategies based on when they've last visited flowers and how often the flower's nectar is renewed. Artificial flowers were refilled in either ten\\- or twenty\\-minute intervals upon being emptied. The hummingbirds were able to distinguish between the types of flower and adjust their foraging strategies accordingly. Over time the hummingbirds learned the schedule of renewal and visited the flowers renewed every ten minutes much more frequently than the flowers renewed every twenty minutes.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Henderson\\|first\\=J.\\|author2\\=Hurly, T. A. \\|author3\\=Bateson, M. \\|author4\\=Healy, S. D. \\|title\\=Timing in Free\\-Living Rufous Hummingbirds, (Selasphorus rufus)\\|journal\\=Current Biology\\|year\\=2006\\|volume\\=16\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=512–515\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cub.2006\\.01\\.054\\|pmid\\=16527747\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} This implies planning on the part of the hummingbird in order to avoid redundant trips and avoid wasting energy. Similar cognitive abilities and foraging strategies were also observed in a study of the [green\\-backed firecrown](/wiki/Green-backed_firecrown \"Green-backed firecrown\"), another species of hummingbird.{{cite journal\\|last\\=González\\-Gómez\\|first\\=P. L.\\|author2\\=Vásquez, R. A. \\|author3\\=Bozinovic, F. \\|title\\=Flexibility of Foraging Behavior in Hummingbirds: The Role of Energy Constraints and Cognitive Abilities\\|journal\\=The Auk\\|year\\=2011\\|volume\\=128\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=36–42\\|doi\\=10\\.1525/auk.2011\\.10024\\|hdl\\=10533/138679\\|s2cid\\=86070195\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}",
"### Pigeons",
"[thumb\\|alt\\=Photograph of a pigeon\\|Pigeons have been shown to think back on past experience to generate positive future outcomes.](/wiki/File:Indian_Pigeon.jpg \"Indian Pigeon.jpg\")\nThe [pigeon](/wiki/Pigeon \"Pigeon\") has also been shown to exhibit qualities similar to episodic\\-like memory. Pigeons respond to a stimulus shown before the presentation of food by thereafter pecking future examples of the stimulus. In the event that a stimulus is presented without food, pigeons will choose not to peck at future presentations of the stimulus. A study at the University of Kentucky aimed to determine whether pigeons could recall their previous actions with regard to certain hues presented either with or without food. The first phase of the experiment involved training the pigeons to peck in response to one stimulus (vertical lines) and refrain from pecking for at least four seconds in response to another stimulus (horizontal lines).{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Zentall \\| first1 \\= T. R. \\| last2 \\= Clement \\| first2 \\= T. S. \\| last3 \\= Bhatt \\| first3 \\= R. S. \\| last4 \\= Allen \\| first4 \\= J. \\| year \\= 2001 \\| title \\= Episodic\\-like memory in pigeons \\| journal \\= Psychonomic Bulletin and Review \\| volume \\= 8 \\| issue \\= 4\\| pages \\= 685–690 \\| doi\\=10\\.3758/bf03196204\\| pmid \\= 11848586 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} The presented stimuli were then followed by both a red and green key. Pecking the green key following a pecking stimulus (vertical lines) resulted in a food reward, as did pecking the red stimulus following a non\\-pecking stimulus (horizontal lines). This allowed the experimenters to effectively pose questions to the pigeons on their past actions. The pigeons were required to recall what the previous stimulus had been and how they had reacted in order to formulate a correct response and receive a reward.",
"This differs from other memory tasks where the aim was simply to determine whether a stimulus and response could be paired as a learned association and then testing the memory for that association. This experiment showed a clear use of episodic memory or a similar construct, pigeons were shown to think back on past experience to generate a positive future outcome.",
"### Primates",
"Due to their similarities to [humans](/wiki/Human \"Human\"), researchers have been interested in looking into the episodic memory abilities of non\\-human [primates](/wiki/Primate \"Primate\").{{cite journal\\|author\\=Scarf, D. \\|author2\\=Smith, C. \\|author3\\=Stuart, M.\\|title\\=A spoon full of studies helps the comparison go down: A comparative analysis of Tulving's Spoon Test.\\|journal\\=Frontiers in Psychology\\|year\\=2014\\|volume\\=5\\|pages\\=893\\|doi\\=10\\.3389/fpsyg.2014\\.00893\\|pmid\\=25161644 \\|pmc\\=4130454\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} However, little uncriticized research has previously been done. For example, Schwartz performed an experiment with [gorillas](/wiki/Gorilla \"Gorilla\") in a task requiring the animal to select the appropriate card that represented the food he had just eaten and who had given it to him.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Schwartz\\|first\\=B. L.\\|author2\\=Colon, M. R. \\|author3\\=Sanchez, I. C. \\|author4\\=Rodriguez, I. A. \\|author5\\=Evans, S. \\|title\\=Single\\-trial learning of \"what\" and \"who\" information in a gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla): implications for episodic memory\\|journal\\=Animal Cognition\\|year\\=2002\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=85–90\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10071\\-002\\-0132\\-0\\|pmid\\=12150040\\|s2cid\\=5048191\\|url\\=http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/ccs/pubs/files/2000\\-King7\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2012}} While the gorilla appropriately identified the food items and trainer, it is unclear if he recalled the event or chose the answer most familiar to him. Menzel also showed evidence of episodic memory in [apes](/wiki/Ape \"Ape\"), however, an alternative explanation is that the chimpanzees were displaying spatial semantic memory.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Menzel\\|first\\=C.\\|title\\=Progress in the Study of Chimpanzee Recall and Episodic Memory\\|year\\=2005\\|pages\\=188–224}} Furthermore, Hampton had mixed results when testing [rhesus monkeys](/wiki/Rhesus_macaque \"Rhesus macaque\"); while demonstrating memory for the location and type of food, they lacked sensitivity to when they acquired the knowledge.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Hampton \\|first\\=R. R. \\|author2\\=Hampstead, B. M. \\|author3\\=Murray, E. A. \\|title\\=Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) demonstrate robust memory for what and where, but not when, in an open\\-field test of memory \\|journal\\=Learning and Motivation \\|year\\=2005 \\|volume\\=36 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=245–259 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.lmot.2005\\.02\\.004 \\|url\\=http://lnpsych.nimh.nih.gov/murray/hampton\\_et\\_al\\_www\\_2005\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131202417/http://lnpsych.nimh.nih.gov/murray/hampton\\_et\\_al\\_www\\_2005\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=31 January 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2012 }} Thus, more research was required for this type of memory in non\\-human primates.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\= Three chimpanzees with apple\\|Humans and primates may possess some of the same information encoding and storage mechanisms related to episodic memory.](/wiki/File:Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg \"Three chimpanzees with apple.jpg\")",
"[Chimpanzees](/wiki/Chimpanzee \"Chimpanzee\") and [orangutans](/wiki/Orangutan \"Orangutan\") were tested using an adapted design by Clayton and colleagues for experimenting with scrub jays.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Martin\\-Ordas, G. \\|author2\\=Haun, D. \\|author3\\=Colmenares, F. \\|author4\\=Call, J.\\|title\\=Keeping track of time: evidence for episodic memory in great apes\\|journal\\=Animal Cognition\\|year\\=2010\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=331–340\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10071\\-009\\-0282\\-4\\|pmid\\=19784852\\|pmc\\=2822233}} After five minutes and again at one hour, the apes were presented with the choice of selecting hidden frozen juice, less\\-preferred grapes, or an empty platform. While the juice was the preferred item, it would melt before the hour. Subjects were both male and female. Food item placement was changed during multiple trials so that the study was not accidentally measuring familiarity. The primates rarely chose the empty platform, and after five minutes preferred the juice solution over the grape. After an hour, while a smaller number of primates chose the juice, the majority of apes still reached for melted juice.",
"The study also wanted to compare human and primate performance on the task to show episodic memory. Humans exhibit age\\-dependent performance with inverted U\\-shaped results, meaning ability increases in childhood, stabilizes for a few years and then descends as adulthood progresses. The similarities in findings found may indicate these primates and humans share some information encoding and storage mechanisms. Future research may be done with a larger sample size and different experiments to replicate the inverted U\\-shape findings.",
"### Fruit bats",
"Most examples of episodic\\-like memory are based on animals in captivity, however a study on free\\-foraging Egyptian fruit bats (*[Rousettus aegyptiacus](/wiki/Egyptian_fruit_bat \"Egyptian fruit bat\")*) has found evidence for planning of foraging based on both their knowledge of the location and availability of food, but also temporal understanding of food tree seasonality.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Harten \\|first1\\=Lee \\|last2\\=Chen \\|first2\\=Xing \\|last3\\=de Marcas \\|first3\\=Lior \\|last4\\=Rachum \\|first4\\=Adi \\|last5\\=Handel \\|first5\\=Michal \\|last6\\=Goldshtein \\|first6\\=Aya \\|last7\\=Levi \\|first7\\=Maya Fenigstein \\|last8\\=Rosencwaig \\|first8\\=Shira \\|last9\\=Yovel \\|first9\\=Yossi \\|title\\=Time\\-mapping and future\\-oriented behavior in free\\-ranging wild fruit bats \\|journal\\=Current Biology \\|date\\=July 2024 \\|volume\\=34 \\|issue\\=13 \\|pages\\=3005–3010\\.e4 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cub.2024\\.05\\.046\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} This study conducted two experiments.",
"The first explored 'time\\-mapping' (i.e., whether bats track time since they last visited a tree). The authors hypothesised that if bats had the ability to keep track of time they would revisit different tree species at different frequencies after periods of captivity of different durations (i.e., that they would not visit short\\-fruiting trees after long periods in captivity, as they would likely no longer provide food). Results from the study showed that this prediction was true, but, interestingly, only in 'experienced' bats (those that had greater experience to the outdoors prior to the experiment).",
"The second experiment investigated 'future planning'. Throughout the study a bowl of fruit was placed at the colony at the beginning of every evening; some bats ignore this offering and leave the roost early in the evening, whereas others choose to feed from the bowl first. As the bats that left early would likely be seeking water, and the bats that fed and left later would likely be seeking protein, the authors hypothesised that the bats that left at different times would display different food choices if they had the capacity for 'future planning'. 15 bats were tracked for an average of 45 nights each. The results showed that bats that left the colony early visited trees with higher water content in their fruit first, and that those that left late first sought trees with protein\\-rich fruit. The authors argue that this shows that the bats choose what to eat, and where to fly, before leaving the roost.",
"### Rats",
"[thumb\\|alt\\=Common brown rat\\|Rats demonstrate the ability to discriminate based on the what, where, and when components of episodic\\-like memory.](/wiki/File:Rattus_norvegicus_1.jpg \"Rattus norvegicus 1.jpg\")\nA study by Babb and Crystal (2005\\) provided evidence that [rats](/wiki/Rat \"Rat\") also demonstrate the ability to discriminate based on what, where, and when.Babb, S.J., Crystal, J.D., 2005\\. Discrimination of what, when, and where: implications\nfor episodic\\-like memory in rats. Learning \\& Motivation 36, 177–189\\. In experiments using a [radial arm maze](/wiki/Radial_arm_maze \"Radial arm maze\"), four of the eight arms of the maze contained food. The other arms were made inaccessible to the rats. Of the food containing corridors of the maze, three contained standard rat\\-chow pellets while one arm contained high value chocolate\\-flavoured pellets. This was the first phase of the experiment, defined as the forced\\-choice phase (some corridors were inaccessible). The second phase was defined as the free\\-choice phase (all corridors were now accessible to the rats). The period of time between each phase served as a discriminating cue. Some days the interval between phases would be short (30 minutes) other days the interval would be long (4 hours), but only one type of interval was tested each day. On days when a short interval was used, the previously inaccessible corridors were made accessible and were the only corridors to contain regular pellets and no chocolate pellets were refilled. On days using a long interval, pellets were refilled as on short interval days, but in addition, the chocolate pellets were refilled in the location they had originally been found. The rats were able to discriminate based on the length of interval before the test phase, with the phases following a long interval having the rats immediately search in the arm of the maze associated with the location of the high value (chocolate\\-flavoured) pellets.",
"### Honey Bees",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Research suggests that honey bees possess Circadian timed episodic\\-like memory.](/wiki/Image:Pollinationn.jpg \"Pollinationn.jpg\")",
"Researchers in Australia found what they consider to be Circadian timed episodic\\-like memory in [honey bees](/wiki/Honey_bee \"Honey bee\"). In their study they examined foraging bees in three Y\\-mazes. Two mazes represented training and testing zones with different time placements. Maze C acted as the location for transfer tests. The bees were placed in Maze A in the afternoon hours of 2:30 to 5:30, whereas Maze B held bees in the morning hours of 9:30 to 12:30\\. All of the three mazes had two compartments, and in Mazes A and B, one held a sugar solution as a reward for making the positive decision. During training, the compartment containing the positive pattern was changed every thirty minutes. In Maze A, the positive (rewarded) pattern was a blue horizontal pattern, while the negative (non\\-rewarded) pattern was a blue vertical pattern. Additionally, the positive pattern for Maze B was a yellow vertical (rewarded) pattern, with a yellow horizontal pattern as a negative (non\\-rewarded) pattern. The three aspects of episodic\\-like memory in this experiment are the morning or afternoon times (when), either Maze A or B (where), and by using horizontal/vertical patterns (what).",
"In the first of four experiments, the colour cue was removed by using black patterns, but the shape cues remained the same. The scientists tested whether the bees would still choose the positive pattern; this decision would then be based on the what, where, and when components. Through the other three experiments, one of the cues was examined independently from the others.",
"They found that, on average, 96% of bees learned to forage at each maze at the appropriate time. The experimenters suggest the error rate can be accounted for by a [foraging](/wiki/Foraging \"Foraging\") strategy, in which multiple feeding locations are visited at fixed times.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Pahl, M. \\|author2\\=Zhu, H. \\|author3\\=Pix, W. \\|author4\\=Tautz, J. \\|author5\\=Zhang, S.\\|title\\=Circadian timed episodic\\-like memory – a bee knows what to do when, and also where.\\|journal\\=The Journal of Experimental Biology\\|date\\=August 14, 2007\\|volume\\=210\\|pages\\=3559–3567\\|doi\\=10\\.1242/jeb.005488\\|issue\\=20\\|pmid\\=17921157\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|hdl\\=1885/18210\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} Only a small number of bees visited the incorrect compartment during these times, and usually by only briefly hovered outside of it, instead of entering it. With the addition of visual pattern in this test, the bees also showed 80\\-88% of the time to have learned which maze to enter at the correct time. With the removal of the colour cue in both of these tests, the results remained consistent. The bees then showed they had learnt these rules by applying them to the new context, Maze C, in experiment 2\\. In experiment 3, based on colour cue alone, having excluded the pattern and maze location cues, the forager bees could still make a correct decision. In the final experiment, the bees used only pattern orientation cues; the lowered performance showed how much more difficult this was than when the colour cue was still present.",
"The researchers were uncertain, however, if the honey bees have a sense of time governed by their [circadian rhythm](/wiki/Circadian_rhythm \"Circadian rhythm\") by connecting a specific memory to a certain time period in the 24\\-hour cycle, or if they can measure elapsed time between two events. The difference in this type of memory from other episodic\\-like memory in animals is the presence of circadian timing, since normally interval timing is displayed.",
"Randolf Menzel also provided evidence for episodic memory in honey bees by examining their learning of spatio\\-temporal tasks. The bees showed learning of serial positioning, turning serial patterns into episodes. The bees showed evidence of discrimination, thus at three out of four serial positions, stimuli were independently learned. Menzel suggests strong results may be found by further isolating the configural components. Such serial pattern configuration in mammals has been interpreted as indicative of mental representations of time and space.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Menzel\\|first\\=R.\\|title\\=Serial Position Learning in Honeybees\\|journal\\=PLOS ONE\\|year\\=2009\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=3\\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pone.0004694\\|pmid\\=19259265\\|pmc\\=2649506\\|pages\\=e4694\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
""
] |
Initiatives
-----------
[right\|thumb\|180x180px\|A discussion on best practices around menstrual hygiene](/wiki/File:NJPC_meeting.jpg "NJPC meeting.jpg")
### Savings credit based institutions
Promoting community\-based institutions for women empowerment is the core of Ibtada’s mission. These institutions empower women to: change power relations in their family and in society, foster decision\-making processes among women, enhance their degree of control over resources and provide them space for visibility and collective action. Ibtada’s three tier Institutional architecture (SHGs, Clusters and Federations or Manch) forms the base for implementing different programmes for Financial Inclusion, Livelihoods, Girls Empowerment and Rights \& Entitlements. Ibtada has promoted 10 federations until now, including 5 for the NRLM. Currently, four federations \- Chetna, Kranti, Sangharsh, and Savera, registered as Trusts work autonomously with ongoing support from Ibtada.
### Women\-led livelihoods
Entrepreneurship amongst women is promoted by providing them with market knowledge as well as financial help. Women who are members of the SHGs can secure loans to start small shops in their village, thus reducing their dependence on agriculture or on an animal husbandry\-based income. Women are also provided market knowledge to source stock and Ibtada provides support for maintaining accounts. As part of this intervention, many women were able to open general stores, cosmetics, animal feed or tailoring shops etc. and are earning additional income.
### Education
Education has been a primary focus of Ibtada's initiatives, with introduction of school libraries, Bal sansads as well as supplementary classes. They have also worked in order to improve infrastructure in public schools and have facilitated the setting up and operations of School Management committees.
### Girl Empowerment
The lack of education for girls has been one of the important reasons of the poor state of women and girls in the Mewat region. The Girls Empowerment Program is focused upon providing formal and informal education to girls aged 12 to 18 years through Girls Resource Centers (established at village level), career guidance, vocational training, financial support \& transport facilities.
### Rights and entitlements
Village Rights Committees are created in clusters that disseminate information to the women about government schemes, programs, entitlements and roles \& responsibilities of the service providers to empower and make them 'Adikaar Sakhis' who can help the village members receive their rights and entitlements.
|
[
"Initiatives\n-----------",
"[right\\|thumb\\|180x180px\\|A discussion on best practices around menstrual hygiene](/wiki/File:NJPC_meeting.jpg \"NJPC meeting.jpg\")",
"### Savings credit based institutions",
"Promoting community\\-based institutions for women empowerment is the core of Ibtada’s mission. These institutions empower women to: change power relations in their family and in society, foster decision\\-making processes among women, enhance their degree of control over resources and provide them space for visibility and collective action. Ibtada’s three tier Institutional architecture (SHGs, Clusters and Federations or Manch) forms the base for implementing different programmes for Financial Inclusion, Livelihoods, Girls Empowerment and Rights \\& Entitlements. Ibtada has promoted 10 federations until now, including 5 for the NRLM. Currently, four federations \\- Chetna, Kranti, Sangharsh, and Savera, registered as Trusts work autonomously with ongoing support from Ibtada.",
"### Women\\-led livelihoods",
"Entrepreneurship amongst women is promoted by providing them with market knowledge as well as financial help. Women who are members of the SHGs can secure loans to start small shops in their village, thus reducing their dependence on agriculture or on an animal husbandry\\-based income. Women are also provided market knowledge to source stock and Ibtada provides support for maintaining accounts. As part of this intervention, many women were able to open general stores, cosmetics, animal feed or tailoring shops etc. and are earning additional income.",
"### Education",
"Education has been a primary focus of Ibtada's initiatives, with introduction of school libraries, Bal sansads as well as supplementary classes. They have also worked in order to improve infrastructure in public schools and have facilitated the setting up and operations of School Management committees.",
"### Girl Empowerment",
"The lack of education for girls has been one of the important reasons of the poor state of women and girls in the Mewat region. The Girls Empowerment Program is focused upon providing formal and informal education to girls aged 12 to 18 years through Girls Resource Centers (established at village level), career guidance, vocational training, financial support \\& transport facilities.",
"### Rights and entitlements",
"Village Rights Committees are created in clusters that disseminate information to the women about government schemes, programs, entitlements and roles \\& responsibilities of the service providers to empower and make them 'Adikaar Sakhis' who can help the village members receive their rights and entitlements.",
""
] |
Lyrics
------
A well\-known story told by Loudermilk is that when he was asked by the *Viva! NashVegas* radio show about the origins of the song "Indian Reservation," he fabricated the story that he wrote the song after his car was snowed in by a blizzard and he was taken in by a small group of [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee") Indians.{{YouTube\|id\=LNeou8cx8\_o \|title\="The Story Behind 'Indian Reservation'" on Viva! NashVegas}} A self\-professed [prankster](/wiki/Prank "Prank"),{{cite news\|last\= Sweeting\|first\= Adam\|title\= John D Loudermilk obituary \|url\= https://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/sep/27/john\-d\-loudermilk\-obituary\|access\-date\=November 22, 2016\|newspaper \=\[\[The Guardian]]\|date\=September 27, 2016}} he spun the tale that a Cherokee chieftain, "Bloody Bear Tooth," asked him to make a song about his people's plight on the [Trail of Tears](/wiki/Trail_of_Tears "Trail of Tears"), even going so far as to claim that he had later been awarded "the first medal of the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation "Cherokee Nation")," not for writing the song, but for his "blood." He went on to fabricate the detail that on that day the tribe revealed that his "great\-great\-grandparents, Homer and Matilda Loudermilk" were listed on the [Dawes Rolls](/wiki/Dawes_Rolls "Dawes Rolls") (the citizenship rolls of the Nation). Had this detail of his [tall tale](/wiki/Tall_tale "Tall tale") been true, he would have been a citizen of the Cherokee Nation, which he was not.
In spite of the song's title, the [Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians](/wiki/Eastern_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians "Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians"), the [United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians](/wiki/United_Keetoowah_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians "United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians") and the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation "Cherokee Nation") of Oklahoma are not known as "reservations",{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pollysgranddaughter.com/2011/11/top\-5\-worst\-cherokee\-songs.html \|title\=Top 5 – Worst "Cherokee" Songs \|publisher\=Thoughts from Polly's Granddaughter – A little Cherokee history and genealogy mixed in with a whole lot of truth \|date\=November 8, 2011 \|access\-date\=December 27, 2017\|quote\=5\. ''Indian Reservation'' – Paul Revere and the Raiders: Reason – Historically inaccurate. The Cherokees never lived on a reservation. They lived in Cherokee Nation, a nation unto itself. Also, I am not fond of the line, 'But maybe someday when they've learned, the Cherokee Nation will return.' Return to what? We haven't gone anywhere.}} and singing that they may someday "return" is at odds with the fact that these Cherokee Nations still exist.
The lyrics vary somewhat among the recorded versions. Rainwater's version lacks the "Cherokee people!" chorus but includes instead a series of "Hiya, hiya, ho!" chants. Fardon's version is similar to the Raiders' through the first verse and chorus, but differs in the second verse, which includes the lines "Altho' they changed our ways of old/They'll never change our heart and soul", also found in Rainwater's version. Rainwater includes some of the elements found in the other versions in a different order, and his first verse has words not found in the others, such as "They put our [papoose](/wiki/Papoose "Papoose") in a crib/and took the buck skin from our rib".
At the end, where the Raiders sing "...Cherokee nation will return", Fardon says "Cherokee Indian...", while the line is absent in Rainwater's version, which ends with "beads...nowadays made in Japan." In addition, Fardon sings the line: "Brick built houses by the score/ No more [tepees](/wiki/Tepee "Tepee") anymore", not used in the Raiders' version.
Cherokee people have never lived in tipis,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cherokeemuseum.org/learn/faq\#q2 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219012100/http://www.cherokeemuseum.org/learn/faq/\#q2 \|url\-status\=usurped \|archive\-date\=December 19, 2015 \|title\=Did the Cherokee live in tipis? \|publisher\=Museum of the Cherokee Indian – FAQ\|access\-date\=August 3, 2018}} nor do they use the term "papoose".{{cite book\|last1\=Vowel\|first1\=Chelsea\|title\= Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis \& Inuit Issues in Canada\|date\=2016\|publisher\=Highwater Press\|location\=Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada\|isbn\=978\-1553796800\|page\=7\|chapter\=Just Don't Call Us Late for Supper – Names for Indigenous Peoples\|quote\=Let's just agree the following words are never okay to call Indigenous peoples: savage, red Indian, redskin, primitive, half\-breed, squaw/brave/papoose.}} These are [stereotypes and misconceptions](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada_and_the_United_States "Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States"), with the reservations and tipi assumptions usually based on Hollywood portrayals of [Plains Indians](/wiki/Plains_Indians "Plains Indians").{{cite book \|author\=National Museum of the American Indian \|title\=Do All Indians Live in Tipis? \|location\=New York \|publisher\=HarperCollins \|date\=2007 \|isbn\=978\-0\-06\-115301\-3 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780061153013 }} However, the Cherokee are [a Southeastern Woodlands Indigenous culture](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Southeastern_Woodlands "Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands").
Among the things taken away from the Cherokees include the [tomahawk](/wiki/Tomahawk "Tomahawk") and the bow and knife. Also, English replaced their native tongue. In addition, the Raiders' version mentions that "though I wear a shirt and tie, I'm still part red man deep inside", altered from the Rainwater\-sung line "and though I wear a white man's tie / I'll be a red man 'til I die".
|
[
"Lyrics\n------",
"A well\\-known story told by Loudermilk is that when he was asked by the *Viva! NashVegas* radio show about the origins of the song \"Indian Reservation,\" he fabricated the story that he wrote the song after his car was snowed in by a blizzard and he was taken in by a small group of [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\") Indians.{{YouTube\\|id\\=LNeou8cx8\\_o \\|title\\=\"The Story Behind 'Indian Reservation'\" on Viva! NashVegas}} A self\\-professed [prankster](/wiki/Prank \"Prank\"),{{cite news\\|last\\= Sweeting\\|first\\= Adam\\|title\\= John D Loudermilk obituary \\|url\\= https://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/sep/27/john\\-d\\-loudermilk\\-obituary\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2016\\|newspaper \\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|date\\=September 27, 2016}} he spun the tale that a Cherokee chieftain, \"Bloody Bear Tooth,\" asked him to make a song about his people's plight on the [Trail of Tears](/wiki/Trail_of_Tears \"Trail of Tears\"), even going so far as to claim that he had later been awarded \"the first medal of the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation \"Cherokee Nation\"),\" not for writing the song, but for his \"blood.\" He went on to fabricate the detail that on that day the tribe revealed that his \"great\\-great\\-grandparents, Homer and Matilda Loudermilk\" were listed on the [Dawes Rolls](/wiki/Dawes_Rolls \"Dawes Rolls\") (the citizenship rolls of the Nation). Had this detail of his [tall tale](/wiki/Tall_tale \"Tall tale\") been true, he would have been a citizen of the Cherokee Nation, which he was not.",
"In spite of the song's title, the [Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians](/wiki/Eastern_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians \"Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians\"), the [United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians](/wiki/United_Keetoowah_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians \"United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians\") and the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation \"Cherokee Nation\") of Oklahoma are not known as \"reservations\",{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pollysgranddaughter.com/2011/11/top\\-5\\-worst\\-cherokee\\-songs.html \\|title\\=Top 5 – Worst \"Cherokee\" Songs \\|publisher\\=Thoughts from Polly's Granddaughter – A little Cherokee history and genealogy mixed in with a whole lot of truth \\|date\\=November 8, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=December 27, 2017\\|quote\\=5\\. ''Indian Reservation'' – Paul Revere and the Raiders: Reason – Historically inaccurate. The Cherokees never lived on a reservation. They lived in Cherokee Nation, a nation unto itself. Also, I am not fond of the line, 'But maybe someday when they've learned, the Cherokee Nation will return.' Return to what? We haven't gone anywhere.}} and singing that they may someday \"return\" is at odds with the fact that these Cherokee Nations still exist.",
"The lyrics vary somewhat among the recorded versions. Rainwater's version lacks the \"Cherokee people!\" chorus but includes instead a series of \"Hiya, hiya, ho!\" chants. Fardon's version is similar to the Raiders' through the first verse and chorus, but differs in the second verse, which includes the lines \"Altho' they changed our ways of old/They'll never change our heart and soul\", also found in Rainwater's version. Rainwater includes some of the elements found in the other versions in a different order, and his first verse has words not found in the others, such as \"They put our [papoose](/wiki/Papoose \"Papoose\") in a crib/and took the buck skin from our rib\".",
"At the end, where the Raiders sing \"...Cherokee nation will return\", Fardon says \"Cherokee Indian...\", while the line is absent in Rainwater's version, which ends with \"beads...nowadays made in Japan.\" In addition, Fardon sings the line: \"Brick built houses by the score/ No more [tepees](/wiki/Tepee \"Tepee\") anymore\", not used in the Raiders' version.",
"Cherokee people have never lived in tipis,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cherokeemuseum.org/learn/faq\\#q2 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219012100/http://www.cherokeemuseum.org/learn/faq/\\#q2 \\|url\\-status\\=usurped \\|archive\\-date\\=December 19, 2015 \\|title\\=Did the Cherokee live in tipis? \\|publisher\\=Museum of the Cherokee Indian – FAQ\\|access\\-date\\=August 3, 2018}} nor do they use the term \"papoose\".{{cite book\\|last1\\=Vowel\\|first1\\=Chelsea\\|title\\= Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis \\& Inuit Issues in Canada\\|date\\=2016\\|publisher\\=Highwater Press\\|location\\=Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada\\|isbn\\=978\\-1553796800\\|page\\=7\\|chapter\\=Just Don't Call Us Late for Supper – Names for Indigenous Peoples\\|quote\\=Let's just agree the following words are never okay to call Indigenous peoples: savage, red Indian, redskin, primitive, half\\-breed, squaw/brave/papoose.}} These are [stereotypes and misconceptions](/wiki/Stereotypes_of_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada_and_the_United_States \"Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States\"), with the reservations and tipi assumptions usually based on Hollywood portrayals of [Plains Indians](/wiki/Plains_Indians \"Plains Indians\").{{cite book \\|author\\=National Museum of the American Indian \\|title\\=Do All Indians Live in Tipis? \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=HarperCollins \\|date\\=2007 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-06\\-115301\\-3 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780061153013 }} However, the Cherokee are [a Southeastern Woodlands Indigenous culture](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Southeastern_Woodlands \"Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands\").",
"Among the things taken away from the Cherokees include the [tomahawk](/wiki/Tomahawk \"Tomahawk\") and the bow and knife. Also, English replaced their native tongue. In addition, the Raiders' version mentions that \"though I wear a shirt and tie, I'm still part red man deep inside\", altered from the Rainwater\\-sung line \"and though I wear a white man's tie / I'll be a red man 'til I die\".",
""
] |
The work as planetary scientist
-------------------------------
His work as planetary scientist changed the view of the solar system revolutionizing the way orbital and collisional histories of asteroids are seen.
He used his ideas in many fields of the space science that can be summarized in the following activities:
* Planetary science: small bodies, collisions, satellites, dynamics and space debris;
* Space geodesy and fundamental physics;
* Science popularization, social commitment of concerned scientists.
In 1980's Farinella was among the first scientists to conjecture the [Yarkovsky](/wiki/Yarkovsky_effect "Yarkovsky effect") effect to be responsible for the migration of small asteroids from the main asteroid belt into different and potentially resonant orbits, with possible risks of impact on Earth.
Paolo Farinella was a member of the editorial board of "[Icarus](/wiki/Icarus_%28journal%29 "Icarus (journal)")" and an Associate Editor of "Icarus" and "Meteoritics and Planetary Science". He was a member of the [International Astronomical Union](/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union "International Astronomical Union") (IAU) and an affiliate member of the Division of Planetary Science (DPS) of the [American Astronomical Society](/wiki/American_Astronomical_Society "American Astronomical Society") as well as a member of the Solar System Working Group of the [European Space Agency](/wiki/European_Space_Agency "European Space Agency").
He was very active into the astronomy popularization, writing dozens of articles that were mainly published by the Italian astronomical magazine “L'Astronomia”.
In June 2010, ten years after his death, an international workshop in his name was held in Pisa. The [Paolo Farinella Prize](/wiki/Paolo_Farinella_Prize "Paolo Farinella Prize") was proposed at this workshop and is now given in his honor.
In July 2015, after the [New Horizons](/wiki/New_Horizons "New Horizons") fly\-by with [Pluto](/wiki/Pluto "Pluto"), the New Horizons team gave the provisional name "Farinella" to a crater on Pluto, north of the Tombaugh Regio.
Asteroid [3248 Farinella](/wiki/3248_Farinella "3248 Farinella") is named after him.
|
[
"The work as planetary scientist\n-------------------------------",
"His work as planetary scientist changed the view of the solar system revolutionizing the way orbital and collisional histories of asteroids are seen.\nHe used his ideas in many fields of the space science that can be summarized in the following activities:\n* Planetary science: small bodies, collisions, satellites, dynamics and space debris;\n* Space geodesy and fundamental physics;\n* Science popularization, social commitment of concerned scientists.",
"In 1980's Farinella was among the first scientists to conjecture the [Yarkovsky](/wiki/Yarkovsky_effect \"Yarkovsky effect\") effect to be responsible for the migration of small asteroids from the main asteroid belt into different and potentially resonant orbits, with possible risks of impact on Earth.",
"Paolo Farinella was a member of the editorial board of \"[Icarus](/wiki/Icarus_%28journal%29 \"Icarus (journal)\")\" and an Associate Editor of \"Icarus\" and \"Meteoritics and Planetary Science\". He was a member of the [International Astronomical Union](/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union \"International Astronomical Union\") (IAU) and an affiliate member of the Division of Planetary Science (DPS) of the [American Astronomical Society](/wiki/American_Astronomical_Society \"American Astronomical Society\") as well as a member of the Solar System Working Group of the [European Space Agency](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\").",
"He was very active into the astronomy popularization, writing dozens of articles that were mainly published by the Italian astronomical magazine “L'Astronomia”.",
"In June 2010, ten years after his death, an international workshop in his name was held in Pisa. The [Paolo Farinella Prize](/wiki/Paolo_Farinella_Prize \"Paolo Farinella Prize\") was proposed at this workshop and is now given in his honor.",
"In July 2015, after the [New Horizons](/wiki/New_Horizons \"New Horizons\") fly\\-by with [Pluto](/wiki/Pluto \"Pluto\"), the New Horizons team gave the provisional name \"Farinella\" to a crater on Pluto, north of the Tombaugh Regio.",
"Asteroid [3248 Farinella](/wiki/3248_Farinella \"3248 Farinella\") is named after him.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early years
Gough, though born in [Dunstable](/wiki/Dunstable "Dunstable"), Bedfordshire, grew up in the [Breightmet](/wiki/Breightmet "Breightmet") area of [Bolton](/wiki/Bolton "Bolton"), Greater Manchester, England. He cites [Bruce Springsteen](/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen "Bruce Springsteen") as his music hero.{{cite web \| url\= http://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2006/07/21/210706\_bdb\_uk\_feature.shtml \| title\= Badly Born Boy \| work\=BBC \| access\-date\=1 April 2016}} His recording career began in September 1997 with the five track [vinyl](/wiki/Gramophone_record "Gramophone record") release "EP1". This was distributed among friends and family members.
In April 1998, Gough released his second EP, "EP2". This had one track less than its predecessor but twice as many copies were pressed. The highlight track, "I Love You All", was later transferred to a [music box](/wiki/Musical_box "Musical box") which was released alongside the EP. The box plays eleven seconds of the song and is considered much rarer than the record itself due to its limited production.
Gough's third EP, "EP3", was released in November 1998 on both CD and vinyl formats, and was the first release in what became a long\-term partnership with [XL Recordings](/wiki/XL_Recordings "XL Recordings"). In the same year he collaborated with [Unkle](/wiki/Unkle "Unkle") for their first album *[Psyence Fiction](/wiki/Psyence_Fiction "Psyence Fiction")*.{{cite book\|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Nineties Music]]\|editor\=Colin Larkin\|editor\-link\=Colin Larkin (writer)\|publisher\=\[\[Virgin Books]]\|date\=2000\|edition\=First\|isbn\=0\-7535\-0427\-8\|page\=31}} "Road Movie" was released as a live recording with the band [Doves](/wiki/Doves_%28band%29 "Doves (band)"). The B\-side to the single was another track from the EP, *My Friend Cubilas*. Music videos were recorded for both tracks.
### Mainstream success: 1999–2002
*It Came from the Ground* was the next EP, released in March 1999 on CD and vinyl. The style of this recording focused on woodland environments, an aspect displayed in both the cover art and the title track's video. Also released during this period was the single "Whirlpool". An instrumental was released on vinyl in April 1999\.
Gough's last EP, *Once Around the Block*, was released in August 1999 in two vinyl formats and one CD edition. The release is almost short enough to be considered a single.
[thumb\|300px\|right\|Gough playing a show in the [Urban Lounge](/wiki/Urban_Lounge "Urban Lounge"), Salt Lake City, Utah. (March 2007\)](/wiki/Image:Badly_Drawn_Boy_SALT_LAKE.JPG "Badly Drawn Boy SALT LAKE.JPG")
Following the success of his early EPs, Gough's first album, *[The Hour of Bewilderbeast](/wiki/The_Hour_of_Bewilderbeast "The Hour of Bewilderbeast")*, was released in June 2000, accompanied by four singles (including a re\-release of *Once Around the Block*).
The album was critically acclaimed and Badly Drawn Boy was successful in winning the 2000 [Mercury Music Prize](/wiki/Mercury_Music_Prize "Mercury Music Prize"), beating his contemporaries [Doves](/wiki/Doves_%28band%29 "Doves (band)") to the £20,000 prize. The album sold well (300,000 copies) and is widely considered to be his defining work.
The Badly Drawn Boy band throughout this successful period consisted of Matt Wardle (keyboards/vocals), Robin File (guitar), Sean McCann (bass guitar) latterly replaced by the ex\-Smiths bass guitarist Andy Rourke, Dave Verner (drums).
After a short break, Gough returned to score the film adaptation of [Nick Hornby](/wiki/Nick_Hornby "Nick Hornby")'s novel *[About a Boy](/wiki/About_a_Boy_%28novel%29 "About a Boy (novel)")*. The movie was directed by Paul Weitz and Chris Weitz. Impressed by his past work, the Weitz brothers asked Gough to score the film, a task which he undertook alone, with the assistance of producer Steve McLaughlin. Three singles from the album were released during 2002\.
His third album, *[Have You Fed the Fish?](/wiki/Have_You_Fed_the_Fish%3F "Have You Fed the Fish?")*, introduced more guitars and an increasingly mainstream pop sound which was not welcomed by all critics. The album is a play on Gough's minor celebrity status. Another three singles and a long American tour accompanied the album. The single "[You Were Right](/wiki/You_Were_Right_%28Badly_Drawn_Boy_song%29 "You Were Right (Badly Drawn Boy song)")" received heavy airplay on [BBC Radio 2](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2 "BBC Radio 2"), became his first UK top ten single and includes lyrical references to music icons such as [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 "Madonna (entertainer)") and [John Lennon](/wiki/John_Lennon "John Lennon").
### Later years
After his long spell in America, Gough suffered from homesickness and decided to record his next album closer to home. Recorded at Moolah Rouge studios in [Stockport](/wiki/Stockport "Stockport"), Greater Manchester, *[One Plus One Is One](/wiki/One_Plus_One_Is_One "One Plus One Is One")* was a portrait of his personal life. Documenting a death of a close friend and the loss of a grandfather in the [Battle of Normandy](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord"), the album was released in 2004\. It was not a great commercial success, and Gough decided to leave his contract with XL Recordings after only one single was released. He then signed to [EMI](/wiki/EMI "EMI").
Two years went by before *[Born in the U.K.](/wiki/Born_in_the_U.K. "Born in the U.K.")*, which aimed to explain Gough's experience of growing up in the United Kingdom. The album was promoted with a small UK tour, profits from which were donated to [Oxfam](/wiki/Oxfam "Oxfam"), a charity which "offers the chance for thousands of people to use music to achieve something together, which is an idea that gets me excited", said Gough.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.oxfam.org.uk/generationwhy/blog/2006/08/badly\-drawn\-boy\-goes\-on\-tour\-for\-oxjam.html\|title\=Oxfam.org.uk\|access\-date\=9 November 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907075658/http://www.oxfam.org.uk/generationwhy/blog/2006/08/badly\-drawn\-boy\-goes\-on\-tour\-for\-oxjam.html\|archive\-date\=7 September 2008\|url\-status\=dead}} Gough also toured the US behind the album.
The album *[Is There Nothing We Could Do?](/wiki/Is_There_Nothing_We_Could_Do%3F "Is There Nothing We Could Do?")*, with music taken from and inspired by the film, *[The Fattest Man in Britain](/wiki/The_Fattest_Man_in_Britain "The Fattest Man in Britain")*, was released on his own BDB Records label in 2009\.
His seventh album, *[It's What I'm Thinking Pt.1 – Photographing Snowflakes](/wiki/It%27s_What_I%27m_Thinking_Pt.1_%E2%80%93_Photographing_Snowflakes "It's What I'm Thinking Pt.1 – Photographing Snowflakes")*, the first of a planned trilogy of albums all to be released under the title *It's What I'm Thinking*, was released in October 2010\.{{cite web\|last\=Gormely \|first\=Ian \|url\=http://www.exclaim.ca/Interviews/WebExclusive/badly\_drawn\_boy \|title\=Badly Drawn Boy • Interviews • \|website\=Exclaim.ca \|access\-date\=8 April 2012}} For some of the tracks on this album he used his current live band, which consisted of Manchester musical friends Mike TV of Beats for beginners on guitar, [Stephen Fretwell](/wiki/Stephen_Fretwell "Stephen Fretwell") on bass and [Jay Sikora](/wiki/Jay_Sikora "Jay Sikora") on drums {{Citation \|title\=Badly Drawn Boy \- It's What I'm Thinking (Part One \- Photographing Snowflakes) \|date\=2010 \|url\=https://www.discogs.com/release/2476821\-Badly\-Drawn\-Boy\-Its\-What\-Im\-Thinking\-Part\-One\-Photographing\-Snowflakes \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-02 \|language\=en}}
In 2011, a portrait of Gough painted by British artist [Joe Simpson](/wiki/Joe_Simpson_%28artist%29 "Joe Simpson (artist)") was exhibited around the UK including a solo exhibition at [The Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/The_Royal_Albert_Hall "The Royal Albert Hall").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nme.com/photos/musician\-portraits\-joe\-simpson\-s\-paintings\-of\-rock\-stars\-1405918\|title\=Musician Portraits – Joe Simpson's paintings of rock stars\|website\=Nme.com\|date\=14 October 2011\|access\-date\=29 November 2019}}
In March 2012, he released another soundtrack, for *[Being Flynn](/wiki/Being_Flynn "Being Flynn")*, directed by Paul Weitz who had worked with Gough previously on the soundtrack album *About a Boy*.
In July 2015, to mark the fifteenth anniversary of the release of *The Hour of the Bewilderbeast*, Gough undertook a short UK tour.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/apr/22/badly\-drawn\-boys\-bewilderbeast\-tour\-is\-cause\-for\-genuine\-celebration \|title\=Badly Drawn Boy Bewilderbeast Tour ... \|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|access\-date\=26 July 2015}}
In 2020 he released his first studio album for 10 years, *[Banana Skin Shoes](/wiki/Banana_Skin_Shoes "Banana Skin Shoes")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://music.mxdwn.com/2020/03/21/news/badly\-drawn\-boy\-announces\-new\-album\-banana\-skin\-shoes\-after\-10\-years/\|title\=Badly Drawn Boy Announces New Album, Banana Skin Shoes, After 10 Years \-\|date\=21 March 2020}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early years",
"Gough, though born in [Dunstable](/wiki/Dunstable \"Dunstable\"), Bedfordshire, grew up in the [Breightmet](/wiki/Breightmet \"Breightmet\") area of [Bolton](/wiki/Bolton \"Bolton\"), Greater Manchester, England. He cites [Bruce Springsteen](/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen \"Bruce Springsteen\") as his music hero.{{cite web \\| url\\= http://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2006/07/21/210706\\_bdb\\_uk\\_feature.shtml \\| title\\= Badly Born Boy \\| work\\=BBC \\| access\\-date\\=1 April 2016}} His recording career began in September 1997 with the five track [vinyl](/wiki/Gramophone_record \"Gramophone record\") release \"EP1\". This was distributed among friends and family members.",
"In April 1998, Gough released his second EP, \"EP2\". This had one track less than its predecessor but twice as many copies were pressed. The highlight track, \"I Love You All\", was later transferred to a [music box](/wiki/Musical_box \"Musical box\") which was released alongside the EP. The box plays eleven seconds of the song and is considered much rarer than the record itself due to its limited production.",
"Gough's third EP, \"EP3\", was released in November 1998 on both CD and vinyl formats, and was the first release in what became a long\\-term partnership with [XL Recordings](/wiki/XL_Recordings \"XL Recordings\"). In the same year he collaborated with [Unkle](/wiki/Unkle \"Unkle\") for their first album *[Psyence Fiction](/wiki/Psyence_Fiction \"Psyence Fiction\")*.{{cite book\\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Popular Music\\|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Nineties Music]]\\|editor\\=Colin Larkin\\|editor\\-link\\=Colin Larkin (writer)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Virgin Books]]\\|date\\=2000\\|edition\\=First\\|isbn\\=0\\-7535\\-0427\\-8\\|page\\=31}} \"Road Movie\" was released as a live recording with the band [Doves](/wiki/Doves_%28band%29 \"Doves (band)\"). The B\\-side to the single was another track from the EP, *My Friend Cubilas*. Music videos were recorded for both tracks.",
"### Mainstream success: 1999–2002",
"*It Came from the Ground* was the next EP, released in March 1999 on CD and vinyl. The style of this recording focused on woodland environments, an aspect displayed in both the cover art and the title track's video. Also released during this period was the single \"Whirlpool\". An instrumental was released on vinyl in April 1999\\.",
"Gough's last EP, *Once Around the Block*, was released in August 1999 in two vinyl formats and one CD edition. The release is almost short enough to be considered a single.\n[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|Gough playing a show in the [Urban Lounge](/wiki/Urban_Lounge \"Urban Lounge\"), Salt Lake City, Utah. (March 2007\\)](/wiki/Image:Badly_Drawn_Boy_SALT_LAKE.JPG \"Badly Drawn Boy SALT LAKE.JPG\")",
"Following the success of his early EPs, Gough's first album, *[The Hour of Bewilderbeast](/wiki/The_Hour_of_Bewilderbeast \"The Hour of Bewilderbeast\")*, was released in June 2000, accompanied by four singles (including a re\\-release of *Once Around the Block*).",
"The album was critically acclaimed and Badly Drawn Boy was successful in winning the 2000 [Mercury Music Prize](/wiki/Mercury_Music_Prize \"Mercury Music Prize\"), beating his contemporaries [Doves](/wiki/Doves_%28band%29 \"Doves (band)\") to the £20,000 prize. The album sold well (300,000 copies) and is widely considered to be his defining work.",
"The Badly Drawn Boy band throughout this successful period consisted of Matt Wardle (keyboards/vocals), Robin File (guitar), Sean McCann (bass guitar) latterly replaced by the ex\\-Smiths bass guitarist Andy Rourke, Dave Verner (drums).",
"After a short break, Gough returned to score the film adaptation of [Nick Hornby](/wiki/Nick_Hornby \"Nick Hornby\")'s novel *[About a Boy](/wiki/About_a_Boy_%28novel%29 \"About a Boy (novel)\")*. The movie was directed by Paul Weitz and Chris Weitz. Impressed by his past work, the Weitz brothers asked Gough to score the film, a task which he undertook alone, with the assistance of producer Steve McLaughlin. Three singles from the album were released during 2002\\.",
"His third album, *[Have You Fed the Fish?](/wiki/Have_You_Fed_the_Fish%3F \"Have You Fed the Fish?\")*, introduced more guitars and an increasingly mainstream pop sound which was not welcomed by all critics. The album is a play on Gough's minor celebrity status. Another three singles and a long American tour accompanied the album. The single \"[You Were Right](/wiki/You_Were_Right_%28Badly_Drawn_Boy_song%29 \"You Were Right (Badly Drawn Boy song)\")\" received heavy airplay on [BBC Radio 2](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2 \"BBC Radio 2\"), became his first UK top ten single and includes lyrical references to music icons such as [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 \"Madonna (entertainer)\") and [John Lennon](/wiki/John_Lennon \"John Lennon\").",
"### Later years",
"After his long spell in America, Gough suffered from homesickness and decided to record his next album closer to home. Recorded at Moolah Rouge studios in [Stockport](/wiki/Stockport \"Stockport\"), Greater Manchester, *[One Plus One Is One](/wiki/One_Plus_One_Is_One \"One Plus One Is One\")* was a portrait of his personal life. Documenting a death of a close friend and the loss of a grandfather in the [Battle of Normandy](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\"), the album was released in 2004\\. It was not a great commercial success, and Gough decided to leave his contract with XL Recordings after only one single was released. He then signed to [EMI](/wiki/EMI \"EMI\").",
"Two years went by before *[Born in the U.K.](/wiki/Born_in_the_U.K. \"Born in the U.K.\")*, which aimed to explain Gough's experience of growing up in the United Kingdom. The album was promoted with a small UK tour, profits from which were donated to [Oxfam](/wiki/Oxfam \"Oxfam\"), a charity which \"offers the chance for thousands of people to use music to achieve something together, which is an idea that gets me excited\", said Gough.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.oxfam.org.uk/generationwhy/blog/2006/08/badly\\-drawn\\-boy\\-goes\\-on\\-tour\\-for\\-oxjam.html\\|title\\=Oxfam.org.uk\\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907075658/http://www.oxfam.org.uk/generationwhy/blog/2006/08/badly\\-drawn\\-boy\\-goes\\-on\\-tour\\-for\\-oxjam.html\\|archive\\-date\\=7 September 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Gough also toured the US behind the album.",
"The album *[Is There Nothing We Could Do?](/wiki/Is_There_Nothing_We_Could_Do%3F \"Is There Nothing We Could Do?\")*, with music taken from and inspired by the film, *[The Fattest Man in Britain](/wiki/The_Fattest_Man_in_Britain \"The Fattest Man in Britain\")*, was released on his own BDB Records label in 2009\\.",
"His seventh album, *[It's What I'm Thinking Pt.1 – Photographing Snowflakes](/wiki/It%27s_What_I%27m_Thinking_Pt.1_%E2%80%93_Photographing_Snowflakes \"It's What I'm Thinking Pt.1 – Photographing Snowflakes\")*, the first of a planned trilogy of albums all to be released under the title *It's What I'm Thinking*, was released in October 2010\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Gormely \\|first\\=Ian \\|url\\=http://www.exclaim.ca/Interviews/WebExclusive/badly\\_drawn\\_boy \\|title\\=Badly Drawn Boy • Interviews • \\|website\\=Exclaim.ca \\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2012}} For some of the tracks on this album he used his current live band, which consisted of Manchester musical friends Mike TV of Beats for beginners on guitar, [Stephen Fretwell](/wiki/Stephen_Fretwell \"Stephen Fretwell\") on bass and [Jay Sikora](/wiki/Jay_Sikora \"Jay Sikora\") on drums {{Citation \\|title\\=Badly Drawn Boy \\- It's What I'm Thinking (Part One \\- Photographing Snowflakes) \\|date\\=2010 \\|url\\=https://www.discogs.com/release/2476821\\-Badly\\-Drawn\\-Boy\\-Its\\-What\\-Im\\-Thinking\\-Part\\-One\\-Photographing\\-Snowflakes \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-02 \\|language\\=en}}",
"In 2011, a portrait of Gough painted by British artist [Joe Simpson](/wiki/Joe_Simpson_%28artist%29 \"Joe Simpson (artist)\") was exhibited around the UK including a solo exhibition at [The Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/The_Royal_Albert_Hall \"The Royal Albert Hall\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/photos/musician\\-portraits\\-joe\\-simpson\\-s\\-paintings\\-of\\-rock\\-stars\\-1405918\\|title\\=Musician Portraits – Joe Simpson's paintings of rock stars\\|website\\=Nme.com\\|date\\=14 October 2011\\|access\\-date\\=29 November 2019}}",
"In March 2012, he released another soundtrack, for *[Being Flynn](/wiki/Being_Flynn \"Being Flynn\")*, directed by Paul Weitz who had worked with Gough previously on the soundtrack album *About a Boy*.",
"In July 2015, to mark the fifteenth anniversary of the release of *The Hour of the Bewilderbeast*, Gough undertook a short UK tour.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/apr/22/badly\\-drawn\\-boys\\-bewilderbeast\\-tour\\-is\\-cause\\-for\\-genuine\\-celebration \\|title\\=Badly Drawn Boy Bewilderbeast Tour ... \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2015}}",
"In 2020 he released his first studio album for 10 years, *[Banana Skin Shoes](/wiki/Banana_Skin_Shoes \"Banana Skin Shoes\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://music.mxdwn.com/2020/03/21/news/badly\\-drawn\\-boy\\-announces\\-new\\-album\\-banana\\-skin\\-shoes\\-after\\-10\\-years/\\|title\\=Badly Drawn Boy Announces New Album, Banana Skin Shoes, After 10 Years \\-\\|date\\=21 March 2020}}",
""
] |
### Mainstream success: 1999–2002
*It Came from the Ground* was the next EP, released in March 1999 on CD and vinyl. The style of this recording focused on woodland environments, an aspect displayed in both the cover art and the title track's video. Also released during this period was the single "Whirlpool". An instrumental was released on vinyl in April 1999\.
Gough's last EP, *Once Around the Block*, was released in August 1999 in two vinyl formats and one CD edition. The release is almost short enough to be considered a single.
[thumb\|300px\|right\|Gough playing a show in the [Urban Lounge](/wiki/Urban_Lounge "Urban Lounge"), Salt Lake City, Utah. (March 2007\)](/wiki/Image:Badly_Drawn_Boy_SALT_LAKE.JPG "Badly Drawn Boy SALT LAKE.JPG")
Following the success of his early EPs, Gough's first album, *[The Hour of Bewilderbeast](/wiki/The_Hour_of_Bewilderbeast "The Hour of Bewilderbeast")*, was released in June 2000, accompanied by four singles (including a re\-release of *Once Around the Block*).
The album was critically acclaimed and Badly Drawn Boy was successful in winning the 2000 [Mercury Music Prize](/wiki/Mercury_Music_Prize "Mercury Music Prize"), beating his contemporaries [Doves](/wiki/Doves_%28band%29 "Doves (band)") to the £20,000 prize. The album sold well (300,000 copies) and is widely considered to be his defining work.
The Badly Drawn Boy band throughout this successful period consisted of Matt Wardle (keyboards/vocals), Robin File (guitar), Sean McCann (bass guitar) latterly replaced by the ex\-Smiths bass guitarist Andy Rourke, Dave Verner (drums).
After a short break, Gough returned to score the film adaptation of [Nick Hornby](/wiki/Nick_Hornby "Nick Hornby")'s novel *[About a Boy](/wiki/About_a_Boy_%28novel%29 "About a Boy (novel)")*. The movie was directed by Paul Weitz and Chris Weitz. Impressed by his past work, the Weitz brothers asked Gough to score the film, a task which he undertook alone, with the assistance of producer Steve McLaughlin. Three singles from the album were released during 2002\.
His third album, *[Have You Fed the Fish?](/wiki/Have_You_Fed_the_Fish%3F "Have You Fed the Fish?")*, introduced more guitars and an increasingly mainstream pop sound which was not welcomed by all critics. The album is a play on Gough's minor celebrity status. Another three singles and a long American tour accompanied the album. The single "[You Were Right](/wiki/You_Were_Right_%28Badly_Drawn_Boy_song%29 "You Were Right (Badly Drawn Boy song)")" received heavy airplay on [BBC Radio 2](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2 "BBC Radio 2"), became his first UK top ten single and includes lyrical references to music icons such as [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 "Madonna (entertainer)") and [John Lennon](/wiki/John_Lennon "John Lennon").
|
[
"### Mainstream success: 1999–2002",
"*It Came from the Ground* was the next EP, released in March 1999 on CD and vinyl. The style of this recording focused on woodland environments, an aspect displayed in both the cover art and the title track's video. Also released during this period was the single \"Whirlpool\". An instrumental was released on vinyl in April 1999\\.",
"Gough's last EP, *Once Around the Block*, was released in August 1999 in two vinyl formats and one CD edition. The release is almost short enough to be considered a single.\n[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|Gough playing a show in the [Urban Lounge](/wiki/Urban_Lounge \"Urban Lounge\"), Salt Lake City, Utah. (March 2007\\)](/wiki/Image:Badly_Drawn_Boy_SALT_LAKE.JPG \"Badly Drawn Boy SALT LAKE.JPG\")",
"Following the success of his early EPs, Gough's first album, *[The Hour of Bewilderbeast](/wiki/The_Hour_of_Bewilderbeast \"The Hour of Bewilderbeast\")*, was released in June 2000, accompanied by four singles (including a re\\-release of *Once Around the Block*).",
"The album was critically acclaimed and Badly Drawn Boy was successful in winning the 2000 [Mercury Music Prize](/wiki/Mercury_Music_Prize \"Mercury Music Prize\"), beating his contemporaries [Doves](/wiki/Doves_%28band%29 \"Doves (band)\") to the £20,000 prize. The album sold well (300,000 copies) and is widely considered to be his defining work.",
"The Badly Drawn Boy band throughout this successful period consisted of Matt Wardle (keyboards/vocals), Robin File (guitar), Sean McCann (bass guitar) latterly replaced by the ex\\-Smiths bass guitarist Andy Rourke, Dave Verner (drums).",
"After a short break, Gough returned to score the film adaptation of [Nick Hornby](/wiki/Nick_Hornby \"Nick Hornby\")'s novel *[About a Boy](/wiki/About_a_Boy_%28novel%29 \"About a Boy (novel)\")*. The movie was directed by Paul Weitz and Chris Weitz. Impressed by his past work, the Weitz brothers asked Gough to score the film, a task which he undertook alone, with the assistance of producer Steve McLaughlin. Three singles from the album were released during 2002\\.",
"His third album, *[Have You Fed the Fish?](/wiki/Have_You_Fed_the_Fish%3F \"Have You Fed the Fish?\")*, introduced more guitars and an increasingly mainstream pop sound which was not welcomed by all critics. The album is a play on Gough's minor celebrity status. Another three singles and a long American tour accompanied the album. The single \"[You Were Right](/wiki/You_Were_Right_%28Badly_Drawn_Boy_song%29 \"You Were Right (Badly Drawn Boy song)\")\" received heavy airplay on [BBC Radio 2](/wiki/BBC_Radio_2 \"BBC Radio 2\"), became his first UK top ten single and includes lyrical references to music icons such as [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 \"Madonna (entertainer)\") and [John Lennon](/wiki/John_Lennon \"John Lennon\").",
""
] |
V600
----
The V600 is a [clamshell](/wiki/Flip_%28form%29 "Flip (form)") mobile phone made by [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola "Motorola"). The V600 operates on the [GSM](/wiki/GSM "GSM")/[GPRS](/wiki/GPRS "GPRS") 850/900/1800/1900, which allows the phone to be used in almost every country.
The phone was carried in the U.S. by [T\-Mobile USA](/wiki/T-Mobile_USA "T-Mobile USA") (the T\-Mobile version had the 850 MHz band removed, but can be re\-enabled via a software update or seem\-editing), [AT\&T Wireless](/wiki/AT%26T_Wireless "AT&T Wireless") and [Cingular](/wiki/Cingular "Cingular"). It was carried in the UK by Orange, O2 and T\-Mobile.
The V600 success led Motorola to release many more handsets in a 'V\-Series', including the V180, V220, V400, V500, V505, V550, as well as custom models for carriers. The direct successor of the V600 is the V620, followed by the V635\. New features include video recording and menu themes.
### V620
The V620 is a [clamshell](/wiki/Flip_%28form%29 "Flip (form)") form factor [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") from manufacturer [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola "Motorola"). The V620 is essentially an updated version of Motorola's flagship V600 world phone, containing such new features as video recording, menu themes and a black housing.
By current standards, the V620 has several modern features, such as the superior 262k color screen. However, the phone lacks a [megapixel](/wiki/Megapixel "Megapixel") camera (it is equipped with a [VGA](/wiki/VGA "VGA") camera), a popular feature of modern high\-end models. Additionally, the V620 only has approximately 5\.5 MB of onboard [memory](/wiki/Memory "Memory"), and lacks a [TransFlash](/wiki/TransFlash "TransFlash") card slot. More memory may be gained through end\-user [modification](/wiki/Modding "Modding"), though such action voids the unit's [warranty](/wiki/Warranty "Warranty"). The phone also lacks a [CSTN](/wiki/CSTN "CSTN") external screen, instead featuring a small inverted\-color display.
The Motorola V620 was not offered through any U.S. carrier, but was popular in both the UK and Australia.
The successor of the V620 is the V635\.
* [Motorola V620 \- Phonescoop](http://www.phonescoop.com/phones/phone.php?p=592)
* Overview of [Motorola V525](https://web.archive.org/web/20080105152700/http://www.motorola-v525.info/), V620's predecessor
* [Motorola V620 Review at Mobile\-Review.com](https://mobile-review.com/phonemodels/motorola/motorola-v620.shtml)
### V635
[120px\|thumb\|V635](/wiki/Image:V635_Phone.jpg "V635 Phone.jpg")
The V635 is a cell phone developed by [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola "Motorola"). It is considered the successor to the V600 and V620 model phones. Its prominent features include the ability to insert a removable [TransFlash](/wiki/TransFlash "TransFlash") memory card, (fully accessible through the [Bluetooth](/wiki/Bluetooth "Bluetooth")) video capture and playback, 1\.23\-megapixel camera, and a colored external [TFT](/wiki/Thin_film_transistor "Thin film transistor") display.
The phone is primarily unavailable in United States, as major US carriers do not offer the phone to their subscribers. However, phone enthusiasts in the US have been able to obtain the phone from third\-party retailers. It is available from [Rogers Wireless](/wiki/Rogers_Wireless "Rogers Wireless") in Canada. The phone is designed to work on [GSM](/wiki/GSM "GSM")\-capable networks, and does work, without issue, on North American networks operated by companies such as [T\-Mobile](/wiki/T-Mobile_International_AG "T-Mobile International AG"), [Cingular](/wiki/Cingular "Cingular"), [Fido](/wiki/Fido_Solutions "Fido Solutions") and [Rogers Wireless](/wiki/Rogers_Wireless "Rogers Wireless"). It has apparently been discontinued in at least North America.
Its functions and software are the same as MotoRAZR V3i/V3e's.
The V635 is a quad\-band GSM phone, and operates at [GSM](/wiki/GSM "GSM")/GPRS 850/900/1800/1900 bands.
* [Motorola](http://www.motorola.com/motoinfo/product/details/0,,80,00.html) \- V635 Product Details
* [MotoDev](https://web.archive.org/web/20080130002608/http://developer.motorola.com/products/handsets/archive/v635/) \- V635 Developer Resources
{{clear\|right}}
|
[
"V600\n----",
"The V600 is a [clamshell](/wiki/Flip_%28form%29 \"Flip (form)\") mobile phone made by [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola \"Motorola\"). The V600 operates on the [GSM](/wiki/GSM \"GSM\")/[GPRS](/wiki/GPRS \"GPRS\") 850/900/1800/1900, which allows the phone to be used in almost every country.",
"The phone was carried in the U.S. by [T\\-Mobile USA](/wiki/T-Mobile_USA \"T-Mobile USA\") (the T\\-Mobile version had the 850 MHz band removed, but can be re\\-enabled via a software update or seem\\-editing), [AT\\&T Wireless](/wiki/AT%26T_Wireless \"AT&T Wireless\") and [Cingular](/wiki/Cingular \"Cingular\"). It was carried in the UK by Orange, O2 and T\\-Mobile.",
"The V600 success led Motorola to release many more handsets in a 'V\\-Series', including the V180, V220, V400, V500, V505, V550, as well as custom models for carriers. The direct successor of the V600 is the V620, followed by the V635\\. New features include video recording and menu themes.",
"### V620",
"The V620 is a [clamshell](/wiki/Flip_%28form%29 \"Flip (form)\") form factor [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") from manufacturer [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola \"Motorola\"). The V620 is essentially an updated version of Motorola's flagship V600 world phone, containing such new features as video recording, menu themes and a black housing.",
"By current standards, the V620 has several modern features, such as the superior 262k color screen. However, the phone lacks a [megapixel](/wiki/Megapixel \"Megapixel\") camera (it is equipped with a [VGA](/wiki/VGA \"VGA\") camera), a popular feature of modern high\\-end models. Additionally, the V620 only has approximately 5\\.5 MB of onboard [memory](/wiki/Memory \"Memory\"), and lacks a [TransFlash](/wiki/TransFlash \"TransFlash\") card slot. More memory may be gained through end\\-user [modification](/wiki/Modding \"Modding\"), though such action voids the unit's [warranty](/wiki/Warranty \"Warranty\"). The phone also lacks a [CSTN](/wiki/CSTN \"CSTN\") external screen, instead featuring a small inverted\\-color display.",
"The Motorola V620 was not offered through any U.S. carrier, but was popular in both the UK and Australia.",
"The successor of the V620 is the V635\\.\n* [Motorola V620 \\- Phonescoop](http://www.phonescoop.com/phones/phone.php?p=592)\n* Overview of [Motorola V525](https://web.archive.org/web/20080105152700/http://www.motorola-v525.info/), V620's predecessor\n* [Motorola V620 Review at Mobile\\-Review.com](https://mobile-review.com/phonemodels/motorola/motorola-v620.shtml)",
"### V635",
"[120px\\|thumb\\|V635](/wiki/Image:V635_Phone.jpg \"V635 Phone.jpg\")\nThe V635 is a cell phone developed by [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola \"Motorola\"). It is considered the successor to the V600 and V620 model phones. Its prominent features include the ability to insert a removable [TransFlash](/wiki/TransFlash \"TransFlash\") memory card, (fully accessible through the [Bluetooth](/wiki/Bluetooth \"Bluetooth\")) video capture and playback, 1\\.23\\-megapixel camera, and a colored external [TFT](/wiki/Thin_film_transistor \"Thin film transistor\") display.",
"The phone is primarily unavailable in United States, as major US carriers do not offer the phone to their subscribers. However, phone enthusiasts in the US have been able to obtain the phone from third\\-party retailers. It is available from [Rogers Wireless](/wiki/Rogers_Wireless \"Rogers Wireless\") in Canada. The phone is designed to work on [GSM](/wiki/GSM \"GSM\")\\-capable networks, and does work, without issue, on North American networks operated by companies such as [T\\-Mobile](/wiki/T-Mobile_International_AG \"T-Mobile International AG\"), [Cingular](/wiki/Cingular \"Cingular\"), [Fido](/wiki/Fido_Solutions \"Fido Solutions\") and [Rogers Wireless](/wiki/Rogers_Wireless \"Rogers Wireless\"). It has apparently been discontinued in at least North America.",
"Its functions and software are the same as MotoRAZR V3i/V3e's.",
"The V635 is a quad\\-band GSM phone, and operates at [GSM](/wiki/GSM \"GSM\")/GPRS 850/900/1800/1900 bands.",
"* [Motorola](http://www.motorola.com/motoinfo/product/details/0,,80,00.html) \\- V635 Product Details\n* [MotoDev](https://web.archive.org/web/20080130002608/http://developer.motorola.com/products/handsets/archive/v635/) \\- V635 Developer Resources\n{{clear\\|right}}"
] |
Summary
-------
The book traces the origins of the idea of individual differences in general mental ability to 19th century researchers [Herbert Spencer](/wiki/Herbert_Spencer "Herbert Spencer") and [Francis Galton](/wiki/Francis_Galton "Francis Galton"). [Charles Spearman](/wiki/Charles_Spearman "Charles Spearman") is credited for inventing [factor analysis](/wiki/Factor_analysis "Factor analysis") in the early 20th century, which enabled statistical testing of the hypothesis that general mental ability is required in all mental efforts. Spearman, gave the name *g* to the common factor underlying all mental tasks. He suggested that *g* reflected individual differences in "mental energy", and hoped that future research would uncover the biological basis of this energy.Jensen, A.R. (1999\). [The g Factor: the Science of Mental Ability. Precis of Jensen on Intelligence\-g\-Factor.](http://www.cogsci.ecs.soton.ac.uk/cgi/psyc/newpsy?10.023) *Psycoloquy: 10(023\)* The book argues that because it is difficult to arrive at a consensual scientific definition of the term *intelligence*, scientists should dispense with the term and focus on specific abilities and their covariances. It also argues that mental abilities are best conceptualized as a three\-level hierarchy, with a large number of narrow abilities at the base, a relatively small number of broad factors at the intermediate level, and a single general factor, *g*, at the apex.
The *g* factor can be derived from a correlation matrix of mental ability tests by many different methods of factor analysis. A *g* factor always emerges provided that the test battery is sufficiently large and diverse. The only exception is when one uses orthogonal rotation which precludes the appearance of a *g* factor. Jensen argues that orthogonal rotation is not appropriate for substantially positively correlated variables such as mental abilities. The *g* factor has been found to be largely invariant across different factor analytic methods and in different racial and cultural groups. Jensen argues that *g* is normally distributed in any population. He also contends that *g* cannot be described in terms of the information content or item characteristics of tests, and likens it to a computer's [CPU](/wiki/CPU "CPU"). Jensen hypothesizes that *g* is fundamentally about the speed or efficiency of the neural processes related to mental abilities.
The book reviews studies on biological correlates of *g*, and notes that they are numerous, including brain size, latency and amplitude of evoked brain potentials, rate of brain glucose metabolism, and general health. The book puts the broad\-sense heritability of *g* at .40 to .50 in children, at .60 to .70 in adolescents and young adults, and at nearly .80 in older adults. It argues that shared family influences on *g* are substantial in childhood, but that in adults the environmental sources of variance are almost exclusively of the within\-family kind. The book suggests that the main environmental influence on *g* is developmental "noise", consisting of more or less random physical events affecting the neurophysiological substrate of mental growth. It reviews the evidence that elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs) are correlated with *g*. It argues that the ECT research supports the notion that *g* is related to the speed and efficiency of neural processes.
The book argues that the *g* factor shows considerable practical validity. It is related to a large number of economically, educationally, and socially valued attributes. It is a particularly good predictor of academic and job\-related outcomes. It stresses the difference between *g* and what it calls *vehicles* of *g*. Changes in test scores do not necessarily represent changes in the underlying construct, viz., *g*. Practice effects on test scores appear to be unrelated to *g*. An authentic change in *g* happens when the change shows broad generalizability to a wide variety of cognitive tasks. Intensive psychological interventions beginning in infancy have generally failed to produce lasting effects on *g*. To what extent the [Flynn effect](/wiki/Flynn_effect "Flynn effect") represents a change in *g* is unknown.
Mainly due to the relation between differences in *g* and important educational, economic, and social differences, there has long been interest in group differences in *g* in the United States. The most extensively researched is the gap between white and black Americans. According to the book, whites outscore blacks in the US by about 1\.2 standard deviations, or 18 IQ points, on average. Blacks in sub\-Saharan Africa score, on average, about two standard deviations below the white mean. The black\-white gap in the US is not due to test bias. Cognitive tests have the same reliability and validity for all American\-born, English\-speaking groups. The magnitude of the black\-white gap in the US is best predicted by the test's *g* loading, implying that the gap is mainly due to a difference in *g*. Jensen argues that the black\-white gap has a biological component. The book contends that the causes of differences in *g* between blacks and whites consist of the same environmental and genetic differences and in approximately the same magnitudes as within\-population differences.
The book argues that the *g* factor is important because it is a major node in a complex network of educationally, socially and economically important variables ("the *g* nexus"). The book argues that a person's level of *g* is a threshold variable, and that above a certain threshold other, non\-*g* abilities and talents, including personality differences, are critical for educational and vocational success. The book anticipated that after 1998, subsequent research on *g* would have to extend into two directions, "horizontal" and "vertical": horizontal research to identify new variables in the *g* nexus, and vertical research to uncover the origins of *g* in terms of evolutionary biology and neurophysiology.
|
[
"Summary\n-------",
"The book traces the origins of the idea of individual differences in general mental ability to 19th century researchers [Herbert Spencer](/wiki/Herbert_Spencer \"Herbert Spencer\") and [Francis Galton](/wiki/Francis_Galton \"Francis Galton\"). [Charles Spearman](/wiki/Charles_Spearman \"Charles Spearman\") is credited for inventing [factor analysis](/wiki/Factor_analysis \"Factor analysis\") in the early 20th century, which enabled statistical testing of the hypothesis that general mental ability is required in all mental efforts. Spearman, gave the name *g* to the common factor underlying all mental tasks. He suggested that *g* reflected individual differences in \"mental energy\", and hoped that future research would uncover the biological basis of this energy.Jensen, A.R. (1999\\). [The g Factor: the Science of Mental Ability. Precis of Jensen on Intelligence\\-g\\-Factor.](http://www.cogsci.ecs.soton.ac.uk/cgi/psyc/newpsy?10.023) *Psycoloquy: 10(023\\)* The book argues that because it is difficult to arrive at a consensual scientific definition of the term *intelligence*, scientists should dispense with the term and focus on specific abilities and their covariances. It also argues that mental abilities are best conceptualized as a three\\-level hierarchy, with a large number of narrow abilities at the base, a relatively small number of broad factors at the intermediate level, and a single general factor, *g*, at the apex.",
"The *g* factor can be derived from a correlation matrix of mental ability tests by many different methods of factor analysis. A *g* factor always emerges provided that the test battery is sufficiently large and diverse. The only exception is when one uses orthogonal rotation which precludes the appearance of a *g* factor. Jensen argues that orthogonal rotation is not appropriate for substantially positively correlated variables such as mental abilities. The *g* factor has been found to be largely invariant across different factor analytic methods and in different racial and cultural groups. Jensen argues that *g* is normally distributed in any population. He also contends that *g* cannot be described in terms of the information content or item characteristics of tests, and likens it to a computer's [CPU](/wiki/CPU \"CPU\"). Jensen hypothesizes that *g* is fundamentally about the speed or efficiency of the neural processes related to mental abilities.",
"The book reviews studies on biological correlates of *g*, and notes that they are numerous, including brain size, latency and amplitude of evoked brain potentials, rate of brain glucose metabolism, and general health. The book puts the broad\\-sense heritability of *g* at .40 to .50 in children, at .60 to .70 in adolescents and young adults, and at nearly .80 in older adults. It argues that shared family influences on *g* are substantial in childhood, but that in adults the environmental sources of variance are almost exclusively of the within\\-family kind. The book suggests that the main environmental influence on *g* is developmental \"noise\", consisting of more or less random physical events affecting the neurophysiological substrate of mental growth. It reviews the evidence that elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs) are correlated with *g*. It argues that the ECT research supports the notion that *g* is related to the speed and efficiency of neural processes.",
"The book argues that the *g* factor shows considerable practical validity. It is related to a large number of economically, educationally, and socially valued attributes. It is a particularly good predictor of academic and job\\-related outcomes. It stresses the difference between *g* and what it calls *vehicles* of *g*. Changes in test scores do not necessarily represent changes in the underlying construct, viz., *g*. Practice effects on test scores appear to be unrelated to *g*. An authentic change in *g* happens when the change shows broad generalizability to a wide variety of cognitive tasks. Intensive psychological interventions beginning in infancy have generally failed to produce lasting effects on *g*. To what extent the [Flynn effect](/wiki/Flynn_effect \"Flynn effect\") represents a change in *g* is unknown.",
"Mainly due to the relation between differences in *g* and important educational, economic, and social differences, there has long been interest in group differences in *g* in the United States. The most extensively researched is the gap between white and black Americans. According to the book, whites outscore blacks in the US by about 1\\.2 standard deviations, or 18 IQ points, on average. Blacks in sub\\-Saharan Africa score, on average, about two standard deviations below the white mean. The black\\-white gap in the US is not due to test bias. Cognitive tests have the same reliability and validity for all American\\-born, English\\-speaking groups. The magnitude of the black\\-white gap in the US is best predicted by the test's *g* loading, implying that the gap is mainly due to a difference in *g*. Jensen argues that the black\\-white gap has a biological component. The book contends that the causes of differences in *g* between blacks and whites consist of the same environmental and genetic differences and in approximately the same magnitudes as within\\-population differences.",
"The book argues that the *g* factor is important because it is a major node in a complex network of educationally, socially and economically important variables (\"the *g* nexus\"). The book argues that a person's level of *g* is a threshold variable, and that above a certain threshold other, non\\-*g* abilities and talents, including personality differences, are critical for educational and vocational success. The book anticipated that after 1998, subsequent research on *g* would have to extend into two directions, \"horizontal\" and \"vertical\": horizontal research to identify new variables in the *g* nexus, and vertical research to uncover the origins of *g* in terms of evolutionary biology and neurophysiology.",
""
] |
Club history
------------
{{update\|date\=July 2018}}
On June 18, 2008, local businessmen David Laxer, Andrew Nestor and Hinds Howard announced plans to start a new soccer club which would revive the Rowdies name as FC Tampa Bay Rowdies and start play in 2010 as an expansion team in the [USL First Division](/wiki/USL_First_Division "USL First Division"), the second tier of the [American Soccer Pyramid](/wiki/American_Soccer_Pyramid "American Soccer Pyramid").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/article633711\.ece\|title\=Tampa Bay Rowdies to get new life in USL\|last\=Encina\|first\=Eduardo A.\|date\=June 19, 2008\|publisher\=St. Petersburg Times\|access\-date\=June 20, 2008\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628190409/http://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/article633711\.ece\|archive\-date\=June 28, 2008}} However, in November 2009 FC Tampa Bay announced their intent to instead become the co\-founders of a new [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%282010%29 "North American Soccer League (2010)"), which would begin play in 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.soccerbyives.net/soccer\_by\_ives/2009/11/usl\-outcasts\-set\-to\-launch\-new\-league\-in\-2010\.html \|title\=USL outcasts set to launch new league in 2010 \|publisher\=Soccerbyives.net \|date\=November 10, 2009 \|access\-date\=September 13, 2012}} These plans were subsequently superseded by the [USSF Division 2](/wiki/USSF_Division_2 "USSF Division 2") deal, which created a compromise one\-season only league comprising teams from both the USL and the new NASL. In December 2013, local businessmen [Bill Edwards](/wiki/Bill_Edwards_%28businessman%29 "Bill Edwards (businessman)") bought a controlling interest in the club.{{cite news\|last1\=Cashill\|first1\=Margaret\|title\=Bill Edwards buys controlling interest in Tampa Bay Rowdies\|url\=http://www.bizjournals.com/tampabay/news/2013/12/12/bill\-edwards\-buys\-controlling\-interest.html\|access\-date\=October 19, 2015\|work\=Tampa Bay Business Journal\|date\=December 12, 2013}} In October 2018, the [Tampa Bay Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays "Tampa Bay Rays") baseball club announced their purchase the Rowdies for an undisclosed amount, pending St. Petersburg City Council approval. Once the sale was finalized, Rays presidents [Matthew Silverman](/wiki/Matthew_Silverman "Matthew Silverman") and [Brian Auld](/wiki/Brian_Auld "Brian Auld") became vice chairmen of the soccer club.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tampabay.com/sports/rowdies/2018/10/01/tampa\-bay\-rays\-to\-purchase\-rowdies\-soccer\-club/\|title\=The Rays are buying the Rowdies. What does it mean for Tampa Bay?\|date\=October 1, 2018\|website\=Tampa Bay Times\|access\-date\=March 24, 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/24875801\|title\=Rays purchase USL's Tampa Bay Rowdies\|date\=October 2, 2018\|publisher\=ESPN\|access\-date\=March 24, 2019}}
### Name changes
[right\|thumb\|Tampa Bay taking the field in St. Louis, 2010](/wiki/File:Rowdies02.jpg "Rowdies02.jpg")
In January 2010, the club became known as "FC Tampa Bay" due to a legal dispute with sports apparel company Classic Ink over the merchandising rights to the Tampa Bay Rowdies name and related trademarks.{{cite web\|last\=Quarstad \|first\=Brian \|url\=http://www.insidemnsoccer.com/2010/01/29/tampa\-bay\-rowdies\-change\-name\-to\-fc\-tampa\-bay/ \|title\=Tampa Bay Rowdies Change Name to FC Tampa Bay \| IMSoccer News \|date\=January 29, 2010 \|publisher\=Insidemnsoccer.com \|access\-date\=September 13, 2012}} The name was still used informally by the club until October 2010, when the team announced that it would not use the "Rowdies" nickname at all until the ongoing rights issue was resolved.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/tampa\-bays\-soccer\-team\-no\-longer\-going\-by\-rowdies/1128129 \|title\=Tampa Bay's soccer team no longer going by "Rowdies" – St. Petersburg Times \|work\=Tampa Bay Times \|access\-date\=September 13, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013101815/http://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/tampa\-bays\-soccer\-team\-no\-longer\-going\-by\-rowdies/1128129 \|archive\-date\=October 13, 2012 }}{{cite web \|author\=Jarrett Guthrie \|url\=http://www2\.tbo.com/content/2010/nov/23/230006/PSPNEWSO6\-fc\-tampa\-bay\-to\-be\-included\-in\-nasls\-div/ \|title\=FC Tampa Bay to be included in NASL's Division II \|publisher\=.tbo.com \|date\=November 23, 2010 \|access\-date\=January 15, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127132326/http://www2\.tbo.com/content/2010/nov/23/230006/PSPNEWSO6\-fc\-tampa\-bay\-to\-be\-included\-in\-nasls\-div/ \|archive\-date\=January 27, 2011 }}
On December 15, 2011, after two seasons of play, the club announced that it had finally reached a licensing agreement to use the "Rowdies" name and classic logos, allowing it to change its name back to "Tampa Bay Rowdies" before the 2012 season.
### 2010 season
{{main\|2010 FC Tampa Bay season}}
The team played its first official game on April 16, 2010, a 1–0 victory over [Crystal Palace Baltimore](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_Baltimore "Crystal Palace Baltimore"). The first goal in franchise history was scored by striker [Aaron King](/wiki/Aaron_King "Aaron King"). The first home game was held at [George M. Steinbrenner Field](/wiki/George_M._Steinbrenner_Field "George M. Steinbrenner Field") in Tampa on May 8, 2010, and ended in a 2–2 draw with [Austin Aztex FC](/wiki/Austin_Aztex_FC "Austin Aztex FC"). The club started their inaugural season with a 5–1–3 record, but then won only 2 of its last 21 games and failed to make the playoffs with a final record of 7–12–11, leading to dismissal of manager [Paul Dalglish](/wiki/Paul_Dalglish "Paul Dalglish").{{cite web \|url\=http://www2\.tbo.com/content/2010/oct/01/012204/rowdies\-close\-with\-6\-3\-win/sports/ \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130203111234/http://www2\.tbo.com/content/2010/oct/01/012204/rowdies\-close\-with\-6\-3\-win/sports/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=February 3, 2013 \|title\=Rowdies close with 6–3 win \|publisher\=.tbo.com \|date\=October 1, 2010 \|access\-date\=January 15, 2013 }} They did, however, capture the 2010 Ponce De Leon Cup.
### 2011 season
{{main\|2011 FC Tampa Bay season}}
For the 2011 season, FC Tampa Bay transitioned to the new [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%282011%E2%80%932017%29 "North American Soccer League (2011–2017)"), a second division league, and also changed their home pitch, as they moved across [Tampa Bay](/wiki/Tampa_Bay "Tampa Bay") to [Al Lang Stadium](/wiki/Al_Lang_Stadium "Al Lang Stadium") in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St.Petersburg%2C_Florida "St.Petersburg, Florida"). Former original Rowdie [Ricky Hill](/wiki/Ricky_Hill "Ricky Hill") was named the club's manager in January 2011\.
After winning only 2 of their first 10 matches, the club rebounded to finish third in the league table and qualified for the NASL playoffs. A highlight was a 1–0 mid\-season friendly win over the [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers_F.C. "Bolton Wanderers F.C.") of the [English Premier League](/wiki/English_Premier_League "English Premier League") at Al Lang Stadium.
### 2012 season
{{main\|2012 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
[thumb\|right\|[Dan Antoniuk](/wiki/Dan_Antoniuk "Dan Antoniuk") and [Tsuyoshi Yoshitake](/wiki/Tsuyoshi_Yoshitake "Tsuyoshi Yoshitake"), 2012](/wiki/File:Rowdies2012.jpg "Rowdies2012.jpg")
The 2012 season marked the return of the Rowdies name, as the club was finally able to secure full rights to use the moniker. It was also the most successful season in modern Rowdies history, as the club finished second in the league table and became NASL champions with a victory in [Soccer Bowl 2012](/wiki/Soccer_Bowl_2012 "Soccer Bowl 2012").
Tampa Bay amassed 45 points in 28 matches during the regular season under returning manager Ricky Hill, tallying 12 wins, nine draws. and seven losses. The Rowdies earned a bye to the semifinals of the [2012 NASL Playoffs](/wiki/2012_NASL_Playoffs "2012 NASL Playoffs"), where they beat the [Carolina RailHawks](/wiki/Carolina_RailHawks "Carolina RailHawks") by a 5–4 aggregate in the two\-leg series. In the championship round against [Minnesota Stars FC](/wiki/Minnesota_United_FC "Minnesota United FC"), the Rowdies fell behind 0–2 after the first leg but were able to tie the aggregate with a 3–1 win in the second leg back at Al Lang Stadium. Extra time ended scoreless, so the match was decided with a [penalty shoot\-out](/wiki/Penalty_shoot-out_%28association_football%29 "Penalty shoot-out (association football)"), which Tampa Bay won 3–2 to secure the league championship.{{cite web\|last\=NASL\|title\=Tampa Bay Wins NASL Championship Series After Penalty Shootout – Rowdies Lift Soccer Bowl Trophy in Dramatic Fashion\|url\=http://www.nasl.com/index.php?id\=3\&newsid\=3473\|publisher\=North American Soccer League}} Hill was named the [NASL Coach of the Year](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_Other_Awards%23Coach_of_the_Year_Award "North American Soccer League Other Awards#Coach of the Year Award").
### 2013 season
{{main\|2013 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
The defending champions got off to a slow start in two pre\-league tournaments, as they went winless in their first six contests against [MLS](/wiki/MLS "MLS") and [USL Pro](/wiki/USL_Pro "USL Pro") clubs. The Rowdies improved enough in league play to finish 4th in the NASL spring table with a record of 5 wins, 3 draws, and 4 losses. The highlight of the early season was a run to the 4th round of the [2013 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/2013_Lamar_Hunt_U.S._Open_Cup "2013 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup"), which included a 1–0 win over [Seattle Sounders FC](/wiki/Seattle_Sounders_FC "Seattle Sounders FC") of MLS.
The Rowdies went 5–4–4 during the fall portion of the schedule, good for 3rd place. The club earned 38 points over the entire campaign, second most in the league. However, because of the NASL's new [split\-season format](/wiki/Apertura_and_Clausura "Apertura and Clausura"), the Rowdies did not qualify for the playoffs.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.nasl.com/index.php?id\=13 \| title\=NASL standings \| publisher\=NASL \| access\-date\=November 3, 2013}} Midfielder / striker [Georgi Hristov](/wiki/Georgi_Hristov_%28footballer%2C_born_1985%29 "Georgi Hristov (footballer, born 1985)") led the team with 15 goals in all competitions and was named the NASL's [Golden Ball Award winner (MVP)](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_Other_Awards%23Golden_Ball_Award "North American Soccer League Other Awards#Golden Ball Award").
### 2014 season
{{main\|2014 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
The Rowdies struggled in 2014, coming in 7th place in the NASL's spring season and 8th in the fall while allowing the most goals (50\) in the league overall. The club rose to 3rd in the table midway through the fall campaign but tailed off, going winless over their last 10 matches. Manager Ricky Hill was dismissed after the season.
### 2015 season
{{main\|2015 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
[thumb\|right\|[Georgi Hristov](/wiki/Georgi_Hristov_%28footballer%2C_born_1985%29 "Georgi Hristov (footballer, born 1985)") playing for the Tampa Bay Rowdies against [Jacksonville Armada FC](/wiki/Jacksonville_Armada_FC "Jacksonville Armada FC") on April 25, 2015\.](/wiki/Image:GeorgiHristovRowdies4.25.JPG "GeorgiHristovRowdies4.25.JPG")
The Tampa Bay Rowdies' new manager for 2015 was [Thomas Rongen](/wiki/Thomas_Rongen "Thomas Rongen"), who had coached the MLS's [Tampa Bay Mutiny](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Mutiny "Tampa Bay Mutiny") in 1996\. The team also brought in another familiar face when [Farrukh Quraishi](/wiki/Farrukh_Quraishi "Farrukh Quraishi"), who had been a player and a youth development director for the original Rowdies, was named general manager.
In March 2015, the Rowdies traveled to [Portugal](/wiki/Football_in_Portugal "Football in Portugal") to play several preseason friendlies against clubs in the Portuguese second and third division. It was the first time that the current club had undertaken an international tour.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thebradentontimes.com/news/2015/02/23/sports/tampa\_bay\_rowdies\_head\_to\_portugal\_for\_preseason\_tour/\|title\=Tampa Bay Rowdies Head to Portugal for Preseason Tour\|work\=thebradentontimes.com\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402173828/http://www.thebradentontimes.com/news/2015/02/23/sports/tampa\_bay\_rowdies\_head\_to\_portugal\_for\_preseason\_tour/\|archive\-date\=April 2, 2015}}
The Rowdies lost only one match during the NASL spring season, good for second place in the table. After starting the fall season 2–1–6, however, club owner Bill Edwards dismissed both Rongen and Quraishi.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/fennelly\-longtime\-rowdies\-a\-self\-made\-owner\-and\-bruised\-feelings/2277689/ \| title\=Longtime Rowdies, a self\-made owner and bruised feelings \| work\=The Tampa Bay Times \| date\=May 17, 2016 \| access\-date\=May 24, 2016 \| author\=Fennelly, Martin}} Assistant [Stuart Campbell](/wiki/Stuart_Campbell_%28footballer%29 "Stuart Campbell (footballer)") was promoted to manager and led the team to a 3–4–4 record. The Rowdies finished the fall season in 8th out of 11 teams in the league table and missed the playoffs.
### 2016 season
{{main\|2016 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
For the second consecutive year, the Rowdies visited Europe during the preseason, traveling to England in March to play several friendlies. The Rowdies held their own against three lower division sides, going 1–2–0 in official matches. The results of the [2016 NASL season](/wiki/2016_NASL_season "2016 NASL season") were not as good. The club went 4–4–2 in the NASL spring season, good for 5th out of eleven teams in the league table. However, results slipped in the fall portion of the schedule, and the Rowdies finished the season 9–11–12, missing the playoffs for the fourth consecutive year.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/rowdies\-end\-season\-with\-loss/2300680/ \| title\=Rowdies End Season With Loss \| work\=Tampa Bay Times \| date\=October 30, 2016 \| access\-date\=October 31, 2016}} A few days before their final game of the season, the franchise announced they would be leaving the NASL to compete in the [United Soccer League](/wiki/United_Soccer_League "United Soccer League") beginning with the 2017 season.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.uslsoccer.com/news\_article/show/713424?referrer\_id\=2333971\|title\=USL Expands with Additions of Tampa Bay Rowdies, Ottawa Fury FC\|publisher\=United Soccer League (USL)\|date\=October 25, 2016\|access\-date\=October 25, 2016}}
### 2017 season
{{main\|2017 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
Having made the jump to the [USL](/wiki/United_Soccer_League "United Soccer League"), the Rowdies served notice that they were not to be taken lightly. During the regular season they lost only once at home, and en route to finishing in third position on the USL's Eastern Conference table, lost only two of their final 15 matches. They posted a record of 14–11–7 with 53 points to propel them into the playoffs. In the [USL Cup playoffs](/wiki/2017_USL_Playoffs "2017 USL Playoffs"), they lost in extra time at home in the conference semifinals. It was only their second home\-loss of the season.
### 2018 season
{{main\|2018 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
After a strong start the team lost three straight without scoring a goal. This prompted the firing of head coach [Stuart Campbell](/wiki/Stuart_Campbell_%28footballer%29 "Stuart Campbell (footballer)") on May 17, with defender [Neill Collins](/wiki/Neill_Collins "Neill Collins") retiring to accept the coaching vacancy the following day.{{cite news\|last1\=Kennedy\|first1\=Will\|title\=Rowdies transition defender Neill Collins to head coach\|url\=https://www.tampabay.com/Rowdies\-transition\-defender\-Neill\-Collins\-to\-head\-coach\_168353687/\|access\-date\=May 18, 2018\|work\=Tampa Bay Times\|date\=May 18, 2018}} On July 4 [Georgi Hristov](/wiki/Georgi_Hristov_%28footballer%2C_born_1985%29 "Georgi Hristov (footballer, born 1985)") scored his 58th career goal for the Rowdies, to pass [Derek Smethurst](/wiki/Derek_Smethurst "Derek Smethurst") and become the Rowdies’ all\-time top scorer.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theunsubs.com/wp/2018/07/05/hristov\-writes\-more\-rowdies\-history\-in\-3\-1\-win\-over\-toronto/3955\|title\=Hristov Writes More Rowdies History in 3–1 Win Over Toronto\|date\=July 5, 2018\|access\-date\=March 24, 2019}}
The team finished the season in 12th position on the Eastern Conference table.
### 2019 season
{{main\|2019 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
An extremely strong start saw the club go unbeaten in their first 13 matches and losing only once in their first 20\. The final third of the season wasn't as successful, as the team lost half of their last 14 games, including 2 crucial losses to expansion sides in October that saw the club finish 5th in the Eastern Conference. Their return to the postseason was short\-lived, as they lost 2–1 on the road in Louisville in the first round of the [2019 USL Championship Playoffs](/wiki/2019_USL_Championship_Playoffs "2019 USL Championship Playoffs"). Elsewhere, the club advanced to the third round of the [2019 U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/2019_U.S._Open_Cup "2019 U.S. Open Cup"), defeating [The Villages SC](/wiki/The_Villages_SC "The Villages SC") before falling to [OKC Energy FC](/wiki/OKC_Energy_FC "OKC Energy FC"). The club also entered into a partnership with [Norwich City FC](/wiki/Norwich_City_FC "Norwich City FC"){{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rowdiessoccer.com/news\_article/show/990135\-rowdies\-and\-norwich\-city\-fc\-launch\-historic\-partnership\|title\=Rowdies And Norwich City FC Launch Historic Partnership\|website\=rowdiessoccer.com}} that saw defender [Caleb Richards](/wiki/Caleb_Richards "Caleb Richards") arrive on a season\-long loan. Richards made 34 appearances, playing all but two minutes of the regular season, and scoring one goal.
[thumb\|right\|upright\=1\.5\|Historical chart of the Rowdies' regular season performance in the modern era](/wiki/File:Tampa_Bay_Rowdies_Historic_League_Performance.png "Tampa Bay Rowdies Historic League Performance.png")
### 2020 season
{{main\|2020 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
{{update\|date\=November 2023}}
### 2021 season
{{main\|2021 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
### 2022 season
{{main\|2022 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
### 2023 season
{{main\|2023 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}
|
[
"Club history\n------------",
"{{update\\|date\\=July 2018}}\nOn June 18, 2008, local businessmen David Laxer, Andrew Nestor and Hinds Howard announced plans to start a new soccer club which would revive the Rowdies name as FC Tampa Bay Rowdies and start play in 2010 as an expansion team in the [USL First Division](/wiki/USL_First_Division \"USL First Division\"), the second tier of the [American Soccer Pyramid](/wiki/American_Soccer_Pyramid \"American Soccer Pyramid\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/article633711\\.ece\\|title\\=Tampa Bay Rowdies to get new life in USL\\|last\\=Encina\\|first\\=Eduardo A.\\|date\\=June 19, 2008\\|publisher\\=St. Petersburg Times\\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628190409/http://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/article633711\\.ece\\|archive\\-date\\=June 28, 2008}} However, in November 2009 FC Tampa Bay announced their intent to instead become the co\\-founders of a new [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%282010%29 \"North American Soccer League (2010)\"), which would begin play in 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.soccerbyives.net/soccer\\_by\\_ives/2009/11/usl\\-outcasts\\-set\\-to\\-launch\\-new\\-league\\-in\\-2010\\.html \\|title\\=USL outcasts set to launch new league in 2010 \\|publisher\\=Soccerbyives.net \\|date\\=November 10, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2012}} These plans were subsequently superseded by the [USSF Division 2](/wiki/USSF_Division_2 \"USSF Division 2\") deal, which created a compromise one\\-season only league comprising teams from both the USL and the new NASL. In December 2013, local businessmen [Bill Edwards](/wiki/Bill_Edwards_%28businessman%29 \"Bill Edwards (businessman)\") bought a controlling interest in the club.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Cashill\\|first1\\=Margaret\\|title\\=Bill Edwards buys controlling interest in Tampa Bay Rowdies\\|url\\=http://www.bizjournals.com/tampabay/news/2013/12/12/bill\\-edwards\\-buys\\-controlling\\-interest.html\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2015\\|work\\=Tampa Bay Business Journal\\|date\\=December 12, 2013}} In October 2018, the [Tampa Bay Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays \"Tampa Bay Rays\") baseball club announced their purchase the Rowdies for an undisclosed amount, pending St. Petersburg City Council approval. Once the sale was finalized, Rays presidents [Matthew Silverman](/wiki/Matthew_Silverman \"Matthew Silverman\") and [Brian Auld](/wiki/Brian_Auld \"Brian Auld\") became vice chairmen of the soccer club.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tampabay.com/sports/rowdies/2018/10/01/tampa\\-bay\\-rays\\-to\\-purchase\\-rowdies\\-soccer\\-club/\\|title\\=The Rays are buying the Rowdies. What does it mean for Tampa Bay?\\|date\\=October 1, 2018\\|website\\=Tampa Bay Times\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/24875801\\|title\\=Rays purchase USL's Tampa Bay Rowdies\\|date\\=October 2, 2018\\|publisher\\=ESPN\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2019}}",
"### Name changes",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Tampa Bay taking the field in St. Louis, 2010](/wiki/File:Rowdies02.jpg \"Rowdies02.jpg\")\nIn January 2010, the club became known as \"FC Tampa Bay\" due to a legal dispute with sports apparel company Classic Ink over the merchandising rights to the Tampa Bay Rowdies name and related trademarks.{{cite web\\|last\\=Quarstad \\|first\\=Brian \\|url\\=http://www.insidemnsoccer.com/2010/01/29/tampa\\-bay\\-rowdies\\-change\\-name\\-to\\-fc\\-tampa\\-bay/ \\|title\\=Tampa Bay Rowdies Change Name to FC Tampa Bay \\| IMSoccer News \\|date\\=January 29, 2010 \\|publisher\\=Insidemnsoccer.com \\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2012}} The name was still used informally by the club until October 2010, when the team announced that it would not use the \"Rowdies\" nickname at all until the ongoing rights issue was resolved.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/tampa\\-bays\\-soccer\\-team\\-no\\-longer\\-going\\-by\\-rowdies/1128129 \\|title\\=Tampa Bay's soccer team no longer going by \"Rowdies\" – St. Petersburg Times \\|work\\=Tampa Bay Times \\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013101815/http://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/tampa\\-bays\\-soccer\\-team\\-no\\-longer\\-going\\-by\\-rowdies/1128129 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 13, 2012 }}{{cite web \\|author\\=Jarrett Guthrie \\|url\\=http://www2\\.tbo.com/content/2010/nov/23/230006/PSPNEWSO6\\-fc\\-tampa\\-bay\\-to\\-be\\-included\\-in\\-nasls\\-div/ \\|title\\=FC Tampa Bay to be included in NASL's Division II \\|publisher\\=.tbo.com \\|date\\=November 23, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=January 15, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127132326/http://www2\\.tbo.com/content/2010/nov/23/230006/PSPNEWSO6\\-fc\\-tampa\\-bay\\-to\\-be\\-included\\-in\\-nasls\\-div/ \\|archive\\-date\\=January 27, 2011 }}",
"On December 15, 2011, after two seasons of play, the club announced that it had finally reached a licensing agreement to use the \"Rowdies\" name and classic logos, allowing it to change its name back to \"Tampa Bay Rowdies\" before the 2012 season.",
"### 2010 season",
"{{main\\|2010 FC Tampa Bay season}}\nThe team played its first official game on April 16, 2010, a 1–0 victory over [Crystal Palace Baltimore](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_Baltimore \"Crystal Palace Baltimore\"). The first goal in franchise history was scored by striker [Aaron King](/wiki/Aaron_King \"Aaron King\"). The first home game was held at [George M. Steinbrenner Field](/wiki/George_M._Steinbrenner_Field \"George M. Steinbrenner Field\") in Tampa on May 8, 2010, and ended in a 2–2 draw with [Austin Aztex FC](/wiki/Austin_Aztex_FC \"Austin Aztex FC\"). The club started their inaugural season with a 5–1–3 record, but then won only 2 of its last 21 games and failed to make the playoffs with a final record of 7–12–11, leading to dismissal of manager [Paul Dalglish](/wiki/Paul_Dalglish \"Paul Dalglish\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www2\\.tbo.com/content/2010/oct/01/012204/rowdies\\-close\\-with\\-6\\-3\\-win/sports/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130203111234/http://www2\\.tbo.com/content/2010/oct/01/012204/rowdies\\-close\\-with\\-6\\-3\\-win/sports/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=February 3, 2013 \\|title\\=Rowdies close with 6–3 win \\|publisher\\=.tbo.com \\|date\\=October 1, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=January 15, 2013 }} They did, however, capture the 2010 Ponce De Leon Cup.",
"### 2011 season",
"{{main\\|2011 FC Tampa Bay season}}\nFor the 2011 season, FC Tampa Bay transitioned to the new [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%282011%E2%80%932017%29 \"North American Soccer League (2011–2017)\"), a second division league, and also changed their home pitch, as they moved across [Tampa Bay](/wiki/Tampa_Bay \"Tampa Bay\") to [Al Lang Stadium](/wiki/Al_Lang_Stadium \"Al Lang Stadium\") in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St.Petersburg%2C_Florida \"St.Petersburg, Florida\"). Former original Rowdie [Ricky Hill](/wiki/Ricky_Hill \"Ricky Hill\") was named the club's manager in January 2011\\.",
"After winning only 2 of their first 10 matches, the club rebounded to finish third in the league table and qualified for the NASL playoffs. A highlight was a 1–0 mid\\-season friendly win over the [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers_F.C. \"Bolton Wanderers F.C.\") of the [English Premier League](/wiki/English_Premier_League \"English Premier League\") at Al Lang Stadium.",
"### 2012 season",
"{{main\\|2012 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Dan Antoniuk](/wiki/Dan_Antoniuk \"Dan Antoniuk\") and [Tsuyoshi Yoshitake](/wiki/Tsuyoshi_Yoshitake \"Tsuyoshi Yoshitake\"), 2012](/wiki/File:Rowdies2012.jpg \"Rowdies2012.jpg\")\nThe 2012 season marked the return of the Rowdies name, as the club was finally able to secure full rights to use the moniker. It was also the most successful season in modern Rowdies history, as the club finished second in the league table and became NASL champions with a victory in [Soccer Bowl 2012](/wiki/Soccer_Bowl_2012 \"Soccer Bowl 2012\").",
"Tampa Bay amassed 45 points in 28 matches during the regular season under returning manager Ricky Hill, tallying 12 wins, nine draws. and seven losses. The Rowdies earned a bye to the semifinals of the [2012 NASL Playoffs](/wiki/2012_NASL_Playoffs \"2012 NASL Playoffs\"), where they beat the [Carolina RailHawks](/wiki/Carolina_RailHawks \"Carolina RailHawks\") by a 5–4 aggregate in the two\\-leg series. In the championship round against [Minnesota Stars FC](/wiki/Minnesota_United_FC \"Minnesota United FC\"), the Rowdies fell behind 0–2 after the first leg but were able to tie the aggregate with a 3–1 win in the second leg back at Al Lang Stadium. Extra time ended scoreless, so the match was decided with a [penalty shoot\\-out](/wiki/Penalty_shoot-out_%28association_football%29 \"Penalty shoot-out (association football)\"), which Tampa Bay won 3–2 to secure the league championship.{{cite web\\|last\\=NASL\\|title\\=Tampa Bay Wins NASL Championship Series After Penalty Shootout – Rowdies Lift Soccer Bowl Trophy in Dramatic Fashion\\|url\\=http://www.nasl.com/index.php?id\\=3\\&newsid\\=3473\\|publisher\\=North American Soccer League}} Hill was named the [NASL Coach of the Year](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_Other_Awards%23Coach_of_the_Year_Award \"North American Soccer League Other Awards#Coach of the Year Award\").",
"### 2013 season",
"{{main\\|2013 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}\nThe defending champions got off to a slow start in two pre\\-league tournaments, as they went winless in their first six contests against [MLS](/wiki/MLS \"MLS\") and [USL Pro](/wiki/USL_Pro \"USL Pro\") clubs. The Rowdies improved enough in league play to finish 4th in the NASL spring table with a record of 5 wins, 3 draws, and 4 losses. The highlight of the early season was a run to the 4th round of the [2013 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/2013_Lamar_Hunt_U.S._Open_Cup \"2013 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup\"), which included a 1–0 win over [Seattle Sounders FC](/wiki/Seattle_Sounders_FC \"Seattle Sounders FC\") of MLS.",
"The Rowdies went 5–4–4 during the fall portion of the schedule, good for 3rd place. The club earned 38 points over the entire campaign, second most in the league. However, because of the NASL's new [split\\-season format](/wiki/Apertura_and_Clausura \"Apertura and Clausura\"), the Rowdies did not qualify for the playoffs.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.nasl.com/index.php?id\\=13 \\| title\\=NASL standings \\| publisher\\=NASL \\| access\\-date\\=November 3, 2013}} Midfielder / striker [Georgi Hristov](/wiki/Georgi_Hristov_%28footballer%2C_born_1985%29 \"Georgi Hristov (footballer, born 1985)\") led the team with 15 goals in all competitions and was named the NASL's [Golden Ball Award winner (MVP)](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_Other_Awards%23Golden_Ball_Award \"North American Soccer League Other Awards#Golden Ball Award\").",
"### 2014 season",
"{{main\\|2014 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}\nThe Rowdies struggled in 2014, coming in 7th place in the NASL's spring season and 8th in the fall while allowing the most goals (50\\) in the league overall. The club rose to 3rd in the table midway through the fall campaign but tailed off, going winless over their last 10 matches. Manager Ricky Hill was dismissed after the season.",
"### 2015 season",
"{{main\\|2015 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Georgi Hristov](/wiki/Georgi_Hristov_%28footballer%2C_born_1985%29 \"Georgi Hristov (footballer, born 1985)\") playing for the Tampa Bay Rowdies against [Jacksonville Armada FC](/wiki/Jacksonville_Armada_FC \"Jacksonville Armada FC\") on April 25, 2015\\.](/wiki/Image:GeorgiHristovRowdies4.25.JPG \"GeorgiHristovRowdies4.25.JPG\")\nThe Tampa Bay Rowdies' new manager for 2015 was [Thomas Rongen](/wiki/Thomas_Rongen \"Thomas Rongen\"), who had coached the MLS's [Tampa Bay Mutiny](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Mutiny \"Tampa Bay Mutiny\") in 1996\\. The team also brought in another familiar face when [Farrukh Quraishi](/wiki/Farrukh_Quraishi \"Farrukh Quraishi\"), who had been a player and a youth development director for the original Rowdies, was named general manager.",
"In March 2015, the Rowdies traveled to [Portugal](/wiki/Football_in_Portugal \"Football in Portugal\") to play several preseason friendlies against clubs in the Portuguese second and third division. It was the first time that the current club had undertaken an international tour.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thebradentontimes.com/news/2015/02/23/sports/tampa\\_bay\\_rowdies\\_head\\_to\\_portugal\\_for\\_preseason\\_tour/\\|title\\=Tampa Bay Rowdies Head to Portugal for Preseason Tour\\|work\\=thebradentontimes.com\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402173828/http://www.thebradentontimes.com/news/2015/02/23/sports/tampa\\_bay\\_rowdies\\_head\\_to\\_portugal\\_for\\_preseason\\_tour/\\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2015}}",
"The Rowdies lost only one match during the NASL spring season, good for second place in the table. After starting the fall season 2–1–6, however, club owner Bill Edwards dismissed both Rongen and Quraishi.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/fennelly\\-longtime\\-rowdies\\-a\\-self\\-made\\-owner\\-and\\-bruised\\-feelings/2277689/ \\| title\\=Longtime Rowdies, a self\\-made owner and bruised feelings \\| work\\=The Tampa Bay Times \\| date\\=May 17, 2016 \\| access\\-date\\=May 24, 2016 \\| author\\=Fennelly, Martin}} Assistant [Stuart Campbell](/wiki/Stuart_Campbell_%28footballer%29 \"Stuart Campbell (footballer)\") was promoted to manager and led the team to a 3–4–4 record. The Rowdies finished the fall season in 8th out of 11 teams in the league table and missed the playoffs.",
"### 2016 season",
"{{main\\|2016 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}",
"For the second consecutive year, the Rowdies visited Europe during the preseason, traveling to England in March to play several friendlies. The Rowdies held their own against three lower division sides, going 1–2–0 in official matches. The results of the [2016 NASL season](/wiki/2016_NASL_season \"2016 NASL season\") were not as good. The club went 4–4–2 in the NASL spring season, good for 5th out of eleven teams in the league table. However, results slipped in the fall portion of the schedule, and the Rowdies finished the season 9–11–12, missing the playoffs for the fourth consecutive year.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.tampabay.com/sports/soccer/rowdies\\-end\\-season\\-with\\-loss/2300680/ \\| title\\=Rowdies End Season With Loss \\| work\\=Tampa Bay Times \\| date\\=October 30, 2016 \\| access\\-date\\=October 31, 2016}} A few days before their final game of the season, the franchise announced they would be leaving the NASL to compete in the [United Soccer League](/wiki/United_Soccer_League \"United Soccer League\") beginning with the 2017 season.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.uslsoccer.com/news\\_article/show/713424?referrer\\_id\\=2333971\\|title\\=USL Expands with Additions of Tampa Bay Rowdies, Ottawa Fury FC\\|publisher\\=United Soccer League (USL)\\|date\\=October 25, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=October 25, 2016}}",
"### 2017 season",
"{{main\\|2017 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}",
"Having made the jump to the [USL](/wiki/United_Soccer_League \"United Soccer League\"), the Rowdies served notice that they were not to be taken lightly. During the regular season they lost only once at home, and en route to finishing in third position on the USL's Eastern Conference table, lost only two of their final 15 matches. They posted a record of 14–11–7 with 53 points to propel them into the playoffs. In the [USL Cup playoffs](/wiki/2017_USL_Playoffs \"2017 USL Playoffs\"), they lost in extra time at home in the conference semifinals. It was only their second home\\-loss of the season.",
"### 2018 season",
"{{main\\|2018 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}",
"After a strong start the team lost three straight without scoring a goal. This prompted the firing of head coach [Stuart Campbell](/wiki/Stuart_Campbell_%28footballer%29 \"Stuart Campbell (footballer)\") on May 17, with defender [Neill Collins](/wiki/Neill_Collins \"Neill Collins\") retiring to accept the coaching vacancy the following day.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Kennedy\\|first1\\=Will\\|title\\=Rowdies transition defender Neill Collins to head coach\\|url\\=https://www.tampabay.com/Rowdies\\-transition\\-defender\\-Neill\\-Collins\\-to\\-head\\-coach\\_168353687/\\|access\\-date\\=May 18, 2018\\|work\\=Tampa Bay Times\\|date\\=May 18, 2018}} On July 4 [Georgi Hristov](/wiki/Georgi_Hristov_%28footballer%2C_born_1985%29 \"Georgi Hristov (footballer, born 1985)\") scored his 58th career goal for the Rowdies, to pass [Derek Smethurst](/wiki/Derek_Smethurst \"Derek Smethurst\") and become the Rowdies’ all\\-time top scorer.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theunsubs.com/wp/2018/07/05/hristov\\-writes\\-more\\-rowdies\\-history\\-in\\-3\\-1\\-win\\-over\\-toronto/3955\\|title\\=Hristov Writes More Rowdies History in 3–1 Win Over Toronto\\|date\\=July 5, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2019}}\nThe team finished the season in 12th position on the Eastern Conference table.",
"### 2019 season",
"{{main\\|2019 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}",
"An extremely strong start saw the club go unbeaten in their first 13 matches and losing only once in their first 20\\. The final third of the season wasn't as successful, as the team lost half of their last 14 games, including 2 crucial losses to expansion sides in October that saw the club finish 5th in the Eastern Conference. Their return to the postseason was short\\-lived, as they lost 2–1 on the road in Louisville in the first round of the [2019 USL Championship Playoffs](/wiki/2019_USL_Championship_Playoffs \"2019 USL Championship Playoffs\"). Elsewhere, the club advanced to the third round of the [2019 U.S. Open Cup](/wiki/2019_U.S._Open_Cup \"2019 U.S. Open Cup\"), defeating [The Villages SC](/wiki/The_Villages_SC \"The Villages SC\") before falling to [OKC Energy FC](/wiki/OKC_Energy_FC \"OKC Energy FC\"). The club also entered into a partnership with [Norwich City FC](/wiki/Norwich_City_FC \"Norwich City FC\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rowdiessoccer.com/news\\_article/show/990135\\-rowdies\\-and\\-norwich\\-city\\-fc\\-launch\\-historic\\-partnership\\|title\\=Rowdies And Norwich City FC Launch Historic Partnership\\|website\\=rowdiessoccer.com}} that saw defender [Caleb Richards](/wiki/Caleb_Richards \"Caleb Richards\") arrive on a season\\-long loan. Richards made 34 appearances, playing all but two minutes of the regular season, and scoring one goal.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Historical chart of the Rowdies' regular season performance in the modern era](/wiki/File:Tampa_Bay_Rowdies_Historic_League_Performance.png \"Tampa Bay Rowdies Historic League Performance.png\")",
"### 2020 season",
"{{main\\|2020 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}\n{{update\\|date\\=November 2023}}",
"### 2021 season",
"{{main\\|2021 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}",
"### 2022 season",
"{{main\\|2022 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}",
"### 2023 season",
"{{main\\|2023 Tampa Bay Rowdies season}}",
""
] |
Bridges
-------
As a city situated on a river (the [Shannon](/wiki/River_Shannon "River Shannon")), and at a crossing point, Limerick's bridges are of vital importance to the region. They connect the northern bank of the river, and [County Clare](/wiki/County_Clare "County Clare"), to the southern bank and [County Limerick](/wiki/County_Limerick "County Limerick"). Apart from forming part of the Limerick to [Galway](/wiki/Galway "Galway") route, the crossings are important today in connecting [Shannon Airport](/wiki/Shannon_Airport "Shannon Airport") to the city and beyond.
### Thomond Bridge
[thumb\|Thomond Bridge](/wiki/File:Limerick_-_Thomond_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_331738.jpg "Limerick - Thomond Bridge - geograph.org.uk - 331738.jpg")
The earliest bridge, [Thomond Bridge](/wiki/Thomond_Bridge "Thomond Bridge"), was built near a [fording point](/wiki/Ford_%28river%29 "Ford (river)"). It was the scene of a failed defending of the city during the [Siege of Limerick](/wiki/Siege_of_Limerick_%281691%29 "Siege of Limerick (1691)"). At one ends sits the [Treaty Stone](/wiki/Treaty_Stone "Treaty Stone"), which stands as a symbol of the signed treaty. The treaty itself was probably signed in a campaign tent. The current bridge was built in 1836, replacing the earlier bridge which was also alongside King John's Castle. The bridge now forms part of the [R445](/wiki/R445_road "R445 road") (formerly [N7](/wiki/N7_road_%28Ireland%29 "N7 road (Ireland)")), carrying traffic on the *Northern Relief Road*.
### Sarsfield Bridge
The second of Limerick's River Shannon crossings is now called Sarsfield Bridge, to commemorate [Patrick Sarsfield](/wiki/Patrick_Sarsfield "Patrick Sarsfield"), the Earl of Lucan, who is renowned in Limerick for his role in the [Williamite War](/wiki/Williamite_War "Williamite War") and the 1691 siege and [Treaty of Limerick](/wiki/Treaty_of_Limerick "Treaty of Limerick") in particular. The bridge was opened as Wellesley Bridge on 5 August 1835, following 11 years of construction. It was designed by the Scottish engineer Alexander Nimmo and based on the [Pont de Neuilly](/wiki/Pont_de_Neuilly "Pont de Neuilly") in Paris. It was a particularly important development for the city as it allowed expansion to the northern shore of the river. The bridge itself consists of five large and elegant elliptical arches with an open balustrade, running from a man\-made island, originally called Wellesley Pier but now known as Shannon Island, to the northern shore, and a simple flat, swivel deck with iron lattice railings crossing a canal and road from the island to what was known as Brunswick Street, now Sarsfield Street. The swivel end is no longer functional, although some of its heavy machinery is still intact underneath the roadway. A lock system has replaced the swivel section to allow for the passage of smaller boats. Apart from this, the bridge has remained largely unchanged since it opened and still has its original lamp standards.Spellissy, S., *The History of Limerick City*, Celtic Bookshop, Limerick, 1998\. p.295\.
[right\|thumb\|1916 Monument on Sarsfield Bridge](/wiki/Image:1916MonumentLimerick.jpg "1916MonumentLimerick.jpg")
Rowing clubhouses sit on Shannon Island at either side of the bridge. The Shannon Rowing Club was founded by Sir Peter Tait in 1866 and has a very elegant clubhouse on the northern side. Limerick Boat Club was founded in 1870 and has a simpler structure on the southern side.Spellissy, p.242
A [monument](/wiki/1916_Memorial%2C_Limerick "1916 Memorial, Limerick") by sculptor [James Power](/wiki/James_Power_%28sculptor%29 "James Power (sculptor)") located on the bridge just above the Limerick Boat Club building, commemorates the [1916 Rising](/wiki/1916_Rising "1916 Rising"). An earlier monument on this site was a statue of Viscount Fitzgibbon of [Mountshannon House](/wiki/Mountshannon_House "Mountshannon House"),{{Cite web\|url\=http://limerickslife.com/crimean\-war/\|title\=Limerick's Link to the Crimean War, Liam O'Brien • Guest Posts\|date\=24 September 2013 \|access\-date\=30 July 2015\|archive\-date\=10 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610171136/http://limerickslife.com/crimean\-war/\|url\-status\=live}} who was killed in [The Charge of the Light Brigade](/wiki/The_Charge_of_the_Light_Brigade "The Charge of the Light Brigade") at [Balaclava](/wiki/Battle_of_Balaclava "Battle of Balaclava") in 1854, flanked by two Russian cannon captured in the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War"). This statue was blown up by the [Irish Republican Army](/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army "Irish Republican Army") in 1930\.Spellissy, p.297\. The [War of Independence](/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence "Irish War of Independence") memorial is located at the northern end of the bridge, commemorating two former mayors of Limerick ([George Clancy](/wiki/George_Clancy_%28politician%29 "George Clancy (politician)") and Michael O'Callaghan), among others, who were killed by the British in 1921\. The quays on the northern shore are called Clancy Strand and O'Callaghan Strand in their honour.
### Shannon Bridge
{{redirect\|Shannon Bridge\|the village in Co. Offaly\|Shannonbridge}}
[thumb\|Dedication plaque on Shannon Bridge](/wiki/File:Shannon_Bridge_dedication_plaque.jpg "Shannon Bridge dedication plaque.jpg")
The Shannon Bridge is by far the newest River Shannon crossing in Limerick city centre. It was built in the late 1980s, officially opening on 30 May 1988, and connects to a relief road that passes through a bird sanctuary and runs around the north of the city. The bridge is still at times referred to as "The New Bridge", although the Abbey Bridge across the Abbey River is newer. For some time after its construction, the bridge was also termed "The Whistling Bridge" — the fencing on the bridge resonated with the winds coming up the Shannon Estuary, producing a shrill whistling sound. In extreme winds, the sound was quite deafening. Simple grills were added, and the effect was ceased.{{Cite web\|url\=http://limerickslife.com/limerick\-bridges/\#shanb\|title\=Limerick Bridges • Limerick Places\|date\=19 July 2010 \|access\-date\=19 March 2013\|archive\-date\=27 February 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227095609/http://limerickslife.com/limerick\-bridges/\#shanb\|url\-status\=live}}
### Baal's Bridge
This is one of the oldest bridges in the city. The current structure was built in between 1830 and 1831 and is a single\-arched hump\-back limestone bridge. It replaced an earlier four\-arched bridge that formed the only link before the mid\-18th century crossing the Abbey river between Englishtown and Irishtown.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah/search.jsp?type\=record\&county\=LI\®no\=21513031\|title\=Baal's Bridge, Mary Street, Broad Street, LIMERICK MUNICIPAL BOROUGH, Limerick, LIMERICK\|access\-date\=22 September 2012\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304193942/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah/search.jsp?type\=record\&county\=LI\®no\=21513031\|url\-status\=live}} Early drawings show a row of houses on the bridge before it was replaced. During the construction of the new bridge in 1830 a significant archaeological object was found in the foundations of the old bridge. A brass [Square](/wiki/Square_and_Compasses "Square and Compasses") of [Freemasonry](/wiki/Freemasonry "Freemasonry") symbolism was found in the foundations with an inscription dating from 1507\. Also inscribed on the square is the text *I will strive to live with love and care upon the level, by the square*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.freemasonsnorthmunster.com/Baal's\_Bridge\_Square.htm \|title\=Baal's Bridge Square \|accessdate\=2012\-09\-22 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121205043740/http://www.freemasonsnorthmunster.com/Baal%27s\_Bridge\_Square.htm \|archivedate\=5 December 2012 \|df\=dmy }} It is reputed to be one of the earliest Masonic items to be found in the world.
### Other bridges and the tunnel
Another bridge at the northern end of [King's Island](/wiki/King%27s_Island%2C_Limerick "King's Island, Limerick"), connects to Corbally on the north of the city. This is a simpler bridge, further up the Shannon. The only other road bridge across the Shannon near the city is the "University Bridge", at the [University of Limerick](/wiki/University_of_Limerick "University of Limerick"). Opened in 2004 by then [Taoiseach](/wiki/Taoiseach "Taoiseach") [Bertie Ahern](/wiki/Bertie_Ahern "Bertie Ahern"), this fashionable modern bridge connects the recently commenced north bank campus (includes student villages/accommodation and [Health Science](/wiki/Health_Science "Health Science") building) to the main southern campus, but it does not serve as a public crossing point as there is no north bank entrance from the Clare side.
The university is also home to one of the longest footbridges in Europe – [The Living Bridge](/wiki/The_Living_Bridge "The Living Bridge").{{cite web\|title\=Arup wins award for Living Bridge \|work\=irishconstruction.com \|url\=http://www.irishconstruction.com/page/889 \|accessdate\=17 December 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402063431/http://www.irishconstruction.com/page/889 \|archivedate\=2 April 2009 \|df\=dmy }}
{{cite web \| title\=LM085 Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering \| work\=University of Limerick \| url\=http://www.ul.ie/courses/LM085\.shtml \| accessdate\=17 December 2008 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918202404/http://www.ul.ie/courses/LM085\.shtml \| archive\-date\=18 September 2010 \| url\-status\=dead }}
Another bridge is named after Dr. [Sylvester O'Halloran](/wiki/Sylvester_O%27Halloran "Sylvester O'Halloran"), which opened in 1987\.
The [Limerick Tunnel](/wiki/Limerick_Tunnel "Limerick Tunnel") opened in July 2010 as part of the Limerick Southern Road. The tunnel forms a fourth river crossing of the Shannon. It is a 675m long,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.limericktunnel.com/index.html\|title\=Direct Route\|access\-date\=15 October 2010\|archive\-date\=14 May 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514083305/http://limericktunnel.com/index.html\|url\-status\=live}} twin\-bore road tunnel underneath the [River Shannon](/wiki/River_Shannon "River Shannon") on the outskirts of the city.
|
[
"Bridges\n-------",
"As a city situated on a river (the [Shannon](/wiki/River_Shannon \"River Shannon\")), and at a crossing point, Limerick's bridges are of vital importance to the region. They connect the northern bank of the river, and [County Clare](/wiki/County_Clare \"County Clare\"), to the southern bank and [County Limerick](/wiki/County_Limerick \"County Limerick\"). Apart from forming part of the Limerick to [Galway](/wiki/Galway \"Galway\") route, the crossings are important today in connecting [Shannon Airport](/wiki/Shannon_Airport \"Shannon Airport\") to the city and beyond.",
"### Thomond Bridge",
"[thumb\\|Thomond Bridge](/wiki/File:Limerick_-_Thomond_Bridge_-_geograph.org.uk_-_331738.jpg \"Limerick - Thomond Bridge - geograph.org.uk - 331738.jpg\")\nThe earliest bridge, [Thomond Bridge](/wiki/Thomond_Bridge \"Thomond Bridge\"), was built near a [fording point](/wiki/Ford_%28river%29 \"Ford (river)\"). It was the scene of a failed defending of the city during the [Siege of Limerick](/wiki/Siege_of_Limerick_%281691%29 \"Siege of Limerick (1691)\"). At one ends sits the [Treaty Stone](/wiki/Treaty_Stone \"Treaty Stone\"), which stands as a symbol of the signed treaty. The treaty itself was probably signed in a campaign tent. The current bridge was built in 1836, replacing the earlier bridge which was also alongside King John's Castle. The bridge now forms part of the [R445](/wiki/R445_road \"R445 road\") (formerly [N7](/wiki/N7_road_%28Ireland%29 \"N7 road (Ireland)\")), carrying traffic on the *Northern Relief Road*.",
"### Sarsfield Bridge",
"The second of Limerick's River Shannon crossings is now called Sarsfield Bridge, to commemorate [Patrick Sarsfield](/wiki/Patrick_Sarsfield \"Patrick Sarsfield\"), the Earl of Lucan, who is renowned in Limerick for his role in the [Williamite War](/wiki/Williamite_War \"Williamite War\") and the 1691 siege and [Treaty of Limerick](/wiki/Treaty_of_Limerick \"Treaty of Limerick\") in particular. The bridge was opened as Wellesley Bridge on 5 August 1835, following 11 years of construction. It was designed by the Scottish engineer Alexander Nimmo and based on the [Pont de Neuilly](/wiki/Pont_de_Neuilly \"Pont de Neuilly\") in Paris. It was a particularly important development for the city as it allowed expansion to the northern shore of the river. The bridge itself consists of five large and elegant elliptical arches with an open balustrade, running from a man\\-made island, originally called Wellesley Pier but now known as Shannon Island, to the northern shore, and a simple flat, swivel deck with iron lattice railings crossing a canal and road from the island to what was known as Brunswick Street, now Sarsfield Street. The swivel end is no longer functional, although some of its heavy machinery is still intact underneath the roadway. A lock system has replaced the swivel section to allow for the passage of smaller boats. Apart from this, the bridge has remained largely unchanged since it opened and still has its original lamp standards.Spellissy, S., *The History of Limerick City*, Celtic Bookshop, Limerick, 1998\\. p.295\\.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|1916 Monument on Sarsfield Bridge](/wiki/Image:1916MonumentLimerick.jpg \"1916MonumentLimerick.jpg\")\nRowing clubhouses sit on Shannon Island at either side of the bridge. The Shannon Rowing Club was founded by Sir Peter Tait in 1866 and has a very elegant clubhouse on the northern side. Limerick Boat Club was founded in 1870 and has a simpler structure on the southern side.Spellissy, p.242",
"A [monument](/wiki/1916_Memorial%2C_Limerick \"1916 Memorial, Limerick\") by sculptor [James Power](/wiki/James_Power_%28sculptor%29 \"James Power (sculptor)\") located on the bridge just above the Limerick Boat Club building, commemorates the [1916 Rising](/wiki/1916_Rising \"1916 Rising\"). An earlier monument on this site was a statue of Viscount Fitzgibbon of [Mountshannon House](/wiki/Mountshannon_House \"Mountshannon House\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://limerickslife.com/crimean\\-war/\\|title\\=Limerick's Link to the Crimean War, Liam O'Brien • Guest Posts\\|date\\=24 September 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=10 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610171136/http://limerickslife.com/crimean\\-war/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} who was killed in [The Charge of the Light Brigade](/wiki/The_Charge_of_the_Light_Brigade \"The Charge of the Light Brigade\") at [Balaclava](/wiki/Battle_of_Balaclava \"Battle of Balaclava\") in 1854, flanked by two Russian cannon captured in the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\"). This statue was blown up by the [Irish Republican Army](/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army \"Irish Republican Army\") in 1930\\.Spellissy, p.297\\. The [War of Independence](/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence \"Irish War of Independence\") memorial is located at the northern end of the bridge, commemorating two former mayors of Limerick ([George Clancy](/wiki/George_Clancy_%28politician%29 \"George Clancy (politician)\") and Michael O'Callaghan), among others, who were killed by the British in 1921\\. The quays on the northern shore are called Clancy Strand and O'Callaghan Strand in their honour.",
"### Shannon Bridge",
"{{redirect\\|Shannon Bridge\\|the village in Co. Offaly\\|Shannonbridge}}\n[thumb\\|Dedication plaque on Shannon Bridge](/wiki/File:Shannon_Bridge_dedication_plaque.jpg \"Shannon Bridge dedication plaque.jpg\")\nThe Shannon Bridge is by far the newest River Shannon crossing in Limerick city centre. It was built in the late 1980s, officially opening on 30 May 1988, and connects to a relief road that passes through a bird sanctuary and runs around the north of the city. The bridge is still at times referred to as \"The New Bridge\", although the Abbey Bridge across the Abbey River is newer. For some time after its construction, the bridge was also termed \"The Whistling Bridge\" — the fencing on the bridge resonated with the winds coming up the Shannon Estuary, producing a shrill whistling sound. In extreme winds, the sound was quite deafening. Simple grills were added, and the effect was ceased.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://limerickslife.com/limerick\\-bridges/\\#shanb\\|title\\=Limerick Bridges • Limerick Places\\|date\\=19 July 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=19 March 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227095609/http://limerickslife.com/limerick\\-bridges/\\#shanb\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Baal's Bridge",
"This is one of the oldest bridges in the city. The current structure was built in between 1830 and 1831 and is a single\\-arched hump\\-back limestone bridge. It replaced an earlier four\\-arched bridge that formed the only link before the mid\\-18th century crossing the Abbey river between Englishtown and Irishtown.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah/search.jsp?type\\=record\\&county\\=LI\\®no\\=21513031\\|title\\=Baal's Bridge, Mary Street, Broad Street, LIMERICK MUNICIPAL BOROUGH, Limerick, LIMERICK\\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304193942/http://www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah/search.jsp?type\\=record\\&county\\=LI\\®no\\=21513031\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Early drawings show a row of houses on the bridge before it was replaced. During the construction of the new bridge in 1830 a significant archaeological object was found in the foundations of the old bridge. A brass [Square](/wiki/Square_and_Compasses \"Square and Compasses\") of [Freemasonry](/wiki/Freemasonry \"Freemasonry\") symbolism was found in the foundations with an inscription dating from 1507\\. Also inscribed on the square is the text *I will strive to live with love and care upon the level, by the square*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.freemasonsnorthmunster.com/Baal's\\_Bridge\\_Square.htm \\|title\\=Baal's Bridge Square \\|accessdate\\=2012\\-09\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121205043740/http://www.freemasonsnorthmunster.com/Baal%27s\\_Bridge\\_Square.htm \\|archivedate\\=5 December 2012 \\|df\\=dmy }} It is reputed to be one of the earliest Masonic items to be found in the world.",
"### Other bridges and the tunnel",
"Another bridge at the northern end of [King's Island](/wiki/King%27s_Island%2C_Limerick \"King's Island, Limerick\"), connects to Corbally on the north of the city. This is a simpler bridge, further up the Shannon. The only other road bridge across the Shannon near the city is the \"University Bridge\", at the [University of Limerick](/wiki/University_of_Limerick \"University of Limerick\"). Opened in 2004 by then [Taoiseach](/wiki/Taoiseach \"Taoiseach\") [Bertie Ahern](/wiki/Bertie_Ahern \"Bertie Ahern\"), this fashionable modern bridge connects the recently commenced north bank campus (includes student villages/accommodation and [Health Science](/wiki/Health_Science \"Health Science\") building) to the main southern campus, but it does not serve as a public crossing point as there is no north bank entrance from the Clare side.",
"The university is also home to one of the longest footbridges in Europe – [The Living Bridge](/wiki/The_Living_Bridge \"The Living Bridge\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Arup wins award for Living Bridge \\|work\\=irishconstruction.com \\|url\\=http://www.irishconstruction.com/page/889 \\|accessdate\\=17 December 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402063431/http://www.irishconstruction.com/page/889 \\|archivedate\\=2 April 2009 \\|df\\=dmy }}\n{{cite web \\| title\\=LM085 Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering \\| work\\=University of Limerick \\| url\\=http://www.ul.ie/courses/LM085\\.shtml \\| accessdate\\=17 December 2008 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918202404/http://www.ul.ie/courses/LM085\\.shtml \\| archive\\-date\\=18 September 2010 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Another bridge is named after Dr. [Sylvester O'Halloran](/wiki/Sylvester_O%27Halloran \"Sylvester O'Halloran\"), which opened in 1987\\.",
"The [Limerick Tunnel](/wiki/Limerick_Tunnel \"Limerick Tunnel\") opened in July 2010 as part of the Limerick Southern Road. The tunnel forms a fourth river crossing of the Shannon. It is a 675m long,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.limericktunnel.com/index.html\\|title\\=Direct Route\\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=14 May 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514083305/http://limericktunnel.com/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} twin\\-bore road tunnel underneath the [River Shannon](/wiki/River_Shannon \"River Shannon\") on the outskirts of the city.",
""
] |
Plot
----
{{Long plot\|date\=July 2015}}
[Hansel and Gretel](/wiki/Hansel_and_Gretel "Hansel and Gretel") are lost in the forest. Gretel thinks to see a dwarf in the bushes but it is a disgusting humanlike creature. It scares Hansel and Gretel who run further into the woods. Not long after, Bubi shows up and asks the creature for his name. The creature only reveals to be "The Evil One" and nobody else knows his real name. Bubi sneakily follows the creature and witnesses how it dances around a fire singing a song in which he mentions his real name.
The story moves to the castle where [Snow White](/wiki/Snow_White "Snow White") lives. She became a mother. Her husband, the [jester](/wiki/Jester "Jester"), left a year ago to buy some cigarettes in a nearby shop. Snow White wonders why this takes so long. The Evil One suddenly enters the castle and claims the child. The day before Spliss, one of Snow White guards, rescued The Evil One from a trap. The Evil One wanted to thank Spliss by giving him a wish. Spliss wished to have a beautiful haircut which he got, but he did not like the color and wanted to have it blond. The Evil One agreed on condition Spliss signs a contract so Snow White's child will become his property. Snow White asks The Evil One if the contract can be undone. The Evil One agrees nor or less: if someone can reveal his real name within 48 hours, Snow White can keep the child.
Snow White seeks for the dwarves, but is surprised only Bubi still lives in the cabin. Bubi explains this is Snow White her own fault. Some time ago she visited the dwarves telling them her husband is missing. She wanted to find a new man and this could be even a dwarf. There was one main condition: the man must have a successful career. Not much later all dwarves left except Bubi. Snow White is a bit surprised she can't remember her visit. Snow White asks Bubi to reunite the dwarves and to find the name of The Evil One.
The six other dwarves work in a nearby town. Cookie, Cloudy and Sunny have their own inn. Speedy is chief of the fire department. Ralfie works at the brewer. Tschakko exterminates vermin. Bubi finds them all to convince them to help Snow White. According to them, there is only one man who can help them: The Wise Grey. The dwarves can't find him. According his diary, he left for "The Fishing Palace" in another world. The dwarves find the magical mirror which once belonged to the former queen. They jump into the mirror and end up in the other world: modern Germany.
In the meantime, The Evil One arrives at the candy house of the witch, who is actually the former queen. The Evil One follows a therapy. The queen says she cannot remember three things: names, faces and a third other thing she does not know anymore. As the witch always forgets the real name of The Evil One, last one writes it down on a paper: [Rumpelstiltskin](/wiki/Rumpelstiltskin "Rumpelstiltskin"). He puts the paper in an envelope and hides it in the witch her conjuring book. The Evil One tells Snow White her baby will soon be his although he is afraid someone is in search for his real name. The witch uses her [crystal ball](/wiki/Crystal_ball "Crystal ball") and discovers the dwarves set up a mission. As she is still mad on the dwarves and Snow White she sends The Evil One to the other world to boycott the dwarves. The Evil One is gifted: he is a [shape shifter](/wiki/Shapeshifting "Shapeshifting").
The dwarves find The Wise Grey in some sort of [fish and chips](/wiki/Fish_and_chips "Fish and chips") stand. He does know The Evil One but never heard his real name. He does know the dwarves should look for it in the witches' candy house. The dwarves return to their own world by using a magic mirror in the railway station. In meantime, The Evil One tried unsuccessfully to stop the dwarves.
The dwarves head to the candy house where the witch tried to make her invisible. The Evil One is also present. The dwarves use a tricky way to obtain the envelope with The Evil One's real name. They all go to Snow White. However, The Evil One gave the dwarves an envelope with another name so the dwarves think his real name is [Mother Hulda](/wiki/Mother_Hulda "Mother Hulda"). They realize it was not Snow White who visited them to tell she is in search for a new man, but The Evil One. Eventually, Bubi says the real name is Rumpelstiltskin. He knew this the whole time and tried to tell but nobody let him speak. The dwarves also meet their former head dwarf Brummboss who became a king at the end of Männer allein im Wald. The king asks if he can become a dwarf again. This is rejected by the others as there are already seven dwarves.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"{{Long plot\\|date\\=July 2015}}\n[Hansel and Gretel](/wiki/Hansel_and_Gretel \"Hansel and Gretel\") are lost in the forest. Gretel thinks to see a dwarf in the bushes but it is a disgusting humanlike creature. It scares Hansel and Gretel who run further into the woods. Not long after, Bubi shows up and asks the creature for his name. The creature only reveals to be \"The Evil One\" and nobody else knows his real name. Bubi sneakily follows the creature and witnesses how it dances around a fire singing a song in which he mentions his real name.",
"The story moves to the castle where [Snow White](/wiki/Snow_White \"Snow White\") lives. She became a mother. Her husband, the [jester](/wiki/Jester \"Jester\"), left a year ago to buy some cigarettes in a nearby shop. Snow White wonders why this takes so long. The Evil One suddenly enters the castle and claims the child. The day before Spliss, one of Snow White guards, rescued The Evil One from a trap. The Evil One wanted to thank Spliss by giving him a wish. Spliss wished to have a beautiful haircut which he got, but he did not like the color and wanted to have it blond. The Evil One agreed on condition Spliss signs a contract so Snow White's child will become his property. Snow White asks The Evil One if the contract can be undone. The Evil One agrees nor or less: if someone can reveal his real name within 48 hours, Snow White can keep the child.",
"Snow White seeks for the dwarves, but is surprised only Bubi still lives in the cabin. Bubi explains this is Snow White her own fault. Some time ago she visited the dwarves telling them her husband is missing. She wanted to find a new man and this could be even a dwarf. There was one main condition: the man must have a successful career. Not much later all dwarves left except Bubi. Snow White is a bit surprised she can't remember her visit. Snow White asks Bubi to reunite the dwarves and to find the name of The Evil One.",
"The six other dwarves work in a nearby town. Cookie, Cloudy and Sunny have their own inn. Speedy is chief of the fire department. Ralfie works at the brewer. Tschakko exterminates vermin. Bubi finds them all to convince them to help Snow White. According to them, there is only one man who can help them: The Wise Grey. The dwarves can't find him. According his diary, he left for \"The Fishing Palace\" in another world. The dwarves find the magical mirror which once belonged to the former queen. They jump into the mirror and end up in the other world: modern Germany.",
"In the meantime, The Evil One arrives at the candy house of the witch, who is actually the former queen. The Evil One follows a therapy. The queen says she cannot remember three things: names, faces and a third other thing she does not know anymore. As the witch always forgets the real name of The Evil One, last one writes it down on a paper: [Rumpelstiltskin](/wiki/Rumpelstiltskin \"Rumpelstiltskin\"). He puts the paper in an envelope and hides it in the witch her conjuring book. The Evil One tells Snow White her baby will soon be his although he is afraid someone is in search for his real name. The witch uses her [crystal ball](/wiki/Crystal_ball \"Crystal ball\") and discovers the dwarves set up a mission. As she is still mad on the dwarves and Snow White she sends The Evil One to the other world to boycott the dwarves. The Evil One is gifted: he is a [shape shifter](/wiki/Shapeshifting \"Shapeshifting\").",
"The dwarves find The Wise Grey in some sort of [fish and chips](/wiki/Fish_and_chips \"Fish and chips\") stand. He does know The Evil One but never heard his real name. He does know the dwarves should look for it in the witches' candy house. The dwarves return to their own world by using a magic mirror in the railway station. In meantime, The Evil One tried unsuccessfully to stop the dwarves.",
"The dwarves head to the candy house where the witch tried to make her invisible. The Evil One is also present. The dwarves use a tricky way to obtain the envelope with The Evil One's real name. They all go to Snow White. However, The Evil One gave the dwarves an envelope with another name so the dwarves think his real name is [Mother Hulda](/wiki/Mother_Hulda \"Mother Hulda\"). They realize it was not Snow White who visited them to tell she is in search for a new man, but The Evil One. Eventually, Bubi says the real name is Rumpelstiltskin. He knew this the whole time and tried to tell but nobody let him speak. The dwarves also meet their former head dwarf Brummboss who became a king at the end of Männer allein im Wald. The king asks if he can become a dwarf again. This is rejected by the others as there are already seven dwarves.",
""
] |
Story
-----
In 1625, d'Argtagnan heads for [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") from [Gascony](/wiki/Gascony "Gascony") and tries to meet the Three Musketeers there. From this, he grows up into a musketeer despite being involved in a struggle of power between [Anne of Austria](/wiki/Anne_of_Austria "Anne of Austria") and [Cardinal Richelieu](/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu "Cardinal Richelieu").
But the dissolution of the Guards by Richelieu makes the lives of the musketeers change a lot. D' Artagnan meets former captain Treville who is a [groom](/wiki/Groom "Groom") for king and then searches Athos, Porthos and Aramis with labour. Then Trėville tells the musketeers that d'Artagnan is a son of Bertand who taught them [fencing](/wiki/Fencing "Fencing") and train him to a full\-fledged musketeer. He also tells d'Artagnan to learn courage from Athos, wisdom from Aramis and humour from Porthos.
One day Bonacieux, owner of the house the musketeers and d'Atragnan live in asks them to search his young wife Constance who serves Anne of Austria. At that time, Constance is imprisoned and questioned by Cardinal Richelieu about the Duke of Buckingham, who is said to visit Paris incognito. After that, Constance runs away from prison and make the queen meet the Duke of Buckingham secretly. Anne hands him her [necklace](/wiki/Necklace "Necklace") with twelve [diamonds](/wiki/Diamond "Diamond") as a memory of their tryst.
However, Milady de Winter, a [spy](/wiki/Spy "Spy") for Richelieu who serves Anne under the false name of Charlotte schemes the queen to wear a necklace at a [ball](/wiki/Ball_%28dance%29 "Ball (dance)") to be held one week later. Then the musketeers, d'Artagnan and Constance hurry to [London](/wiki/London "London") to take back it despite being chased by Milady and Rochefort. Finally only d'Artagnan and Constance reach the residence of the Duke of Buckingham safely but find that two of twelve diamonds are stolen by Milady and O'Reilly, a [jeweller](/wiki/Jewellery "Jewellery") adds two diamonds anew. Though they lose it on their way to Paris, the necklace is sent to Anne miraculously.
After the ball, d'Artagnan becomes a musketeer for the achievement. At the same time, Milady tries to revenge the musketeers and seduces Bonacieux to kidnap his wife Constance but Aramis saves her and she is sheltered in a [convent](/wiki/Convent "Convent"). On the other hand, d'Artagnan is worried about the request of leading the Guards of Richrlieu and his isolation from the three musketeers for he never hears of the kidnaping of Constance and what Aramis does for her. Finally he accepts the cardinal's offer.
Both the Guards of Louis XIII and that of Richelieu march to [La Rochelle](/wiki/La_Rochelle "La Rochelle") but are forced into a hard fight against the Protestant [rebel](/wiki/Rebellion "Rebellion") supported by the Duke of Buckingham and d'Artangan and his soldiers are commanded to spearhead. It is schemed by Richelieu to kill the king's musketeers at an early stage though he survives the war while the three musketeers leaves the battlefield. And Milady goes to [England](/wiki/England "England") to assassinate the Duke of Buckingham who is killed by a [scorpion](/wiki/Scorpion "Scorpion") at last.
After the war, Trėville is killed by Rochefort after a [duel](/wiki/Duel "Duel") and tells Constance and d'Artagnan that he is a son of Rochefort in reality before his death. Milady is arrested for killing the Duke of Buckingham and about to be executed but saved by the musketeers. She then runs away breaking the promise of living with Athos. It makes Athos disappointed but he is encouraged by d'Artagnan, who is appointed as a new captain of the Guards. Porthos, who becomes [shell shock](/wiki/Shell_shock "Shell shock") at La Rochelle gets back his health by Madame Coquenard's dedicated care and marries her. And Aramis returns to their house from [monastery](/wiki/Monastery "Monastery") in which he shuts himself.
One evening, the three musketeers are in their favourite [tavern](/wiki/Tavern "Tavern") and find a boy who resembles young d'Artagnan imitates fencing. He tells them that he would like to become a musketeer and serve king so they teach him how to fence uttering "attack, attack, and parry!"Memorial pp.98\-109
|
[
"Story\n-----",
"In 1625, d'Argtagnan heads for [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") from [Gascony](/wiki/Gascony \"Gascony\") and tries to meet the Three Musketeers there. From this, he grows up into a musketeer despite being involved in a struggle of power between [Anne of Austria](/wiki/Anne_of_Austria \"Anne of Austria\") and [Cardinal Richelieu](/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu \"Cardinal Richelieu\").",
"But the dissolution of the Guards by Richelieu makes the lives of the musketeers change a lot. D' Artagnan meets former captain Treville who is a [groom](/wiki/Groom \"Groom\") for king and then searches Athos, Porthos and Aramis with labour. Then Trėville tells the musketeers that d'Artagnan is a son of Bertand who taught them [fencing](/wiki/Fencing \"Fencing\") and train him to a full\\-fledged musketeer. He also tells d'Artagnan to learn courage from Athos, wisdom from Aramis and humour from Porthos.",
"One day Bonacieux, owner of the house the musketeers and d'Atragnan live in asks them to search his young wife Constance who serves Anne of Austria. At that time, Constance is imprisoned and questioned by Cardinal Richelieu about the Duke of Buckingham, who is said to visit Paris incognito. After that, Constance runs away from prison and make the queen meet the Duke of Buckingham secretly. Anne hands him her [necklace](/wiki/Necklace \"Necklace\") with twelve [diamonds](/wiki/Diamond \"Diamond\") as a memory of their tryst.",
"However, Milady de Winter, a [spy](/wiki/Spy \"Spy\") for Richelieu who serves Anne under the false name of Charlotte schemes the queen to wear a necklace at a [ball](/wiki/Ball_%28dance%29 \"Ball (dance)\") to be held one week later. Then the musketeers, d'Artagnan and Constance hurry to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") to take back it despite being chased by Milady and Rochefort. Finally only d'Artagnan and Constance reach the residence of the Duke of Buckingham safely but find that two of twelve diamonds are stolen by Milady and O'Reilly, a [jeweller](/wiki/Jewellery \"Jewellery\") adds two diamonds anew. Though they lose it on their way to Paris, the necklace is sent to Anne miraculously.",
"After the ball, d'Artagnan becomes a musketeer for the achievement. At the same time, Milady tries to revenge the musketeers and seduces Bonacieux to kidnap his wife Constance but Aramis saves her and she is sheltered in a [convent](/wiki/Convent \"Convent\"). On the other hand, d'Artagnan is worried about the request of leading the Guards of Richrlieu and his isolation from the three musketeers for he never hears of the kidnaping of Constance and what Aramis does for her. Finally he accepts the cardinal's offer.",
"Both the Guards of Louis XIII and that of Richelieu march to [La Rochelle](/wiki/La_Rochelle \"La Rochelle\") but are forced into a hard fight against the Protestant [rebel](/wiki/Rebellion \"Rebellion\") supported by the Duke of Buckingham and d'Artangan and his soldiers are commanded to spearhead. It is schemed by Richelieu to kill the king's musketeers at an early stage though he survives the war while the three musketeers leaves the battlefield. And Milady goes to [England](/wiki/England \"England\") to assassinate the Duke of Buckingham who is killed by a [scorpion](/wiki/Scorpion \"Scorpion\") at last.",
"After the war, Trėville is killed by Rochefort after a [duel](/wiki/Duel \"Duel\") and tells Constance and d'Artagnan that he is a son of Rochefort in reality before his death. Milady is arrested for killing the Duke of Buckingham and about to be executed but saved by the musketeers. She then runs away breaking the promise of living with Athos. It makes Athos disappointed but he is encouraged by d'Artagnan, who is appointed as a new captain of the Guards. Porthos, who becomes [shell shock](/wiki/Shell_shock \"Shell shock\") at La Rochelle gets back his health by Madame Coquenard's dedicated care and marries her. And Aramis returns to their house from [monastery](/wiki/Monastery \"Monastery\") in which he shuts himself.",
"One evening, the three musketeers are in their favourite [tavern](/wiki/Tavern \"Tavern\") and find a boy who resembles young d'Artagnan imitates fencing. He tells them that he would like to become a musketeer and serve king so they teach him how to fence uttering \"attack, attack, and parry!\"Memorial pp.98\\-109",
""
] |
Production
----------
### Background
[thumb\|right\|The main coffee producing states of India](/wiki/File:Coffee_growing_areas_of_India.png "Coffee growing areas of India.png")
[thumb\|right\|Karnataka coffee beans](/wiki/File:Indian_coffee_beans.jpg "Indian coffee beans.jpg")
As in [Ceylon](/wiki/Ceylon "Ceylon"), coffee production in India declined rapidly from the 1870s and was massively outgrown by the emerging tea industry. The devastating [coffee rust](/wiki/Coffee_rust "Coffee rust") affected the output of coffee to the point that the costs of production saw coffee plantations in many parts replaced with tea plantations.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Mu48AAAAIAAJ\&pg\=PA462\|title\=The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Volume 1\|publisher\=CUP\|year\=1929\|page\=462}} However, the coffee industry was not as affected by this disease as in Ceylon, and although overshadowed in scale by the tea industry, India was still one of the strongholds of coffee production in the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") along with [British Guiana](/wiki/British_Guiana "British Guiana"). In the period 1910–12, the area under coffee plantation was reported to be {{convert\|203134\|acre}} in the southern states, and was mostly exported to England.
In the 1940s, [Indian filter coffee](/wiki/Indian_filter_coffee "Indian filter coffee"), a sweet milky coffee made from dark roasted coffee beans (70%–80%) and [chicory](/wiki/Chicory "Chicory") (20%–30%) became a commercial success. It was especially popular in the southern states of [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh"), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka"), [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala "Kerala") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu"). The most commonly used coffee beans are [Arabica](/wiki/Arabica_coffee "Arabica coffee") and [Robusta](/wiki/Robusta_coffee "Robusta coffee") grown in the hills of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") ([Kodagu](/wiki/Kodagu "Kodagu"), [Chikkamagaluru](/wiki/Chikkamagaluru "Chikkamagaluru") and [Hassan](/wiki/Hassan%2C_Karnataka "Hassan, Karnataka")), [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala "Kerala") ([Malabar](/wiki/Malabar_%28Northern_Kerala%29 "Malabar (Northern Kerala)") region) and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") ([Nilgiris District](/wiki/Nilgiris_District "Nilgiris District"), [Yercaud](/wiki/Yercaud "Yercaud") and [Kodaikanal](/wiki/Kodaikanal "Kodaikanal")).
Coffee production in India grew rapidly in the 1970s, increasing from 68,948 tonnes in 1971–72 to 120,000 tonnes in 1979–80 and grew by 4\.6 percent in the 1980s.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=soowfYHKJloC\&pg\=PA112\|title\=Medium\-term prospects for agricultural commodities: projections to the year 2000\|publisher\=\[\[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations\|page\=112\|year\=1994\|isbn\=92\-5\-103482\-6}} It grew by more than 30 percent in the 1990s, rivalled only by Uganda in the growth of production.{{cite journal\|title\=The Eastern economist \|volume\=75 \|issue\=2\|year\=1980\|pages\=950–1}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kUu4DjBo4WQC\&pg\=PA128\|author\=Talbot, John M.\|title\=Grounds for agreement: the political economy of the coffee commodity chain\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield\|year\=2004\|page\=128\|isbn\=0\-7425\-2629\-1}} By 2007, organic coffee was grown in about {{convert\|2600\|ha}} with an estimated production of about 1,700 tonnes. According to the 2008 statistics published by the [Food and Agriculture Organization](/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization "Food and Agriculture Organization") (FAO), the area of coffee green harvested in India was {{convert\|342000\|ha}},{{Cite web\|url\=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID\=567\#ancor\|title\=Area Harvested (ha)\|access\-date\=2010\-10\-06\|publisher\=FAO}} with yield estimates of 7,660 hectogram/ha,{{Cite web\|url\=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID\=567\#ancor\|title\=Yield Harvested (hg/Ha)\|access\-date\=2010\-10\-06\|publisher\=FAO}} forming a total production estimate of 262,000 tonnes.{{Cite web\|url\= http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID\=567\#ancor\|title\=Production (tonnes)\|access\-date\=2010\-10\-06\|publisher\=FAO}}
There are approximately 250,000 coffee growers in India; 98% of them are small growers. Over 90 percent of them are small farms consisting of {{convert\|10\|acre}} or fewer. According to published statistics for 2001–2002, the total area under coffee in India was {{convert\|346995\|ha\|acre}} with small holdings of 175,475 accounting for 71\.2%. The area under large holding of more than {{convert\|100\|ha}} was {{convert\|31571\|ha}} (only 9\.1% of all holdings) only under 167 holdings. The area under less than {{convert\|2\|ha}} holdings was {{convert\|114546\|ha}} (33% of the total area) among 138,209 holders.
| Size of holdings | Numbers (2001–2002\) | Area of holding |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Less than 10 ha {{convert\|10\|ha}} | 175,475 | {{convert\|247087\|ha}} |
| Between 10 and 100 ha and above | 2,833 | {{convert\|99908\|ha}} |
| Total | 178,308 | {{convert\|346995\|ha}} |
The most important areas of production are in the southern [states](/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India "States and union territories of India") of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka"), Kerala, and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") which accounted for over 92% of India's coffee production in the 2005–2006 growing season. In this same season, India exported over {{convert\|440000\|lb}} of coffee, with over 25% destined for Italy. Traditionally, India has been a noted producer of *Arabica* coffee but in the last decade *robusta* beans are growing substantially due to high yields, which now account for over 60 percent of coffee produced in India. The domestic consumption of coffee increased from 50,000 tonnes in 1995 to 94,400 tonnes in 2008\.{{cite web\|title\=Coffee Board of India\|url\=http://www.indiacoffee.org/aboutus.aspx\|website\=indiacoffee.org\|access\-date\=10 February 2017}}
According to the statistics provided by the Coffee Board of India, the estimated production of Robusta and Arabica coffee for the "Post Monsoon Estimation 2009–10" and "Post Blossom Estimation 2010–11" in different states accounted for a total of 308,000 tonnes and 289,600 tonnes, respectively.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.indiacoffee.org/indiacoffee.php?page\=CoffeeData\|title\=Database on Coffee – May–June 2010\|access\-date\=1 December 2010\|publisher\=Coffee Board of India\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815055117/http://www.indiacoffee.org/indiacoffee.php?page\=CoffeeData\|archive\-date\=15 August 2010\|url\-status\=dead}} As of 2010, between 70% and 80% of Indian grown coffee is exported overseas.{{cite news\|url\=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign\-trade/Coffee\-exports\-rise\-57\-pc\-in\-Jan\-Nov\-to\-271\-L\-tn/articleshow/7025245\.cms\|title\=Coffee exports rise 57 pc in Jan–Nov to 2\.71 L tn\|newspaper\=\[\[The Economic Times]]\|access\-date\=1 December 2010\|date\=1 December 2010}}
### Growing conditions
All coffee grown in India are grown in shade and commonly with two tiers of shade. Often inter\-cropped with spices such as [cardamom](/wiki/Cardamom "Cardamom"), [cinnamon](/wiki/Cinnamon "Cinnamon"), [clove](/wiki/Clove "Clove"), and [nutmeg](/wiki/Nutmeg "Nutmeg"), the coffees gain aromatics from the inter\-cropping, storage, and handling functions.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.coffeereview.com/article.cfm?ID\=10\|title\=Indias\|last\=Davids\|first\=Ken\|date\=January 2001\|work\=coffeereview.com\|access\-date\=1 December 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708174455/http://www.coffeereview.com/article.cfm?ID\=10\|archive\-date\=8 July 2011\|url\-status\=dead}} Growing altitudes range between {{convert\|1000\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} to {{convert\|1500\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} [above sea level](/wiki/Above_mean_sea_level "Above mean sea level") for *[Arabica](/wiki/Arabica_coffee "Arabica coffee")* (premier coffee), and {{convert\|500\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} to {{convert\|1000\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} for *[Robusta](/wiki/Robusta_coffee "Robusta coffee")* (though of lower quality, it is robust to environment conditions).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.indiacoffee.org/indiacoffee.php?page\=CoffeeRegionsIndia\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225202559/http://www1\.indiacoffee.org/indiacoffee.php?page\=CoffeeRegionsIndia\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=25 December 2008\|title\=Coffee Regions – India\|date\=16 September 2009\|work\=indiacoffee.org\|publisher\=Coffee Board\|access\-date\=1 December 2010\|location\=\[\[Bengaluru]], India}} Ideally, both *Arabica* and *Robusta* are planted in well\-drained soil conditions that favour rich organic matter that is slightly acidic (pH 6\.0–6\.5\). However, India's coffees tend to be moderately acidic which can lead to either a balanced and sweet taste, or a listless and inert one. Slopes of *Arabica* tend to be gentle to moderate, while *Robusta* slopes are gentle to fairly level.
Blooming and maturing
[thumb\|right\|Coffee flower](/wiki/File:Coffea_canephora_1_at_Aanakkulam.jpg "Coffea canephora 1 at Aanakkulam.jpg")
[right\|thumb\|Irrigated coffee plantation](/wiki/File:Irrigation_in_Coffee_Plantations_9.jpg "Irrigation in Coffee Plantations 9.jpg")
Blooming is the time when coffee plants bloom with white flowers which last for about 3–4 days (termed "evanescent" period) before they mature into seeds. When coffee plantations are in full bloom it is a delightful sight to watch. The time period between blooming and maturing of the fruit varies appreciably with the variety and the climate; for the *Arabica*, it is about seven months, and for the *Robusta*, about nine months. The fruit is gathered by hand when it is fully ripe and red\-purple in colour.{{Cite book\|title\= The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 1\|author1\= Hau Leung Lee\| author2\=Chung\-Yee Lee \|page\=158\|access\-date\=1 December 2010\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eYcoAQAAIAAJ\&q\=ripe\+\+and\+red\-purple\+in\+colour\|publisher\=Britannica,com\|year\=1991\|isbn\=0\-85229\-529\-4}}{{Cite web\|url\= http://www.google.co.in/search?hl\=en\&client\=firefox\-a\&hs\=udM\&rls\=org.mozilla%3Aen\-US%3Aofficial\&q\=blooming\+and\+maturing\+of\+the\+fruit\+varies\+appreciably\+with\+the\+variety\+and\+the\+climate%3B\+for\+the\+Arabica%2C\&btnG\=Search\&aq\=f\&aqi\=\&aql\=\&oq\=\&gs\_rfai \|title\=Britannica – "coffee production" article\|access\-date\=1 December 2010\|publisher\=Britannica.com Mobile}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/54339\-Chikmagalur\-Karnataka\-where\-coffee\-was\-first\-planted\-India.aspx \|title\=Chikmagalur in Karnataka, where coffee was first planted in India. \|access\-date\=1 December 2010 \|publisher\=India Study Channel }}{{dead link\|date\=November 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
Climatic conditions
Ideal climatic conditions to grow coffee are related to temperature and rainfall; temperatures in the range of {{convert\|73\|F}} and {{convert\|82\|F}} with rainfall incidence in the range of {{convert\|60\|\-\|80\|inch\|m}} followed by a dry spell of 2–3 months suit the *Arabica* variety. Cold temperatures closer to freezing conditions are not suitable to grow coffee. Where the rainfall is less than {{convert\|40\|in\|m}}, providing [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation "Irrigation") facilities is essential. In the tropical region of the south Indian hills, these conditions prevail leading to coffee plantations flourishing in large numbers.{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/124337/coffee\|title\=Coffee Production\|access\-date\=2010\-10\-05\|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Relative humidity for *Arabica* ranges 70–80% while for *Robusta* it ranges 80–90%.
[thumb\|left\|Cobras on an Indian coffee plantation](/wiki/File:Indian_coffee_plantation_snakes.jpg "Indian coffee plantation snakes.jpg")
Coffee diseases
One of the most prevalent diseases that coffee plants are subjected to in India is fungal growth. This fungus is called the *[Hemileia vastatrix](/wiki/Hemileia_vastatrix "Hemileia vastatrix"),* an [endophytous](/wiki/Endophytous "Endophytous") that grows within the matter of the leaf; an effective remedy has not yet been discovered to eliminate it. Another prevalent disease is known as [coffee rot](/wiki/Coffee_rust "Coffee rust"), which can cause severe damage during the rainy season, particularly to plantations in Karnataka. *Pellicularia koleroga* is the name given to this rot or rust, which turns the leaves a black color with a slimy gelatinous film. It is now classified as *[Ceratobasidium noxium](/wiki/Ceratobasidium_noxium "Ceratobasidium noxium")* This causes the coffee leaves and clusters of coffee berries to drop to the ground. In addition, snakes such as [cobras](/wiki/Cobra "Cobra") are a nuisance and potential threat to workers in Indian coffee plantations.
### Processing
Processing of coffee in India is accomplished using two methods, dry processing and wet processing. Dry processing is the traditional method of drying in the sun which is retains flavor producing fruit characteristics. In the wet processing method, coffee beans are fermented and washed, which is the preferred method for improved yields. As to the wet processing, the beans are subject to cleaning to segregate defective seeds. The beans of different varieties and sizes are then blended to derive the best flavor. The next procedure is to roast either through roasters or individual roasters. Then the roasted coffee is ground to appropriate sizes.
|
[
"Production\n----------",
"### Background",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The main coffee producing states of India](/wiki/File:Coffee_growing_areas_of_India.png \"Coffee growing areas of India.png\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Karnataka coffee beans](/wiki/File:Indian_coffee_beans.jpg \"Indian coffee beans.jpg\")\nAs in [Ceylon](/wiki/Ceylon \"Ceylon\"), coffee production in India declined rapidly from the 1870s and was massively outgrown by the emerging tea industry. The devastating [coffee rust](/wiki/Coffee_rust \"Coffee rust\") affected the output of coffee to the point that the costs of production saw coffee plantations in many parts replaced with tea plantations.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Mu48AAAAIAAJ\\&pg\\=PA462\\|title\\=The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Volume 1\\|publisher\\=CUP\\|year\\=1929\\|page\\=462}} However, the coffee industry was not as affected by this disease as in Ceylon, and although overshadowed in scale by the tea industry, India was still one of the strongholds of coffee production in the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\") along with [British Guiana](/wiki/British_Guiana \"British Guiana\"). In the period 1910–12, the area under coffee plantation was reported to be {{convert\\|203134\\|acre}} in the southern states, and was mostly exported to England.",
"In the 1940s, [Indian filter coffee](/wiki/Indian_filter_coffee \"Indian filter coffee\"), a sweet milky coffee made from dark roasted coffee beans (70%–80%) and [chicory](/wiki/Chicory \"Chicory\") (20%–30%) became a commercial success. It was especially popular in the southern states of [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh \"Andhra Pradesh\"), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\"), [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala \"Kerala\") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\"). The most commonly used coffee beans are [Arabica](/wiki/Arabica_coffee \"Arabica coffee\") and [Robusta](/wiki/Robusta_coffee \"Robusta coffee\") grown in the hills of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\") ([Kodagu](/wiki/Kodagu \"Kodagu\"), [Chikkamagaluru](/wiki/Chikkamagaluru \"Chikkamagaluru\") and [Hassan](/wiki/Hassan%2C_Karnataka \"Hassan, Karnataka\")), [Kerala](/wiki/Kerala \"Kerala\") ([Malabar](/wiki/Malabar_%28Northern_Kerala%29 \"Malabar (Northern Kerala)\") region) and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\") ([Nilgiris District](/wiki/Nilgiris_District \"Nilgiris District\"), [Yercaud](/wiki/Yercaud \"Yercaud\") and [Kodaikanal](/wiki/Kodaikanal \"Kodaikanal\")).",
"Coffee production in India grew rapidly in the 1970s, increasing from 68,948 tonnes in 1971–72 to 120,000 tonnes in 1979–80 and grew by 4\\.6 percent in the 1980s.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=soowfYHKJloC\\&pg\\=PA112\\|title\\=Medium\\-term prospects for agricultural commodities: projections to the year 2000\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations\\|page\\=112\\|year\\=1994\\|isbn\\=92\\-5\\-103482\\-6}} It grew by more than 30 percent in the 1990s, rivalled only by Uganda in the growth of production.{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Eastern economist \\|volume\\=75 \\|issue\\=2\\|year\\=1980\\|pages\\=950–1}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kUu4DjBo4WQC\\&pg\\=PA128\\|author\\=Talbot, John M.\\|title\\=Grounds for agreement: the political economy of the coffee commodity chain\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield\\|year\\=2004\\|page\\=128\\|isbn\\=0\\-7425\\-2629\\-1}} By 2007, organic coffee was grown in about {{convert\\|2600\\|ha}} with an estimated production of about 1,700 tonnes. According to the 2008 statistics published by the [Food and Agriculture Organization](/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization \"Food and Agriculture Organization\") (FAO), the area of coffee green harvested in India was {{convert\\|342000\\|ha}},{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID\\=567\\#ancor\\|title\\=Area Harvested (ha)\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-06\\|publisher\\=FAO}} with yield estimates of 7,660 hectogram/ha,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID\\=567\\#ancor\\|title\\=Yield Harvested (hg/Ha)\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-06\\|publisher\\=FAO}} forming a total production estimate of 262,000 tonnes.{{Cite web\\|url\\= http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID\\=567\\#ancor\\|title\\=Production (tonnes)\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-06\\|publisher\\=FAO}}",
"There are approximately 250,000 coffee growers in India; 98% of them are small growers. Over 90 percent of them are small farms consisting of {{convert\\|10\\|acre}} or fewer. According to published statistics for 2001–2002, the total area under coffee in India was {{convert\\|346995\\|ha\\|acre}} with small holdings of 175,475 accounting for 71\\.2%. The area under large holding of more than {{convert\\|100\\|ha}} was {{convert\\|31571\\|ha}} (only 9\\.1% of all holdings) only under 167 holdings. The area under less than {{convert\\|2\\|ha}} holdings was {{convert\\|114546\\|ha}} (33% of the total area) among 138,209 holders.",
"| Size of holdings | Numbers (2001–2002\\) | Area of holding |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Less than 10 ha {{convert\\|10\\|ha}} | 175,475 | {{convert\\|247087\\|ha}} |\n| Between 10 and 100 ha and above | 2,833 | {{convert\\|99908\\|ha}} |\n| Total | 178,308 | {{convert\\|346995\\|ha}} |",
"",
"The most important areas of production are in the southern [states](/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India \"States and union territories of India\") of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\"), Kerala, and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\") which accounted for over 92% of India's coffee production in the 2005–2006 growing season. In this same season, India exported over {{convert\\|440000\\|lb}} of coffee, with over 25% destined for Italy. Traditionally, India has been a noted producer of *Arabica* coffee but in the last decade *robusta* beans are growing substantially due to high yields, which now account for over 60 percent of coffee produced in India. The domestic consumption of coffee increased from 50,000 tonnes in 1995 to 94,400 tonnes in 2008\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Coffee Board of India\\|url\\=http://www.indiacoffee.org/aboutus.aspx\\|website\\=indiacoffee.org\\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2017}}\nAccording to the statistics provided by the Coffee Board of India, the estimated production of Robusta and Arabica coffee for the \"Post Monsoon Estimation 2009–10\" and \"Post Blossom Estimation 2010–11\" in different states accounted for a total of 308,000 tonnes and 289,600 tonnes, respectively.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.indiacoffee.org/indiacoffee.php?page\\=CoffeeData\\|title\\=Database on Coffee – May–June 2010\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2010\\|publisher\\=Coffee Board of India\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815055117/http://www.indiacoffee.org/indiacoffee.php?page\\=CoffeeData\\|archive\\-date\\=15 August 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} As of 2010, between 70% and 80% of Indian grown coffee is exported overseas.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign\\-trade/Coffee\\-exports\\-rise\\-57\\-pc\\-in\\-Jan\\-Nov\\-to\\-271\\-L\\-tn/articleshow/7025245\\.cms\\|title\\=Coffee exports rise 57 pc in Jan–Nov to 2\\.71 L tn\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Economic Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2010\\|date\\=1 December 2010}}",
"### Growing conditions",
"All coffee grown in India are grown in shade and commonly with two tiers of shade. Often inter\\-cropped with spices such as [cardamom](/wiki/Cardamom \"Cardamom\"), [cinnamon](/wiki/Cinnamon \"Cinnamon\"), [clove](/wiki/Clove \"Clove\"), and [nutmeg](/wiki/Nutmeg \"Nutmeg\"), the coffees gain aromatics from the inter\\-cropping, storage, and handling functions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coffeereview.com/article.cfm?ID\\=10\\|title\\=Indias\\|last\\=Davids\\|first\\=Ken\\|date\\=January 2001\\|work\\=coffeereview.com\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708174455/http://www.coffeereview.com/article.cfm?ID\\=10\\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Growing altitudes range between {{convert\\|1000\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} to {{convert\\|1500\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} [above sea level](/wiki/Above_mean_sea_level \"Above mean sea level\") for *[Arabica](/wiki/Arabica_coffee \"Arabica coffee\")* (premier coffee), and {{convert\\|500\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} to {{convert\\|1000\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} for *[Robusta](/wiki/Robusta_coffee \"Robusta coffee\")* (though of lower quality, it is robust to environment conditions).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.indiacoffee.org/indiacoffee.php?page\\=CoffeeRegionsIndia\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225202559/http://www1\\.indiacoffee.org/indiacoffee.php?page\\=CoffeeRegionsIndia\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=25 December 2008\\|title\\=Coffee Regions – India\\|date\\=16 September 2009\\|work\\=indiacoffee.org\\|publisher\\=Coffee Board\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2010\\|location\\=\\[\\[Bengaluru]], India}} Ideally, both *Arabica* and *Robusta* are planted in well\\-drained soil conditions that favour rich organic matter that is slightly acidic (pH 6\\.0–6\\.5\\). However, India's coffees tend to be moderately acidic which can lead to either a balanced and sweet taste, or a listless and inert one. Slopes of *Arabica* tend to be gentle to moderate, while *Robusta* slopes are gentle to fairly level.",
"Blooming and maturing\n[thumb\\|right\\|Coffee flower](/wiki/File:Coffea_canephora_1_at_Aanakkulam.jpg \"Coffea canephora 1 at Aanakkulam.jpg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|Irrigated coffee plantation](/wiki/File:Irrigation_in_Coffee_Plantations_9.jpg \"Irrigation in Coffee Plantations 9.jpg\")\nBlooming is the time when coffee plants bloom with white flowers which last for about 3–4 days (termed \"evanescent\" period) before they mature into seeds. When coffee plantations are in full bloom it is a delightful sight to watch. The time period between blooming and maturing of the fruit varies appreciably with the variety and the climate; for the *Arabica*, it is about seven months, and for the *Robusta*, about nine months. The fruit is gathered by hand when it is fully ripe and red\\-purple in colour.{{Cite book\\|title\\= The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 1\\|author1\\= Hau Leung Lee\\| author2\\=Chung\\-Yee Lee \\|page\\=158\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2010\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eYcoAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=ripe\\+\\+and\\+red\\-purple\\+in\\+colour\\|publisher\\=Britannica,com\\|year\\=1991\\|isbn\\=0\\-85229\\-529\\-4}}{{Cite web\\|url\\= http://www.google.co.in/search?hl\\=en\\&client\\=firefox\\-a\\&hs\\=udM\\&rls\\=org.mozilla%3Aen\\-US%3Aofficial\\&q\\=blooming\\+and\\+maturing\\+of\\+the\\+fruit\\+varies\\+appreciably\\+with\\+the\\+variety\\+and\\+the\\+climate%3B\\+for\\+the\\+Arabica%2C\\&btnG\\=Search\\&aq\\=f\\&aqi\\=\\&aql\\=\\&oq\\=\\&gs\\_rfai \\|title\\=Britannica – \"coffee production\" article\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2010\\|publisher\\=Britannica.com Mobile}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/54339\\-Chikmagalur\\-Karnataka\\-where\\-coffee\\-was\\-first\\-planted\\-India.aspx \\|title\\=Chikmagalur in Karnataka, where coffee was first planted in India. \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2010 \\|publisher\\=India Study Channel }}{{dead link\\|date\\=November 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}\nClimatic conditions\nIdeal climatic conditions to grow coffee are related to temperature and rainfall; temperatures in the range of {{convert\\|73\\|F}} and {{convert\\|82\\|F}} with rainfall incidence in the range of {{convert\\|60\\|\\-\\|80\\|inch\\|m}} followed by a dry spell of 2–3 months suit the *Arabica* variety. Cold temperatures closer to freezing conditions are not suitable to grow coffee. Where the rainfall is less than {{convert\\|40\\|in\\|m}}, providing [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation \"Irrigation\") facilities is essential. In the tropical region of the south Indian hills, these conditions prevail leading to coffee plantations flourishing in large numbers.{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/124337/coffee\\|title\\=Coffee Production\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-10\\-05\\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Relative humidity for *Arabica* ranges 70–80% while for *Robusta* it ranges 80–90%.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Cobras on an Indian coffee plantation](/wiki/File:Indian_coffee_plantation_snakes.jpg \"Indian coffee plantation snakes.jpg\")\nCoffee diseases\nOne of the most prevalent diseases that coffee plants are subjected to in India is fungal growth. This fungus is called the *[Hemileia vastatrix](/wiki/Hemileia_vastatrix \"Hemileia vastatrix\"),* an [endophytous](/wiki/Endophytous \"Endophytous\") that grows within the matter of the leaf; an effective remedy has not yet been discovered to eliminate it. Another prevalent disease is known as [coffee rot](/wiki/Coffee_rust \"Coffee rust\"), which can cause severe damage during the rainy season, particularly to plantations in Karnataka. *Pellicularia koleroga* is the name given to this rot or rust, which turns the leaves a black color with a slimy gelatinous film. It is now classified as *[Ceratobasidium noxium](/wiki/Ceratobasidium_noxium \"Ceratobasidium noxium\")* This causes the coffee leaves and clusters of coffee berries to drop to the ground. In addition, snakes such as [cobras](/wiki/Cobra \"Cobra\") are a nuisance and potential threat to workers in Indian coffee plantations.",
"### Processing",
"Processing of coffee in India is accomplished using two methods, dry processing and wet processing. Dry processing is the traditional method of drying in the sun which is retains flavor producing fruit characteristics. In the wet processing method, coffee beans are fermented and washed, which is the preferred method for improved yields. As to the wet processing, the beans are subject to cleaning to segregate defective seeds. The beans of different varieties and sizes are then blended to derive the best flavor. The next procedure is to roast either through roasters or individual roasters. Then the roasted coffee is ground to appropriate sizes.",
""
] |
Regular season results
----------------------
### Week 1: at St. Louis Rams
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Panthers'''
\|R1\=7\|\|R2\=0\|\|R3\=7\|\|R4\=13
\|Home\=Rams
\|H1\=7\|\|H2\=3\|\|H3\=3\|\|H4\=0
\|stadium\= \[\[Edward Jones Dome]], \[\[St. Louis, Missouri]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. EDT
\|attendance\= 65,307
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on FOX\|Fox]] \|TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Sam Rosen (sportscaster)\|Sam Rosen]] (play\-by\-play) and \[\[Tim Ryan (American football, born 1967\)\|Tim Ryan]] (color commentator)
}}
The Panthers began their 2007 campaign on the road against the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/St._Louis_Rams "St. Louis Rams"). In the first quarter, Carolina pounced first with QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme "Jake Delhomme") completing a 10\-yard TD pass to WR [Drew Carter](/wiki/Drew_Carter "Drew Carter"). Afterwards, the Rams would tie the game with QB [Marc Bulger](/wiki/Marc_Bulger "Marc Bulger") completing a 3\-yard TD pass to WR [Torry Holt](/wiki/Torry_Holt "Torry Holt"). In the second quarter, St. Louis would lead at halftime on a 42\-yard field goal by kicker [Jeff Wilkins](/wiki/Jeff_Wilkins "Jeff Wilkins").
In the third quarter, the Rams increased their lead with Wilkins kicking a 28\-yard field goal. Afterwards, the Panthers retook the lead with Delhomme completing a 68\-yard TD pass to WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 "Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)"). In the fourth quarter, Carolina took control for the rest of the game with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") nailing a 34\-yard field goal, Delhomme \& Carter hooking up with each other again on a 9\-yard TD pass, and Kasay wrapping up the game with a 32\-yard field goal.
With the win, the Panthers began their year at 1–0\.
### Week 2: vs. Houston Texans
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Texans'''
\|R1\=7\|\|R2\=10\|\|R3\=14\|\|R4\=3
\|Home\=Panthers
\|H1\=14\|\|H2\=0\|\|H3\=0\|\|H4\=7
\|stadium\= \[\[Bank of America Stadium]], \[\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. EDT
\|attendance\= 73,665
\|weather\= {{convert\|75\|F}} (Sunny)
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on CBS\|CBS]] \|TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Gus Johnson (sportscaster)\|Gus Johnson]] (play\-by\-play) and \[\[Steve Tasker]] (color commentator)
}}
Coming off their road win over the Rams, the Panthers would play their Week 2 homeopener against the [Houston Texans](/wiki/Houston_Texans "Houston Texans"). In the first quarter, Carolina pounced first with QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme "Jake Delhomme") hooking up with WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 "Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)") on a 7\-yard TD pass and a 12\-yard TD pass. The Texans would respond with QB [Matt Schaub](/wiki/Matt_Schaub "Matt Schaub") completing a 31\-yard TD pass to WR [Andre Johnson](/wiki/Andre_Johnson "Andre Johnson"). In the second quarter, Houston continued its pounding with Schaub and Johnson hooking up with each other again on a 9\-yard TD pass, along with kicker [Kris Brown](/wiki/Kris_Brown "Kris Brown")'s 25\-yard field goal.
In the third quarter, the Panthers continued to struggle as Texans RB [Ahman Green](/wiki/Ahman_Green "Ahman Green") got a 13\-yard TD run, while Carolina FB [Nick Goings](/wiki/Nick_Goings "Nick Goings") fumbled during a kickoff return. The ball would roll into the endzone, where Houston WR [Kevin Walter](/wiki/Kevin_Walter "Kevin Walter") would land on it for a touchdown. In the fourth quarter, the Texans would put the game well out of reach with Brown's 33\-yard field goal. The Panthers tried to get a comeback with Delhomme and Smith hooking up with each other on an amazing 74\-yard TD pass, but the deficit was too much to overcome.
With the loss, Carolina fell to 1–1\.
### Week 3: at Atlanta Falcons
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Panthers'''
\|R1\=0\|\|R2\=10\|\|R3\=14\|\|R4\=3
\|Home\=Falcons
\|H1\=0\|\|H2\=10\|\|H3\=7\|\|H4\=3
\|time\= 4:15 p.m. EDT
\|attendance\= 68,175
\|TV\=Fox \|TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Ron Pitts]] (play\-by\-play) and \[\[Tony Boselli]] (color commentator)
}}
Trying to rebound from their home loss to the Texans, the Panther flew to the [Georgia Dome](/wiki/Georgia_Dome "Georgia Dome") for an NFC South duel with the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons"). After a scoreless first quarter, Carolina scored first in the second quarter with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") hitting a 45\-yard field goal. The Falcons took the lead with QB [Joey Harrington](/wiki/Joey_Harrington "Joey Harrington") completing a 69\-yard TD pass to WR [Roddy White](/wiki/Roddy_White "Roddy White"). The Panthers followed up with QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme "Jake Delhomme") completing a 13\-yard TD pass to RB [DeShaun Foster](/wiki/DeShaun_Foster "DeShaun Foster"). Atlanta would end the half with kicker [Morten Andersen](/wiki/Morten_Andersen "Morten Andersen") hitting a 24\-yard field goal.
In the third quarter, the Falcons took the lead as Harrington completed a 13\-yard TD pass to TE [Alge Crumpler](/wiki/Alge_Crumpler "Alge Crumpler"). Carolina retook the lead with Delhomme completing a 5\-yard TD pass to TE [Jeff King](/wiki/Jeff_King_%28American_football%29 "Jeff King (American football)"), followed by a 10\-yard TD run from Foster. In the fourth quarter, the Panthers scored again, with Kasay kicking a 49\-yard field goal. The Falcons' Andersen nailed a 25\-yard field goal to end the scoring.
The game was noteworthy because of [DeAngelo Hall](/wiki/DeAngelo_Hall "DeAngelo Hall")'s third quarter meltdown, wherein he was assessed 67 yards of penalties in a single drive. The penalties included a 37\-yard pass interference penalty for tackling WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 "Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)") before the ball arrived, a 15\-yard personal foul on the following play for blocking Smith at the line, and a 15\-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty during a verbal exchange with Smith following a third\-down sack by [John Abraham](/wiki/John_Abraham_%28American_football%29 "John Abraham (American football)"). The unsportsmanlike conduct penalty gave Carolina a first down, allowing their eventual TD to King rather than the likely 45\-yard field goal attempt had the penalty not been called. Following the series, Hall was seen arguing with coaches on the sidelines, leading to a $100,000 fine by the team.
With the win, the Panthers improved to 2–1\.
### Week 4: vs. Tampa Bay Buccaneers
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Buccaneers'''
\|R1\=14\|\|R2\=3\|\|R3\=0\|\|R4\=3
\|Home\=Panthers
\|H1\=0\|\|H2\=0\|\|H3\=0\|\|H4\=7
\|stadium\= \[\[Bank of America Stadium]], \[\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]
\|time\= 4:05 p.m. EDT
\|attendance\= 73,707
\|weather\= {{convert\|79\|F}} (Sunny)
\|TV\=Fox \|TVAnnouncers\= Sam Rosen (play\-by\-play) and Tim Ryan (color commentator)
}}
Coming off a divisional road win over the Falcons, the Panthers went home, donned their alternate uniforms, and prepared for another NFC South fight, as Carolina dueled with the [Tampa Bay Buccaneers](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Buccaneers "Tampa Bay Buccaneers") with the division lead on the line. With QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme "Jake Delhomme") unable to start with an elbow injury on his throwing arm, QB [David Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 "David Carr (American football)") was given the start. In the first quarter, the Panthers struggled as Buccaneers QB [Jeff Garcia](/wiki/Jeff_Garcia "Jeff Garcia") got a 3\-yard TD run, while RB [Earnest Graham](/wiki/Earnest_Graham "Earnest Graham") got a 1\-yard TD run. In the second quarter, Carolina continued to struggle as kicker [Matt Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant "Matt Bryant") got a 25\-yard field goal for the only score of the period.
After a scoreless third quarter, Tampa Bay sealed the win with Bryant nailing a 38\-yard field goal. Afterwards, the Panthers would get their only score of the game with Carr completing a 24\-yard TD pass to RB [DeAngelo Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams "DeAngelo Williams").
With their 4th straight home loss, Carolina fell to 2–2\.
|Scoring summary
| |
| Q | Team | Time | Scoring play | Score |
| 1 |TB 8:43 [Garcia](/wiki/Jeff_Garcia "Jeff Garcia") 3\-yard TD run ([Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant "Matt Bryant") kick) | TB 7–0 |
| 1 |TB 0:48 [Graham](/wiki/Earnest_Graham "Earnest Graham") 1\-yard TD run ([Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant "Matt Bryant") kick) | TB 14–0 |
| 2 |TB 6:41 [Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant "Matt Bryant") 25\-yard FG | TB 17–0 |
| 4 |TB 10:21 [Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant "Matt Bryant") 38\-yard FG | TB 20–0 |
| 4 |Car 8:01 24\-yard TD pass from [Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 "David Carr (American football)") to [Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams "DeAngelo Williams") ([Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") kick) | **TB 20–7** |
### Week 5: at New Orleans Saints
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Panthers'''
\|R1\=3\|\|R2\=3\|\|R3\=0\|\|R4\=10
\|Home\=Saints
\|H1\=3\|\|H2\=3\|\|H3\=7\|\|H4\=0
\|stadium\= \[\[Louisiana Superdome]], \[\[New Orleans, Louisiana]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. EDT
\|attendance\= 70,001
\|TV\=Fox \|TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Chris Myers]] (play\-by\-play) and \[\[Brian Baldinger]] (color commentator)
}}
Trying to rebound from their divisional home loss to the Buccaneers, the Panthers flew to the [Louisiana Superdome](/wiki/Louisiana_Superdome "Louisiana Superdome") for a Week 5 divisional duel with the winless [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints "New Orleans Saints"). With QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme "Jake Delhomme") out and done for the year with a right elbow injury, QB [David Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 "David Carr (American football)") was given the start.
In the first quarter, Carolina took the early lead with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") getting a 23\-yard field goal. The Saints responded with kicker [Olindo Mare](/wiki/Olindo_Mare "Olindo Mare") getting a 25\-yard field goal. In the second quarter, the Panthers went back into the lead with Kasay nailing a 35\-yard field goal. New Orleans would respond with Mare kicking a 28\-yard field goal.
In the third quarter, Carolina trailed as Saints FB [Mike Karney](/wiki/Mike_Karney "Mike Karney") got a 2\-yard TD run for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, the Panthers tied the game with Carr completing a 17\-yard TD pass to WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 "Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)"). Afterwards, Carolina sealed the win in the final seconds with Kasay nailing a 52\-yard field goal as time ran out.
With the win, the Panthers improved to 3–2\.
### Week 6: at Arizona Cardinals
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Panthers'''
\|R1\=3\|\|R2\=3\|\|R3\=3\|\|R4\=16
\|Home\=Cardinals
\|H1\=0\|\|H2\=7\|\|H3\=3\|\|H4\=0
\|stadium\= \[\[University of Phoenix]], \[\[Glendale, Arizona]]
\|time\= 4:05 p.m. EDT
\|attendance\= 64,403
\|TV\=Fox \|TVAnnouncers\= Ron Pitts (play\-by\-play) and Tony Boselli (color commentator)
}}
Coming off their divisional road win over the Saints, the Panthers flew to the [University of Phoenix Stadium](/wiki/University_of_Phoenix_Stadium "University of Phoenix Stadium") for a Week 6 throwdown with the [Arizona Cardinals](/wiki/Arizona_Cardinals "Arizona Cardinals") With [David Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 "David Carr (American football)") recovering from injuries, recently signed QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde "Vinny Testaverde") got the start.
In the first quarter, Carolina pounced first with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") getting a 33\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Panthers increased its lead with Kasay kicking a 43\-yard field goal. The Cardinals would get on the board with RB [Edgerrin James](/wiki/Edgerrin_James "Edgerrin James") getting a 23\-yard TD run. In the third quarter, Carolina responded with Kasay getting a 24\-yard field goal, yet Arizona answered with kicker [Neil Rackers](/wiki/Neil_Rackers "Neil Rackers") getting a 50\-yard field goal. In the fourth quarter, Testaverde completed a 65\-yard TD pass to WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 "Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)"), increasing his consecutive seasons with a touchdown pass record to 21\-straight. Afterwards, the Panthers sealed the win with Kasay nailing a 45\-yard field goal, while RB [DeAngelo Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams "DeAngelo Williams") got a 13\-yard TD run.
With the win, not only did Carolina improve to 4–2 heading into the bye week, but Testaverde became the oldest starting quarterback to win a game (43 years and 335 days), along with the third oldest quarterback to start a game.
### Week 8: vs. Indianapolis Colts
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Colts'''
\|R1\=3\|\|R2\=7\|\|R3\=14\|\|R4\=7
\|Home\=Panthers
\|H1\=7\|\|H2\=0\|\|H3\=0\|\|H4\=0
\|stadium\= \[\[Bank of America Stadium]], \[\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EST]]/12:00 p.m. \[\[Central Time Zone\|CST]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|66\|F}} (Sunny)
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on CBS\|CBS]] \| TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Jim Nantz]] and \[\[Phil Simms]]
\|attendance\= 74,005
\|referee\= \[\[Ed Hochuli]]
}}
**Game summary**
Coming off their road win over the Cardinals, the Panthers went home for a Week 8 interconference duel with the defending Super Bowl champions, the [Indianapolis Colts](/wiki/Indianapolis_Colts "Indianapolis Colts"). In the first quarter, Carolina struck first by turning their opening drive (which lasted 11 minutes and 1 second) into a 3\-yard TD run by RB [DeShaun Foster](/wiki/DeShaun_Foster "DeShaun Foster"). The Colts would respond with kicker [Adam Vinatieri](/wiki/Adam_Vinatieri "Adam Vinatieri") getting a 20\-yard field goal. In the second quarter, Indianapolis took the lead with RB [Joseph Addai](/wiki/Joseph_Addai "Joseph Addai") getting a 2\-yard TD run for the only score of the period.
In the third quarter, Indianapolis increased its lead with QB [Peyton Manning](/wiki/Peyton_Manning "Peyton Manning") completing a 4\-yard TD pass to Addai, along with a 59\-yard TD pass to WR [Reggie Wayne](/wiki/Reggie_Wayne "Reggie Wayne"). In the fourth quarter, the Colts sealed their win with Addai getting a 12\-yard TD run.
With the loss, the Panthers fell to 4–3\.
**Scoring Summary**
* **Scoring**
**First quarter**
* CAR – [DeShaun Foster](/wiki/DeShaun_Foster "DeShaun Foster") 3\-yard run ([Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") kick), 3:59\. *Panthers 7–0\. **Drive:** 18 plays, 80 yards, 11:01\.*
* IND – [Adam Vinatieri](/wiki/Adam_Vinatieri "Adam Vinatieri") 20\-yard field goal, 0:47\. *Panthers 7–3\. **Drive:** 6 plays, 18 yards, 2:07\.*
**Second quarter**
* IND – [Joseph Addai](/wiki/Joseph_Addai "Joseph Addai") 2\-yard run (Vinatieri kick), 1:33\. *Colts 10–7\. **Drive:** 8 plays, 86 yards, 1:58\.*
**Third quarter**
* IND – Joseph Addai 4\-yard pass from [Peyton Manning](/wiki/Peyton_Manning "Peyton Manning") (Vinatieri kick), 12:11\. *Colts 17–7\. **Drive:** 8 plays, 60 yards, 2:49\.*
* IND – [Reggie Wayne](/wiki/Reggie_Wayne "Reggie Wayne") 59\-yard pass from Peyton Manning (Vinatieri kick), 4:47\. *Colts 24–7\. **Drive:** 2 plays, 70 yards, 0:46\.*
**Fourth quarter**
* IND – Joseph Addai 12\-yard run (Vinatieri kick), 13:09\. *Colts 31–7\. **Drive:** 11 plays, 55 yards, 4:17\.*
### Week 9: at Tennessee Titans
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\=Panthers
\|R1\=0\|\|R2\=0\|\|R3\=0\|\|R4\=7
\|Home\='''Titans'''
\|H1\=10\|\|H2\=3\|\|H3\=0\|\|H4\=7
\|stadium\= \[\[LP Field]], \[\[Nashville, Tennessee]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. EST
\|attendance\= 69,143
\|TV\=Fox \|TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Dick Stockton]] (play\-by\-play) and Brian Baldinger (color commentator)
}}
Hoping to rebound from their home loss to the Colts, the Panthers flew to [LP Field](/wiki/LP_Field "LP Field") for a Week 9 interconference duel with the [Tennessee Titans](/wiki/Tennessee_Titans "Tennessee Titans"). In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Titans QB [Vince Young](/wiki/Vince_Young "Vince Young") got a 3\-yard TD run, while kicker [Rob Bironas](/wiki/Rob_Bironas "Rob Bironas") got a 47\-yard field goal. In the second quarter, the Panthers continued to struggle as Bironas nailed a 53\-yard field goal for the only score of the period.
After a scoreless third quarter, Tennessee pulled away with RB [LenDale White](/wiki/LenDale_White "LenDale White") getting a 1\-yard TD run. Carolina would avoid a shutout as QB [David Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 "David Carr (American football)") completed an 18\-yard TD pass to WR [Drew Carter](/wiki/Drew_Carter "Drew Carter").
With the loss, the Panthers fell to 4–4\.
Carr would relive his Texans days as he got sacked 7 times during the game.
### Week 10: vs. Atlanta Falcons
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Falcons'''
\|R1\=7
\|R2\=0
\|R3\=3
\|R4\=10
\|Home\=Panthers
\|H1\=0
\|H2\=10
\|H3\=0
\|H4\=3
\|stadium\= \[\[Bank of America Stadium]], \[\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]''
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EST]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|55\|F}} (Partly Cloudy)
\|attendance\= 73,340
\|referee\= \[\[Terry McAulay]]
\|TV\=Fox \|TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Chris Rose]] (play\-by\-play) and \[\[Terry Donahue]] (color commentator)
}}
[thumb\|160px\|[Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde "Vinny Testaverde") in week 10](/wiki/File:Vinny_Testaverde.jpg "Vinny Testaverde.jpg")
Trying to snap a two\-game losing skid, the Panthers came home for an NFC South rematch with the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons"). Veteran QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde "Vinny Testaverde") would get the start. In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Falcons RB [Warrick Dunn](/wiki/Warrick_Dunn "Warrick Dunn") getting a 30\-yard TD run for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Panthers took the lead with CB [Ken Lucas](/wiki/Ken_Lucas_%28American_football%29 "Ken Lucas (American football)") returning a fumble 27 yards for a touchdown, while kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") managed to get a 29\-yard field goal.
In the third quarter, Atlanta tied the game with kicker [Morten Andersen](/wiki/Morten_Andersen "Morten Andersen") getting a 36\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, the Falcons regained the lead with Andersen kicking a 47\-yard field goal. Carolina would reply with Kasay nailing a 31\-yard field goal. Unfortunately, Atlanta sealed the win with QB [Joey Harrington](/wiki/Joey_Harrington "Joey Harrington") completing a 30\-yard TD pass to TE [Alge Crumpler](/wiki/Alge_Crumpler "Alge Crumpler").
With the loss, not only did the Panthers fall to 4–5, but they even lost six\-straight home games.
### Week 11: at Green Bay Packers
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\=Panthers
\|R1\=3
\|R2\=0
\|R3\=7
\|R4\=7
\|Home\='''Packers'''
\|H1\=7
\|H2\=14
\|H3\=7
\|H4\=3
\|stadium\= \[\[Lambeau Field]], \[\[Green Bay, Wisconsin]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EST]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|42\|F}} (Sunny)
\|attendance\=70,805
\|referee\= \[\[Gene Steratore]]
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on Fox\|Fox]] \| TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Dick Stockton]] (play\-by\-play) \& \[\[Brian Baldinger]] (color commentator)
}}
Trying to snap a three\-game losing skid, the Panthers flew to [Lambeau Field](/wiki/Lambeau_Field "Lambeau Field") for Week 11 duel with the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers"). This game set a record as QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde "Vinny Testaverde") and Packers QB [Brett Favre](/wiki/Brett_Favre "Brett Favre") had the oldest combined age of two starting quarterbacks at 82 years and 44 days.
In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Packers CB [Tramon Williams](/wiki/Tramon_Williams "Tramon Williams") returned a pooch punt 94 yards for a touchdowns. The Panthers would get on the board as kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") managed to get a 26\-yard field goal. In the second quarter, Green Bay increased its lead with Favre completing a 4\-yard TD pass to WR [Greg Jennings](/wiki/Greg_Jennings "Greg Jennings") and a 26\-yard TD pass to TE [Donald Lee](/wiki/Donald_Lee_%28American_football%29 "Donald Lee (American football)").
In the third quarter, Green Bay continued its domination as Favre and Lee hooked up with each other again on a 12\-yard TD pass. Carolina would respond with Testaverde completing a 2\-yard TD pass to TE [Christian Fauria](/wiki/Christian_Fauria "Christian Fauria"). In the fourth quarter, the Panthers tried to come back as Testaverde completed a 5\-yard TD pass to WR [Drew Carter](/wiki/Drew_Carter "Drew Carter"). However, the Packers sealed the win with kicker [Mason Crosby](/wiki/Mason_Crosby "Mason Crosby") getting a 47\-yard field goal.
With their fourth\-straight loss, Carolina fell to 4–6\.
### Week 12: vs. New Orleans Saints
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Saints'''
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=10
\|R3\=21
\|R4\=0
\|Home\=Panthers
\|H1\=3
\|H2\=3
\|H3\=0
\|H4\=0
\|stadium\= \[\[Bank of America Stadium]], \[\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EST]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|46\|F}} (Light Rain)
\|attendance\= 72,032
\|referee\= \[\[Jerome Boger]]
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on FOX\|FOX]] \| TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Dick Stockton]] (play\-by\-play) \& \[\[Brian Baldinger]] (color commentator)
}}
Trying to snap a four\-game losing skid, the Panthers went home for a Week 12 NFC South rematch with the [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints "New Orleans Saints"). In the first quarter, Carolina got the early lead as kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") managed to get a 45\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Saints took the lead as QB [Drew Brees](/wiki/Drew_Brees "Drew Brees") completed a 1\-yard TD pass to WR [Lance Moore](/wiki/Lance_Moore "Lance Moore"), along with kicker [Olindo Mare](/wiki/Olindo_Mare "Olindo Mare") getting a 46\-yard field goal. The Panthers would end the half as Kasay nailed a 29\-yard field goal. In the third quarter, New Orleans pulled away with Brees completing a 1\-yard TD pass to TE [Billy Miller](/wiki/Billy_Miller_%28American_football%29 "Billy Miller (American football)"), getting an 8\-yard TD run, and completing a 4\-yard TD pass to WR [Marques Colston](/wiki/Marques_Colston "Marques Colston").
With their fifth straight loss, not only did Carolina fall to 4–7, but they had also lost seven straight home games (they have yet to win a home game this year). Also, the Panthers offense only managed to get 4 touchdowns in the last five games.
### Week 13: vs. San Francisco 49ers
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\=49ers
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=0
\|R3\=14
\|R4\=0
\|Home\='''Panthers'''
\|H1\=3
\|H2\=14
\|H3\=7
\|H4\=7
\|stadium\= \[\[Bank of America Stadium]], \[\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EST]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|53\|F}} (Cloudy)
\|attendance\= 73,191
\|referee\= \[\[Scott Green (American football official)\|Scott Green]]
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on FOX\|FOX]] \| TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Matt Vasgersian]] (play\-by\-play) \& \[\[J.C. Pearson]] (color commentator)
}}
Trying to snap a five\-game losing skid, the Panthers stayed at home for a Week 13 intraconference duel with the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers "San Francisco 49ers"). In the first quarter, Carolina pounced first with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") nailing a 19\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Panthers increased their lead with QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde "Vinny Testaverde") completing a 5\-yard TD pass to rookie TE [Dante Rosario](/wiki/Dante_Rosario "Dante Rosario"), while CB [Richard Marshall](/wiki/Richard_Marshall_%28defensive_back%29 "Richard Marshall (defensive back)") returned an interception 67 yards for a touchdown.
In the third quarter, the 49ers managed to get on the board as QB [Trent Dilfer](/wiki/Trent_Dilfer "Trent Dilfer") completing a 20\-yard TD pass to WR [Arnaz Battle](/wiki/Arnaz_Battle "Arnaz Battle") and a 1\-yard TD pass to TE [Delanie Walker](/wiki/Delanie_Walker "Delanie Walker"). Afterwards, Carolina went back to work as RB [DeShaun Foster](/wiki/DeShaun_Foster "DeShaun Foster") got a 1\-yard TD run. In the fourth quarter, the Panthers pulled away as Testaverde completed a 1\-yard TD pass to TE [Jeff King](/wiki/Jeff_King_%28American_football%29 "Jeff King (American football)").
With the win, not only did Carolina improve to 5–7, but it even managed to give the Panthers their first home win of the year. It took 54 weeks overall for the Panthers to win a home game; they continued the home losing streak that lasted throughout the rest of the 2006 season and extended it to 7 games, but they ended the streak by winning 31\-14 against San Francisco at the BOA in Week 13\.
### Week 14: at Jacksonville Jaguars
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\=Panthers
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=6
\|R3\=0
\|R4\=0
\|Home\='''Jaguars'''
\|H1\=7
\|H2\=3
\|H3\=10
\|H4\=17
\|stadium\= \[\[Jacksonville Municipal Stadium]], \[\[Jacksonville, Florida]]
\|time\= 1:00 p.m. \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EST]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|77\|F}} (Sunny)
\|attendance\= 66,090
\|referee\= \[\[John Parry (American football official)\|John Parry]]
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on FOX\|FOX]] \| TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Ron Pitts]] (play\-by\-play) \& \[\[Tony Boselli]] (color commentator)
}}
Coming off their home win over the 49ers, the Panthers flew to [Jacksonville Municipal Stadium](/wiki/Jacksonville_Municipal_Stadium "Jacksonville Municipal Stadium") for a Week 14 interconference duel with their 1995 expansion rival, the [Jacksonville Jaguars](/wiki/Jacksonville_Jaguars "Jacksonville Jaguars"). In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Jaguars QB [David Garrard](/wiki/David_Garrard "David Garrard") completed a 22\-yard TD pass to WR [Reggie Williams](/wiki/Reggie_Williams_%28wide_receiver%29 "Reggie Williams (wide receiver)") for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Panthers would get on the board as kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") managed to get a 49\-yard field goal. Afterwards, Jacksonville responded with kicker [Josh Scobee](/wiki/Josh_Scobee "Josh Scobee") getting a 21\-yard field goal. Carolina would end the half as Kasay kicked a 21\-yard field goal.
In the third quarter, the Panthers began to fall behind as Garrard completed a 6\-yard TD pass to WR [Matt Jones](/wiki/Matt_Jones_%28wide_receiver%29 "Matt Jones (wide receiver)"), along with Scobee kicking a 20\-yard field goal. In the fourth quarter, the Jaguars sealed the win with LB [Clint Ingram](/wiki/Clint_Ingram "Clint Ingram") returning an interception 39 yards for a touchdown, RB [Fred Taylor](/wiki/Fred_Taylor_%28American_football%29 "Fred Taylor (American football)") getting an 80\-yard TD run, and Scobee nailing a 33\-yard field goal.
With the loss, Carolina fell to 5–8\.
### Week 15: vs. Seattle Seahawks
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\=Seahawks
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=0
\|R3\=0
\|R4\=10
\|Home\='''Panthers'''
\|H1\=0
\|H2\=0
\|H3\=0
\|H4\=13
\|stadium\= \[\[Bank of America Stadium]], \[\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]
\|time\= 1:00 PM \[\[Eastern Time Zone (North America)\|EDT]]/10:00 AM \[\[Pacific Time Zone\|PDT]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|48\|F}} (Sunny)
\|attendance\=
\|referee\= \[\[Walt Anderson (American football official)\|Walt Anderson]]
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on Fox\|Fox]] \| TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Dick Stockton]] (play\-by\-play) \& \[\[Brian Baldinger]] (color commentator)
}}
Hoping to rebound from their road loss to the Jaguars, the Panthers went home for a Week 15 intraconference duel with the [Seattle Seahawks](/wiki/Seattle_Seahawks "Seattle Seahawks"). The game remained scoreless for the first three quarters of play until kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") finally delivered the game's first punch in the fourth quarter with a 53\-yard field goal. Afterwards, the Seahawks would respond with kicker [Josh Brown](/wiki/Josh_Brown_%28American_football%29 "Josh Brown (American football)") getting a 23\-yard field goal. After that, Carolina clawed deep with Kasay nailing a 37\-yard field goal and RB [DeAngelo Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams "DeAngelo Williams") getting a 35\-yard touchdown run. Later, Seattle's only response would be QB [Matt Hasselbeck](/wiki/Matt_Hasselbeck "Matt Hasselbeck") completing a 15\-yard TD pass to WR [Deion Branch](/wiki/Deion_Branch "Deion Branch").
With the win, the Panthers kept their slim playoffs alive by improving to 6–8\.
### Week 16: vs. Dallas Cowboys
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Cowboys'''
\|R1\=7\|\|R2\=10\|\|R3\=0\|\|R4\=3
\|Home\=Panthers
\|H1\=0\|\|H2\=7\|\|H3\=3\|\|H4\=3
\|stadium\= \[\[Bank of America Stadium]], \[\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]
\|time\= 8:15 PM \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EDT]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|48\|F}} (Cloudy)
\|attendance\= 73,860
\|referee\= \[\[Mike Carey (American football)\|Mike Carey]]
\|TV\=\[\[NFL Network]] \| TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Bryant Gumbel]] (play\-by\-play) and \[\[Cris Collinsworth]] (color commentator)
}}
Coming off their win over the Seahawks, the Panthers stayed at home for a Week 16 Saturday night duel with the playoff\-bound [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys "Dallas Cowboys") in an attempt to keep their slim playoff hopes alive.
In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Cowboys QB [Tony Romo](/wiki/Tony_Romo "Tony Romo") completed a 10\-yard TD pass to WR [Terrell Owens](/wiki/Terrell_Owens "Terrell Owens") for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, Dallas increased its lead with RB [Marion Barber](/wiki/Marion_Barber_III "Marion Barber III") getting a 5\-yard TD run. The Panthers got on the board with [Matt Moore](/wiki/Matt_Moore_%28American_football%29 "Matt Moore (American football)") completing an 11\-yard TD pass to WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_L._Smith "Steve L. Smith"). The Cowboys ended the half with kicker [Nick Folk](/wiki/Nick_Folk "Nick Folk") getting a 42\-yard field goal.
In the third quarter, Carolina began rallying with [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") getting a 37\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, Dallas responded with Folk kicking a 23\-yard field goal. The Panthers tried to come back as Kasay nailed a 25\-yard field goal, but the Cowboys' defense held on for the win.
With the loss, they fell to 6\-9 and were eliminated from playoff contention.
### Week 17: at Tampa Bay Buccaneers
{{Americanfootballbox\|
\|Road\='''Panthers'''
\|R1\=7\|\|R2\=10\|\|R3\=7\|\|R4\=7
\|Home\=Buccaneers
\|H1\=7\|\|H2\=6\|\|H3\=7\|\|H4\=3
\|stadium\= \[\[Raymond James Stadium]], \[\[Tampa, Florida]]
\|time\= 1:00 PM \[\[Eastern Time Zone\|EDT]]
\|weather\= {{convert\|80\|F}}, Mostly Cloudy
\|attendance\= 65,609
\|referee\= \[\[Gene Steratore]]
\|TV\=\[\[NFL on FOX\|FOX]] \| TVAnnouncers\= \[\[Ron Pitts]] (play\-by\-play), \[\[Tony Boselli]] (color commentary), and \[\[Chip Carter (sportscaster)\|Chip Carter]] (sideline reporter)
}}
Carolina concluded the regular season at [home](/wiki/Raymond_James_Stadium "Raymond James Stadium") against the [Buccaneers](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Buccaneers "Tampa Bay Buccaneers"). With a playoff spot now gone and nothing to lose, the Panthers took the field with [Matt Moore](/wiki/Matt_Moore_%28American_football%29 "Matt Moore (American football)") at the helm.
Tampa Bay struck first as second\-string QB [Luke McCown](/wiki/Luke_McCown "Luke McCown"), in place of starter [Jeff Garcia](/wiki/Jeff_Garcia "Jeff Garcia"), drove the Buccaneers down the field for the game's first score, a touchdown pass to TE [Jerramy Stevens](/wiki/Jerramy_Stevens "Jerramy Stevens"). The Panthers responded by driving to the Tampa Bay 4\-yard line. A field goal kick by [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay "John Kasay") was good, but a holding penalty by LB [Derrick Brooks](/wiki/Derrick_Brooks "Derrick Brooks") gave the Panthers a first down. They capitalized on this opportunity with a 2\-yard touchdown pass from Moore to TE [Christian Fauria](/wiki/Christian_Fauria "Christian Fauria"), tying the game at 7\.
In the second quarter, a Matt Moore interception by [Phillip Buchanon](/wiki/Phillip_Buchanon "Phillip Buchanon") led to a [Matt Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant "Matt Bryant") field goal. The Panthers responded once again with a 20\-yard touchdown pass to TE [Dante Rosario](/wiki/Dante_Rosario "Dante Rosario"), giving Carolina a 14–10 lead with 6:40 left in the half. Late in the second quarter, [Josh Bidwell](/wiki/Josh_Bidwell "Josh Bidwell") punted to Carolina, but a fumble by [Ryne Robinson](/wiki/Ryne_Robinson "Ryne Robinson") on the return was recovered by the Buccaneers. Tampa Bay tacked on another Bryant field goal with 2:34 left in the half, but Carolina responded with a field goal of their own with 16 seconds remaining until the break, giving them a 17–13 lead at the half.
Midway through the third quarter, Carolina punted and pinned the Buccaneers on their own 2\-yard line. McCown then led the Buccaneers on a 10\-play, 98\-yard touchdown drive, the longest such scoring drive in franchise history, resulting in a 23\-yard touchdown pass to RB [Michael Bennett](/wiki/Michael_Bennett_%28running_back%29 "Michael Bennett (running back)") and a 20–17 lead. Carolina kept themselves in the game, however, quickly following up a 46\-yard reception to [Drew Carter](/wiki/Drew_Carter "Drew Carter") with a 1\-yard touchdown run by RB [DeAngelo Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams "DeAngelo Williams"), making the score 24–20 in favor of the Panthers.
Going into the fourth quarter, the Bucs added another field goal from Bryant with 14:02 left in the game and the score 24–23\. The Panthers capped their scoring with a 32\-yard touchdown run from Williams, his second of the day, making it 31–23\. Trailing late in the fourth quarter, McCown drove the Buccaneers to the Carolina 36\-yard line, but was intercepted by DB [Richard Marshall](/wiki/Richard_Marshall_%28defensive_back%29 "Richard Marshall (defensive back)"). As a sign of respect for his last official game, the Panthers let veteran QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde "Vinny Testaverde") kneel down the ball on the game's last play. The Panthers finished the season with a record of 7–9\.
|
[
"Regular season results\n----------------------",
"### Week 1: at St. Louis Rams",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Panthers'''\n\\|R1\\=7\\|\\|R2\\=0\\|\\|R3\\=7\\|\\|R4\\=13\n\\|Home\\=Rams\n\\|H1\\=7\\|\\|H2\\=3\\|\\|H3\\=3\\|\\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Edward Jones Dome]], \\[\\[St. Louis, Missouri]] \n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. EDT\n\\|attendance\\= 65,307\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on FOX\\|Fox]] \\|TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Sam Rosen (sportscaster)\\|Sam Rosen]] (play\\-by\\-play) and \\[\\[Tim Ryan (American football, born 1967\\)\\|Tim Ryan]] (color commentator)\n}}\nThe Panthers began their 2007 campaign on the road against the [St. Louis Rams](/wiki/St._Louis_Rams \"St. Louis Rams\"). In the first quarter, Carolina pounced first with QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme \"Jake Delhomme\") completing a 10\\-yard TD pass to WR [Drew Carter](/wiki/Drew_Carter \"Drew Carter\"). Afterwards, the Rams would tie the game with QB [Marc Bulger](/wiki/Marc_Bulger \"Marc Bulger\") completing a 3\\-yard TD pass to WR [Torry Holt](/wiki/Torry_Holt \"Torry Holt\"). In the second quarter, St. Louis would lead at halftime on a 42\\-yard field goal by kicker [Jeff Wilkins](/wiki/Jeff_Wilkins \"Jeff Wilkins\").",
"In the third quarter, the Rams increased their lead with Wilkins kicking a 28\\-yard field goal. Afterwards, the Panthers retook the lead with Delhomme completing a 68\\-yard TD pass to WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 \"Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)\"). In the fourth quarter, Carolina took control for the rest of the game with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") nailing a 34\\-yard field goal, Delhomme \\& Carter hooking up with each other again on a 9\\-yard TD pass, and Kasay wrapping up the game with a 32\\-yard field goal.",
"With the win, the Panthers began their year at 1–0\\.",
"### Week 2: vs. Houston Texans",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Texans'''\n\\|R1\\=7\\|\\|R2\\=10\\|\\|R3\\=14\\|\\|R4\\=3\n\\|Home\\=Panthers\n\\|H1\\=14\\|\\|H2\\=0\\|\\|H3\\=0\\|\\|H4\\=7\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Bank of America Stadium]], \\[\\[Charlotte, North Carolina]] \n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. EDT\n\\|attendance\\= 73,665\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|75\\|F}} (Sunny)\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on CBS\\|CBS]] \\|TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Gus Johnson (sportscaster)\\|Gus Johnson]] (play\\-by\\-play) and \\[\\[Steve Tasker]] (color commentator)\n}}\nComing off their road win over the Rams, the Panthers would play their Week 2 homeopener against the [Houston Texans](/wiki/Houston_Texans \"Houston Texans\"). In the first quarter, Carolina pounced first with QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme \"Jake Delhomme\") hooking up with WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 \"Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)\") on a 7\\-yard TD pass and a 12\\-yard TD pass. The Texans would respond with QB [Matt Schaub](/wiki/Matt_Schaub \"Matt Schaub\") completing a 31\\-yard TD pass to WR [Andre Johnson](/wiki/Andre_Johnson \"Andre Johnson\"). In the second quarter, Houston continued its pounding with Schaub and Johnson hooking up with each other again on a 9\\-yard TD pass, along with kicker [Kris Brown](/wiki/Kris_Brown \"Kris Brown\")'s 25\\-yard field goal.",
"In the third quarter, the Panthers continued to struggle as Texans RB [Ahman Green](/wiki/Ahman_Green \"Ahman Green\") got a 13\\-yard TD run, while Carolina FB [Nick Goings](/wiki/Nick_Goings \"Nick Goings\") fumbled during a kickoff return. The ball would roll into the endzone, where Houston WR [Kevin Walter](/wiki/Kevin_Walter \"Kevin Walter\") would land on it for a touchdown. In the fourth quarter, the Texans would put the game well out of reach with Brown's 33\\-yard field goal. The Panthers tried to get a comeback with Delhomme and Smith hooking up with each other on an amazing 74\\-yard TD pass, but the deficit was too much to overcome.",
"With the loss, Carolina fell to 1–1\\.",
"### Week 3: at Atlanta Falcons",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Panthers'''\n\\|R1\\=0\\|\\|R2\\=10\\|\\|R3\\=14\\|\\|R4\\=3\n\\|Home\\=Falcons\n\\|H1\\=0\\|\\|H2\\=10\\|\\|H3\\=7\\|\\|H4\\=3\n\\|time\\= 4:15 p.m. EDT\n\\|attendance\\= 68,175\n\\|TV\\=Fox \\|TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Ron Pitts]] (play\\-by\\-play) and \\[\\[Tony Boselli]] (color commentator)\n}}",
"Trying to rebound from their home loss to the Texans, the Panther flew to the [Georgia Dome](/wiki/Georgia_Dome \"Georgia Dome\") for an NFC South duel with the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\"). After a scoreless first quarter, Carolina scored first in the second quarter with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") hitting a 45\\-yard field goal. The Falcons took the lead with QB [Joey Harrington](/wiki/Joey_Harrington \"Joey Harrington\") completing a 69\\-yard TD pass to WR [Roddy White](/wiki/Roddy_White \"Roddy White\"). The Panthers followed up with QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme \"Jake Delhomme\") completing a 13\\-yard TD pass to RB [DeShaun Foster](/wiki/DeShaun_Foster \"DeShaun Foster\"). Atlanta would end the half with kicker [Morten Andersen](/wiki/Morten_Andersen \"Morten Andersen\") hitting a 24\\-yard field goal.",
"In the third quarter, the Falcons took the lead as Harrington completed a 13\\-yard TD pass to TE [Alge Crumpler](/wiki/Alge_Crumpler \"Alge Crumpler\"). Carolina retook the lead with Delhomme completing a 5\\-yard TD pass to TE [Jeff King](/wiki/Jeff_King_%28American_football%29 \"Jeff King (American football)\"), followed by a 10\\-yard TD run from Foster. In the fourth quarter, the Panthers scored again, with Kasay kicking a 49\\-yard field goal. The Falcons' Andersen nailed a 25\\-yard field goal to end the scoring.",
"The game was noteworthy because of [DeAngelo Hall](/wiki/DeAngelo_Hall \"DeAngelo Hall\")'s third quarter meltdown, wherein he was assessed 67 yards of penalties in a single drive. The penalties included a 37\\-yard pass interference penalty for tackling WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 \"Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)\") before the ball arrived, a 15\\-yard personal foul on the following play for blocking Smith at the line, and a 15\\-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty during a verbal exchange with Smith following a third\\-down sack by [John Abraham](/wiki/John_Abraham_%28American_football%29 \"John Abraham (American football)\"). The unsportsmanlike conduct penalty gave Carolina a first down, allowing their eventual TD to King rather than the likely 45\\-yard field goal attempt had the penalty not been called. Following the series, Hall was seen arguing with coaches on the sidelines, leading to a $100,000 fine by the team.",
"With the win, the Panthers improved to 2–1\\.",
"### Week 4: vs. Tampa Bay Buccaneers",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Buccaneers'''\n\\|R1\\=14\\|\\|R2\\=3\\|\\|R3\\=0\\|\\|R4\\=3\n\\|Home\\=Panthers\n\\|H1\\=0\\|\\|H2\\=0\\|\\|H3\\=0\\|\\|H4\\=7\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Bank of America Stadium]], \\[\\[Charlotte, North Carolina]] \n\\|time\\= 4:05 p.m. EDT\n\\|attendance\\= 73,707\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|79\\|F}} (Sunny)\n\\|TV\\=Fox \\|TVAnnouncers\\= Sam Rosen (play\\-by\\-play) and Tim Ryan (color commentator)\n}}\nComing off a divisional road win over the Falcons, the Panthers went home, donned their alternate uniforms, and prepared for another NFC South fight, as Carolina dueled with the [Tampa Bay Buccaneers](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Buccaneers \"Tampa Bay Buccaneers\") with the division lead on the line. With QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme \"Jake Delhomme\") unable to start with an elbow injury on his throwing arm, QB [David Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 \"David Carr (American football)\") was given the start. In the first quarter, the Panthers struggled as Buccaneers QB [Jeff Garcia](/wiki/Jeff_Garcia \"Jeff Garcia\") got a 3\\-yard TD run, while RB [Earnest Graham](/wiki/Earnest_Graham \"Earnest Graham\") got a 1\\-yard TD run. In the second quarter, Carolina continued to struggle as kicker [Matt Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant \"Matt Bryant\") got a 25\\-yard field goal for the only score of the period.",
"After a scoreless third quarter, Tampa Bay sealed the win with Bryant nailing a 38\\-yard field goal. Afterwards, the Panthers would get their only score of the game with Carr completing a 24\\-yard TD pass to RB [DeAngelo Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams \"DeAngelo Williams\").",
"With their 4th straight home loss, Carolina fell to 2–2\\.",
"|Scoring summary",
"| |\n| Q | Team | Time | Scoring play | Score |\n| 1 |TB 8:43 [Garcia](/wiki/Jeff_Garcia \"Jeff Garcia\") 3\\-yard TD run ([Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant \"Matt Bryant\") kick) | TB 7–0 |\n| 1 |TB 0:48 [Graham](/wiki/Earnest_Graham \"Earnest Graham\") 1\\-yard TD run ([Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant \"Matt Bryant\") kick) | TB 14–0 |\n| 2 |TB 6:41 [Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant \"Matt Bryant\") 25\\-yard FG | TB 17–0 |\n| 4 |TB 10:21 [Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant \"Matt Bryant\") 38\\-yard FG | TB 20–0 |\n| 4 |Car 8:01 24\\-yard TD pass from [Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 \"David Carr (American football)\") to [Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams \"DeAngelo Williams\") ([Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") kick) | **TB 20–7** |",
"",
"### Week 5: at New Orleans Saints",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Panthers'''\n\\|R1\\=3\\|\\|R2\\=3\\|\\|R3\\=0\\|\\|R4\\=10\n\\|Home\\=Saints\n\\|H1\\=3\\|\\|H2\\=3\\|\\|H3\\=7\\|\\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Louisiana Superdome]], \\[\\[New Orleans, Louisiana]] \n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. EDT\n\\|attendance\\= 70,001\n\\|TV\\=Fox \\|TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Chris Myers]] (play\\-by\\-play) and \\[\\[Brian Baldinger]] (color commentator)\n}}\nTrying to rebound from their divisional home loss to the Buccaneers, the Panthers flew to the [Louisiana Superdome](/wiki/Louisiana_Superdome \"Louisiana Superdome\") for a Week 5 divisional duel with the winless [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints \"New Orleans Saints\"). With QB [Jake Delhomme](/wiki/Jake_Delhomme \"Jake Delhomme\") out and done for the year with a right elbow injury, QB [David Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 \"David Carr (American football)\") was given the start.",
"In the first quarter, Carolina took the early lead with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") getting a 23\\-yard field goal. The Saints responded with kicker [Olindo Mare](/wiki/Olindo_Mare \"Olindo Mare\") getting a 25\\-yard field goal. In the second quarter, the Panthers went back into the lead with Kasay nailing a 35\\-yard field goal. New Orleans would respond with Mare kicking a 28\\-yard field goal.",
"In the third quarter, Carolina trailed as Saints FB [Mike Karney](/wiki/Mike_Karney \"Mike Karney\") got a 2\\-yard TD run for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, the Panthers tied the game with Carr completing a 17\\-yard TD pass to WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 \"Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)\"). Afterwards, Carolina sealed the win in the final seconds with Kasay nailing a 52\\-yard field goal as time ran out.",
"With the win, the Panthers improved to 3–2\\.",
"### Week 6: at Arizona Cardinals",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Panthers'''\n\\|R1\\=3\\|\\|R2\\=3\\|\\|R3\\=3\\|\\|R4\\=16\n\\|Home\\=Cardinals\n\\|H1\\=0\\|\\|H2\\=7\\|\\|H3\\=3\\|\\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[University of Phoenix]], \\[\\[Glendale, Arizona]] \n\\|time\\= 4:05 p.m. EDT\n\\|attendance\\= 64,403\n\\|TV\\=Fox \\|TVAnnouncers\\= Ron Pitts (play\\-by\\-play) and Tony Boselli (color commentator)\n}}\nComing off their divisional road win over the Saints, the Panthers flew to the [University of Phoenix Stadium](/wiki/University_of_Phoenix_Stadium \"University of Phoenix Stadium\") for a Week 6 throwdown with the [Arizona Cardinals](/wiki/Arizona_Cardinals \"Arizona Cardinals\") With [David Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 \"David Carr (American football)\") recovering from injuries, recently signed QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde \"Vinny Testaverde\") got the start.",
"In the first quarter, Carolina pounced first with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") getting a 33\\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Panthers increased its lead with Kasay kicking a 43\\-yard field goal. The Cardinals would get on the board with RB [Edgerrin James](/wiki/Edgerrin_James \"Edgerrin James\") getting a 23\\-yard TD run. In the third quarter, Carolina responded with Kasay getting a 24\\-yard field goal, yet Arizona answered with kicker [Neil Rackers](/wiki/Neil_Rackers \"Neil Rackers\") getting a 50\\-yard field goal. In the fourth quarter, Testaverde completed a 65\\-yard TD pass to WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28Carolina_Panthers%29 \"Steve Smith (Carolina Panthers)\"), increasing his consecutive seasons with a touchdown pass record to 21\\-straight. Afterwards, the Panthers sealed the win with Kasay nailing a 45\\-yard field goal, while RB [DeAngelo Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams \"DeAngelo Williams\") got a 13\\-yard TD run.",
"With the win, not only did Carolina improve to 4–2 heading into the bye week, but Testaverde became the oldest starting quarterback to win a game (43 years and 335 days), along with the third oldest quarterback to start a game.",
"### Week 8: vs. Indianapolis Colts",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Colts'''\n\\|R1\\=3\\|\\|R2\\=7\\|\\|R3\\=14\\|\\|R4\\=7\n\\|Home\\=Panthers\n\\|H1\\=7\\|\\|H2\\=0\\|\\|H3\\=0\\|\\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Bank of America Stadium]], \\[\\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]\n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EST]]/12:00 p.m. \\[\\[Central Time Zone\\|CST]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|66\\|F}} (Sunny)\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on CBS\\|CBS]] \\| TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Jim Nantz]] and \\[\\[Phil Simms]]\n\\|attendance\\= 74,005\n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[Ed Hochuli]]\n}}\n**Game summary**\nComing off their road win over the Cardinals, the Panthers went home for a Week 8 interconference duel with the defending Super Bowl champions, the [Indianapolis Colts](/wiki/Indianapolis_Colts \"Indianapolis Colts\"). In the first quarter, Carolina struck first by turning their opening drive (which lasted 11 minutes and 1 second) into a 3\\-yard TD run by RB [DeShaun Foster](/wiki/DeShaun_Foster \"DeShaun Foster\"). The Colts would respond with kicker [Adam Vinatieri](/wiki/Adam_Vinatieri \"Adam Vinatieri\") getting a 20\\-yard field goal. In the second quarter, Indianapolis took the lead with RB [Joseph Addai](/wiki/Joseph_Addai \"Joseph Addai\") getting a 2\\-yard TD run for the only score of the period.",
"In the third quarter, Indianapolis increased its lead with QB [Peyton Manning](/wiki/Peyton_Manning \"Peyton Manning\") completing a 4\\-yard TD pass to Addai, along with a 59\\-yard TD pass to WR [Reggie Wayne](/wiki/Reggie_Wayne \"Reggie Wayne\"). In the fourth quarter, the Colts sealed their win with Addai getting a 12\\-yard TD run.",
"With the loss, the Panthers fell to 4–3\\.",
"**Scoring Summary**\n* **Scoring**\n**First quarter**\n* CAR – [DeShaun Foster](/wiki/DeShaun_Foster \"DeShaun Foster\") 3\\-yard run ([Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") kick), 3:59\\. *Panthers 7–0\\. **Drive:** 18 plays, 80 yards, 11:01\\.*\n* IND – [Adam Vinatieri](/wiki/Adam_Vinatieri \"Adam Vinatieri\") 20\\-yard field goal, 0:47\\. *Panthers 7–3\\. **Drive:** 6 plays, 18 yards, 2:07\\.*\n**Second quarter**\n* IND – [Joseph Addai](/wiki/Joseph_Addai \"Joseph Addai\") 2\\-yard run (Vinatieri kick), 1:33\\. *Colts 10–7\\. **Drive:** 8 plays, 86 yards, 1:58\\.*\n**Third quarter**\n* IND – Joseph Addai 4\\-yard pass from [Peyton Manning](/wiki/Peyton_Manning \"Peyton Manning\") (Vinatieri kick), 12:11\\. *Colts 17–7\\. **Drive:** 8 plays, 60 yards, 2:49\\.*\n* IND – [Reggie Wayne](/wiki/Reggie_Wayne \"Reggie Wayne\") 59\\-yard pass from Peyton Manning (Vinatieri kick), 4:47\\. *Colts 24–7\\. **Drive:** 2 plays, 70 yards, 0:46\\.*\n**Fourth quarter**\n* IND – Joseph Addai 12\\-yard run (Vinatieri kick), 13:09\\. *Colts 31–7\\. **Drive:** 11 plays, 55 yards, 4:17\\.*",
"### Week 9: at Tennessee Titans",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\=Panthers\n\\|R1\\=0\\|\\|R2\\=0\\|\\|R3\\=0\\|\\|R4\\=7\n\\|Home\\='''Titans'''\n\\|H1\\=10\\|\\|H2\\=3\\|\\|H3\\=0\\|\\|H4\\=7\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[LP Field]], \\[\\[Nashville, Tennessee]] \n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. EST\n\\|attendance\\= 69,143\n\\|TV\\=Fox \\|TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Dick Stockton]] (play\\-by\\-play) and Brian Baldinger (color commentator)\n}}\nHoping to rebound from their home loss to the Colts, the Panthers flew to [LP Field](/wiki/LP_Field \"LP Field\") for a Week 9 interconference duel with the [Tennessee Titans](/wiki/Tennessee_Titans \"Tennessee Titans\"). In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Titans QB [Vince Young](/wiki/Vince_Young \"Vince Young\") got a 3\\-yard TD run, while kicker [Rob Bironas](/wiki/Rob_Bironas \"Rob Bironas\") got a 47\\-yard field goal. In the second quarter, the Panthers continued to struggle as Bironas nailed a 53\\-yard field goal for the only score of the period.",
"After a scoreless third quarter, Tennessee pulled away with RB [LenDale White](/wiki/LenDale_White \"LenDale White\") getting a 1\\-yard TD run. Carolina would avoid a shutout as QB [David Carr](/wiki/David_Carr_%28American_football%29 \"David Carr (American football)\") completed an 18\\-yard TD pass to WR [Drew Carter](/wiki/Drew_Carter \"Drew Carter\").",
"With the loss, the Panthers fell to 4–4\\.",
"Carr would relive his Texans days as he got sacked 7 times during the game.",
"### Week 10: vs. Atlanta Falcons",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Falcons'''\n\\|R1\\=7\n\\|R2\\=0\n\\|R3\\=3\n\\|R4\\=10\n\\|Home\\=Panthers\n\\|H1\\=0\n\\|H2\\=10\n\\|H3\\=0\n\\|H4\\=3\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Bank of America Stadium]], \\[\\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]''\n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EST]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|55\\|F}} (Partly Cloudy)\n\\|attendance\\= 73,340\n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[Terry McAulay]]\n\\|TV\\=Fox \\|TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Chris Rose]] (play\\-by\\-play) and \\[\\[Terry Donahue]] (color commentator)\n}}",
"[thumb\\|160px\\|[Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde \"Vinny Testaverde\") in week 10](/wiki/File:Vinny_Testaverde.jpg \"Vinny Testaverde.jpg\")",
"Trying to snap a two\\-game losing skid, the Panthers came home for an NFC South rematch with the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\"). Veteran QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde \"Vinny Testaverde\") would get the start. In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Falcons RB [Warrick Dunn](/wiki/Warrick_Dunn \"Warrick Dunn\") getting a 30\\-yard TD run for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Panthers took the lead with CB [Ken Lucas](/wiki/Ken_Lucas_%28American_football%29 \"Ken Lucas (American football)\") returning a fumble 27 yards for a touchdown, while kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") managed to get a 29\\-yard field goal.",
"In the third quarter, Atlanta tied the game with kicker [Morten Andersen](/wiki/Morten_Andersen \"Morten Andersen\") getting a 36\\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, the Falcons regained the lead with Andersen kicking a 47\\-yard field goal. Carolina would reply with Kasay nailing a 31\\-yard field goal. Unfortunately, Atlanta sealed the win with QB [Joey Harrington](/wiki/Joey_Harrington \"Joey Harrington\") completing a 30\\-yard TD pass to TE [Alge Crumpler](/wiki/Alge_Crumpler \"Alge Crumpler\").",
"With the loss, not only did the Panthers fall to 4–5, but they even lost six\\-straight home games.",
"### Week 11: at Green Bay Packers",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\=Panthers\n\\|R1\\=3\n\\|R2\\=0\n\\|R3\\=7\n\\|R4\\=7\n\\|Home\\='''Packers'''\n\\|H1\\=7\n\\|H2\\=14\n\\|H3\\=7\n\\|H4\\=3\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Lambeau Field]], \\[\\[Green Bay, Wisconsin]]\n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EST]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|42\\|F}} (Sunny)\n\\|attendance\\=70,805\n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[Gene Steratore]]\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on Fox\\|Fox]] \\| TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Dick Stockton]] (play\\-by\\-play) \\& \\[\\[Brian Baldinger]] (color commentator)\n}}",
"Trying to snap a three\\-game losing skid, the Panthers flew to [Lambeau Field](/wiki/Lambeau_Field \"Lambeau Field\") for Week 11 duel with the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\"). This game set a record as QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde \"Vinny Testaverde\") and Packers QB [Brett Favre](/wiki/Brett_Favre \"Brett Favre\") had the oldest combined age of two starting quarterbacks at 82 years and 44 days.",
"In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Packers CB [Tramon Williams](/wiki/Tramon_Williams \"Tramon Williams\") returned a pooch punt 94 yards for a touchdowns. The Panthers would get on the board as kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") managed to get a 26\\-yard field goal. In the second quarter, Green Bay increased its lead with Favre completing a 4\\-yard TD pass to WR [Greg Jennings](/wiki/Greg_Jennings \"Greg Jennings\") and a 26\\-yard TD pass to TE [Donald Lee](/wiki/Donald_Lee_%28American_football%29 \"Donald Lee (American football)\").",
"In the third quarter, Green Bay continued its domination as Favre and Lee hooked up with each other again on a 12\\-yard TD pass. Carolina would respond with Testaverde completing a 2\\-yard TD pass to TE [Christian Fauria](/wiki/Christian_Fauria \"Christian Fauria\"). In the fourth quarter, the Panthers tried to come back as Testaverde completed a 5\\-yard TD pass to WR [Drew Carter](/wiki/Drew_Carter \"Drew Carter\"). However, the Packers sealed the win with kicker [Mason Crosby](/wiki/Mason_Crosby \"Mason Crosby\") getting a 47\\-yard field goal.",
"With their fourth\\-straight loss, Carolina fell to 4–6\\.",
"### Week 12: vs. New Orleans Saints",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Saints'''\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=10\n\\|R3\\=21\n\\|R4\\=0\n\\|Home\\=Panthers\n\\|H1\\=3\n\\|H2\\=3\n\\|H3\\=0\n\\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Bank of America Stadium]], \\[\\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]\n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EST]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|46\\|F}} (Light Rain)\n\\|attendance\\= 72,032\n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[Jerome Boger]]\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on FOX\\|FOX]] \\| TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Dick Stockton]] (play\\-by\\-play) \\& \\[\\[Brian Baldinger]] (color commentator)\n}}\nTrying to snap a four\\-game losing skid, the Panthers went home for a Week 12 NFC South rematch with the [New Orleans Saints](/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints \"New Orleans Saints\"). In the first quarter, Carolina got the early lead as kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") managed to get a 45\\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Saints took the lead as QB [Drew Brees](/wiki/Drew_Brees \"Drew Brees\") completed a 1\\-yard TD pass to WR [Lance Moore](/wiki/Lance_Moore \"Lance Moore\"), along with kicker [Olindo Mare](/wiki/Olindo_Mare \"Olindo Mare\") getting a 46\\-yard field goal. The Panthers would end the half as Kasay nailed a 29\\-yard field goal. In the third quarter, New Orleans pulled away with Brees completing a 1\\-yard TD pass to TE [Billy Miller](/wiki/Billy_Miller_%28American_football%29 \"Billy Miller (American football)\"), getting an 8\\-yard TD run, and completing a 4\\-yard TD pass to WR [Marques Colston](/wiki/Marques_Colston \"Marques Colston\").",
"With their fifth straight loss, not only did Carolina fall to 4–7, but they had also lost seven straight home games (they have yet to win a home game this year). Also, the Panthers offense only managed to get 4 touchdowns in the last five games.",
"### Week 13: vs. San Francisco 49ers",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\=49ers\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=0\n\\|R3\\=14\n\\|R4\\=0\n\\|Home\\='''Panthers'''\n\\|H1\\=3\n\\|H2\\=14\n\\|H3\\=7\n\\|H4\\=7\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Bank of America Stadium]], \\[\\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]\n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EST]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|53\\|F}} (Cloudy)\n\\|attendance\\= 73,191\n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[Scott Green (American football official)\\|Scott Green]]\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on FOX\\|FOX]] \\| TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Matt Vasgersian]] (play\\-by\\-play) \\& \\[\\[J.C. Pearson]] (color commentator)\n}}\nTrying to snap a five\\-game losing skid, the Panthers stayed at home for a Week 13 intraconference duel with the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers \"San Francisco 49ers\"). In the first quarter, Carolina pounced first with kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") nailing a 19\\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Panthers increased their lead with QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde \"Vinny Testaverde\") completing a 5\\-yard TD pass to rookie TE [Dante Rosario](/wiki/Dante_Rosario \"Dante Rosario\"), while CB [Richard Marshall](/wiki/Richard_Marshall_%28defensive_back%29 \"Richard Marshall (defensive back)\") returned an interception 67 yards for a touchdown.",
"In the third quarter, the 49ers managed to get on the board as QB [Trent Dilfer](/wiki/Trent_Dilfer \"Trent Dilfer\") completing a 20\\-yard TD pass to WR [Arnaz Battle](/wiki/Arnaz_Battle \"Arnaz Battle\") and a 1\\-yard TD pass to TE [Delanie Walker](/wiki/Delanie_Walker \"Delanie Walker\"). Afterwards, Carolina went back to work as RB [DeShaun Foster](/wiki/DeShaun_Foster \"DeShaun Foster\") got a 1\\-yard TD run. In the fourth quarter, the Panthers pulled away as Testaverde completed a 1\\-yard TD pass to TE [Jeff King](/wiki/Jeff_King_%28American_football%29 \"Jeff King (American football)\").",
"With the win, not only did Carolina improve to 5–7, but it even managed to give the Panthers their first home win of the year. It took 54 weeks overall for the Panthers to win a home game; they continued the home losing streak that lasted throughout the rest of the 2006 season and extended it to 7 games, but they ended the streak by winning 31\\-14 against San Francisco at the BOA in Week 13\\.",
"### Week 14: at Jacksonville Jaguars",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\=Panthers\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=6\n\\|R3\\=0\n\\|R4\\=0\n\\|Home\\='''Jaguars'''\n\\|H1\\=7\n\\|H2\\=3\n\\|H3\\=10\n\\|H4\\=17\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Jacksonville Municipal Stadium]], \\[\\[Jacksonville, Florida]]\n\\|time\\= 1:00 p.m. \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EST]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|77\\|F}} (Sunny)\n\\|attendance\\= 66,090\n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[John Parry (American football official)\\|John Parry]]\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on FOX\\|FOX]] \\| TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Ron Pitts]] (play\\-by\\-play) \\& \\[\\[Tony Boselli]] (color commentator)\n}}\nComing off their home win over the 49ers, the Panthers flew to [Jacksonville Municipal Stadium](/wiki/Jacksonville_Municipal_Stadium \"Jacksonville Municipal Stadium\") for a Week 14 interconference duel with their 1995 expansion rival, the [Jacksonville Jaguars](/wiki/Jacksonville_Jaguars \"Jacksonville Jaguars\"). In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Jaguars QB [David Garrard](/wiki/David_Garrard \"David Garrard\") completed a 22\\-yard TD pass to WR [Reggie Williams](/wiki/Reggie_Williams_%28wide_receiver%29 \"Reggie Williams (wide receiver)\") for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, the Panthers would get on the board as kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") managed to get a 49\\-yard field goal. Afterwards, Jacksonville responded with kicker [Josh Scobee](/wiki/Josh_Scobee \"Josh Scobee\") getting a 21\\-yard field goal. Carolina would end the half as Kasay kicked a 21\\-yard field goal.",
"In the third quarter, the Panthers began to fall behind as Garrard completed a 6\\-yard TD pass to WR [Matt Jones](/wiki/Matt_Jones_%28wide_receiver%29 \"Matt Jones (wide receiver)\"), along with Scobee kicking a 20\\-yard field goal. In the fourth quarter, the Jaguars sealed the win with LB [Clint Ingram](/wiki/Clint_Ingram \"Clint Ingram\") returning an interception 39 yards for a touchdown, RB [Fred Taylor](/wiki/Fred_Taylor_%28American_football%29 \"Fred Taylor (American football)\") getting an 80\\-yard TD run, and Scobee nailing a 33\\-yard field goal.",
"With the loss, Carolina fell to 5–8\\.",
"### Week 15: vs. Seattle Seahawks",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\=Seahawks\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=0\n\\|R3\\=0\n\\|R4\\=10\n\\|Home\\='''Panthers'''\n\\|H1\\=0\n\\|H2\\=0\n\\|H3\\=0\n\\|H4\\=13\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Bank of America Stadium]], \\[\\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]\n\\|time\\= 1:00 PM \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone (North America)\\|EDT]]/10:00 AM \\[\\[Pacific Time Zone\\|PDT]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|48\\|F}} (Sunny)\n\\|attendance\\= \n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[Walt Anderson (American football official)\\|Walt Anderson]]\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on Fox\\|Fox]] \\| TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Dick Stockton]] (play\\-by\\-play) \\& \\[\\[Brian Baldinger]] (color commentator)\n}}\nHoping to rebound from their road loss to the Jaguars, the Panthers went home for a Week 15 intraconference duel with the [Seattle Seahawks](/wiki/Seattle_Seahawks \"Seattle Seahawks\"). The game remained scoreless for the first three quarters of play until kicker [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") finally delivered the game's first punch in the fourth quarter with a 53\\-yard field goal. Afterwards, the Seahawks would respond with kicker [Josh Brown](/wiki/Josh_Brown_%28American_football%29 \"Josh Brown (American football)\") getting a 23\\-yard field goal. After that, Carolina clawed deep with Kasay nailing a 37\\-yard field goal and RB [DeAngelo Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams \"DeAngelo Williams\") getting a 35\\-yard touchdown run. Later, Seattle's only response would be QB [Matt Hasselbeck](/wiki/Matt_Hasselbeck \"Matt Hasselbeck\") completing a 15\\-yard TD pass to WR [Deion Branch](/wiki/Deion_Branch \"Deion Branch\").",
"With the win, the Panthers kept their slim playoffs alive by improving to 6–8\\.",
"### Week 16: vs. Dallas Cowboys",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Cowboys'''\n\\|R1\\=7\\|\\|R2\\=10\\|\\|R3\\=0\\|\\|R4\\=3\n\\|Home\\=Panthers\n\\|H1\\=0\\|\\|H2\\=7\\|\\|H3\\=3\\|\\|H4\\=3\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Bank of America Stadium]], \\[\\[Charlotte, North Carolina]]\n\\|time\\= 8:15 PM \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EDT]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|48\\|F}} (Cloudy)\n\\|attendance\\= 73,860\n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[Mike Carey (American football)\\|Mike Carey]]\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL Network]] \\| TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Bryant Gumbel]] (play\\-by\\-play) and \\[\\[Cris Collinsworth]] (color commentator)\n}}\nComing off their win over the Seahawks, the Panthers stayed at home for a Week 16 Saturday night duel with the playoff\\-bound [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys \"Dallas Cowboys\") in an attempt to keep their slim playoff hopes alive.",
"In the first quarter, Carolina trailed early as Cowboys QB [Tony Romo](/wiki/Tony_Romo \"Tony Romo\") completed a 10\\-yard TD pass to WR [Terrell Owens](/wiki/Terrell_Owens \"Terrell Owens\") for the only score of the period. In the second quarter, Dallas increased its lead with RB [Marion Barber](/wiki/Marion_Barber_III \"Marion Barber III\") getting a 5\\-yard TD run. The Panthers got on the board with [Matt Moore](/wiki/Matt_Moore_%28American_football%29 \"Matt Moore (American football)\") completing an 11\\-yard TD pass to WR [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_L._Smith \"Steve L. Smith\"). The Cowboys ended the half with kicker [Nick Folk](/wiki/Nick_Folk \"Nick Folk\") getting a 42\\-yard field goal.",
"In the third quarter, Carolina began rallying with [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") getting a 37\\-yard field goal for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, Dallas responded with Folk kicking a 23\\-yard field goal. The Panthers tried to come back as Kasay nailed a 25\\-yard field goal, but the Cowboys' defense held on for the win.",
"With the loss, they fell to 6\\-9 and were eliminated from playoff contention.",
"### Week 17: at Tampa Bay Buccaneers",
"{{Americanfootballbox\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Panthers'''\n\\|R1\\=7\\|\\|R2\\=10\\|\\|R3\\=7\\|\\|R4\\=7\n\\|Home\\=Buccaneers\n\\|H1\\=7\\|\\|H2\\=6\\|\\|H3\\=7\\|\\|H4\\=3\n\\|stadium\\= \\[\\[Raymond James Stadium]], \\[\\[Tampa, Florida]]\n\\|time\\= 1:00 PM \\[\\[Eastern Time Zone\\|EDT]]\n\\|weather\\= {{convert\\|80\\|F}}, Mostly Cloudy\n\\|attendance\\= 65,609\n\\|referee\\= \\[\\[Gene Steratore]]\n\\|TV\\=\\[\\[NFL on FOX\\|FOX]] \\| TVAnnouncers\\= \\[\\[Ron Pitts]] (play\\-by\\-play), \\[\\[Tony Boselli]] (color commentary), and \\[\\[Chip Carter (sportscaster)\\|Chip Carter]] (sideline reporter) \n}}\nCarolina concluded the regular season at [home](/wiki/Raymond_James_Stadium \"Raymond James Stadium\") against the [Buccaneers](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Buccaneers \"Tampa Bay Buccaneers\"). With a playoff spot now gone and nothing to lose, the Panthers took the field with [Matt Moore](/wiki/Matt_Moore_%28American_football%29 \"Matt Moore (American football)\") at the helm.",
"Tampa Bay struck first as second\\-string QB [Luke McCown](/wiki/Luke_McCown \"Luke McCown\"), in place of starter [Jeff Garcia](/wiki/Jeff_Garcia \"Jeff Garcia\"), drove the Buccaneers down the field for the game's first score, a touchdown pass to TE [Jerramy Stevens](/wiki/Jerramy_Stevens \"Jerramy Stevens\"). The Panthers responded by driving to the Tampa Bay 4\\-yard line. A field goal kick by [John Kasay](/wiki/John_Kasay \"John Kasay\") was good, but a holding penalty by LB [Derrick Brooks](/wiki/Derrick_Brooks \"Derrick Brooks\") gave the Panthers a first down. They capitalized on this opportunity with a 2\\-yard touchdown pass from Moore to TE [Christian Fauria](/wiki/Christian_Fauria \"Christian Fauria\"), tying the game at 7\\.",
"In the second quarter, a Matt Moore interception by [Phillip Buchanon](/wiki/Phillip_Buchanon \"Phillip Buchanon\") led to a [Matt Bryant](/wiki/Matt_Bryant \"Matt Bryant\") field goal. The Panthers responded once again with a 20\\-yard touchdown pass to TE [Dante Rosario](/wiki/Dante_Rosario \"Dante Rosario\"), giving Carolina a 14–10 lead with 6:40 left in the half. Late in the second quarter, [Josh Bidwell](/wiki/Josh_Bidwell \"Josh Bidwell\") punted to Carolina, but a fumble by [Ryne Robinson](/wiki/Ryne_Robinson \"Ryne Robinson\") on the return was recovered by the Buccaneers. Tampa Bay tacked on another Bryant field goal with 2:34 left in the half, but Carolina responded with a field goal of their own with 16 seconds remaining until the break, giving them a 17–13 lead at the half.",
"Midway through the third quarter, Carolina punted and pinned the Buccaneers on their own 2\\-yard line. McCown then led the Buccaneers on a 10\\-play, 98\\-yard touchdown drive, the longest such scoring drive in franchise history, resulting in a 23\\-yard touchdown pass to RB [Michael Bennett](/wiki/Michael_Bennett_%28running_back%29 \"Michael Bennett (running back)\") and a 20–17 lead. Carolina kept themselves in the game, however, quickly following up a 46\\-yard reception to [Drew Carter](/wiki/Drew_Carter \"Drew Carter\") with a 1\\-yard touchdown run by RB [DeAngelo Williams](/wiki/DeAngelo_Williams \"DeAngelo Williams\"), making the score 24–20 in favor of the Panthers.",
"Going into the fourth quarter, the Bucs added another field goal from Bryant with 14:02 left in the game and the score 24–23\\. The Panthers capped their scoring with a 32\\-yard touchdown run from Williams, his second of the day, making it 31–23\\. Trailing late in the fourth quarter, McCown drove the Buccaneers to the Carolina 36\\-yard line, but was intercepted by DB [Richard Marshall](/wiki/Richard_Marshall_%28defensive_back%29 \"Richard Marshall (defensive back)\"). As a sign of respect for his last official game, the Panthers let veteran QB [Vinny Testaverde](/wiki/Vinny_Testaverde \"Vinny Testaverde\") kneel down the ball on the game's last play. The Panthers finished the season with a record of 7–9\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Arnold became politically active again. In 1945, he was co\-founder of the local Christian\-Democratic Party in Düsseldorf, which became part of the [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 "Christian Democratic Union (Germany)") later in 1945\. Also in 1945, the Düsseldorf chapter of the united workers union was founded, presided by Arnold. On 29 January 1946 Arnold was named mayor of Düsseldorf and later elected in the first free elections (26 October 1946\).
In December 1946, Arnold became deputy minister\-president of the state of [North Rhine\-Westphalia](/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia "North Rhine-Westphalia") and in 1947 he was elected minister\-president. Until 1950 he presided over a coalition of CDU, [Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 "Centre Party (Germany)"), [SPD](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany "Social Democratic Party of Germany") and (briefly) the [Communist Party](/wiki/KPD "KPD"). He considered himself a *"christian socialist"*. The only in\-parliament\-party he did not let enter the government was the [FDP](/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_%28Germany%29 "Free Democratic Party (Germany)"), whose North Rhine\-Westphalian branch had a particular nationalist bent.
On 7 September 1949, he was elected as the first president of the [Bundesrat of Germany](/wiki/Bundesrat_of_Germany "Bundesrat of Germany"), the representation of German states at the federal level.
From 1950 to 1956, Arnold was elected minister\-president for North Rhine\-Westphalia twice again, governing with the help of conservative parties and the Free Democrats. Important acts of his government were the foundation of the North Rhine\-Westphalian broadcasting system (today: [Westdeutscher Rundfunk](/wiki/Westdeutscher_Rundfunk "Westdeutscher Rundfunk")) and the German system of workers union influence in steel and coal industries.
On 20 February 1956, the FDP switched coalition affiliation to the SPD, ending the Arnold government in North Rhine\-Westphalia.
In 1957, he was elected into the German Bundestag (with a 72% majority in his constituency). He was member of the Bundestag until 29 June 1958, when he died of a heart attack.{{Cite web\|title\=Die Mitglieder des Deutschen Bundestages – 1\.\-13\. Wahlperiode: Alphabetisches Gesamtverzeichnis; Stand: 28\. Februar 1998\|url\=http://webarchiv.bundestag.de/cgi/show.php?fileToLoad\=627\&id\=12\|date\=1998\-02\-28\|website\=webarchiv.bundestag.de\|publisher\=Deutscher Bundestag, Wissenschaftliche Dienste des Bundestages (WD 3/ZI 5\)\|language\=de\|trans\-title\=The members of the German Bundestag – 1st – 13th term of office: Alphabetical complete index\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-21}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Arnold became politically active again. In 1945, he was co\\-founder of the local Christian\\-Democratic Party in Düsseldorf, which became part of the [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_%28Germany%29 \"Christian Democratic Union (Germany)\") later in 1945\\. Also in 1945, the Düsseldorf chapter of the united workers union was founded, presided by Arnold. On 29 January 1946 Arnold was named mayor of Düsseldorf and later elected in the first free elections (26 October 1946\\).",
"In December 1946, Arnold became deputy minister\\-president of the state of [North Rhine\\-Westphalia](/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia \"North Rhine-Westphalia\") and in 1947 he was elected minister\\-president. Until 1950 he presided over a coalition of CDU, [Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Centre Party (Germany)\"), [SPD](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") and (briefly) the [Communist Party](/wiki/KPD \"KPD\"). He considered himself a *\"christian socialist\"*. The only in\\-parliament\\-party he did not let enter the government was the [FDP](/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Free Democratic Party (Germany)\"), whose North Rhine\\-Westphalian branch had a particular nationalist bent.",
"On 7 September 1949, he was elected as the first president of the [Bundesrat of Germany](/wiki/Bundesrat_of_Germany \"Bundesrat of Germany\"), the representation of German states at the federal level.",
"From 1950 to 1956, Arnold was elected minister\\-president for North Rhine\\-Westphalia twice again, governing with the help of conservative parties and the Free Democrats. Important acts of his government were the foundation of the North Rhine\\-Westphalian broadcasting system (today: [Westdeutscher Rundfunk](/wiki/Westdeutscher_Rundfunk \"Westdeutscher Rundfunk\")) and the German system of workers union influence in steel and coal industries.",
"On 20 February 1956, the FDP switched coalition affiliation to the SPD, ending the Arnold government in North Rhine\\-Westphalia.",
"In 1957, he was elected into the German Bundestag (with a 72% majority in his constituency). He was member of the Bundestag until 29 June 1958, when he died of a heart attack.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Die Mitglieder des Deutschen Bundestages – 1\\.\\-13\\. Wahlperiode: Alphabetisches Gesamtverzeichnis; Stand: 28\\. Februar 1998\\|url\\=http://webarchiv.bundestag.de/cgi/show.php?fileToLoad\\=627\\&id\\=12\\|date\\=1998\\-02\\-28\\|website\\=webarchiv.bundestag.de\\|publisher\\=Deutscher Bundestag, Wissenschaftliche Dienste des Bundestages (WD 3/ZI 5\\)\\|language\\=de\\|trans\\-title\\=The members of the German Bundestag – 1st – 13th term of office: Alphabetical complete index\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-21}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Ross Bell was born April 23, 1929, in [Champaign, Illinois](/wiki/Champaign%2C_Illinois "Champaign, Illinois"), to parents Alfred Hannam Bell and Dorothy Bell. He had two sisters \- Martha and Enid. The family members were keen naturalists, and family vacations included long drives to various locations in the US where the family would pursue their particular interests in botany, zoology, and geology.
Bell's particular interest in insects began with a childhood gift of an insect collecting kit from his parents. He also received a jar of silk worm larvae, which he reared on mulberry leaves. At age 14, he gained employment at the [Illinois Natural History Survey](/wiki/Illinois_Natural_History_Survey "Illinois Natural History Survey") at the [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign "University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign") where he sorted and identified flies of the families Sarcophagidae, Muscidae and Calliphoridae. The following summer, he took a job with the taxonomic survey, though this turned out to provide him with little scope to develop his skills and interests.
Bell went to high school at the [University Laboratory High School](/wiki/University_Laboratory_High_School_%28Urbana%2C_Illinois%29 "University Laboratory High School (Urbana, Illinois)") in Urbana. He spent his summers at his aunt and uncle's farm in Ohio where, in between farm chores, he would collect and attempt to name insects from the fields and nearby stream.
He spent 1946 to 1949 at the [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign "University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign"), where he earned a BS in zoology. He then went on to gain his MS with a thesis about the Carabidae (Simplicia) of Illinois. In the early 1950s, under the sponsorship of entomologist W.V. Balduf, he completed his doctoral dissertation about the comparative [morphology](/wiki/Morphology_%28biology%29 "Morphology (biology)") and [phylogeny](/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree "Phylogenetic tree") of [Adephaga](/wiki/Adephaga "Adephaga").
While at Illinois, Bell became friends with 'Butterfly' Bob Snetsinger. Through him, Bell developed interests in life history and larval biology. He also became interested in ecology and became president of the department's ecology club.
Following the completion of his Ph.D., Bell was awarded a [Fulbright Fellowship](/wiki/Fulbright_Program "Fulbright Program") to go to India. Before he could take this up, though, he was called for national service, and spent two years at Fort Dietrich, Maryland, then known as America's 'Germ Warfare Centre'. Spending a significant amount of time working with fleas, he discovered a rapid way to differentiate males from females. On discharge, he joined the [University of Vermont](/wiki/University_of_Vermont "University of Vermont") (UVM), lecturing on field zoology, invertebrate zoology, entomology and mountain ecology.
In the summer of 1956, he went collecting insects in Mexico with Don Van Horn. It was here that he discovered his first undescribed rhysodine beetle. This led to a lifelong fascination which established him as the world expert on these particular beetles.
In the following year, he married Joyce Elaine Rockenbach of Whitestone, Queens, New York City. The two became inseparable companions in the pursuit of entomology. During the 1960s, they began an active program to document the arthropod fauna of Vermont. Their work built the UVM Entomological Collection into a significant resource for Northern New England. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ross and Joyce extended the boundaries for their entomological work beyond Vermont, stretching as far as New Zealand and Papua New Guinea.
Bell retired from UVM in 2000, but continued to teach a field course in entomology for a further four years. He and his wife continued to study entomology, and in particular rhysodines, until his death.
Ross Bell died in Shelburne, Vermont, at the age of 90, survived by Joyce.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.legacy.com/obituaries/burlingtonfreepress/obituary.aspx?n\=ross\-taylor\-bell\&pid\=194511901\|title \= Ross Taylor Bell Obituary (1929 \- 2019\) the Burlington Free Press\| website\=\[\[Legacy.com]] }}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Ross Bell was born April 23, 1929, in [Champaign, Illinois](/wiki/Champaign%2C_Illinois \"Champaign, Illinois\"), to parents Alfred Hannam Bell and Dorothy Bell. He had two sisters \\- Martha and Enid. The family members were keen naturalists, and family vacations included long drives to various locations in the US where the family would pursue their particular interests in botany, zoology, and geology.",
"Bell's particular interest in insects began with a childhood gift of an insect collecting kit from his parents. He also received a jar of silk worm larvae, which he reared on mulberry leaves. At age 14, he gained employment at the [Illinois Natural History Survey](/wiki/Illinois_Natural_History_Survey \"Illinois Natural History Survey\") at the [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign \"University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign\") where he sorted and identified flies of the families Sarcophagidae, Muscidae and Calliphoridae. The following summer, he took a job with the taxonomic survey, though this turned out to provide him with little scope to develop his skills and interests.",
"Bell went to high school at the [University Laboratory High School](/wiki/University_Laboratory_High_School_%28Urbana%2C_Illinois%29 \"University Laboratory High School (Urbana, Illinois)\") in Urbana. He spent his summers at his aunt and uncle's farm in Ohio where, in between farm chores, he would collect and attempt to name insects from the fields and nearby stream.",
"He spent 1946 to 1949 at the [University of Illinois](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign \"University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign\"), where he earned a BS in zoology. He then went on to gain his MS with a thesis about the Carabidae (Simplicia) of Illinois. In the early 1950s, under the sponsorship of entomologist W.V. Balduf, he completed his doctoral dissertation about the comparative [morphology](/wiki/Morphology_%28biology%29 \"Morphology (biology)\") and [phylogeny](/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree \"Phylogenetic tree\") of [Adephaga](/wiki/Adephaga \"Adephaga\").",
"While at Illinois, Bell became friends with 'Butterfly' Bob Snetsinger. Through him, Bell developed interests in life history and larval biology. He also became interested in ecology and became president of the department's ecology club.",
"Following the completion of his Ph.D., Bell was awarded a [Fulbright Fellowship](/wiki/Fulbright_Program \"Fulbright Program\") to go to India. Before he could take this up, though, he was called for national service, and spent two years at Fort Dietrich, Maryland, then known as America's 'Germ Warfare Centre'. Spending a significant amount of time working with fleas, he discovered a rapid way to differentiate males from females. On discharge, he joined the [University of Vermont](/wiki/University_of_Vermont \"University of Vermont\") (UVM), lecturing on field zoology, invertebrate zoology, entomology and mountain ecology.",
"In the summer of 1956, he went collecting insects in Mexico with Don Van Horn. It was here that he discovered his first undescribed rhysodine beetle. This led to a lifelong fascination which established him as the world expert on these particular beetles.",
"In the following year, he married Joyce Elaine Rockenbach of Whitestone, Queens, New York City. The two became inseparable companions in the pursuit of entomology. During the 1960s, they began an active program to document the arthropod fauna of Vermont. Their work built the UVM Entomological Collection into a significant resource for Northern New England. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ross and Joyce extended the boundaries for their entomological work beyond Vermont, stretching as far as New Zealand and Papua New Guinea.",
"Bell retired from UVM in 2000, but continued to teach a field course in entomology for a further four years. He and his wife continued to study entomology, and in particular rhysodines, until his death.",
"Ross Bell died in Shelburne, Vermont, at the age of 90, survived by Joyce.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.legacy.com/obituaries/burlingtonfreepress/obituary.aspx?n\\=ross\\-taylor\\-bell\\&pid\\=194511901\\|title \\= Ross Taylor Bell Obituary (1929 \\- 2019\\) the Burlington Free Press\\| website\\=\\[\\[Legacy.com]] }}",
""
] |
Life
----
According to his song *Smeòrach Chlann Dòmhnaill* ("The [Song Thrush](/wiki/Song_Thrush "Song Thrush") of [Clan Donald](/wiki/Clan_Donald "Clan Donald")"), Iain Mac Fhearchair, alias John MacCodrum, was born near *Cladh Chomhgain*, which is, according to Bill Lawson, "a disused graveyard in which were the ruins of a little chapel, dedicated to St [Comgan](/wiki/Comgan "Comgan") \- one of many church dedications in the immediate neighborhood. In MacCodrum's time, it would have been part of the township of *Hoghagearraidh*." The future [Bard](/wiki/Bard "Bard") was raised on the nearby farm of *Aird an Runair*.Lawson (2011\), pages 28\-29\.
According to [John Lorne Campbell](/wiki/John_Lorne_Campbell "John Lorne Campbell"), Iain, "was in the technical sense of the term, illiterate."Campbell (1979\), *Highland Songs of the Forty Five*, page 246\. In a footnote, however, Campbell explains, "Which is to say that he never learned English. In MacCodrum's day little education was available for the Highlanders, and none at all in their own language."Campbell (1979\), page 246, footnote 1\.
During the era, the people of Hoghagearaidh paid the [Chief](/wiki/Scottish_clan_chief "Scottish clan chief") of [Clan MacDonald of Sleat](/wiki/Clan_MacDonald_of_Sleat "Clan MacDonald of Sleat") a rental fee called "The Seal Dues", in return for the right to kill the seals on the nearby rock of Causamul. The rock remains, according to Bill Lawson, "one of the main breeding areas for the [Atlantic seal](/wiki/Atlantic_seal "Atlantic seal")."Lawson (2011\), page 26\.
The MacCodrums of Hoghagearaidh, however, never participated in the killing of seals. This was because, according to legend, an ancestor of theirs had stolen the skin of a [selkie](/wiki/Selkie "Selkie") while she was ashore in human form and forced her to marry him. As told in a local folk song, however, one of the couple's children later returned the seal skin to her mother, who put it on, abandoned her human family, and returned to the sea. For this reason, the MacCodrum descendants of the couple were referred to in [Scottish Gaelic](/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") as, *Clann righ fo gheasan*, ("King's children under a spell") and never harmed seals, whom they believed to be their relatives.Lawson (2011\), pages 26\-27\.
[thumb\|left\|MacCodrum 's patron, Sir Alexander Macdonald of Sleat, 7th Baronet](/wiki/File:%28portrait%29_Sir_Alexander_Macdonald_of_Sleat%2C_7th_Baronet.jpg "(portrait) Sir Alexander Macdonald of Sleat, 7th Baronet.jpg")
Although Sir Alexander MacDonald of Sleat had promised Prince [Charles Edward Stuart](/wiki/Charles_Edward_Stuart "Charles Edward Stuart") that he would do raise the Clan if the Prince arrived from [France](/wiki/France "France"), the Chief and his Clansmen took no part in the [Jacobite Uprising of 1745](/wiki/Jacobite_Uprising_of_1745 "Jacobite Uprising of 1745"). The Chief's reason for going back on his word was that the French troops that had also been promised had failed to arrive with the Prince. Despite the Clan's neutrality, all the lands of MacDonald of Sleat were included in the savage repression of Highland dress, language, and culture that followed the defeat of the uprising at the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden "Battle of Culloden") in 1746\. John MacCodrum's satirical poem, *Oran an Aghaidh an Eididh Ghallda* ("A Song Against the Lowland Garb"), "shows clearly where his own sympathies lay."Campbell (1971\), pages 246, 248\-253\.
In 1760, [James Macpherson](/wiki/James_Macpherson "James Macpherson"), who was collecting stories from the [Fenian Cycle](/wiki/Fenian_Cycle "Fenian Cycle") throughout the Scottish [Highlands and Islands](/wiki/Highlands_and_Islands "Highlands and Islands"), visited [North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist "North Uist"). During Macpherson's visit, MacCodrum made, according to John Lorne Campbell, "a brief appearance in the Ossianic controversy which is not without its humorous side." When Macpherson met MacCodrum, he asked the Bard, *"A bheil dad agaibh air an Fheinne?"* Macpherson believed himself to be asking, "Do you know anything of the [Fianna](/wiki/Fianna "Fianna")?" He had actually said, however, "Do the Fianna owe you anything?"Campbell (1971\), page 246\.
In reply, MacCodrum quipped, *"Cha n\-eil agus ge do bhiodh cha ruiginn a leas iarraidh a nis"*, "No, and if they did it would be useless to ask for it now." According to Campbell, this, "dialogue... illustrates at once Macpherson's imperfect Gaelic and MacCodrum's quickness of reply."Campbell (1971\), pages 247\-247\.
In October 1763, as the controversy over the authenticity of Macpherson's [epic poem](/wiki/Epic_poem "Epic poem") *[Ossian](/wiki/Ossian "Ossian")*, which he alleged was a translation from [Scottish Gaelic](/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic"), was heating up, Sir James MacDonald of Sleat wrote a letter to Doctor [Hugh Blair](/wiki/Hugh_Blair "Hugh Blair") in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh") which sheds light on MacCodrum's role as a [seanchaidh](/wiki/Seanchaidh "Seanchaidh").
According to The MacDonald of Sleat, "The few bards that are left amongst us, repeat only detached portions of these poems. I have often heard and understood them, particularly from one man called John MacCodrum, who lives on my estate in [North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist "North Uist"). I have heard him repeat, for hours together, poems which seems to me to be the same with Macpherson's translation."Campbell (1971\), page 247\.
Campbell writes, however, "None of MacCodrum's Ossianic verses have survived him.Campbell (1971\), page 247\.
One of MacCodrum's closest friends was the famous Gaelic poet [Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair](/wiki/Alasdair_mac_Mhaighstir_Alasdair "Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair"), who was related to the Chief of the [Clanranald](/wiki/Clanranald "Clanranald") branch of [Clan Donald](/wiki/Clan_Donald "Clan Donald"). According to John Lorne Campbell, MacCodrum's surviving poems in Gaelic "show considerable signs" of the Clanranald Bard's "influence." Despite their friendship, however, Alasdair Mac Mhaighstir Alasdair did not hesitate to include two of MacCodrum's poems, *Òran air Sean aois* ("A Song on Old Age")Digitised version of Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair's [Ais\-Eiridh na Sean Chánoin Albannaich / The resurrection of the ancient Scottish language](http://digital.nls.uk/77282357), 1751 at the [National Library of Scotland](/wiki/National_Library_of_Scotland "National Library of Scotland"). Pages 161\-166\. and *Comh\-radh, Mar go b' ann eider caraid agus namhaid an Uisgebheatha* ("A Dialogue between a Friend and a Foe of [Whisky](/wiki/Whisky "Whisky")"),Digitised version of Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair's [Ais\-Eiridh na Sean Chánoin Albannaich / The resurrection of the ancient Scottish language](http://digital.nls.uk/77282357), 1751 at the [National Library of Scotland](/wiki/National_Library_of_Scotland "National Library of Scotland"). Pages 192\-202\. in his groundbreaking 1751 poetry collection *Ais\-Eiridh na Sean Chánoin Albannaich* and to pass them off as his own work.Campbell (1971\), page 247\.
MacCodrum also composed poetry criticizing both the [Scottish clan chiefs](/wiki/Scottish_clan_chief "Scottish clan chief") and the [Anglo\-Scottish](/wiki/Anglo-Scottish "Anglo-Scottish") landlords of the [Highlands and Islands](/wiki/Highlands_and_Islands "Highlands and Islands") for the often brutal [mass evictions of the Scottish Gaels](/wiki/Highland_Clearances "Highland Clearances") that followed the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden "Battle of Culloden"){{cite web\|url\=https://virtualgael.wordpress.com/2013/11/25/highland\-clearances\-3/\|title\=Highland Clearances – 3\|date\=25 November 2013\|access\-date\=28 December 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101022/https://virtualgael.wordpress.com/2013/11/25/highland\-clearances\-3/\|archive\-date\=29 December 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} and on mundane topics such as old age and [whiskey](/wiki/Whiskey "Whiskey").{{cite book\|last1\=Mackenzie\|first1\=John\|author\-link1\=John Mackenzie (1806–1848\)\|title\=Sar\-Obair nam Bard Gaelach: or the Beauties of Gaelic Poetry\|date\=1872\|pages\=144}}
[thumb\|Sir Alexander Macdonald, 9th Baronet of Sleat and 1st Baron Macdonald of Slate, who remains infamous for raising rents and ordering mass estate clearances of his clansmen.](/wiki/File:Sir_Alexander_Macdonald%2C_1744_-_1795._9th_Baronet_of_Sleat_and_1st_Baron_Macdonald_of_Slate.jpg "Sir Alexander Macdonald, 1744 - 1795. 9th Baronet of Sleat and 1st Baron Macdonald of Slate.jpg")
Among MacCodrum's most popular anti\-landlord poems mocks Aonghus MacDhòmhnaill, the post\-Culloden [tacksman](/wiki/Tacksman "Tacksman") of [Griminish](/wiki/Griminish "Griminish"). It is believed to date from between 1769 and 1773, when overwhelming numbers of Sir Alexander MacDonald's tenants on the isles of [North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist "North Uist") and [Skye](/wiki/Skye "Skye") were reacting to his [rackrenting](/wiki/Rackrenting "Rackrenting") and other harsh treatments by immigrating to the area around the [Cape Fear River](/wiki/Cape_Fear_River "Cape Fear River") in [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina"). The song is known in the oral tradition of [North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist "North Uist") as *Òran Fir Ghriminis* ("A Song on the Tacksman of Griminish"). The song is equally popular among speakers of [Canadian Gaelic](/wiki/Canadian_Gaelic "Canadian Gaelic") in [Nova Scotia](/wiki/Nova_Scotia "Nova Scotia"), where it is known under the differing title, *Òran Aimereaga* ("The Song of America").Edited by Michael Newton (2015\), *Seanchaidh na Coille: Memory\-Keeper of the Forest*, [Cape Breton University](/wiki/Cape_Breton_University "Cape Breton University") Press. Pages 44\-52\.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"According to his song *Smeòrach Chlann Dòmhnaill* (\"The [Song Thrush](/wiki/Song_Thrush \"Song Thrush\") of [Clan Donald](/wiki/Clan_Donald \"Clan Donald\")\"), Iain Mac Fhearchair, alias John MacCodrum, was born near *Cladh Chomhgain*, which is, according to Bill Lawson, \"a disused graveyard in which were the ruins of a little chapel, dedicated to St [Comgan](/wiki/Comgan \"Comgan\") \\- one of many church dedications in the immediate neighborhood. In MacCodrum's time, it would have been part of the township of *Hoghagearraidh*.\" The future [Bard](/wiki/Bard \"Bard\") was raised on the nearby farm of *Aird an Runair*.Lawson (2011\\), pages 28\\-29\\.",
"According to [John Lorne Campbell](/wiki/John_Lorne_Campbell \"John Lorne Campbell\"), Iain, \"was in the technical sense of the term, illiterate.\"Campbell (1979\\), *Highland Songs of the Forty Five*, page 246\\. In a footnote, however, Campbell explains, \"Which is to say that he never learned English. In MacCodrum's day little education was available for the Highlanders, and none at all in their own language.\"Campbell (1979\\), page 246, footnote 1\\.",
"During the era, the people of Hoghagearaidh paid the [Chief](/wiki/Scottish_clan_chief \"Scottish clan chief\") of [Clan MacDonald of Sleat](/wiki/Clan_MacDonald_of_Sleat \"Clan MacDonald of Sleat\") a rental fee called \"The Seal Dues\", in return for the right to kill the seals on the nearby rock of Causamul. The rock remains, according to Bill Lawson, \"one of the main breeding areas for the [Atlantic seal](/wiki/Atlantic_seal \"Atlantic seal\").\"Lawson (2011\\), page 26\\.",
"The MacCodrums of Hoghagearaidh, however, never participated in the killing of seals. This was because, according to legend, an ancestor of theirs had stolen the skin of a [selkie](/wiki/Selkie \"Selkie\") while she was ashore in human form and forced her to marry him. As told in a local folk song, however, one of the couple's children later returned the seal skin to her mother, who put it on, abandoned her human family, and returned to the sea. For this reason, the MacCodrum descendants of the couple were referred to in [Scottish Gaelic](/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic \"Scottish Gaelic\") as, *Clann righ fo gheasan*, (\"King's children under a spell\") and never harmed seals, whom they believed to be their relatives.Lawson (2011\\), pages 26\\-27\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|MacCodrum 's patron, Sir Alexander Macdonald of Sleat, 7th Baronet](/wiki/File:%28portrait%29_Sir_Alexander_Macdonald_of_Sleat%2C_7th_Baronet.jpg \"(portrait) Sir Alexander Macdonald of Sleat, 7th Baronet.jpg\")\nAlthough Sir Alexander MacDonald of Sleat had promised Prince [Charles Edward Stuart](/wiki/Charles_Edward_Stuart \"Charles Edward Stuart\") that he would do raise the Clan if the Prince arrived from [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), the Chief and his Clansmen took no part in the [Jacobite Uprising of 1745](/wiki/Jacobite_Uprising_of_1745 \"Jacobite Uprising of 1745\"). The Chief's reason for going back on his word was that the French troops that had also been promised had failed to arrive with the Prince. Despite the Clan's neutrality, all the lands of MacDonald of Sleat were included in the savage repression of Highland dress, language, and culture that followed the defeat of the uprising at the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden \"Battle of Culloden\") in 1746\\. John MacCodrum's satirical poem, *Oran an Aghaidh an Eididh Ghallda* (\"A Song Against the Lowland Garb\"), \"shows clearly where his own sympathies lay.\"Campbell (1971\\), pages 246, 248\\-253\\.",
"In 1760, [James Macpherson](/wiki/James_Macpherson \"James Macpherson\"), who was collecting stories from the [Fenian Cycle](/wiki/Fenian_Cycle \"Fenian Cycle\") throughout the Scottish [Highlands and Islands](/wiki/Highlands_and_Islands \"Highlands and Islands\"), visited [North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist \"North Uist\"). During Macpherson's visit, MacCodrum made, according to John Lorne Campbell, \"a brief appearance in the Ossianic controversy which is not without its humorous side.\" When Macpherson met MacCodrum, he asked the Bard, *\"A bheil dad agaibh air an Fheinne?\"* Macpherson believed himself to be asking, \"Do you know anything of the [Fianna](/wiki/Fianna \"Fianna\")?\" He had actually said, however, \"Do the Fianna owe you anything?\"Campbell (1971\\), page 246\\.",
"In reply, MacCodrum quipped, *\"Cha n\\-eil agus ge do bhiodh cha ruiginn a leas iarraidh a nis\"*, \"No, and if they did it would be useless to ask for it now.\" According to Campbell, this, \"dialogue... illustrates at once Macpherson's imperfect Gaelic and MacCodrum's quickness of reply.\"Campbell (1971\\), pages 247\\-247\\.",
"In October 1763, as the controversy over the authenticity of Macpherson's [epic poem](/wiki/Epic_poem \"Epic poem\") *[Ossian](/wiki/Ossian \"Ossian\")*, which he alleged was a translation from [Scottish Gaelic](/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic \"Scottish Gaelic\"), was heating up, Sir James MacDonald of Sleat wrote a letter to Doctor [Hugh Blair](/wiki/Hugh_Blair \"Hugh Blair\") in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") which sheds light on MacCodrum's role as a [seanchaidh](/wiki/Seanchaidh \"Seanchaidh\").",
"According to The MacDonald of Sleat, \"The few bards that are left amongst us, repeat only detached portions of these poems. I have often heard and understood them, particularly from one man called John MacCodrum, who lives on my estate in [North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist \"North Uist\"). I have heard him repeat, for hours together, poems which seems to me to be the same with Macpherson's translation.\"Campbell (1971\\), page 247\\.",
"Campbell writes, however, \"None of MacCodrum's Ossianic verses have survived him.Campbell (1971\\), page 247\\.",
"One of MacCodrum's closest friends was the famous Gaelic poet [Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair](/wiki/Alasdair_mac_Mhaighstir_Alasdair \"Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair\"), who was related to the Chief of the [Clanranald](/wiki/Clanranald \"Clanranald\") branch of [Clan Donald](/wiki/Clan_Donald \"Clan Donald\"). According to John Lorne Campbell, MacCodrum's surviving poems in Gaelic \"show considerable signs\" of the Clanranald Bard's \"influence.\" Despite their friendship, however, Alasdair Mac Mhaighstir Alasdair did not hesitate to include two of MacCodrum's poems, *Òran air Sean aois* (\"A Song on Old Age\")Digitised version of Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair's [Ais\\-Eiridh na Sean Chánoin Albannaich / The resurrection of the ancient Scottish language](http://digital.nls.uk/77282357), 1751 at the [National Library of Scotland](/wiki/National_Library_of_Scotland \"National Library of Scotland\"). Pages 161\\-166\\. and *Comh\\-radh, Mar go b' ann eider caraid agus namhaid an Uisgebheatha* (\"A Dialogue between a Friend and a Foe of [Whisky](/wiki/Whisky \"Whisky\")\"),Digitised version of Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair's [Ais\\-Eiridh na Sean Chánoin Albannaich / The resurrection of the ancient Scottish language](http://digital.nls.uk/77282357), 1751 at the [National Library of Scotland](/wiki/National_Library_of_Scotland \"National Library of Scotland\"). Pages 192\\-202\\. in his groundbreaking 1751 poetry collection *Ais\\-Eiridh na Sean Chánoin Albannaich* and to pass them off as his own work.Campbell (1971\\), page 247\\.",
"MacCodrum also composed poetry criticizing both the [Scottish clan chiefs](/wiki/Scottish_clan_chief \"Scottish clan chief\") and the [Anglo\\-Scottish](/wiki/Anglo-Scottish \"Anglo-Scottish\") landlords of the [Highlands and Islands](/wiki/Highlands_and_Islands \"Highlands and Islands\") for the often brutal [mass evictions of the Scottish Gaels](/wiki/Highland_Clearances \"Highland Clearances\") that followed the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden \"Battle of Culloden\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://virtualgael.wordpress.com/2013/11/25/highland\\-clearances\\-3/\\|title\\=Highland Clearances – 3\\|date\\=25 November 2013\\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101022/https://virtualgael.wordpress.com/2013/11/25/highland\\-clearances\\-3/\\|archive\\-date\\=29 December 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and on mundane topics such as old age and [whiskey](/wiki/Whiskey \"Whiskey\").{{cite book\\|last1\\=Mackenzie\\|first1\\=John\\|author\\-link1\\=John Mackenzie (1806–1848\\)\\|title\\=Sar\\-Obair nam Bard Gaelach: or the Beauties of Gaelic Poetry\\|date\\=1872\\|pages\\=144}}",
"[thumb\\|Sir Alexander Macdonald, 9th Baronet of Sleat and 1st Baron Macdonald of Slate, who remains infamous for raising rents and ordering mass estate clearances of his clansmen.](/wiki/File:Sir_Alexander_Macdonald%2C_1744_-_1795._9th_Baronet_of_Sleat_and_1st_Baron_Macdonald_of_Slate.jpg \"Sir Alexander Macdonald, 1744 - 1795. 9th Baronet of Sleat and 1st Baron Macdonald of Slate.jpg\")\nAmong MacCodrum's most popular anti\\-landlord poems mocks Aonghus MacDhòmhnaill, the post\\-Culloden [tacksman](/wiki/Tacksman \"Tacksman\") of [Griminish](/wiki/Griminish \"Griminish\"). It is believed to date from between 1769 and 1773, when overwhelming numbers of Sir Alexander MacDonald's tenants on the isles of [North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist \"North Uist\") and [Skye](/wiki/Skye \"Skye\") were reacting to his [rackrenting](/wiki/Rackrenting \"Rackrenting\") and other harsh treatments by immigrating to the area around the [Cape Fear River](/wiki/Cape_Fear_River \"Cape Fear River\") in [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\"). The song is known in the oral tradition of [North Uist](/wiki/North_Uist \"North Uist\") as *Òran Fir Ghriminis* (\"A Song on the Tacksman of Griminish\"). The song is equally popular among speakers of [Canadian Gaelic](/wiki/Canadian_Gaelic \"Canadian Gaelic\") in [Nova Scotia](/wiki/Nova_Scotia \"Nova Scotia\"), where it is known under the differing title, *Òran Aimereaga* (\"The Song of America\").Edited by Michael Newton (2015\\), *Seanchaidh na Coille: Memory\\-Keeper of the Forest*, [Cape Breton University](/wiki/Cape_Breton_University \"Cape Breton University\") Press. Pages 44\\-52\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|right\|260px\|Map of Leptis Magna](/wiki/File:LY-Leptis_Magna.png "LY-Leptis Magna.png")
### Punics
The [Punic](/wiki/Punic_people "Punic people") city was founded in the second half of the 7th century{{nbsp}}BC. Little is known about Leptis during this time, but it appears to have been powerful enough to repel [Dorieus](/wiki/Dorieus "Dorieus")'s attempt to establish a Greek colony nearby around 515{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp\|Brogan\|Wilson\|2012}} Like most Punic settlements, Leptis became part of the [Carthaginian Empire](/wiki/Carthaginian_Empire "Carthaginian Empire") and fell under [Rome](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic")'s control with [Carthage](/wiki/Ancient_Carthage "Ancient Carthage")'s defeat in the [Punic Wars](/wiki/Punic_Wars "Punic Wars"). Leptis remained highly independent for a period after about 111{{nbsp}}BC.
### Roman Republic
The [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic") sent some colonists together with a small garrison in order to control the city. The city prospered and was even allowed to coin its own money in silver and bronze. Reflecting its blend of cultures, its coins bore [Punic](/wiki/Punic_language "Punic language") inscriptions but images of [Hercules](/wiki/Hercules "Hercules") and [Dionysus](/wiki/Dionysus "Dionysus").{{sfnp\|Head\|1911}} Soon Italian merchants settled in the city and started a profitable commerce with the Libyan interior.{{sfnp\|Bullo\|2002\|pp\=167–171}} The city depended primarily on the fertility of its surrounding farmland, where many olive\-presses have been excavated. By 46{{nbsp}}BC, its [olive oil](/wiki/Olive_oil "Olive oil") production was of such an extent that the city was able to provide three million pounds of oil annually to [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar "Julius Caesar") as tax.{{sfnp\|Brogan\|Wilson\|2012}}
### Roman Empire
Kenneth D. Matthews Jr. writes:{{sfnp\|Matthews\|1957\|p\=37}}
{{Blockquote\|During the reign of \[\[Augustus]], Leptis Magna was classified as a ''\[\[Free city (classical antiquity)\|civitas libera et immunis]]'', or a free community, over which the governor had an absolute minimum of control. As such Leptis retain its two ''\[\[suphetes]]'' at the head of its government, with the ''mhzm'', similar to the Roman ''\[\[aediles]]'', as minor magistrates. In addition there were such sacred officials as the ''ʾaddir ʾararim'' or ''praefectus sacrorum'', the ''nēquim ēlīm'', and probably a sacred college of fifteen members.}}
[thumb\|The Severan Forum](/wiki/Image:Forum_leptis_magna.JPG "Forum leptis magna.JPG")
[thumb\|right\|[Arch of Septimius Severus](/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus_%28Leptis_Magna%29 "Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)")](/wiki/File:Arch_of_Septimius_Severus%2C_Leptis_Magna12.jpg "Arch of Septimius Severus, Leptis Magna12.jpg")
Leptis Magna remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor [Tiberius](/wiki/Tiberius "Tiberius"), when the city and the surrounding area were formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of [Africa](/wiki/Africa_%28Roman_province%29 "Africa (Roman province)"). It soon became one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major trading post. The city grew rapidly under Roman administration. During the reign of [Nero](/wiki/Nero "Nero"), an [amphitheater](/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre "Roman amphitheatre") was constructed. The settlement was elevated to *[municipium](/wiki/Municipium "Municipium")* in AD 64 or 65 and to *[colonia](/wiki/Colonia_%28Roman%29 "Colonia (Roman)")* under [Trajan](/wiki/Trajan "Trajan") ({{reign\|98\|117}}). The first known [bishop of Leptis Magna](/wiki/Diocese_of_Leptis_Magna "Diocese of Leptis Magna") was a certain priest called [Victor](/wiki/Pope_Victor_I "Pope Victor I") who became pope in 189\.{{cite book \|last1\=Bongmba \|first1\=Elias Kifon \|title\=Routledge Companion to Christianity in Africa \|date\=22 December 2015 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-50584\-5 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=cSxACwAAQBAJ \|access\-date\=29 April 2024 \|language\=en \|chapter\=Christianity in North Africa}}
Leptis achieved its greatest prominence beginning in AD{{nbsp}}193, as the hometown of emperor [Septimius Severus](/wiki/Septimius_Severus "Septimius Severus"). Septimius favored his hometown above all other provincial cities, and the buildings and wealth he lavished on it made Leptis Magna the third\-most important city in Africa, rivaling Carthage and [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"). In AD{{nbsp}}205, he and the imperial family visited the city and bestowed great honors. Among the changes that Severus introduced were the creation of a magnificent new [forum](/wiki/Forum_%28Roman%29 "Forum (Roman)") and the rebuilding of the docks. The natural harbor had a tendency to silt up, but the Severan changes made this worse, and the eastern wharves are extremely well preserved, since they were scarcely used.
Leptis prospered through [trans\-Saharan trade](/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade "Trans-Saharan trade") in various valuable goods, including [ivory](/wiki/Ivory "Ivory"), wild animals for the [gladiatorial](/wiki/Gladiator "Gladiator") arena, gold dust, [carbuncle](/wiki/Carbuncle_%28gemstone%29 "Carbuncle (gemstone)"), precious woods like [ebony](/wiki/Ebony "Ebony"), and [ostrich](/wiki/Ostrich "Ostrich") feathers.
Leptis overextended itself during this period. During the [Crisis of the 3rd Century](/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century "Crisis of the Third Century"), when trade declined precipitously, Leptis Magna's importance also fell into a decline, and by the middle of the 4th century, even before it was completely devastated by the [365 tsunami](/wiki/365_Crete_earthquake "365 Crete earthquake"), large parts of the city had been abandoned. [Ammianus Marcellinus](/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus "Ammianus Marcellinus") recounts that the crisis was worsened by a corrupt Roman governor named Romanus, who demanded bribes to protect the city during a major tribal raid. The ruined city could not pay these and complained to the emperor [Valentinian I](/wiki/Valentinian_I "Valentinian I"). Romanus then bribed people at court and arranged for the Leptan envoys to be punished "for bringing false accusations". It enjoyed a minor renaissance beginning in the reign of the emperor [Theodosius I](/wiki/Theodosius_I "Theodosius I").
### Vandal Kingdom
In 439, Leptis Magna and the rest of the cities of [Tripolitania](/wiki/Tripolitania "Tripolitania") fell under the control of the [Vandals](/wiki/Vandals "Vandals") when their king, [Gaiseric](/wiki/Gaiseric "Gaiseric"), captured Carthage from the Romans and made it his capital. Unfortunately for the future of Leptis Magna, Gaiseric ordered the city's walls demolished so as to dissuade its people from rebelling against Vandal rule. The people of Leptis and the Vandals both paid a heavy price for this in AD{{nbsp}}523 when a group of Berber raiders sacked the city.
### Byzantine Empire
[Belisarius](/wiki/Belisarius "Belisarius"), general of Emperor [Justinian I](/wiki/Justinian_I "Justinian I"), recaptured Leptis Magna in the name of the Roman Empire ten years later, and [in 533–4](/wiki/Vandalic_War "Vandalic War") it was re\-incorporated into the empire. Leptis became a provincial capital of the Eastern Empire, but never recovered from the destruction wreaked upon it by the Berbers. In 544, under the prefecture of Sergius, the city came under intensified attack of Berber tribes, and after some successes, Sergius was reduced to retreating into the city, with the [Leuathae](/wiki/Leuathae "Leuathae") tribal confederation camped outside the gate demanding payments. Sergius admitted eighty deputies into the city to present their demands, but when Sergius moved to leave the conference he was detained by the robe by one deputy and crowded by others. This provoked an officer of the prefect's guard to kill the deputy laying hands on the prefect, which resulted in a general massacre. The Berbers reacted with an all\-out attack and Sergius was eventually forced to abandon Leptis and retreat to Carthage.{{sfnp\|Beechey\|Beechey\|1828\|pp\=54–56}}
### Islamic conquest
By the 6th century, the city was fully Christianized.{{sfnp\|Mommsen\|1909\|loc\=Chapter XIII. The African Provinces}}{{Failed verification\|date\=August 2020}} During the decade 565–578 AD Christian missionaries from Leptis Magna even began to move once more among the Berber tribes as far south as the [Fezzan](/wiki/Fezzan "Fezzan") in the Libyan desert and converted the [Garamantes](/wiki/Garamantes "Garamantes").{{sfnp\|Prevost\|2007\|pp\=462–463}} Numerous new churches were built in the 6th century,{{sfn\|''Livius.org''\|loc\=\[https://www.livius.org/articles/place/lepcis\-magna/photos/lepcis\-magna\-byzantine\-church/ Photos: Lepcis Magna, Byzantine Church]}} but the city continued to decline, and by the time of the [Arab conquest](/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_the_Maghreb "Islamic conquest of the Maghreb") around 647 the city was mostly abandoned except for a Byzantine garrison force and a population of less than 1,000 inhabitants. By the 10th century, the city of [Al\-Khums](/wiki/Al-Khums "Al-Khums") had fully absorbed it.{{sfnp\|Bullo\|2002\|pp\=185–188}}
### Excavation
Today, the site of Leptis Magna is the site of some of the most impressive ruins of the Roman period.
[thumb\|Leptis Magna ruins, in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), by the [Virginia Water Lake](/wiki/Virginia_Water_Lake "Virginia Water Lake")](/wiki/File:Leptis_Magna_ruins%2C_Virginia_Water_%281%29_%28geograph_3935706%29.jpg "Leptis Magna ruins, Virginia Water (1) (geograph 3935706).jpg")
Part of an ancient temple was brought from Leptis Magna to the British Museum in 1816 and installed at the [Fort Belvedere](/wiki/Fort_Belvedere%2C_Surrey "Fort Belvedere, Surrey") royal residence in England in 1826\. It now lies in part of [Windsor Great Park](/wiki/Windsor_Great_Park "Windsor Great Park").{{sfn\|''The Atlantic'', 10 January 2018}} The ruins are located between the south shore of [Virginia Water](/wiki/Virginia_Water "Virginia Water") and Blacknest Road close to the junction with the [A30](/wiki/A30_road "A30 road") London Road and [Wentworth Drive](/wiki/Wentworth_Estate "Wentworth Estate").
[thumb\|The Roman theatre](/wiki/Image:Leptis_Magna_Theatre.jpg "Leptis Magna Theatre.jpg")
When Italians conquered [Italian Libya](/wiki/Italian_Libya "Italian Libya") in the early 20th century, they dedicated huge efforts to the rediscovery of Leptis Magna. In the early 1930s Italian archeological research was able to show again the buried remains of nearly all the city.{{sfnp\|Musso\|2010}}{{Page needed\|date\=August 2020}} A 4th to 3rd century{{nbsp}}BC necropolis was found under the [Roman theatre](/wiki/Roman_theatre_%28structure%29 "Roman theatre (structure)").
In June 2005, it was revealed that archaeologists from the [University of Hamburg](/wiki/University_of_Hamburg "University of Hamburg") had been working along the coast of Libya when they uncovered a 30 [ft](/wiki/Foot_%28length%29 "Foot (length)") length of five colorful [mosaics](/wiki/Mosaic "Mosaic") created during the 1st or 2nd century. The mosaics show with exceptional clarity depictions of a warrior in combat with a deer, four young men wrestling a wild bull to the ground, and a gladiator resting in a state of fatigue and staring at his slain opponent. The mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plunge pool in a *balneae* within a [Roman villa](/wiki/Roman_villa "Roman villa") at Wadi Lebda in Leptis Magna. The gladiator mosaic is noted by scholars as one of the finest examples of representational mosaic art ever seen—a "masterpiece comparable in quality with the [Alexander Mosaic](/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic "Alexander Mosaic") in [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii")." The mosaics were originally discovered in the year 2000 but were kept secret in order to avoid looting. They are currently on display in the [Leptis Magna Museum](/wiki/Leptis_Magna_Museum "Leptis Magna Museum").{{sfn\|''The Times'', 13 June 2005}}
There were reports that Leptis Magna was used as a cover for tanks and military vehicles by pro\-Gaddafi forces during the [First Libyan Civil War](/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_%282011%29 "Libyan Civil War (2011)") in 2011\.{{sfn\|''The Times'', 14 June 2011}} When asked about the possibility of conducting an air\-strike on the historic site, [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO") refused to rule out the possibility of such an action saying that it had not been able to confirm the rebels' report that weapons were being hidden at the location.{{sfn\|CNN, 14 June 2011}} Shortly after the war, Libyan archaeologist Hafed Walda reported that Leptis Magna, along with nearby Rasaimergib Fort and the western [Tripolis](/wiki/Tripolis_%28region_of_Africa%29 "Tripolis (region of Africa)") of [Sabratha](/wiki/Sabratha "Sabratha"), had "so far seen no visible loss" from either fighting on the ground or [bombings conducted by international forces](/wiki/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya "2011 military intervention in Libya").{{sfn\|AP, 4 November 2011}}
In the midst of the [Second Libyan Civil War](/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_%282014%E2%80%93present%29 "Libyan Civil War (2014–present)") and the disappearance of governmental and international support for the site, people living in the area organized to voluntarily protect and maintain Leptis Magna.{{sfn\|AFP, 23 December 2016}}{{sfn\|Reuters, 28 November 2017}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|260px\\|Map of Leptis Magna](/wiki/File:LY-Leptis_Magna.png \"LY-Leptis Magna.png\")",
"### Punics",
"The [Punic](/wiki/Punic_people \"Punic people\") city was founded in the second half of the 7th century{{nbsp}}BC. Little is known about Leptis during this time, but it appears to have been powerful enough to repel [Dorieus](/wiki/Dorieus \"Dorieus\")'s attempt to establish a Greek colony nearby around 515{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp\\|Brogan\\|Wilson\\|2012}} Like most Punic settlements, Leptis became part of the [Carthaginian Empire](/wiki/Carthaginian_Empire \"Carthaginian Empire\") and fell under [Rome](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\")'s control with [Carthage](/wiki/Ancient_Carthage \"Ancient Carthage\")'s defeat in the [Punic Wars](/wiki/Punic_Wars \"Punic Wars\"). Leptis remained highly independent for a period after about 111{{nbsp}}BC.",
"### Roman Republic",
"The [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\") sent some colonists together with a small garrison in order to control the city. The city prospered and was even allowed to coin its own money in silver and bronze. Reflecting its blend of cultures, its coins bore [Punic](/wiki/Punic_language \"Punic language\") inscriptions but images of [Hercules](/wiki/Hercules \"Hercules\") and [Dionysus](/wiki/Dionysus \"Dionysus\").{{sfnp\\|Head\\|1911}} Soon Italian merchants settled in the city and started a profitable commerce with the Libyan interior.{{sfnp\\|Bullo\\|2002\\|pp\\=167–171}} The city depended primarily on the fertility of its surrounding farmland, where many olive\\-presses have been excavated. By 46{{nbsp}}BC, its [olive oil](/wiki/Olive_oil \"Olive oil\") production was of such an extent that the city was able to provide three million pounds of oil annually to [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar \"Julius Caesar\") as tax.{{sfnp\\|Brogan\\|Wilson\\|2012}}",
"### Roman Empire",
"Kenneth D. Matthews Jr. writes:{{sfnp\\|Matthews\\|1957\\|p\\=37}}\n{{Blockquote\\|During the reign of \\[\\[Augustus]], Leptis Magna was classified as a ''\\[\\[Free city (classical antiquity)\\|civitas libera et immunis]]'', or a free community, over which the governor had an absolute minimum of control. As such Leptis retain its two ''\\[\\[suphetes]]'' at the head of its government, with the ''mhzm'', similar to the Roman ''\\[\\[aediles]]'', as minor magistrates. In addition there were such sacred officials as the ''ʾaddir ʾararim'' or ''praefectus sacrorum'', the ''nēquim ēlīm'', and probably a sacred college of fifteen members.}}",
"[thumb\\|The Severan Forum](/wiki/Image:Forum_leptis_magna.JPG \"Forum leptis magna.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Arch of Septimius Severus](/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus_%28Leptis_Magna%29 \"Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)\")](/wiki/File:Arch_of_Septimius_Severus%2C_Leptis_Magna12.jpg \"Arch of Septimius Severus, Leptis Magna12.jpg\")\nLeptis Magna remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor [Tiberius](/wiki/Tiberius \"Tiberius\"), when the city and the surrounding area were formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of [Africa](/wiki/Africa_%28Roman_province%29 \"Africa (Roman province)\"). It soon became one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major trading post. The city grew rapidly under Roman administration. During the reign of [Nero](/wiki/Nero \"Nero\"), an [amphitheater](/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre \"Roman amphitheatre\") was constructed. The settlement was elevated to *[municipium](/wiki/Municipium \"Municipium\")* in AD 64 or 65 and to *[colonia](/wiki/Colonia_%28Roman%29 \"Colonia (Roman)\")* under [Trajan](/wiki/Trajan \"Trajan\") ({{reign\\|98\\|117}}). The first known [bishop of Leptis Magna](/wiki/Diocese_of_Leptis_Magna \"Diocese of Leptis Magna\") was a certain priest called [Victor](/wiki/Pope_Victor_I \"Pope Victor I\") who became pope in 189\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bongmba \\|first1\\=Elias Kifon \\|title\\=Routledge Companion to Christianity in Africa \\|date\\=22 December 2015 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-50584\\-5 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=cSxACwAAQBAJ \\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2024 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=Christianity in North Africa}}",
"Leptis achieved its greatest prominence beginning in AD{{nbsp}}193, as the hometown of emperor [Septimius Severus](/wiki/Septimius_Severus \"Septimius Severus\"). Septimius favored his hometown above all other provincial cities, and the buildings and wealth he lavished on it made Leptis Magna the third\\-most important city in Africa, rivaling Carthage and [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"). In AD{{nbsp}}205, he and the imperial family visited the city and bestowed great honors. Among the changes that Severus introduced were the creation of a magnificent new [forum](/wiki/Forum_%28Roman%29 \"Forum (Roman)\") and the rebuilding of the docks. The natural harbor had a tendency to silt up, but the Severan changes made this worse, and the eastern wharves are extremely well preserved, since they were scarcely used.",
"Leptis prospered through [trans\\-Saharan trade](/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade \"Trans-Saharan trade\") in various valuable goods, including [ivory](/wiki/Ivory \"Ivory\"), wild animals for the [gladiatorial](/wiki/Gladiator \"Gladiator\") arena, gold dust, [carbuncle](/wiki/Carbuncle_%28gemstone%29 \"Carbuncle (gemstone)\"), precious woods like [ebony](/wiki/Ebony \"Ebony\"), and [ostrich](/wiki/Ostrich \"Ostrich\") feathers.",
"Leptis overextended itself during this period. During the [Crisis of the 3rd Century](/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century \"Crisis of the Third Century\"), when trade declined precipitously, Leptis Magna's importance also fell into a decline, and by the middle of the 4th century, even before it was completely devastated by the [365 tsunami](/wiki/365_Crete_earthquake \"365 Crete earthquake\"), large parts of the city had been abandoned. [Ammianus Marcellinus](/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus \"Ammianus Marcellinus\") recounts that the crisis was worsened by a corrupt Roman governor named Romanus, who demanded bribes to protect the city during a major tribal raid. The ruined city could not pay these and complained to the emperor [Valentinian I](/wiki/Valentinian_I \"Valentinian I\"). Romanus then bribed people at court and arranged for the Leptan envoys to be punished \"for bringing false accusations\". It enjoyed a minor renaissance beginning in the reign of the emperor [Theodosius I](/wiki/Theodosius_I \"Theodosius I\").",
"### Vandal Kingdom",
"In 439, Leptis Magna and the rest of the cities of [Tripolitania](/wiki/Tripolitania \"Tripolitania\") fell under the control of the [Vandals](/wiki/Vandals \"Vandals\") when their king, [Gaiseric](/wiki/Gaiseric \"Gaiseric\"), captured Carthage from the Romans and made it his capital. Unfortunately for the future of Leptis Magna, Gaiseric ordered the city's walls demolished so as to dissuade its people from rebelling against Vandal rule. The people of Leptis and the Vandals both paid a heavy price for this in AD{{nbsp}}523 when a group of Berber raiders sacked the city.",
"### Byzantine Empire",
"[Belisarius](/wiki/Belisarius \"Belisarius\"), general of Emperor [Justinian I](/wiki/Justinian_I \"Justinian I\"), recaptured Leptis Magna in the name of the Roman Empire ten years later, and [in 533–4](/wiki/Vandalic_War \"Vandalic War\") it was re\\-incorporated into the empire. Leptis became a provincial capital of the Eastern Empire, but never recovered from the destruction wreaked upon it by the Berbers. In 544, under the prefecture of Sergius, the city came under intensified attack of Berber tribes, and after some successes, Sergius was reduced to retreating into the city, with the [Leuathae](/wiki/Leuathae \"Leuathae\") tribal confederation camped outside the gate demanding payments. Sergius admitted eighty deputies into the city to present their demands, but when Sergius moved to leave the conference he was detained by the robe by one deputy and crowded by others. This provoked an officer of the prefect's guard to kill the deputy laying hands on the prefect, which resulted in a general massacre. The Berbers reacted with an all\\-out attack and Sergius was eventually forced to abandon Leptis and retreat to Carthage.{{sfnp\\|Beechey\\|Beechey\\|1828\\|pp\\=54–56}}",
"### Islamic conquest",
"By the 6th century, the city was fully Christianized.{{sfnp\\|Mommsen\\|1909\\|loc\\=Chapter XIII. The African Provinces}}{{Failed verification\\|date\\=August 2020}} During the decade 565–578 AD Christian missionaries from Leptis Magna even began to move once more among the Berber tribes as far south as the [Fezzan](/wiki/Fezzan \"Fezzan\") in the Libyan desert and converted the [Garamantes](/wiki/Garamantes \"Garamantes\").{{sfnp\\|Prevost\\|2007\\|pp\\=462–463}} Numerous new churches were built in the 6th century,{{sfn\\|''Livius.org''\\|loc\\=\\[https://www.livius.org/articles/place/lepcis\\-magna/photos/lepcis\\-magna\\-byzantine\\-church/ Photos: Lepcis Magna, Byzantine Church]}} but the city continued to decline, and by the time of the [Arab conquest](/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_the_Maghreb \"Islamic conquest of the Maghreb\") around 647 the city was mostly abandoned except for a Byzantine garrison force and a population of less than 1,000 inhabitants. By the 10th century, the city of [Al\\-Khums](/wiki/Al-Khums \"Al-Khums\") had fully absorbed it.{{sfnp\\|Bullo\\|2002\\|pp\\=185–188}}",
"### Excavation",
"Today, the site of Leptis Magna is the site of some of the most impressive ruins of the Roman period.",
"[thumb\\|Leptis Magna ruins, in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), by the [Virginia Water Lake](/wiki/Virginia_Water_Lake \"Virginia Water Lake\")](/wiki/File:Leptis_Magna_ruins%2C_Virginia_Water_%281%29_%28geograph_3935706%29.jpg \"Leptis Magna ruins, Virginia Water (1) (geograph 3935706).jpg\")\nPart of an ancient temple was brought from Leptis Magna to the British Museum in 1816 and installed at the [Fort Belvedere](/wiki/Fort_Belvedere%2C_Surrey \"Fort Belvedere, Surrey\") royal residence in England in 1826\\. It now lies in part of [Windsor Great Park](/wiki/Windsor_Great_Park \"Windsor Great Park\").{{sfn\\|''The Atlantic'', 10 January 2018}} The ruins are located between the south shore of [Virginia Water](/wiki/Virginia_Water \"Virginia Water\") and Blacknest Road close to the junction with the [A30](/wiki/A30_road \"A30 road\") London Road and [Wentworth Drive](/wiki/Wentworth_Estate \"Wentworth Estate\").\n[thumb\\|The Roman theatre](/wiki/Image:Leptis_Magna_Theatre.jpg \"Leptis Magna Theatre.jpg\")\nWhen Italians conquered [Italian Libya](/wiki/Italian_Libya \"Italian Libya\") in the early 20th century, they dedicated huge efforts to the rediscovery of Leptis Magna. In the early 1930s Italian archeological research was able to show again the buried remains of nearly all the city.{{sfnp\\|Musso\\|2010}}{{Page needed\\|date\\=August 2020}} A 4th to 3rd century{{nbsp}}BC necropolis was found under the [Roman theatre](/wiki/Roman_theatre_%28structure%29 \"Roman theatre (structure)\").",
"In June 2005, it was revealed that archaeologists from the [University of Hamburg](/wiki/University_of_Hamburg \"University of Hamburg\") had been working along the coast of Libya when they uncovered a 30 [ft](/wiki/Foot_%28length%29 \"Foot (length)\") length of five colorful [mosaics](/wiki/Mosaic \"Mosaic\") created during the 1st or 2nd century. The mosaics show with exceptional clarity depictions of a warrior in combat with a deer, four young men wrestling a wild bull to the ground, and a gladiator resting in a state of fatigue and staring at his slain opponent. The mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plunge pool in a *balneae* within a [Roman villa](/wiki/Roman_villa \"Roman villa\") at Wadi Lebda in Leptis Magna. The gladiator mosaic is noted by scholars as one of the finest examples of representational mosaic art ever seen—a \"masterpiece comparable in quality with the [Alexander Mosaic](/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic \"Alexander Mosaic\") in [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\").\" The mosaics were originally discovered in the year 2000 but were kept secret in order to avoid looting. They are currently on display in the [Leptis Magna Museum](/wiki/Leptis_Magna_Museum \"Leptis Magna Museum\").{{sfn\\|''The Times'', 13 June 2005}}",
"There were reports that Leptis Magna was used as a cover for tanks and military vehicles by pro\\-Gaddafi forces during the [First Libyan Civil War](/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_%282011%29 \"Libyan Civil War (2011)\") in 2011\\.{{sfn\\|''The Times'', 14 June 2011}} When asked about the possibility of conducting an air\\-strike on the historic site, [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") refused to rule out the possibility of such an action saying that it had not been able to confirm the rebels' report that weapons were being hidden at the location.{{sfn\\|CNN, 14 June 2011}} Shortly after the war, Libyan archaeologist Hafed Walda reported that Leptis Magna, along with nearby Rasaimergib Fort and the western [Tripolis](/wiki/Tripolis_%28region_of_Africa%29 \"Tripolis (region of Africa)\") of [Sabratha](/wiki/Sabratha \"Sabratha\"), had \"so far seen no visible loss\" from either fighting on the ground or [bombings conducted by international forces](/wiki/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya \"2011 military intervention in Libya\").{{sfn\\|AP, 4 November 2011}}",
"In the midst of the [Second Libyan Civil War](/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_%282014%E2%80%93present%29 \"Libyan Civil War (2014–present)\") and the disappearance of governmental and international support for the site, people living in the area organized to voluntarily protect and maintain Leptis Magna.{{sfn\\|AFP, 23 December 2016}}{{sfn\\|Reuters, 28 November 2017}}",
""
] |
Storylines
----------
Nancy is one of the original characters of the long\-running soap, and spoke the first line on the debut episode on April 2, 1956 ("Good morning dear, what would you like for breakfast?"). Show creator [Irna Phillips](/wiki/Irna_Phillips "Irna Phillips") modeled Nancy in the mold of a member of a [Greek chorus](/wiki/Greek_chorus "Greek chorus"): someone who stays mostly on the sidelines but nevertheless comments on the crises that more dynamic residents of the town faced. In many respects, Nancy's "moral voice" served to further how Phillips wanted certain characters to be perceived by the public. When Nancy spoke out against her son Bob's ex\-wife [Lisa](/wiki/Lisa_Grimaldi "Lisa Grimaldi") in the mid\-1960s, the Lisa character became, by and large, the character everyone "loved to hate." Likewise, when Nancy forgave Lisa for her past transgressions in the 1970s, public opinion softened toward Lisa and she became a respected character on the program.
Traditionally a housewife, Nancy was bit by the [feminism](/wiki/Feminism "Feminism") bug in the late 1970s and worked for a time as a [secretary](/wiki/Secretary "Secretary"). In the early 1980s, she quit that job and returned to keeping house. For several years she worked as a volunteer at Oakdale Memorial Hospital where her son, Bob, is Chief of Staff.
In 1936, she married attorney Christopher Hughes, and they had four children (three of which were seen on the show; a daughter died while swimming in a pool during a thunderstorm before the series started). Chris died in 1986, shortly after he and Nancy celebrated their fiftieth wedding anniversary. After a considerable mourning period, she married Detective Dan McClosky (Chief of the Oakdale Police Department) in 1987\. McClosky developed [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease") in 1994 and died two years later. She later enjoyed the company of Joe D'Angelo, as the two developed a strong bond over their frustrations at being unable to help their respective offspring with their ongoing problems. Since McClosky's death, Nancy has lived with her son Dr. Bob Hughes and his wife, Kim, and has spent much of her time with her grandchildren. She is particularly close to her grandson Chris.
Nancy was rarely seen in later years, averaging about three or four appearances a month when the storyline permitted. Unlike other soap actors who have advanced in years (such as [Anna Lee](/wiki/Anna_Lee "Anna Lee") and [Frances Reid](/wiki/Frances_Reid "Frances Reid")), Helen Wagner had relatively few health problems as she got older, and her lack of appearances on the series were almost solely due to limited storyline. The character made a long\-awaited appearance at Tom and Margo's 25th Wedding Anniversary on July 2, 2008\.
Much of her screen time in 2006 finds the character "embroiled in a mystery surrounding the publication of a scandalous novel, *Oakdale Confidential*, which sheds light on the checkered pasts of several characters."
In 2009, Nancy was still active and worked as a volunteer at the hospital. On Thanksgiving 2009, she gives pieces of advice to Katie after the death of Brad. Nancy again showed up just after Christmas when she heard of Casey's upcoming marriage to Alison. She gave him the engagement ring that Chris gave her. When the engagement was broken off, the ring was returned to Nancy, but she insisted that Casey hang onto it.
Nancy was on hand in 2010 to celebrate Bob and Kim's 25th wedding anniversary. Nancy and the rest of the family were all shocked to find out that they really weren't married. She helped Bob and Kim settle their recent differences and was delighted when Frannie returned to see them wed. (This scene is notable for a brief return to the show by [Julianne Moore](/wiki/Julianne_Moore "Julianne Moore"), who began her career playing the role of Frannie in the 1980s.{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://ew.com/article/2010/03/01/julianne\-moore\-as\-the\-world\-turns/\|title \= Julianne Moore confirmed for appearance on 'As the World Turns'\| magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] }}) In Nancy's final appearances on the series, she is seen having breakfast with Casey and Alison, and then giving advice to Katie on coping with Brad's death.
Nancy was quietly written out of the show by having her die in her sleep in her apartment and be found by her son Bob. Episodes that aired August 30 and August 31, 2010 dealt with her death, the former episode depicting news of the death and the latter serving as a memorial.
|
[
"Storylines\n----------",
"Nancy is one of the original characters of the long\\-running soap, and spoke the first line on the debut episode on April 2, 1956 (\"Good morning dear, what would you like for breakfast?\"). Show creator [Irna Phillips](/wiki/Irna_Phillips \"Irna Phillips\") modeled Nancy in the mold of a member of a [Greek chorus](/wiki/Greek_chorus \"Greek chorus\"): someone who stays mostly on the sidelines but nevertheless comments on the crises that more dynamic residents of the town faced. In many respects, Nancy's \"moral voice\" served to further how Phillips wanted certain characters to be perceived by the public. When Nancy spoke out against her son Bob's ex\\-wife [Lisa](/wiki/Lisa_Grimaldi \"Lisa Grimaldi\") in the mid\\-1960s, the Lisa character became, by and large, the character everyone \"loved to hate.\" Likewise, when Nancy forgave Lisa for her past transgressions in the 1970s, public opinion softened toward Lisa and she became a respected character on the program.",
"Traditionally a housewife, Nancy was bit by the [feminism](/wiki/Feminism \"Feminism\") bug in the late 1970s and worked for a time as a [secretary](/wiki/Secretary \"Secretary\"). In the early 1980s, she quit that job and returned to keeping house. For several years she worked as a volunteer at Oakdale Memorial Hospital where her son, Bob, is Chief of Staff.",
"In 1936, she married attorney Christopher Hughes, and they had four children (three of which were seen on the show; a daughter died while swimming in a pool during a thunderstorm before the series started). Chris died in 1986, shortly after he and Nancy celebrated their fiftieth wedding anniversary. After a considerable mourning period, she married Detective Dan McClosky (Chief of the Oakdale Police Department) in 1987\\. McClosky developed [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\") in 1994 and died two years later. She later enjoyed the company of Joe D'Angelo, as the two developed a strong bond over their frustrations at being unable to help their respective offspring with their ongoing problems. Since McClosky's death, Nancy has lived with her son Dr. Bob Hughes and his wife, Kim, and has spent much of her time with her grandchildren. She is particularly close to her grandson Chris.",
"Nancy was rarely seen in later years, averaging about three or four appearances a month when the storyline permitted. Unlike other soap actors who have advanced in years (such as [Anna Lee](/wiki/Anna_Lee \"Anna Lee\") and [Frances Reid](/wiki/Frances_Reid \"Frances Reid\")), Helen Wagner had relatively few health problems as she got older, and her lack of appearances on the series were almost solely due to limited storyline. The character made a long\\-awaited appearance at Tom and Margo's 25th Wedding Anniversary on July 2, 2008\\.",
"Much of her screen time in 2006 finds the character \"embroiled in a mystery surrounding the publication of a scandalous novel, *Oakdale Confidential*, which sheds light on the checkered pasts of several characters.\"",
"In 2009, Nancy was still active and worked as a volunteer at the hospital. On Thanksgiving 2009, she gives pieces of advice to Katie after the death of Brad. Nancy again showed up just after Christmas when she heard of Casey's upcoming marriage to Alison. She gave him the engagement ring that Chris gave her. When the engagement was broken off, the ring was returned to Nancy, but she insisted that Casey hang onto it.",
"Nancy was on hand in 2010 to celebrate Bob and Kim's 25th wedding anniversary. Nancy and the rest of the family were all shocked to find out that they really weren't married. She helped Bob and Kim settle their recent differences and was delighted when Frannie returned to see them wed. (This scene is notable for a brief return to the show by [Julianne Moore](/wiki/Julianne_Moore \"Julianne Moore\"), who began her career playing the role of Frannie in the 1980s.{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://ew.com/article/2010/03/01/julianne\\-moore\\-as\\-the\\-world\\-turns/\\|title \\= Julianne Moore confirmed for appearance on 'As the World Turns'\\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] }}) In Nancy's final appearances on the series, she is seen having breakfast with Casey and Alison, and then giving advice to Katie on coping with Brad's death.",
"Nancy was quietly written out of the show by having her die in her sleep in her apartment and be found by her son Bob. Episodes that aired August 30 and August 31, 2010 dealt with her death, the former episode depicting news of the death and the latter serving as a memorial.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Charles Richardson is a civil servant in his early thirties, working in the Department of Development in [Salt Lake City](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City "Salt Lake City"), [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah"). A depressed and impetuous romantic, Charles drinks on the job, lamenting his former lover, Laura, an [administrative assistant](/wiki/Administrative_assistant "Administrative assistant") in the office's filing department. Though their brief affair ended over a year ago, Charles remains obsessed with Laura, who has reunited with her husband Jim, a log\-home salesman. Charles insists to his younger sister, Susan, and best friend, Sam, that he intends to win Laura back.
In nonlinear [flashbacks](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 "Flashback (narrative)"), Charles reflects on his affair with Laura, and its swift disintegration, marked by jealousy and possessiveness: After he asked to marry her, Laura distanced herself from Charles. Following their breakup, the two briefly met in the parking lot of Laura's stepdaughter's school, but their meeting devolved into an argument in which Laura proclaimed to Charles that he has an "exalted" view of her that is not grounded in reality.
Consumed by his obsession with Laura, Charles frequently parks outside her and Jim's A\-frame house, and at home constructs a miniature replica of it, complete with figurines and furniture. Sam, who is unemployed and staying with Charles, grows worried over his obsessive behavior. Meanwhile, Charles attempts to cope with his eccentric mother, Clara, who consumed by [suicidal ideations](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation"), as well as his incredulous stepfather, Pete.
Charles learns that his coworker, Betty, has remained friends with Laura since Laura quit her job at the office. He casually attempts to court Betty, though his efforts prove unsuccessful as his feelings for her are not genuine. Charles visits Jim's custom home building company with Sam, the men posing as a [gay couple](/wiki/Gay_men "Gay men") under the guise of wanting to purchase one of Jim's houses. Jim allows Charles and Sam to view his home, shocking Laura, who returns during their tour. Jim explains to a visibly rattled Laura that Charles and Sam are lovers and potential clients. While Jim converses with Sam, Charles approaches Laura in the kitchen and hugs her. The four have drinks together in the living room, during which Charles startles Jim by proclaiming that he is in love with Laura, leading Jim to force the two men out of the house.
Weeks later, Charles is remorseful for his outburst, and decides to have dinner with Betty to distract himself. Charles is enlivened when he learns from Betty that Laura has again left Jim and moved into an apartment on her own. After retrieving Laura's phone number, Charles arrives at her apartment with a bouquet of [tulips](/wiki/Tulip "Tulip"). Laura is ambivalent about his arrival, and wary of resuming a relationship with him given their past and the current tumult of her life. The two argue, and Charles eventually bids her farewell.
That night, Charles returns to his home and throws the A\-frame replica dollhouse in the garbage, declaring that he is finally done pursuing Laura. Weeks pass as winter transitions into spring.
### Ending
In the original release, the film ends as such: One day after returning home from work after doing a jog, Charles finds Laura there, cooking a dessert soufflé in the kitchen.
In the 1982 release: Charlie finally realizes that the relationship is never going to work out. He goes to Laura to tell her as much and walks away from her, telling himself, "It's over. Yea, it's over." The film ends him stating in voiceover while leaving work that "It's not that it doesn't still hurt. It's that you get used to it." before it closes with him doing a light jog and resting after finishing.{{cite web \| url\=https://trailersfromhell.com/chilly\-scenes\-of\-winter/ \| title\=Chilly Scenes of Winter \| date\=4 March 2017 }}
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Charles Richardson is a civil servant in his early thirties, working in the Department of Development in [Salt Lake City](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City \"Salt Lake City\"), [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\"). A depressed and impetuous romantic, Charles drinks on the job, lamenting his former lover, Laura, an [administrative assistant](/wiki/Administrative_assistant \"Administrative assistant\") in the office's filing department. Though their brief affair ended over a year ago, Charles remains obsessed with Laura, who has reunited with her husband Jim, a log\\-home salesman. Charles insists to his younger sister, Susan, and best friend, Sam, that he intends to win Laura back.",
"In nonlinear [flashbacks](/wiki/Flashback_%28narrative%29 \"Flashback (narrative)\"), Charles reflects on his affair with Laura, and its swift disintegration, marked by jealousy and possessiveness: After he asked to marry her, Laura distanced herself from Charles. Following their breakup, the two briefly met in the parking lot of Laura's stepdaughter's school, but their meeting devolved into an argument in which Laura proclaimed to Charles that he has an \"exalted\" view of her that is not grounded in reality.",
"Consumed by his obsession with Laura, Charles frequently parks outside her and Jim's A\\-frame house, and at home constructs a miniature replica of it, complete with figurines and furniture. Sam, who is unemployed and staying with Charles, grows worried over his obsessive behavior. Meanwhile, Charles attempts to cope with his eccentric mother, Clara, who consumed by [suicidal ideations](/wiki/Suicidal_ideation \"Suicidal ideation\"), as well as his incredulous stepfather, Pete.",
"Charles learns that his coworker, Betty, has remained friends with Laura since Laura quit her job at the office. He casually attempts to court Betty, though his efforts prove unsuccessful as his feelings for her are not genuine. Charles visits Jim's custom home building company with Sam, the men posing as a [gay couple](/wiki/Gay_men \"Gay men\") under the guise of wanting to purchase one of Jim's houses. Jim allows Charles and Sam to view his home, shocking Laura, who returns during their tour. Jim explains to a visibly rattled Laura that Charles and Sam are lovers and potential clients. While Jim converses with Sam, Charles approaches Laura in the kitchen and hugs her. The four have drinks together in the living room, during which Charles startles Jim by proclaiming that he is in love with Laura, leading Jim to force the two men out of the house.",
"Weeks later, Charles is remorseful for his outburst, and decides to have dinner with Betty to distract himself. Charles is enlivened when he learns from Betty that Laura has again left Jim and moved into an apartment on her own. After retrieving Laura's phone number, Charles arrives at her apartment with a bouquet of [tulips](/wiki/Tulip \"Tulip\"). Laura is ambivalent about his arrival, and wary of resuming a relationship with him given their past and the current tumult of her life. The two argue, and Charles eventually bids her farewell.",
"That night, Charles returns to his home and throws the A\\-frame replica dollhouse in the garbage, declaring that he is finally done pursuing Laura. Weeks pass as winter transitions into spring.",
"### Ending",
"In the original release, the film ends as such: One day after returning home from work after doing a jog, Charles finds Laura there, cooking a dessert soufflé in the kitchen.",
"In the 1982 release: Charlie finally realizes that the relationship is never going to work out. He goes to Laura to tell her as much and walks away from her, telling himself, \"It's over. Yea, it's over.\" The film ends him stating in voiceover while leaving work that \"It's not that it doesn't still hurt. It's that you get used to it.\" before it closes with him doing a light jog and resting after finishing.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://trailersfromhell.com/chilly\\-scenes\\-of\\-winter/ \\| title\\=Chilly Scenes of Winter \\| date\\=4 March 2017 }}",
""
] |
History
-------
The league, founded by Bob Russell and Hockeyworks International Ltd., opened its doors in early 2006, with a unique concept and approach to improving the standard of developing young hockey players within a Junior 'A' league format setting.
A draft showcase event took place from May 5 until May 7, 2006 with players from Canada, United States, and Europe taking up residence at the Hockeyworks' World Hockey Centre near [Shelburne, Ontario](/wiki/Shelburne%2C_Ontario "Shelburne, Ontario") to take part in the league's first tryout camp.
[left\|200px\|thumbnail\|Deseronto Thunder versus King Wild (circa 2006\)](/wiki/File:Deseronto_versus_King_City.jpg "Deseronto versus King City.jpg") As of September 2006, it became clear that the league would operate its first season with seven teams. The original seven were the [Bradford Rattlers](/wiki/Bradford_Rattlers "Bradford Rattlers"), [Deseronto Thunder](/wiki/Deseronto_Thunder "Deseronto Thunder"), [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild "King Wild"), [Nipissing Alouettes](/wiki/Nipissing_Alouettes "Nipissing Alouettes"), [Richmond Hill Rams](/wiki/Richmond_Hill_Rams "Richmond Hill Rams"), [South Muskoka Shield](/wiki/South_Muskoka_Shield "South Muskoka Shield"), and [Toronto Canada Moose](/wiki/Toronto_Canada_Moose "Toronto Canada Moose").
The league's first ever game took place on September 8, 2006 between the [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild "King Wild") and the [Richmond Hill Rams](/wiki/Richmond_Hill_Rams "Richmond Hill Rams"). The final result was a 6–0 victory for the Rams, despite being badly outshot by the Wild. The first goal in the league's history was scored by the Rams' [Darren Archibald](/wiki/Darren_Archibald "Darren Archibald") (future [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks "Vancouver Canucks") prospect) on the power play during the first period. Rams' goaltender Daniel Jones picked up the historical first victory, as well as the league's first shutout in history.
[thumbnail\|185px\|right\|[Grey Highlands Bravehearts](/wiki/Grey_Highlands_Bravehearts "Grey Highlands Bravehearts") goalie during 2014–15 season.](/wiki/File:Grey_Highlands_Bravehearts_goalie_pink_2014.jpg "Grey Highlands Bravehearts goalie pink 2014.jpg")
On November 15, 2006, the GMJHL announced its affiliation with the [World Hockey Association](/wiki/World_Hockey_Association_%28proposed%29 "World Hockey Association (proposed)") and creation of the *National Junior Hockey Alliance*. The affiliation resulted in a national championship between the GMJHL playoff champion and the winner of the [WHA Junior West Hockey League](/wiki/WHA_Junior_West_Hockey_League "WHA Junior West Hockey League") after the 2006–07 season.
The first ever regular season of the GMJHL concluded on February 25, 2007 with the [Bradford Rattlers](/wiki/Bradford_Rattlers "Bradford Rattlers") leading the way as regular season champs with a record of 37 wins, 1 regulation loss, and 4 overtime losses. In the playoffs, the Rattlers beat the [Deseronto Thunder](/wiki/Deseronto_Thunder "Deseronto Thunder") in six games, and then the [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild "King Wild") in five games to win the first ever Russell Cup as playoff champions.
In September 2007, the GMJHL started its second season with six new teams, the [Douro Dukes](/wiki/Douro_Dukes "Douro Dukes"), [Elliot Lake Bobcats](/wiki/Elliot_Lake_Bobcats "Elliot Lake Bobcats"), [Espanola Kings](/wiki/Espanola_Kings "Espanola Kings"), [Innisfil Lakers](/wiki/Innisfil_Lakers "Innisfil Lakers"), [Tamworth Cyclones](/wiki/Tamworth_Cyclones "Tamworth Cyclones"), and [Temiscaming Royals](/wiki/Temiscaming_Royals "Temiscaming Royals"). The Deseronto Thunder ran into financial trouble after their first season and ownership of the team was transferred to the town. The team is now known as the [Deseronto Storm](/wiki/Deseronto_Storm "Deseronto Storm").
[thumbnail\|185px\|left\|[Knights of Meaford](/wiki/Knights_of_Meaford "Knights of Meaford") player during 2014–15 season.](/wiki/File:Knights_of_Meaford_player_black_2014.jpg "Knights of Meaford player black 2014.jpg")
On December 11, 2007, the GMJHL announced a seven\-game challenge series versus a [Russian](/wiki/Russia "Russia") team known as the Moscow Selects. In late December and early January, the top seven teams of the GMJHL will compete against the Moscow Selects—a mixture of top Top Junior talent from the City of [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"). The Selects played seven games, against Bradford, Innisfil, Temiscaming, Elliot Lake, Richmond Hill, Deseronto, and South Muskoka, winning each game. In March 2008, the [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild "King Wild") and [Richmond Hill Rams](/wiki/Richmond_Hill_Rams "Richmond Hill Rams") played two games each against the [Mexico national ice hockey team](/wiki/Mexico_national_ice_hockey_team "Mexico national ice hockey team"). The Wild won both their games, while the Rams lost both of theirs.
For the 2008–09 season, the GMJHL adopted much of the [National Collegiate Athletic Association](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association "National Collegiate Athletic Association")'s ice hockey rulebook. The GMJHL added the [Minden Riverkings](/wiki/Minden_Riverkings "Minden Riverkings") and the [Oro\-Medonte 77's](/wiki/Oro-Medonte_77%27s "Oro-Medonte 77's") to the mix, and the Dukes relocated to become the [Brock Bucks](/wiki/Brock_Bucks "Brock Bucks"). At the same time, the [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec")\-based [Temiscaming Royals](/wiki/Temiscaming_Royals "Temiscaming Royals") walked away from the league to join the [Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Northern_Ontario_Junior_Hockey_League "Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League"), but were replaced within weeks by the [Ville\-Marie Dragons](/wiki/Ville-Marie_Dragons "Ville-Marie Dragons").
In December 2008 and January 2009, eight teams of the GMHL hosted [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan")'s Under\-18 [Torpedo UST\-Kamenogorsk](/wiki/Torpedo_UST-Kamenogorsk "Torpedo UST-Kamenogorsk") squad. Victorious were the [Elliot Lake Bobcats](/wiki/Elliot_Lake_Bobcats "Elliot Lake Bobcats") (twice), [South Muskoka Shield](/wiki/South_Muskoka_Shield "South Muskoka Shield"), [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild "King Wild"), [Bradford Rattlers](/wiki/Bradford_Rattlers "Bradford Rattlers"), [Innisfil Lakers](/wiki/Innisfil_Lakers "Innisfil Lakers"), and a Nipissing/Ville\-Marie combined squad. The only loss for a GMHL team happened to the [Toronto Canada Moose](/wiki/Toronto_Canada_Moose "Toronto Canada Moose").
In the summer of 2010, the GMHL expanded in two fashions internationally. First, [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada")'s only All\-Russian team{{Cite web\|url \= https://www.thestar.com/sports/hockey/2010/05/14/meet\_canadas\_first\_allrussian\_hockey\_team.html\|title \= Meet Canada's first all\-Russian hockey team\|date \= 14 May 2010\|website \= Toronto Star}} in the [Shelburne Red Wings](/wiki/Shelburne_Red_Wings "Shelburne Red Wings") and then late in the summer they expanded to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") through the expansion of the [Jamestown Jets](/wiki/Jamestown_Jets "Jamestown Jets").
On September 17, 2010, the GMHL played its first international regulation game, in [Jamestown, New York](/wiki/Jamestown%2C_New_York "Jamestown, New York") between the [Jamestown Jets](/wiki/Jamestown_Jets "Jamestown Jets") and [Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks](/wiki/Sturgeon_Falls_Lumberjacks "Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks"), both expansion teams to the league for the 2010–11 season. Jamestown won the game 4–3\. In December 2010, the GMHL named [Bob Bernstein](/wiki/Bob_Bernstein "Bob Bernstein") commissioner. After serving as commissioner for seven days, Bernstein was relieved of his duties and [Ken Girard](/wiki/Ken_Girard "Ken Girard") later resumed as full\-time commissioner.
In mid\-January 2011, it was announced that the town of [Iron Bridge, Ontario](/wiki/Iron_Bridge%2C_Ontario "Iron Bridge, Ontario") and its 500\-seat outdoor arena would host a regular season game, known as the North Shore Winter Classic, between the [Elliot Lake Bobcats](/wiki/Elliot_Lake_Bobcats "Elliot Lake Bobcats") and [Algoma Avalanche](/wiki/Algoma_Avalanche "Algoma Avalanche") on January 29, 2011\. This is the first known regulation outdoor game in Ontario in the modern era. Elliot Lake would win the game 8–2 in front of an estimated 400 fans.
At the conclusion of the 2011–12 season, the league lost the Elliot Lake Bobcats to the [Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Northern_Ontario_Junior_Hockey_League "Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League"). Relocation of teams and expansion was busier than ever in 2014\. The Mattawa Voyageurs moved to Sundridge to make way for an NOJHL team. The [Powassan Eagles](/wiki/Powassan_Eagles "Powassan Eagles") moved to Parry Sound to make way for an NOJHL team. The league expanded rapidly with a total of 15 new teams in the off\-season of 2014 and 2015\. There was a total of 30 teams, with a total of six teams playing in the same market (two teams per town).
The Shelburne Red Wings were sold after the 2013–14 season, and were renamed the Shelburne Stars. However, the Stars did not play in 2014–15 and changed their name to the Shelburne Sharks and began play in 2015–16\. In May 2015, the [Rama Aces](/wiki/Rama_Aces "Rama Aces") took a leave of absence but never returned. In November 2015, the Brantford Steelfighters suspended their operations after 18 games.
The Shelburne Sharks returned as the Shelburne Stars in June 2016, but the team folded soon afterwards. The Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks re\-branded as the West Nipissing Lynx, but remained in Sturgeon Falls. Early into the 2016–17 season, the [Toronto Blue Ice Jets](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Ice_Jets "Toronto Blue Ice Jets") were removed from the schedule in the first week, the [Bracebridge Blues](/wiki/Bracebridge_Blues "Bracebridge Blues") in the fifth week, the Komoka Dragons in the seventh week, the Lincoln Mavericks in the twelfth week, and [Wiarton Rock](/wiki/Wiarton_Rock "Wiarton Rock") in the fifteenth week of the season. The [Orangeville Ice Crushers](/wiki/Orangeville_Ice_Crushers "Orangeville Ice Crushers") would also suspend operations in January 2017 and all remaining games against Orangeville were considered forfeits.
For 2017–18, the league added the Fergus Force, Ville\-Marie Pirates, Wiarton Schooners, and Windsor Aces while losing the [Toronto Attack](/wiki/Toronto_Attack "Toronto Attack"). In late August 2017, the [Parry Sound Islanders](/wiki/Parry_Sound_Islanders "Parry Sound Islanders") announced they were taking a leave of absence and merged with the [Seguin Huskies](/wiki/Seguin_Huskies "Seguin Huskies"). The Force and Schooners both folded during the season without winning a game.
After one season following the Islanders merge, the Seguin Huskies folded in 2018\. The GMHL also added two teams originally in the [Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_Junior_Hockey_League "Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League") in the Niagara\-on\-the\-Lake Nationals and [Ottawa Sharpshooters](/wiki/Ottawa_Sharpshooters "Ottawa Sharpshooters") for 2018–19\. The Wiarton Schooners returned but folded midseason for the second consecutive season, and third consecutive midseason GMHL team folding in the town of Wiarton.
In 2019, the league added the Western Provinces Hockey Association (WPHA) as a Western Division in the GMHL for the 2019–20 season, which then rebranded as the GMHL West.{{cite web \|url\=https://gmhl.net/article.php?article\_id\=57383 \|title\=The GMHL to Expand to Western Canada \|date\=June 13, 2019 \|website\=GMHL}} The WPHA had played the previous season in the [Western States Hockey League](/wiki/Western_States_Hockey_League "Western States Hockey League") as the Provinces Division. The 2020 playoffs were then curtailed by the onset of the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") and no champion was named. The following 2020–21 season did not take place as scheduled due to pandemic restrictions in Ontario and Quebec, with six teams playing only two games each in December 2020\. The four teams in the GMHL West were able to play a partial season and a playoff in May 2021\. In 2023, all teams from the GMHL West were removed by the league, which then formed their own league called the National Junior Hockey League (NJHL).{{Cite web \|url\=https://gmhl.net/news/presidents\-message/57954 \|title\=Presidents Message \|date\=May 27, 2023 \|website\=GMHL}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.njhlhockey.com/news/a\-message\-from\-the\-njhl \|title\=A Message from the NJHL \|date\=May 29, 2023 \|website\=njhlhockey.com}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The league, founded by Bob Russell and Hockeyworks International Ltd., opened its doors in early 2006, with a unique concept and approach to improving the standard of developing young hockey players within a Junior 'A' league format setting.\nA draft showcase event took place from May 5 until May 7, 2006 with players from Canada, United States, and Europe taking up residence at the Hockeyworks' World Hockey Centre near [Shelburne, Ontario](/wiki/Shelburne%2C_Ontario \"Shelburne, Ontario\") to take part in the league's first tryout camp.",
"[left\\|200px\\|thumbnail\\|Deseronto Thunder versus King Wild (circa 2006\\)](/wiki/File:Deseronto_versus_King_City.jpg \"Deseronto versus King City.jpg\") As of September 2006, it became clear that the league would operate its first season with seven teams. The original seven were the [Bradford Rattlers](/wiki/Bradford_Rattlers \"Bradford Rattlers\"), [Deseronto Thunder](/wiki/Deseronto_Thunder \"Deseronto Thunder\"), [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild \"King Wild\"), [Nipissing Alouettes](/wiki/Nipissing_Alouettes \"Nipissing Alouettes\"), [Richmond Hill Rams](/wiki/Richmond_Hill_Rams \"Richmond Hill Rams\"), [South Muskoka Shield](/wiki/South_Muskoka_Shield \"South Muskoka Shield\"), and [Toronto Canada Moose](/wiki/Toronto_Canada_Moose \"Toronto Canada Moose\").",
"The league's first ever game took place on September 8, 2006 between the [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild \"King Wild\") and the [Richmond Hill Rams](/wiki/Richmond_Hill_Rams \"Richmond Hill Rams\"). The final result was a 6–0 victory for the Rams, despite being badly outshot by the Wild. The first goal in the league's history was scored by the Rams' [Darren Archibald](/wiki/Darren_Archibald \"Darren Archibald\") (future [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks \"Vancouver Canucks\") prospect) on the power play during the first period. Rams' goaltender Daniel Jones picked up the historical first victory, as well as the league's first shutout in history.\n[thumbnail\\|185px\\|right\\|[Grey Highlands Bravehearts](/wiki/Grey_Highlands_Bravehearts \"Grey Highlands Bravehearts\") goalie during 2014–15 season.](/wiki/File:Grey_Highlands_Bravehearts_goalie_pink_2014.jpg \"Grey Highlands Bravehearts goalie pink 2014.jpg\")",
"On November 15, 2006, the GMJHL announced its affiliation with the [World Hockey Association](/wiki/World_Hockey_Association_%28proposed%29 \"World Hockey Association (proposed)\") and creation of the *National Junior Hockey Alliance*. The affiliation resulted in a national championship between the GMJHL playoff champion and the winner of the [WHA Junior West Hockey League](/wiki/WHA_Junior_West_Hockey_League \"WHA Junior West Hockey League\") after the 2006–07 season.",
"The first ever regular season of the GMJHL concluded on February 25, 2007 with the [Bradford Rattlers](/wiki/Bradford_Rattlers \"Bradford Rattlers\") leading the way as regular season champs with a record of 37 wins, 1 regulation loss, and 4 overtime losses. In the playoffs, the Rattlers beat the [Deseronto Thunder](/wiki/Deseronto_Thunder \"Deseronto Thunder\") in six games, and then the [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild \"King Wild\") in five games to win the first ever Russell Cup as playoff champions.",
"In September 2007, the GMJHL started its second season with six new teams, the [Douro Dukes](/wiki/Douro_Dukes \"Douro Dukes\"), [Elliot Lake Bobcats](/wiki/Elliot_Lake_Bobcats \"Elliot Lake Bobcats\"), [Espanola Kings](/wiki/Espanola_Kings \"Espanola Kings\"), [Innisfil Lakers](/wiki/Innisfil_Lakers \"Innisfil Lakers\"), [Tamworth Cyclones](/wiki/Tamworth_Cyclones \"Tamworth Cyclones\"), and [Temiscaming Royals](/wiki/Temiscaming_Royals \"Temiscaming Royals\"). The Deseronto Thunder ran into financial trouble after their first season and ownership of the team was transferred to the town. The team is now known as the [Deseronto Storm](/wiki/Deseronto_Storm \"Deseronto Storm\").\n[thumbnail\\|185px\\|left\\|[Knights of Meaford](/wiki/Knights_of_Meaford \"Knights of Meaford\") player during 2014–15 season.](/wiki/File:Knights_of_Meaford_player_black_2014.jpg \"Knights of Meaford player black 2014.jpg\")\nOn December 11, 2007, the GMJHL announced a seven\\-game challenge series versus a [Russian](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") team known as the Moscow Selects. In late December and early January, the top seven teams of the GMJHL will compete against the Moscow Selects—a mixture of top Top Junior talent from the City of [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"). The Selects played seven games, against Bradford, Innisfil, Temiscaming, Elliot Lake, Richmond Hill, Deseronto, and South Muskoka, winning each game. In March 2008, the [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild \"King Wild\") and [Richmond Hill Rams](/wiki/Richmond_Hill_Rams \"Richmond Hill Rams\") played two games each against the [Mexico national ice hockey team](/wiki/Mexico_national_ice_hockey_team \"Mexico national ice hockey team\"). The Wild won both their games, while the Rams lost both of theirs.",
"For the 2008–09 season, the GMJHL adopted much of the [National Collegiate Athletic Association](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association \"National Collegiate Athletic Association\")'s ice hockey rulebook. The GMJHL added the [Minden Riverkings](/wiki/Minden_Riverkings \"Minden Riverkings\") and the [Oro\\-Medonte 77's](/wiki/Oro-Medonte_77%27s \"Oro-Medonte 77's\") to the mix, and the Dukes relocated to become the [Brock Bucks](/wiki/Brock_Bucks \"Brock Bucks\"). At the same time, the [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\")\\-based [Temiscaming Royals](/wiki/Temiscaming_Royals \"Temiscaming Royals\") walked away from the league to join the [Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Northern_Ontario_Junior_Hockey_League \"Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League\"), but were replaced within weeks by the [Ville\\-Marie Dragons](/wiki/Ville-Marie_Dragons \"Ville-Marie Dragons\").",
"In December 2008 and January 2009, eight teams of the GMHL hosted [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\")'s Under\\-18 [Torpedo UST\\-Kamenogorsk](/wiki/Torpedo_UST-Kamenogorsk \"Torpedo UST-Kamenogorsk\") squad. Victorious were the [Elliot Lake Bobcats](/wiki/Elliot_Lake_Bobcats \"Elliot Lake Bobcats\") (twice), [South Muskoka Shield](/wiki/South_Muskoka_Shield \"South Muskoka Shield\"), [King Wild](/wiki/King_Wild \"King Wild\"), [Bradford Rattlers](/wiki/Bradford_Rattlers \"Bradford Rattlers\"), [Innisfil Lakers](/wiki/Innisfil_Lakers \"Innisfil Lakers\"), and a Nipissing/Ville\\-Marie combined squad. The only loss for a GMHL team happened to the [Toronto Canada Moose](/wiki/Toronto_Canada_Moose \"Toronto Canada Moose\").",
"In the summer of 2010, the GMHL expanded in two fashions internationally. First, [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\")'s only All\\-Russian team{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://www.thestar.com/sports/hockey/2010/05/14/meet\\_canadas\\_first\\_allrussian\\_hockey\\_team.html\\|title \\= Meet Canada's first all\\-Russian hockey team\\|date \\= 14 May 2010\\|website \\= Toronto Star}} in the [Shelburne Red Wings](/wiki/Shelburne_Red_Wings \"Shelburne Red Wings\") and then late in the summer they expanded to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") through the expansion of the [Jamestown Jets](/wiki/Jamestown_Jets \"Jamestown Jets\").",
"On September 17, 2010, the GMHL played its first international regulation game, in [Jamestown, New York](/wiki/Jamestown%2C_New_York \"Jamestown, New York\") between the [Jamestown Jets](/wiki/Jamestown_Jets \"Jamestown Jets\") and [Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks](/wiki/Sturgeon_Falls_Lumberjacks \"Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks\"), both expansion teams to the league for the 2010–11 season. Jamestown won the game 4–3\\. In December 2010, the GMHL named [Bob Bernstein](/wiki/Bob_Bernstein \"Bob Bernstein\") commissioner. After serving as commissioner for seven days, Bernstein was relieved of his duties and [Ken Girard](/wiki/Ken_Girard \"Ken Girard\") later resumed as full\\-time commissioner.",
"In mid\\-January 2011, it was announced that the town of [Iron Bridge, Ontario](/wiki/Iron_Bridge%2C_Ontario \"Iron Bridge, Ontario\") and its 500\\-seat outdoor arena would host a regular season game, known as the North Shore Winter Classic, between the [Elliot Lake Bobcats](/wiki/Elliot_Lake_Bobcats \"Elliot Lake Bobcats\") and [Algoma Avalanche](/wiki/Algoma_Avalanche \"Algoma Avalanche\") on January 29, 2011\\. This is the first known regulation outdoor game in Ontario in the modern era. Elliot Lake would win the game 8–2 in front of an estimated 400 fans.",
"At the conclusion of the 2011–12 season, the league lost the Elliot Lake Bobcats to the [Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Northern_Ontario_Junior_Hockey_League \"Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League\"). Relocation of teams and expansion was busier than ever in 2014\\. The Mattawa Voyageurs moved to Sundridge to make way for an NOJHL team. The [Powassan Eagles](/wiki/Powassan_Eagles \"Powassan Eagles\") moved to Parry Sound to make way for an NOJHL team. The league expanded rapidly with a total of 15 new teams in the off\\-season of 2014 and 2015\\. There was a total of 30 teams, with a total of six teams playing in the same market (two teams per town).",
"The Shelburne Red Wings were sold after the 2013–14 season, and were renamed the Shelburne Stars. However, the Stars did not play in 2014–15 and changed their name to the Shelburne Sharks and began play in 2015–16\\. In May 2015, the [Rama Aces](/wiki/Rama_Aces \"Rama Aces\") took a leave of absence but never returned. In November 2015, the Brantford Steelfighters suspended their operations after 18 games.",
"The Shelburne Sharks returned as the Shelburne Stars in June 2016, but the team folded soon afterwards. The Sturgeon Falls Lumberjacks re\\-branded as the West Nipissing Lynx, but remained in Sturgeon Falls. Early into the 2016–17 season, the [Toronto Blue Ice Jets](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Ice_Jets \"Toronto Blue Ice Jets\") were removed from the schedule in the first week, the [Bracebridge Blues](/wiki/Bracebridge_Blues \"Bracebridge Blues\") in the fifth week, the Komoka Dragons in the seventh week, the Lincoln Mavericks in the twelfth week, and [Wiarton Rock](/wiki/Wiarton_Rock \"Wiarton Rock\") in the fifteenth week of the season. The [Orangeville Ice Crushers](/wiki/Orangeville_Ice_Crushers \"Orangeville Ice Crushers\") would also suspend operations in January 2017 and all remaining games against Orangeville were considered forfeits.",
"For 2017–18, the league added the Fergus Force, Ville\\-Marie Pirates, Wiarton Schooners, and Windsor Aces while losing the [Toronto Attack](/wiki/Toronto_Attack \"Toronto Attack\"). In late August 2017, the [Parry Sound Islanders](/wiki/Parry_Sound_Islanders \"Parry Sound Islanders\") announced they were taking a leave of absence and merged with the [Seguin Huskies](/wiki/Seguin_Huskies \"Seguin Huskies\"). The Force and Schooners both folded during the season without winning a game.",
"After one season following the Islanders merge, the Seguin Huskies folded in 2018\\. The GMHL also added two teams originally in the [Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Canadian_Premier_Junior_Hockey_League \"Canadian Premier Junior Hockey League\") in the Niagara\\-on\\-the\\-Lake Nationals and [Ottawa Sharpshooters](/wiki/Ottawa_Sharpshooters \"Ottawa Sharpshooters\") for 2018–19\\. The Wiarton Schooners returned but folded midseason for the second consecutive season, and third consecutive midseason GMHL team folding in the town of Wiarton.",
"In 2019, the league added the Western Provinces Hockey Association (WPHA) as a Western Division in the GMHL for the 2019–20 season, which then rebranded as the GMHL West.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://gmhl.net/article.php?article\\_id\\=57383 \\|title\\=The GMHL to Expand to Western Canada \\|date\\=June 13, 2019 \\|website\\=GMHL}} The WPHA had played the previous season in the [Western States Hockey League](/wiki/Western_States_Hockey_League \"Western States Hockey League\") as the Provinces Division. The 2020 playoffs were then curtailed by the onset of the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\") and no champion was named. The following 2020–21 season did not take place as scheduled due to pandemic restrictions in Ontario and Quebec, with six teams playing only two games each in December 2020\\. The four teams in the GMHL West were able to play a partial season and a playoff in May 2021\\. In 2023, all teams from the GMHL West were removed by the league, which then formed their own league called the National Junior Hockey League (NJHL).{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://gmhl.net/news/presidents\\-message/57954 \\|title\\=Presidents Message \\|date\\=May 27, 2023 \\|website\\=GMHL}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.njhlhockey.com/news/a\\-message\\-from\\-the\\-njhl \\|title\\=A Message from the NJHL \\|date\\=May 29, 2023 \\|website\\=njhlhockey.com}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The program began on July 8, 1991 as ***The KTLA Morning News***,[KTLA am News Off to Slick Start](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-07-09-ca-2208-story.html), *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*. Retrieved 12\-10\-2010\.[Television](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-06-11-ca-448-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\-10\-2010\. anchored by [Carlos Amezcua](/wiki/Carlos_Amezcua "Carlos Amezcua") and Barbara Beck, with weathercaster Mark Kriski, and Eric Spillman and Michele Ruiz reporting from remote locations. It was created and cast by executive producer Nicholas van Hoogstraten under the direction of then\-general manager Steve Bell[Steve Bell, 66; Executive at KTLA\-TV Launched Brash Morning News Show](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-jun-30-me-bell30-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\-10\-2010\. and produced by Raymond J. Brune. Originally a two\-hour program airing from 7\-9 am, the show originally was a straight and hard news broadcast with few light features and little focus on current weather and traffic, which was reflected with low ratings and acclaim.[Memo to 'KTLA Morning News'\-\-You Blew It](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-07-12-ca-2168-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\-10\-2010\. Near the end of 1991, van Hoogstraten moved over to Tribune Broadcasting and Joel Tator, a new executive producer, was brought in and lightened the tone of the newscast, including a 'today's papers' segment where the anchors read through the day's stories in newspapers such as the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")* and left the papers spread on the desk through the show. The tone was soon reflected in the staff, which allowed their chemistry to gel and become lighter, including [happy talk](/wiki/Happy_talk "Happy talk") for stretches in the newscast where stories were lighter.
The critical moment for the *Morning News* came in February 1992, when a series of rain storms hit [the Southland](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_Area "Greater Los Angeles Area"), causing severe flooding in the [San Fernando Valley](/wiki/San_Fernando_Valley "San Fernando Valley"). At that time, the only other news programs on in the morning were the national news shows on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") (*[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America "Good Morning America")*), [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") (*[Today](/wiki/Today_%28American_TV_program%29 "Today (American TV program)")*) and [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") (*[CBS This Morning](/wiki/CBS_This_Morning "CBS This Morning")*), all of which broadcast on a three\-hour tape delay in the Pacific Time Zone and had negligible live cut\-ins into the taped programs of the current situation outside the local :25/:55 local news cut\-ins. Finding a lack of coverage which they saw needed addressing, KTLA set aside its normal programming and provided extensive coverage of the flooding. That brought in large numbers of Southland viewers; once the flood crisis ended, viewers remained and ratings remained steady thereafter, allowing further experimentation with the newscast.
Another critical moment for the *Morning News* occurred on January 17, 1994, when the [Northridge earthquake](/wiki/1994_Northridge_earthquake "1994 Northridge earthquake") rocked the area, causing widespread damage, collapsing freeways, sparked power outages, ruptured water and gas lines, prompted the stoppage of television and film production, and altered public events and flight schedules due to precaution closures in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "Hollywood, Los Angeles") and [Los Angeles International Airport](/wiki/Los_Angeles_International_Airport "Los Angeles International Airport"). The quake also caused some cosmetic (but not structural) damage to the KTLA newsroom when reporters Eric Spillman, [Larry McCormick](/wiki/Larry_McCormick_%28TV%29 "Larry McCormick (TV)"), [Stan Chambers](/wiki/Stan_Chambers "Stan Chambers") and Michele Ruiz were producing special reports throughout the morning.
With the new relaxed atmosphere and a need to provide live, local news when the other stations could not, along with the station becoming the West Coast flagship of [The WB](/wiki/The_WB "The WB") in January 1995, the show began to thrive. The program continued to succeed even as the newscast saw new competition with the debut of *[Good Day L.A.](/wiki/Good_Day_L.A. "Good Day L.A.")* on Fox\-owned [KTTV](/wiki/KTTV "KTTV") (channel 11\) in July 1993\.[They Carry a Big Shtick; Television: KTTV is pitting 'Good Day, L.A.' against 'The KTLA Morning News.' So far, there's no contest.](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-07-02-ca-1812-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\-10\-2010\. Around 1998, Michele Ruiz left for NBC\-owned [KNBC](/wiki/KNBC "KNBC") (channel 4\) and Jim Newman also left for ABC\-owned [KABC](/wiki/KABC-TV "KABC-TV") (channel 7\). On May 2, 2001, [Barbara Beck](/wiki/Barbara_Beck "Barbara Beck") resigned from KTLA[Barbara Beck Leaves KTLA in Reported Dispute](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-may-03--story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\-10\-2010\. with [Giselle Fernandez](/wiki/Giselle_Fernandez "Giselle Fernandez") later becoming co\-anchor. In 2003, Fernandez left and was replaced by [Michaela Pereira](/wiki/Michaela_Pereira "Michaela Pereira").[Fernandez to leave KTLA](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-06-et-quick6.6-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\-10\-2010\.[KTLA program gets new anchor](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-jan-27-et-quick27.4-story.html) In September 2007, Carlos Amezcua left KTLA for [KTTV](/wiki/KTTV "KTTV") to replace [John Beard](/wiki/John_Beard_%28news_anchor%29 "John Beard (news anchor)") as anchor on that station's 10 pm newscast.[KTLA morning news anchor jumps ship for a slot at rival KTTV](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-sep-05-me-anchorsaway5-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\-10\-2010\. In May 2013, Pereira left KTLA, to become an anchor for [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN")'s morning news program *[New Day](/wiki/New_Day_%28TV_series%29 "New Day (TV series)")*.{{cite news \|title\= Michaela Pereira to End 9\-Year Run at KTLA\|url\= http://ktla.com/2013/03/28/michaela\-pereira\-to\-end\-9\-year\-run\-at\-ktla/\#axzz2UGqMBN2A\|date\= 28 March 2013\|access\-date\=25 May 2013}}
In September 2006, KTLA changed the subtitles of each portion of the morning newscast. The 5 am hour was renamed *KTLA Morning News First Edition*, the 6 am hour was retitled *KTLA Morning News Early Edition*, and the 7\-10 am portion was renamed the *KTLA Morning Show*. The newscasts underwent another retitling on February 4, 2008, to bring the entire program back under the *KTLA Morning News* brand, with the hour of the particular portion of the program included in the title for the 5, 6, and 9 am hours. On February 2, 2012, the *KTLA Morning News* was expanded by an extra hour, starting at 4 am
In April 2011, KTLA added a weekend morning extension of the newscast, airing on Saturdays initially from 6\-7 am – later expanding to 5\-7 am in September 2012 (airing in the early time slot due to The CW's [children's program block](/wiki/Vortexx "Vortexx")) – and on Sundays from 6\-9 am; On May 9, 2014, the Saturday morning newscast was expanded to three hours and moved to 6:00 to 9:00 am, in a uniform timeslot as the Sunday morning newscast and following the death of Chris Burrous, is currently anchored by Lauren Lyster and Megan Telles with Kacey Montoya covering weather, who also work during the week in other assignments. The addition made KTLA the fourth Tribune\-owned station to carry a weekend morning newscast (the others being fellow CW affiliate [WGN\-TV](/wiki/WGN-TV "WGN-TV") in Chicago – which twice ran weekend morning newscasts, first from 1992 to 1998 (the Saturday edition of that program having only remained by the time of its cancellation) and again since 2010, and Fox affiliates [WXIN](/wiki/WXIN_%28TV%29 "WXIN (TV)") in Indianapolis and [WTIC\-TV](/wiki/WTIC-TV "WTIC-TV") in Hartford).[KTLA Channel 5 expands morning news block to weekends](http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/03/ktla-expands-morning-news-block-to-weekends.html), *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, March 25, 2011\. Retrieved April 19, 2011\.
KTLA offers midday news from 12 noon to 2 pm (Pacific Time) as part of the extended morning local newscast, the afternoon and evening news from 3 to 7:30 pm, and primetime and late night news from 10 to 11:35 pm (Monday through Friday).
On the morning of September 14, 2022, Sam Rubin announced on the air that Lynette Romero had left her anchor position with KTLA. On Saturday September 17, Mark Mester apologized on air to both viewers and Romero for this, after which he was suspended by the station.{{cite news \|last1\=Spocchia \|first1\=Gina \|title\=News anchor suspended after calling out cohost's treatment by management on air \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/news\-anchor\-ktla\-fired\-b2171364\.html \|access\-date\=21 September 2022 \|work\=The Independent \|date\=20 September 2022 \|language\=en}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The program began on July 8, 1991 as ***The KTLA Morning News***,[KTLA am News Off to Slick Start](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-07-09-ca-2208-story.html), *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*. Retrieved 12\\-10\\-2010\\.[Television](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-06-11-ca-448-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\\-10\\-2010\\. anchored by [Carlos Amezcua](/wiki/Carlos_Amezcua \"Carlos Amezcua\") and Barbara Beck, with weathercaster Mark Kriski, and Eric Spillman and Michele Ruiz reporting from remote locations. It was created and cast by executive producer Nicholas van Hoogstraten under the direction of then\\-general manager Steve Bell[Steve Bell, 66; Executive at KTLA\\-TV Launched Brash Morning News Show](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-jun-30-me-bell30-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\\-10\\-2010\\. and produced by Raymond J. Brune. Originally a two\\-hour program airing from 7\\-9 am, the show originally was a straight and hard news broadcast with few light features and little focus on current weather and traffic, which was reflected with low ratings and acclaim.[Memo to 'KTLA Morning News'\\-\\-You Blew It](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-07-12-ca-2168-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\\-10\\-2010\\. Near the end of 1991, van Hoogstraten moved over to Tribune Broadcasting and Joel Tator, a new executive producer, was brought in and lightened the tone of the newscast, including a 'today's papers' segment where the anchors read through the day's stories in newspapers such as the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")* and left the papers spread on the desk through the show. The tone was soon reflected in the staff, which allowed their chemistry to gel and become lighter, including [happy talk](/wiki/Happy_talk \"Happy talk\") for stretches in the newscast where stories were lighter.",
"The critical moment for the *Morning News* came in February 1992, when a series of rain storms hit [the Southland](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_Area \"Greater Los Angeles Area\"), causing severe flooding in the [San Fernando Valley](/wiki/San_Fernando_Valley \"San Fernando Valley\"). At that time, the only other news programs on in the morning were the national news shows on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") (*[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America \"Good Morning America\")*), [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") (*[Today](/wiki/Today_%28American_TV_program%29 \"Today (American TV program)\")*) and [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") (*[CBS This Morning](/wiki/CBS_This_Morning \"CBS This Morning\")*), all of which broadcast on a three\\-hour tape delay in the Pacific Time Zone and had negligible live cut\\-ins into the taped programs of the current situation outside the local :25/:55 local news cut\\-ins. Finding a lack of coverage which they saw needed addressing, KTLA set aside its normal programming and provided extensive coverage of the flooding. That brought in large numbers of Southland viewers; once the flood crisis ended, viewers remained and ratings remained steady thereafter, allowing further experimentation with the newscast.",
"Another critical moment for the *Morning News* occurred on January 17, 1994, when the [Northridge earthquake](/wiki/1994_Northridge_earthquake \"1994 Northridge earthquake\") rocked the area, causing widespread damage, collapsing freeways, sparked power outages, ruptured water and gas lines, prompted the stoppage of television and film production, and altered public events and flight schedules due to precaution closures in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\") and [Los Angeles International Airport](/wiki/Los_Angeles_International_Airport \"Los Angeles International Airport\"). The quake also caused some cosmetic (but not structural) damage to the KTLA newsroom when reporters Eric Spillman, [Larry McCormick](/wiki/Larry_McCormick_%28TV%29 \"Larry McCormick (TV)\"), [Stan Chambers](/wiki/Stan_Chambers \"Stan Chambers\") and Michele Ruiz were producing special reports throughout the morning.",
"With the new relaxed atmosphere and a need to provide live, local news when the other stations could not, along with the station becoming the West Coast flagship of [The WB](/wiki/The_WB \"The WB\") in January 1995, the show began to thrive. The program continued to succeed even as the newscast saw new competition with the debut of *[Good Day L.A.](/wiki/Good_Day_L.A. \"Good Day L.A.\")* on Fox\\-owned [KTTV](/wiki/KTTV \"KTTV\") (channel 11\\) in July 1993\\.[They Carry a Big Shtick; Television: KTTV is pitting 'Good Day, L.A.' against 'The KTLA Morning News.' So far, there's no contest.](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-07-02-ca-1812-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\\-10\\-2010\\. Around 1998, Michele Ruiz left for NBC\\-owned [KNBC](/wiki/KNBC \"KNBC\") (channel 4\\) and Jim Newman also left for ABC\\-owned [KABC](/wiki/KABC-TV \"KABC-TV\") (channel 7\\). On May 2, 2001, [Barbara Beck](/wiki/Barbara_Beck \"Barbara Beck\") resigned from KTLA[Barbara Beck Leaves KTLA in Reported Dispute](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-may-03--story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\\-10\\-2010\\. with [Giselle Fernandez](/wiki/Giselle_Fernandez \"Giselle Fernandez\") later becoming co\\-anchor. In 2003, Fernandez left and was replaced by [Michaela Pereira](/wiki/Michaela_Pereira \"Michaela Pereira\").[Fernandez to leave KTLA](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-06-et-quick6.6-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\\-10\\-2010\\.[KTLA program gets new anchor](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-jan-27-et-quick27.4-story.html) In September 2007, Carlos Amezcua left KTLA for [KTTV](/wiki/KTTV \"KTTV\") to replace [John Beard](/wiki/John_Beard_%28news_anchor%29 \"John Beard (news anchor)\") as anchor on that station's 10 pm newscast.[KTLA morning news anchor jumps ship for a slot at rival KTTV](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-sep-05-me-anchorsaway5-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 12\\-10\\-2010\\. In May 2013, Pereira left KTLA, to become an anchor for [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\")'s morning news program *[New Day](/wiki/New_Day_%28TV_series%29 \"New Day (TV series)\")*.{{cite news \\|title\\= Michaela Pereira to End 9\\-Year Run at KTLA\\|url\\= http://ktla.com/2013/03/28/michaela\\-pereira\\-to\\-end\\-9\\-year\\-run\\-at\\-ktla/\\#axzz2UGqMBN2A\\|date\\= 28 March 2013\\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2013}}",
"In September 2006, KTLA changed the subtitles of each portion of the morning newscast. The 5 am hour was renamed *KTLA Morning News First Edition*, the 6 am hour was retitled *KTLA Morning News Early Edition*, and the 7\\-10 am portion was renamed the *KTLA Morning Show*. The newscasts underwent another retitling on February 4, 2008, to bring the entire program back under the *KTLA Morning News* brand, with the hour of the particular portion of the program included in the title for the 5, 6, and 9 am hours. On February 2, 2012, the *KTLA Morning News* was expanded by an extra hour, starting at 4 am",
"In April 2011, KTLA added a weekend morning extension of the newscast, airing on Saturdays initially from 6\\-7 am – later expanding to 5\\-7 am in September 2012 (airing in the early time slot due to The CW's [children's program block](/wiki/Vortexx \"Vortexx\")) – and on Sundays from 6\\-9 am; On May 9, 2014, the Saturday morning newscast was expanded to three hours and moved to 6:00 to 9:00 am, in a uniform timeslot as the Sunday morning newscast and following the death of Chris Burrous, is currently anchored by Lauren Lyster and Megan Telles with Kacey Montoya covering weather, who also work during the week in other assignments. The addition made KTLA the fourth Tribune\\-owned station to carry a weekend morning newscast (the others being fellow CW affiliate [WGN\\-TV](/wiki/WGN-TV \"WGN-TV\") in Chicago – which twice ran weekend morning newscasts, first from 1992 to 1998 (the Saturday edition of that program having only remained by the time of its cancellation) and again since 2010, and Fox affiliates [WXIN](/wiki/WXIN_%28TV%29 \"WXIN (TV)\") in Indianapolis and [WTIC\\-TV](/wiki/WTIC-TV \"WTIC-TV\") in Hartford).[KTLA Channel 5 expands morning news block to weekends](http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/03/ktla-expands-morning-news-block-to-weekends.html), *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, March 25, 2011\\. Retrieved April 19, 2011\\.",
"KTLA offers midday news from 12 noon to 2 pm (Pacific Time) as part of the extended morning local newscast, the afternoon and evening news from 3 to 7:30 pm, and primetime and late night news from 10 to 11:35 pm (Monday through Friday).",
"On the morning of September 14, 2022, Sam Rubin announced on the air that Lynette Romero had left her anchor position with KTLA. On Saturday September 17, Mark Mester apologized on air to both viewers and Romero for this, after which he was suspended by the station.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Spocchia \\|first1\\=Gina \\|title\\=News anchor suspended after calling out cohost's treatment by management on air \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/news\\-anchor\\-ktla\\-fired\\-b2171364\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2022 \\|work\\=The Independent \\|date\\=20 September 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
She enjoyed an excellent education, but had an unhappy childhood. Domestic disputes, mostly caused by the extravagance and excesses of the father, ended the parents' marriage. In 1806 she was [morganatically](/wiki/Morganatic_marriage "Morganatic marriage") married to Danish Crown Prince Christian (later [Christian VIII](/wiki/Christian_VIII_of_Denmark "Christian VIII of Denmark")) and bore a daughter in 1807\. This short, happy marriage, which had been concluded against the will of the father, was concealed, and the child kept away from [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark").
During a bathing trip to [Bad Nenndorf](/wiki/Bad_Nenndorf "Bad Nenndorf") with her mother, she met Prussian officer [Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow](/wiki/Ludwig_Adolf_Wilhelm_von_L%C3%BCtzow "Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow"), who was cured there of a wound from Freischar Ferdinand von Schills while fighting against [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon"). On 20 March 1810, she married him without her father's objection. The marriage was at first happy. When Lutzow built his *freikorps* in 1813, Elisa played a decisive part. She was enthusiastic about the advertising and equipment of the volunteers, accepted the reports in [Breslau](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw "Wrocław"), and later devoted herself to the wounded. Theodor Körner, Friedrich Friesen and Petersdorff were among their most loyal friends. She was a close friend of Friedrich Friesen, and in 1843 she played a decisive role in commemorating the fact that he had been buried at the Berlin Old Garrison Cemetery 29 years after his death. In the fighting, she remained close to the corps, helping and nurturing (especially her often wounded husband).
### Affair
In 1822, she met the young Carl Leberecht Immermann (1796\-1840\). Common literary and artistic inclinations triggered a love affair, which defined their life from the spring of 1822 for more than 17 years.
In 1824, Immermann was moved to [Magdeburg](/wiki/Magdeburg "Magdeburg") to gain some distance. Elisa, however, separated from her husband, who had become a general and moved to [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden "Dresden"). In 1825 her marriage with Lützow ended. She refused to marry Immermann, but followed him first to Magdeburg, then to [Duesseldorf](/wiki/Duesseldorf "Duesseldorf"), and lived in a common household in a country house, the Collenbach estate on the Ratinger Chaussee in the nearby Derendorf (today Pempelfort), where she visited von Lutzow in May 1829 after his new but unfortunate marriage with Auguste Uebel. From 1831 onward \- with the permission of the Danish King \- she reassumed her birth name. From 1827 to 1839, she supported Immermann's literary work after the beginnings of a joint translation of [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott "Walter Scott")'s *[Ivanhoe](/wiki/Ivanhoe "Ivanhoe")* in Münster. It had a great influence on Immermann's poetical activity and gained great influence on his poetical work.
After Immermann's engagement with Marianne Niemeyer (1838\), she left [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf "Düsseldorf") and finally parted with him in August 1839\. At the beginning of 1840 she moved to Berlin. She first lived with her friend Johanna Dieffenbach. She devoted herself to her new and old friends, and stayed with his wife and daughter after Immermann's early death. A long suffering ended her life.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"She enjoyed an excellent education, but had an unhappy childhood. Domestic disputes, mostly caused by the extravagance and excesses of the father, ended the parents' marriage. In 1806 she was [morganatically](/wiki/Morganatic_marriage \"Morganatic marriage\") married to Danish Crown Prince Christian (later [Christian VIII](/wiki/Christian_VIII_of_Denmark \"Christian VIII of Denmark\")) and bore a daughter in 1807\\. This short, happy marriage, which had been concluded against the will of the father, was concealed, and the child kept away from [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\").",
"During a bathing trip to [Bad Nenndorf](/wiki/Bad_Nenndorf \"Bad Nenndorf\") with her mother, she met Prussian officer [Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow](/wiki/Ludwig_Adolf_Wilhelm_von_L%C3%BCtzow \"Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow\"), who was cured there of a wound from Freischar Ferdinand von Schills while fighting against [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\"). On 20 March 1810, she married him without her father's objection. The marriage was at first happy. When Lutzow built his *freikorps* in 1813, Elisa played a decisive part. She was enthusiastic about the advertising and equipment of the volunteers, accepted the reports in [Breslau](/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw \"Wrocław\"), and later devoted herself to the wounded. Theodor Körner, Friedrich Friesen and Petersdorff were among their most loyal friends. She was a close friend of Friedrich Friesen, and in 1843 she played a decisive role in commemorating the fact that he had been buried at the Berlin Old Garrison Cemetery 29 years after his death. In the fighting, she remained close to the corps, helping and nurturing (especially her often wounded husband).",
"### Affair",
"In 1822, she met the young Carl Leberecht Immermann (1796\\-1840\\). Common literary and artistic inclinations triggered a love affair, which defined their life from the spring of 1822 for more than 17 years.",
"In 1824, Immermann was moved to [Magdeburg](/wiki/Magdeburg \"Magdeburg\") to gain some distance. Elisa, however, separated from her husband, who had become a general and moved to [Dresden](/wiki/Dresden \"Dresden\"). In 1825 her marriage with Lützow ended. She refused to marry Immermann, but followed him first to Magdeburg, then to [Duesseldorf](/wiki/Duesseldorf \"Duesseldorf\"), and lived in a common household in a country house, the Collenbach estate on the Ratinger Chaussee in the nearby Derendorf (today Pempelfort), where she visited von Lutzow in May 1829 after his new but unfortunate marriage with Auguste Uebel. From 1831 onward \\- with the permission of the Danish King \\- she reassumed her birth name. From 1827 to 1839, she supported Immermann's literary work after the beginnings of a joint translation of [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott \"Walter Scott\")'s *[Ivanhoe](/wiki/Ivanhoe \"Ivanhoe\")* in Münster. It had a great influence on Immermann's poetical activity and gained great influence on his poetical work.",
"After Immermann's engagement with Marianne Niemeyer (1838\\), she left [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf \"Düsseldorf\") and finally parted with him in August 1839\\. At the beginning of 1840 she moved to Berlin. She first lived with her friend Johanna Dieffenbach. She devoted herself to her new and old friends, and stayed with his wife and daughter after Immermann's early death. A long suffering ended her life.",
""
] |
Fictional character biography
-----------------------------
John King is a former drug addict and alcoholic. At one point he fought and was defeated by the [Rocket Racer](/wiki/Rocket_Racer "Rocket Racer"). King is the cousin of Parker Robbins (who would later become the [Hood](/wiki/Hood_%28comics%29 "Hood (comics)")). King and Robbins were close friends and both worked as criminals in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). The two attempt to raid a warehouse said to be housing a valuable cargo, where the demon Nisanti attacks John King. In retaliation, Robbins shoots and kills it. King then returns home to his apartment, where Robbins visits him and tells him that the costume he stole off the demon he killed has granted him super powers. John King then informs Robbins of a diamond heist which is taking place, and the two attempt to interfere and steal the diamonds. However, Robbins accidentally shoots a police officer and John King tells him to escape saying that he will take the blame. More police then arrive and John King is taken into custody where he is told that he will be put on trial for shooting the police officer unless he testifies that he was only the Hood's accomplice. John King refuses to claim that Robbins was the real culprit. Robbins them frames Madame Rapier for shooting the police officer which allows John King to be set free.*Hood* \#1\-4\. Marvel Comics.
Following the "[Civil War](/wiki/Civil_War_%28comics%29 "Civil War (comics)")" storyline, John King was with Hood when he puts together his crime syndicate to take advantage of the Superhuman Registration Act. He attended [Owl](/wiki/Owl_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Owl (Marvel Comics)")'s auction where he was auctioning off a [Deathlok](/wiki/Deathlok "Deathlok") replica until Hood attacked the auction and cause the apparent death of Owl. Later, John King was with Hood at Hank's Bar to eat and drink until they are attacked by [Wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29 "Wolverine (character)") who overheard their plans with the Deathlok replica.*The New Avengers* \#33\. Marvel Comics. John King and Hood managed to get away from Wolverine.*The New Avengers* \#34 John King was at Hood's meeting at a Chinese restaurant and was seen watching the beating on [Tigra](/wiki/Tigra "Tigra"). John King told Hood and the other villains that they can use the Deathlok replica to rob the Brown Brothers Harriman \& Co. Bank. Everyone agreed to the plan. After the successful bank robbery, John King was with Hood when he and his villain allies were present at watching the [New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28comics%29 "The New Avengers (comics)") fighting the [Symbiotes](/wiki/Symbiote_%28comics%29 "Symbiote (comics)") on TV.*The New Avengers* \#35\. Marvel Comics. The New Avengers raided the hideout and attacked Hood, John King, and the other villains.*The New Avengers* \#36\. Marvel Comics. John King was among those apprehended by the New Avengers.*The New Avengers* \#37\. Marvel Comics.
During the "[Secret Invasion](/wiki/Secret_Invasion "Secret Invasion")" storyline, John King came upstairs when Hood decided to lead his crime syndicate to fight the [Skrulls](/wiki/Skrull "Skrull").*Secret Invasion* \#4\. Marvel Comics.
During the *[Dark Reign](/wiki/Dark_Reign_%28comics%29 "Dark Reign (comics)")* storyline, John King was made into the Hood's lieutenant.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \#1\. Marvel Comics. Noticing John King's alcoholism, Hood discusses the situation of his demonic cloak. Upon pulling Hood out of his burning hideout, John King gives Hood a way to contact [Satana](/wiki/Satana_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Satana (Marvel Comics)").*Dark Reign: The Hood* \#2\. Marvel Comics. John King accompanied some villains to go out drinking. He was then arrested by [Force](/wiki/Force_%28comics%29 "Force (comics)") and the authorities who learned that he worked for the Hood. Hood had [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn "Norman Osborn") bail out John King and the other villains.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \#3\. Marvel Comics. John King carried out another heist for the Hood, this time giving instructions to [Squid](/wiki/Squid_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Squid (Marvel Comics)") and Man\-Fish to raid a cargo ship and to steal the equipment in the hold. John King then followed Hood into fighting Force only for him to witness Hood's villain allies be defeated by White Fang.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \#4\. Marvel Comics. John King later told Hood about [Controller](/wiki/Controller_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Controller (Marvel Comics)")'s manufacturing of the discord amongst Hood's villain allies.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \#5\. Marvel Comics.
John King later told Hood about [Jonas Harrow](/wiki/Jonas_Harrow "Jonas Harrow") taking Hood's army of villains' away.*The New Avengers* \#58\. Marvel Comics.
After the "[Siege of Asgard](/wiki/Siege_%28comics%29 "Siege (comics)")", the New Avengers captured John King and use him to track the Hood and [Madame Masque](/wiki/Madame_Masque "Madame Masque"). After a battle with [Count Nefaria](/wiki/Count_Nefaria "Count Nefaria"), they capture the villains and bring all four of them to Maria Hill to place them under arrest.*New Avengers Finale* one\-shot \#1\. Marvel Comics.
John King is later approached by a revived [Thanos](/wiki/Thanos "Thanos") to join up with his incarnation of the [Zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac_%28comics%29 "Zodiac (comics)") where he led the team as [Cancer](/wiki/Cancer_%28comics%29 "Cancer (comics)").*Avengers Assemble* Vol. 2 \#1\. Marvel Comics. Zodiac's mission was to steal different powerful items and take them out from Earth in order to bring balance to the planet and the cosmos. Captured after a battle with the Avengers, John King reveals Thanos's plan to the heroes.*Avengers Assemble* Vol. 2 \#2\. Marvel Comics.
|
[
"Fictional character biography\n-----------------------------",
"John King is a former drug addict and alcoholic. At one point he fought and was defeated by the [Rocket Racer](/wiki/Rocket_Racer \"Rocket Racer\"). King is the cousin of Parker Robbins (who would later become the [Hood](/wiki/Hood_%28comics%29 \"Hood (comics)\")). King and Robbins were close friends and both worked as criminals in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). The two attempt to raid a warehouse said to be housing a valuable cargo, where the demon Nisanti attacks John King. In retaliation, Robbins shoots and kills it. King then returns home to his apartment, where Robbins visits him and tells him that the costume he stole off the demon he killed has granted him super powers. John King then informs Robbins of a diamond heist which is taking place, and the two attempt to interfere and steal the diamonds. However, Robbins accidentally shoots a police officer and John King tells him to escape saying that he will take the blame. More police then arrive and John King is taken into custody where he is told that he will be put on trial for shooting the police officer unless he testifies that he was only the Hood's accomplice. John King refuses to claim that Robbins was the real culprit. Robbins them frames Madame Rapier for shooting the police officer which allows John King to be set free.*Hood* \\#1\\-4\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Following the \"[Civil War](/wiki/Civil_War_%28comics%29 \"Civil War (comics)\")\" storyline, John King was with Hood when he puts together his crime syndicate to take advantage of the Superhuman Registration Act. He attended [Owl](/wiki/Owl_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Owl (Marvel Comics)\")'s auction where he was auctioning off a [Deathlok](/wiki/Deathlok \"Deathlok\") replica until Hood attacked the auction and cause the apparent death of Owl. Later, John King was with Hood at Hank's Bar to eat and drink until they are attacked by [Wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29 \"Wolverine (character)\") who overheard their plans with the Deathlok replica.*The New Avengers* \\#33\\. Marvel Comics. John King and Hood managed to get away from Wolverine.*The New Avengers* \\#34 John King was at Hood's meeting at a Chinese restaurant and was seen watching the beating on [Tigra](/wiki/Tigra \"Tigra\"). John King told Hood and the other villains that they can use the Deathlok replica to rob the Brown Brothers Harriman \\& Co. Bank. Everyone agreed to the plan. After the successful bank robbery, John King was with Hood when he and his villain allies were present at watching the [New Avengers](/wiki/The_New_Avengers_%28comics%29 \"The New Avengers (comics)\") fighting the [Symbiotes](/wiki/Symbiote_%28comics%29 \"Symbiote (comics)\") on TV.*The New Avengers* \\#35\\. Marvel Comics. The New Avengers raided the hideout and attacked Hood, John King, and the other villains.*The New Avengers* \\#36\\. Marvel Comics. John King was among those apprehended by the New Avengers.*The New Avengers* \\#37\\. Marvel Comics.",
"During the \"[Secret Invasion](/wiki/Secret_Invasion \"Secret Invasion\")\" storyline, John King came upstairs when Hood decided to lead his crime syndicate to fight the [Skrulls](/wiki/Skrull \"Skrull\").*Secret Invasion* \\#4\\. Marvel Comics.",
"During the *[Dark Reign](/wiki/Dark_Reign_%28comics%29 \"Dark Reign (comics)\")* storyline, John King was made into the Hood's lieutenant.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics. Noticing John King's alcoholism, Hood discusses the situation of his demonic cloak. Upon pulling Hood out of his burning hideout, John King gives Hood a way to contact [Satana](/wiki/Satana_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Satana (Marvel Comics)\").*Dark Reign: The Hood* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics. John King accompanied some villains to go out drinking. He was then arrested by [Force](/wiki/Force_%28comics%29 \"Force (comics)\") and the authorities who learned that he worked for the Hood. Hood had [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn \"Norman Osborn\") bail out John King and the other villains.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics. John King carried out another heist for the Hood, this time giving instructions to [Squid](/wiki/Squid_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Squid (Marvel Comics)\") and Man\\-Fish to raid a cargo ship and to steal the equipment in the hold. John King then followed Hood into fighting Force only for him to witness Hood's villain allies be defeated by White Fang.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \\#4\\. Marvel Comics. John King later told Hood about [Controller](/wiki/Controller_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Controller (Marvel Comics)\")'s manufacturing of the discord amongst Hood's villain allies.*Dark Reign: The Hood* \\#5\\. Marvel Comics.",
"John King later told Hood about [Jonas Harrow](/wiki/Jonas_Harrow \"Jonas Harrow\") taking Hood's army of villains' away.*The New Avengers* \\#58\\. Marvel Comics.",
"After the \"[Siege of Asgard](/wiki/Siege_%28comics%29 \"Siege (comics)\")\", the New Avengers captured John King and use him to track the Hood and [Madame Masque](/wiki/Madame_Masque \"Madame Masque\"). After a battle with [Count Nefaria](/wiki/Count_Nefaria \"Count Nefaria\"), they capture the villains and bring all four of them to Maria Hill to place them under arrest.*New Avengers Finale* one\\-shot \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"John King is later approached by a revived [Thanos](/wiki/Thanos \"Thanos\") to join up with his incarnation of the [Zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac_%28comics%29 \"Zodiac (comics)\") where he led the team as [Cancer](/wiki/Cancer_%28comics%29 \"Cancer (comics)\").*Avengers Assemble* Vol. 2 \\#1\\. Marvel Comics. Zodiac's mission was to steal different powerful items and take them out from Earth in order to bring balance to the planet and the cosmos. Captured after a battle with the Avengers, John King reveals Thanos's plan to the heroes.*Avengers Assemble* Vol. 2 \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
""
] |
Economy
-------
{{Main\|Economy of Russia}}
{{Further\|Economic history of the Russian Federation\|Taxation in Russia}}
[thumb\|The [Moscow International Business Centre](/wiki/Moscow_International_Business_Center "Moscow International Business Center") in Moscow. The city has one of the world's [largest urban economies](/wiki/List_of_cities_by_GDP "List of cities by GDP").{{cite journal\|last1\=Churkina\|first1\=Natalie\|last2\=Zaverskiy\|first2\=Sergey\|title\=Challenges of strong concentration in urbanization: the case of Moscow in Russia\|doi\=10\.1016/j.proeng.2017\.07\.095\|volume\=198\|year\=2017\|pages\=398–410\|journal\=Procedia Engineering\|publisher\=\[\[Elsevier]]\|doi\-access\=free}}](/wiki/File:Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg "Business Centre of Moscow 2.jpg")
Russia has a [mixed](/wiki/Mixed_economy "Mixed economy") [market economy](/wiki/Market_economy "Market economy"), following a [turbulent transition](/wiki/Shock_therapy_%28economics%29 "Shock therapy (economics)") from the [Soviet planned model](/wiki/Planned_economy "Planned economy") during the 1990s.—Rosefielde, Steven, and Natalia Vennikova. “Fiscal Federalism in Russia: A Critique of the OECD Proposals". *[Cambridge Journal of Economics](/wiki/Cambridge_Journal_of_Economics "Cambridge Journal of Economics")*, vol. 28, no. 2, [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"), 2004, pp. 307–18, {{JSTOR\|23602130}}.
—Robinson, Neil. “August 1998 and the Development of Russia's Post\-Communist Political Economy". *[Review of International Political Economy](/wiki/Review_of_International_Political_Economy "Review of International Political Economy")*, vol. 16, no. 3, [Taylor \& Francis](/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis "Taylor & Francis"), Ltd., 2009, pp. 433–55, {{JSTOR\|27756169}}.
—Charap, Samuel. “No Obituaries Yet for Capitalism in Russia". *Current History*, vol. 108, no. 720, [University of California Press](/wiki/University_of_California_Press "University of California Press"), 2009, pp. 333–38, {{JSTOR\|45319724}}.
—Rutland, Peter. “Neoliberalism and the Russian Transition". *Review of International Political Economy*, vol. 20, no. 2, [Taylor \& Francis](/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis "Taylor & Francis"), Ltd., 2013, pp. 332–62, {{JSTOR\|42003296}}.
—Kovalev, Alexandre, and Alexandre Sokalev. “Russia: Towards a Market Economy". *New Zealand International Review*, vol. 18, no. 1, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1993, pp. 18–21, {{JSTOR\|45234200}}.
—Czinkota, Michael R. “Russia's Transition to a Market Economy: Learning about Business". *Journal of International Marketing*, vol. 5, no. 4, [American Marketing Association](/wiki/American_Marketing_Association "American Marketing Association"), 1997, pp. 73–93, {{JSTOR\|25048706}}.
```
Much of the country's economic activity is centered on its abundant and varied natural resources, particularly
```
[oil](/wiki/Russian_oil_industry "Russian oil industry") and [natural gas](/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia "Natural gas in Russia").{{cite web\|url\=http://countrystudies.us/russia/59\.htm \|title\=Russia – Natural Resources \|editor\=Glenn E. Curtis \|year\=1998 \|publisher\=Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the \[\[Library of Congress]] \|access\-date\=25 June 2021}} Russia is classified by the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank") as a [high\-income country](/wiki/World_Bank_high-income_economy "World Bank high-income economy"),{{Cite web \|title\=World Bank Country and Lending Groups – World Bank Data Help Desk \|url\=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519\-world\-bank\-country\-and\-lending\-groups \|access\-date\=1 July 2024 \|website\=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org}} with the world's [ninth\-largest economy](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29 "List of countries by GDP (nominal)") by nominal GDP and the [sixth\-largest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29 "List of countries by GDP (PPP)") by [PPP](/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity "Purchasing power parity"); by some measures, its economy ranks fourth or fifth in the world by PPP.{{Cite web \|date\=4 June 2024 \|title\=Russia overtakes Japan to become the fourth largest economy in the world in PPP terms \|url\=https://www.intellinews.com/russia\-overtakes\-japan\-to\-become\-the\-fourth\-largest\-economy\-in\-the\-world\-in\-ppp\-terms\-328108/ \|access\-date\=5 July 2024 \|website\=www.intellinews.com \|language\=en}} [Services](/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy "Tertiary sector of the economy") account for roughly 54% of total GDP, followed by [industry](/wiki/Industrial_sector "Industrial sector") (33%), while the [agricultural sector](/wiki/Agricultural_sector "Agricultural sector") is the smallest, at less than 4% of total GDP.{{Cite web \|title\=Russia \- Distribution of gross domestic product (GDP) across economic sectors 2022 \|url\=https://www.statista.com/statistics/271378/distribution\-of\-gross\-domestic\-product\-gdp\-across\-economic\-sectors\-in\-russia/ \|access\-date\=19 July 2024 \|website\=Statista \|language\=en}} Russia has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's [eight\-largest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_labour_force "List of countries by labour force"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/labor\-force/country\-comparison/ \|title\=Labor force – The World Factbook \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=16 June 2021}} and a low official [unemployment rate](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_unemployment_rate "List of countries by unemployment rate") of 4\.1%.{{cite web\|title\=Russian Federation – Unemployment Rate\|url\=https://www.economy.com/russian\-federation/unemployment\-rate\|access\-date\=4 April 2022\|work\=\[\[Moody's Analytics]]}}
Russia is the world's [thirteenth\-largest exporter](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_exports "List of countries by exports") and the [21st\-largest importer](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_imports "List of countries by imports").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.trademap.org/Country\_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm\=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1\|title\=List of importing markets for the product exported by Russian Federation in 2021\|work\=\[\[International Trade Centre]]\|access\-date\=27 June 2022}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.trademap.org/Country\_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm\=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1\|title\=List of supplying markets for the product imported by Russian Federation in 2021\|work\=\[\[International Trade Centre]]\|access\-date\=27 June 2022}} It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas\-related taxes and export tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January 2022,{{cite web \|title\=Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security – Analysis \|url\=https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently\-asked\-questions\-on\-energy\-security \|access\-date\=18 May 2022 \|website\=IEA \|language\=en\-GB}} and up to 60% of its exports in 2019\.{{cite web \|last\=Davydova \|first\=Angelina \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211115\-climate\-change\-can\-russia\-leave\-fossil\-fuels\-behind \|title\=Will Russia ever leave fossil fuels behind? \|publisher\=BBC \|date\=24 November 2021 \|access\-date\=3 March 2022 \|quote\=Overall in Russia, oil and gas provided 39% of the federal budget revenue and made up 60% of Russian exports in 2019\.}} Russia has one of the [lowest levels of external debt](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_external_debt "List of countries by external debt") among major economies,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/russian\-finances\-strong\-but\-economic\-problems\-persist\-36750 \|title\=Russian finances strong but economic problems persist \|work\=\[\[TRT World]] \|date\=29 May 2020 \|access\-date\=12 February 2022 \|quote\=Now Russia is one of the least indebted countries in the world – thanks to all the oil revenue.}} and had the [fifth\-largest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_foreign-exchange_reserves "List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves") [foreign exchange reserves](/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves "Foreign exchange reserves"), valued at over $601 billion,{{cite web \|title\=International Reserves of the Russian Federation (End of period) \|url\=https://www.cbr.ru/eng/hd\_base/mrrf/mrrf\_7d/ \|access\-date\=15 July 2024 \|url\-access \= limited \|publisher\=\[\[Central Bank of Russia]]}} although half of that is frozen abroad, and a significant amount is believed to have been spent on the Ukrainian war. [Inequality of household income and wealth](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_income_equality "List of countries by income equality") is among the highest among developed countries,{{cite journal \|url\=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2018/620225/EPRS\_ATA(2018\)620225\_EN.pdf \|title\=Socioeconomic inequality in Russia \|journal\=\[\[European Parliamentary Research Service]] \|publisher\=\[\[European Parliament]] \|date\=April 2018 \|last\=Russell \|first\=Martin \|access\-date\=25 January 2022 }} and there are considerable regional disparities in economic development.{{cite journal\|last\=Remington\|first\=Thomas F.\|title\=Why is interregional inequality in Russia and China not falling?\|volume\=48\|number\=1\|date\=March 2015\|publisher\=\[\[University of California Press]]\|journal\=\[\[Soviet and Communist studies\|Communist and Post\-Communist Studies]]\|pages\=1–13 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.postcomstud.2015\.01\.005 \|jstor\=48610321}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Kholodilin\|first1\=Konstantin A.\|last2\=Oshchepkov\|first2\=Aleksey\|last3\=Siliverstovs\|first3\=Boriss\|title\=The Russian Regional Convergence Process: Where Is It Leading?\|year\=2012\|volume\=50\|number\=3\|pages\=5–26\|journal\=Eastern European Economies\|publisher\=\[\[Taylor \& Francis]]\|doi\=10\.2753/EEE0012\-8775500301 \|jstor\=41719700\|s2cid\=153168354 }}
After over a decade of post\-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil prices and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment, Russia's economy was damaged by a wave of [international sanctions imposed](/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War "International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War") in 2014 following the [Russo\-Ukrainian War](/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War "Russo-Ukrainian War") and [annexation of Crimea](/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation").{{cite journal\|last\=Likka\|first\=Korhonen\|title\=Economic Sanctions on Russia and Their Effects\|year\=2019\|issn\=2190\-717X\|publisher\=\[\[Ifo Institute for Economic Research]]\|location\=\[\[Munich]]\|access\-date\=2 October 2022\|url\=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/216248/1/CESifo\-Forum\-2019\-04\-p19\-22\.pdf\|journal\=CESifo Forum}} In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced [revamped sanctions and corporate boycotts](/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine"),{{cite web\|last\=Sonnenfeld\|first\=Jeffrey\|date\=22 March 2022\|title\=Over 300 Companies Have Withdrawn from Russia – But Some Remain\|url\=https://som.yale.edu/story/2022/over\-400\-companies\-have\-withdrawn\-russia\-some\-remain\|publisher\=\[\[Yale School of Management]]\|access\-date\=10 March 2022}} becoming the most sanctioned country in the world,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022\-03\-07/russia\-surges\-past\-iran\-to\-become\-world\-s\-most\-sanctioned\-nation\|title\=Russia Is Now the World's Most\-Sanctioned Nation\|work\=\[\[Bloomberg L.P.]]\|date\=8 March 2022\|access\-date\=2 October 2022\|last\=Wadhams\|first\=Nick\|quote\=Russia has vaulted past Iran and North Korea to become the world's most\-sanctioned nation in the span of just 10 days following President Vladimir Putin's invasion of Ukraine.}} in a move described as an "all\-out economic and financial war" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial system. Due to [the resulting negative impact](/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Economic impact of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine"), the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since April 2022\.{{cite news\|last1\=Whalen\|first1\=Jeanne\|last2\=Dixon\|first2\=Robyn\|last3\=Nakashima\|first3\=Ellen\|last4\=Ilyushina\|first4\=Mary\|title\=Western sanctions are wounding but not yet crushing Russia's economy\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|date\=23 August 2022\|access\-date\=2 October 2022\|quote\=Russia has stopped publishing many economic statistics, making it difficult to judge how hard sanctions are hitting, but some data shows signs of distress.\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/08/23/russian\-sanctions\-economy/\|url\-access\=limited}} Although Russia has maintained relative economic stability and even growth—driven primarily by high military spending, household consumption, and capital investment—economists suggest the sanctions will have a long\-term effect over the Russian economy.{{Cite web \|title\=Steve Rosenberg: Russia's economy is growing, but can it last? \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4nn7pej9jyo \|access\-date\=19 July 2024 \|website\=www.bbc.com \|language\=en\-GB}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/is\-russias\-economy\-really\-hurting/a\-63000166\|last\=Martin\|first\=Nik\|title\=Is Russia's economy really hurting?\|work\=\[\[DW News]]\|publisher\=\[\[Deutsche Welle]]\|date\=6 September 2022\|access\-date\=2 October 2022}}{{Cite web \|last\=Reporter \|first\=Brendan Cole Senior News \|date\=8 July 2024 \|title\=Russian economy faces "creeping Crisis", economists warn \|url\=https://www.newsweek.com/russia\-bank\-inflation\-economy\-crisis\-1922208 \|access\-date\=19 July 2024 \|website\=Newsweek \|language\=en}}
### Transport and energy
{{Main\|Transport in Russia\|Energy in Russia}}
[thumb\|The [Trans\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway "Trans-Siberian Railway") is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok "Vladivostok").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.businessinsider.com/trans\-siberian\-railway\-russia\-what\-its\-like\-photos\-2019\-7 \|title\=I rode the legendary Trans\-Siberian Railway on a 2,000\-mile journey across 4 time zones in Russia. Here's what it was like spending 50 hours on the longest train line in the world. \|work\=\[\[Business Insider]] \|first\=Katie \|last\=Warren \|date\=3 January 2020 \|access\-date\=10 June 2021}}](/wiki/File:VL_85-022_container_train.jpg "VL 85-022 container train.jpg")
[Railway transport in Russia](/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Russia "Rail transport in Russia") is mostly controlled by the state\-run [Russian Railways](/wiki/Russian_Railways "Russian Railways"). The total length of common\-used railway tracks is the world's [third\-longest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rail_transport_network_size "List of countries by rail transport network size"), exceeding {{convert\|87000\|km\|mi\|\-2\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/railways/country\-comparison \|title\=Railways – The World Factbook \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=15 June 2021}} {{As of\|2019}}, Russia has the world's [fifth\-largest road network](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_road_network_size "List of countries by road network size"), with over 1\.5 million km of roads,{{cite web \|url\=http://government.ru/info/22865/ \|title\=О развитии дорожной инфраструктуры\|trans\-title\=On the development of road infrastructure \|work\=\[\[Government of Russia]] \|date\=29 April 2016 \|access\-date\=14 January 2021}} although its road density is among the world's lowest, due in part to its vast land area.{{cite web \|url\=https://worldroadstatistics.org/europe\-central\-asia\-continue\-to\-report\-the\-worlds\-highest\-road\-network\-density\-followed\-by\-east\-asia\-and\-pacific/ \|title\=Europe continues to report the world's highest Road Network Density, followed by East Asia and Pacific. \|work\=International Road Federation \|date\=16 December 2020 \|access\-date\=19 May 2021}} Russia's inland waterways are the world's [longest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_waterways_length "List of countries by waterways length"), totaling {{convert\|102000\|km\|0\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/waterways/country\-comparison \|title\=Waterways – The World Factbook \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=15 June 2021}} Russia has over [900 airports](/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Russia "List of airports in Russia"),{{cite web \|title\=Airports – The World Factbook \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/airports/country\-comparison \|access\-date\=22 July 2024 \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]]}} ranking seventh in the world, of which the [busiest](/wiki/List_of_the_busiest_airports_in_Russia "List of the busiest airports in Russia") is [Sheremetyevo International Airport](/wiki/Sheremetyevo_International_Airport "Sheremetyevo International Airport") in Moscow. Russia's largest port is the [Port of Novorossiysk](/wiki/Port_of_Novorossiysk "Port of Novorossiysk") in [Krasnodar Krai](/wiki/Krasnodar_Krai "Krasnodar Krai") along the Black Sea.{{cite web\|last\=Guzeva\|first\=Alexandra\|date\=20 April 2021\|title\=10 Biggest port cities in Russia\|url\=https://www.rbth.com/travel/333689\-russia\-biggest\-port\-cities\|access\-date\=13 February 2022\|website\=\[\[Russia Beyond]]\|language\=en\-US}}
Russia was widely described [as an energy superpower](/wiki/Russia_as_an_energy_superpower "Russia as an energy superpower").{{cite book \| editor \= Elizabeth Buchanan \|year\=2021 \| title \= Russian Energy Strategy in the Asia\-Pacific: Implications for Australia \| publisher \= Australian National University \| page \= 86 \| isbn \= 978\-1\-76046\-339\-7 \| oclc \= 1246214035 \| url \= {{GBurl\|id\=bdIwEAAAQBAJ\|p\=86}}}} It has the world's largest [proven gas reserves](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_proven_reserves "List of countries by natural gas proven reserves"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/natural\-gas\-proved\-reserves/country\-comparison \|title\=Natural gas – proved reserves \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=15 February 2022 \|archive\-date\=8 April 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174101/https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/natural\-gas\-proved\-reserves/country\-comparison \|url\-status\=dead }} the second\-largest [coal reserves](/wiki/Coal_reserves "Coal reserves"),{{cite web \|year\=2020 \|title\=Statistical Review of World Energy 69th edition \|url\=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business\-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy\-economics/statistical\-review/bp\-stats\-review\-2020\-full\-report.pdf \|access\-date\=8 November 2020 \|website\=bp.com \|publisher\=\[\[BP]] \|page\=45}} the eighth\-largest [oil reserves](/wiki/Oil_reserves "Oil reserves"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/crude\-oil\-proved\-reserves/country\-comparison/ \|title\=Crude oil – proved reserves \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=26 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/crude\-oil\-proved\-reserves/country\-comparison/ \|url\-status\=dead }} and the largest [oil shale reserves](/wiki/Oil_shale_reserves "Oil shale reserves") in Europe.{{Cite book \|year\=2010 \|title\=2010 Survey of Energy Resources \|url\=https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/ser\_2010\_report\_1\.pdf \|access\-date\=8 November 2020 \|publisher\=\[\[World Energy Council]] \|page\=102 \|isbn\=978\-0\-946121\-02\-1}} Russia is also the world's [leading natural gas exporter](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports "List of countries by natural gas exports"),{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.iea.org/articles/energy\-fact\-sheet\-why\-does\-russian\-oil\-and\-gas\-matter\|title\=Energy Fact Sheet: Why does Russian oil and gas matter? – Analysis\|website\=International Energy Agency\|date\=21 March 2022}} the [second\-largest natural gas producer](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_production "List of countries by natural gas production"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/natural\-gas\-production/country\-comparison/ \|title\=Natural gas – production \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=26 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/natural\-gas\-production/country\-comparison/ \|url\-status\=dead }} and the second\-largest oil [producer](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production "List of countries by oil production") and [exporter](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_exports "List of countries by oil exports").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/crude\-oil\-production/country\-comparison/ \|title\=Crude oil – production \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=26 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/crude\-oil\-production/country\-comparison/ \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/crude\-oil\-exports/country\-comparison/ \|title\=Crude oil – exports \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=30 March 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330235135/http://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/crude\-oil\-exports/country\-comparison \|url\-status\=dead }} Russia's oil and gas production led to deep economic relationships with the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"), China, and [former Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") and [Eastern Bloc states](/wiki/Eastern_Bloc "Eastern Bloc").{{cite web \|title\=Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis \|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian\-supplies\-to\-global\-energy\-markets/oil\-market\-and\-russian\-supply\-2 \|access\-date\=18 May 2022 \|website\=IEA \|language\=en\-GB}}{{cite web \|title\=Gas Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis \|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian\-supplies\-to\-global\-energy\-markets/gas\-market\-and\-russian\-supply\-2 \|access\-date\=18 May 2022 \|website\=IEA \|language\=en\-GB}} For example, over the last decade, Russia's share of the total gas demand for the EU (including the United Kingdom) increased from 25% in 2009 to 32% in the weeks before the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine") in February 2022\.
In the mid\-2000s, the share of the oil and gas sector in GDP was around 20%, and in 2013 it was 20–21% of GDP.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2594003\|title\=Нефть со всеми вытекающими\|date\=27 October 2014\|website\=www.kommersant.ru}} The share of oil and gas in Russia's exports (about 50%) and federal budget revenues (about 50%) is large, and the dynamics of Russia's GDP are highly dependent on oil and gas prices,Movchan, Andrey (14 September 2015\). ["Just an Oil Company? The True Extent of Russia's Dependency on Oil and Gas."](https://carnegiemoscow.org/commentary/61272) [Carnegie Endowment for International Peace](/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace") (CarnegieMoscow.org). Retrieved 17 July 2023\. but the share in GDP is much less than 50%. According to the first such comprehensive assessment published by the Russian statistics agency Rosstat in 2021, the maximum total share of the oil and gas sector in Russia's GDP—including extraction, refining, transport, sale of oil and gas, all goods and services used, and all supporting activities—amounts to 19\.2% in 2019 and 15\.2% in 2020; this is comparable to the share of GDP in Norway and Kazakhstan, and much lower than the share of GDP in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.{{Cite web\|url\=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/1b5RpebS/Maximov\-tezisy.pdf\|title\=Определение доли нефтегазового сектора в валовом внутреннем продукте Российской Федерации\|language\=ru\|website\=rosstat.gov.ru}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rbc.ru/economics/13/07/2021/60ec40d39a7947f74aeb2aae\|title\=Росстат впервые рассчитал долю нефти и газа в российском ВВП\|website\=РБК\|date\=13 July 2021 }}{{Cite web\|url\=https://neftegazru.com/news/economics\-markets\-stocks/688594\-oil\-gas\-share\-of\-russia\-s\-gdp\-dropped\-to\-15\-in\-2020/\|title\=Oil \& gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020\|website\=neftegazru.com\|date\=14 July 2021 }}{{Cite web\|url\=https://norvanreports.com/oil\-gas\-share\-of\-russias\-gdp\-dropped\-to\-15\-in\-2020/\|title\=Oil \& gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020 \| NORVANREPORTS.COM \| Business News, Insurance, Taxation, Oil \& Gas, Maritime News, Ghana, Africa, World\|date\=14 July 2021}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://oilprice.com/Latest\-Energy\-News/World\-News/Oil\-Gas\-Share\-Of\-Russias\-GDP\-Dropped\-To\-15\-In\-2020\.html\|title\=Oil \& Gas Share Of Russia's GDP Dropped To 15% In 2020\|website\=OilPrice.com}}
Russia is the world's [fourth\-largest electricity producer](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_electricity_production "List of countries by electricity production").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/electricity\-production/country\-comparison \|title\=Electricity – production \|work\=\[\[The World Factbook]] \|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \|access\-date\=2 July 2021 \|archive\-date\=31 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331093053/https://www.cia.gov/the\-world\-factbook/field/electricity\-production/country\-comparison \|url\-status\=dead }} Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of all [primary energy](/wiki/Primary_energy "Primary energy") and 42% of electricity consumption.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ritchie \|first1\=Hannah \|author1\-link\=Hannah Ritchie \|last2\=Roser \|first2\=Max \|author2\-link\=Max Roser \|last3\=Rosado \|first3\=Pablo \|date\=27 October 2022 \|title\=Energy \|url\=https://ourworldindata.org/energy/country/russia \|journal\=Our World in Data}}{{Cite web \|title\=Russia: power production share by source 2022 \|url\=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1237590/russia\-distribution\-of\-electricity\-production\-by\-source/ \|access\-date\=22 July 2024 \|website\=Statista \|language\=en}} Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's [first nuclear power plant](/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant") in 1954;{{cite magazine \|last\=Long \|first\=Tony \|date\=27 June 2012 \|title\=June 27, 1954: World's First Nuclear Power Plant Opens \|url\=https://www.wired.com/2012/06/june\-27\-1954\-worlds\-first\-nuclear\-power\-plant\-opens/ \|access\-date\=8 June 2021 \|magazine\=\[\[Wired (magazine)\|Wired]]}} it remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in [fast neutron reactors](/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor "Fast-neutron reactor").{{Cite web \|title\=\- World Nuclear Association \|url\=https://world\-nuclear.org/information\-library/country\-profiles/countries\-o\-s/russia\-nuclear\-power\#:\~:text\=Russia's%20first%20nuclear%20power%20plant,today's%20production%20models%20were%20commissioned. \|access\-date\=22 July 2024 \|website\=world\-nuclear.org}} Russia is the world's [fourth\-largest nuclear energy producer](/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country "Nuclear power by country"), which accounts for one\-fourth of total electricity generation.{{cite web \|date\=October 2020 \|title\=Nuclear Power Today \|url\=https://www.world\-nuclear.org/information\-library/current\-and\-future\-generation/nuclear\-power\-in\-the\-world\-today.aspx \|access\-date\=8 November 2020 \|website\=world\-nuclear.org \|publisher\=\[\[World Nuclear Association]]}} Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.
Russia ratified the [Paris Agreement](/wiki/Paris_Agreement "Paris Agreement") in 2019\.{{cite web \|last\=Sauer \|first\=Natalie \|date\=24 September 2019 \|title\=Russia formally joins Paris climate pact \|url\=https://www.euractiv.com/section/climate\-environment/news/russia\-formally\-joins\-paris\-climate\-pact/ \|access\-date\=19 December 2021 \|work\=\[\[Euractiv]]}} The country's [greenhouse gas emissions](/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_Russia "Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia") are the world's [fourth\-largest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions "List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions").{{cite web \|last\=Hill \|first\=Ian \|date\=1 November 2021 \|title\=Is Russia finally getting serious on climate change? \|url\=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the\-interpreter/russia\-finally\-getting\-serious\-climate\-change \|access\-date\=19 December 2021 \|publisher\=\[\[Lowy Institute]]}} Coal still accounts for nearly one\-fifth of electricity generation (17\.64%). Russia is the [fifth\-largest hydroelectric producer](/wiki/Hydroelectricity%23World_hydroelectric_capacity "Hydroelectricity#World hydroelectric capacity") as of 2022,{{cite book \|last1\=Whiteman \|first1\=Adrian \|last2\=Akande \|first2\=Dennis \|last3\=Elhassan \|first3\=Nazik \|last4\=Escamilla \|first4\=Gerardo \|last5\=Lebedys \|first5\=Arvydas \|last6\=Arkhipova \|first6\=Lana \|url\=https://www.irena.org/\-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA\_RE\_Capacity\_Statistics\_2021\.pdf \|title\=Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2021 \|access\-date\=3 January 2022 \|location\=\[\[Abu Dhabi]] \|publisher\=\[\[International Renewable Energy Agency]] \|date\=2021 \|isbn\=978\-92\-9260\-342\-7}} with hydro power also contributing to almost a fifth of total electricity generation (17\.54%). The use and development of other [renewable energy](/wiki/Renewable_energy "Renewable energy") resources remains negligible, as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for expanding these energy resources.
### Agriculture and fishery
{{Main\|Agriculture in Russia\|Fishing industry in Russia}}
[thumb\|left\|Wheat in [Tomsk Oblast](/wiki/Tomsk_Oblast "Tomsk Oblast"), Siberia](/wiki/File:Wheat_Tomsk.jpg "Wheat Tomsk.jpg")
Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one\-eighth of the total labour force.{{cite encyclopedia \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy \|title\=Russia – Economy \|encyclopedia\=\[\[Encyclopædia Britannica]] \|access\-date\=1 July 2021}} It has the world's [third\-largest cultivated area](/wiki/Land_use_statistics_by_country "Land use statistics by country"), at {{convert\|1265267\|km2}}. However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13\.1% of its land is [agricultural](/wiki/Agricultural_land "Agricultural land"), with an additional 7\.4% being [arable](/wiki/Arable_land "Arable land").{{cite web \|url\=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS?locations\=RU \|title\=Arable land (% of land area) – Russian Federation \|publisher\=\[\[World Bank]] \|access\-date\=15 June 2021}} The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "[breadbasket](/wiki/Breadbasket "Breadbasket")" of Europe.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/system\-shock\-russias\-war\-and\-global\-food\-energy\-and\-mineral\-supply\-chains\|title\=System Shock: Russia's War and Global Food, Energy, and Mineral Supply Chains\|work\=\[\[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|date\=13 April 2022\|access\-date\=24 June 2022\|quote\=Together, Russia and Ukraine—sometimes referred to as the breadbasket of Europe—account for 29% of global wheat exports, 80% of the world’s sunflower oil, and 40% of its barley.}} More than one\-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used [industrial crops](/wiki/Nonfood_crop "Nonfood crop"), vegetables, and fruits. The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland. Russia is the world's [largest exporter of wheat](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_wheat_exports "List of countries by wheat exports"),{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\-09\-22/russia\-s\-dominance\-of\-the\-wheat\-world\-keeps\-growing \|title\=Russia's Dominance of the Wheat World Keeps Growing \|publisher\=\[\[Bloomberg L.P.]] \|first1\=Anatoly \|last1\=Medetsky \|first2\=Megan \|last2\=Durisin \|date\=23 September 2020 \|access\-date\=15 June 2021}}{{cite web\|url\=https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral\-product/wheat/reporter/rus?redirect\=true\|title\=Wheat in Russia \| OEC\|website\=OEC – The Observatory of Economic Complexity}} the [largest producer of barley](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_barley_production "List of countries by barley production") and [buckwheat](/wiki/List_of_largest_producing_countries_of_agricultural_commodities "List of largest producing countries of agricultural commodities"), among the largest exporters of [maize](/wiki/Maize "Maize") and [sunflower oil](/wiki/Sunflower_oil "Sunflower oil"), and the leading producer of [fertilizer](/wiki/Fertilizer "Fertilizer").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf\|title\=The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict\|date\=25 March 2022\|publisher\=\[\[Food and Agriculture Organization]]\|location\=\[\[Rome]]\|access\-date\=8 July 2022}}
Various analysts of [climate change adaptation](/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation "Climate change adaptation") foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia\-climate\-migration\-crisis.html \|title\=How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|first\=Abrahm \|last\=Lustgarten \|date\=16 December 2020 \|access\-date\=15 June 2021\|url\-access\=limited\|quote\=Across Eastern Russia, wild forests, swamps and grasslands are slowly being transformed into orderly grids of soybeans, corn and wheat. It’s a process that is likely to accelerate: Russia hopes to seize on the warming temperatures and longer growing seasons brought by climate change to refashion itself as one of the planet’s largest producers of food}} Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia [maintains](/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Russia "Fishing industry in Russia") the world's [sixth\-largest fishing industry](/wiki/Fishing_industry_by_country "Fishing industry by country"); capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018\.{{cite book \|url\=http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en.pdf \|title\=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture \|publisher\=\[\[Food and Agriculture Organization]] \|date\=2018 \|access\-date\=4 February 2021 \|location\=\[\[Rome]] \|isbn\=978\-92\-5\-130562\-1}} It is home to the world's finest caviar, the [beluga](/wiki/Beluga_%28sturgeon%29 "Beluga (sturgeon)"); and produces about one\-third of all canned fish, and some one\-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.
### Science and technology
{{Main\|Science and technology in Russia}}
{{See also\|Timeline of Russian innovation\|List of Russian scientists\|List of Russian inventors}}
[thumb\|upright\|[Mikhail Lomonosov](/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov "Mikhail Lomonosov") (1711–1765\), [polymath](/wiki/Polymath "Polymath") scientist, inventor, poet and artist](/wiki/File:M.V._Lomonosov_by_L.Miropolskiy_after_G.C.Prenner_%281787%2C_RAN%29.jpg "M.V. Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg")
Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on [research and development](/wiki/Research_and_development "Research and development") in 2019, with the world's [tenth\-highest budget](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_research_and_development_spending "List of countries by research and development spending").{{cite journal \|url\=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross\-domestic\-spending\-on\-r\-d.htm \|title\=Gross domestic spending on R\&D \|website\=\[\[OECD]] Data \|date\=2017 \|doi\=10\.1787/d8b068b4\-en \|access\-date\=4 April 2022 \|archive\-date\=14 January 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114013730/https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross\-domestic\-spending\-on\-r\-d.htm \|url\-status\=dead }} It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1\.3 million papers.{{cite web \|year\=2020 \|title\=SJR – International Science Ranking \|url\=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year\=2020 \|access\-date\=3 February 2022 \|publisher\=\[\[SCImago Journal Rank]]}} Since 1904, [Nobel Prize](/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_by_country "List of Nobel laureates by country") were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in [physics](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics "Nobel Prize in Physics"), [chemistry](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry "Nobel Prize in Chemistry"), [medicine](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_medicine "Nobel Prize in medicine"), [economy](/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences"), [literature](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature "Nobel Prize in Literature") and [peace](/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize "Nobel Peace Prize").{{cite news \|date\=10 December 2019\|script\-title\=ru:Кто из российских и советских ученых и литераторов становился лауреатом Нобелевской премии\|trans\-title\=Which of the Russian and Soviet scientists and writers became the Nobel Prize laureate \|url\=https://tass.ru/info/7308739 \|access\-date\=8 November 2020\|script\-website\=ru:ТАСС \|agency\=\[\[TASS]] \|language\=ru\|newspaper\=Tacc }} Russia ranked 60th in the [Global Innovation Index](/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index "Global Innovation Index") in 2024, down from 45th in 2021\.{{cite book\|url\=https://www.wipo.int/web\-publications/global\-innovation\-index\-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024\_WEB2\.pdf\|title\=Global Innovation Index 2024\. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship\|access\-date\=2024\-10\-01\|author\=\[\[World Intellectual Property Organization]]\|year\=2024\|isbn\=978\-92\-805\-3681\-2\|doi\= 10\.34667/tind.50062\|website\=www.wipo.int\|location\=Geneva\|page\=18}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo\_pub\_gii\_2021/ru.pdf \|title\=RUSSIAN FEDERATION \|work\=\[\[World Intellectual Property Organization]] \|publisher\=United Nations \|access\-date\=17 November 2021}}
Since the times of [Nikolay Lobachevsky](/wiki/Nikolay_Lobachevsky "Nikolay Lobachevsky"), who pioneered the [non\-Euclidean geometry](/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry "Non-Euclidean geometry"), and [Pafnuty Chebyshev](/wiki/Pafnuty_Chebyshev "Pafnuty Chebyshev"), a prominent tutor; Russian [mathematicians](/wiki/List_of_Russian_mathematicians "List of Russian mathematicians") became among the world's most influential.{{cite journal \|last\=Vucinich \|first\=Alexander \|title\=Mathematics in Russian Culture \|jstor\=2708192 \|doi\=10\.2307/2708192 \|publisher\=\[\[University of Pennsylvania Press]] \|volume\=21 \|number\=2 \|year\=1960 \|journal\=\[\[Journal of the History of Ideas]] \|pages\=161–179}} [Dmitry Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitry_Mendeleev "Dmitry Mendeleev") invented the [Periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table "Periodic table"), the main framework of modern [chemistry](/wiki/Chemistry "Chemistry").{{cite journal \|last\=Leicester \|first\=Henry M. \|title\=Factors Which Led Mendeleev to the Periodic Law \|jstor\=27757115 \|doi\=10\.2307/27757115 \|year\=1948 \|pages\=67–74 \|publisher\=\[\[University of California Press]] \|journal\=\[\[Chymia]]\|volume\=1 }} Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the [Fields Medal](/wiki/Fields_Medal_winners "Fields Medal winners"). [Grigori Perelman](/wiki/Grigori_Perelman "Grigori Perelman") was offered the first ever Clay [Millennium Prize Problems](/wiki/Millennium_Prize_Problems "Millennium Prize Problems") Award for his final proof of the [Poincaré conjecture](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_conjecture "Poincaré conjecture") in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006\.{{cite journal \|last\=Morgan \|first\=Frank \|title\=Manifolds with Density and Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture \|jstor\=27642690 \|volume\=116 \|number\=2 \|pages\=134–142 \|date\=February 2009 \|journal\=\[\[The American Mathematical Monthly]] \|publisher\=\[\[Taylor \& Francis]]\|doi\=10\.1080/00029890\.2009\.11920920 \|s2cid\=6068179 }}
[Alexander Popov](/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov "Alexander Stepanovich Popov") was among the [inventors of radio](/wiki/Invention_of_radio "Invention of radio"),{{cite web \|last\=Marsh \|first\=Allison \|url\=https://spectrum.ieee.org/who\-invented\-radio\-guglielmo\-marconi\-or\-aleksandr\-popov \|title\=Who Invented Radio: Guglielmo Marconi or Aleksandr Popov? \|work\=\[\[IEEE Spectrum]] \|publisher\=\[\[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] \|date\=30 April 2020 \|access\-date\=12 July 2021}} while [Nikolai Basov](/wiki/Nikolai_Basov "Nikolai Basov") and [Alexander Prokhorov](/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov "Alexander Prokhorov") were co\-inventors of [laser](/wiki/Laser "Laser") and [maser](/wiki/Maser "Maser").{{cite journal \|last1\=Shampo \|first1\=Marc A. \|last2\=Kyle \|first2\=Robert A. \|last3\=Steensma \|first3\=David P. \|title\=Nikolay Basov – Nobel Prize for Lasers and Masers \|journal\=Mayo Clinic Proceedings \|date\=January 2012 \|volume\=87 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=e3 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.mayocp.2011\.11\.003 \|pmid\=22212977 \|pmc\=3498096}} [Oleg Losev](/wiki/Oleg_Losev "Oleg Losev") made crucial contributions in the field of [semiconductor junctions](/wiki/Semiconductor_junction "Semiconductor junction"), and discovered [light\-emitting diodes](/wiki/Light-emitting_diode "Light-emitting diode").{{cite journal \|last\=Zheludev \|first\=Nikolay \|title\=The life and times of the LED – a 100\-year history \|date\=April 2007 \|volume\=1 \|pages\=189–192 \|doi\=10\.1038/nphoton.2007\.34 \|journal\=\[\[Nature Photonics]]\|issue\=4 \|bibcode\=2007NaPho...1\..189Z }} [Vladimir Vernadsky](/wiki/Vladimir_Vernadsky "Vladimir Vernadsky") is considered one of the founders of [geochemistry](/wiki/Geochemistry "Geochemistry"), [biogeochemistry](/wiki/Biogeochemistry "Biogeochemistry"), and [radiogeology](/wiki/Radiometric_dating "Radiometric dating").{{cite journal \|last\=Ghilarov \|first\=Alexej M. \|title\=Vernadsky's Biosphere Concept: An Historical Perspective \|jstor\=3036242 \|publisher\=The \[\[University of Chicago Press]] \|volume\=70 \|number\=2 \|journal\=\[\[The Quarterly Review of Biology]] \|date\=June 1995 \|pages\=193–203\|doi\=10\.1086/418982 \|s2cid\=85258634 }} [Élie Metchnikoff](/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff "Élie Metchnikoff") is known for his groundbreaking research in [immunology](/wiki/Immunology "Immunology").{{cite journal \|last\=Gordon \|first\=Siamon \|title\=Elie Metchnikoff, the Man and the Myth \|journal\=Journal of Innate Immunity \|pmid\=26836137 \|date\=3 February 2016 \|volume\=8 \|number\=3 \|pages\=223–227 \|doi\=10\.1159/000443331 \|pmc\=6738810 \|doi\-access\=free}} [Ivan Pavlov](/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov "Ivan Pavlov") is known chiefly for his work in [classical conditioning](/wiki/Classical_conditioning "Classical conditioning").{{cite journal \|last\=Anrep \|first\=G. V. \|title\=Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. 1849–1936 \|jstor\=769124 \|publisher\=\[\[Royal Society]] \|volume\=2 \|number\=5 \|date\=December 1936 \|pages\=1–18 \|journal\=\[\[Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society]]\|doi\=10\.1098/rsbm.1936\.0001 }} [Lev Landau](/wiki/Lev_Landau "Lev Landau") made fundamental contributions to many areas of [theoretical physics](/wiki/Theoretical_physics "Theoretical physics").{{cite journal \|last\=Gorelik \|first\=Gennady \|title\=The Top\-Secret Life of Lev Landau \|jstor\=24995874 \|journal\=\[\[Scientific American]] \|volume\=277 \|number\=2 \|pages\=72–77 \|date\=August 1997 \|publisher\=Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.\|doi\=10\.1038/scientificamerican0897\-72 \|bibcode\=1997SciAm.277b..72G }}
[Nikolai Vavilov](/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov "Nikolai Vavilov") was best known for having identified the [centres](/wiki/Vavilov_center "Vavilov center") of origin of [cultivated](/wiki/Horticulture "Horticulture") plants.{{cite journal \|last\=Janick \|first\=Jules \|title\=Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov: Plant Geographer, Geneticist, Martyr of Science \|doi\-access\=free \|doi\=10\.21273/HORTSCI.50\.6\.772 \|date\=1 June 2015 \|url\=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pdfs/772\.full.pdf \|volume\=50 \|number\=6 \|journal\=HortScience\|pages\=772–776 }} [Trofim Lysenko](/wiki/Trofim_Lysenko "Trofim Lysenko") was known mainly for [Lysenkoism](/wiki/Lysenkoism "Lysenkoism").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Wang \|first1\=Zhengrong \|last2\=Liu \|first2\=Yongsheng \|year\=2017 \|title\=Lysenko and Russian genetics: an alternative view \|journal\=\[\[European Journal of Human Genetics]] \|volume\=25 \|number\=10 \|pages\=1097–1098 \|doi\=10\.1038/ejhg.2017\.117 \|issn\=1476\-5438 \|pmc\=5602018 \|pmid\=28905876}} Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were [émigrés](/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9s "Émigrés"). [Igor Sikorsky](/wiki/Igor_Sikorsky "Igor Sikorsky") was an [aviation pioneer](/wiki/List_of_aviation_pioneers "List of aviation pioneers").{{cite journal \|last\=Hunsaker \|first\=Jerome C. \|title\=A Half Century of Aeronautical Development \|jstor\=3143642 \|publisher\=\[\[American Philosophical Society]] \|volume\=98 \|number\=2 \|pages\=121–130 \|date\=15 April 1954 \|journal\=\[\[Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]]}} [Vladimir Zworykin](/wiki/Vladimir_Zworykin "Vladimir Zworykin") was the inventor of the [iconoscope](/wiki/Iconoscope "Iconoscope") and [kinescope](/wiki/Kinescope "Kinescope") television systems.{{cite web \|url\=https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/vladimir\-zworykin \|title\=Vladimir Zworykin \|work\=\[\[Lemelson–MIT Prize]] \|access\-date\=12 July 2021}} [Theodosius Dobzhansky](/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky "Theodosius Dobzhansky") was the central figure in the field of [evolutionary biology](/wiki/Evolutionary_biology "Evolutionary biology") for his work in shaping the [modern synthesis](/wiki/Modern_synthesis_%2820th_century%29 "Modern synthesis (20th century)").{{cite journal \|last\=Ford \|first\=Edmund Brisco \|author\-link\= E. B. Ford \|doi\=10\.1098/rsbm.1977\.0004 \|title\=Theodosius Grigorievich Dobzhansky, 25 January 1900 – 18 December 1975 \|date\=November 1977 \|journal\=\[\[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] \|volume\= 23 \|pages\=58–89 \|pmid\= 11615738 \|doi\-access\=free \|issn\=1748\-8494}} [George Gamow](/wiki/George_Gamow "George Gamow") was one of the foremost advocates of the [Big Bang](/wiki/Big_Bang "Big Bang") theory.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.colorado.edu/physics/events/outreach/george\-gamow\-memorial\-lecture\-series/distinguished\-life\-and\-career\-george\-gamow \|title\= The Distinguished Life and Career of George Gamow \|date\= 11 May 2016 \|publisher\=\[\[University of Colorado Boulder]] \|access\-date\=21 January 2022}}
#### Space exploration
[thumb\|[Mir](/wiki/Mir "Mir"), Russian [space station](/wiki/Space_station "Space station") that operated in [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit "Low Earth orbit")](/wiki/File:Mir_on_12_June_1998edit1.jpg "Mir on 12 June 1998edit1.jpg")
[Roscosmos](/wiki/Roscosmos "Roscosmos") is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of [space technology](/wiki/Space_technology "Space technology") and [space exploration](/wiki/Space_exploration "Space exploration") can be traced back to [Konstantin Tsiolkovsky](/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky"), the father of theoretical [astronautics](/wiki/Astronautics "Astronautics"), whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as [Sergey Korolyov](/wiki/Sergey_Korolyov "Sergey Korolyov"), [Valentin Glushko](/wiki/Valentin_Glushko "Valentin Glushko"), and many others who contributed to the success of the [Soviet space program](/wiki/Soviet_space_program "Soviet space program") in the early stages of the [Space Race](/wiki/Space_Race "Space Race") and beyond.{{cite book \|last\=Siddiqi \|first\=Asif A. \|title\=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 \|date\=2000 \|publisher\=\[\[United States Government Publishing Office]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-160\-61305\-0}}{{rp\|6–7,333}}
In 1957, the first Earth\-orbiting artificial [satellite](/wiki/Satellite "Satellite"), *[Sputnik 1](/wiki/Sputnik%C2%A01 "Sputnik 1")*, was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin "Yuri Gagarin"). Many other Soviet and Russian [space exploration records](/wiki/Space_exploration_records "Space exploration records") ensued. In 1963, [Valentina Tereshkova](/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova "Valentina Tereshkova") became the first and youngest [woman in space](/wiki/Women_in_space "Women in space"), having flown a solo mission on [Vostok 6](/wiki/Vostok_6 "Vostok 6").{{cite web \|url\=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id\=1963\-023A \|title\=Vostok 6 \|work\=\[\[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive\|NSSDCA]] \|publisher\=\[\[NASA]] \|access\-date\=26 January 2022}} In 1965, [Alexei Leonov](/wiki/Alexei_Leonov "Alexei Leonov") became the first human to conduct a [spacewalk](/wiki/Spacewalk "Spacewalk"), exiting the [space capsule](/wiki/Space_capsule "Space capsule") during [Voskhod 2](/wiki/Voskhod_2 "Voskhod 2").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec\_9035/index.html \|title\=The First Spacewalk \|publisher\=BBC \|first\=Paul \|last\=Rincon \|date\=13 October 2014 \|access\-date\=31 May 2021}}
In 1957, [Laika](/wiki/Laika "Laika"), a [Soviet space dog](/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs "Soviet space dogs"), became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard [Sputnik 2](/wiki/Sputnik_2 "Sputnik 2").{{cite magazine \|last\=Wellerstein \|first\=Alex \|url\=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals\-of\-technology/remembering\-laika\-space\-dog\-and\-soviet\-hero \|title\=Remembering Laika, Space Dog and Soviet Hero \|magazine\=\[\[The New Yorker]] \|date\=3 November 2017 \|access\-date\=18 January 2022}} In 1966, [Luna 9](/wiki/Luna%C2%A09 "Luna 9") became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a [celestial body](/wiki/Astronomical_object "Astronomical object"), the [Moon](/wiki/Moon "Moon").{{cite web \|url\=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id\=1966\-006A \|title\=Luna 9 \|work\=\[\[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive\|NSSDCA]] \|publisher\=\[\[NASA]] \|access\-date\=1 June 2021 }} In 1968, [Zond 5](/wiki/Zond_5 "Zond 5") brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.{{cite web \|last\=Betz \|first\=Eric \|url\=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the\-sciences/the\-first\-earthlings\-around\-the\-moon\-were\-two\-soviet\-tortoises \|title\=The First Earthlings Around the Moon Were Two Soviet Tortoises \|work\=\[\[Discover (magazine)\|Discover]] \|date\=19 September 2018 \|access\-date\=18 January 2022 }} In 1970, [Venera 7](/wiki/Venera%C2%A07 "Venera 7") became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, [Venus](/wiki/Venus "Venus").{{cite journal \|last1\=Avduevsky \|first1\=V. S. \|last2\=Ya Marov \|first2\=M. \|last3\=Rozhdestvensky \|first3\=M. K. \|last4\=Borodin \|first4\=N. F. \|last5\=Kerzhanovich \|first5\=V. V. \|date\=1 March 1971 \|title\=Soft Landing of Venera 7 on the Venus Surface and Preliminary Results of Investigations of the Venus Atmosphere \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0469(1971\)028\<0263:SLOVOT\>2\.0\.CO;2 \|doi\-access\=free \|pages\=263–269 \|publisher\=\[\[Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union]] \|location\=Moscow\|journal\=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences\|volume\=28 \|issue\=2 \|bibcode\=1971JAtS...28\..263A }} In 1971, [Mars 3](/wiki/Mars%C2%A03 "Mars 3") became the first spacecraft to land on [Mars](/wiki/Mars "Mars").{{cite book \|last\=Perminov \|first\=V.G. \|title\=The Difficult Road to Mars – A Brief History of Mars Exploration in the Soviet Union \|date\=July 1999 \|publisher\=\[\[NASA]] History Division \|isbn\=0\-16\-058859\-6 \|url\=https://history.nasa.gov/monograph15\.pdf \|access\-date\=18 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=14 July 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714111920/https://history.nasa.gov/monograph15\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}{{rp\|34–60}} During the same period, *[Lunokhod 1](/wiki/Lunokhod-1 "Lunokhod-1")* became the first [space exploration rover](/wiki/Space_exploration_rover "Space exploration rover"),{{cite web \|url\=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod\-01/in\-depth/ \|title\=Lunokhod 01 \|work\=\[\[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive\|NSSDCA]] \|publisher\=\[\[NASA]] \|access\-date\=1 June 2021 \|archive\-date\=31 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331072547/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod\-01/in\-depth/ \|url\-status\=dead }} while *[Salyut 1](/wiki/Salyut%C2%A01 "Salyut 1")* became the world's first [space station](/wiki/Space_station "Space station").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50\-years\-ago\-launch\-of\-salyut\-the\-world\-s\-first\-space\-station \|title\=50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station \|work\=\[\[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive\|NSSDCA]] \|publisher\=\[\[NASA]] \|date\=19 April 2021 \|access\-date\=1 June 2021}}
Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third\-highest.{{cite web \|title\=Satellite Database \|url\=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite\-database \|access\-date\=18 August 2022 \|website\=\[\[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}} Between the final flight of the [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle "Space Shuttle") program in 2011 and the 2020 [SpaceX](/wiki/SpaceX "SpaceX")'s [first crewed mission](/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2 "Crew Dragon Demo-2"), [Soyuz rockets](/wiki/Soyuz_%28rocket_family%29 "Soyuz (rocket family)") were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the [ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station "International Space Station").{{cite news \|title\=SpaceX successfully launches first crew to orbit, ushering in new era of spaceflight \|url\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/30/21269703/spacex\-launch\-crew\-dragon\-nasa\-orbit\-successful \|work\=The Verge \|date\=30 May 2020}} [Luna 25](/wiki/Luna%C2%A025 "Luna 25") launched in August 2023, was the first of the [Luna\-Glob](/wiki/Luna-Glob "Luna-Glob") Moon exploration programme.{{cite news \|title\=Russia launches Luna\-25 moon lander, its 1st lunar probe in 47 years \|url\=https://www.space.com/russia\-luna\-25\-moon\-mission\-launch\-success \|work\=Space.com \|date\=10 August 2023 \|language\=en}}
### Tourism
{{Main\|Tourism in Russia}}
[thumb\|[Peterhof Palace](/wiki/Peterhof_Palace "Peterhof Palace") in Saint Petersburg, a [UNESCO World Heritage Site](/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site "UNESCO World Heritage Site")](/wiki/File:Grand_Cascade_in_Peterhof_01.jpg "Grand Cascade in Peterhof 01.jpg")
According to the [World Tourism Organization](/wiki/World_Tourism_Organization "World Tourism Organization"), Russia was the sixteenth\-most visited country in the world, and the tenth\-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24\.6 million visits.{{Cite journal \|url\=https://www.e\-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10\.18111/wtobarometereng.2020\.18\.1\.6 \|title\=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer \|journal\=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer English Version \|publisher\=\[\[World Tourism Organization]] (UNWTO) \|year\=2020 \|volume\=18 \|page\=18 \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.18111/wtobarometereng \|issn\=1728\-9246 \|issue\=6}} According to [Federal Agency for Tourism](/wiki/Federal_Agency_for_Tourism_%28Russia%29 "Federal Agency for Tourism (Russia)"), the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24\.4 million in 2019\.{{cite web \|script\-title\=ru:Выборочная статистическая информация, рассчитанная в соответствии с Официальной статистической методологией оценки числа въездных и выездных туристских поездок – Ростуризм \|trans\-title\=Selected statistical information calculated in accordance with the Official Statistical Methodology for Estimating the Number of Inbound and Outbound Tourist Trips – Rostourism \|url\=https://tourism.gov.ru/contents/statistika/statisticheskie\-pokazateli\-vzaimnykh\-poezdok\-grazhdan\-rossiyskoy\-federatsii\-i\-grazhdan\-inostrannykh\-gosudarstv/vyborochnaya\-statisticheskaya\-informatsiya\-rasschitannaya\-v\-sootvetstvii\-s\-ofitsialnoy\-statisticheskoy\-metodologiey\-otsenki\-chisla\-vezdnykh\-i\-vyezdnykh\-turistskikh\-poezdok/ \|access\-date\=11 November 2020 \|website\=tourism.gov.ru \|publisher\=\[\[Federal Agency for Tourism (Russia)]] \|language\=ru \|archive\-date\=22 January 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122202242/https://tourism.gov.ru/contents/statistika/statisticheskie\-pokazateli\-vzaimnykh\-poezdok\-grazhdan\-rossiyskoy\-federatsii\-i\-grazhdan\-inostrannykh\-gosudarstv/vyborochnaya\-statisticheskaya\-informatsiya\-rasschitannaya\-v\-sootvetstvii\-s\-ofitsialnoy\-statisticheskoy\-metodologiey\-otsenki\-chisla\-vezdnykh\-i\-vyezdnykh\-turistskikh\-poezdok/ \|url\-status\=dead }} Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 totaled $11\.6 billion. In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4\.8% of country's total GDP.{{cite web\|url\=https://knoema.com/atlas/Russian\-Federation/topics/Tourism/Travel\-and\-Tourism\-Total\-Contribution\-to\-GDP/Contribution\-of\-travel\-and\-tourism\-to\-GDP\-percent\-of\-GDP\|title\=Russian Federation Contribution of travel and tourism to GDP (% of GDP), 1995–2019 \|website\=Knoema}} In the wake of the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), tourism declined precipitously in 2020, to just over 6\.3 million foreign visitors.{{Cite web \|title\=World Bank Open Data \|url\=https://data.worldbank.org/ \|access\-date\=19 July 2024 \|website\=World Bank Open Data}}
Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the [Golden Ring of Russia](/wiki/Golden_Ring_of_Russia "Golden Ring of Russia"), a [theme route](/wiki/Theme_route "Theme route") of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the [Caucasus Mountains](/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains "Caucasus Mountains"),{{cite news \|last\=Tomb \|first\=Howard \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/27/travel/getting\-to\-the\-top\-in\-the\-caucasus.html \|title\=Getting to the Top In the Caucasus \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=27 August 1989 \|access\-date\=4 December 2021\|url\-access\=limited}} and journeys on the famous [Trans\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway "Trans-Siberian Railway").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.e\-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112082549/http://www.e\-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=12 January 2015 \|title\=Tourism Highlights 2014 \|publisher\=UNWTO (World Tourism Organization) \|year\=2014 \|access\-date\=20 January 2015}} Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include [Red Square](/wiki/Red_Square "Red Square"), the [Peterhof Palace](/wiki/Peterhof_Palace "Peterhof Palace"), the [Kazan Kremlin](/wiki/Kazan_Kremlin "Kazan Kremlin"), the [Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius](/wiki/Trinity_Lavra_of_St._Sergius "Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius") and Lake Baikal.{{cite web \|last\=Vlasov \|first\=Artem \|date\=17 December 2018\|script\-title\=ru:Названы самые популярные достопримечательности России\|trans\-title\=The most popular sights of Russia are named \|url\=https://iz.ru/824446/2018\-12\-17/nazvany\-samye\-populiarnye\-dostoprimechatelnosti\-rossii \|access\-date\=15 December 2020 \|website\=\[\[Izvestia]] \|language\=ru}}
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern [megacity](/wiki/Megacity "Megacity"); it retains classical and Soviet\-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and [modern skyscrapers](/wiki/Moscow_International_Business_Center "Moscow International Business Center").{{cite web \|last\=Sullivan \|first\=Paul \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow\-travel\-guide/ \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow\-travel\-guide/ \|archive\-date\=10 January 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \|title\=48 hours in... Moscow, an insider guide to Russia's mighty metropolis \|work\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \|date\=7 March 2021 \|access\-date\=4 December 2021}}{{cbignore}} [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"), the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, [white nights](/wiki/White_Nights_Festival "White Nights Festival"), crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.{{cite news \|last\=Hammer \|first\=Joshua \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=3 June 2011 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/05/travel/russias\-white\-nights\-in\-st\-petersburg.html \|title\=White Nights of St. Petersburg, Russia \|access\-date\=4 December 2021\|url\-access\=limited}} Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the [State Russian](/wiki/Russian_Museum "Russian Museum"), the [State Hermitage](/wiki/Hermitage_Museum "Hermitage Museum"), and the [Tretyakov Gallery](/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery "Tretyakov Gallery"); and for theatres such as the [Bolshoi](/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre "Bolshoi Theatre") and the [Mariinsky](/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre "Mariinsky Theatre"). The [Moscow Kremlin](/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin "Moscow Kremlin") and the [Saint Basil's Cathedral](/wiki/Saint_Basil%27s_Cathedral "Saint Basil's Cathedral") are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.{{cite web\|title\=Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow\|url\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/\|access\-date\=20 February 2022\|website\=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}
|
[
"Economy\n-------",
"{{Main\\|Economy of Russia}}\n{{Further\\|Economic history of the Russian Federation\\|Taxation in Russia}}\n[thumb\\|The [Moscow International Business Centre](/wiki/Moscow_International_Business_Center \"Moscow International Business Center\") in Moscow. The city has one of the world's [largest urban economies](/wiki/List_of_cities_by_GDP \"List of cities by GDP\").{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Churkina\\|first1\\=Natalie\\|last2\\=Zaverskiy\\|first2\\=Sergey\\|title\\=Challenges of strong concentration in urbanization: the case of Moscow in Russia\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.proeng.2017\\.07\\.095\\|volume\\=198\\|year\\=2017\\|pages\\=398–410\\|journal\\=Procedia Engineering\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Elsevier]]\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}](/wiki/File:Business_Centre_of_Moscow_2.jpg \"Business Centre of Moscow 2.jpg\")",
"Russia has a [mixed](/wiki/Mixed_economy \"Mixed economy\") [market economy](/wiki/Market_economy \"Market economy\"), following a [turbulent transition](/wiki/Shock_therapy_%28economics%29 \"Shock therapy (economics)\") from the [Soviet planned model](/wiki/Planned_economy \"Planned economy\") during the 1990s.—Rosefielde, Steven, and Natalia Vennikova. “Fiscal Federalism in Russia: A Critique of the OECD Proposals\". *[Cambridge Journal of Economics](/wiki/Cambridge_Journal_of_Economics \"Cambridge Journal of Economics\")*, vol. 28, no. 2, [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press \"Oxford University Press\"), 2004, pp. 307–18, {{JSTOR\\|23602130}}.",
"—Robinson, Neil. “August 1998 and the Development of Russia's Post\\-Communist Political Economy\". *[Review of International Political Economy](/wiki/Review_of_International_Political_Economy \"Review of International Political Economy\")*, vol. 16, no. 3, [Taylor \\& Francis](/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis \"Taylor & Francis\"), Ltd., 2009, pp. 433–55, {{JSTOR\\|27756169}}.\n—Charap, Samuel. “No Obituaries Yet for Capitalism in Russia\". *Current History*, vol. 108, no. 720, [University of California Press](/wiki/University_of_California_Press \"University of California Press\"), 2009, pp. 333–38, {{JSTOR\\|45319724}}.\n—Rutland, Peter. “Neoliberalism and the Russian Transition\". *Review of International Political Economy*, vol. 20, no. 2, [Taylor \\& Francis](/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis \"Taylor & Francis\"), Ltd., 2013, pp. 332–62, {{JSTOR\\|42003296}}.\n—Kovalev, Alexandre, and Alexandre Sokalev. “Russia: Towards a Market Economy\". *New Zealand International Review*, vol. 18, no. 1, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1993, pp. 18–21, {{JSTOR\\|45234200}}.\n—Czinkota, Michael R. “Russia's Transition to a Market Economy: Learning about Business\". *Journal of International Marketing*, vol. 5, no. 4, [American Marketing Association](/wiki/American_Marketing_Association \"American Marketing Association\"), 1997, pp. 73–93, {{JSTOR\\|25048706}}.\n```\nMuch of the country's economic activity is centered on its abundant and varied natural resources, particularly \n```",
"[oil](/wiki/Russian_oil_industry \"Russian oil industry\") and [natural gas](/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia \"Natural gas in Russia\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://countrystudies.us/russia/59\\.htm \\|title\\=Russia – Natural Resources \\|editor\\=Glenn E. Curtis \\|year\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the \\[\\[Library of Congress]] \\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2021}} Russia is classified by the [World Bank](/wiki/World_Bank \"World Bank\") as a [high\\-income country](/wiki/World_Bank_high-income_economy \"World Bank high-income economy\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=World Bank Country and Lending Groups – World Bank Data Help Desk \\|url\\=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519\\-world\\-bank\\-country\\-and\\-lending\\-groups \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2024 \\|website\\=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org}} with the world's [ninth\\-largest economy](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29 \"List of countries by GDP (nominal)\") by nominal GDP and the [sixth\\-largest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29 \"List of countries by GDP (PPP)\") by [PPP](/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity \"Purchasing power parity\"); by some measures, its economy ranks fourth or fifth in the world by PPP.{{Cite web \\|date\\=4 June 2024 \\|title\\=Russia overtakes Japan to become the fourth largest economy in the world in PPP terms \\|url\\=https://www.intellinews.com/russia\\-overtakes\\-japan\\-to\\-become\\-the\\-fourth\\-largest\\-economy\\-in\\-the\\-world\\-in\\-ppp\\-terms\\-328108/ \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2024 \\|website\\=www.intellinews.com \\|language\\=en}} [Services](/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy \"Tertiary sector of the economy\") account for roughly 54% of total GDP, followed by [industry](/wiki/Industrial_sector \"Industrial sector\") (33%), while the [agricultural sector](/wiki/Agricultural_sector \"Agricultural sector\") is the smallest, at less than 4% of total GDP.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Russia \\- Distribution of gross domestic product (GDP) across economic sectors 2022 \\|url\\=https://www.statista.com/statistics/271378/distribution\\-of\\-gross\\-domestic\\-product\\-gdp\\-across\\-economic\\-sectors\\-in\\-russia/ \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2024 \\|website\\=Statista \\|language\\=en}} Russia has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's [eight\\-largest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_labour_force \"List of countries by labour force\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/labor\\-force/country\\-comparison/ \\|title\\=Labor force – The World Factbook \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2021}} and a low official [unemployment rate](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_unemployment_rate \"List of countries by unemployment rate\") of 4\\.1%.{{cite web\\|title\\=Russian Federation – Unemployment Rate\\|url\\=https://www.economy.com/russian\\-federation/unemployment\\-rate\\|access\\-date\\=4 April 2022\\|work\\=\\[\\[Moody's Analytics]]}}",
"Russia is the world's [thirteenth\\-largest exporter](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_exports \"List of countries by exports\") and the [21st\\-largest importer](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_imports \"List of countries by imports\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.trademap.org/Country\\_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm\\=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1\\|title\\=List of importing markets for the product exported by Russian Federation in 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[International Trade Centre]]\\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2022}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.trademap.org/Country\\_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm\\=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1\\|title\\=List of supplying markets for the product imported by Russian Federation in 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[International Trade Centre]]\\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2022}} It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas\\-related taxes and export tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January 2022,{{cite web \\|title\\=Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security – Analysis \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently\\-asked\\-questions\\-on\\-energy\\-security \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2022 \\|website\\=IEA \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} and up to 60% of its exports in 2019\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Davydova \\|first\\=Angelina \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211115\\-climate\\-change\\-can\\-russia\\-leave\\-fossil\\-fuels\\-behind \\|title\\=Will Russia ever leave fossil fuels behind? \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|date\\=24 November 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2022 \\|quote\\=Overall in Russia, oil and gas provided 39% of the federal budget revenue and made up 60% of Russian exports in 2019\\.}} Russia has one of the [lowest levels of external debt](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_external_debt \"List of countries by external debt\") among major economies,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/russian\\-finances\\-strong\\-but\\-economic\\-problems\\-persist\\-36750 \\|title\\=Russian finances strong but economic problems persist \\|work\\=\\[\\[TRT World]] \\|date\\=29 May 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2022 \\|quote\\=Now Russia is one of the least indebted countries in the world – thanks to all the oil revenue.}} and had the [fifth\\-largest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_foreign-exchange_reserves \"List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves\") [foreign exchange reserves](/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves \"Foreign exchange reserves\"), valued at over $601 billion,{{cite web \\|title\\=International Reserves of the Russian Federation (End of period) \\|url\\=https://www.cbr.ru/eng/hd\\_base/mrrf/mrrf\\_7d/ \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2024 \\|url\\-access \\= limited \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Bank of Russia]]}} although half of that is frozen abroad, and a significant amount is believed to have been spent on the Ukrainian war. [Inequality of household income and wealth](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_income_equality \"List of countries by income equality\") is among the highest among developed countries,{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2018/620225/EPRS\\_ATA(2018\\)620225\\_EN.pdf \\|title\\=Socioeconomic inequality in Russia \\|journal\\=\\[\\[European Parliamentary Research Service]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[European Parliament]] \\|date\\=April 2018 \\|last\\=Russell \\|first\\=Martin \\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2022 }} and there are considerable regional disparities in economic development.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Remington\\|first\\=Thomas F.\\|title\\=Why is interregional inequality in Russia and China not falling?\\|volume\\=48\\|number\\=1\\|date\\=March 2015\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of California Press]]\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Soviet and Communist studies\\|Communist and Post\\-Communist Studies]]\\|pages\\=1–13 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.postcomstud.2015\\.01\\.005 \\|jstor\\=48610321}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Kholodilin\\|first1\\=Konstantin A.\\|last2\\=Oshchepkov\\|first2\\=Aleksey\\|last3\\=Siliverstovs\\|first3\\=Boriss\\|title\\=The Russian Regional Convergence Process: Where Is It Leading?\\|year\\=2012\\|volume\\=50\\|number\\=3\\|pages\\=5–26\\|journal\\=Eastern European Economies\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Taylor \\& Francis]]\\|doi\\=10\\.2753/EEE0012\\-8775500301 \\|jstor\\=41719700\\|s2cid\\=153168354 }}",
"After over a decade of post\\-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil prices and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment, Russia's economy was damaged by a wave of [international sanctions imposed](/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War \"International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War\") in 2014 following the [Russo\\-Ukrainian War](/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War \"Russo-Ukrainian War\") and [annexation of Crimea](/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation \"Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation\").{{cite journal\\|last\\=Likka\\|first\\=Korhonen\\|title\\=Economic Sanctions on Russia and Their Effects\\|year\\=2019\\|issn\\=2190\\-717X\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Ifo Institute for Economic Research]]\\|location\\=\\[\\[Munich]]\\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2022\\|url\\=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/216248/1/CESifo\\-Forum\\-2019\\-04\\-p19\\-22\\.pdf\\|journal\\=CESifo Forum}} In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced [revamped sanctions and corporate boycotts](/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine\"),{{cite web\\|last\\=Sonnenfeld\\|first\\=Jeffrey\\|date\\=22 March 2022\\|title\\=Over 300 Companies Have Withdrawn from Russia – But Some Remain\\|url\\=https://som.yale.edu/story/2022/over\\-400\\-companies\\-have\\-withdrawn\\-russia\\-some\\-remain\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yale School of Management]]\\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2022}} becoming the most sanctioned country in the world,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022\\-03\\-07/russia\\-surges\\-past\\-iran\\-to\\-become\\-world\\-s\\-most\\-sanctioned\\-nation\\|title\\=Russia Is Now the World's Most\\-Sanctioned Nation\\|work\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg L.P.]]\\|date\\=8 March 2022\\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2022\\|last\\=Wadhams\\|first\\=Nick\\|quote\\=Russia has vaulted past Iran and North Korea to become the world's most\\-sanctioned nation in the span of just 10 days following President Vladimir Putin's invasion of Ukraine.}} in a move described as an \"all\\-out economic and financial war\" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial system. Due to [the resulting negative impact](/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Economic impact of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\"), the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since April 2022\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Whalen\\|first1\\=Jeanne\\|last2\\=Dixon\\|first2\\=Robyn\\|last3\\=Nakashima\\|first3\\=Ellen\\|last4\\=Ilyushina\\|first4\\=Mary\\|title\\=Western sanctions are wounding but not yet crushing Russia's economy\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|date\\=23 August 2022\\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2022\\|quote\\=Russia has stopped publishing many economic statistics, making it difficult to judge how hard sanctions are hitting, but some data shows signs of distress.\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/08/23/russian\\-sanctions\\-economy/\\|url\\-access\\=limited}} Although Russia has maintained relative economic stability and even growth—driven primarily by high military spending, household consumption, and capital investment—economists suggest the sanctions will have a long\\-term effect over the Russian economy.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Steve Rosenberg: Russia's economy is growing, but can it last? \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4nn7pej9jyo \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2024 \\|website\\=www.bbc.com \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/is\\-russias\\-economy\\-really\\-hurting/a\\-63000166\\|last\\=Martin\\|first\\=Nik\\|title\\=Is Russia's economy really hurting?\\|work\\=\\[\\[DW News]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Deutsche Welle]]\\|date\\=6 September 2022\\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2022}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Reporter \\|first\\=Brendan Cole Senior News \\|date\\=8 July 2024 \\|title\\=Russian economy faces \"creeping Crisis\", economists warn \\|url\\=https://www.newsweek.com/russia\\-bank\\-inflation\\-economy\\-crisis\\-1922208 \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2024 \\|website\\=Newsweek \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Transport and energy",
"{{Main\\|Transport in Russia\\|Energy in Russia}}\n[thumb\\|The [Trans\\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway \"Trans-Siberian Railway\") is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok \"Vladivostok\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.businessinsider.com/trans\\-siberian\\-railway\\-russia\\-what\\-its\\-like\\-photos\\-2019\\-7 \\|title\\=I rode the legendary Trans\\-Siberian Railway on a 2,000\\-mile journey across 4 time zones in Russia. Here's what it was like spending 50 hours on the longest train line in the world. \\|work\\=\\[\\[Business Insider]] \\|first\\=Katie \\|last\\=Warren \\|date\\=3 January 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=10 June 2021}}](/wiki/File:VL_85-022_container_train.jpg \"VL 85-022 container train.jpg\")\n[Railway transport in Russia](/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Russia \"Rail transport in Russia\") is mostly controlled by the state\\-run [Russian Railways](/wiki/Russian_Railways \"Russian Railways\"). The total length of common\\-used railway tracks is the world's [third\\-longest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rail_transport_network_size \"List of countries by rail transport network size\"), exceeding {{convert\\|87000\\|km\\|mi\\|\\-2\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/railways/country\\-comparison \\|title\\=Railways – The World Factbook \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2021}} {{As of\\|2019}}, Russia has the world's [fifth\\-largest road network](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_road_network_size \"List of countries by road network size\"), with over 1\\.5 million km of roads,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://government.ru/info/22865/ \\|title\\=О развитии дорожной инфраструктуры\\|trans\\-title\\=On the development of road infrastructure \\|work\\=\\[\\[Government of Russia]] \\|date\\=29 April 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2021}} although its road density is among the world's lowest, due in part to its vast land area.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://worldroadstatistics.org/europe\\-central\\-asia\\-continue\\-to\\-report\\-the\\-worlds\\-highest\\-road\\-network\\-density\\-followed\\-by\\-east\\-asia\\-and\\-pacific/ \\|title\\=Europe continues to report the world's highest Road Network Density, followed by East Asia and Pacific. \\|work\\=International Road Federation \\|date\\=16 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2021}} Russia's inland waterways are the world's [longest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_waterways_length \"List of countries by waterways length\"), totaling {{convert\\|102000\\|km\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/waterways/country\\-comparison \\|title\\=Waterways – The World Factbook \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2021}} Russia has over [900 airports](/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Russia \"List of airports in Russia\"),{{cite web \\|title\\=Airports – The World Factbook \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/airports/country\\-comparison \\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2024 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]]}} ranking seventh in the world, of which the [busiest](/wiki/List_of_the_busiest_airports_in_Russia \"List of the busiest airports in Russia\") is [Sheremetyevo International Airport](/wiki/Sheremetyevo_International_Airport \"Sheremetyevo International Airport\") in Moscow. Russia's largest port is the [Port of Novorossiysk](/wiki/Port_of_Novorossiysk \"Port of Novorossiysk\") in [Krasnodar Krai](/wiki/Krasnodar_Krai \"Krasnodar Krai\") along the Black Sea.{{cite web\\|last\\=Guzeva\\|first\\=Alexandra\\|date\\=20 April 2021\\|title\\=10 Biggest port cities in Russia\\|url\\=https://www.rbth.com/travel/333689\\-russia\\-biggest\\-port\\-cities\\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2022\\|website\\=\\[\\[Russia Beyond]]\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Russia was widely described [as an energy superpower](/wiki/Russia_as_an_energy_superpower \"Russia as an energy superpower\").{{cite book \\| editor \\= Elizabeth Buchanan \\|year\\=2021 \\| title \\= Russian Energy Strategy in the Asia\\-Pacific: Implications for Australia \\| publisher \\= Australian National University \\| page \\= 86 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-76046\\-339\\-7 \\| oclc \\= 1246214035 \\| url \\= {{GBurl\\|id\\=bdIwEAAAQBAJ\\|p\\=86}}}} It has the world's largest [proven gas reserves](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_proven_reserves \"List of countries by natural gas proven reserves\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/natural\\-gas\\-proved\\-reserves/country\\-comparison \\|title\\=Natural gas – proved reserves \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174101/https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/natural\\-gas\\-proved\\-reserves/country\\-comparison \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} the second\\-largest [coal reserves](/wiki/Coal_reserves \"Coal reserves\"),{{cite web \\|year\\=2020 \\|title\\=Statistical Review of World Energy 69th edition \\|url\\=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business\\-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy\\-economics/statistical\\-review/bp\\-stats\\-review\\-2020\\-full\\-report.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2020 \\|website\\=bp.com \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BP]] \\|page\\=45}} the eighth\\-largest [oil reserves](/wiki/Oil_reserves \"Oil reserves\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/crude\\-oil\\-proved\\-reserves/country\\-comparison/ \\|title\\=Crude oil – proved reserves \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/crude\\-oil\\-proved\\-reserves/country\\-comparison/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and the largest [oil shale reserves](/wiki/Oil_shale_reserves \"Oil shale reserves\") in Europe.{{Cite book \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=2010 Survey of Energy Resources \\|url\\=https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/ser\\_2010\\_report\\_1\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2020 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Energy Council]] \\|page\\=102 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-946121\\-02\\-1}} Russia is also the world's [leading natural gas exporter](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports \"List of countries by natural gas exports\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/articles/energy\\-fact\\-sheet\\-why\\-does\\-russian\\-oil\\-and\\-gas\\-matter\\|title\\=Energy Fact Sheet: Why does Russian oil and gas matter? – Analysis\\|website\\=International Energy Agency\\|date\\=21 March 2022}} the [second\\-largest natural gas producer](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_production \"List of countries by natural gas production\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/natural\\-gas\\-production/country\\-comparison/ \\|title\\=Natural gas – production \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/natural\\-gas\\-production/country\\-comparison/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and the second\\-largest oil [producer](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production \"List of countries by oil production\") and [exporter](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_exports \"List of countries by oil exports\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/crude\\-oil\\-production/country\\-comparison/ \\|title\\=Crude oil – production \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/crude\\-oil\\-production/country\\-comparison/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/crude\\-oil\\-exports/country\\-comparison/ \\|title\\=Crude oil – exports \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330235135/http://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/crude\\-oil\\-exports/country\\-comparison \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Russia's oil and gas production led to deep economic relationships with the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"), China, and [former Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") and [Eastern Bloc states](/wiki/Eastern_Bloc \"Eastern Bloc\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian\\-supplies\\-to\\-global\\-energy\\-markets/oil\\-market\\-and\\-russian\\-supply\\-2 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2022 \\|website\\=IEA \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Gas Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian\\-supplies\\-to\\-global\\-energy\\-markets/gas\\-market\\-and\\-russian\\-supply\\-2 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2022 \\|website\\=IEA \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} For example, over the last decade, Russia's share of the total gas demand for the EU (including the United Kingdom) increased from 25% in 2009 to 32% in the weeks before the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\") in February 2022\\.",
"In the mid\\-2000s, the share of the oil and gas sector in GDP was around 20%, and in 2013 it was 20–21% of GDP.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2594003\\|title\\=Нефть со всеми вытекающими\\|date\\=27 October 2014\\|website\\=www.kommersant.ru}} The share of oil and gas in Russia's exports (about 50%) and federal budget revenues (about 50%) is large, and the dynamics of Russia's GDP are highly dependent on oil and gas prices,Movchan, Andrey (14 September 2015\\). [\"Just an Oil Company? The True Extent of Russia's Dependency on Oil and Gas.\"](https://carnegiemoscow.org/commentary/61272) [Carnegie Endowment for International Peace](/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace \"Carnegie Endowment for International Peace\") (CarnegieMoscow.org). Retrieved 17 July 2023\\. but the share in GDP is much less than 50%. According to the first such comprehensive assessment published by the Russian statistics agency Rosstat in 2021, the maximum total share of the oil and gas sector in Russia's GDP—including extraction, refining, transport, sale of oil and gas, all goods and services used, and all supporting activities—amounts to 19\\.2% in 2019 and 15\\.2% in 2020; this is comparable to the share of GDP in Norway and Kazakhstan, and much lower than the share of GDP in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/1b5RpebS/Maximov\\-tezisy.pdf\\|title\\=Определение доли нефтегазового сектора в валовом внутреннем продукте Российской Федерации\\|language\\=ru\\|website\\=rosstat.gov.ru}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rbc.ru/economics/13/07/2021/60ec40d39a7947f74aeb2aae\\|title\\=Росстат впервые рассчитал долю нефти и газа в российском ВВП\\|website\\=РБК\\|date\\=13 July 2021 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://neftegazru.com/news/economics\\-markets\\-stocks/688594\\-oil\\-gas\\-share\\-of\\-russia\\-s\\-gdp\\-dropped\\-to\\-15\\-in\\-2020/\\|title\\=Oil \\& gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020\\|website\\=neftegazru.com\\|date\\=14 July 2021 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://norvanreports.com/oil\\-gas\\-share\\-of\\-russias\\-gdp\\-dropped\\-to\\-15\\-in\\-2020/\\|title\\=Oil \\& gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020 \\| NORVANREPORTS.COM \\| Business News, Insurance, Taxation, Oil \\& Gas, Maritime News, Ghana, Africa, World\\|date\\=14 July 2021}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://oilprice.com/Latest\\-Energy\\-News/World\\-News/Oil\\-Gas\\-Share\\-Of\\-Russias\\-GDP\\-Dropped\\-To\\-15\\-In\\-2020\\.html\\|title\\=Oil \\& Gas Share Of Russia's GDP Dropped To 15% In 2020\\|website\\=OilPrice.com}}",
"Russia is the world's [fourth\\-largest electricity producer](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_electricity_production \"List of countries by electricity production\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/electricity\\-production/country\\-comparison \\|title\\=Electricity – production \\|work\\=\\[\\[The World Factbook]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331093053/https://www.cia.gov/the\\-world\\-factbook/field/electricity\\-production/country\\-comparison \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of all [primary energy](/wiki/Primary_energy \"Primary energy\") and 42% of electricity consumption.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ritchie \\|first1\\=Hannah \\|author1\\-link\\=Hannah Ritchie \\|last2\\=Roser \\|first2\\=Max \\|author2\\-link\\=Max Roser \\|last3\\=Rosado \\|first3\\=Pablo \\|date\\=27 October 2022 \\|title\\=Energy \\|url\\=https://ourworldindata.org/energy/country/russia \\|journal\\=Our World in Data}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Russia: power production share by source 2022 \\|url\\=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1237590/russia\\-distribution\\-of\\-electricity\\-production\\-by\\-source/ \\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2024 \\|website\\=Statista \\|language\\=en}} Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's [first nuclear power plant](/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant\") in 1954;{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Long \\|first\\=Tony \\|date\\=27 June 2012 \\|title\\=June 27, 1954: World's First Nuclear Power Plant Opens \\|url\\=https://www.wired.com/2012/06/june\\-27\\-1954\\-worlds\\-first\\-nuclear\\-power\\-plant\\-opens/ \\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2021 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Wired (magazine)\\|Wired]]}} it remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in [fast neutron reactors](/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor \"Fast-neutron reactor\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=\\- World Nuclear Association \\|url\\=https://world\\-nuclear.org/information\\-library/country\\-profiles/countries\\-o\\-s/russia\\-nuclear\\-power\\#:\\~:text\\=Russia's%20first%20nuclear%20power%20plant,today's%20production%20models%20were%20commissioned. \\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2024 \\|website\\=world\\-nuclear.org}} Russia is the world's [fourth\\-largest nuclear energy producer](/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country \"Nuclear power by country\"), which accounts for one\\-fourth of total electricity generation.{{cite web \\|date\\=October 2020 \\|title\\=Nuclear Power Today \\|url\\=https://www.world\\-nuclear.org/information\\-library/current\\-and\\-future\\-generation/nuclear\\-power\\-in\\-the\\-world\\-today.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2020 \\|website\\=world\\-nuclear.org \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Nuclear Association]]}} Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.",
"Russia ratified the [Paris Agreement](/wiki/Paris_Agreement \"Paris Agreement\") in 2019\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Sauer \\|first\\=Natalie \\|date\\=24 September 2019 \\|title\\=Russia formally joins Paris climate pact \\|url\\=https://www.euractiv.com/section/climate\\-environment/news/russia\\-formally\\-joins\\-paris\\-climate\\-pact/ \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Euractiv]]}} The country's [greenhouse gas emissions](/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_Russia \"Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia\") are the world's [fourth\\-largest](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions \"List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Hill \\|first\\=Ian \\|date\\=1 November 2021 \\|title\\=Is Russia finally getting serious on climate change? \\|url\\=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the\\-interpreter/russia\\-finally\\-getting\\-serious\\-climate\\-change \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2021 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Lowy Institute]]}} Coal still accounts for nearly one\\-fifth of electricity generation (17\\.64%). Russia is the [fifth\\-largest hydroelectric producer](/wiki/Hydroelectricity%23World_hydroelectric_capacity \"Hydroelectricity#World hydroelectric capacity\") as of 2022,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Whiteman \\|first1\\=Adrian \\|last2\\=Akande \\|first2\\=Dennis \\|last3\\=Elhassan \\|first3\\=Nazik \\|last4\\=Escamilla \\|first4\\=Gerardo \\|last5\\=Lebedys \\|first5\\=Arvydas \\|last6\\=Arkhipova \\|first6\\=Lana \\|url\\=https://www.irena.org/\\-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA\\_RE\\_Capacity\\_Statistics\\_2021\\.pdf \\|title\\=Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2022 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Abu Dhabi]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[International Renewable Energy Agency]] \\|date\\=2021 \\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-9260\\-342\\-7}} with hydro power also contributing to almost a fifth of total electricity generation (17\\.54%). The use and development of other [renewable energy](/wiki/Renewable_energy \"Renewable energy\") resources remains negligible, as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for expanding these energy resources.",
"### Agriculture and fishery",
"{{Main\\|Agriculture in Russia\\|Fishing industry in Russia}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Wheat in [Tomsk Oblast](/wiki/Tomsk_Oblast \"Tomsk Oblast\"), Siberia](/wiki/File:Wheat_Tomsk.jpg \"Wheat Tomsk.jpg\")\nRussia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one\\-eighth of the total labour force.{{cite encyclopedia \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy \\|title\\=Russia – Economy \\|encyclopedia\\=\\[\\[Encyclopædia Britannica]] \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2021}} It has the world's [third\\-largest cultivated area](/wiki/Land_use_statistics_by_country \"Land use statistics by country\"), at {{convert\\|1265267\\|km2}}. However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13\\.1% of its land is [agricultural](/wiki/Agricultural_land \"Agricultural land\"), with an additional 7\\.4% being [arable](/wiki/Arable_land \"Arable land\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS?locations\\=RU \\|title\\=Arable land (% of land area) – Russian Federation \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Bank]] \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2021}} The country's agricultural land is considered part of the \"[breadbasket](/wiki/Breadbasket \"Breadbasket\")\" of Europe.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/system\\-shock\\-russias\\-war\\-and\\-global\\-food\\-energy\\-and\\-mineral\\-supply\\-chains\\|title\\=System Shock: Russia's War and Global Food, Energy, and Mineral Supply Chains\\|work\\=\\[\\[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|date\\=13 April 2022\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2022\\|quote\\=Together, Russia and Ukraine—sometimes referred to as the breadbasket of Europe—account for 29% of global wheat exports, 80% of the world’s sunflower oil, and 40% of its barley.}} More than one\\-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used [industrial crops](/wiki/Nonfood_crop \"Nonfood crop\"), vegetables, and fruits. The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland. Russia is the world's [largest exporter of wheat](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_wheat_exports \"List of countries by wheat exports\"),{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\\-09\\-22/russia\\-s\\-dominance\\-of\\-the\\-wheat\\-world\\-keeps\\-growing \\|title\\=Russia's Dominance of the Wheat World Keeps Growing \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg L.P.]] \\|first1\\=Anatoly \\|last1\\=Medetsky \\|first2\\=Megan \\|last2\\=Durisin \\|date\\=23 September 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2021}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral\\-product/wheat/reporter/rus?redirect\\=true\\|title\\=Wheat in Russia \\| OEC\\|website\\=OEC – The Observatory of Economic Complexity}} the [largest producer of barley](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_barley_production \"List of countries by barley production\") and [buckwheat](/wiki/List_of_largest_producing_countries_of_agricultural_commodities \"List of largest producing countries of agricultural commodities\"), among the largest exporters of [maize](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") and [sunflower oil](/wiki/Sunflower_oil \"Sunflower oil\"), and the leading producer of [fertilizer](/wiki/Fertilizer \"Fertilizer\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf\\|title\\=The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict\\|date\\=25 March 2022\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Food and Agriculture Organization]]\\|location\\=\\[\\[Rome]]\\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2022}}",
"Various analysts of [climate change adaptation](/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation \"Climate change adaptation\") foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia\\-climate\\-migration\\-crisis.html \\|title\\=How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|first\\=Abrahm \\|last\\=Lustgarten \\|date\\=16 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2021\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|quote\\=Across Eastern Russia, wild forests, swamps and grasslands are slowly being transformed into orderly grids of soybeans, corn and wheat. It’s a process that is likely to accelerate: Russia hopes to seize on the warming temperatures and longer growing seasons brought by climate change to refashion itself as one of the planet’s largest producers of food}} Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia [maintains](/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Russia \"Fishing industry in Russia\") the world's [sixth\\-largest fishing industry](/wiki/Fishing_industry_by_country \"Fishing industry by country\"); capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018\\.{{cite book \\|url\\=http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en.pdf \\|title\\=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Food and Agriculture Organization]] \\|date\\=2018 \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2021 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Rome]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-5\\-130562\\-1}} It is home to the world's finest caviar, the [beluga](/wiki/Beluga_%28sturgeon%29 \"Beluga (sturgeon)\"); and produces about one\\-third of all canned fish, and some one\\-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.",
"### Science and technology",
"{{Main\\|Science and technology in Russia}}\n{{See also\\|Timeline of Russian innovation\\|List of Russian scientists\\|List of Russian inventors}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Mikhail Lomonosov](/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov \"Mikhail Lomonosov\") (1711–1765\\), [polymath](/wiki/Polymath \"Polymath\") scientist, inventor, poet and artist](/wiki/File:M.V._Lomonosov_by_L.Miropolskiy_after_G.C.Prenner_%281787%2C_RAN%29.jpg \"M.V. Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg\")\nRussia spent about 1% of its GDP on [research and development](/wiki/Research_and_development \"Research and development\") in 2019, with the world's [tenth\\-highest budget](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_research_and_development_spending \"List of countries by research and development spending\").{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross\\-domestic\\-spending\\-on\\-r\\-d.htm \\|title\\=Gross domestic spending on R\\&D \\|website\\=\\[\\[OECD]] Data \\|date\\=2017 \\|doi\\=10\\.1787/d8b068b4\\-en \\|access\\-date\\=4 April 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114013730/https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross\\-domestic\\-spending\\-on\\-r\\-d.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1\\.3 million papers.{{cite web \\|year\\=2020 \\|title\\=SJR – International Science Ranking \\|url\\=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2022 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[SCImago Journal Rank]]}} Since 1904, [Nobel Prize](/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_by_country \"List of Nobel laureates by country\") were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in [physics](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics \"Nobel Prize in Physics\"), [chemistry](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry \"Nobel Prize in Chemistry\"), [medicine](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_medicine \"Nobel Prize in medicine\"), [economy](/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences \"Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences\"), [literature](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature \"Nobel Prize in Literature\") and [peace](/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize \"Nobel Peace Prize\").{{cite news \\|date\\=10 December 2019\\|script\\-title\\=ru:Кто из российских и советских ученых и литераторов становился лауреатом Нобелевской премии\\|trans\\-title\\=Which of the Russian and Soviet scientists and writers became the Nobel Prize laureate \\|url\\=https://tass.ru/info/7308739 \\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2020\\|script\\-website\\=ru:ТАСС \\|agency\\=\\[\\[TASS]] \\|language\\=ru\\|newspaper\\=Tacc }} Russia ranked 60th in the [Global Innovation Index](/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index \"Global Innovation Index\") in 2024, down from 45th in 2021\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://www.wipo.int/web\\-publications/global\\-innovation\\-index\\-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024\\_WEB2\\.pdf\\|title\\=Global Innovation Index 2024\\. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-01\\|author\\=\\[\\[World Intellectual Property Organization]]\\|year\\=2024\\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-805\\-3681\\-2\\|doi\\= 10\\.34667/tind.50062\\|website\\=www.wipo.int\\|location\\=Geneva\\|page\\=18}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo\\_pub\\_gii\\_2021/ru.pdf \\|title\\=RUSSIAN FEDERATION \\|work\\=\\[\\[World Intellectual Property Organization]] \\|publisher\\=United Nations \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2021}}",
"Since the times of [Nikolay Lobachevsky](/wiki/Nikolay_Lobachevsky \"Nikolay Lobachevsky\"), who pioneered the [non\\-Euclidean geometry](/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry \"Non-Euclidean geometry\"), and [Pafnuty Chebyshev](/wiki/Pafnuty_Chebyshev \"Pafnuty Chebyshev\"), a prominent tutor; Russian [mathematicians](/wiki/List_of_Russian_mathematicians \"List of Russian mathematicians\") became among the world's most influential.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Vucinich \\|first\\=Alexander \\|title\\=Mathematics in Russian Culture \\|jstor\\=2708192 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2708192 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Pennsylvania Press]] \\|volume\\=21 \\|number\\=2 \\|year\\=1960 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of the History of Ideas]] \\|pages\\=161–179}} [Dmitry Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitry_Mendeleev \"Dmitry Mendeleev\") invented the [Periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table \"Periodic table\"), the main framework of modern [chemistry](/wiki/Chemistry \"Chemistry\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Leicester \\|first\\=Henry M. \\|title\\=Factors Which Led Mendeleev to the Periodic Law \\|jstor\\=27757115 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/27757115 \\|year\\=1948 \\|pages\\=67–74 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of California Press]] \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Chymia]]\\|volume\\=1 }} Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the [Fields Medal](/wiki/Fields_Medal_winners \"Fields Medal winners\"). [Grigori Perelman](/wiki/Grigori_Perelman \"Grigori Perelman\") was offered the first ever Clay [Millennium Prize Problems](/wiki/Millennium_Prize_Problems \"Millennium Prize Problems\") Award for his final proof of the [Poincaré conjecture](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_conjecture \"Poincaré conjecture\") in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006\\.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Morgan \\|first\\=Frank \\|title\\=Manifolds with Density and Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture \\|jstor\\=27642690 \\|volume\\=116 \\|number\\=2 \\|pages\\=134–142 \\|date\\=February 2009 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[The American Mathematical Monthly]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Taylor \\& Francis]]\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00029890\\.2009\\.11920920 \\|s2cid\\=6068179 }}",
"[Alexander Popov](/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov \"Alexander Stepanovich Popov\") was among the [inventors of radio](/wiki/Invention_of_radio \"Invention of radio\"),{{cite web \\|last\\=Marsh \\|first\\=Allison \\|url\\=https://spectrum.ieee.org/who\\-invented\\-radio\\-guglielmo\\-marconi\\-or\\-aleksandr\\-popov \\|title\\=Who Invented Radio: Guglielmo Marconi or Aleksandr Popov? \\|work\\=\\[\\[IEEE Spectrum]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] \\|date\\=30 April 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2021}} while [Nikolai Basov](/wiki/Nikolai_Basov \"Nikolai Basov\") and [Alexander Prokhorov](/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov \"Alexander Prokhorov\") were co\\-inventors of [laser](/wiki/Laser \"Laser\") and [maser](/wiki/Maser \"Maser\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Shampo \\|first1\\=Marc A. \\|last2\\=Kyle \\|first2\\=Robert A. \\|last3\\=Steensma \\|first3\\=David P. \\|title\\=Nikolay Basov – Nobel Prize for Lasers and Masers \\|journal\\=Mayo Clinic Proceedings \\|date\\=January 2012 \\|volume\\=87 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=e3 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.mayocp.2011\\.11\\.003 \\|pmid\\=22212977 \\|pmc\\=3498096}} [Oleg Losev](/wiki/Oleg_Losev \"Oleg Losev\") made crucial contributions in the field of [semiconductor junctions](/wiki/Semiconductor_junction \"Semiconductor junction\"), and discovered [light\\-emitting diodes](/wiki/Light-emitting_diode \"Light-emitting diode\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Zheludev \\|first\\=Nikolay \\|title\\=The life and times of the LED – a 100\\-year history \\|date\\=April 2007 \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=189–192 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nphoton.2007\\.34 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Nature Photonics]]\\|issue\\=4 \\|bibcode\\=2007NaPho...1\\..189Z }} [Vladimir Vernadsky](/wiki/Vladimir_Vernadsky \"Vladimir Vernadsky\") is considered one of the founders of [geochemistry](/wiki/Geochemistry \"Geochemistry\"), [biogeochemistry](/wiki/Biogeochemistry \"Biogeochemistry\"), and [radiogeology](/wiki/Radiometric_dating \"Radiometric dating\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Ghilarov \\|first\\=Alexej M. \\|title\\=Vernadsky's Biosphere Concept: An Historical Perspective \\|jstor\\=3036242 \\|publisher\\=The \\[\\[University of Chicago Press]] \\|volume\\=70 \\|number\\=2 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[The Quarterly Review of Biology]] \\|date\\=June 1995 \\|pages\\=193–203\\|doi\\=10\\.1086/418982 \\|s2cid\\=85258634 }} [Élie Metchnikoff](/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff \"Élie Metchnikoff\") is known for his groundbreaking research in [immunology](/wiki/Immunology \"Immunology\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Gordon \\|first\\=Siamon \\|title\\=Elie Metchnikoff, the Man and the Myth \\|journal\\=Journal of Innate Immunity \\|pmid\\=26836137 \\|date\\=3 February 2016 \\|volume\\=8 \\|number\\=3 \\|pages\\=223–227 \\|doi\\=10\\.1159/000443331 \\|pmc\\=6738810 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} [Ivan Pavlov](/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov \"Ivan Pavlov\") is known chiefly for his work in [classical conditioning](/wiki/Classical_conditioning \"Classical conditioning\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Anrep \\|first\\=G. V. \\|title\\=Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. 1849–1936 \\|jstor\\=769124 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Royal Society]] \\|volume\\=2 \\|number\\=5 \\|date\\=December 1936 \\|pages\\=1–18 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society]]\\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rsbm.1936\\.0001 }} [Lev Landau](/wiki/Lev_Landau \"Lev Landau\") made fundamental contributions to many areas of [theoretical physics](/wiki/Theoretical_physics \"Theoretical physics\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Gorelik \\|first\\=Gennady \\|title\\=The Top\\-Secret Life of Lev Landau \\|jstor\\=24995874 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Scientific American]] \\|volume\\=277 \\|number\\=2 \\|pages\\=72–77 \\|date\\=August 1997 \\|publisher\\=Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/scientificamerican0897\\-72 \\|bibcode\\=1997SciAm.277b..72G }}",
"[Nikolai Vavilov](/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov \"Nikolai Vavilov\") was best known for having identified the [centres](/wiki/Vavilov_center \"Vavilov center\") of origin of [cultivated](/wiki/Horticulture \"Horticulture\") plants.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Janick \\|first\\=Jules \\|title\\=Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov: Plant Geographer, Geneticist, Martyr of Science \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|doi\\=10\\.21273/HORTSCI.50\\.6\\.772 \\|date\\=1 June 2015 \\|url\\=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pdfs/772\\.full.pdf \\|volume\\=50 \\|number\\=6 \\|journal\\=HortScience\\|pages\\=772–776 }} [Trofim Lysenko](/wiki/Trofim_Lysenko \"Trofim Lysenko\") was known mainly for [Lysenkoism](/wiki/Lysenkoism \"Lysenkoism\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Wang \\|first1\\=Zhengrong \\|last2\\=Liu \\|first2\\=Yongsheng \\|year\\=2017 \\|title\\=Lysenko and Russian genetics: an alternative view \\|journal\\=\\[\\[European Journal of Human Genetics]] \\|volume\\=25 \\|number\\=10 \\|pages\\=1097–1098 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/ejhg.2017\\.117 \\|issn\\=1476\\-5438 \\|pmc\\=5602018 \\|pmid\\=28905876}} Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were [émigrés](/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9s \"Émigrés\"). [Igor Sikorsky](/wiki/Igor_Sikorsky \"Igor Sikorsky\") was an [aviation pioneer](/wiki/List_of_aviation_pioneers \"List of aviation pioneers\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Hunsaker \\|first\\=Jerome C. \\|title\\=A Half Century of Aeronautical Development \\|jstor\\=3143642 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[American Philosophical Society]] \\|volume\\=98 \\|number\\=2 \\|pages\\=121–130 \\|date\\=15 April 1954 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]]}} [Vladimir Zworykin](/wiki/Vladimir_Zworykin \"Vladimir Zworykin\") was the inventor of the [iconoscope](/wiki/Iconoscope \"Iconoscope\") and [kinescope](/wiki/Kinescope \"Kinescope\") television systems.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/vladimir\\-zworykin \\|title\\=Vladimir Zworykin \\|work\\=\\[\\[Lemelson–MIT Prize]] \\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2021}} [Theodosius Dobzhansky](/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky \"Theodosius Dobzhansky\") was the central figure in the field of [evolutionary biology](/wiki/Evolutionary_biology \"Evolutionary biology\") for his work in shaping the [modern synthesis](/wiki/Modern_synthesis_%2820th_century%29 \"Modern synthesis (20th century)\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Ford \\|first\\=Edmund Brisco \\|author\\-link\\= E. B. Ford \\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rsbm.1977\\.0004 \\|title\\=Theodosius Grigorievich Dobzhansky, 25 January 1900 – 18 December 1975 \\|date\\=November 1977 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] \\|volume\\= 23 \\|pages\\=58–89 \\|pmid\\= 11615738 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|issn\\=1748\\-8494}} [George Gamow](/wiki/George_Gamow \"George Gamow\") was one of the foremost advocates of the [Big Bang](/wiki/Big_Bang \"Big Bang\") theory.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.colorado.edu/physics/events/outreach/george\\-gamow\\-memorial\\-lecture\\-series/distinguished\\-life\\-and\\-career\\-george\\-gamow \\|title\\= The Distinguished Life and Career of George Gamow \\|date\\= 11 May 2016 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Colorado Boulder]] \\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2022}}",
"#### Space exploration",
"[thumb\\|[Mir](/wiki/Mir \"Mir\"), Russian [space station](/wiki/Space_station \"Space station\") that operated in [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\")](/wiki/File:Mir_on_12_June_1998edit1.jpg \"Mir on 12 June 1998edit1.jpg\")\n[Roscosmos](/wiki/Roscosmos \"Roscosmos\") is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of [space technology](/wiki/Space_technology \"Space technology\") and [space exploration](/wiki/Space_exploration \"Space exploration\") can be traced back to [Konstantin Tsiolkovsky](/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky \"Konstantin Tsiolkovsky\"), the father of theoretical [astronautics](/wiki/Astronautics \"Astronautics\"), whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as [Sergey Korolyov](/wiki/Sergey_Korolyov \"Sergey Korolyov\"), [Valentin Glushko](/wiki/Valentin_Glushko \"Valentin Glushko\"), and many others who contributed to the success of the [Soviet space program](/wiki/Soviet_space_program \"Soviet space program\") in the early stages of the [Space Race](/wiki/Space_Race \"Space Race\") and beyond.{{cite book \\|last\\=Siddiqi \\|first\\=Asif A. \\|title\\=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 \\|date\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Government Publishing Office]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-160\\-61305\\-0}}{{rp\\|6–7,333}}",
"In 1957, the first Earth\\-orbiting artificial [satellite](/wiki/Satellite \"Satellite\"), *[Sputnik 1](/wiki/Sputnik%C2%A01 \"Sputnik 1\")*, was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin \"Yuri Gagarin\"). Many other Soviet and Russian [space exploration records](/wiki/Space_exploration_records \"Space exploration records\") ensued. In 1963, [Valentina Tereshkova](/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova \"Valentina Tereshkova\") became the first and youngest [woman in space](/wiki/Women_in_space \"Women in space\"), having flown a solo mission on [Vostok 6](/wiki/Vostok_6 \"Vostok 6\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id\\=1963\\-023A \\|title\\=Vostok 6 \\|work\\=\\[\\[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive\\|NSSDCA]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NASA]] \\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2022}} In 1965, [Alexei Leonov](/wiki/Alexei_Leonov \"Alexei Leonov\") became the first human to conduct a [spacewalk](/wiki/Spacewalk \"Spacewalk\"), exiting the [space capsule](/wiki/Space_capsule \"Space capsule\") during [Voskhod 2](/wiki/Voskhod_2 \"Voskhod 2\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec\\_9035/index.html \\|title\\=The First Spacewalk \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|first\\=Paul \\|last\\=Rincon \\|date\\=13 October 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2021}}",
"In 1957, [Laika](/wiki/Laika \"Laika\"), a [Soviet space dog](/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs \"Soviet space dogs\"), became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard [Sputnik 2](/wiki/Sputnik_2 \"Sputnik 2\").{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Wellerstein \\|first\\=Alex \\|url\\=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals\\-of\\-technology/remembering\\-laika\\-space\\-dog\\-and\\-soviet\\-hero \\|title\\=Remembering Laika, Space Dog and Soviet Hero \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[The New Yorker]] \\|date\\=3 November 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022}} In 1966, [Luna 9](/wiki/Luna%C2%A09 \"Luna 9\") became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a [celestial body](/wiki/Astronomical_object \"Astronomical object\"), the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id\\=1966\\-006A \\|title\\=Luna 9 \\|work\\=\\[\\[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive\\|NSSDCA]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NASA]] \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2021 }} In 1968, [Zond 5](/wiki/Zond_5 \"Zond 5\") brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.{{cite web \\|last\\=Betz \\|first\\=Eric \\|url\\=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the\\-sciences/the\\-first\\-earthlings\\-around\\-the\\-moon\\-were\\-two\\-soviet\\-tortoises \\|title\\=The First Earthlings Around the Moon Were Two Soviet Tortoises \\|work\\=\\[\\[Discover (magazine)\\|Discover]] \\|date\\=19 September 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022 }} In 1970, [Venera 7](/wiki/Venera%C2%A07 \"Venera 7\") became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Avduevsky \\|first1\\=V. S. \\|last2\\=Ya Marov \\|first2\\=M. \\|last3\\=Rozhdestvensky \\|first3\\=M. K. \\|last4\\=Borodin \\|first4\\=N. F. \\|last5\\=Kerzhanovich \\|first5\\=V. V. \\|date\\=1 March 1971 \\|title\\=Soft Landing of Venera 7 on the Venus Surface and Preliminary Results of Investigations of the Venus Atmosphere \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0469(1971\\)028\\<0263:SLOVOT\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|pages\\=263–269 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union]] \\|location\\=Moscow\\|journal\\=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences\\|volume\\=28 \\|issue\\=2 \\|bibcode\\=1971JAtS...28\\..263A }} In 1971, [Mars 3](/wiki/Mars%C2%A03 \"Mars 3\") became the first spacecraft to land on [Mars](/wiki/Mars \"Mars\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Perminov \\|first\\=V.G. \\|title\\=The Difficult Road to Mars – A Brief History of Mars Exploration in the Soviet Union \\|date\\=July 1999 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NASA]] History Division \\|isbn\\=0\\-16\\-058859\\-6 \\|url\\=https://history.nasa.gov/monograph15\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714111920/https://history.nasa.gov/monograph15\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{rp\\|34–60}} During the same period, *[Lunokhod 1](/wiki/Lunokhod-1 \"Lunokhod-1\")* became the first [space exploration rover](/wiki/Space_exploration_rover \"Space exploration rover\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod\\-01/in\\-depth/ \\|title\\=Lunokhod 01 \\|work\\=\\[\\[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive\\|NSSDCA]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NASA]] \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331072547/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod\\-01/in\\-depth/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} while *[Salyut 1](/wiki/Salyut%C2%A01 \"Salyut 1\")* became the world's first [space station](/wiki/Space_station \"Space station\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50\\-years\\-ago\\-launch\\-of\\-salyut\\-the\\-world\\-s\\-first\\-space\\-station \\|title\\=50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station \\|work\\=\\[\\[NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive\\|NSSDCA]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NASA]] \\|date\\=19 April 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=1 June 2021}}",
"Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third\\-highest.{{cite web \\|title\\=Satellite Database \\|url\\=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite\\-database \\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}} Between the final flight of the [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle \"Space Shuttle\") program in 2011 and the 2020 [SpaceX](/wiki/SpaceX \"SpaceX\")'s [first crewed mission](/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2 \"Crew Dragon Demo-2\"), [Soyuz rockets](/wiki/Soyuz_%28rocket_family%29 \"Soyuz (rocket family)\") were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the [ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\").{{cite news \\|title\\=SpaceX successfully launches first crew to orbit, ushering in new era of spaceflight \\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/30/21269703/spacex\\-launch\\-crew\\-dragon\\-nasa\\-orbit\\-successful \\|work\\=The Verge \\|date\\=30 May 2020}} [Luna 25](/wiki/Luna%C2%A025 \"Luna 25\") launched in August 2023, was the first of the [Luna\\-Glob](/wiki/Luna-Glob \"Luna-Glob\") Moon exploration programme.{{cite news \\|title\\=Russia launches Luna\\-25 moon lander, its 1st lunar probe in 47 years \\|url\\=https://www.space.com/russia\\-luna\\-25\\-moon\\-mission\\-launch\\-success \\|work\\=Space.com \\|date\\=10 August 2023 \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Tourism",
"{{Main\\|Tourism in Russia}}\n[thumb\\|[Peterhof Palace](/wiki/Peterhof_Palace \"Peterhof Palace\") in Saint Petersburg, a [UNESCO World Heritage Site](/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site \"UNESCO World Heritage Site\")](/wiki/File:Grand_Cascade_in_Peterhof_01.jpg \"Grand Cascade in Peterhof 01.jpg\")\nAccording to the [World Tourism Organization](/wiki/World_Tourism_Organization \"World Tourism Organization\"), Russia was the sixteenth\\-most visited country in the world, and the tenth\\-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24\\.6 million visits.{{Cite journal \\|url\\=https://www.e\\-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10\\.18111/wtobarometereng.2020\\.18\\.1\\.6 \\|title\\=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer \\|journal\\=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer English Version \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Tourism Organization]] (UNWTO) \\|year\\=2020 \\|volume\\=18 \\|page\\=18 \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.18111/wtobarometereng \\|issn\\=1728\\-9246 \\|issue\\=6}} According to [Federal Agency for Tourism](/wiki/Federal_Agency_for_Tourism_%28Russia%29 \"Federal Agency for Tourism (Russia)\"), the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24\\.4 million in 2019\\.{{cite web \\|script\\-title\\=ru:Выборочная статистическая информация, рассчитанная в соответствии с Официальной статистической методологией оценки числа въездных и выездных туристских поездок – Ростуризм \\|trans\\-title\\=Selected statistical information calculated in accordance with the Official Statistical Methodology for Estimating the Number of Inbound and Outbound Tourist Trips – Rostourism \\|url\\=https://tourism.gov.ru/contents/statistika/statisticheskie\\-pokazateli\\-vzaimnykh\\-poezdok\\-grazhdan\\-rossiyskoy\\-federatsii\\-i\\-grazhdan\\-inostrannykh\\-gosudarstv/vyborochnaya\\-statisticheskaya\\-informatsiya\\-rasschitannaya\\-v\\-sootvetstvii\\-s\\-ofitsialnoy\\-statisticheskoy\\-metodologiey\\-otsenki\\-chisla\\-vezdnykh\\-i\\-vyezdnykh\\-turistskikh\\-poezdok/ \\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2020 \\|website\\=tourism.gov.ru \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Federal Agency for Tourism (Russia)]] \\|language\\=ru \\|archive\\-date\\=22 January 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122202242/https://tourism.gov.ru/contents/statistika/statisticheskie\\-pokazateli\\-vzaimnykh\\-poezdok\\-grazhdan\\-rossiyskoy\\-federatsii\\-i\\-grazhdan\\-inostrannykh\\-gosudarstv/vyborochnaya\\-statisticheskaya\\-informatsiya\\-rasschitannaya\\-v\\-sootvetstvii\\-s\\-ofitsialnoy\\-statisticheskoy\\-metodologiey\\-otsenki\\-chisla\\-vezdnykh\\-i\\-vyezdnykh\\-turistskikh\\-poezdok/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 totaled $11\\.6 billion. In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4\\.8% of country's total GDP.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://knoema.com/atlas/Russian\\-Federation/topics/Tourism/Travel\\-and\\-Tourism\\-Total\\-Contribution\\-to\\-GDP/Contribution\\-of\\-travel\\-and\\-tourism\\-to\\-GDP\\-percent\\-of\\-GDP\\|title\\=Russian Federation Contribution of travel and tourism to GDP (% of GDP), 1995–2019 \\|website\\=Knoema}} In the wake of the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), tourism declined precipitously in 2020, to just over 6\\.3 million foreign visitors.{{Cite web \\|title\\=World Bank Open Data \\|url\\=https://data.worldbank.org/ \\|access\\-date\\=19 July 2024 \\|website\\=World Bank Open Data}}",
"Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the [Golden Ring of Russia](/wiki/Golden_Ring_of_Russia \"Golden Ring of Russia\"), a [theme route](/wiki/Theme_route \"Theme route\") of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the [Caucasus Mountains](/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains \"Caucasus Mountains\"),{{cite news \\|last\\=Tomb \\|first\\=Howard \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/27/travel/getting\\-to\\-the\\-top\\-in\\-the\\-caucasus.html \\|title\\=Getting to the Top In the Caucasus \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=27 August 1989 \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2021\\|url\\-access\\=limited}} and journeys on the famous [Trans\\-Siberian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway \"Trans-Siberian Railway\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.e\\-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112082549/http://www.e\\-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2015 \\|title\\=Tourism Highlights 2014 \\|publisher\\=UNWTO (World Tourism Organization) \\|year\\=2014 \\|access\\-date\\=20 January 2015}} Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include [Red Square](/wiki/Red_Square \"Red Square\"), the [Peterhof Palace](/wiki/Peterhof_Palace \"Peterhof Palace\"), the [Kazan Kremlin](/wiki/Kazan_Kremlin \"Kazan Kremlin\"), the [Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius](/wiki/Trinity_Lavra_of_St._Sergius \"Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius\") and Lake Baikal.{{cite web \\|last\\=Vlasov \\|first\\=Artem \\|date\\=17 December 2018\\|script\\-title\\=ru:Названы самые популярные достопримечательности России\\|trans\\-title\\=The most popular sights of Russia are named \\|url\\=https://iz.ru/824446/2018\\-12\\-17/nazvany\\-samye\\-populiarnye\\-dostoprimechatelnosti\\-rossii \\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Izvestia]] \\|language\\=ru}}",
"Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern [megacity](/wiki/Megacity \"Megacity\"); it retains classical and Soviet\\-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and [modern skyscrapers](/wiki/Moscow_International_Business_Center \"Moscow International Business Center\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Sullivan \\|first\\=Paul \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow\\-travel\\-guide/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow\\-travel\\-guide/ \\|archive\\-date\\=10 January 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=48 hours in... Moscow, an insider guide to Russia's mighty metropolis \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\|date\\=7 March 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2021}}{{cbignore}} [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"), the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, [white nights](/wiki/White_Nights_Festival \"White Nights Festival\"), crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.{{cite news \\|last\\=Hammer \\|first\\=Joshua \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=3 June 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/05/travel/russias\\-white\\-nights\\-in\\-st\\-petersburg.html \\|title\\=White Nights of St. Petersburg, Russia \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2021\\|url\\-access\\=limited}} Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the [State Russian](/wiki/Russian_Museum \"Russian Museum\"), the [State Hermitage](/wiki/Hermitage_Museum \"Hermitage Museum\"), and the [Tretyakov Gallery](/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery \"Tretyakov Gallery\"); and for theatres such as the [Bolshoi](/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre \"Bolshoi Theatre\") and the [Mariinsky](/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre \"Mariinsky Theatre\"). The [Moscow Kremlin](/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin \"Moscow Kremlin\") and the [Saint Basil's Cathedral](/wiki/Saint_Basil%27s_Cathedral \"Saint Basil's Cathedral\") are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow\\|url\\=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2022\\|website\\=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}",
""
] |
*Strictly Come Dancing*
-----------------------
{{BLP unreferenced section\|date\=September 2018}}
### Highest and lowest scoring performances per dance
| Dance | Partner | Highest | Partner | Lowest |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **[American Smooth](/wiki/American_Smooth "American Smooth")** | Denise Van OutenPamela Stephenson | 37 | Zöe Lucker | 33 |
| **[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 "Cha-cha-cha (dance)")** | Cherie LunghiPamela Stephenson | 32 | Vanessa Feltz | 19 |
| **[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 "Charleston (dance)")** | Denise Van Outen | 40 | Alex Jones | 29 |
| **[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot "Foxtrot")** | Cherie LunghiZöe LuckerPamela Stephenson | 33 | Georgina Bouzova | 26 |
| **[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)")** | Denise Van Outen | 39 | 18 |
| **[Paso Doble](/wiki/Pasodoble "Pasodoble")** | 36 | Alex JonesCherie LunghiZöe Lucker | 31 |
| **[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep "Quickstep")** | Pamela Stephenson | 40 | Gabby Logan | 29 |
| **[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba "Rhumba")** | Denise Van Outen | 38 | Georgina Bouzova | 14 |
| **[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 "Salsa (dance)")** | Denise Van OutenPamela Stephenson | 32 | Cherie Lunghi | 26 |
| **[Samba](/wiki/Samba "Samba")** | Zöe Lucker | Gabby Logan | 30 |
| **[Showdance](/wiki/Showdance "Showdance")** | Denise Van Outen | 40 | Pamela Stephenson | 37 |
| **[Tango](/wiki/Tango_%28ballroom%29 "Tango (ballroom)")** | 39 | Vanessa Feltz | 20 |
| **[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz "Viennese Waltz")** | Pamela Stephenson | 40 | Alex Jones | 32 |
| **[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz "Waltz")** | Cherie Lunghi | 36 | Vanessa Feltz | 23 |
| Series | Partner | Place | AverageScore |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 4 | [Georgina Bouzova](/wiki/Georgina_Bouzova "Georgina Bouzova") | 10th | 19\.3 |
| 5 | [Gabby Logan](/wiki/Gabby_Logan "Gabby Logan") | 11th | 30\.0 |
| 6 | [Cherie Lunghi](/wiki/Cherie_Lunghi "Cherie Lunghi") | 8th | 32\.4 |
| 7 | [Zöe Lucker](/wiki/Z%C3%B6e_Lucker "Zöe Lucker") | 10th | 31\.4 |
| 8 | [Pamela Stephenson](/wiki/Pamela_Stephenson "Pamela Stephenson") | 3rd | 35\.1 |
| 9 | [Alex Jones](/wiki/Alex_Jones_%28Welsh_presenter%29 "Alex Jones (Welsh presenter)") | 5th | 30\.3 |
| 10 | [Denise van Outen](/wiki/Denise_van_Outen "Denise van Outen") | 2nd | 35\.1 |
| 11 | [Vanessa Feltz](/wiki/Vanessa_Feltz "Vanessa Feltz") | 14th | 20\.7 |
### Series 4 (2006\)
In his [first series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_4%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 4)") as a *Strictly* professional, Jordan partnered *[Casualty](/wiki/Casualty_%28TV_series%29 "Casualty (TV series)")* actress [Georgina Bouzova](/wiki/Georgina_Bouzova "Georgina Bouzova").
|**Week \#**
**Dance**/**Song**
**Judges' scores**
**Result**
|
|[Craig Revel Horwood](/wiki/Craig_Revel_Horwood "Craig Revel Horwood")
[Len Goodman](/wiki/Len_Goodman "Len Goodman")
[Arlene Phillips](/wiki/Arlene_Phillips "Arlene Phillips")
[Bruno Tonioli](/wiki/Bruno_Tonioli "Bruno Tonioli")
Total
|
|2
[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba "Rhumba") / [Let's Get It On](/wiki/Let%27s_Get_It_On "Let's Get It On")
3
5
2
4
{{red\|''14''}}
Bottom two
|
|3
[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)") / [Burning Love](/wiki/Burning_Love "Burning Love")
3
6
3
6
{{red\|''18''}}
Bottom two
|
|4
[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot "Foxtrot") / [Have You Met Miss Jones?](/wiki/Have_You_Met_Miss_Jones%3F "Have You Met Miss Jones?")
5
8
6
7
26
Eliminated
* Series average for Georgina and James: 19\.3
### Series 5 (2007\)
In the [fifth series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_5%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 5)") of *Strictly*, Jordan was partnered by [BBC Sport](/wiki/BBC_Sport "BBC Sport") presenter [Gabby Logan](/wiki/Gabby_Logan "Gabby Logan"), whose [rugby union](/wiki/Rugby_union "Rugby union") player husband [Kenny Logan](/wiki/Kenny_Logan "Kenny Logan") was partnered by [Ola Jordan](/wiki/Ola_Jordan "Ola Jordan"). This was the first time two married couples had competed against each other. Gabby and James were voted out in Week 4 of the competition,{{Cite web\|url\=http://strictlydancing.utopian\-totality.co.uk/series\-5\-celebrities/gabby\-logan\-blasts\-back.html\|title \= Utopian\-totality.co.uk}} as he did in the previous series while Kenny and Ola were voted out in Week 9 (ending up in 5th place).
|**Week \#**
**Dance**/**Song**
**Judges' scores**
**Result**
|
|Craig Revel Horwood
Len Goodman
Arlene Phillips
Bruno Tonioli
Total
|
|2
[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep "Quickstep") / [Things](/wiki/Things_%28Bobby_Darin_song%29 "Things (Bobby Darin song)")
8
7
7
7
29
Safe
|
|3
[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)") / [Saturday Night's Alright](/wiki/Saturday_Night%27s_Alright_%28For_Fighting%29 "Saturday Night's Alright (For Fighting)")
8
8
7
8
31
Safe
|
|4
[Samba](/wiki/Samba "Samba") / [Eso Beso (That Kiss)](/wiki/Paul_Anka "Paul Anka")
7
8
7
8
30
Eliminated
* Series average for Gabby and James: 30\.0
### Series 6 (2008\)
In the [sixth series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_6%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 6)") of *Strictly Come Dancing*, James Jordan danced with actress [Cherie Lunghi](/wiki/Cherie_Lunghi "Cherie Lunghi"), while Ola's partner was the GMTV presenter [Andrew Castle](/wiki/Andrew_Castle "Andrew Castle"). After having exited so early in his previous series, James was concerned he was under a "four\-week curse", which was then broken. He and Lunghi were voted off in Week 9, in a dance\-off against [Lisa Snowdon](/wiki/Lisa_Snowdon "Lisa Snowdon") and her partner [Brendan Cole](/wiki/Brendan_Cole "Brendan Cole"). In January–February 2009, Jordan also danced with Lunghi on the Strictly Come Dancing Tour 2009\.
|**Week \#**
**Dance**/**Song**
**Judges' scores**
**Result**
|
|Craig Revel Horwood
Len Goodman
Arlene Phillips
Bruno Tonioli
Total
|2
[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot "Foxtrot") / [Sweet About Me](/wiki/Sweet_About_Me "Sweet About Me")
8
9
8
8
{{green\|'''33'''}}
Safe
|
|4
[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba "Rhumba") / [Songbird](/wiki/Songbird_%28Fleetwood_Mac_song%29 "Songbird (Fleetwood Mac song)")
9
8
9
9
{{green\|'''35'''}}
Safe
|
|5
[American Smooth](/wiki/American_Smooth "American Smooth") / [Layla](/wiki/Layla_%28song%29 "Layla (song)")
7
9
9
9
34
Safe
|
|6
[Paso Doble](/wiki/Paso_Doble "Paso Doble") / [Amparito Roca](/wiki/Amparito_Roca "Amparito Roca")
7
8
8
8
31
Safe
|
|7
[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 "Salsa (dance)") / [Oye Mi Canto (Hear My Voice)](/wiki/Oye_Mi_Canto_%28Hear_My_Voice%29 "Oye Mi Canto (Hear My Voice)")
6
7
6
7
26
Safe
|
|8
[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz_%28dance%29 "Waltz (dance)") / [I Wonder Why](/wiki/I_Wonder_Why "I Wonder Why")
9
9
9
9
{{green\|'''36'''}}
Safe
|
|9
[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 "Cha-cha-cha (dance)") / [Play That Funky Music](/wiki/Play_That_Funky_Music "Play That Funky Music")
7
8
8
9
32
Eliminated
* Series average for Cherie and James: 32\.4
### Series 7 (2009\)
In [series 7](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_7%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 7)"), he was partnered by actress [Zöe Lucker](/wiki/Z%C3%B6e_Lucker "Zöe Lucker") but they were eliminated in week 7\. Jordan stated that "winning that trophy is my dream but I wouldn't give up this wonderful lady for that ball." Eventually, wife Ola won the competition that year, partnered with presenter [Chris Hollins](/wiki/Chris_J._Hollins "Chris J. Hollins").
| Week \#
Dance/Song
Judges' score
Result
| Craig Revel Horwood
Len Goodman
[Alesha Dixon](/wiki/Alesha_Dixon "Alesha Dixon")
Bruno Tonioli
Total
| 2
[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz "Waltz") / [Some Day My Prince Will Come](/wiki/Some_Day_My_Prince_Will_Come "Some Day My Prince Will Come")
[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba "Rhumba") / [Out of Reach](/wiki/Out_of_Reach_%28song%29 "Out of Reach (song)")
7
8
8
7
7
8
8
8
30
31
Safe
| 3
[Paso Doble](/wiki/Paso_Doble "Paso Doble") / [You Got the Love](/wiki/You_Got_the_Love "You Got the Love")
7
8
8
8
31
Safe
| 4
[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot "Foxtrot") / [This Will Be (An Everlasting Love)](/wiki/This_Will_Be_%28An_Everlasting_Love%29 "This Will Be (An Everlasting Love)")
8
9
8
8
33
Safe
| 5
[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)") / [Tainted Love](/wiki/Tainted_Love "Tainted Love")
7
8
8
7
30
Bottom two
| 6
[American Smooth](/wiki/Glossary_of_partner_dance_terms "Glossary of partner dance terms") / [My Girl](/wiki/My_Girl_%28The_Temptations_song%29 "My Girl (The Temptations song)")
8
8
9
8
33
Safe
| 7
[Samba](/wiki/Samba_%28ballroom_dance%29 "Samba (ballroom dance)") / [Boogie Nights](/wiki/Boogie_Nights "Boogie Nights")
7
8
9
8
32
Eliminated
* Series average for Zöe and James: 31\.4
### Series 8 (2010\)
In [the 2010 series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_8%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 8)"), Jordan was partnered with comedian and psychologist [Pamela Stephenson](/wiki/Pamela_Stephenson "Pamela Stephenson"). Despite competing at the age of 61, Pamela quickly defied all odds by topping the judges' leaderboard for the first three weeks of the competition, and for six weeks in total, a record for the series. In week 10, their [Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz "Viennese Waltz") received the first ever perfect 40 from the judges for the series. The pair made it to the *Strictly* final, and despite never being in the bottom two even once before and were the highest\-scoring couple throughout the evening, they eventually finished in third place behind actress [Kara Tointon](/wiki/Kara_Tointon "Kara Tointon") and presenter and former gymnast [Matt Baker](/wiki/Matt_Baker_%28television_presenter%29 "Matt Baker (television presenter)"). Pamela and James collected three perfect scores from the judges throughout the series, a record at the time they shared with [Lisa Snowdon](/wiki/Lisa_Snowdon "Lisa Snowdon") and [Brendan Cole](/wiki/Brendan_Cole "Brendan Cole") in [series 6](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_6%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 6)").
* Series average: 35\.1
* **Bold** scores indicate the occasion where their dances were the highest\-scoring dances of the respective weeks.
|**Week \#**
**Dance**/**Song**
**Judges' scores**
**Result**
|
|Craig Revel Horwood
Len Goodman
Alesha Dixon
Bruno Tonioli
Total
|
|1
[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz "Waltz") / [If I Ain't Got You](/wiki/If_I_Ain%27t_Got_You "If I Ain't Got You")
7
8
8
8
{{green\|'''31'''}}
Safe
|
|2
[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 "Salsa (dance)") / [Dr. Beat](/wiki/Dr._Beat "Dr. Beat")
8
8
8
8
{{green\|'''32'''}}
Safe
|
|3
[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba "Rhumba") / [Make You Feel My Love](/wiki/Make_You_Feel_My_Love "Make You Feel My Love")
9
8
9
9
{{green\|'''35'''}}
Safe
|
|4
[Tango](/wiki/Tango_%28dance%29 "Tango (dance)") / [Love is the Drug](/wiki/Love_is_the_Drug "Love is the Drug")
8
8
9
9
34
Safe
|
|5
[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)") / [Devil Gate Drive](/wiki/Devil_Gate_Drive "Devil Gate Drive")
6
7
7
7
27
Safe
|
|6
Foxtrot / [Let There Be Love](/wiki/Let_There_Be_Love_%281940_song%29 "Let There Be Love (1940 song)")
8
9
8
8
33
Safe
|
|7
[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 "Cha-cha-cha (dance)") / [Money (That's What I Want)](/wiki/Money_%28That%27s_What_I_Want%29 "Money (That's What I Want)")
8
8
8
8
32
Safe
|
|8
[American Smooth](/wiki/Glossary_of_partner_dance_terms "Glossary of partner dance terms") / [Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps](/wiki/Perhaps%2C_Perhaps%2C_Perhaps "Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps")
8
9
10
10
37
Safe
|
|9
[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 "Charleston (dance)") / [Let's Misbehave](/wiki/Let%27s_Misbehave "Let's Misbehave")
9
9
10
10
{{green\|'''38'''}}
Safe
|
|10
[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz "Viennese Waltz") / [Unchained Melody](/wiki/Unchained_Melody "Unchained Melody")
10
10
10
10
{{green\|'''40'''}}
Safe
|
|11
[Paso Doble](/wiki/Pasodoble "Pasodoble") / [Bad Romance](/wiki/Bad_Romance "Bad Romance")
[Swing](/wiki/Swing_%28dance%29 "Swing (dance)")\-a\-thon / [In the Mood](/wiki/In_the_Mood "In the Mood")
[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep "Quickstep") / [Steppin' Out with My Baby](/wiki/Steppin%27_Out_with_My_Baby "Steppin' Out with My Baby")
8
Awarded
10
9
3
10
9
Extra
10
9
Points
10
35
38
{{green\|'''40'''}}
Safe
|
|12
[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz "Viennese Waltz") / [Unchained Melody](/wiki/Unchained_Melody "Unchained Melody")
[Showdance](/wiki/Concert_dance "Concert dance") / [The Time of My Life](/wiki/%28I%27ve_Had%29_The_Time_of_My_Life "(I've Had) The Time of My Life")
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
10
{{green\|'''40'''}}
{{green\|'''37'''}}
Third Place
### Series 9 (2011\)
*[The One Show](/wiki/The_One_Show "The One Show")* presenter [Alex Jones](/wiki/Alex_Jones_%28Welsh_presenter%29 "Alex Jones (Welsh presenter)") was James Jordan's partner in the [2011 series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_9%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 9)"). Jordan and judge [Craig Revel Horwood](/wiki/Craig_Revel_Horwood "Craig Revel Horwood") were involved in a minor feud,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/s104/strictly\-come\-dancing/news/a353660/strictly\-craig\-revel\-horwood\-james\-jordan\-continue\-charleston\-spat.html\|title\='Strictly' Horwood, Jordan continue spat\|website\=\[\[Digital Spy]]\|date\=30 November 2011}} as a 6 for Jones' Charleston in week 9 caused the couple to flutter down the leaderboard, as opposed to their top position the week before. The tough score outraged the professional dancer as he reportedly stormed out of the studio fuming, feeling the score to be undeserved and personal against James. Horwood further defended his judgement by claiming himself to be "tougher" as the competition goes. This feud was further reiterated when Horwood dropped James and Ola Jordan from the *Strictly* tour later in the year. Alex Jones reached the semi\-final, eventually coming fifth in the competition.
| Week \#
Dance/Song
Judges' score
Result
| Craig Revel Horwood
Len Goodman
Alesha Dixon
Bruno Tonioli
Total
| 1
[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 "Cha-cha-cha (dance)") / [When Love Takes Over](/wiki/When_Love_Takes_Over "When Love Takes Over")
4
6
6
6
22
Safe
| 2
[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot "Foxtrot") / [Have You Met Miss Jones?](/wiki/Have_You_Met_Miss_Jones%3F "Have You Met Miss Jones?")
6
8
7
8
29
Safe
| 3
[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz "Viennese Waltz") / [Memory](/wiki/Memory_%28Cats_song%29 "Memory (Cats song)")
8
8
8
8
32
Safe
| 4
[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba "Rhumba") / [Run](/wiki/Run_%28Snow_Patrol_song%29 "Run (Snow Patrol song)")
4
7
7
7
25
Safe
| 5
[Paso Doble](/wiki/Pasodoble "Pasodoble") / [Bring Me to Life](/wiki/Bring_Me_to_Life "Bring Me to Life")
7
8
8
8
31
Safe
| 6
[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep "Quickstep") / [It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)](/wiki/It_Don%27t_Mean_a_Thing_%28If_It_Ain%27t_Got_That_Swing%29 "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)")
7
8 |
8
8
31
Safe
| 7
[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)") / [River Deep, Mountain High](/wiki/River_Deep%2C_Mountain_High "River Deep, Mountain High")
7
8
8
8
31
Safe
| 8
[Tango](/wiki/Tango "Tango") / [Relax](/wiki/Relax_%28song%29 "Relax (song)")
8
9
9
9
{{green\|'''35'''}}
Safe
| 9
[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 "Charleston (dance)") / [Me and My Baby](/wiki/Chicago_%28musical%29 "Chicago (musical)")
[Swing](/wiki/Swing_%28dance%29 "Swing (dance)")\-a\-thon
6
Awarded
7
5
8
Extra
8
Points
29
34
Safe
| 10
[American Smooth](/wiki/Glossary_of_partner_dance_terms "Glossary of partner dance terms") / [Pretty Woman](/wiki/Pretty_Woman "Pretty Woman")
8
8
9
9
34
Safe
| 11
[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz "Waltz") / [(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman](/wiki/%28You_Make_Me_Feel_Like%29_A_Natural_Woman "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman")
[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 "Salsa (dance)") / [1234](/wiki/1234_%28Feist_song%29 "1234 (Feist song)")
7
7
9
8
9
8
9
8
{{red\|''34''}}
{{red\|''31''}}
Eliminated
{{Note\|A}}[Jennifer Grey](/wiki/Jennifer_Grey "Jennifer Grey"), the winner of the eleventh series of *[Dancing with the Stars](/wiki/Dancing_with_the_Stars_%28U.S._TV_series%29 "Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series)")*, the American version of 'Strictly', was a guest judge, replacing [Len Goodman](/wiki/Len_Goodman "Len Goodman") while he had a week off.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/s104/strictly\-come\-dancing/news/a346535/dirty\-dancing\-jennifer\-grey\-to\-guest\-judge\-strictly\-come\-dancing.html\|title\=Jennifer Grey to guest judge 'Strictly'\|website\=\[\[Digital Spy]]\|date\=20 October 2011}}
* Series average for Alex and James: 30\.3
### Series 10 (2012\)
For its [tenth series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_10%29 "Strictly Come Dancing (series 10)") in September 2012, Jordan was partners with television presenter, actress and singer [Denise van Outen](/wiki/Denise_van_Outen "Denise van Outen"). Surpassing his feat with Pamela Stephenson, he secured the top position of the leaderboard 7 times with Denise, including 4 consecutive top positions. For the second time ever, he reached the final but placed his best in the competition overall, with Outen and Jordan finishing as runners\-up with singer [Kimberley Walsh](/wiki/Kimberley_Walsh "Kimberley Walsh") and her partner [Pasha Kovalev](/wiki/Pasha_Kovalev "Pasha Kovalev"), behind the winners gymnast [Louis Smith](/wiki/Louis_Smith_%28gymnast%29 "Louis Smith (gymnast)") and professional partner [Flavia Cacace](/wiki/Flavia_Cacace "Flavia Cacace").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/tv\-and\-radio/2012/dec/23/strictly\-come\-dancing\-tv\-ratings\|title\=Strictly Come Dancing final watched by 14 million\|agency\=Press Association\|date\=23 December 2012\|newspaper\=The Guardian}}
|**Week \#**
**Dance**/**Song**
**Judges' scores**
**Result**
|
|Craig Revel Horwood
Darcey Bussell
Len Goodman
Bruno Tonioli
Total
|
|1
[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz "Waltz") / [With You I'm Born Again](/wiki/With_You_I%27m_Born_Again "With You I'm Born Again")
6
6
6
7
25
Safe
|
|2
[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)") / [Tutti Frutti](/wiki/Tutti_Frutti_%28song%29 "Tutti Frutti (song)")
8
8
8
8
{{green\|'''32'''}}
Safe
|
|3
[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot "Foxtrot") / [You've Got a Friend in Me](/wiki/You%27ve_Got_a_Friend_in_Me "You've Got a Friend in Me")
8
8
8
8
{{green\|'''32'''}}
Safe
|
|4
[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 "Cha-cha-cha (dance)") / [Super Freak](/wiki/Super_Freak "Super Freak")
7
7
7
7
28
Safe
|
|5
[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz "Viennese Waltz") / [At Last](/wiki/At_Last "At Last")
9
8
9
9
{{green\|'''35'''}}
Safe
|
|6
[Paso Doble](/wiki/Pasodoble "Pasodoble") / [Seven Nation Army](/wiki/Seven_Nation_Army "Seven Nation Army")
9
9
9
9
{{green\|'''36'''}}
Safe
|
|7
[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 "Charleston (dance)") / [Walk Like an Egyptian](/wiki/Walk_Like_an_Egyptian "Walk Like an Egyptian")
9
10
10
10
{{green\|'''39'''}}
Safe
|
|8
[American Smooth](/wiki/Glossary_of_partner_dance_terms "Glossary of partner dance terms") / [Imagine](/wiki/Imagine_%28John_Lennon_song%29 "Imagine (John Lennon song)")
9
9
9
10
{{green\|'''37'''}}
Safe
|
|9
[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 "Salsa (dance)") / [Rhythm of the Night](/wiki/Moulin_Rouge%21%23Soundtrack "Moulin Rouge!#Soundtrack")
8
8
8
8
32
Safe
|
|10
Dance Fusion ([Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)")/[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep "Quickstep")) / [Reet Petite](/wiki/Reet_Petite "Reet Petite")
8
9
9
9
35
Bottom two
|
|11
[Tango](/wiki/Tango "Tango") / [Roxanne](/wiki/Roxanne_%28The_Police_song%29 "Roxanne (The Police song)")
[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba "Rhumba") / [The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face](/wiki/The_First_Time_Ever_I_Saw_Your_Face "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face")
9
9
10
9
10
10
10
10
{{green\|'''39'''}}
38
Bottom two
|
|12
[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 "Jive (dance)") / [Tutti Frutti](/wiki/Tutti_Frutti_%28New_Order_song%29 "Tutti Frutti (New Order song)")
[Showdance](/wiki/Concert_dance "Concert dance") / [What a Feeling](/wiki/Flashdance..._What_a_Feeling "Flashdance... What a Feeling")
[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 "Charleston (dance)") / [Walk Like an Egyptian](/wiki/Walk_Like_an_Egyptian "Walk Like an Egyptian")
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
{{green\|'''39'''}}
{{green\|'''40'''}}
{{green\|'''40'''}}
Runner\-up
* Series average for Denise and James: 35\.1
### Series 11 (2013\)
On 7 September 2013, *Strictly Come Dancing* Jordan was partnered with [Vanessa Feltz](/wiki/Vanessa_Feltz "Vanessa Feltz"). The pair were eliminated in the third round.
|**Week \#**
**Dance**/**Song**
**Judges' scores**
**Result**
|
|Craig Revel Horwood
Darcey Bussell
Len Goodman
Bruno Tonioli
Total
|
|1
[Cha\-Cha\-Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 "Cha-cha-cha (dance)") / [That Don't Impress Me Much](/wiki/That_Don%27t_Impress_Me_Much "That Don't Impress Me Much")
3
5
6
5
19
No Elimination
|
|2
[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz "Waltz") / [Run to You](/wiki/Run_to_You_%28Whitney_Houston_song%29 "Run to You (Whitney Houston song)")
5
6
6
6
23
Safe
|
|3
[Tango](/wiki/Tango "Tango") / [Lay All Your Love on Me](/wiki/Lay_All_Your_Love_on_Me "Lay All Your Love on Me")
3
5
6
6
20
Eliminated
|
[
"*Strictly Come Dancing*\n-----------------------",
"{{BLP unreferenced section\\|date\\=September 2018}}",
"### Highest and lowest scoring performances per dance",
"",
"| Dance | Partner | Highest | Partner | Lowest |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **[American Smooth](/wiki/American_Smooth \"American Smooth\")** | Denise Van OutenPamela Stephenson | 37 | Zöe Lucker | 33 |\n| **[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 \"Cha-cha-cha (dance)\")** | Cherie LunghiPamela Stephenson | 32 | Vanessa Feltz | 19 |\n| **[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 \"Charleston (dance)\")** | Denise Van Outen | 40 | Alex Jones | 29 |\n| **[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot \"Foxtrot\")** | Cherie LunghiZöe LuckerPamela Stephenson | 33 | Georgina Bouzova | 26 |\n| **[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\")** | Denise Van Outen | 39 | 18 |\n| **[Paso Doble](/wiki/Pasodoble \"Pasodoble\")** | 36 | Alex JonesCherie LunghiZöe Lucker | 31 |\n| **[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep \"Quickstep\")** | Pamela Stephenson | 40 | Gabby Logan | 29 |\n| **[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba \"Rhumba\")** | Denise Van Outen | 38 | Georgina Bouzova | 14 |\n| **[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 \"Salsa (dance)\")** | Denise Van OutenPamela Stephenson | 32 | Cherie Lunghi | 26 |\n| **[Samba](/wiki/Samba \"Samba\")** | Zöe Lucker | Gabby Logan | 30 |\n| **[Showdance](/wiki/Showdance \"Showdance\")** | Denise Van Outen | 40 | Pamela Stephenson | 37 |\n| **[Tango](/wiki/Tango_%28ballroom%29 \"Tango (ballroom)\")** | 39 | Vanessa Feltz | 20 |\n| **[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz \"Viennese Waltz\")** | Pamela Stephenson | 40 | Alex Jones | 32 |\n| **[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz \"Waltz\")** | Cherie Lunghi | 36 | Vanessa Feltz | 23 |",
"",
"| Series | Partner | Place | AverageScore |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 4 | [Georgina Bouzova](/wiki/Georgina_Bouzova \"Georgina Bouzova\") | 10th | 19\\.3 |\n| 5 | [Gabby Logan](/wiki/Gabby_Logan \"Gabby Logan\") | 11th | 30\\.0 |\n| 6 | [Cherie Lunghi](/wiki/Cherie_Lunghi \"Cherie Lunghi\") | 8th | 32\\.4 |\n| 7 | [Zöe Lucker](/wiki/Z%C3%B6e_Lucker \"Zöe Lucker\") | 10th | 31\\.4 |\n| 8 | [Pamela Stephenson](/wiki/Pamela_Stephenson \"Pamela Stephenson\") | 3rd | 35\\.1 |\n| 9 | [Alex Jones](/wiki/Alex_Jones_%28Welsh_presenter%29 \"Alex Jones (Welsh presenter)\") | 5th | 30\\.3 |\n| 10 | [Denise van Outen](/wiki/Denise_van_Outen \"Denise van Outen\") | 2nd | 35\\.1 |\n| 11 | [Vanessa Feltz](/wiki/Vanessa_Feltz \"Vanessa Feltz\") | 14th | 20\\.7 |",
"### Series 4 (2006\\)",
"In his [first series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_4%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 4)\") as a *Strictly* professional, Jordan partnered *[Casualty](/wiki/Casualty_%28TV_series%29 \"Casualty (TV series)\")* actress [Georgina Bouzova](/wiki/Georgina_Bouzova \"Georgina Bouzova\").",
"",
"|**Week \\#**",
"**Dance**/**Song**",
"**Judges' scores**",
"**Result**",
"|\n|[Craig Revel Horwood](/wiki/Craig_Revel_Horwood \"Craig Revel Horwood\")",
"[Len Goodman](/wiki/Len_Goodman \"Len Goodman\")",
"[Arlene Phillips](/wiki/Arlene_Phillips \"Arlene Phillips\")",
"[Bruno Tonioli](/wiki/Bruno_Tonioli \"Bruno Tonioli\")",
"Total",
"|\n|2",
"[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba \"Rhumba\") / [Let's Get It On](/wiki/Let%27s_Get_It_On \"Let's Get It On\")",
"3",
"5",
"2",
"4",
"{{red\\|''14''}}",
"Bottom two",
"|\n|3",
"[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\") / [Burning Love](/wiki/Burning_Love \"Burning Love\")",
"3",
"6",
"3",
"6",
"{{red\\|''18''}}",
"Bottom two",
"|\n|4",
"[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot \"Foxtrot\") / [Have You Met Miss Jones?](/wiki/Have_You_Met_Miss_Jones%3F \"Have You Met Miss Jones?\")",
"5",
"8",
"6",
"7",
"26",
"Eliminated",
"* Series average for Georgina and James: 19\\.3",
"### Series 5 (2007\\)",
"In the [fifth series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_5%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 5)\") of *Strictly*, Jordan was partnered by [BBC Sport](/wiki/BBC_Sport \"BBC Sport\") presenter [Gabby Logan](/wiki/Gabby_Logan \"Gabby Logan\"), whose [rugby union](/wiki/Rugby_union \"Rugby union\") player husband [Kenny Logan](/wiki/Kenny_Logan \"Kenny Logan\") was partnered by [Ola Jordan](/wiki/Ola_Jordan \"Ola Jordan\"). This was the first time two married couples had competed against each other. Gabby and James were voted out in Week 4 of the competition,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://strictlydancing.utopian\\-totality.co.uk/series\\-5\\-celebrities/gabby\\-logan\\-blasts\\-back.html\\|title \\= Utopian\\-totality.co.uk}} as he did in the previous series while Kenny and Ola were voted out in Week 9 (ending up in 5th place).",
"",
"|**Week \\#**",
"**Dance**/**Song**",
"**Judges' scores**",
"**Result**",
"|\n|Craig Revel Horwood",
"Len Goodman",
"Arlene Phillips",
"Bruno Tonioli",
"Total",
"|\n|2",
"[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep \"Quickstep\") / [Things](/wiki/Things_%28Bobby_Darin_song%29 \"Things (Bobby Darin song)\")",
"8",
"7",
"7",
"7",
"29",
"Safe",
"|\n|3",
"[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\") / [Saturday Night's Alright](/wiki/Saturday_Night%27s_Alright_%28For_Fighting%29 \"Saturday Night's Alright (For Fighting)\")",
"8",
"8",
"7",
"8",
"31",
"Safe",
"|\n|4",
"[Samba](/wiki/Samba \"Samba\") / [Eso Beso (That Kiss)](/wiki/Paul_Anka \"Paul Anka\")",
"7",
"8",
"7",
"8",
"30",
"Eliminated",
"* Series average for Gabby and James: 30\\.0",
"### Series 6 (2008\\)",
"In the [sixth series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_6%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 6)\") of *Strictly Come Dancing*, James Jordan danced with actress [Cherie Lunghi](/wiki/Cherie_Lunghi \"Cherie Lunghi\"), while Ola's partner was the GMTV presenter [Andrew Castle](/wiki/Andrew_Castle \"Andrew Castle\"). After having exited so early in his previous series, James was concerned he was under a \"four\\-week curse\", which was then broken. He and Lunghi were voted off in Week 9, in a dance\\-off against [Lisa Snowdon](/wiki/Lisa_Snowdon \"Lisa Snowdon\") and her partner [Brendan Cole](/wiki/Brendan_Cole \"Brendan Cole\"). In January–February 2009, Jordan also danced with Lunghi on the Strictly Come Dancing Tour 2009\\.",
"",
"|**Week \\#**",
"**Dance**/**Song**",
"**Judges' scores**",
"**Result**",
"|\n|Craig Revel Horwood",
"Len Goodman",
"Arlene Phillips",
"Bruno Tonioli",
"Total",
"|2",
"[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot \"Foxtrot\") / [Sweet About Me](/wiki/Sweet_About_Me \"Sweet About Me\")",
"8",
"9",
"8",
"8",
"{{green\\|'''33'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|4",
"[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba \"Rhumba\") / [Songbird](/wiki/Songbird_%28Fleetwood_Mac_song%29 \"Songbird (Fleetwood Mac song)\")",
"9",
"8",
"9",
"9",
"{{green\\|'''35'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|5",
"[American Smooth](/wiki/American_Smooth \"American Smooth\") / [Layla](/wiki/Layla_%28song%29 \"Layla (song)\")",
"7",
"9",
"9",
"9",
"34",
"Safe",
"|\n|6",
"[Paso Doble](/wiki/Paso_Doble \"Paso Doble\") / [Amparito Roca](/wiki/Amparito_Roca \"Amparito Roca\")",
"7",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"31",
"Safe",
"|\n|7",
"[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 \"Salsa (dance)\") / [Oye Mi Canto (Hear My Voice)](/wiki/Oye_Mi_Canto_%28Hear_My_Voice%29 \"Oye Mi Canto (Hear My Voice)\")",
"6",
"7",
"6",
"7",
"26",
"Safe",
"|\n|8",
"[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz_%28dance%29 \"Waltz (dance)\") / [I Wonder Why](/wiki/I_Wonder_Why \"I Wonder Why\")",
"9",
"9",
"9",
"9",
"{{green\\|'''36'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|9",
"[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 \"Cha-cha-cha (dance)\") / [Play That Funky Music](/wiki/Play_That_Funky_Music \"Play That Funky Music\")",
"7",
"8",
"8",
"9",
"32",
"Eliminated",
"* Series average for Cherie and James: 32\\.4",
"### Series 7 (2009\\)",
"In [series 7](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_7%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 7)\"), he was partnered by actress [Zöe Lucker](/wiki/Z%C3%B6e_Lucker \"Zöe Lucker\") but they were eliminated in week 7\\. Jordan stated that \"winning that trophy is my dream but I wouldn't give up this wonderful lady for that ball.\" Eventually, wife Ola won the competition that year, partnered with presenter [Chris Hollins](/wiki/Chris_J._Hollins \"Chris J. Hollins\").",
"",
"| Week \\#",
"Dance/Song",
"Judges' score",
"Result",
"| Craig Revel Horwood",
"Len Goodman",
"[Alesha Dixon](/wiki/Alesha_Dixon \"Alesha Dixon\")",
"Bruno Tonioli",
"Total",
"| 2",
"[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz \"Waltz\") / [Some Day My Prince Will Come](/wiki/Some_Day_My_Prince_Will_Come \"Some Day My Prince Will Come\") \n [Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba \"Rhumba\") / [Out of Reach](/wiki/Out_of_Reach_%28song%29 \"Out of Reach (song)\")",
"7 \n 8",
"8 \n 7",
"7 \n 8",
"8 \n 8",
"30 \n 31",
"Safe",
"| 3",
"[Paso Doble](/wiki/Paso_Doble \"Paso Doble\") / [You Got the Love](/wiki/You_Got_the_Love \"You Got the Love\")",
"7",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"31",
"Safe",
"| 4",
"[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot \"Foxtrot\") / [This Will Be (An Everlasting Love)](/wiki/This_Will_Be_%28An_Everlasting_Love%29 \"This Will Be (An Everlasting Love)\")",
"8",
"9",
"8",
"8",
"33",
"Safe",
"| 5",
"[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\") / [Tainted Love](/wiki/Tainted_Love \"Tainted Love\")",
"7",
"8",
"8",
"7",
"30",
"Bottom two",
"| 6",
"[American Smooth](/wiki/Glossary_of_partner_dance_terms \"Glossary of partner dance terms\") / [My Girl](/wiki/My_Girl_%28The_Temptations_song%29 \"My Girl (The Temptations song)\")",
"8",
"8",
"9",
"8",
"33",
"Safe",
"| 7",
"[Samba](/wiki/Samba_%28ballroom_dance%29 \"Samba (ballroom dance)\") / [Boogie Nights](/wiki/Boogie_Nights \"Boogie Nights\")",
"7",
"8",
"9",
"8",
"32",
"Eliminated",
"* Series average for Zöe and James: 31\\.4",
"### Series 8 (2010\\)",
"In [the 2010 series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_8%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 8)\"), Jordan was partnered with comedian and psychologist [Pamela Stephenson](/wiki/Pamela_Stephenson \"Pamela Stephenson\"). Despite competing at the age of 61, Pamela quickly defied all odds by topping the judges' leaderboard for the first three weeks of the competition, and for six weeks in total, a record for the series. In week 10, their [Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz \"Viennese Waltz\") received the first ever perfect 40 from the judges for the series. The pair made it to the *Strictly* final, and despite never being in the bottom two even once before and were the highest\\-scoring couple throughout the evening, they eventually finished in third place behind actress [Kara Tointon](/wiki/Kara_Tointon \"Kara Tointon\") and presenter and former gymnast [Matt Baker](/wiki/Matt_Baker_%28television_presenter%29 \"Matt Baker (television presenter)\"). Pamela and James collected three perfect scores from the judges throughout the series, a record at the time they shared with [Lisa Snowdon](/wiki/Lisa_Snowdon \"Lisa Snowdon\") and [Brendan Cole](/wiki/Brendan_Cole \"Brendan Cole\") in [series 6](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_6%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 6)\").",
"* Series average: 35\\.1\n* **Bold** scores indicate the occasion where their dances were the highest\\-scoring dances of the respective weeks.",
"|**Week \\#**",
"**Dance**/**Song**",
"**Judges' scores**",
"**Result**",
"|\n|Craig Revel Horwood",
"Len Goodman",
"Alesha Dixon",
"Bruno Tonioli",
"Total",
"|\n|1",
"[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz \"Waltz\") / [If I Ain't Got You](/wiki/If_I_Ain%27t_Got_You \"If I Ain't Got You\")",
"7",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"{{green\\|'''31'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|2",
"[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 \"Salsa (dance)\") / [Dr. Beat](/wiki/Dr._Beat \"Dr. Beat\")",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"{{green\\|'''32'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|3",
"[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba \"Rhumba\") / [Make You Feel My Love](/wiki/Make_You_Feel_My_Love \"Make You Feel My Love\")",
"9",
"8",
"9",
"9",
"{{green\\|'''35'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|4",
"[Tango](/wiki/Tango_%28dance%29 \"Tango (dance)\") / [Love is the Drug](/wiki/Love_is_the_Drug \"Love is the Drug\")",
"8",
"8",
"9",
"9",
"34",
"Safe",
"|\n|5",
"[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\") / [Devil Gate Drive](/wiki/Devil_Gate_Drive \"Devil Gate Drive\")",
"6",
"7",
"7",
"7",
"27",
"Safe",
"|\n|6",
"Foxtrot / [Let There Be Love](/wiki/Let_There_Be_Love_%281940_song%29 \"Let There Be Love (1940 song)\")",
"8",
"9",
"8",
"8",
"33",
"Safe",
"|\n|7",
"[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 \"Cha-cha-cha (dance)\") / [Money (That's What I Want)](/wiki/Money_%28That%27s_What_I_Want%29 \"Money (That's What I Want)\")",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"32",
"Safe",
"|\n|8",
"[American Smooth](/wiki/Glossary_of_partner_dance_terms \"Glossary of partner dance terms\") / [Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps](/wiki/Perhaps%2C_Perhaps%2C_Perhaps \"Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps\")",
"8",
"9",
"10",
"10",
"37",
"Safe",
"|\n|9",
"[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 \"Charleston (dance)\") / [Let's Misbehave](/wiki/Let%27s_Misbehave \"Let's Misbehave\")",
"9",
"9",
"10",
"10",
"{{green\\|'''38'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|10",
"[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz \"Viennese Waltz\") / [Unchained Melody](/wiki/Unchained_Melody \"Unchained Melody\")",
"10",
"10",
"10",
"10",
"{{green\\|'''40'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|11",
"[Paso Doble](/wiki/Pasodoble \"Pasodoble\") / [Bad Romance](/wiki/Bad_Romance \"Bad Romance\") \n [Swing](/wiki/Swing_%28dance%29 \"Swing (dance)\")\\-a\\-thon / [In the Mood](/wiki/In_the_Mood \"In the Mood\") \n [Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep \"Quickstep\") / [Steppin' Out with My Baby](/wiki/Steppin%27_Out_with_My_Baby \"Steppin' Out with My Baby\")",
"8 \n Awarded \n 10",
"9 \n 3 \n 10",
"9 \n Extra \n 10",
"9 \n Points \n 10",
"35 \n38 \n {{green\\|'''40'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|12",
"[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz \"Viennese Waltz\") / [Unchained Melody](/wiki/Unchained_Melody \"Unchained Melody\") \n [Showdance](/wiki/Concert_dance \"Concert dance\") / [The Time of My Life](/wiki/%28I%27ve_Had%29_The_Time_of_My_Life \"(I've Had) The Time of My Life\")",
"10 \n 9",
"10 \n 9",
"10 \n 9",
"10 \n 10",
"{{green\\|'''40'''}} \n {{green\\|'''37'''}}",
"Third Place",
"### Series 9 (2011\\)",
"*[The One Show](/wiki/The_One_Show \"The One Show\")* presenter [Alex Jones](/wiki/Alex_Jones_%28Welsh_presenter%29 \"Alex Jones (Welsh presenter)\") was James Jordan's partner in the [2011 series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_9%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 9)\"). Jordan and judge [Craig Revel Horwood](/wiki/Craig_Revel_Horwood \"Craig Revel Horwood\") were involved in a minor feud,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/s104/strictly\\-come\\-dancing/news/a353660/strictly\\-craig\\-revel\\-horwood\\-james\\-jordan\\-continue\\-charleston\\-spat.html\\|title\\='Strictly' Horwood, Jordan continue spat\\|website\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\\|date\\=30 November 2011}} as a 6 for Jones' Charleston in week 9 caused the couple to flutter down the leaderboard, as opposed to their top position the week before. The tough score outraged the professional dancer as he reportedly stormed out of the studio fuming, feeling the score to be undeserved and personal against James. Horwood further defended his judgement by claiming himself to be \"tougher\" as the competition goes. This feud was further reiterated when Horwood dropped James and Ola Jordan from the *Strictly* tour later in the year. Alex Jones reached the semi\\-final, eventually coming fifth in the competition.",
"",
"| Week \\#",
"Dance/Song",
"Judges' score",
"Result",
"| Craig Revel Horwood",
"Len Goodman",
"Alesha Dixon",
"Bruno Tonioli",
"Total",
"| 1",
"[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 \"Cha-cha-cha (dance)\") / [When Love Takes Over](/wiki/When_Love_Takes_Over \"When Love Takes Over\")",
"4",
"6",
"6",
"6",
"22",
"Safe",
"| 2",
"[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot \"Foxtrot\") / [Have You Met Miss Jones?](/wiki/Have_You_Met_Miss_Jones%3F \"Have You Met Miss Jones?\")",
"6",
"8",
"7",
"8",
"29",
"Safe",
"| 3",
"[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz \"Viennese Waltz\") / [Memory](/wiki/Memory_%28Cats_song%29 \"Memory (Cats song)\")",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"32",
"Safe",
"| 4",
"[Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba \"Rhumba\") / [Run](/wiki/Run_%28Snow_Patrol_song%29 \"Run (Snow Patrol song)\")",
"4",
"7",
"7",
"7",
"25",
"Safe",
"| 5",
"[Paso Doble](/wiki/Pasodoble \"Pasodoble\") / [Bring Me to Life](/wiki/Bring_Me_to_Life \"Bring Me to Life\")",
"7",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"31",
"Safe",
"| 6",
"[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep \"Quickstep\") / [It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)](/wiki/It_Don%27t_Mean_a_Thing_%28If_It_Ain%27t_Got_That_Swing%29 \"It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)\")",
"7",
"8 |\n 8",
"8",
"31",
"Safe",
"| 7",
"[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\") / [River Deep, Mountain High](/wiki/River_Deep%2C_Mountain_High \"River Deep, Mountain High\")",
"7",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"31",
"Safe",
"| 8",
"[Tango](/wiki/Tango \"Tango\") / [Relax](/wiki/Relax_%28song%29 \"Relax (song)\")",
"8",
"9",
"9",
"9",
"{{green\\|'''35'''}}",
"Safe",
"| 9",
"[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 \"Charleston (dance)\") / [Me and My Baby](/wiki/Chicago_%28musical%29 \"Chicago (musical)\") \n [Swing](/wiki/Swing_%28dance%29 \"Swing (dance)\")\\-a\\-thon",
"6 \n Awarded",
"7 \n 5",
"8 \n Extra",
"8 \n Points",
"29 \n34",
"Safe",
"| 10",
"[American Smooth](/wiki/Glossary_of_partner_dance_terms \"Glossary of partner dance terms\") / [Pretty Woman](/wiki/Pretty_Woman \"Pretty Woman\")",
"8",
"8",
"9",
"9",
"34",
"Safe",
"| 11",
"[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz \"Waltz\") / [(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman](/wiki/%28You_Make_Me_Feel_Like%29_A_Natural_Woman \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\") \n [Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 \"Salsa (dance)\") / [1234](/wiki/1234_%28Feist_song%29 \"1234 (Feist song)\")",
"7 \n7",
"9 \n8",
"9 \n8",
"9 \n8",
"{{red\\|''34''}} \n{{red\\|''31''}}",
"Eliminated",
"{{Note\\|A}}[Jennifer Grey](/wiki/Jennifer_Grey \"Jennifer Grey\"), the winner of the eleventh series of *[Dancing with the Stars](/wiki/Dancing_with_the_Stars_%28U.S._TV_series%29 \"Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series)\")*, the American version of 'Strictly', was a guest judge, replacing [Len Goodman](/wiki/Len_Goodman \"Len Goodman\") while he had a week off.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/s104/strictly\\-come\\-dancing/news/a346535/dirty\\-dancing\\-jennifer\\-grey\\-to\\-guest\\-judge\\-strictly\\-come\\-dancing.html\\|title\\=Jennifer Grey to guest judge 'Strictly'\\|website\\=\\[\\[Digital Spy]]\\|date\\=20 October 2011}}",
"* Series average for Alex and James: 30\\.3",
"### Series 10 (2012\\)",
"For its [tenth series](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing_%28series_10%29 \"Strictly Come Dancing (series 10)\") in September 2012, Jordan was partners with television presenter, actress and singer [Denise van Outen](/wiki/Denise_van_Outen \"Denise van Outen\"). Surpassing his feat with Pamela Stephenson, he secured the top position of the leaderboard 7 times with Denise, including 4 consecutive top positions. For the second time ever, he reached the final but placed his best in the competition overall, with Outen and Jordan finishing as runners\\-up with singer [Kimberley Walsh](/wiki/Kimberley_Walsh \"Kimberley Walsh\") and her partner [Pasha Kovalev](/wiki/Pasha_Kovalev \"Pasha Kovalev\"), behind the winners gymnast [Louis Smith](/wiki/Louis_Smith_%28gymnast%29 \"Louis Smith (gymnast)\") and professional partner [Flavia Cacace](/wiki/Flavia_Cacace \"Flavia Cacace\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/tv\\-and\\-radio/2012/dec/23/strictly\\-come\\-dancing\\-tv\\-ratings\\|title\\=Strictly Come Dancing final watched by 14 million\\|agency\\=Press Association\\|date\\=23 December 2012\\|newspaper\\=The Guardian}}",
"",
"|**Week \\#**",
"**Dance**/**Song**",
"**Judges' scores**",
"**Result**",
"|\n|Craig Revel Horwood",
"Darcey Bussell",
"Len Goodman",
"Bruno Tonioli",
"Total",
"|\n|1",
"[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz \"Waltz\") / [With You I'm Born Again](/wiki/With_You_I%27m_Born_Again \"With You I'm Born Again\")",
"6",
"6",
"6",
"7",
"25",
"Safe",
"|\n|2",
"[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\") / [Tutti Frutti](/wiki/Tutti_Frutti_%28song%29 \"Tutti Frutti (song)\")",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"{{green\\|'''32'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|3",
"[Foxtrot](/wiki/Foxtrot \"Foxtrot\") / [You've Got a Friend in Me](/wiki/You%27ve_Got_a_Friend_in_Me \"You've Got a Friend in Me\")",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"{{green\\|'''32'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|4",
"[Cha Cha Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 \"Cha-cha-cha (dance)\") / [Super Freak](/wiki/Super_Freak \"Super Freak\")",
"7",
"7",
"7",
"7",
"28",
"Safe",
"|\n|5",
"[Viennese Waltz](/wiki/Viennese_Waltz \"Viennese Waltz\") / [At Last](/wiki/At_Last \"At Last\")",
"9",
"8",
"9",
"9",
"{{green\\|'''35'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|6",
"[Paso Doble](/wiki/Pasodoble \"Pasodoble\") / [Seven Nation Army](/wiki/Seven_Nation_Army \"Seven Nation Army\")",
"9",
"9",
"9",
"9",
"{{green\\|'''36'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|7",
"[Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 \"Charleston (dance)\") / [Walk Like an Egyptian](/wiki/Walk_Like_an_Egyptian \"Walk Like an Egyptian\")",
"9",
"10",
"10",
"10",
"{{green\\|'''39'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|8",
"[American Smooth](/wiki/Glossary_of_partner_dance_terms \"Glossary of partner dance terms\") / [Imagine](/wiki/Imagine_%28John_Lennon_song%29 \"Imagine (John Lennon song)\")",
"9",
"9",
"9",
"10",
"{{green\\|'''37'''}}",
"Safe",
"|\n|9",
"[Salsa](/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29 \"Salsa (dance)\") / [Rhythm of the Night](/wiki/Moulin_Rouge%21%23Soundtrack \"Moulin Rouge!#Soundtrack\")",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"8",
"32",
"Safe",
"|\n|10",
"Dance Fusion ([Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\")/[Quickstep](/wiki/Quickstep \"Quickstep\")) / [Reet Petite](/wiki/Reet_Petite \"Reet Petite\")",
"8",
"9",
"9",
"9",
"35",
"Bottom two",
"|\n|11",
"[Tango](/wiki/Tango \"Tango\") / [Roxanne](/wiki/Roxanne_%28The_Police_song%29 \"Roxanne (The Police song)\") \n [Rumba](/wiki/Rhumba \"Rhumba\") / [The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face](/wiki/The_First_Time_Ever_I_Saw_Your_Face \"The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face\")",
"9 \n 9",
"10 \n 9",
"10 \n 10",
"10 \n 10",
"{{green\\|'''39'''}} \n 38",
"Bottom two",
"|\n|12",
"[Jive](/wiki/Jive_%28dance%29 \"Jive (dance)\") / [Tutti Frutti](/wiki/Tutti_Frutti_%28New_Order_song%29 \"Tutti Frutti (New Order song)\") \n [Showdance](/wiki/Concert_dance \"Concert dance\") / [What a Feeling](/wiki/Flashdance..._What_a_Feeling \"Flashdance... What a Feeling\") \n [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_%28dance%29 \"Charleston (dance)\") / [Walk Like an Egyptian](/wiki/Walk_Like_an_Egyptian \"Walk Like an Egyptian\")",
"9 \n 10 \n 10",
"10 \n 10 \n 10",
"10 \n 10 \n 10",
"10 \n 10 \n 10",
"{{green\\|'''39'''}} \n {{green\\|'''40'''}} \n {{green\\|'''40'''}}",
"Runner\\-up",
"* Series average for Denise and James: 35\\.1",
"",
"### Series 11 (2013\\)",
"On 7 September 2013, *Strictly Come Dancing* Jordan was partnered with [Vanessa Feltz](/wiki/Vanessa_Feltz \"Vanessa Feltz\"). The pair were eliminated in the third round.",
"",
"|**Week \\#**",
"**Dance**/**Song**",
"**Judges' scores**",
"**Result**",
"|\n|Craig Revel Horwood",
"Darcey Bussell",
"Len Goodman",
"Bruno Tonioli",
"Total",
"|\n|1",
"[Cha\\-Cha\\-Cha](/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29 \"Cha-cha-cha (dance)\") / [That Don't Impress Me Much](/wiki/That_Don%27t_Impress_Me_Much \"That Don't Impress Me Much\")",
"3",
"5",
"6",
"5",
"19",
"No Elimination",
"|\n|2",
"[Waltz](/wiki/Waltz \"Waltz\") / [Run to You](/wiki/Run_to_You_%28Whitney_Houston_song%29 \"Run to You (Whitney Houston song)\")",
"5",
"6",
"6",
"6",
"23",
"Safe",
"|\n|3",
"[Tango](/wiki/Tango \"Tango\") / [Lay All Your Love on Me](/wiki/Lay_All_Your_Love_on_Me \"Lay All Your Love on Me\")",
"3",
"5",
"6",
"6",
"20",
"Eliminated",
""
] |
Other television appearances
----------------------------
{{BLP unreferenced section\|date\=April 2019}}
Jordan, together with Ola, took part in a celebrity version of television programme *[Total Wipeout](/wiki/Total_Wipeout "Total Wipeout")* which was broadcast on 26 December 2009\. In 2013, Jordan took place in a celebrity version of Splash! for ITV's Text Santa.
In August 2014, James took part in [fourteenth series](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_series_14%29 "Celebrity Big Brother (British series 14)") of [Celebrity Big Brother](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_TV_series%29 "Celebrity Big Brother (British TV series)"). He entered the house on Day 1 and finished third on the final night. Since 2014, Jordan has regularly appeared as a panellist on *[The Wright Stuff](/wiki/The_Wright_Stuff "The Wright Stuff")*.
Jordan and wife Ola appeared on *[Through the Keyhole](/wiki/Through_the_Keyhole "Through the Keyhole")* in September 2015, with host [Keith Lemon](/wiki/Keith_Lemon "Keith Lemon").
Jordan starred in *[Celebrity Big Brother 19](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_series_19%29 "Celebrity Big Brother (British series 19)")* as an "all star" housemate. He was the fourth celebrity to be evicted from the Celebrity Big Brother House.
In 2019, Jordan participated in the [eleventh series](/wiki/Dancing_on_Ice_%28series_11%29 "Dancing on Ice (series 11)") of *[Dancing on Ice](/wiki/Dancing_on_Ice "Dancing on Ice")*, alongside professional partner [Alexandra Schauman](/wiki/Alexandra_Schauman "Alexandra Schauman"). After receiving the most votes, Jordan and Schauman were crowned the winners of the series.
He also appeared on the [fourth series](/wiki/Celebrity_Coach_Trip_%28series_4%29 "Celebrity Coach Trip (series 4)") of *[Celebrity Coach Trip](/wiki/Celebrity_Coach_Trip "Celebrity Coach Trip")*, alongside wife Ola.
|
[
"Other television appearances\n----------------------------",
"{{BLP unreferenced section\\|date\\=April 2019}}\nJordan, together with Ola, took part in a celebrity version of television programme *[Total Wipeout](/wiki/Total_Wipeout \"Total Wipeout\")* which was broadcast on 26 December 2009\\. In 2013, Jordan took place in a celebrity version of Splash! for ITV's Text Santa.",
"In August 2014, James took part in [fourteenth series](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_series_14%29 \"Celebrity Big Brother (British series 14)\") of [Celebrity Big Brother](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_TV_series%29 \"Celebrity Big Brother (British TV series)\"). He entered the house on Day 1 and finished third on the final night. Since 2014, Jordan has regularly appeared as a panellist on *[The Wright Stuff](/wiki/The_Wright_Stuff \"The Wright Stuff\")*.",
"Jordan and wife Ola appeared on *[Through the Keyhole](/wiki/Through_the_Keyhole \"Through the Keyhole\")* in September 2015, with host [Keith Lemon](/wiki/Keith_Lemon \"Keith Lemon\").",
"Jordan starred in *[Celebrity Big Brother 19](/wiki/Celebrity_Big_Brother_%28British_series_19%29 \"Celebrity Big Brother (British series 19)\")* as an \"all star\" housemate. He was the fourth celebrity to be evicted from the Celebrity Big Brother House.",
"In 2019, Jordan participated in the [eleventh series](/wiki/Dancing_on_Ice_%28series_11%29 \"Dancing on Ice (series 11)\") of *[Dancing on Ice](/wiki/Dancing_on_Ice \"Dancing on Ice\")*, alongside professional partner [Alexandra Schauman](/wiki/Alexandra_Schauman \"Alexandra Schauman\"). After receiving the most votes, Jordan and Schauman were crowned the winners of the series.",
"He also appeared on the [fourth series](/wiki/Celebrity_Coach_Trip_%28series_4%29 \"Celebrity Coach Trip (series 4)\") of *[Celebrity Coach Trip](/wiki/Celebrity_Coach_Trip \"Celebrity Coach Trip\")*, alongside wife Ola.",
""
] |
Trade union leader
------------------
The campaign against the tax brought Gunasinha into contact with Ceylonese workers. He found that the workers were poorly paid, with wages averaging between 30 cts. to Rs. 1\.00 for a day's work, sometimes as long as twelve hours. He was determined to get the working class better and more equitable wages. As a result, members of the working class looked to Gunasinha as the leader they had longed for.
### Organizing trade unions
Gunasinha organised Sri Lanka's first trade union, the "Ceylon Labour Union" in 1922\. Initial membership was approximately 25\. Gunasinha was the secretary; longtime partner Victor Corea was made President. Some months after the formation of the union, Gunasinha assumed duties as president. That trade union is known today as the [Ceylon Mercantile Union](/wiki/Ceylon_Mercantile_Union "Ceylon Mercantile Union") (aka *"Ceylon Mercantile Industrial and General Workers' Union"*) and was led by [Bala Tampoe](/wiki/Bala_Tampoe "Bala Tampoe") till his death in 2014\. Tampoe was one of the seniormost trade unionists in the country, having been part of the movement since 1948\.
In 1928, Gunasinha was instrumental in forming the "All Ceylon Labour Union Congress", and later in 1935 the "Ceylon Trade Union Congress" was formed by the amalgamation of several Unions including the Ceylon Mercantile of which he was the President for 20 years. Reaching the workers, educating them about their rights and privileges, holding propaganda meetings he swelled the membership of the CLU.
### Government Railway strike (1923\)
Mr. Gunasinha led a series of successful strikes, and the first General Strike occurred in February 1923, when the [Government Railway](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Railways "Sri Lanka Railways") struck, and was joined by numerous other Unions. In total 25,000 workers were supplied with free meals for 56 days. The Strike was a great success, and a Commission appointed by the British Governor [Sir William Henry Manning](/wiki/William_Henry_Manning "William Henry Manning"), recommended a 20% increase in Salaries and Casual \& Sick leave grants. But the government was hard on the strikers and severe punishments were imposed on them upon returning to work. That resulted in nearly 25,000 workers in the [Colombo Harbour](/wiki/Colombo_Harbour "Colombo Harbour"), Colombo Municipality, Wellawatte Spinning \& Weaving Mills, Government Factory and several government departments coming out on strike. The strike which continued for nearly five weeks ended eventually, with the workers trekking back to work.
### Harbour Workers' strike (1927\)
Though the battle was lost, the workers remained defiant and working class unity was strengthened. Gunasinha next led a strike of the [Colombo Harbour](/wiki/Colombo_Harbour "Colombo Harbour") workers in February 1927 demanding a wage increase of 50 cts (from Rs. 1\.50 to Rs. 2\.00\) per day and a lunch interval of one hour. The strike resulted in a wage increase by 25 cts. and the granting of a 15\-minute interval for lunch.
### Tramcar Workers' strike (1929\)
He next launched the strike by [Tramcar](/wiki/Tramcar "Tramcar") Workers on 23 January 1929\. In retaliation, European Planters and Executives drove Tram Cars and this sparked off trouble. The Late President [J.R. Jayewardene](/wiki/J.R._Jayewardene "J.R. Jayewardene"), who was then a student, joined the many other helpers to transport the crowds of people who boycotted travelling in Tarm Cars. These anti\-strike measures adopted by Whittal Bousteads which owned the Tramcar Service, resulted in the strikers in appealing to the public, not to patronise tramcars or purchase goods marketed by the company. The appeal received support of the consumers and the students too joined in support of the workers. As the strike progressed, due to Police harassment of the strikers, it spread to other institutions and demonstrations followed. This resulted in clashes between the demonstrators and the Police. On 5 February 1929, a clash took place between the Police and the Strikers, and the [Maradana Police Station](/wiki/Maradana "Maradana") was set on fire. That forced the employers to come to the negotiating table and the strike started by 150 tramcar employees after 13 days ended with a negotiated settlement.
### Galle Face Hotel and Lake House strikes
He also led strikes at the Times and the [Galle Face Hotel](/wiki/Galle_Face_Hotel "Galle Face Hotel") which strikes too were not successful. Though the strikers failed, trade unionism gained ground in Ceylon at unprecedented levels. The unsuccessful strike at [Lake House](/wiki/Associated_Newspapers_of_Ceylon_Limited "Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited") in 1929 where Indian workers were brought in to diminish the strike, marked the decline of his power as a trade union leader. The [Marxists](/wiki/Marxists "Marxists"), thereafter took over the trade union movement, and holds it hitherto.
During Colonial period in which Ceylon was ruled by the British Empire, Gunasinha was brave and courageous to meet any eventuality to fight for the rights of the workers, and due to his daring qualities, he was known among Workers as the *"Maha Kalu Sinhaya"*.
|
[
"Trade union leader\n------------------",
"The campaign against the tax brought Gunasinha into contact with Ceylonese workers. He found that the workers were poorly paid, with wages averaging between 30 cts. to Rs. 1\\.00 for a day's work, sometimes as long as twelve hours. He was determined to get the working class better and more equitable wages. As a result, members of the working class looked to Gunasinha as the leader they had longed for.",
"### Organizing trade unions",
"Gunasinha organised Sri Lanka's first trade union, the \"Ceylon Labour Union\" in 1922\\. Initial membership was approximately 25\\. Gunasinha was the secretary; longtime partner Victor Corea was made President. Some months after the formation of the union, Gunasinha assumed duties as president. That trade union is known today as the [Ceylon Mercantile Union](/wiki/Ceylon_Mercantile_Union \"Ceylon Mercantile Union\") (aka *\"Ceylon Mercantile Industrial and General Workers' Union\"*) and was led by [Bala Tampoe](/wiki/Bala_Tampoe \"Bala Tampoe\") till his death in 2014\\. Tampoe was one of the seniormost trade unionists in the country, having been part of the movement since 1948\\.",
"In 1928, Gunasinha was instrumental in forming the \"All Ceylon Labour Union Congress\", and later in 1935 the \"Ceylon Trade Union Congress\" was formed by the amalgamation of several Unions including the Ceylon Mercantile of which he was the President for 20 years. Reaching the workers, educating them about their rights and privileges, holding propaganda meetings he swelled the membership of the CLU.",
"### Government Railway strike (1923\\)",
"Mr. Gunasinha led a series of successful strikes, and the first General Strike occurred in February 1923, when the [Government Railway](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Railways \"Sri Lanka Railways\") struck, and was joined by numerous other Unions. In total 25,000 workers were supplied with free meals for 56 days. The Strike was a great success, and a Commission appointed by the British Governor [Sir William Henry Manning](/wiki/William_Henry_Manning \"William Henry Manning\"), recommended a 20% increase in Salaries and Casual \\& Sick leave grants. But the government was hard on the strikers and severe punishments were imposed on them upon returning to work. That resulted in nearly 25,000 workers in the [Colombo Harbour](/wiki/Colombo_Harbour \"Colombo Harbour\"), Colombo Municipality, Wellawatte Spinning \\& Weaving Mills, Government Factory and several government departments coming out on strike. The strike which continued for nearly five weeks ended eventually, with the workers trekking back to work.",
"### Harbour Workers' strike (1927\\)",
"Though the battle was lost, the workers remained defiant and working class unity was strengthened. Gunasinha next led a strike of the [Colombo Harbour](/wiki/Colombo_Harbour \"Colombo Harbour\") workers in February 1927 demanding a wage increase of 50 cts (from Rs. 1\\.50 to Rs. 2\\.00\\) per day and a lunch interval of one hour. The strike resulted in a wage increase by 25 cts. and the granting of a 15\\-minute interval for lunch.",
"### Tramcar Workers' strike (1929\\)",
"He next launched the strike by [Tramcar](/wiki/Tramcar \"Tramcar\") Workers on 23 January 1929\\. In retaliation, European Planters and Executives drove Tram Cars and this sparked off trouble. The Late President [J.R. Jayewardene](/wiki/J.R._Jayewardene \"J.R. Jayewardene\"), who was then a student, joined the many other helpers to transport the crowds of people who boycotted travelling in Tarm Cars. These anti\\-strike measures adopted by Whittal Bousteads which owned the Tramcar Service, resulted in the strikers in appealing to the public, not to patronise tramcars or purchase goods marketed by the company. The appeal received support of the consumers and the students too joined in support of the workers. As the strike progressed, due to Police harassment of the strikers, it spread to other institutions and demonstrations followed. This resulted in clashes between the demonstrators and the Police. On 5 February 1929, a clash took place between the Police and the Strikers, and the [Maradana Police Station](/wiki/Maradana \"Maradana\") was set on fire. That forced the employers to come to the negotiating table and the strike started by 150 tramcar employees after 13 days ended with a negotiated settlement.",
"### Galle Face Hotel and Lake House strikes",
"He also led strikes at the Times and the [Galle Face Hotel](/wiki/Galle_Face_Hotel \"Galle Face Hotel\") which strikes too were not successful. Though the strikers failed, trade unionism gained ground in Ceylon at unprecedented levels. The unsuccessful strike at [Lake House](/wiki/Associated_Newspapers_of_Ceylon_Limited \"Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited\") in 1929 where Indian workers were brought in to diminish the strike, marked the decline of his power as a trade union leader. The [Marxists](/wiki/Marxists \"Marxists\"), thereafter took over the trade union movement, and holds it hitherto.",
"During Colonial period in which Ceylon was ruled by the British Empire, Gunasinha was brave and courageous to meet any eventuality to fight for the rights of the workers, and due to his daring qualities, he was known among Workers as the *\"Maha Kalu Sinhaya\"*.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Gaspar Matas was born in [Palamós](/wiki/Palam%C3%B3s "Palamós"), a town and commercial port in the [Costa Brava](/wiki/Costa_Brava "Costa Brava") in Catalonia, as the son of a wealthy family from Palamos dedicated to the banking business, [galena](/wiki/Galena "Galena") exploitation in the {{ill\|Les Mines d'Osor\|ca\|lt\=Osor mines}}, [cork](/wiki/Cork_%28material%29 "Cork (material)") manufacturing, and maritime consignment.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.trescuatrotres.com/el\-olvidado\-palamos/ \|title\=El olvidado Palamós \|trans\-title\=The forgotten Palamós \|language\=es \|website\=www.trescuatrotres.com \|date\=12 November 2020 \|accessdate\=12 March 2024 }} Being the son of a well\-off family Matas was sent to [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") to complete his studies.{{cite web \|url\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/1994/11/11/pagina\-30/1285895/pdf.html \|title\=Desde mi baúl \|trans\-title\=From my chest \|language\=es \|website\=hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com \|publisher\=\[\[Mundo Deportivo]] \|date\=11 November 1994 \|access\-date\=12 March 2024 }} During his stay in England, he developed a deep interest in football and when he returned to his hometown, he introduced this sport to the city with the creation of *Palamós Foot\-Ball Club* in January 1898, a modest society that pioneered its goals and was presided over by himself,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesg/gasparmatas.html \|title\=Trofeo Gaspar Matas (Palamós, Girona\-Spain) 1980\-2012 \|publisher\=\[\[RSSSF]] \|date\=25 October 2018 \|access\-date\=12 March 2024 }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.diaridegirona.cat/opinio/2022/07/05/coral\-progres\-palamos\-67981199\.html \|title\=La Coral El Progrés de Palamós \|trans\-title\=The El Progrés Choir of Palamós \|language\=es \|website\=www.diaridegirona.cat \|date\=5 July 2022 \|accessdate\=12 March 2024 }} doing it so with the help of other friends with whom he shared parties on the beach of Cala Fosca. On the club's first Board of Directors, Matas was accompanied by Antonio Colomer and José Juan Eduardo Sáiz.
Initially made up of young people from the town and others from neighboring [Palafrugell](/wiki/Palafrugell "Palafrugell") who had studied abroad with Matas, Palamós has the honor of being the first town in Girona and the first official club in Catalonia. Practiced first on the beach of Cala Fosca, then, once a football field was set up on the land where the Can Mario cork factory was later built, the first steps of Palamós FC were meetings between its own members and in front of the team, not a club, from Palafrugell, originally wearing a white shirt with dark blue pants. Although discrepancies are found in the club's first game, it is known that Palamós won the match 2–1 and that it took place in the open fields of the Armstrong factory in Palafrugell. Where the versions differ is in the rival. Some sources state that they faced the factory's own English workers, while others state that the opponents arrived by ship from the British Isles.
The growth of football at a regional level and, specifically, in the province of Girona, facilitated the organization of the first provincial championship in 1905 with the introduction of a cup and a new team from Girona of blue and white shirts, belonging to the maritime flag of Palamós. Palamós FC won the cup and then successively won the championships of 1906, 1907, 1908 and 1909\.
The club changed its name several times in its beginnings: in 1926 it became *Palamós Sport Club*, and 15 years later, in 1941, it was renamed *Palamós Club de Fútbol*.
Matas died in Palamós on 6 August 1963, at the age of 84\.
Since the end of the 1970s, a tournament with his name has been held in Palamós. and while he was there, he developed a deep interest in football.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Gaspar Matas was born in [Palamós](/wiki/Palam%C3%B3s \"Palamós\"), a town and commercial port in the [Costa Brava](/wiki/Costa_Brava \"Costa Brava\") in Catalonia, as the son of a wealthy family from Palamos dedicated to the banking business, [galena](/wiki/Galena \"Galena\") exploitation in the {{ill\\|Les Mines d'Osor\\|ca\\|lt\\=Osor mines}}, [cork](/wiki/Cork_%28material%29 \"Cork (material)\") manufacturing, and maritime consignment.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.trescuatrotres.com/el\\-olvidado\\-palamos/ \\|title\\=El olvidado Palamós \\|trans\\-title\\=The forgotten Palamós \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.trescuatrotres.com \\|date\\=12 November 2020 \\|accessdate\\=12 March 2024 }} Being the son of a well\\-off family Matas was sent to [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\") to complete his studies.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com/preview/1994/11/11/pagina\\-30/1285895/pdf.html \\|title\\=Desde mi baúl \\|trans\\-title\\=From my chest \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=hemeroteca.mundodeportivo.com \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Mundo Deportivo]] \\|date\\=11 November 1994 \\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2024 }} During his stay in England, he developed a deep interest in football and when he returned to his hometown, he introduced this sport to the city with the creation of *Palamós Foot\\-Ball Club* in January 1898, a modest society that pioneered its goals and was presided over by himself,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesg/gasparmatas.html \\|title\\=Trofeo Gaspar Matas (Palamós, Girona\\-Spain) 1980\\-2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[RSSSF]] \\|date\\=25 October 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2024 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.diaridegirona.cat/opinio/2022/07/05/coral\\-progres\\-palamos\\-67981199\\.html \\|title\\=La Coral El Progrés de Palamós \\|trans\\-title\\=The El Progrés Choir of Palamós \\|language\\=es \\|website\\=www.diaridegirona.cat \\|date\\=5 July 2022 \\|accessdate\\=12 March 2024 }} doing it so with the help of other friends with whom he shared parties on the beach of Cala Fosca. On the club's first Board of Directors, Matas was accompanied by Antonio Colomer and José Juan Eduardo Sáiz.",
"Initially made up of young people from the town and others from neighboring [Palafrugell](/wiki/Palafrugell \"Palafrugell\") who had studied abroad with Matas, Palamós has the honor of being the first town in Girona and the first official club in Catalonia. Practiced first on the beach of Cala Fosca, then, once a football field was set up on the land where the Can Mario cork factory was later built, the first steps of Palamós FC were meetings between its own members and in front of the team, not a club, from Palafrugell, originally wearing a white shirt with dark blue pants. Although discrepancies are found in the club's first game, it is known that Palamós won the match 2–1 and that it took place in the open fields of the Armstrong factory in Palafrugell. Where the versions differ is in the rival. Some sources state that they faced the factory's own English workers, while others state that the opponents arrived by ship from the British Isles.",
"The growth of football at a regional level and, specifically, in the province of Girona, facilitated the organization of the first provincial championship in 1905 with the introduction of a cup and a new team from Girona of blue and white shirts, belonging to the maritime flag of Palamós. Palamós FC won the cup and then successively won the championships of 1906, 1907, 1908 and 1909\\.",
"The club changed its name several times in its beginnings: in 1926 it became *Palamós Sport Club*, and 15 years later, in 1941, it was renamed *Palamós Club de Fútbol*.",
"Matas died in Palamós on 6 August 1963, at the age of 84\\.",
"Since the end of the 1970s, a tournament with his name has been held in Palamós. and while he was there, he developed a deep interest in football.",
""
] |
Variants
--------
### 115\-0 series
This is a cold\-weather and [mountainous](/wiki/Highland "Highland") line version of the earlier [113 series](/wiki/113_series "113 series"). The first examples were introduced from 1963 on the [Takasaki Line](/wiki/Takasaki_Line "Takasaki Line") out of {{STN\|Ueno}}.
File:JNR kuha115\-1\.jpg\|115\-0 series in 1989
### 115\-300 series
Air\-conditioned version introduced from 1973\.
File:JR East 115\-Suka\-color.jpg\|115\-300 series in 2008 January
File:JRE 115kei 300bandai interior.JPG\|Interior view in November 2014
### 115\-1000 series
Introduced from 1978 with increased seat pitch and improved cold\-weather performance.
File:Series115\-1000 T1040\.jpg\|115\-1000 series in January 2017
File:Kuha115\-1014 Inside.jpg\|Interior view in October 2021
File:Kuha115\-1014 Priority\-seat.jpg\|Priority seating in October 2021
### 115\-2000 series
Hiroshima, Shimonoseki and Shizuoka area version introduced in 1978\. Specifications based on 115\-1000 series.
File:JNR 115 Hiroshima L\-14\.jpg\|115\-2000 series in March 2009
### 115\-3000 series
Two\-door version introduced from November 1982 to replace [153 series](/wiki/153_series "153 series") EMUs on "Rapid" services in the Shimonoseki area.
File:JNR kuha115\-3101\.jpg\|115\-3000 series
File:Moha115\-3020 Inside.jpg\|Interior view in December 2021
File:Moha115\-3020 Priority\-seat.jpg\|Priority seating in December 2021
### 115\-3500 series
Former [117 series](/wiki/117_series "117 series") MoHa 117 and MoHa 116 two\-door cars converted from May 1992 for use in the Okayama and Hiroshima areas.
File:0903120517 JRW M115\-3500 side.jpg\|Moha115\-3500 in March 2009
### 115\-6000 series
JR\-West 2\-car sets converted in 1999 by building new cabs at one end of former MoHa (non\-driving motor) cars.
File:WestJapanRailwayCompanyType115\-6000\.jpg\|115\-6000 series in August 2006
|
[
"Variants\n--------",
"### 115\\-0 series",
"This is a cold\\-weather and [mountainous](/wiki/Highland \"Highland\") line version of the earlier [113 series](/wiki/113_series \"113 series\"). The first examples were introduced from 1963 on the [Takasaki Line](/wiki/Takasaki_Line \"Takasaki Line\") out of {{STN\\|Ueno}}.",
"File:JNR kuha115\\-1\\.jpg\\|115\\-0 series in 1989",
"",
"### 115\\-300 series",
"Air\\-conditioned version introduced from 1973\\.",
"File:JR East 115\\-Suka\\-color.jpg\\|115\\-300 series in 2008 January\nFile:JRE 115kei 300bandai interior.JPG\\|Interior view in November 2014",
"",
"### 115\\-1000 series",
"Introduced from 1978 with increased seat pitch and improved cold\\-weather performance.",
"File:Series115\\-1000 T1040\\.jpg\\|115\\-1000 series in January 2017\nFile:Kuha115\\-1014 Inside.jpg\\|Interior view in October 2021\nFile:Kuha115\\-1014 Priority\\-seat.jpg\\|Priority seating in October 2021",
"",
"### 115\\-2000 series",
"Hiroshima, Shimonoseki and Shizuoka area version introduced in 1978\\. Specifications based on 115\\-1000 series.",
"File:JNR 115 Hiroshima L\\-14\\.jpg\\|115\\-2000 series in March 2009",
"",
"### 115\\-3000 series",
"Two\\-door version introduced from November 1982 to replace [153 series](/wiki/153_series \"153 series\") EMUs on \"Rapid\" services in the Shimonoseki area.",
"File:JNR kuha115\\-3101\\.jpg\\|115\\-3000 series\nFile:Moha115\\-3020 Inside.jpg\\|Interior view in December 2021\nFile:Moha115\\-3020 Priority\\-seat.jpg\\|Priority seating in December 2021",
"",
"### 115\\-3500 series",
"Former [117 series](/wiki/117_series \"117 series\") MoHa 117 and MoHa 116 two\\-door cars converted from May 1992 for use in the Okayama and Hiroshima areas.",
"File:0903120517 JRW M115\\-3500 side.jpg\\|Moha115\\-3500 in March 2009",
"",
"### 115\\-6000 series",
"JR\\-West 2\\-car sets converted in 1999 by building new cabs at one end of former MoHa (non\\-driving motor) cars.",
"File:WestJapanRailwayCompanyType115\\-6000\\.jpg\\|115\\-6000 series in August 2006",
"",
""
] |
Gameplay
--------
The game's objective is simply to defeat all of the enemy robots placed in each level. The concept of the 2D versus [fighting game](/wiki/Fighting_game "Fighting game") was still new during the early 1990s, and the game's mechanics are visibly influenced by several other modern fighting games at the time.
The game consists of a standard versus mode ([single\-player](/wiki/Single-player_video_game "Single-player video game") or [multiplayer](/wiki/Multiplayer_video_game "Multiplayer video game")) and a quest mode (single player). In the quest mode, there are 8 enemy robots per level (only 7 in the first level). Defeating the first 7 robots will cause the level's [boss](/wiki/Boss_%28video_game%29 "Boss (video game)") to emerge, and defeating this boss will allow the player to move on to the next level. The game is completed by advancing through all 4 levels.
The player begins the game with only one character choice (Sukapon), but every enemy robot of the first level that the player defeats becomes usable as a player character. The player can choose which character to use to combat each enemy robot. Defeating the first 7 enemies using Sukapon allows the player to choose from 8 friendly robots, but the first level can only be accessed in the very first playthrough. Screenshots of each victory are replayed after the completion of a level. Finishing all of the levels will allow the player to select a particular level that they wish to play. However, choosing some levels back\-to\-back may cause minor bugs in the screenshot replays. After beating normal mode, you unlock hard mode which is a harder mode. After beating hard mode unlocks special mode and all the non\-boss robots. Special mode is even harder and the robots start using their hidden moves often. Beating special mode unlocks the boss robots.
### Rules
[thumb\|right\|[Fan translation](/wiki/Fan_translation_%28video_gaming%29 "Fan translation (video gaming)")](/wiki/Image:Joymechfight.PNG "Joymechfight.PNG")
All matches are held one\-on\-one, and both characters start with a full [HP meter](/wiki/Health_%28gaming%29 "Health (gaming)") and two hearts. The meter decreases as the character sustains damage from the opponents attacks, and the character suffers a knockdown if the meter reaches zero. A knockdown will temporarily stop the action, as the character that was knocked down loses a heart and regains a full HP meter, while the opposing character regains a small amount of HP. The match is over when a character has no hearts remaining when their HP meter goes to zero. If both characters are knocked down at the same time, and neither character has any hearts remaining, the result is called a draw, and the match is restarted from the beginning. Sustaining large amounts of damage in a short period of time will cause the character to become temporarily unconscious, during which the player will be unable to move or attack.
### Characters
There are 36 characters available in the game. However, the 8 characters from the final level are only minor variants of the first 8 characters (including Sukapon), so there are only 28 different types in actuality. Characters are all robots whose head, limbs, and body float around separately. There are 6 basic parts (head, body, right hand, left hand, right leg, left leg) for every character, but some have arm or knee parts as well, and quite a few have unique designs.
### Special moves
In addition to the 6 basic moves (punch, power punch, kick, leg sweep, jump, guard) that all of the characters in the game can use, there are 4 additional special moves unique to each character. Unlike many other 2D fighting games, *Joy Mech Fight* does not require pressing a diagonal direction on the control pad to produce a special move. Some of the characters have hidden moves that are not listed in the game manual or tutorial. These hidden moves may be much more effective than the 4 regular special moves.
### Difficulty
The quest mode is divided into normal and hard difficulty, and finishing the game at hard difficulty will reveal the special difficulty mode. In this mode, computer opponents will begin to use hidden moves and will fight far more intelligently than in the other two difficulty levels. Completing hard difficulty will allow the character to select all non\-boss enemy characters in the single match mode, and completing special difficulty will allow boss characters to be selected as well.
|
[
"Gameplay\n--------",
"The game's objective is simply to defeat all of the enemy robots placed in each level. The concept of the 2D versus [fighting game](/wiki/Fighting_game \"Fighting game\") was still new during the early 1990s, and the game's mechanics are visibly influenced by several other modern fighting games at the time.",
"The game consists of a standard versus mode ([single\\-player](/wiki/Single-player_video_game \"Single-player video game\") or [multiplayer](/wiki/Multiplayer_video_game \"Multiplayer video game\")) and a quest mode (single player). In the quest mode, there are 8 enemy robots per level (only 7 in the first level). Defeating the first 7 robots will cause the level's [boss](/wiki/Boss_%28video_game%29 \"Boss (video game)\") to emerge, and defeating this boss will allow the player to move on to the next level. The game is completed by advancing through all 4 levels.",
"The player begins the game with only one character choice (Sukapon), but every enemy robot of the first level that the player defeats becomes usable as a player character. The player can choose which character to use to combat each enemy robot. Defeating the first 7 enemies using Sukapon allows the player to choose from 8 friendly robots, but the first level can only be accessed in the very first playthrough. Screenshots of each victory are replayed after the completion of a level. Finishing all of the levels will allow the player to select a particular level that they wish to play. However, choosing some levels back\\-to\\-back may cause minor bugs in the screenshot replays. After beating normal mode, you unlock hard mode which is a harder mode. After beating hard mode unlocks special mode and all the non\\-boss robots. Special mode is even harder and the robots start using their hidden moves often. Beating special mode unlocks the boss robots.",
"### Rules",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Fan translation](/wiki/Fan_translation_%28video_gaming%29 \"Fan translation (video gaming)\")](/wiki/Image:Joymechfight.PNG \"Joymechfight.PNG\")\nAll matches are held one\\-on\\-one, and both characters start with a full [HP meter](/wiki/Health_%28gaming%29 \"Health (gaming)\") and two hearts. The meter decreases as the character sustains damage from the opponents attacks, and the character suffers a knockdown if the meter reaches zero. A knockdown will temporarily stop the action, as the character that was knocked down loses a heart and regains a full HP meter, while the opposing character regains a small amount of HP. The match is over when a character has no hearts remaining when their HP meter goes to zero. If both characters are knocked down at the same time, and neither character has any hearts remaining, the result is called a draw, and the match is restarted from the beginning. Sustaining large amounts of damage in a short period of time will cause the character to become temporarily unconscious, during which the player will be unable to move or attack.",
"### Characters",
"There are 36 characters available in the game. However, the 8 characters from the final level are only minor variants of the first 8 characters (including Sukapon), so there are only 28 different types in actuality. Characters are all robots whose head, limbs, and body float around separately. There are 6 basic parts (head, body, right hand, left hand, right leg, left leg) for every character, but some have arm or knee parts as well, and quite a few have unique designs.",
"### Special moves",
"In addition to the 6 basic moves (punch, power punch, kick, leg sweep, jump, guard) that all of the characters in the game can use, there are 4 additional special moves unique to each character. Unlike many other 2D fighting games, *Joy Mech Fight* does not require pressing a diagonal direction on the control pad to produce a special move. Some of the characters have hidden moves that are not listed in the game manual or tutorial. These hidden moves may be much more effective than the 4 regular special moves.",
"### Difficulty",
"The quest mode is divided into normal and hard difficulty, and finishing the game at hard difficulty will reveal the special difficulty mode. In this mode, computer opponents will begin to use hidden moves and will fight far more intelligently than in the other two difficulty levels. Completing hard difficulty will allow the character to select all non\\-boss enemy characters in the single match mode, and completing special difficulty will allow boss characters to be selected as well.",
""
] |
Course History
--------------
Although golf is supposed to have been played in Banff for 400 years, it was only in May 1871 that organised golf was conceived when the then Banff Golf Club was formed at the Banff links. The Banff Golf Club continued in existence with varying degrees of success until 1924\.
The Duff House Golf Club came into existence following a gift of land to the towns of Banff and Macduff by the then Duke of Fife following his concern at "the want of ground for golf and other recreational sports." The original course in its present location was laid out in 1909\.
Opened in 1909,{{Cite news\|title \= Banff Golf Course Proposal\|last \= Banffshire Journal\|date \= 1923\-07\-17}} the original course was designed by Archie Simpson (who laid out Royal Aberdeen's Balgownie) and it was formally opened when a match was played between two of the great golfing "triumvirate" – J.H. Taylor (the then Open Champion{{Cite web\|title \= The Open \- Open Champions\|url \= http://www.theopen.com/OpenChampions\#!/1909/J.H.\-TAYLOR\|website \= www.theopen.com\|access\-date \= 2016\-02\-14}}) and James Braid{{Cite web\|title \= The Open \- Open Champions\|url \= http://www.theopen.com/OpenChampions\#!/1908/James\-BRAID\|website \= www.theopen.com\|access\-date \= 2016\-02\-14}} – with Taylor's score of 75 beating his opponent by three strokes.
In July, 1923 at the invitation of the executive of the Duff House Royal Golf Club, Dr [MacKenzie](/wiki/Alister_MacKenzie "Alister MacKenzie"), Golf course architect, Leeds, visited Banff and made a thorough examination and survey of the then 18\-hole course in connection with the proposal to lay out a first class course. After his inspection Dr MacKenzie spoke favourably of the site. An inclusive figure of £2900 was muted to lay out a first class course.
The work was sanctioned and work would start in December, 1923 with a Government unemployment grant of £1200\. Maj McKenzie, Leeds, the managing director of the British Golf Course Construction Coy would use horse\-drawn scoops for bunkers and all eighteen greens where to be lifted, weeded and relayed on suitable foundations.
On 5 August 1924 the Mackenzie course was formally opened with a match between Sandy Herd of Moor Park and Ted Ray of Oxley, both returning scores of 71
[thumb\|left\|Duff House Royal course open for play 1924](/wiki/File:Course_opening_1924.jpg "Course opening 1924.jpg")
On 1 January 1925, the two Banff golf clubs formally amalgamated as the Duff House Royal Golf Club. The union of the two Clubs survived, with tolerance and restraint being exercised on both sides, but it was only a matter of time before the axe would fall on the Links Course. The end came at the Annual General Meeting held on Thursday, 24 January 1929 when A.F. Spence, seconded by G.F. Goodall, formally moved that the maintenance of the Links Club be now discontinued. While expressing regret that such a motion should be necessary, Mr. Spence pointed out the annual financial loss to the club, the changed circumstances at the Links which "are now over\-run in the summer by picnic parties and motor vehicles; also to the few members of the Club who play there and small support received from other players in the town and from visitors, also that this was an opportune time to give up the leased portion of the course in view of the cropping rotation of the Landlord's farm"
In 1949 the course was restored and re\-opened following the "ploughing up" required during the Second World War and in 1962 an additional 35 acres were purchased at a cost of £3,000\.
[thumb\|left\|Ploughing up of golf course for crops needed during World War II](/wiki/File:Ploughing_up_of_golf_course_for_crops_needed_during_World_War_II.jpg "Ploughing up of golf course for crops needed during World War II.jpg")
The original clubhouse was built in 1926 following a gift from Thomas Barton, and was known as the "Barton Pavilion" and remained largely unaltered until 1962\. In that year it was reconstructed around the shell of the original Barton Pavilion and formally opened by Sir George W. Abercromby on 6 April 1963\.
In 1966 a "Water to the Greens" scheme was completed and in 1997 a fully automated watering system for greens and tees was installed. In 1973 it was modernised and W.H.K. Baker (M.P) formally opened the modernised Clubhouse on 18 June 1971\. In 1973 the purchase of 65 acres including the stables and Barnyards outbuildings was completed. Further extensive works including extensions were carried out in 1974 \- 75 and the Clubhouse was the subject of a major refurbishment, mainly to the interior decor in 1988, with extensive refurbishment of the kitchen area following in 1996–97\.
At the Annual General Meeting in December 2000 the membership authorised the Committee of the club to proceed with extensive redevelopment of the Clubhouse at an estimated cost of £400,000\.
In November 2009, the course suffered server flooding.{{Cite web\|title \= Galleries\|url \= http://news.stv.tv/galleries/november\-2009\-flooding/266374/\|website \= STV News\|access\-date \= 2016\-01\-21}}{{dead link\|date\=September 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
In 2010 the club celebrated its centenary year. To commemorate this occasion, a number of centenary activities were arranged, mainly condensed into a ‘Week of Celebration’ running from Saturday 26 June to Saturday 3 July 2010{{Cite web\|title \= Centenary\|url \= http://duffhouseroyal.com/page5\.html\|website \= duffhouseroyal.com\|access\-date \= 2016\-01\-21}}
|
[
"Course History\n--------------",
"Although golf is supposed to have been played in Banff for 400 years, it was only in May 1871 that organised golf was conceived when the then Banff Golf Club was formed at the Banff links. The Banff Golf Club continued in existence with varying degrees of success until 1924\\.",
"The Duff House Golf Club came into existence following a gift of land to the towns of Banff and Macduff by the then Duke of Fife following his concern at \"the want of ground for golf and other recreational sports.\" The original course in its present location was laid out in 1909\\.",
"Opened in 1909,{{Cite news\\|title \\= Banff Golf Course Proposal\\|last \\= Banffshire Journal\\|date \\= 1923\\-07\\-17}} the original course was designed by Archie Simpson (who laid out Royal Aberdeen's Balgownie) and it was formally opened when a match was played between two of the great golfing \"triumvirate\" – J.H. Taylor (the then Open Champion{{Cite web\\|title \\= The Open \\- Open Champions\\|url \\= http://www.theopen.com/OpenChampions\\#!/1909/J.H.\\-TAYLOR\\|website \\= www.theopen.com\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-14}}) and James Braid{{Cite web\\|title \\= The Open \\- Open Champions\\|url \\= http://www.theopen.com/OpenChampions\\#!/1908/James\\-BRAID\\|website \\= www.theopen.com\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-02\\-14}} – with Taylor's score of 75 beating his opponent by three strokes.",
"In July, 1923 at the invitation of the executive of the Duff House Royal Golf Club, Dr [MacKenzie](/wiki/Alister_MacKenzie \"Alister MacKenzie\"), Golf course architect, Leeds, visited Banff and made a thorough examination and survey of the then 18\\-hole course in connection with the proposal to lay out a first class course. After his inspection Dr MacKenzie spoke favourably of the site. An inclusive figure of £2900 was muted to lay out a first class course.",
"The work was sanctioned and work would start in December, 1923 with a Government unemployment grant of £1200\\. Maj McKenzie, Leeds, the managing director of the British Golf Course Construction Coy would use horse\\-drawn scoops for bunkers and all eighteen greens where to be lifted, weeded and relayed on suitable foundations.",
"On 5 August 1924 the Mackenzie course was formally opened with a match between Sandy Herd of Moor Park and Ted Ray of Oxley, both returning scores of 71",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Duff House Royal course open for play 1924](/wiki/File:Course_opening_1924.jpg \"Course opening 1924.jpg\")",
"On 1 January 1925, the two Banff golf clubs formally amalgamated as the Duff House Royal Golf Club. The union of the two Clubs survived, with tolerance and restraint being exercised on both sides, but it was only a matter of time before the axe would fall on the Links Course. The end came at the Annual General Meeting held on Thursday, 24 January 1929 when A.F. Spence, seconded by G.F. Goodall, formally moved that the maintenance of the Links Club be now discontinued. While expressing regret that such a motion should be necessary, Mr. Spence pointed out the annual financial loss to the club, the changed circumstances at the Links which \"are now over\\-run in the summer by picnic parties and motor vehicles; also to the few members of the Club who play there and small support received from other players in the town and from visitors, also that this was an opportune time to give up the leased portion of the course in view of the cropping rotation of the Landlord's farm\"",
"In 1949 the course was restored and re\\-opened following the \"ploughing up\" required during the Second World War and in 1962 an additional 35 acres were purchased at a cost of £3,000\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Ploughing up of golf course for crops needed during World War II](/wiki/File:Ploughing_up_of_golf_course_for_crops_needed_during_World_War_II.jpg \"Ploughing up of golf course for crops needed during World War II.jpg\")",
"The original clubhouse was built in 1926 following a gift from Thomas Barton, and was known as the \"Barton Pavilion\" and remained largely unaltered until 1962\\. In that year it was reconstructed around the shell of the original Barton Pavilion and formally opened by Sir George W. Abercromby on 6 April 1963\\.",
"In 1966 a \"Water to the Greens\" scheme was completed and in 1997 a fully automated watering system for greens and tees was installed. In 1973 it was modernised and W.H.K. Baker (M.P) formally opened the modernised Clubhouse on 18 June 1971\\. In 1973 the purchase of 65 acres including the stables and Barnyards outbuildings was completed. Further extensive works including extensions were carried out in 1974 \\- 75 and the Clubhouse was the subject of a major refurbishment, mainly to the interior decor in 1988, with extensive refurbishment of the kitchen area following in 1996–97\\.",
"At the Annual General Meeting in December 2000 the membership authorised the Committee of the club to proceed with extensive redevelopment of the Clubhouse at an estimated cost of £400,000\\.",
"In November 2009, the course suffered server flooding.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Galleries\\|url \\= http://news.stv.tv/galleries/november\\-2009\\-flooding/266374/\\|website \\= STV News\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-01\\-21}}{{dead link\\|date\\=September 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"In 2010 the club celebrated its centenary year. To commemorate this occasion, a number of centenary activities were arranged, mainly condensed into a ‘Week of Celebration’ running from Saturday 26 June to Saturday 3 July 2010{{Cite web\\|title \\= Centenary\\|url \\= http://duffhouseroyal.com/page5\\.html\\|website \\= duffhouseroyal.com\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-01\\-21}}",
""
] |
Designated registrar
--------------------
Domain registration information is maintained by the domain name registries, which contract with domain registrars to provide registration services to the public. Domain registrar examples include [GoDaddy.com](/wiki/GoDaddy "GoDaddy"), [Domain.com](/wiki/Domain.com "Domain.com"), [Google Domains](/wiki/Google_Domains "Google Domains"), [NameCheap](/wiki/Namecheap "Namecheap") and [IONOS](/wiki/Ionos "Ionos").{{Cite web \|title\=Domain Names » Register Your TLD » Starting at $1 \|url\=https://www.ionos.com/domains/domain\-names \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-14 \|website\=www.ionos.com \|language\=en\-US}} An end user selects a registrar to provide the registration service, and that registrar becomes the *designated registrar* for the domain chosen by the user.
Only the designated registrar may modify or delete information about domain names in a central registry database. It is not unusual for an end user to switch registrars, invoking a [domain transfer](/wiki/%23Domain_name_transfer "#Domain name transfer") process between the registrars involved, that is governed by specific domain name transfer policies.
Although the dedicated registrar is the only entity that can modify or delete information regarding domain names in the central registry, there are many [domain resellers](https://www.icann.org/resources/pages/reseller-2013-05-03-en) that allow you to sell domains. You do not have to become a designated registrar in order to sell and register domains.
When a registrar registers a `[com](/wiki/.com ".com")` domain name for an end\-user, it must pay a maximum annual fee of US$7\.34 to [VeriSign](/wiki/VeriSign "VeriSign"), the registry operator for `com`, and a US$0\.18 annual administration fee to ICANN. Most domain registrars price their services and products to address both the annual fees and the administration fees that must be paid to ICANN. [Barriers to entry](/wiki/Barrier_to_entry "Barrier to entry") into the bulk registrar industry are high for new companies without an existing customer base.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2017}}
Many registrars also offer registration through reseller affiliates. An end\-user registers either directly with a registrar, or indirectly through one or more layers of resellers. As of 2010, the retail cost generally ranges from a low of about $7\.50 per year to about $35 per year for a simple domain registration, although registrars often drop the price far lower – sometimes even free – when ordered with other products.
The maximum period of registration for a domain name is 10 years. Some registrars offer longer periods of up to 100 years,{{cite web\| title\=Protect Your Domain Name Registration Into The Next Century\|url\=https://www.networksolutions.com/domain\-name\-registration/popup\-100\-yr\-term.jsp}} but such offers involve the registrar renewing the registration for their customer; the 100\-year registration would not be in the official registration database.
|
[
"Designated registrar\n--------------------",
"Domain registration information is maintained by the domain name registries, which contract with domain registrars to provide registration services to the public. Domain registrar examples include [GoDaddy.com](/wiki/GoDaddy \"GoDaddy\"), [Domain.com](/wiki/Domain.com \"Domain.com\"), [Google Domains](/wiki/Google_Domains \"Google Domains\"), [NameCheap](/wiki/Namecheap \"Namecheap\") and [IONOS](/wiki/Ionos \"Ionos\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Domain Names » Register Your TLD » Starting at $1 \\|url\\=https://www.ionos.com/domains/domain\\-names \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-14 \\|website\\=www.ionos.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}} An end user selects a registrar to provide the registration service, and that registrar becomes the *designated registrar* for the domain chosen by the user.",
"Only the designated registrar may modify or delete information about domain names in a central registry database. It is not unusual for an end user to switch registrars, invoking a [domain transfer](/wiki/%23Domain_name_transfer \"#Domain name transfer\") process between the registrars involved, that is governed by specific domain name transfer policies.",
"Although the dedicated registrar is the only entity that can modify or delete information regarding domain names in the central registry, there are many [domain resellers](https://www.icann.org/resources/pages/reseller-2013-05-03-en) that allow you to sell domains. You do not have to become a designated registrar in order to sell and register domains.",
"When a registrar registers a `[com](/wiki/.com \".com\")` domain name for an end\\-user, it must pay a maximum annual fee of US$7\\.34 to [VeriSign](/wiki/VeriSign \"VeriSign\"), the registry operator for `com`, and a US$0\\.18 annual administration fee to ICANN. Most domain registrars price their services and products to address both the annual fees and the administration fees that must be paid to ICANN. [Barriers to entry](/wiki/Barrier_to_entry \"Barrier to entry\") into the bulk registrar industry are high for new companies without an existing customer base.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2017}}",
"Many registrars also offer registration through reseller affiliates. An end\\-user registers either directly with a registrar, or indirectly through one or more layers of resellers. As of 2010, the retail cost generally ranges from a low of about $7\\.50 per year to about $35 per year for a simple domain registration, although registrars often drop the price far lower – sometimes even free – when ordered with other products.",
"The maximum period of registration for a domain name is 10 years. Some registrars offer longer periods of up to 100 years,{{cite web\\| title\\=Protect Your Domain Name Registration Into The Next Century\\|url\\=https://www.networksolutions.com/domain\\-name\\-registration/popup\\-100\\-yr\\-term.jsp}} but such offers involve the registrar renewing the registration for their customer; the 100\\-year registration would not be in the official registration database.",
""
] |
Facts and missing songs
-----------------------
There were a lot of facts, misspelled words and other associated issues with the album.
On the sides there is missing a dot in the t.A.T.u. logo. The song "[Ya Soshla S Uma](/wiki/Ya_Soshla_S_Uma "Ya Soshla S Uma")" was misspelled on the back cover. It was listed as "Ya Soshia S Uma". While "[Nas Ne Dogonyat](/wiki/Nas_Ne_Dogonyat "Nas Ne Dogonyat")" was spelled as "Nas Ne Dagoniat" (although it is a valid transliteration). Both those versions are not the Russian edits.
The album claims to have 3 unreleased songs, although in actuality, only "Null and Void" was unreleased. The other two songs were a remix and the previously released "[Divine](/wiki/Divine_%28t.A.T.u._song%29 "Divine (t.A.T.u. song)")". The album lists "Divine" as an extended edit but it is the same version included as the b\-side on the "All About Us" single release.
The album was also going to include the track "Prostye Dvizheniya". However, for unknown reasons, it was not included.
GraceNote incorrectly reports the first track name as "Radio" instead of "All About Us" when the CD is listened to in iTunes.
The cover does not list the videos for "Friend or Foe" or "All About Us (edited version)". However, these videos were included on the DVD.
|
[
"Facts and missing songs\n-----------------------",
"There were a lot of facts, misspelled words and other associated issues with the album.\nOn the sides there is missing a dot in the t.A.T.u. logo. The song \"[Ya Soshla S Uma](/wiki/Ya_Soshla_S_Uma \"Ya Soshla S Uma\")\" was misspelled on the back cover. It was listed as \"Ya Soshia S Uma\". While \"[Nas Ne Dogonyat](/wiki/Nas_Ne_Dogonyat \"Nas Ne Dogonyat\")\" was spelled as \"Nas Ne Dagoniat\" (although it is a valid transliteration). Both those versions are not the Russian edits.",
"The album claims to have 3 unreleased songs, although in actuality, only \"Null and Void\" was unreleased. The other two songs were a remix and the previously released \"[Divine](/wiki/Divine_%28t.A.T.u._song%29 \"Divine (t.A.T.u. song)\")\". The album lists \"Divine\" as an extended edit but it is the same version included as the b\\-side on the \"All About Us\" single release.",
"The album was also going to include the track \"Prostye Dvizheniya\". However, for unknown reasons, it was not included.",
"GraceNote incorrectly reports the first track name as \"Radio\" instead of \"All About Us\" when the CD is listened to in iTunes.",
"The cover does not list the videos for \"Friend or Foe\" or \"All About Us (edited version)\". However, these videos were included on the DVD.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Gendler was born in [Chariton, Iowa](/wiki/Chariton%2C_Iowa "Chariton, Iowa"), in 1928 to a religious Jewish family who moved to Des Moines in 1939\. He graduated from [Theodore Roosevelt High School](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_High_School_%28Des_Moines%29 "Theodore Roosevelt High School (Des Moines)") and went on to earn a B.A. from the [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago "University of Chicago") in 1948 during the height of [Robert Hutchins](/wiki/Robert_Maynard_Hutchins "Robert Maynard Hutchins")'s leadership. He remained at Chicago until 1951 studying with the philosopher [Rudolf Carnap](/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap "Rudolf Carnap"). In 1957, he was ordained as a Conservative rabbi by the [Jewish Theological Seminary](/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America "Jewish Theological Seminary of America").
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gendler served as rabbi to a number of [congregations throughout Latin America](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America "History of the Jews in Latin America"), including the Beth Israel Community Center in Mexico City, Mexico (1957–1959\), the Associacao Religiosa Israelita in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1961\), and the five congregations of Havana, Cuba (High Holidays and Passover, 1968–1969\).{{cite news \|last\=Gendler \|first\=Everett \|title\=Holy Days in Habana \|publisher\=Conservative Judaism \|date\=1969\-05\-01 \|url\=http://worldview.cceia.org/archive/worldview/1969/05/1777\.html/\_res/id\=sa\_File1/v12\_i005\_a005\.pdf \|accessdate\=2008\-08\-08 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930165355/https://carnegiecouncil\-media.storage.googleapis.com/files/v12\_i005\_a005\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead}} From 1962 to 1968, Gendler served as rabbi at the Jewish Center of Princeton, New Jersey.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Gendler, along with his wife Mary Gendler (born 1940\) was involved in several alternative residential communities, including [Ivan Illich](/wiki/Ivan_Illich "Ivan Illich")'s Centro Intercultural de Documentación in Cuernavaca, Mexico (1968–1969\) (alongside [Harvey Cox](/wiki/Harvey_Cox "Harvey Cox"){{cite news\|last\=Cox \|first\=Harvey \|title\=Appreciation: A prophet, a teacher, a realistic leader \|publisher\=National Catholic Reporter Online \|date\=2002\-12\-20 \|url\=http://www.natcath.org/NCR\_Online/archives/122002/122002n.htm \|accessdate\=2008\-08\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905173427/http://natcath.org/NCR\_Online/archives/122002/122002n.htm \|archivedate\=September 5, 2008}}) and the inter\-racial inter\-religious living center Packard Manse in Stoughton, Massachusetts (1969–1971\).
In 1971, Gendler became rabbi at Temple Emanuel of the Merrimack Valley and in 1977, Gendler was appointed by [Ted Sizer](/wiki/Ted_Sizer "Ted Sizer") as the first Jewish chaplain at Phillips Academy, Andover as part of a Catholic–Protestant–Jewish "tri\-ministry"{{cite news\|last\=Sherman \|first\=Tana \|title\=Deepening Spiritual Faith in a Secular Community \|publisher\=Andover Bulletin Online 97:2 \|date\=Winter 2002 \|url\=http://www.andover.edu/publications/2004winter\_bulletin/Religion\_2\.htm \|accessdate\=2008\-08\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808013953/http://www.andover.edu/publications/2004winter\_bulletin/Religion\_2\.htm \|archivedate\=August 8, 2007}} Gendler remained in his position at Phillips Andover, alongside his position at Temple Emanuel of the Merrimack Valley, until his retirement, at the age of 67, in 1995\.
From 1995 to 2022, Gendler, along with his wife Mary Gendler, was involved in community education work among the Tibetan exiles on Strategic Nonviolent Struggle. In 2007, they played a central role in the founding of the Active Nonviolence Education Center in Dharmasala, India.
He is the father of two daughters, [Tamar Gendler](/wiki/Tamar_Gendler "Tamar Gendler"), who is Professor of Philosophy and Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University "Yale University"), and Naomi Gendler Camper, who is Chief Policy Officer at the American Bankers Association.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Gendler was born in [Chariton, Iowa](/wiki/Chariton%2C_Iowa \"Chariton, Iowa\"), in 1928 to a religious Jewish family who moved to Des Moines in 1939\\. He graduated from [Theodore Roosevelt High School](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_High_School_%28Des_Moines%29 \"Theodore Roosevelt High School (Des Moines)\") and went on to earn a B.A. from the [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago \"University of Chicago\") in 1948 during the height of [Robert Hutchins](/wiki/Robert_Maynard_Hutchins \"Robert Maynard Hutchins\")'s leadership. He remained at Chicago until 1951 studying with the philosopher [Rudolf Carnap](/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap \"Rudolf Carnap\"). In 1957, he was ordained as a Conservative rabbi by the [Jewish Theological Seminary](/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America \"Jewish Theological Seminary of America\").",
"In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gendler served as rabbi to a number of [congregations throughout Latin America](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America \"History of the Jews in Latin America\"), including the Beth Israel Community Center in Mexico City, Mexico (1957–1959\\), the Associacao Religiosa Israelita in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1961\\), and the five congregations of Havana, Cuba (High Holidays and Passover, 1968–1969\\).{{cite news \\|last\\=Gendler \\|first\\=Everett \\|title\\=Holy Days in Habana \\|publisher\\=Conservative Judaism \\|date\\=1969\\-05\\-01 \\|url\\=http://worldview.cceia.org/archive/worldview/1969/05/1777\\.html/\\_res/id\\=sa\\_File1/v12\\_i005\\_a005\\.pdf \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-08\\-08 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930165355/https://carnegiecouncil\\-media.storage.googleapis.com/files/v12\\_i005\\_a005\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} From 1962 to 1968, Gendler served as rabbi at the Jewish Center of Princeton, New Jersey.",
"During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Gendler, along with his wife Mary Gendler (born 1940\\) was involved in several alternative residential communities, including [Ivan Illich](/wiki/Ivan_Illich \"Ivan Illich\")'s Centro Intercultural de Documentación in Cuernavaca, Mexico (1968–1969\\) (alongside [Harvey Cox](/wiki/Harvey_Cox \"Harvey Cox\"){{cite news\\|last\\=Cox \\|first\\=Harvey \\|title\\=Appreciation: A prophet, a teacher, a realistic leader \\|publisher\\=National Catholic Reporter Online \\|date\\=2002\\-12\\-20 \\|url\\=http://www.natcath.org/NCR\\_Online/archives/122002/122002n.htm \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-08\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905173427/http://natcath.org/NCR\\_Online/archives/122002/122002n.htm \\|archivedate\\=September 5, 2008}}) and the inter\\-racial inter\\-religious living center Packard Manse in Stoughton, Massachusetts (1969–1971\\).",
"In 1971, Gendler became rabbi at Temple Emanuel of the Merrimack Valley and in 1977, Gendler was appointed by [Ted Sizer](/wiki/Ted_Sizer \"Ted Sizer\") as the first Jewish chaplain at Phillips Academy, Andover as part of a Catholic–Protestant–Jewish \"tri\\-ministry\"{{cite news\\|last\\=Sherman \\|first\\=Tana \\|title\\=Deepening Spiritual Faith in a Secular Community \\|publisher\\=Andover Bulletin Online 97:2 \\|date\\=Winter 2002 \\|url\\=http://www.andover.edu/publications/2004winter\\_bulletin/Religion\\_2\\.htm \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-08\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808013953/http://www.andover.edu/publications/2004winter\\_bulletin/Religion\\_2\\.htm \\|archivedate\\=August 8, 2007}} Gendler remained in his position at Phillips Andover, alongside his position at Temple Emanuel of the Merrimack Valley, until his retirement, at the age of 67, in 1995\\.",
"From 1995 to 2022, Gendler, along with his wife Mary Gendler, was involved in community education work among the Tibetan exiles on Strategic Nonviolent Struggle. In 2007, they played a central role in the founding of the Active Nonviolence Education Center in Dharmasala, India.",
"He is the father of two daughters, [Tamar Gendler](/wiki/Tamar_Gendler \"Tamar Gendler\"), who is Professor of Philosophy and Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\"), and Naomi Gendler Camper, who is Chief Policy Officer at the American Bankers Association.",
""
] |
History
-------
On 13 May 1952, in a meeting of the [Executive Council](/wiki/Federal_Executive_Council_%28Australia%29 "Federal Executive Council (Australia)"), [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia "Prime Minister of Australia") [Robert Menzies](/wiki/Robert_Menzies "Robert Menzies") established ASIS by [executive order](/wiki/Statutory_instrument "Statutory instrument") under s. 61 of the [Australian constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia "Constitution of Australia"), appointing [Alfred Deakin Brookes](/wiki/Alfred_Deakin_Brookes "Alfred Deakin Brookes") as the first director\-general of ASIS.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary\_Business/Bills\_Legislation/bd/bd0102/02bd011 \|website\=aph.gov.au \|title\=Bills Digest No. 11 of 2001\-02, Intelligence Services Bill 2001 \|publisher\=\[\[Parliament of Australia]] \|access\-date\=13 April 2021 \|date\=27 June 2001 \|language\=en\-AU \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506222928/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/bd/2001\-02/02bd011\.htm \|archive\-date\=6 May 2009 \|issn\=1328\-8091}} of [Intelligence Services Act 2001](/wiki/Intelligence_Services_Act_2001 "Intelligence Services Act 2001"). This document contains numerous references on which this article is based. The existence of ASIS remained secret even within the Australian Government until 1972\.
Its Charter of 15 December 1954 described ASIS's role as 'to obtain and distribute secret intelligence, and to plan for and conduct special operations as may be required'.{{harvp\|Toohey\|Pinwill\|1989\|p\=288}} ASIS was expressly required to "operate outside Australian territory". A Ministerial Directive of 15 August 1958 indicated that its special operations role included conducting "special political action".{{harvp\|Toohey\|Pinwill\|1989\|pp\=291–292}} It also indicated that the organisation would come under the control and supervision of the [Minister for External Affairs](/wiki/Minister_for_Foreign_Affairs_%28Australia%29 "Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)") rather than the [Minister for Defence](/wiki/Minister_for_Defence_%28Australia%29 "Minister for Defence (Australia)"). At the time, ASIS was substantially modelled on the United Kingdom's Secret Intelligence Service, also known as MI6\. ASIS was at one time referred to as MO9\.
On 1 November 1972, the existence of ASIS was sensationally revealed by *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Sydney%29 "The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)")* which ran an exposé of recruitment of ASIS agents from Australian universities for espionage activities in Asia.Richard Farmer, 'School for Aust. spies: Top\-Secret Espionage Ring Exposed', *The Daily Telegraph*, 1 November 1972\. See also Max Suich, 'Untangle the intelligence web', *The Australian Financial Review*, 3 November 1972 Soon after *[The Australian Financial Review](/wiki/The_Australian_Financial_Review "The Australian Financial Review")* published a more in\-depth piece on ASIS, the [Australian Security Intelligence Organisation](/wiki/Australian_Security_Intelligence_Organisation "Australian Security Intelligence Organisation") (ASIO), and the then [Joint Intelligence Organisation](/wiki/Joint_Intelligence_Organisation_%28Australia%29 "Joint Intelligence Organisation (Australia)") (JIO), [Defence Signals Division](/wiki/Defence_Signals_Division "Defence Signals Division") (DSD) and [Office of National Assessments](/wiki/Office_of_National_Assessments "Office of National Assessments") (ONA). It stated that "\[t]he ASIS role is to collect and disseminate facts only. It is not supposed to be in the analytical or policy advising business though this is clearly difficult to avoid at times".Max Suich, 'Untangle the intelligence web', The Australian Financial Review, 3 November 1972, p. 3 The Ministerial Statement of 1977 stated that the "main function" of ASIS was to "obtain, by such means and subject to such conditions as are prescribed by the Government, foreign intelligence for the purpose of the protection or promotion of Australia or its interests".Mr Malcolm Fraser, 'Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security', Ministerial Statement, House of Representatives, Debates, 25 October 1977, p. 2339
On 21 August 1974, Prime Minister [Gough Whitlam](/wiki/Gough_Whitlam "Gough Whitlam") established the [Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security](/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Intelligence_and_Security "Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security") (the first [Hope](/wiki/Robert_Marsden_Hope "Robert Marsden Hope") Royal Commission, 1974–77\) to investigate the country's intelligence agencies. On 25 October 1977, Prime Minister [Malcolm Fraser](/wiki/Malcolm_Fraser "Malcolm Fraser") publicly announced the existence of ASIS and its functions on a recommendation of the Commission.
In 1992, two reports were prepared on ASIS by officers within the [Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet](/wiki/Department_of_the_Prime_Minister_and_Cabinet_%28Australia%29 "Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia)") and the Office of National Assessments for the [Secretaries Committee on Intelligence and Security](/wiki/National_Security_Committee%23Secretaries_Committee_on_National_Security "National Security Committee#Secretaries Committee on National Security") (SCNS) and the [National Security Committee](/wiki/National_Security_Committee_%28Australia%29 "National Security Committee (Australia)") (NSC). The [Richardson Report](/wiki/Richardson_Report "Richardson Report") in June examined the roles and relationships of the collection agencies (ASIO, ASIS and DSD) in the post\-Cold War era. The [Hollway Report](/wiki/Hollway_Report "Hollway Report") in December examined shortfalls in Australia's foreign intelligence collection. Both reports endorsed the structure and roles of the organisations and commended the performance of ASIS.
The *[Intelligence Services Act 2001](/wiki/Intelligence_Services_Act_2001 "Intelligence Services Act 2001")* (ISA) converted ASIS to a statutory body. The Act set out the functions of ASIS and the limits on those functions. Use of weapons by ASIS were prohibited (except for self\-defence). Conduct of violent or para\-military operations was also curtailed. The Act authorised the responsible minister to issue directions to the agency and required Ministerial authorisation for intelligence collection activities involving Australians, but limited the circumstances in which that could be done. The Act requires the responsible minister to make rules regulating the communication and retention of intelligence information concerning Australian persons, and provides for the establishment of a parliamentary oversight committee, then called the [Parliamentary Joint Committee on ASIO, ASIS and DSD](/wiki/Parliamentary_Joint_Committee_on_Intelligence_and_Security "Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/num\_act/isa2001216/\|title\=Intelligence Services Act 2001, No. 152, 2001 \|work\=Commonwealth Numbered Acts\|access\-date\=8 July 2009\|publisher\=Australasian Legal Information Institute}}
The *[Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004](/wiki/Intelligence_Services_Amendment_Act_2004 "Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004")*{{cite web\|url\=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/num\_act/isaa2004296/notes.html\|title\=Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004 NO. 57, 2004 Notes\|work\=Commonwealth Numbered Acts\|access\-date\=8 July 2009\|publisher\=Australasian Legal Information Institute}} removed ISA prohibitions on ASIS operatives carrying firearms (but only for protection) and allows ASIS to work with foreign intelligence agencies such as the CIA or MI6 in the planning of [paramilitary](/wiki/Paramilitary "Paramilitary") and violent operations provided ASIS is not involved in the execution of the operations.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"On 13 May 1952, in a meeting of the [Executive Council](/wiki/Federal_Executive_Council_%28Australia%29 \"Federal Executive Council (Australia)\"), [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia \"Prime Minister of Australia\") [Robert Menzies](/wiki/Robert_Menzies \"Robert Menzies\") established ASIS by [executive order](/wiki/Statutory_instrument \"Statutory instrument\") under s. 61 of the [Australian constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia \"Constitution of Australia\"), appointing [Alfred Deakin Brookes](/wiki/Alfred_Deakin_Brookes \"Alfred Deakin Brookes\") as the first director\\-general of ASIS.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary\\_Business/Bills\\_Legislation/bd/bd0102/02bd011 \\|website\\=aph.gov.au \\|title\\=Bills Digest No. 11 of 2001\\-02, Intelligence Services Bill 2001 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Parliament of Australia]] \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2021 \\|date\\=27 June 2001 \\|language\\=en\\-AU \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506222928/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/bd/2001\\-02/02bd011\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2009 \\|issn\\=1328\\-8091}} of [Intelligence Services Act 2001](/wiki/Intelligence_Services_Act_2001 \"Intelligence Services Act 2001\"). This document contains numerous references on which this article is based. The existence of ASIS remained secret even within the Australian Government until 1972\\.",
"Its Charter of 15 December 1954 described ASIS's role as 'to obtain and distribute secret intelligence, and to plan for and conduct special operations as may be required'.{{harvp\\|Toohey\\|Pinwill\\|1989\\|p\\=288}} ASIS was expressly required to \"operate outside Australian territory\". A Ministerial Directive of 15 August 1958 indicated that its special operations role included conducting \"special political action\".{{harvp\\|Toohey\\|Pinwill\\|1989\\|pp\\=291–292}} It also indicated that the organisation would come under the control and supervision of the [Minister for External Affairs](/wiki/Minister_for_Foreign_Affairs_%28Australia%29 \"Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)\") rather than the [Minister for Defence](/wiki/Minister_for_Defence_%28Australia%29 \"Minister for Defence (Australia)\"). At the time, ASIS was substantially modelled on the United Kingdom's Secret Intelligence Service, also known as MI6\\. ASIS was at one time referred to as MO9\\.",
"On 1 November 1972, the existence of ASIS was sensationally revealed by *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Sydney%29 \"The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\")* which ran an exposé of recruitment of ASIS agents from Australian universities for espionage activities in Asia.Richard Farmer, 'School for Aust. spies: Top\\-Secret Espionage Ring Exposed', *The Daily Telegraph*, 1 November 1972\\. See also Max Suich, 'Untangle the intelligence web', *The Australian Financial Review*, 3 November 1972 Soon after *[The Australian Financial Review](/wiki/The_Australian_Financial_Review \"The Australian Financial Review\")* published a more in\\-depth piece on ASIS, the [Australian Security Intelligence Organisation](/wiki/Australian_Security_Intelligence_Organisation \"Australian Security Intelligence Organisation\") (ASIO), and the then [Joint Intelligence Organisation](/wiki/Joint_Intelligence_Organisation_%28Australia%29 \"Joint Intelligence Organisation (Australia)\") (JIO), [Defence Signals Division](/wiki/Defence_Signals_Division \"Defence Signals Division\") (DSD) and [Office of National Assessments](/wiki/Office_of_National_Assessments \"Office of National Assessments\") (ONA). It stated that \"\\[t]he ASIS role is to collect and disseminate facts only. It is not supposed to be in the analytical or policy advising business though this is clearly difficult to avoid at times\".Max Suich, 'Untangle the intelligence web', The Australian Financial Review, 3 November 1972, p. 3 The Ministerial Statement of 1977 stated that the \"main function\" of ASIS was to \"obtain, by such means and subject to such conditions as are prescribed by the Government, foreign intelligence for the purpose of the protection or promotion of Australia or its interests\".Mr Malcolm Fraser, 'Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security', Ministerial Statement, House of Representatives, Debates, 25 October 1977, p. 2339",
"On 21 August 1974, Prime Minister [Gough Whitlam](/wiki/Gough_Whitlam \"Gough Whitlam\") established the [Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security](/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Intelligence_and_Security \"Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security\") (the first [Hope](/wiki/Robert_Marsden_Hope \"Robert Marsden Hope\") Royal Commission, 1974–77\\) to investigate the country's intelligence agencies. On 25 October 1977, Prime Minister [Malcolm Fraser](/wiki/Malcolm_Fraser \"Malcolm Fraser\") publicly announced the existence of ASIS and its functions on a recommendation of the Commission.",
"In 1992, two reports were prepared on ASIS by officers within the [Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet](/wiki/Department_of_the_Prime_Minister_and_Cabinet_%28Australia%29 \"Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia)\") and the Office of National Assessments for the [Secretaries Committee on Intelligence and Security](/wiki/National_Security_Committee%23Secretaries_Committee_on_National_Security \"National Security Committee#Secretaries Committee on National Security\") (SCNS) and the [National Security Committee](/wiki/National_Security_Committee_%28Australia%29 \"National Security Committee (Australia)\") (NSC). The [Richardson Report](/wiki/Richardson_Report \"Richardson Report\") in June examined the roles and relationships of the collection agencies (ASIO, ASIS and DSD) in the post\\-Cold War era. The [Hollway Report](/wiki/Hollway_Report \"Hollway Report\") in December examined shortfalls in Australia's foreign intelligence collection. Both reports endorsed the structure and roles of the organisations and commended the performance of ASIS.",
"The *[Intelligence Services Act 2001](/wiki/Intelligence_Services_Act_2001 \"Intelligence Services Act 2001\")* (ISA) converted ASIS to a statutory body. The Act set out the functions of ASIS and the limits on those functions. Use of weapons by ASIS were prohibited (except for self\\-defence). Conduct of violent or para\\-military operations was also curtailed. The Act authorised the responsible minister to issue directions to the agency and required Ministerial authorisation for intelligence collection activities involving Australians, but limited the circumstances in which that could be done. The Act requires the responsible minister to make rules regulating the communication and retention of intelligence information concerning Australian persons, and provides for the establishment of a parliamentary oversight committee, then called the [Parliamentary Joint Committee on ASIO, ASIS and DSD](/wiki/Parliamentary_Joint_Committee_on_Intelligence_and_Security \"Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/num\\_act/isa2001216/\\|title\\=Intelligence Services Act 2001, No. 152, 2001 \\|work\\=Commonwealth Numbered Acts\\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2009\\|publisher\\=Australasian Legal Information Institute}}",
"The *[Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004](/wiki/Intelligence_Services_Amendment_Act_2004 \"Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004\")*{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/num\\_act/isaa2004296/notes.html\\|title\\=Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004 NO. 57, 2004 Notes\\|work\\=Commonwealth Numbered Acts\\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2009\\|publisher\\=Australasian Legal Information Institute}} removed ISA prohibitions on ASIS operatives carrying firearms (but only for protection) and allows ASIS to work with foreign intelligence agencies such as the CIA or MI6 in the planning of [paramilitary](/wiki/Paramilitary \"Paramilitary\") and violent operations provided ASIS is not involved in the execution of the operations.",
""
] |
Royal Commissions examining ASIS
--------------------------------
Three [Royal Commissions](/wiki/Royal_Commission "Royal Commission") have examined, among other things, ASIS and its operations: in 1974 and 1983 (the Hope Royal Commissions), and in 1994 (the [Samuels and Codd Royal Commission](/wiki/Samuels_and_Codd_Royal_Commission "Samuels and Codd Royal Commission")).
### First Hope Royal Commission
On 21 August 1974, the Whitlam Government appointed Justice [Robert Hope](/wiki/Robert_Marsden_Hope "Robert Marsden Hope") to conduct a Royal Commission into the structure of Australian security and intelligence services, the nature and scope of the intelligence required and the machinery for ministerial control, direction and coordination of the security services. The Hope Royal Commission delivered eight reports, four of which were tabled in Parliament on 5 May 1977 and 25 October 1977\. Aside from the observation that ASIS was "singularly well run and well managed", the report(s) on ASIS were not released. Results from the other reports included the [Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979](/wiki/Australian_Security_Intelligence_Organisation_Act_1979 "Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979"), the establishment of the ONA and the passage of the *[Office of National Assessments Act 1977](/wiki/Office_of_National_Assessments_Act_1977 "Office of National Assessments Act 1977")*.
### Second Hope Royal Commission
On 17 May 1983, the [Hawke Government](/wiki/Bob_Hawke "Bob Hawke") reappointed Justice Hope to conduct a second Royal Commission into Australia's intelligence agencies. The inquiry was to examine progress in implementing the previous recommendations; arrangements for developing policies, assessing priorities and coordinating activities among the organisations; ministerial and parliamentary accountability; complaints procedures; financial oversight and the agencies' compliance with the law. As with the first Hope Royal Commission, the reports on ASIS and DSD, which included draft legislation on ASIS, were not made public.
### Samuels and Codd Royal Commission
In response to a *[Four Corners](/wiki/Four_Corners_%28Australian_TV_program%29 "Four Corners (Australian TV program)")* TV program aired on 21 February 1994, the Minister for Foreign Affairs [Gareth Evans](/wiki/Gareth_Evans_%28politician%29 "Gareth Evans (politician)") announced on 23 February 1994 a "root and branch" review of ASIS. The Government appointed Justice [Gordon Samuels](/wiki/Gordon_Samuels "Gordon Samuels") and Mr [Mike Codd](/wiki/Mike_Codd "Mike Codd") to inquire into the effectiveness and suitability of existing arrangements for control and accountability, organisation and management, protection of sources and methods, and resolution of grievances and complaints. The Royal Commission reported in March 1995\.
*Four Corners* reporter [Ross Coulthart](/wiki/Ross_Coulthart "Ross Coulthart") made allegations regarding intelligence held by ASIS on Australians. He claimed that "ASIS secretly holds tens of thousands of files on Australian citizens, a database completely outside privacy laws".Statement by Ross Coulthard in *Four Corners* program of 21 February 1994 The allegation was investigated and denied by Samuels and Codd (see below),'\[ASIS] does not maintain 'tens of thousands of files' containing dossiers about Australian citizens, as alleged in the media'; {{harvp\|Samuels\|Codd\|1995\|p\=xxiii}} but the Minister did acknowledge that ASIS maintained files. The Minister said: "ASIS does have some files, as one would expect in an organisation of that nature, even though its brief extends to activities outside the country rather than inside. They are essentially of an administrative nature."The Minister said: "ASIS does have some files, as one would expect in an organisation of that nature, even though its brief extends to activities outside the country rather than inside. They are essentially of an administrative nature": Senator Gareth Evans, Answer to Question Without Notice, Senate, Debates, 22 February 1994, p. 859 However, Samuels and Codd did find that certain grievances of the former officers were well founded. They appeared to support the officers' concerns regarding the grievance procedures:
> Bearing in mind the context in which the members of ASIS work, it is not surprising that there should develop a culture which sets great store by faithfulness and stoicism and tends to elevate conformity to undue heights and to regard the exercise of authority rather than consultation as the managerial norm.{{harvp\|Samuels\|Codd\|1995\|p\=xxxi}}
However, Samuels and Codd observed that the information published in the *Four Corners* program was "skewed towards the false",{{harvp\|Samuels\|Codd\|1995\|p\=xx}} that "the level of factual accuracy about operational matters was not high",{{harvp\|Samuels\|Codd\|1995\|p\=xxiii}} and, quoting an aphorism, that "what was disturbing was not true and what was true was not disturbing". They concluded that the disclosure of the information was unnecessary and unjustifiable and had damaged the reputation of ASIS and Australia overseas. The commissioners stated that "evidence presented to us of action and reaction in other countries satisfies us that the publication was damaging": They rejected any suggestion that ASIS was unaccountable or "out of control". They said, "its operational management is well structured and its tactical decisions are thoroughly considered and, in major instances, subject to external approval". They recommended that complaints regarding ASIS operations continue to be handled by the [Inspector\-General of Intelligence and Security](/wiki/Inspector-General_of_Intelligence_and_Security_%28Australia%29 "Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (Australia)") (IGIS) but that staff grievances be handled by the [Administrative Appeals Tribunal](/wiki/Administrative_Appeals_Tribunal "Administrative Appeals Tribunal").{{harvp\|Samuels\|Codd\|1995\|pp\=xxiii–xxiv}}
In addition to their recommendations, Samuels and Codd put forward draft legislation to provide a statutory basis for ASIS and to protect various information from disclosure. The Samuels and Codd Bill, like the bulk of the reports, was not made public.
|
[
"Royal Commissions examining ASIS\n--------------------------------",
"Three [Royal Commissions](/wiki/Royal_Commission \"Royal Commission\") have examined, among other things, ASIS and its operations: in 1974 and 1983 (the Hope Royal Commissions), and in 1994 (the [Samuels and Codd Royal Commission](/wiki/Samuels_and_Codd_Royal_Commission \"Samuels and Codd Royal Commission\")).",
"### First Hope Royal Commission",
"On 21 August 1974, the Whitlam Government appointed Justice [Robert Hope](/wiki/Robert_Marsden_Hope \"Robert Marsden Hope\") to conduct a Royal Commission into the structure of Australian security and intelligence services, the nature and scope of the intelligence required and the machinery for ministerial control, direction and coordination of the security services. The Hope Royal Commission delivered eight reports, four of which were tabled in Parliament on 5 May 1977 and 25 October 1977\\. Aside from the observation that ASIS was \"singularly well run and well managed\", the report(s) on ASIS were not released. Results from the other reports included the [Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979](/wiki/Australian_Security_Intelligence_Organisation_Act_1979 \"Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979\"), the establishment of the ONA and the passage of the *[Office of National Assessments Act 1977](/wiki/Office_of_National_Assessments_Act_1977 \"Office of National Assessments Act 1977\")*.",
"### Second Hope Royal Commission",
"On 17 May 1983, the [Hawke Government](/wiki/Bob_Hawke \"Bob Hawke\") reappointed Justice Hope to conduct a second Royal Commission into Australia's intelligence agencies. The inquiry was to examine progress in implementing the previous recommendations; arrangements for developing policies, assessing priorities and coordinating activities among the organisations; ministerial and parliamentary accountability; complaints procedures; financial oversight and the agencies' compliance with the law. As with the first Hope Royal Commission, the reports on ASIS and DSD, which included draft legislation on ASIS, were not made public.",
"### Samuels and Codd Royal Commission",
"In response to a *[Four Corners](/wiki/Four_Corners_%28Australian_TV_program%29 \"Four Corners (Australian TV program)\")* TV program aired on 21 February 1994, the Minister for Foreign Affairs [Gareth Evans](/wiki/Gareth_Evans_%28politician%29 \"Gareth Evans (politician)\") announced on 23 February 1994 a \"root and branch\" review of ASIS. The Government appointed Justice [Gordon Samuels](/wiki/Gordon_Samuels \"Gordon Samuels\") and Mr [Mike Codd](/wiki/Mike_Codd \"Mike Codd\") to inquire into the effectiveness and suitability of existing arrangements for control and accountability, organisation and management, protection of sources and methods, and resolution of grievances and complaints. The Royal Commission reported in March 1995\\.",
"*Four Corners* reporter [Ross Coulthart](/wiki/Ross_Coulthart \"Ross Coulthart\") made allegations regarding intelligence held by ASIS on Australians. He claimed that \"ASIS secretly holds tens of thousands of files on Australian citizens, a database completely outside privacy laws\".Statement by Ross Coulthard in *Four Corners* program of 21 February 1994 The allegation was investigated and denied by Samuels and Codd (see below),'\\[ASIS] does not maintain 'tens of thousands of files' containing dossiers about Australian citizens, as alleged in the media'; {{harvp\\|Samuels\\|Codd\\|1995\\|p\\=xxiii}} but the Minister did acknowledge that ASIS maintained files. The Minister said: \"ASIS does have some files, as one would expect in an organisation of that nature, even though its brief extends to activities outside the country rather than inside. They are essentially of an administrative nature.\"The Minister said: \"ASIS does have some files, as one would expect in an organisation of that nature, even though its brief extends to activities outside the country rather than inside. They are essentially of an administrative nature\": Senator Gareth Evans, Answer to Question Without Notice, Senate, Debates, 22 February 1994, p. 859 However, Samuels and Codd did find that certain grievances of the former officers were well founded. They appeared to support the officers' concerns regarding the grievance procedures:",
"",
"> Bearing in mind the context in which the members of ASIS work, it is not surprising that there should develop a culture which sets great store by faithfulness and stoicism and tends to elevate conformity to undue heights and to regard the exercise of authority rather than consultation as the managerial norm.{{harvp\\|Samuels\\|Codd\\|1995\\|p\\=xxxi}}",
"However, Samuels and Codd observed that the information published in the *Four Corners* program was \"skewed towards the false\",{{harvp\\|Samuels\\|Codd\\|1995\\|p\\=xx}} that \"the level of factual accuracy about operational matters was not high\",{{harvp\\|Samuels\\|Codd\\|1995\\|p\\=xxiii}} and, quoting an aphorism, that \"what was disturbing was not true and what was true was not disturbing\". They concluded that the disclosure of the information was unnecessary and unjustifiable and had damaged the reputation of ASIS and Australia overseas. The commissioners stated that \"evidence presented to us of action and reaction in other countries satisfies us that the publication was damaging\": They rejected any suggestion that ASIS was unaccountable or \"out of control\". They said, \"its operational management is well structured and its tactical decisions are thoroughly considered and, in major instances, subject to external approval\". They recommended that complaints regarding ASIS operations continue to be handled by the [Inspector\\-General of Intelligence and Security](/wiki/Inspector-General_of_Intelligence_and_Security_%28Australia%29 \"Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (Australia)\") (IGIS) but that staff grievances be handled by the [Administrative Appeals Tribunal](/wiki/Administrative_Appeals_Tribunal \"Administrative Appeals Tribunal\").{{harvp\\|Samuels\\|Codd\\|1995\\|pp\\=xxiii–xxiv}}",
"In addition to their recommendations, Samuels and Codd put forward draft legislation to provide a statutory basis for ASIS and to protect various information from disclosure. The Samuels and Codd Bill, like the bulk of the reports, was not made public.",
""
] |
Controversies
-------------
### ASIS in Chile 1973
An ASIS station was established in Chile out of the Australian embassy in July 1971 at the request of the CIA and authorised by then Liberal Party Foreign Minister [William McMahon](/wiki/William_McMahon "William McMahon"). New Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was informed of the operation in February 1973 and signed a document ordering the closure of the operation several weeks later. On 1 July 1973, the ASIS station in Chile reported that it had shut down and destroyed all records. However, the last ASIS agent did not leave Chile until October 1973, one month after the CIA\-backed [1973 Chilean coup d'état](/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1973 Chilean coup d'état") had brought down the [Allende](/wiki/Salvador_Allende "Salvador Allende") government. Two officers of ASIO were also based in Santiago, working as migration officers during this period.{{cite web\|title\=Forty years after the military coup which brought down Chilean President Salvador Allende, refugees in Australia are still raising questions about the country's involvement in the affair\|url\=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2013/09/11/questions\-over\-australian\-involvement\-chile\-coup\|publisher\=SBS\|date\=11 September 2013\|access\-date\=30 October 2016}}{{cite book\|title\=ASIS and ASIO in Chile\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/23060812\|publisher\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing\|author\=Florencia Melgar and Pablo Leighton\|access\-date\=30 October 2016}} pp78\-92, 2015 in *40 Years are Nothing: History and memory of the 1973 coups d'état in Uruguay and Chile* Edited by Pablo Leighton and Fernando López, {{ISBN\|1443876429}} The incident was one of two that caused a confrontation between Whitlam and [Bill Robertson](/wiki/Bill_Robertson_%28Australian_intelligence_officer%29 "Bill Robertson (Australian intelligence officer)"), the director\-general of ASIS, which culminated in Robertson's sacking on 21 October 1975, with effect from 7 November, just four days before Whitlam's own dismissal in the [1975 Australian constitutional crisis](/wiki/1975_Australian_constitutional_crisis "1975 Australian constitutional crisis"). Whitlam said Robertson had disobeyed instructions by delaying the closure of the ASIS station in Chile in 1973 and not informing Whitlam that ASIS had an active agent in East Timor in 1975\. Robertson disputed the details in a personal statement lodged with the National Archives in 2009\.{{cite news\|last\=Suich\|first\=Max\|title\=Spymaster stirs spectre of covert foreign activities\|url\=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/inquirer/spymaster\-stirs\-spectre\-of\-covert\-foreign\-activities/news\-story/81531449790cf1321578d684e368905c\|newspaper\=The Australian\|date\=20 March 2010\|access\-date\=30 October 2016}}
ASIS's involvement in Chile was revealed in 1974 when Whitlam set up the [First Hope Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Intelligence_and_Security "Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security") to investigate Australia's security services. Whitlam told parliament that "when my government took office, Australian intelligence personnel were working as proxies of the CIA in destabilising the government of Chile". After the coup by [Augusto Pinochet](/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet "Augusto Pinochet"), Whitlam's government created a special program for Chilean refugees to come to Australia. Under the program, about 6,000 Chileans came to Australia between 1974 and 1981 and hundreds more joined them as part of a family reunion program.{{cite news \|last1\=Blanco \|first1\=Claudianna \|title\=Ex\-intelligence officer fights to declassify documents on Australia's involvement in Pinochet coup in Chile \|url\=https://www.sbs.com.au/language/english/ex\-intelligence\-officer\-fights\-to\-declassify\-documents\-on\-australia\-s\-involvement\-in\-pinochet\-coup\-in\-chile \|access\-date\=13 June 2021 \|work\=SBS Your Language \|date\=1 June 2021 \|language\=en}}
The [National Archives of Australia](/wiki/National_Archives_of_Australia "National Archives of Australia") holds documents related to ASIS operations to help the [CIA](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency") undermine the government of Allende in the years 1971\-1974\. In 2021, the archives refused a request from [Clinton Fernandes](/wiki/Clinton_Fernandes "Clinton Fernandes"), professor of International and Political Studies at the [University of New South Wales](/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales "University of New South Wales"), to access records relating to ASIS operations in Chile. Heavily redacted versions of some documents were released to Fernandes in June 2021\. The documents show that the ASIS base in Chile assisted the CIA's destabilisation of Allende's government by handling CIA\-recruited Chilean assets and filing intelligence reports to CIA headquarters in [Langley, Virginia](/wiki/Langley%2C_Virginia "Langley, Virginia").{{cite news \|last1\=Daley \|first1\=Paul \|title\=Declassified documents show Australia assisted CIA in coup against Chile's Salvador Allende \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/sep/11/declassified\-documents\-show\-australia\-assisted\-cia\-in\-coup\-against\-chiles\-salvador\-allende \|access\-date\=11 September 2021 \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=10 September 2021 \|language\=en}} In November 2021, the [Administrative Appeals Tribunal](/wiki/Administrative_Appeals_Tribunal "Administrative Appeals Tribunal") (AAT) upheld the decision to reject Fernandes's request for access to the documents. The AAT said the release of documents would "cause damage to the security, defence or international relations of the Commonwealth". Most of the AAT hearing was held behind closed doors, because [Attorney\-General](/wiki/Attorney-General_of_Australia "Attorney-General of Australia") [Michaelia Cash](/wiki/Michaelia_Cash "Michaelia Cash") issued a public interest certificate, suppressing the disclosure of evidence provided by ASIS, [ASIO](/wiki/ASIO "ASIO") and the [Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade](/wiki/Department_of_Foreign_Affairs_and_Trade "Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade").{{cite news \|last1\=Blanco \|first1\=Claudianna \|title\=Australia refuses to declassify historical records on how its spies aided the CIA in Chile coup \|url\=https://www.sbs.com.au/language/english/australia\-refuses\-to\-declassify\-historical\-records\-on\-how\-its\-spies\-aided\-the\-cia\-in\-chile\-coup \|access\-date\=8 November 2021 \|work\=SBS Your Language \|date\=8 November 2021 \|language\=en}}
### The Favaro affair
During the lead\-up to [Indonesia's invasion of East Timor](/wiki/Australia_and_the_Indonesian_occupation_of_East_Timor "Australia and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor") in 1975, ASIS paid a Dili\-based Australian businessman, Frank Favaro, for information on local political developments. The leaking of his identity in late 1975 was another factor in the confrontation between Whitlam and Robertson.{{cite web\|title\=ASIS – Favaro affair\|date\=19 December 2011 \|url\=http://nautilus.org/publications/books/australian\-forces\-abroad/east\-timor/asis\-favaro\-affair/\|publisher\=Nautilus Institute\|access\-date\=30 October 2016}}{{cite news\|title\=Intelligence boss showed strength\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/comment/obituaries/intelligence\-boss\-showed\-strength\-20110114\-19r60\.html\|newspaper\=The Age\|date\=15 January 2011\|access\-date\=30 October 2016}} Bill Robertson disputed the reason for his dismissal in documents lodged with the National Archives in 2009\.
### The Sheraton Hotel incident
On 30 November 1983, ASIS garnered unwanted negative attention when a training operation held at the Sheraton Hotel, now the Mercure (Spring Street), in Melbourne went wrong. The exercise was to be a mock surveillance and hostage rescue of foreign intelligence officers. In March 1983, ASIS had begun training a covert team of civilians at [Swan Island](/wiki/Swan_Island_%28Victoria%29 "Swan Island (Victoria)") in Victoria whose role was to protect or release Australians who may be threatened or captured by terrorists overseas. The military in 1981 had established a counter\-terrorist unit for operations only in Australia. The personnel involved in the training operation included ten operators, four ASIS officers and six ASIS civilian trainees, and two commandos from the Army Reserve [1st Commando Regiment](/wiki/1st_Commando_Regiment_%28Australia%29 "1st Commando Regiment (Australia)") with a sergeant participating as an observer in the hotel foyer.{{Cite web \|last\=Rule \|first\=Diny Slamet, Ian Davis, Paul Chadwick and Andrew \|date\=2020\-11\-28 \|title\=From the Archives, 1983: ASIS botches training drill at the Sheraton Hotel \|url\=https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/from\-the\-archives\-1983\-asis\-botches\-training\-drill\-at\-the\-sheraton\-hotel\-20201127\-p56igg.html \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-15 \|website\=The Age \|language\=en}}
The training operation involved junior officers who had undergone three weeks' prior training and who were given considerable leeway in planning and executing the operation. The mock hostage rescue was staged on the 10th floor of the hotel without the permission of the hotel's owner or staff. When ASIS operators were refused entry into a hotel room, they broke down the door with sledgehammers. The hotel manager, Nick Rice, was notified of a disturbance on the 10th floor by a hotel guest. When he went to investigate, he was forced back into the [lift](/wiki/Elevator "Elevator") by an ASIS operator who rode the lift down to the ground floor and forcibly ejected Rice into the lobby. Believing a robbery was in progress, Rice called the police. When the lift started returning to the ground floor, ASIS operators emerged wearing masks and openly brandishing [9mm Browning](/wiki/Browning_Hi-Power "Browning Hi-Power") pistols and [Heckler \& Koch MP5](/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_MP5 "Heckler & Koch MP5") submachine guns, two of them with silencers. They forced their way through the lobby to the kitchen, where two getaway cars were waiting outside the kitchen door. Police stopped one of the cars and arrested the occupants – two ASIS officers and three ASIS civilian trainees – who refused to produce any form of identification.{{cite book\|title\=Wayward governance: illegality and its control in the public sector\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/waywardgovernanc0000grab/page/129 129–142]\|author\=P N Grabosky\|publisher\=Australian Institute of Criminology\|year\=1989\|isbn\=0\-642\-14605\-5\|url\=https://archive.org/details/waywardgovernanc0000grab/page/129}}
Within two days, the minister for foreign affairs, [Bill Hayden](/wiki/Bill_Hayden "Bill Hayden") announced that an "immediate and full" investigation would be conducted under the auspices of the second Hope Royal Commission, which was still in progress. A report was prepared and tabled by February 1984\. It described the exercise as being "poorly planned, poorly supervised and poorly run",Royal Commission on Australia's Security and Intelligence Agencies, Report on the Sheraton Hotel incident, February 1984, p. 68 and recommended that measures be taken in training to improve planning and eliminate adverse impacts on the public.
[Victoria Police](/wiki/Victoria_Police "Victoria Police") conducted their own investigation but were frustrated because ASIS Director\-General [John Ryan](/wiki/John_Ryan_%28diplomat%29 "John Ryan (diplomat)") refused to cooperate. Bill Hayden offered to provide the real names of the seven officers involved, in confidence. [Premier of Victoria](/wiki/Premier_of_Victoria "Premier of Victoria") [John Cain](/wiki/John_Cain_II "John Cain II") told Hayden that "as far as the police were concerned, there was no such thing as information in confidence".{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=0f5jAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=7\-YDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5319,3113629\|title\=Police to step up ASIS raid inquiry\|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|date\=8 December 1983}}
Following the incident, *[The Sunday Age](/wiki/The_Sunday_Age "The Sunday Age")* disclosed the names, or the assumed names, of five of the operators involved. The journalist noted that "according to legal advice taken by *The Sunday Age* there is no provision that prevents the naming of an ASIS agent".Paul Daley, 'The Sheraton Shambles', The Sunday Age, 7 November 1993 Although not included within the public version of the report, the Hope Royal Commission prepared an appendix that would appear to have dealt with the security and foreign relations consequences of *The Sunday Age*{{'}}s disclosure of participants' names. Subsequently, in *A v Hayden*, the High Court held that the Commonwealth owed no enforceable duty to ASIS officers to maintain confidentiality of their names or activities.(1984\) 156 CLR 532
At the time of the Sheraton Hotel incident, the extant Ministerial Directive permitted ASIS to undertake "covert action", including "special operations" which, roughly described, comprised "unorthodox, possibly para\-military activity, designed to be used in case of war or some other crisis".Royal Commission on Australia's Security and Intelligence Agencies, Report on the Sheraton Hotel incident, February 1984, p. 17 Following the incident and the recommendations of the Royal Commission, the covert action function was apparently abolished. The functions of ASIS can be found in section 6 of the Intelligence Services Act, as can those functions which are proscribed by the act.{{harvp\|Samuels\|Codd\|1995\|p\=2}}
Ultimately, in executing the operation, the operators were found to have used considerable force, menacing a number of the staff and guests with weapons and physically assaulting the hotel manager.Royal Commission on Australia's Security and Intelligence Agencies, Report on the Sheraton Hotel incident, February 1984, p. 26 and 28 Hope found Ryan to be at fault for authorising the training operation in a public place using concealed weapons. Ryan resigned in February 1984\. Hope said it was not part of his terms of reference to make findings or recommendations on whether any individual had committed any offence. However, he did note that the individuals could potentially be prosecuted by the State of Victoria with a long list of criminal offences, including possession of firearms without a licence, possession of prohibited implements (including machine guns, silencers and housebreaking tools), aggravated burglary in possession of a firearm, common assault, wilful damage to property, possession of a disguise without lawful excuse and numerous motor vehicle offences. More than a year after the raid, the Victorian Director of Public Prosecutions concluded that while certain offences had been committed, including criminal damage and assault with a weapon, there was insufficient evidence to charge any person with a specific offence.{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=Ya9WAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=RegDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4835,2355512\|title\=ASIS raid: Vic won't prosecute\|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|date\=22 December 1984}}
Victorian Holdings Ltd, the company managing the hotel, subsequently took legal action against the Commonwealth on behalf of itself and 14 hotel staff. The matter was settled out of court; the hotel was offered $300,000 in damages.{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=3UFVAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=g5UDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4898,635100\|title\=Hotel staff offered $300,000\|newspaper\=The Age\|date\=22 May 1984}} The total payout to the hotel and staff was $365,400\.{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=MTdWAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=fugDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6388,811924\|title\=Payout for ASIS raid now $365,400\|newspaper\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|date\=3 October 1984}}
### Involvement in Papua New Guinea
Between 1989 and 1991, ASIS came under scrutiny following allegations relating to its role and activities in [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea"). It was alleged that ASIS had been involved in training Papua New Guinean troops to suppress independence movements in [Irian Jaya](/wiki/Irian_Jaya "Irian Jaya")Comments by Brian Toohey on Late Night Live program of 28 September 1989 and [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_Province "Bougainville Province").Comments by Brian Toohey on Late Night Live program of 12 February 1990 In 1997 it was alleged that ASIS and DSD had failed to collect, or the Government had failed to act upon, intelligence regarding the role and presence of [Sandline](/wiki/Sandline "Sandline") contractors in relation to the independence movement in Bougainville.Comments by Warren Reed, former ASIS intelligence officer in *Four Corners* program of 14 July 1997
### *Four Corners* program
Towards the end of 1993, ASIS became the subject of media attention after allegations were made by former ASIS officers that ASIS was unaccountable and out of control. The Sunday Telegraph alleged that "ASIS regularly flouted laws, kept dossiers on Australian citizens ... and hounded agents out of the service with little explanation". In particular, it alleged that agents were being targeted in a purge by being threatened with criminal charges relating to their official conduct, reflecting a pattern which suggested to some that ASIS or a senior ASIS officer had been "turned" by a foreign intelligence service.Brad Crouch, 'ASIS "Like the KGB"', The Sunday Telegraph, 26 December 1993
On 21 February 1994, *Four Corners* ran a program which aired the key allegations. Two former ASIS officers made claims regarding cultural and operational tensions between ASIS and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. They claimed that embassy staff had maliciously or negligently compromised activities involving the running of foreign informants and agents and the defection of foreign agents to Australia. They claimed that their grievances had been ignored and that they were "deserted in the field" and made scapegoats by ASIS. The officers and the reporter, Ross Coulthart, also made claims regarding operational activities and priorities: the officers claimed that ASIS advice had been ignored by DFAT and the reporter repeated claims regarding ASIS operations aimed at destabilising the [Aquino Government](/wiki/Presidency_of_Corazon_Aquino "Presidency of Corazon Aquino") in the Philippines. He also made claims regarding ASIS assistance to MI6 in the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War "Falklands War"), in Hong Kong and in [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") for the benefit of British interests, including commercial interests, and potentially to the detriment of Australian national interests. The bulk of the personal statements by the officers concerned their private grievances. They raised two issues of public interest regarding the effect of secrecy on the operation of grievance procedures and the extent to which the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade was aware of or in control of ASIS operations. The reporter directly raised the issue of the appropriateness of ASIS operations, particularly with respect to priority setting in overseas postings and operations, cooperation with foreign intelligence services, and the privacy of Australian persons and organisations. By implication, the program queried the extent to which ASIS was or should be accountable to the Minister, to Government and to Parliament.
The following day, the [Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_Australia "Shadow Cabinet of Australia") called for an independent judicial inquiry into the allegations. He expressed particular concern about the nature of ASIS cooperation with foreign agencies and the defects in ASIS grievance procedures.Hon. Andrew Peacock, MP, 'ASIS', Press Release by Hon. Andrew Peacock, MP Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, 22 February 1994 He later called for the inquiry to examine the "poisoned relationship between ASIS and DFAT".Hon. Andrew Peacock, MP, 'ASIS Inquiry Must Address Relations with DFAT', Press Release by Hon. Andrew Peacock, MP Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, 23 February 1994 A [Democrats](/wiki/Australian_Democrats "Australian Democrats") spokesperson called for a standing parliamentary committee.Senator Vicki Bourne, 'Four Corners: ASIS Out of Control', News Release, No. 94/41, 22 February 1994
Two days after the program aired, the Samuels and Codd Royal Commission was convened by Minister for Foreign Affairs Gareth Evans.
### Ratih Hardjono, Bruce Grant and Gareth Evans
On 19 February 2000, Singapore journalist Susan Sim accused Ratih Harjono of working for her uncle, a senior BAKIN ([Indonesian intelligence service](/wiki/State_Intelligence_Agency_%28Indonesia%29 "State Intelligence Agency (Indonesia)")) intelligence officer while working for the President of Indonesia.Sim, Susan (19 February 2000\). All the President's whisperers, Straits Times (Singapore). Earlier in her career as a journalist, Ratih was married to Bruce Grant, who during this period was senior policy adviser to Gareth Evans, co\-authoring the book, *Australia's foreign relations: in the world of the 1990s*. Gareth Evans was responsible for ASIS from 1988 to 1996\.
### Alleged management and staffing problems
In 2005, *[The Bulletin](/wiki/The_Bulletin_%28Australian_periodical%29 "The Bulletin (Australian periodical)")* ran an article based on allegations by serving ASIS officers that alluded to gross mismanagement of intelligence operations, staff assignments, and taskings, particularly with respect to the war on terrorism. The unnamed officers pointed out various problems within the agency that were plaguing the organisation's ability to collect vital and timely intelligence. By this, they meant the recruitment of "...young mostly white university educated agents with limited language skills and little knowledge of Islam against poor, zealous extremists intent on becoming suicide bombers", the "inappropriate" assignment of "...young female IOs \[intelligence officers] against Islamic targets...", in addition to poor [staff retention](/wiki/Employee_retention "Employee retention") rates, and general lack of officers possessing significant practical field experience. The officers also cited a lack of proper support given to intelligence officers tasked against terrorist targets, and the doctoring of intelligence by ASIS management, as also contributing to the lack of progress of the agency in the war on terrorism.
{{cite web
\|url\=http://news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\=66730
\|title\=Lack of qualified spies in ASIS: agent
\|date\=11 October 2005
\|work\=9news
\|publisher\=ninemsn.com.au
\|access\-date\=5 July 2009
\|url\-status\=dead
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517110717/http://news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\=66730
\|archive\-date\=17 May 2009
}}
[thumb\|Demonstration in front of Australian embassy against the [CMATS\-treaty](/wiki/Treaty_on_Certain_Maritime_Arrangements_in_the_Timor_Sea "Treaty on Certain Maritime Arrangements in the Timor Sea"), December 2013](/wiki/File:Oil_demo_Timor_2013.JPG "Oil demo Timor 2013.JPG")
### Australia–East Timor spying scandal
{{main\|Australia–East Timor spying scandal}}
It was revealed in 2013 that ASIS planted devices to listen to the [East Timorese](/wiki/East_Timor "East Timor") government during negotiations over the Greater Sunrise oil and gasfields.{{cite news \|title\=Timor\-Leste activists 'shocked' by Australia's prosecution of spy Witness K and lawyer \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/22/timor\-leste\-activists\-shocked\-by\-australias\-prosecution\-of\-spy\-witness\-k\-and\-lawyer \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=21 July 2018}}
|
[
"Controversies\n-------------",
"### ASIS in Chile 1973",
"An ASIS station was established in Chile out of the Australian embassy in July 1971 at the request of the CIA and authorised by then Liberal Party Foreign Minister [William McMahon](/wiki/William_McMahon \"William McMahon\"). New Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was informed of the operation in February 1973 and signed a document ordering the closure of the operation several weeks later. On 1 July 1973, the ASIS station in Chile reported that it had shut down and destroyed all records. However, the last ASIS agent did not leave Chile until October 1973, one month after the CIA\\-backed [1973 Chilean coup d'état](/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"1973 Chilean coup d'état\") had brought down the [Allende](/wiki/Salvador_Allende \"Salvador Allende\") government. Two officers of ASIO were also based in Santiago, working as migration officers during this period.{{cite web\\|title\\=Forty years after the military coup which brought down Chilean President Salvador Allende, refugees in Australia are still raising questions about the country's involvement in the affair\\|url\\=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2013/09/11/questions\\-over\\-australian\\-involvement\\-chile\\-coup\\|publisher\\=SBS\\|date\\=11 September 2013\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2016}}{{cite book\\|title\\=ASIS and ASIO in Chile\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/23060812\\|publisher\\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing\\|author\\=Florencia Melgar and Pablo Leighton\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2016}} pp78\\-92, 2015 in *40 Years are Nothing: History and memory of the 1973 coups d'état in Uruguay and Chile* Edited by Pablo Leighton and Fernando López, {{ISBN\\|1443876429}} The incident was one of two that caused a confrontation between Whitlam and [Bill Robertson](/wiki/Bill_Robertson_%28Australian_intelligence_officer%29 \"Bill Robertson (Australian intelligence officer)\"), the director\\-general of ASIS, which culminated in Robertson's sacking on 21 October 1975, with effect from 7 November, just four days before Whitlam's own dismissal in the [1975 Australian constitutional crisis](/wiki/1975_Australian_constitutional_crisis \"1975 Australian constitutional crisis\"). Whitlam said Robertson had disobeyed instructions by delaying the closure of the ASIS station in Chile in 1973 and not informing Whitlam that ASIS had an active agent in East Timor in 1975\\. Robertson disputed the details in a personal statement lodged with the National Archives in 2009\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Suich\\|first\\=Max\\|title\\=Spymaster stirs spectre of covert foreign activities\\|url\\=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/inquirer/spymaster\\-stirs\\-spectre\\-of\\-covert\\-foreign\\-activities/news\\-story/81531449790cf1321578d684e368905c\\|newspaper\\=The Australian\\|date\\=20 March 2010\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2016}}",
"ASIS's involvement in Chile was revealed in 1974 when Whitlam set up the [First Hope Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Intelligence_and_Security \"Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security\") to investigate Australia's security services. Whitlam told parliament that \"when my government took office, Australian intelligence personnel were working as proxies of the CIA in destabilising the government of Chile\". After the coup by [Augusto Pinochet](/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet \"Augusto Pinochet\"), Whitlam's government created a special program for Chilean refugees to come to Australia. Under the program, about 6,000 Chileans came to Australia between 1974 and 1981 and hundreds more joined them as part of a family reunion program.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Blanco \\|first1\\=Claudianna \\|title\\=Ex\\-intelligence officer fights to declassify documents on Australia's involvement in Pinochet coup in Chile \\|url\\=https://www.sbs.com.au/language/english/ex\\-intelligence\\-officer\\-fights\\-to\\-declassify\\-documents\\-on\\-australia\\-s\\-involvement\\-in\\-pinochet\\-coup\\-in\\-chile \\|access\\-date\\=13 June 2021 \\|work\\=SBS Your Language \\|date\\=1 June 2021 \\|language\\=en}}",
"The [National Archives of Australia](/wiki/National_Archives_of_Australia \"National Archives of Australia\") holds documents related to ASIS operations to help the [CIA](/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency \"Central Intelligence Agency\") undermine the government of Allende in the years 1971\\-1974\\. In 2021, the archives refused a request from [Clinton Fernandes](/wiki/Clinton_Fernandes \"Clinton Fernandes\"), professor of International and Political Studies at the [University of New South Wales](/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales \"University of New South Wales\"), to access records relating to ASIS operations in Chile. Heavily redacted versions of some documents were released to Fernandes in June 2021\\. The documents show that the ASIS base in Chile assisted the CIA's destabilisation of Allende's government by handling CIA\\-recruited Chilean assets and filing intelligence reports to CIA headquarters in [Langley, Virginia](/wiki/Langley%2C_Virginia \"Langley, Virginia\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Daley \\|first1\\=Paul \\|title\\=Declassified documents show Australia assisted CIA in coup against Chile's Salvador Allende \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/sep/11/declassified\\-documents\\-show\\-australia\\-assisted\\-cia\\-in\\-coup\\-against\\-chiles\\-salvador\\-allende \\|access\\-date\\=11 September 2021 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=10 September 2021 \\|language\\=en}} In November 2021, the [Administrative Appeals Tribunal](/wiki/Administrative_Appeals_Tribunal \"Administrative Appeals Tribunal\") (AAT) upheld the decision to reject Fernandes's request for access to the documents. The AAT said the release of documents would \"cause damage to the security, defence or international relations of the Commonwealth\". Most of the AAT hearing was held behind closed doors, because [Attorney\\-General](/wiki/Attorney-General_of_Australia \"Attorney-General of Australia\") [Michaelia Cash](/wiki/Michaelia_Cash \"Michaelia Cash\") issued a public interest certificate, suppressing the disclosure of evidence provided by ASIS, [ASIO](/wiki/ASIO \"ASIO\") and the [Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade](/wiki/Department_of_Foreign_Affairs_and_Trade \"Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Blanco \\|first1\\=Claudianna \\|title\\=Australia refuses to declassify historical records on how its spies aided the CIA in Chile coup \\|url\\=https://www.sbs.com.au/language/english/australia\\-refuses\\-to\\-declassify\\-historical\\-records\\-on\\-how\\-its\\-spies\\-aided\\-the\\-cia\\-in\\-chile\\-coup \\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2021 \\|work\\=SBS Your Language \\|date\\=8 November 2021 \\|language\\=en}}",
"### The Favaro affair",
"During the lead\\-up to [Indonesia's invasion of East Timor](/wiki/Australia_and_the_Indonesian_occupation_of_East_Timor \"Australia and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor\") in 1975, ASIS paid a Dili\\-based Australian businessman, Frank Favaro, for information on local political developments. The leaking of his identity in late 1975 was another factor in the confrontation between Whitlam and Robertson.{{cite web\\|title\\=ASIS – Favaro affair\\|date\\=19 December 2011 \\|url\\=http://nautilus.org/publications/books/australian\\-forces\\-abroad/east\\-timor/asis\\-favaro\\-affair/\\|publisher\\=Nautilus Institute\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2016}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Intelligence boss showed strength\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/comment/obituaries/intelligence\\-boss\\-showed\\-strength\\-20110114\\-19r60\\.html\\|newspaper\\=The Age\\|date\\=15 January 2011\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2016}} Bill Robertson disputed the reason for his dismissal in documents lodged with the National Archives in 2009\\.",
"### The Sheraton Hotel incident",
"On 30 November 1983, ASIS garnered unwanted negative attention when a training operation held at the Sheraton Hotel, now the Mercure (Spring Street), in Melbourne went wrong. The exercise was to be a mock surveillance and hostage rescue of foreign intelligence officers. In March 1983, ASIS had begun training a covert team of civilians at [Swan Island](/wiki/Swan_Island_%28Victoria%29 \"Swan Island (Victoria)\") in Victoria whose role was to protect or release Australians who may be threatened or captured by terrorists overseas. The military in 1981 had established a counter\\-terrorist unit for operations only in Australia. The personnel involved in the training operation included ten operators, four ASIS officers and six ASIS civilian trainees, and two commandos from the Army Reserve [1st Commando Regiment](/wiki/1st_Commando_Regiment_%28Australia%29 \"1st Commando Regiment (Australia)\") with a sergeant participating as an observer in the hotel foyer.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rule \\|first\\=Diny Slamet, Ian Davis, Paul Chadwick and Andrew \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-28 \\|title\\=From the Archives, 1983: ASIS botches training drill at the Sheraton Hotel \\|url\\=https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/from\\-the\\-archives\\-1983\\-asis\\-botches\\-training\\-drill\\-at\\-the\\-sheraton\\-hotel\\-20201127\\-p56igg.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-15 \\|website\\=The Age \\|language\\=en}}",
"The training operation involved junior officers who had undergone three weeks' prior training and who were given considerable leeway in planning and executing the operation. The mock hostage rescue was staged on the 10th floor of the hotel without the permission of the hotel's owner or staff. When ASIS operators were refused entry into a hotel room, they broke down the door with sledgehammers. The hotel manager, Nick Rice, was notified of a disturbance on the 10th floor by a hotel guest. When he went to investigate, he was forced back into the [lift](/wiki/Elevator \"Elevator\") by an ASIS operator who rode the lift down to the ground floor and forcibly ejected Rice into the lobby. Believing a robbery was in progress, Rice called the police. When the lift started returning to the ground floor, ASIS operators emerged wearing masks and openly brandishing [9mm Browning](/wiki/Browning_Hi-Power \"Browning Hi-Power\") pistols and [Heckler \\& Koch MP5](/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_MP5 \"Heckler & Koch MP5\") submachine guns, two of them with silencers. They forced their way through the lobby to the kitchen, where two getaway cars were waiting outside the kitchen door. Police stopped one of the cars and arrested the occupants – two ASIS officers and three ASIS civilian trainees – who refused to produce any form of identification.{{cite book\\|title\\=Wayward governance: illegality and its control in the public sector\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/waywardgovernanc0000grab/page/129 129–142]\\|author\\=P N Grabosky\\|publisher\\=Australian Institute of Criminology\\|year\\=1989\\|isbn\\=0\\-642\\-14605\\-5\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/waywardgovernanc0000grab/page/129}}",
"Within two days, the minister for foreign affairs, [Bill Hayden](/wiki/Bill_Hayden \"Bill Hayden\") announced that an \"immediate and full\" investigation would be conducted under the auspices of the second Hope Royal Commission, which was still in progress. A report was prepared and tabled by February 1984\\. It described the exercise as being \"poorly planned, poorly supervised and poorly run\",Royal Commission on Australia's Security and Intelligence Agencies, Report on the Sheraton Hotel incident, February 1984, p. 68 and recommended that measures be taken in training to improve planning and eliminate adverse impacts on the public.",
"[Victoria Police](/wiki/Victoria_Police \"Victoria Police\") conducted their own investigation but were frustrated because ASIS Director\\-General [John Ryan](/wiki/John_Ryan_%28diplomat%29 \"John Ryan (diplomat)\") refused to cooperate. Bill Hayden offered to provide the real names of the seven officers involved, in confidence. [Premier of Victoria](/wiki/Premier_of_Victoria \"Premier of Victoria\") [John Cain](/wiki/John_Cain_II \"John Cain II\") told Hayden that \"as far as the police were concerned, there was no such thing as information in confidence\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=0f5jAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=7\\-YDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5319,3113629\\|title\\=Police to step up ASIS raid inquiry\\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\\=8 December 1983}}",
"Following the incident, *[The Sunday Age](/wiki/The_Sunday_Age \"The Sunday Age\")* disclosed the names, or the assumed names, of five of the operators involved. The journalist noted that \"according to legal advice taken by *The Sunday Age* there is no provision that prevents the naming of an ASIS agent\".Paul Daley, 'The Sheraton Shambles', The Sunday Age, 7 November 1993 Although not included within the public version of the report, the Hope Royal Commission prepared an appendix that would appear to have dealt with the security and foreign relations consequences of *The Sunday Age*{{'}}s disclosure of participants' names. Subsequently, in *A v Hayden*, the High Court held that the Commonwealth owed no enforceable duty to ASIS officers to maintain confidentiality of their names or activities.(1984\\) 156 CLR 532",
"At the time of the Sheraton Hotel incident, the extant Ministerial Directive permitted ASIS to undertake \"covert action\", including \"special operations\" which, roughly described, comprised \"unorthodox, possibly para\\-military activity, designed to be used in case of war or some other crisis\".Royal Commission on Australia's Security and Intelligence Agencies, Report on the Sheraton Hotel incident, February 1984, p. 17 Following the incident and the recommendations of the Royal Commission, the covert action function was apparently abolished. The functions of ASIS can be found in section 6 of the Intelligence Services Act, as can those functions which are proscribed by the act.{{harvp\\|Samuels\\|Codd\\|1995\\|p\\=2}}",
"Ultimately, in executing the operation, the operators were found to have used considerable force, menacing a number of the staff and guests with weapons and physically assaulting the hotel manager.Royal Commission on Australia's Security and Intelligence Agencies, Report on the Sheraton Hotel incident, February 1984, p. 26 and 28 Hope found Ryan to be at fault for authorising the training operation in a public place using concealed weapons. Ryan resigned in February 1984\\. Hope said it was not part of his terms of reference to make findings or recommendations on whether any individual had committed any offence. However, he did note that the individuals could potentially be prosecuted by the State of Victoria with a long list of criminal offences, including possession of firearms without a licence, possession of prohibited implements (including machine guns, silencers and housebreaking tools), aggravated burglary in possession of a firearm, common assault, wilful damage to property, possession of a disguise without lawful excuse and numerous motor vehicle offences. More than a year after the raid, the Victorian Director of Public Prosecutions concluded that while certain offences had been committed, including criminal damage and assault with a weapon, there was insufficient evidence to charge any person with a specific offence.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=Ya9WAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=RegDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4835,2355512\\|title\\=ASIS raid: Vic won't prosecute\\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\\=22 December 1984}}",
"Victorian Holdings Ltd, the company managing the hotel, subsequently took legal action against the Commonwealth on behalf of itself and 14 hotel staff. The matter was settled out of court; the hotel was offered $300,000 in damages.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=3UFVAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=g5UDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4898,635100\\|title\\=Hotel staff offered $300,000\\|newspaper\\=The Age\\|date\\=22 May 1984}} The total payout to the hotel and staff was $365,400\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=MTdWAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=fugDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6388,811924\\|title\\=Payout for ASIS raid now $365,400\\|newspaper\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\\=3 October 1984}}",
"### Involvement in Papua New Guinea",
"Between 1989 and 1991, ASIS came under scrutiny following allegations relating to its role and activities in [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\"). It was alleged that ASIS had been involved in training Papua New Guinean troops to suppress independence movements in [Irian Jaya](/wiki/Irian_Jaya \"Irian Jaya\")Comments by Brian Toohey on Late Night Live program of 28 September 1989 and [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_Province \"Bougainville Province\").Comments by Brian Toohey on Late Night Live program of 12 February 1990 In 1997 it was alleged that ASIS and DSD had failed to collect, or the Government had failed to act upon, intelligence regarding the role and presence of [Sandline](/wiki/Sandline \"Sandline\") contractors in relation to the independence movement in Bougainville.Comments by Warren Reed, former ASIS intelligence officer in *Four Corners* program of 14 July 1997",
"### *Four Corners* program",
"Towards the end of 1993, ASIS became the subject of media attention after allegations were made by former ASIS officers that ASIS was unaccountable and out of control. The Sunday Telegraph alleged that \"ASIS regularly flouted laws, kept dossiers on Australian citizens ... and hounded agents out of the service with little explanation\". In particular, it alleged that agents were being targeted in a purge by being threatened with criminal charges relating to their official conduct, reflecting a pattern which suggested to some that ASIS or a senior ASIS officer had been \"turned\" by a foreign intelligence service.Brad Crouch, 'ASIS \"Like the KGB\"', The Sunday Telegraph, 26 December 1993",
"On 21 February 1994, *Four Corners* ran a program which aired the key allegations. Two former ASIS officers made claims regarding cultural and operational tensions between ASIS and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. They claimed that embassy staff had maliciously or negligently compromised activities involving the running of foreign informants and agents and the defection of foreign agents to Australia. They claimed that their grievances had been ignored and that they were \"deserted in the field\" and made scapegoats by ASIS. The officers and the reporter, Ross Coulthart, also made claims regarding operational activities and priorities: the officers claimed that ASIS advice had been ignored by DFAT and the reporter repeated claims regarding ASIS operations aimed at destabilising the [Aquino Government](/wiki/Presidency_of_Corazon_Aquino \"Presidency of Corazon Aquino\") in the Philippines. He also made claims regarding ASIS assistance to MI6 in the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War \"Falklands War\"), in Hong Kong and in [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\") for the benefit of British interests, including commercial interests, and potentially to the detriment of Australian national interests. The bulk of the personal statements by the officers concerned their private grievances. They raised two issues of public interest regarding the effect of secrecy on the operation of grievance procedures and the extent to which the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade was aware of or in control of ASIS operations. The reporter directly raised the issue of the appropriateness of ASIS operations, particularly with respect to priority setting in overseas postings and operations, cooperation with foreign intelligence services, and the privacy of Australian persons and organisations. By implication, the program queried the extent to which ASIS was or should be accountable to the Minister, to Government and to Parliament.",
"The following day, the [Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_Australia \"Shadow Cabinet of Australia\") called for an independent judicial inquiry into the allegations. He expressed particular concern about the nature of ASIS cooperation with foreign agencies and the defects in ASIS grievance procedures.Hon. Andrew Peacock, MP, 'ASIS', Press Release by Hon. Andrew Peacock, MP Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, 22 February 1994 He later called for the inquiry to examine the \"poisoned relationship between ASIS and DFAT\".Hon. Andrew Peacock, MP, 'ASIS Inquiry Must Address Relations with DFAT', Press Release by Hon. Andrew Peacock, MP Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, 23 February 1994 A [Democrats](/wiki/Australian_Democrats \"Australian Democrats\") spokesperson called for a standing parliamentary committee.Senator Vicki Bourne, 'Four Corners: ASIS Out of Control', News Release, No. 94/41, 22 February 1994",
"Two days after the program aired, the Samuels and Codd Royal Commission was convened by Minister for Foreign Affairs Gareth Evans.",
"### Ratih Hardjono, Bruce Grant and Gareth Evans",
"On 19 February 2000, Singapore journalist Susan Sim accused Ratih Harjono of working for her uncle, a senior BAKIN ([Indonesian intelligence service](/wiki/State_Intelligence_Agency_%28Indonesia%29 \"State Intelligence Agency (Indonesia)\")) intelligence officer while working for the President of Indonesia.Sim, Susan (19 February 2000\\). All the President's whisperers, Straits Times (Singapore). Earlier in her career as a journalist, Ratih was married to Bruce Grant, who during this period was senior policy adviser to Gareth Evans, co\\-authoring the book, *Australia's foreign relations: in the world of the 1990s*. Gareth Evans was responsible for ASIS from 1988 to 1996\\.",
"### Alleged management and staffing problems",
"In 2005, *[The Bulletin](/wiki/The_Bulletin_%28Australian_periodical%29 \"The Bulletin (Australian periodical)\")* ran an article based on allegations by serving ASIS officers that alluded to gross mismanagement of intelligence operations, staff assignments, and taskings, particularly with respect to the war on terrorism. The unnamed officers pointed out various problems within the agency that were plaguing the organisation's ability to collect vital and timely intelligence. By this, they meant the recruitment of \"...young mostly white university educated agents with limited language skills and little knowledge of Islam against poor, zealous extremists intent on becoming suicide bombers\", the \"inappropriate\" assignment of \"...young female IOs \\[intelligence officers] against Islamic targets...\", in addition to poor [staff retention](/wiki/Employee_retention \"Employee retention\") rates, and general lack of officers possessing significant practical field experience. The officers also cited a lack of proper support given to intelligence officers tasked against terrorist targets, and the doctoring of intelligence by ASIS management, as also contributing to the lack of progress of the agency in the war on terrorism.\n{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\\=66730 \n \\|title\\=Lack of qualified spies in ASIS: agent \n \\|date\\=11 October 2005 \n \\|work\\=9news \n \\|publisher\\=ninemsn.com.au \n \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2009 \n \\|url\\-status\\=dead \n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517110717/http://news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id\\=66730 \n \\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2009 \n}}",
"[thumb\\|Demonstration in front of Australian embassy against the [CMATS\\-treaty](/wiki/Treaty_on_Certain_Maritime_Arrangements_in_the_Timor_Sea \"Treaty on Certain Maritime Arrangements in the Timor Sea\"), December 2013](/wiki/File:Oil_demo_Timor_2013.JPG \"Oil demo Timor 2013.JPG\")",
"### Australia–East Timor spying scandal",
"{{main\\|Australia–East Timor spying scandal}}\nIt was revealed in 2013 that ASIS planted devices to listen to the [East Timorese](/wiki/East_Timor \"East Timor\") government during negotiations over the Greater Sunrise oil and gasfields.{{cite news \\|title\\=Timor\\-Leste activists 'shocked' by Australia's prosecution of spy Witness K and lawyer \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/22/timor\\-leste\\-activists\\-shocked\\-by\\-australias\\-prosecution\\-of\\-spy\\-witness\\-k\\-and\\-lawyer \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=21 July 2018}}",
""
] |
Political career
----------------
Greenway began his political career in [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario"), contesting [Huron South](/wiki/Huron_South "Huron South") for the [Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada_%281867%E2%80%931942%29 "Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942)") in 1872\. He narrowly lost to Liberal candidate [Malcolm Colin Cameron](/wiki/Malcolm_Colin_Cameron "Malcolm Colin Cameron"), and suffered the same result in 1874\. Cameron's 1874 victory was overturned for illegal campaign activities, however, and Greenway was elected unopposed the following year. He entered parliament as an "Independent Conservative", in opposition to [Alexander Mackenzie](/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_%28politician%29 "Alexander Mackenzie (politician)")'s Liberal government. He was also an active [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist "Methodist") lay preacher.
Greenway's affiliation with the Conservative Party was always tenuous. He opposed [protectionism](/wiki/Protectionism "Protectionism"), and in 1876 voted for the budget of Liberal [Finance Minister](/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_%28Canada%29 "Minister of Finance (Canada)") [Richard John Cartwright](/wiki/Richard_John_Cartwright "Richard John Cartwright"). He generally favour the Liberals for the remainder of his time in parliament (though continuing to sit as an Independent), and stood aside in favour of Cameron in 1878\.
Greenway moved to Manitoba in 1879, having acquired a large tract of land in the province's southwestern corner (with financial backing from Cameron). He was the founder of [Crystal City, Manitoba](/wiki/Crystal_City%2C_Manitoba "Crystal City, Manitoba"). When a provincial election was held on 16 December of that year, he was elected unopposed in the riding of [Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_%28electoral_district%29 "Mountain (electoral district)"). Greenway again referred to himself as an "Independent Conservative", and sought to represent his constituents in the manner of an independent country politician; however, he soon became known as a leading opponent of [John Norquay](/wiki/John_Norquay "John Norquay")'s government.
When Prime Minister [John A. Macdonald](/wiki/John_A._Macdonald "John A. Macdonald") [disallowed](/wiki/Disallowance_and_reservation_in_Canada "Disallowance and reservation in Canada") Manitoba's local railway legislation in 1882, Greenway formed an opposition group known as the [Provincial Rights Party](/wiki/Provincial_Rights_Party "Provincial Rights Party"), which ran 15 candidates in the provincial election of 1883\. Although it did not achieve immediate success (Norquay's government won 21 of 30 seats), it emerged as the most powerful voice on the opposition side. Greenway had to fend off a personal challenge from premier Norquay, who ran as a candidate in Mountain as well as his own riding of St. Andrew's. If Norquay hoped to silence the strongest opposition voice by this tactic, he was unsuccessful: Greenway won the riding by 330 votes to 244\.
The Provincial Rights group subsequently consolidated the non\-government MLAs into the [Manitoba Liberal Party](/wiki/Manitoba_Liberal_Party "Manitoba Liberal Party") — rather to the chagrin of some Winnipeg Liberals, who were suspicious of Greenway's rural base. Some ex\-parliamentary "Provincial Rights" groups merged in the same period. These faded away after a few public protests, but Greenway's control over the provincial Liberal organization soon became unchallengeable.
The Liberals believed they had a chance to win the provincial election of 1886, and in fact, received about as many votes as Norquay's Conservatives. A personal visit from John A. Macdonald boosted Conservative strength, however, and Norquay's government won roughly 21 seats compared to 14 for the opposition. Greenway himself faced a surprisingly strong challenge in Mountain, defeating Conservative candidate R. Rogers by 385 votes to 370\.
### Premier of Manitoba
Norquay was unable to maintain his alliance with John A. McDonald and resigned after losing the support of his ministers in December 1887\. When his successor [David Howard Harrison](/wiki/David_Howard_Harrison "David Howard Harrison") proved unable to command a parliamentary majority, Greenway was asked by the [Lieutenant Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Manitoba "Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba") to form a new administration in January 1888\. Through by\-election wins and defections, he was able to sustain a stable administration before calling new elections in mid\-year.
Greenway's Liberal administration was tolerated by John A. Macdonald, who once claimed in private correspondence that he preferred Greenway to Norquay. The Premier's commitment to "liberalism" in the Canadian context was no stronger than his commitment to "conservatism" ten years earlier. As an administrator, he remained an independent figure unbothered by questions of ideology. Perhaps the only thing that Greenway unambiguously stood for in 1888 was provincial railway rights: when he assumed power, he promised to be more successful in securing these rights than the Norquay administration had been.
Greenway was extremely fortunate, in this sense, that his term began just as the [Canadian Pacific Railway](/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway "Canadian Pacific Railway") voluntarily ended its provincial monopoly over rail travel, subject to hefty compensation from the federal government. He rode a wave of popular support to a [landslide](/wiki/Landslide_victory "Landslide victory") election victory in the [1888 campaign](/wiki/1888_Manitoba_general_election "1888 Manitoba general election"), taking 33 seats against 5 for the Conservatives. No Conservative even challenged Greenway in Mountain.
Greenway, however, was unable to resolve the railway issue. His administration mishandled negotiations for a new connection to the United States, and the CPR's continued to dominate the region. Transportation rates remained high, and provincial development suffered accordingly. One of Greenway's legislative supporters, Rodmond Palen Roblin, bolted to the Conservative opposition in disgust.
After failing in railway reform, Greenway turned his attention to education. His controversial [reforms of Manitoba's school system](/wiki/Manitoba_Schools_Question "Manitoba Schools Question") provoked a national crisis in the 1890s, and are still regarded as his administration's most notable accomplishment.
When Manitoba was created in 1870, the provincial government established a dual school system to reflect the province's demographic balance. The Manitoba Act of 1870 and School Act of 1871 provided for separate and equally funded Catholic and Protestant school boards. These boards were divided by language as well as religion: the province's original Catholic population was predominantly francophone, while its Protestant population was almost exclusively anglophone.
The demographics of Manitoba changed considerably between 1870 and 1888\. Protestants came to outnumber Catholics by a significant margin, and the dual system was regarded by many new settlers as an anachronism. Many anglophones, both Conservative and Liberal, resented the continued state funding for French\-language education. Greenway sought to appeal to these voters in 1890 by abolishing the dual system and setting up a single Department of Education. Also in 1890, Greenway's Liberals enacted legislation to unilaterally abolish the province's obligation to ensure all its law were bilingual, doing away with French\-language legislation. This was declared illegal by two lower court decisions, which the Province ignored. In 1984, the federal Government referred the question to the Supreme Court of Canada, which held Greenway's actions had been unconstitutional. The Court forced Manitoba to translate all its legislation into French, a job that took seven years to complete.
Under Greenways's anti\-French and anti\-Catholic education legislation of 1890, while Catholic schools were allowed, but they were denied state funding; parents who sent their children to Catholic schools were required to contribute to their secular board as well. These reforms were popular with Protestants, particularly among the evangelical faiths. Greenway's government was re\-elected in the [1892 election](/wiki/1892_Manitoba_general_election "1892 Manitoba general election"), winning 28 seats to approximately 12 for the opposition. Greenway personally defeated Rogers for the second time in Mountain.
This election did not bring an end to the education issue. Greenway's legislation brought about a complex series of legal cases, as well as threats of [disallowance](/wiki/Disallowance_and_reservation_in_Canada "Disallowance and reservation in Canada") from various levels of government. The resulting controversy (known as the [Manitoba Schools Question](/wiki/Manitoba_Schools_Question "Manitoba Schools Question")) dominated Canadian politics in the mid\-1890s, and divided both the Conservatives and Liberals on the national level.
In 1895, after the Privy Council refused to decide the matter, Conservative Prime Minister [Mackenzie Bowell](/wiki/Mackenzie_Bowell "Mackenzie Bowell") passed remedial legislation defending Catholic rights. Greenway responded by calling another election and again presented himself as the champion of provincial rights against federal intrusion. The result, on 15 January 1896, was another Liberal [landslide victory](/wiki/Landslide_victory "Landslide victory") — Greenway's Liberals won 31 seats, compared with 6 for the still\-leaderless Conservatives (the [Patrons of Industry](/wiki/Patrons_of_Industry_in_Manitoba "Patrons of Industry in Manitoba"), an upstart third party, were sidelined by the education controversy and won only 2 seats). These results were a significant blow to the federal Conservatives, who soon withdrew their remedial legislation. Bowell stood aside as national Conservative leader, leaving a weakened and badly divided party in his wake.
Shortly thereafter, the federal Liberals under [Wilfrid Laurier](/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier "Wilfrid Laurier") won a national election, and resolved the Schools Questions with a mild compromise (providing minimal state support for Catholic and French education on a case\-by\-case basis). Greenway's efforts to introduce secular education into the province were successful, and the Laurier government's bid for further concessions in later years came to nothing.
The resolution of the education issue did not benefit Greenway's chances for re\-election, however. No longer able to benefit from protest votes, the Liberals were defeated by the Conservatives under [Hugh John Macdonald](/wiki/Hugh_John_Macdonald "Hugh John Macdonald") (son of the former Prime Minister) in late 1899\. Many voters were apprehensive about recent East European immigration into the province, and were offended by even the minor concessions which Greenway had made on the education question; the Conservative Party was able to tap into this xenophobia, and won 22 seats out of 40\. Greenway reluctantly returned to the leadership of the opposition, and sought a patronage appointment to cap off his career. An attempt for an early Senate promotion came to nothing, and he continued to lead the Liberals in a desultory fashion through the election of 1903 (wherein his party won only 9 of 40 seats).
### Post\-premiership, federal politics, and death
Greenway returned to federal politics in 1904, winning election for the Manitoba riding of [Lisgar](/wiki/Lisgar_%28electoral_district%29 "Lisgar (electoral district)"). Although his loyalty to the Liberal Party was now unquestioned, he accomplished very little in Ottawa and continued to spend most of his time seeking out a comfortable sinecure. In 1908, he finally received an appointment to the expanded Board of Railway Commissioners. However, he suffered a fatal heart attack on the day that he was scheduled to be sworn in.
|
[
"Political career\n----------------",
"Greenway began his political career in [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\"), contesting [Huron South](/wiki/Huron_South \"Huron South\") for the [Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada_%281867%E2%80%931942%29 \"Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942)\") in 1872\\. He narrowly lost to Liberal candidate [Malcolm Colin Cameron](/wiki/Malcolm_Colin_Cameron \"Malcolm Colin Cameron\"), and suffered the same result in 1874\\. Cameron's 1874 victory was overturned for illegal campaign activities, however, and Greenway was elected unopposed the following year. He entered parliament as an \"Independent Conservative\", in opposition to [Alexander Mackenzie](/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_%28politician%29 \"Alexander Mackenzie (politician)\")'s Liberal government. He was also an active [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist \"Methodist\") lay preacher.",
"Greenway's affiliation with the Conservative Party was always tenuous. He opposed [protectionism](/wiki/Protectionism \"Protectionism\"), and in 1876 voted for the budget of Liberal [Finance Minister](/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_%28Canada%29 \"Minister of Finance (Canada)\") [Richard John Cartwright](/wiki/Richard_John_Cartwright \"Richard John Cartwright\"). He generally favour the Liberals for the remainder of his time in parliament (though continuing to sit as an Independent), and stood aside in favour of Cameron in 1878\\.",
"Greenway moved to Manitoba in 1879, having acquired a large tract of land in the province's southwestern corner (with financial backing from Cameron). He was the founder of [Crystal City, Manitoba](/wiki/Crystal_City%2C_Manitoba \"Crystal City, Manitoba\"). When a provincial election was held on 16 December of that year, he was elected unopposed in the riding of [Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_%28electoral_district%29 \"Mountain (electoral district)\"). Greenway again referred to himself as an \"Independent Conservative\", and sought to represent his constituents in the manner of an independent country politician; however, he soon became known as a leading opponent of [John Norquay](/wiki/John_Norquay \"John Norquay\")'s government.",
"When Prime Minister [John A. Macdonald](/wiki/John_A._Macdonald \"John A. Macdonald\") [disallowed](/wiki/Disallowance_and_reservation_in_Canada \"Disallowance and reservation in Canada\") Manitoba's local railway legislation in 1882, Greenway formed an opposition group known as the [Provincial Rights Party](/wiki/Provincial_Rights_Party \"Provincial Rights Party\"), which ran 15 candidates in the provincial election of 1883\\. Although it did not achieve immediate success (Norquay's government won 21 of 30 seats), it emerged as the most powerful voice on the opposition side. Greenway had to fend off a personal challenge from premier Norquay, who ran as a candidate in Mountain as well as his own riding of St. Andrew's. If Norquay hoped to silence the strongest opposition voice by this tactic, he was unsuccessful: Greenway won the riding by 330 votes to 244\\.",
"The Provincial Rights group subsequently consolidated the non\\-government MLAs into the [Manitoba Liberal Party](/wiki/Manitoba_Liberal_Party \"Manitoba Liberal Party\") — rather to the chagrin of some Winnipeg Liberals, who were suspicious of Greenway's rural base. Some ex\\-parliamentary \"Provincial Rights\" groups merged in the same period. These faded away after a few public protests, but Greenway's control over the provincial Liberal organization soon became unchallengeable.",
"The Liberals believed they had a chance to win the provincial election of 1886, and in fact, received about as many votes as Norquay's Conservatives. A personal visit from John A. Macdonald boosted Conservative strength, however, and Norquay's government won roughly 21 seats compared to 14 for the opposition. Greenway himself faced a surprisingly strong challenge in Mountain, defeating Conservative candidate R. Rogers by 385 votes to 370\\.",
"### Premier of Manitoba",
"Norquay was unable to maintain his alliance with John A. McDonald and resigned after losing the support of his ministers in December 1887\\. When his successor [David Howard Harrison](/wiki/David_Howard_Harrison \"David Howard Harrison\") proved unable to command a parliamentary majority, Greenway was asked by the [Lieutenant Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Manitoba \"Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba\") to form a new administration in January 1888\\. Through by\\-election wins and defections, he was able to sustain a stable administration before calling new elections in mid\\-year.",
"Greenway's Liberal administration was tolerated by John A. Macdonald, who once claimed in private correspondence that he preferred Greenway to Norquay. The Premier's commitment to \"liberalism\" in the Canadian context was no stronger than his commitment to \"conservatism\" ten years earlier. As an administrator, he remained an independent figure unbothered by questions of ideology. Perhaps the only thing that Greenway unambiguously stood for in 1888 was provincial railway rights: when he assumed power, he promised to be more successful in securing these rights than the Norquay administration had been.",
"Greenway was extremely fortunate, in this sense, that his term began just as the [Canadian Pacific Railway](/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway \"Canadian Pacific Railway\") voluntarily ended its provincial monopoly over rail travel, subject to hefty compensation from the federal government. He rode a wave of popular support to a [landslide](/wiki/Landslide_victory \"Landslide victory\") election victory in the [1888 campaign](/wiki/1888_Manitoba_general_election \"1888 Manitoba general election\"), taking 33 seats against 5 for the Conservatives. No Conservative even challenged Greenway in Mountain.",
"Greenway, however, was unable to resolve the railway issue. His administration mishandled negotiations for a new connection to the United States, and the CPR's continued to dominate the region. Transportation rates remained high, and provincial development suffered accordingly. One of Greenway's legislative supporters, Rodmond Palen Roblin, bolted to the Conservative opposition in disgust.",
"After failing in railway reform, Greenway turned his attention to education. His controversial [reforms of Manitoba's school system](/wiki/Manitoba_Schools_Question \"Manitoba Schools Question\") provoked a national crisis in the 1890s, and are still regarded as his administration's most notable accomplishment.",
"When Manitoba was created in 1870, the provincial government established a dual school system to reflect the province's demographic balance. The Manitoba Act of 1870 and School Act of 1871 provided for separate and equally funded Catholic and Protestant school boards. These boards were divided by language as well as religion: the province's original Catholic population was predominantly francophone, while its Protestant population was almost exclusively anglophone.",
"The demographics of Manitoba changed considerably between 1870 and 1888\\. Protestants came to outnumber Catholics by a significant margin, and the dual system was regarded by many new settlers as an anachronism. Many anglophones, both Conservative and Liberal, resented the continued state funding for French\\-language education. Greenway sought to appeal to these voters in 1890 by abolishing the dual system and setting up a single Department of Education. Also in 1890, Greenway's Liberals enacted legislation to unilaterally abolish the province's obligation to ensure all its law were bilingual, doing away with French\\-language legislation. This was declared illegal by two lower court decisions, which the Province ignored. In 1984, the federal Government referred the question to the Supreme Court of Canada, which held Greenway's actions had been unconstitutional. The Court forced Manitoba to translate all its legislation into French, a job that took seven years to complete.",
"Under Greenways's anti\\-French and anti\\-Catholic education legislation of 1890, while Catholic schools were allowed, but they were denied state funding; parents who sent their children to Catholic schools were required to contribute to their secular board as well. These reforms were popular with Protestants, particularly among the evangelical faiths. Greenway's government was re\\-elected in the [1892 election](/wiki/1892_Manitoba_general_election \"1892 Manitoba general election\"), winning 28 seats to approximately 12 for the opposition. Greenway personally defeated Rogers for the second time in Mountain.",
"This election did not bring an end to the education issue. Greenway's legislation brought about a complex series of legal cases, as well as threats of [disallowance](/wiki/Disallowance_and_reservation_in_Canada \"Disallowance and reservation in Canada\") from various levels of government. The resulting controversy (known as the [Manitoba Schools Question](/wiki/Manitoba_Schools_Question \"Manitoba Schools Question\")) dominated Canadian politics in the mid\\-1890s, and divided both the Conservatives and Liberals on the national level.",
"In 1895, after the Privy Council refused to decide the matter, Conservative Prime Minister [Mackenzie Bowell](/wiki/Mackenzie_Bowell \"Mackenzie Bowell\") passed remedial legislation defending Catholic rights. Greenway responded by calling another election and again presented himself as the champion of provincial rights against federal intrusion. The result, on 15 January 1896, was another Liberal [landslide victory](/wiki/Landslide_victory \"Landslide victory\") — Greenway's Liberals won 31 seats, compared with 6 for the still\\-leaderless Conservatives (the [Patrons of Industry](/wiki/Patrons_of_Industry_in_Manitoba \"Patrons of Industry in Manitoba\"), an upstart third party, were sidelined by the education controversy and won only 2 seats). These results were a significant blow to the federal Conservatives, who soon withdrew their remedial legislation. Bowell stood aside as national Conservative leader, leaving a weakened and badly divided party in his wake.",
"Shortly thereafter, the federal Liberals under [Wilfrid Laurier](/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier \"Wilfrid Laurier\") won a national election, and resolved the Schools Questions with a mild compromise (providing minimal state support for Catholic and French education on a case\\-by\\-case basis). Greenway's efforts to introduce secular education into the province were successful, and the Laurier government's bid for further concessions in later years came to nothing.",
"The resolution of the education issue did not benefit Greenway's chances for re\\-election, however. No longer able to benefit from protest votes, the Liberals were defeated by the Conservatives under [Hugh John Macdonald](/wiki/Hugh_John_Macdonald \"Hugh John Macdonald\") (son of the former Prime Minister) in late 1899\\. Many voters were apprehensive about recent East European immigration into the province, and were offended by even the minor concessions which Greenway had made on the education question; the Conservative Party was able to tap into this xenophobia, and won 22 seats out of 40\\. Greenway reluctantly returned to the leadership of the opposition, and sought a patronage appointment to cap off his career. An attempt for an early Senate promotion came to nothing, and he continued to lead the Liberals in a desultory fashion through the election of 1903 (wherein his party won only 9 of 40 seats).",
"### Post\\-premiership, federal politics, and death",
"Greenway returned to federal politics in 1904, winning election for the Manitoba riding of [Lisgar](/wiki/Lisgar_%28electoral_district%29 \"Lisgar (electoral district)\"). Although his loyalty to the Liberal Party was now unquestioned, he accomplished very little in Ottawa and continued to spend most of his time seeking out a comfortable sinecure. In 1908, he finally received an appointment to the expanded Board of Railway Commissioners. However, he suffered a fatal heart attack on the day that he was scheduled to be sworn in.",
""
] |
### Premier of Manitoba
Norquay was unable to maintain his alliance with John A. McDonald and resigned after losing the support of his ministers in December 1887\. When his successor [David Howard Harrison](/wiki/David_Howard_Harrison "David Howard Harrison") proved unable to command a parliamentary majority, Greenway was asked by the [Lieutenant Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Manitoba "Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba") to form a new administration in January 1888\. Through by\-election wins and defections, he was able to sustain a stable administration before calling new elections in mid\-year.
Greenway's Liberal administration was tolerated by John A. Macdonald, who once claimed in private correspondence that he preferred Greenway to Norquay. The Premier's commitment to "liberalism" in the Canadian context was no stronger than his commitment to "conservatism" ten years earlier. As an administrator, he remained an independent figure unbothered by questions of ideology. Perhaps the only thing that Greenway unambiguously stood for in 1888 was provincial railway rights: when he assumed power, he promised to be more successful in securing these rights than the Norquay administration had been.
Greenway was extremely fortunate, in this sense, that his term began just as the [Canadian Pacific Railway](/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway "Canadian Pacific Railway") voluntarily ended its provincial monopoly over rail travel, subject to hefty compensation from the federal government. He rode a wave of popular support to a [landslide](/wiki/Landslide_victory "Landslide victory") election victory in the [1888 campaign](/wiki/1888_Manitoba_general_election "1888 Manitoba general election"), taking 33 seats against 5 for the Conservatives. No Conservative even challenged Greenway in Mountain.
Greenway, however, was unable to resolve the railway issue. His administration mishandled negotiations for a new connection to the United States, and the CPR's continued to dominate the region. Transportation rates remained high, and provincial development suffered accordingly. One of Greenway's legislative supporters, Rodmond Palen Roblin, bolted to the Conservative opposition in disgust.
After failing in railway reform, Greenway turned his attention to education. His controversial [reforms of Manitoba's school system](/wiki/Manitoba_Schools_Question "Manitoba Schools Question") provoked a national crisis in the 1890s, and are still regarded as his administration's most notable accomplishment.
When Manitoba was created in 1870, the provincial government established a dual school system to reflect the province's demographic balance. The Manitoba Act of 1870 and School Act of 1871 provided for separate and equally funded Catholic and Protestant school boards. These boards were divided by language as well as religion: the province's original Catholic population was predominantly francophone, while its Protestant population was almost exclusively anglophone.
The demographics of Manitoba changed considerably between 1870 and 1888\. Protestants came to outnumber Catholics by a significant margin, and the dual system was regarded by many new settlers as an anachronism. Many anglophones, both Conservative and Liberal, resented the continued state funding for French\-language education. Greenway sought to appeal to these voters in 1890 by abolishing the dual system and setting up a single Department of Education. Also in 1890, Greenway's Liberals enacted legislation to unilaterally abolish the province's obligation to ensure all its law were bilingual, doing away with French\-language legislation. This was declared illegal by two lower court decisions, which the Province ignored. In 1984, the federal Government referred the question to the Supreme Court of Canada, which held Greenway's actions had been unconstitutional. The Court forced Manitoba to translate all its legislation into French, a job that took seven years to complete.
Under Greenways's anti\-French and anti\-Catholic education legislation of 1890, while Catholic schools were allowed, but they were denied state funding; parents who sent their children to Catholic schools were required to contribute to their secular board as well. These reforms were popular with Protestants, particularly among the evangelical faiths. Greenway's government was re\-elected in the [1892 election](/wiki/1892_Manitoba_general_election "1892 Manitoba general election"), winning 28 seats to approximately 12 for the opposition. Greenway personally defeated Rogers for the second time in Mountain.
This election did not bring an end to the education issue. Greenway's legislation brought about a complex series of legal cases, as well as threats of [disallowance](/wiki/Disallowance_and_reservation_in_Canada "Disallowance and reservation in Canada") from various levels of government. The resulting controversy (known as the [Manitoba Schools Question](/wiki/Manitoba_Schools_Question "Manitoba Schools Question")) dominated Canadian politics in the mid\-1890s, and divided both the Conservatives and Liberals on the national level.
In 1895, after the Privy Council refused to decide the matter, Conservative Prime Minister [Mackenzie Bowell](/wiki/Mackenzie_Bowell "Mackenzie Bowell") passed remedial legislation defending Catholic rights. Greenway responded by calling another election and again presented himself as the champion of provincial rights against federal intrusion. The result, on 15 January 1896, was another Liberal [landslide victory](/wiki/Landslide_victory "Landslide victory") — Greenway's Liberals won 31 seats, compared with 6 for the still\-leaderless Conservatives (the [Patrons of Industry](/wiki/Patrons_of_Industry_in_Manitoba "Patrons of Industry in Manitoba"), an upstart third party, were sidelined by the education controversy and won only 2 seats). These results were a significant blow to the federal Conservatives, who soon withdrew their remedial legislation. Bowell stood aside as national Conservative leader, leaving a weakened and badly divided party in his wake.
Shortly thereafter, the federal Liberals under [Wilfrid Laurier](/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier "Wilfrid Laurier") won a national election, and resolved the Schools Questions with a mild compromise (providing minimal state support for Catholic and French education on a case\-by\-case basis). Greenway's efforts to introduce secular education into the province were successful, and the Laurier government's bid for further concessions in later years came to nothing.
The resolution of the education issue did not benefit Greenway's chances for re\-election, however. No longer able to benefit from protest votes, the Liberals were defeated by the Conservatives under [Hugh John Macdonald](/wiki/Hugh_John_Macdonald "Hugh John Macdonald") (son of the former Prime Minister) in late 1899\. Many voters were apprehensive about recent East European immigration into the province, and were offended by even the minor concessions which Greenway had made on the education question; the Conservative Party was able to tap into this xenophobia, and won 22 seats out of 40\. Greenway reluctantly returned to the leadership of the opposition, and sought a patronage appointment to cap off his career. An attempt for an early Senate promotion came to nothing, and he continued to lead the Liberals in a desultory fashion through the election of 1903 (wherein his party won only 9 of 40 seats).
|
[
"### Premier of Manitoba",
"Norquay was unable to maintain his alliance with John A. McDonald and resigned after losing the support of his ministers in December 1887\\. When his successor [David Howard Harrison](/wiki/David_Howard_Harrison \"David Howard Harrison\") proved unable to command a parliamentary majority, Greenway was asked by the [Lieutenant Governor](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Manitoba \"Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba\") to form a new administration in January 1888\\. Through by\\-election wins and defections, he was able to sustain a stable administration before calling new elections in mid\\-year.",
"Greenway's Liberal administration was tolerated by John A. Macdonald, who once claimed in private correspondence that he preferred Greenway to Norquay. The Premier's commitment to \"liberalism\" in the Canadian context was no stronger than his commitment to \"conservatism\" ten years earlier. As an administrator, he remained an independent figure unbothered by questions of ideology. Perhaps the only thing that Greenway unambiguously stood for in 1888 was provincial railway rights: when he assumed power, he promised to be more successful in securing these rights than the Norquay administration had been.",
"Greenway was extremely fortunate, in this sense, that his term began just as the [Canadian Pacific Railway](/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway \"Canadian Pacific Railway\") voluntarily ended its provincial monopoly over rail travel, subject to hefty compensation from the federal government. He rode a wave of popular support to a [landslide](/wiki/Landslide_victory \"Landslide victory\") election victory in the [1888 campaign](/wiki/1888_Manitoba_general_election \"1888 Manitoba general election\"), taking 33 seats against 5 for the Conservatives. No Conservative even challenged Greenway in Mountain.",
"Greenway, however, was unable to resolve the railway issue. His administration mishandled negotiations for a new connection to the United States, and the CPR's continued to dominate the region. Transportation rates remained high, and provincial development suffered accordingly. One of Greenway's legislative supporters, Rodmond Palen Roblin, bolted to the Conservative opposition in disgust.",
"After failing in railway reform, Greenway turned his attention to education. His controversial [reforms of Manitoba's school system](/wiki/Manitoba_Schools_Question \"Manitoba Schools Question\") provoked a national crisis in the 1890s, and are still regarded as his administration's most notable accomplishment.",
"When Manitoba was created in 1870, the provincial government established a dual school system to reflect the province's demographic balance. The Manitoba Act of 1870 and School Act of 1871 provided for separate and equally funded Catholic and Protestant school boards. These boards were divided by language as well as religion: the province's original Catholic population was predominantly francophone, while its Protestant population was almost exclusively anglophone.",
"The demographics of Manitoba changed considerably between 1870 and 1888\\. Protestants came to outnumber Catholics by a significant margin, and the dual system was regarded by many new settlers as an anachronism. Many anglophones, both Conservative and Liberal, resented the continued state funding for French\\-language education. Greenway sought to appeal to these voters in 1890 by abolishing the dual system and setting up a single Department of Education. Also in 1890, Greenway's Liberals enacted legislation to unilaterally abolish the province's obligation to ensure all its law were bilingual, doing away with French\\-language legislation. This was declared illegal by two lower court decisions, which the Province ignored. In 1984, the federal Government referred the question to the Supreme Court of Canada, which held Greenway's actions had been unconstitutional. The Court forced Manitoba to translate all its legislation into French, a job that took seven years to complete.",
"Under Greenways's anti\\-French and anti\\-Catholic education legislation of 1890, while Catholic schools were allowed, but they were denied state funding; parents who sent their children to Catholic schools were required to contribute to their secular board as well. These reforms were popular with Protestants, particularly among the evangelical faiths. Greenway's government was re\\-elected in the [1892 election](/wiki/1892_Manitoba_general_election \"1892 Manitoba general election\"), winning 28 seats to approximately 12 for the opposition. Greenway personally defeated Rogers for the second time in Mountain.",
"This election did not bring an end to the education issue. Greenway's legislation brought about a complex series of legal cases, as well as threats of [disallowance](/wiki/Disallowance_and_reservation_in_Canada \"Disallowance and reservation in Canada\") from various levels of government. The resulting controversy (known as the [Manitoba Schools Question](/wiki/Manitoba_Schools_Question \"Manitoba Schools Question\")) dominated Canadian politics in the mid\\-1890s, and divided both the Conservatives and Liberals on the national level.",
"In 1895, after the Privy Council refused to decide the matter, Conservative Prime Minister [Mackenzie Bowell](/wiki/Mackenzie_Bowell \"Mackenzie Bowell\") passed remedial legislation defending Catholic rights. Greenway responded by calling another election and again presented himself as the champion of provincial rights against federal intrusion. The result, on 15 January 1896, was another Liberal [landslide victory](/wiki/Landslide_victory \"Landslide victory\") — Greenway's Liberals won 31 seats, compared with 6 for the still\\-leaderless Conservatives (the [Patrons of Industry](/wiki/Patrons_of_Industry_in_Manitoba \"Patrons of Industry in Manitoba\"), an upstart third party, were sidelined by the education controversy and won only 2 seats). These results were a significant blow to the federal Conservatives, who soon withdrew their remedial legislation. Bowell stood aside as national Conservative leader, leaving a weakened and badly divided party in his wake.",
"Shortly thereafter, the federal Liberals under [Wilfrid Laurier](/wiki/Wilfrid_Laurier \"Wilfrid Laurier\") won a national election, and resolved the Schools Questions with a mild compromise (providing minimal state support for Catholic and French education on a case\\-by\\-case basis). Greenway's efforts to introduce secular education into the province were successful, and the Laurier government's bid for further concessions in later years came to nothing.",
"The resolution of the education issue did not benefit Greenway's chances for re\\-election, however. No longer able to benefit from protest votes, the Liberals were defeated by the Conservatives under [Hugh John Macdonald](/wiki/Hugh_John_Macdonald \"Hugh John Macdonald\") (son of the former Prime Minister) in late 1899\\. Many voters were apprehensive about recent East European immigration into the province, and were offended by even the minor concessions which Greenway had made on the education question; the Conservative Party was able to tap into this xenophobia, and won 22 seats out of 40\\. Greenway reluctantly returned to the leadership of the opposition, and sought a patronage appointment to cap off his career. An attempt for an early Senate promotion came to nothing, and he continued to lead the Liberals in a desultory fashion through the election of 1903 (wherein his party won only 9 of 40 seats).",
""
] |
History and Background
----------------------
### Child justice in pre\-colonial Ghana
The justice system in pre\-colonial was not separated from the adult system.{{Cite journal\|last\=Ame\|first\=Robert\|date\=2018\|title\=The Origins of the Contemporary Juvenile Justice System in Ghana\|journal\=Journal of Family History\|volume\=43\|issue\=4\|pages\=394–408\|doi\=10\.1177/0363199018798099\|s2cid\=149484880 \|via\=SAGE}} Unlike colonial and post\-colonial Ghana, crime was not defined by the breaking of laws. There was no formal system, in pre\-colonial Ghana crime was defined as sins against ones community, tribe, or family. Adults and children who committed sins were often treated in the same way. The village chief and his council of elders were the main social controllers of pre\-colonial Ghana, ultimately determining how to handle issues of crime. These issues were also handled by the accused's extended family and peers.
### Juvenile in conflict with the law in colonial Ghana
The British began occupying Ghana, what they called the Gold Coast, in 1821\.{{Cite journal\|last\=Ahuma\|first\=Rev. S. R. B. Attah\|date\=2013\|title\=The Gold Coast Nation and National Consciousness\|journal\=Africana Modern Library\|doi\=10\.4324/9781315033044\-11}} The formal talkings of how to deal with juvenile delinquency under colonial ruled Ghana, emerged between 1906 and 1911\.{{Cite journal\|last\=Hynd\|first\=Stacey\|date\=2018\|title\=Pickpockets, Pilot Boys, and Prostitutes: The Construction of Juvenile Delinquency in the Gold Coast \[Colonial Ghana], c. 1929–57\|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\.14321/jwestafrihist.4\.2\.0047\|journal\=Journal of West African History\|volume\=4 \|number\=2\|pages\=47–74\|doi\=10\.14321/jwestafrihist.4\.2\.0047 \|jstor\=10\.14321/jwestafrihist.4\.2\.0047 \|hdl\=10871/32039 \|s2cid\=158787666 \|via\=JSTOR\|hdl\-access\=free}} In this time period nearly 30–70 juveniles were put in detention facilities each year. [Governor Guggisberg](/wiki/Gordon_Guggisberg "Gordon Guggisberg") based this emerging detention model on the English model. The early forms of the detention of juveniles were quickly overwhelmed with increasing numbers of juvenile delinquents. Out of this was formed the formal juvenile justice system in the Gold Coast, created in 1928\. This was the first time juveniles who broke the Gold Coast law were separated from adults who committed crimes, in all of Ghana's history. Judges had the power to send juvenile boys to the Boys' School at Ada, which was supervised by the [Salvation Army](/wiki/Salvation_Army "Salvation Army").{{Cite journal\|last\=Kumi\|first\=Beatrice Adumea\|date\=December 2015\|title\=A critical review of policy responses to Juvenile Delinquency in Ghana\|url\=http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/handle/123456789/8622\|journal\=University of Ghana Digital Collections}} This school was charged with caring and treating juvenile delinquents. Under this system, a juvenile was defined as a person under the age of 16\. The British set up a number of juvenile justice institutions. After the Boys' School at Ada was established in 1929 it was renamed and moved three times between 1936 and 1947\. The supervision of the school was transferred from the Salvation Army to the Department of Education, which was newly formed in 1945\. In 1945 the first industrial school was also established to deal with juveniles between the ages of 16 and 21\. The industrial school was tasked with dealing with juveniles who required more serious corrective training. The colonial powers began to more rapidly expand the juvenile justice system. Some viewed this to be a display of the strength of colonial discipline, arguably attempting to show the British's commitment to welfare and reform. They established a second Boys Industrial School in Tamale, an Industrial School for Girls in [Accra](/wiki/Accra "Accra") and other remand and probation homes. These institutions were continued to use as a foundation for post\-colonial independent Ghana's juvenile justice system. The nature of the delinquents crimes in Ghana shifted. In the beginnings of the formation nearly 80% of juvenile delinquents in the Gold Coast were charged with theft. However, by the 1950s many of the delinquents were a part of youth sub\-cultures and urban gangs. In addition, the detection of juvenile justice delinquents dramatically increased over the years, jumping from about 200 to 300 per year in the 1920s–1930s to over 1,000 per year in the mid 1950s.
Hynd argued that under the colonial state Juveniles were seen as threats, they represented an unknown future, and a loss of control. Hynd argues that the British colonial power used the treatment and care of juvenile delinquents to socially reform the youth into being colonial subjects. She stated, the colonists attempted to reform the delinquents through both the body and the mind. This included physical discipline, as well as labor and education. She also stated it was geared towards reforming the juvenile delinquents into being economically productive and morally abiding citizens.
### Criminal Procedure Code (Act 30\) of 1960, Juvenile Justice in Independent Ghana
The Criminal Procedure Code (Act 30\) reformed the previous juvenile justice systems implemented by the British. The Criminal Procedure Act raised the age of juveniles from 16 to 17\. The code gave the juvenile court exclusive control over the cases and decisions involving juveniles. The structure of the court involved an appointed Chief Justice of the court and included a panel of three people, the [magistrate](/wiki/Magistrate "Magistrate"), and two lay magistrates. The court was tasked with ruling if the juvenile is guilty. Court hearings were private and not open to the public. The code also allowed the juveniles who were accused a [lawyer](/wiki/Lawyer "Lawyer"). The court dealt with juveniles delinquents through two overarching methods, non\-institutional and institutional ways. Non\-institutional ways included supervision by a [probation officer](/wiki/Probation_officer "Probation officer"), committal to the care of a relative or other fit person, payment of fines, damages or costs, or payment of fines by parents or guardians deemed to have contributed to the commission of a crime by the juvenile. The institutional options included industrial schools, probation homes, remand homes, or the Borstal Institute. It is important to note that girls had many fewer institutional options available to them. The Code also empowered the Juvenile Court with not only seeing juveniles who broke the law, but overseeing cases of juveniles in need of care and protection. Those in need of care and protection have not committed any crimes or broken any rules of the code rather were placed into the juvenile justice system out of pure necessity. This ultimately caused those in need of care to be treated very similarly to those who committed a crime.
The 1960 Criminal Code was adapted to conform to the current fourth republican constitution of Ghana established in 1992\.{{Cite journal\|last\=Gyamfi\|first\=Joseph Appiahene\|date\=Fall 2009\|title\=Crime and Punishment in the Republic of Ghana: A Country Profile\|journal\=International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice\|publisher\=The University of Texas\-Pan American\|volume\=33}}
#### Problems with the Criminal Procedure Code (Act 30\) of 1960
Many argued that the Code lacked adequate resources to carry out the processes the code laid out. For example, one mandate of the code was that officers must make contact with parents/guardians when a juvenile is arrested. Though the code mandated this, Drs Baerg and Hoffman noted that in reality it was difficult to execute. Due to a lack of a formal address system, it was not easily accessible to contact parents/guardians. Issues such as this, ultimately led to officers persuading juveniles to inflate their age so they could get around the more complicated rules of the juvenile justice system, such as contacting parents. In addition, though the code outlines the necessity for legal representation these researchers observed that most juveniles did not have.
|
[
"History and Background\n----------------------",
"### Child justice in pre\\-colonial Ghana",
"The justice system in pre\\-colonial was not separated from the adult system.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Ame\\|first\\=Robert\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=The Origins of the Contemporary Juvenile Justice System in Ghana\\|journal\\=Journal of Family History\\|volume\\=43\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=394–408\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0363199018798099\\|s2cid\\=149484880 \\|via\\=SAGE}} Unlike colonial and post\\-colonial Ghana, crime was not defined by the breaking of laws. There was no formal system, in pre\\-colonial Ghana crime was defined as sins against ones community, tribe, or family. Adults and children who committed sins were often treated in the same way. The village chief and his council of elders were the main social controllers of pre\\-colonial Ghana, ultimately determining how to handle issues of crime. These issues were also handled by the accused's extended family and peers.",
"### Juvenile in conflict with the law in colonial Ghana",
"The British began occupying Ghana, what they called the Gold Coast, in 1821\\.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Ahuma\\|first\\=Rev. S. R. B. Attah\\|date\\=2013\\|title\\=The Gold Coast Nation and National Consciousness\\|journal\\=Africana Modern Library\\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781315033044\\-11}} The formal talkings of how to deal with juvenile delinquency under colonial ruled Ghana, emerged between 1906 and 1911\\.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Hynd\\|first\\=Stacey\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Pickpockets, Pilot Boys, and Prostitutes: The Construction of Juvenile Delinquency in the Gold Coast \\[Colonial Ghana], c. 1929–57\\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10\\.14321/jwestafrihist.4\\.2\\.0047\\|journal\\=Journal of West African History\\|volume\\=4 \\|number\\=2\\|pages\\=47–74\\|doi\\=10\\.14321/jwestafrihist.4\\.2\\.0047 \\|jstor\\=10\\.14321/jwestafrihist.4\\.2\\.0047 \\|hdl\\=10871/32039 \\|s2cid\\=158787666 \\|via\\=JSTOR\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} In this time period nearly 30–70 juveniles were put in detention facilities each year. [Governor Guggisberg](/wiki/Gordon_Guggisberg \"Gordon Guggisberg\") based this emerging detention model on the English model. The early forms of the detention of juveniles were quickly overwhelmed with increasing numbers of juvenile delinquents. Out of this was formed the formal juvenile justice system in the Gold Coast, created in 1928\\. This was the first time juveniles who broke the Gold Coast law were separated from adults who committed crimes, in all of Ghana's history. Judges had the power to send juvenile boys to the Boys' School at Ada, which was supervised by the [Salvation Army](/wiki/Salvation_Army \"Salvation Army\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Kumi\\|first\\=Beatrice Adumea\\|date\\=December 2015\\|title\\=A critical review of policy responses to Juvenile Delinquency in Ghana\\|url\\=http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/handle/123456789/8622\\|journal\\=University of Ghana Digital Collections}} This school was charged with caring and treating juvenile delinquents. Under this system, a juvenile was defined as a person under the age of 16\\. The British set up a number of juvenile justice institutions. After the Boys' School at Ada was established in 1929 it was renamed and moved three times between 1936 and 1947\\. The supervision of the school was transferred from the Salvation Army to the Department of Education, which was newly formed in 1945\\. In 1945 the first industrial school was also established to deal with juveniles between the ages of 16 and 21\\. The industrial school was tasked with dealing with juveniles who required more serious corrective training. The colonial powers began to more rapidly expand the juvenile justice system. Some viewed this to be a display of the strength of colonial discipline, arguably attempting to show the British's commitment to welfare and reform. They established a second Boys Industrial School in Tamale, an Industrial School for Girls in [Accra](/wiki/Accra \"Accra\") and other remand and probation homes. These institutions were continued to use as a foundation for post\\-colonial independent Ghana's juvenile justice system. The nature of the delinquents crimes in Ghana shifted. In the beginnings of the formation nearly 80% of juvenile delinquents in the Gold Coast were charged with theft. However, by the 1950s many of the delinquents were a part of youth sub\\-cultures and urban gangs. In addition, the detection of juvenile justice delinquents dramatically increased over the years, jumping from about 200 to 300 per year in the 1920s–1930s to over 1,000 per year in the mid 1950s.",
"Hynd argued that under the colonial state Juveniles were seen as threats, they represented an unknown future, and a loss of control. Hynd argues that the British colonial power used the treatment and care of juvenile delinquents to socially reform the youth into being colonial subjects. She stated, the colonists attempted to reform the delinquents through both the body and the mind. This included physical discipline, as well as labor and education. She also stated it was geared towards reforming the juvenile delinquents into being economically productive and morally abiding citizens.",
"### Criminal Procedure Code (Act 30\\) of 1960, Juvenile Justice in Independent Ghana",
"The Criminal Procedure Code (Act 30\\) reformed the previous juvenile justice systems implemented by the British. The Criminal Procedure Act raised the age of juveniles from 16 to 17\\. The code gave the juvenile court exclusive control over the cases and decisions involving juveniles. The structure of the court involved an appointed Chief Justice of the court and included a panel of three people, the [magistrate](/wiki/Magistrate \"Magistrate\"), and two lay magistrates. The court was tasked with ruling if the juvenile is guilty. Court hearings were private and not open to the public. The code also allowed the juveniles who were accused a [lawyer](/wiki/Lawyer \"Lawyer\"). The court dealt with juveniles delinquents through two overarching methods, non\\-institutional and institutional ways. Non\\-institutional ways included supervision by a [probation officer](/wiki/Probation_officer \"Probation officer\"), committal to the care of a relative or other fit person, payment of fines, damages or costs, or payment of fines by parents or guardians deemed to have contributed to the commission of a crime by the juvenile. The institutional options included industrial schools, probation homes, remand homes, or the Borstal Institute. It is important to note that girls had many fewer institutional options available to them. The Code also empowered the Juvenile Court with not only seeing juveniles who broke the law, but overseeing cases of juveniles in need of care and protection. Those in need of care and protection have not committed any crimes or broken any rules of the code rather were placed into the juvenile justice system out of pure necessity. This ultimately caused those in need of care to be treated very similarly to those who committed a crime.",
"The 1960 Criminal Code was adapted to conform to the current fourth republican constitution of Ghana established in 1992\\.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Gyamfi\\|first\\=Joseph Appiahene\\|date\\=Fall 2009\\|title\\=Crime and Punishment in the Republic of Ghana: A Country Profile\\|journal\\=International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice\\|publisher\\=The University of Texas\\-Pan American\\|volume\\=33}}",
"#### Problems with the Criminal Procedure Code (Act 30\\) of 1960",
"Many argued that the Code lacked adequate resources to carry out the processes the code laid out. For example, one mandate of the code was that officers must make contact with parents/guardians when a juvenile is arrested. Though the code mandated this, Drs Baerg and Hoffman noted that in reality it was difficult to execute. Due to a lack of a formal address system, it was not easily accessible to contact parents/guardians. Issues such as this, ultimately led to officers persuading juveniles to inflate their age so they could get around the more complicated rules of the juvenile justice system, such as contacting parents. In addition, though the code outlines the necessity for legal representation these researchers observed that most juveniles did not have.",
""
] |
About the Library
-----------------
The Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library has the largest library collection of books and media in [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana") and comprises the heart of The University of Montana's library system. Collections exceed 1\.5 million volumes, 125,000 maps, 100,000 archival photographs, 77,000 electronic books, 50,000 media items, 12,000 theses, dissertations and graduate professional papers, and over 11,000 linear feet of archival manuscripts. It also houses more than 5,000 rare and valuable books.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lib.umt.edu/asc/aboutus \|title\=About Us \|website\=Mansfield Library \|access\-date\=April 4, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116162520/http://www.lib.umt.edu/asc/aboutus \|archive\-date\=November 16, 2010}} Combined collections within the Montana Public Access Catalog of the Affiliated Libraries of The University of Montana exceed 1\.9 million volumes. Over the last 10 years, the Mansfield Library has greatly increased access to electronic journal literature and now has over 30,000 print and [electronic journals](/wiki/Electronic_journal "Electronic journal") and hundreds of [electronic databases](/wiki/Electronic_database "Electronic database").
The library has roughly 100 computer workstations for students, staff and faculty, and has seven for the general public. Additionally, there are two video recording studios, including one combined audio recording station, two Alienware computer stations dedicated for video editing and 3D rendering, and an [Occulus Rift](/wiki/Occulus "Occulus") [virtual reality](/wiki/Virtual_reality "Virtual reality") computer station.
The library houses one of the university's two printing shops, the Paw Print, which offers various printing services including large scale printing. The Paw Print also features three [3D printers](/wiki/3D_printer "3D printer") and laser cutters.
The library takes up roughly five acres, and has five floors in total, with three above ground floors and two basement levels, all of which are open to the public.
The library is a member of the TRAILS{{cite web \|url\=https://trailsmt.org/ \|title\=Homepage \|website\=TRAILS Montana \|access\-date\=April 4, 2022}} consortium of Montana academic libraries. The Mansfield Library joined in 2015 upon formation of the consortium.
|
[
"About the Library\n-----------------",
"The Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library has the largest library collection of books and media in [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\") and comprises the heart of The University of Montana's library system. Collections exceed 1\\.5 million volumes, 125,000 maps, 100,000 archival photographs, 77,000 electronic books, 50,000 media items, 12,000 theses, dissertations and graduate professional papers, and over 11,000 linear feet of archival manuscripts. It also houses more than 5,000 rare and valuable books.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lib.umt.edu/asc/aboutus \\|title\\=About Us \\|website\\=Mansfield Library \\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116162520/http://www.lib.umt.edu/asc/aboutus \\|archive\\-date\\=November 16, 2010}} Combined collections within the Montana Public Access Catalog of the Affiliated Libraries of The University of Montana exceed 1\\.9 million volumes. Over the last 10 years, the Mansfield Library has greatly increased access to electronic journal literature and now has over 30,000 print and [electronic journals](/wiki/Electronic_journal \"Electronic journal\") and hundreds of [electronic databases](/wiki/Electronic_database \"Electronic database\").",
"The library has roughly 100 computer workstations for students, staff and faculty, and has seven for the general public. Additionally, there are two video recording studios, including one combined audio recording station, two Alienware computer stations dedicated for video editing and 3D rendering, and an [Occulus Rift](/wiki/Occulus \"Occulus\") [virtual reality](/wiki/Virtual_reality \"Virtual reality\") computer station.",
"The library houses one of the university's two printing shops, the Paw Print, which offers various printing services including large scale printing. The Paw Print also features three [3D printers](/wiki/3D_printer \"3D printer\") and laser cutters.",
"The library takes up roughly five acres, and has five floors in total, with three above ground floors and two basement levels, all of which are open to the public.",
"The library is a member of the TRAILS{{cite web \\|url\\=https://trailsmt.org/ \\|title\\=Homepage \\|website\\=TRAILS Montana \\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2022}} consortium of Montana academic libraries. The Mansfield Library joined in 2015 upon formation of the consortium.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Tampa Bay Rays
Jennings was the Rays' fifth\-best prospect heading into the 2009 season according to *[Baseball America](/wiki/Baseball_America "Baseball America")*,{{cite web \|last\=Ballew \|first\=Bill \|url\=http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/prospects/rankings/organization\-top\-10\-prospects/2009/267162\.html \|title\=Tampa Bay Rays top 10 prospects \|publisher\=Baseballamerica.com \|date\=November 12, 2008 \|access\-date\=April 13, 2011 \|archive\-date\=July 30, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730015942/http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/prospects/rankings/organization\-top\-10\-prospects/2009/267162\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} and the 18th\-best prospect overall in their midseason top 25\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.baseballamerica.com/blog/prospects/?p\=5456 \|title\=Midseason Top 25 Prospects \|publisher\=Baseballamerica.com \|date\=July 9, 2009 \|access\-date\=April 13, 2011}}
Jennings was named to the 2010 [All\-Star Futures Game](/wiki/All-Star_Futures_Game "All-Star Futures Game"). From 2008 to 2011, Jennings was a top\-100 prospect in baseball in each preseason ranking of both *Baseball America* and [Baseball Prospectus](/wiki/Baseball_Prospectus "Baseball Prospectus"). He peaked at sixth overall in *Baseball America'*s pre\-2010 ranking.{{cite web\|title\=Desmond Jennings Minor \& Fall Leagues Statistics \& History {{!}} Baseball\-Reference.com\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/register/player.fcgi?id\=jennin001des\|website\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]]\|publisher\=\[\[Sports Reference LLC]]\|access\-date\=5 April 2017\|language\=en}}
In 2010, he batted .278 for the season in Triple\-A Durham, and .190 in 21 at\-bats with Tampa Bay.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/minors/player.cgi?id\=jennin001des \|title\=Desmond Jennings Minor League Statistics \& History \|publisher\=Baseball\-Reference.com \|access\-date\=April 13, 2011}}
Jennings was called up from Triple\-A Durham on July 23, 2011, as the Rays optioned [Reid Brignac](/wiki/Reid_Brignac "Reid Brignac") to Durham. At the time of his call\-up, Jennings was batting .275 and leading the International League in runs scored, with 68\.[http://www.cfnews13\.com/article/sports/2011/july/284115/Rays\-send\-Brignac\-Down\-\-Recall\-Outfielder\-Desmond\-Jennings](http://www.cfnews13.com/article/sports/2011/july/284115/Rays-send-Brignac-Down--Recall-Outfielder-Desmond-Jennings){{Dead link\|date\=July 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
On July 28, 2011, Jennings blasted his first career home run, a two\-run shot against the Oakland Athletics. On September 7, 2011, Jennings hit his first career [walk\-off home run](/wiki/Walk-off_home_run "Walk-off home run") off [Mark Lowe](/wiki/Mark_Lowe "Mark Lowe") to give the Rays a 5\-4 win over the Texas Rangers and give them their 1,000th win in franchise history.
With the departure of [B.J. Upton](/wiki/B.J._Upton "B.J. Upton") to Atlanta, Jennings began the 2013 season as the starting center fielder and lead\-off hitter, with [Sam Fuld](/wiki/Sam_Fuld "Sam Fuld") as his backup. On August 3, Jennings fractured his left middle finger, and was placed on the disabled list 3 days later.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cbssports.com/mlb/eye\-on\-baseball/23038636/rays\-lose\-leadoff\-hitter\-desmond\-jennings\-to\-15day\-dl \|title\=Rays lose leadoff hitter Desmond Jennings to 15\-day DL \|work\=CBS Sports \|first\=Mike \|last\=Axisa \|date\=August 6, 2013}} Jennings returned on August 19, and finished the season with Tampa Bay. In 139 games, he hit .252/.334/.414 with 14 home runs, 54 RBI, 82 runs scored and 20 stolen bases. He led the team in triples (6\) and stolen bases.
On May 7, 2013, Jennings hit a line drive which hit [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays "Toronto Blue Jays") pitcher [J. A. Happ](/wiki/J._A._Happ "J. A. Happ") in the head. Happ needed to be carried off the field on a stretcher after an 11\-minute delay. Jennings was visibly shaken by the accident but remained in the game.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/mlb/story/?id\=422636\|title\=Happ hit by line drive, taken to hospital; Jays top Rays\|publisher\=TSN.ca\|date\=May 8, 2013\|access\-date\=May 8, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ctpost.com/news/article/Jennings\-Rays\-shaken\-by\-Happ\-getting\-hit\-in\-head\-4497138\.php\|title\=Jennings, Rays shaken by Happ getting hit in the head\|publisher\=ctpost.com\|date\=May 8, 2013\|access\-date\=May 8, 2013}}{{Dead link\|date\=January 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
On May 3, 2015, Jennings was placed on the 15\-day disabled list due to left knee bursitis.{{cite web\|last1\=Kolligan\|first1\=Michael\|title\=Jennings placed on 15\-day DL with knee bursitis.\|url\=http://m.mlb.com/news/article/122059150/ailing\-knee\-forces\-jennings\-to\-disabled\-list\|work\=MLB.com\|access\-date\=May 3, 2015\|archive\-date\=May 6, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506005807/http://m.mlb.com/news/article/122059150/ailing\-knee\-forces\-jennings\-to\-disabled\-list\|url\-status\=dead}}
On August 26, 2016, The Rays announced that Jennings would be released the next day.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2016\\08/rays\-to\-release\-desmond\-jennings.html \|title\=Rays To Release Desmond Jennings \|website\=MLBTradeRumors.com \|publisher\=MLBTradeRumors \|access\-date\=27 August 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912100115/http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2016/08/rays\-to\-release\-desmond\-jennings.html \|archive\-date\=12 September 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }} Over his seven\-year career with the [Tampa Bay Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays "Tampa Bay Rays"), he batted .245 with 55 home runs, 191 RBI, and 95 stolen bases. His 567 games with the Rays are the most for any player who exclusively played for the team.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.espn.com/mlb/player/stats/\_/id/30493/desmond\-jennings \|title\=Desmond Jennings Stats \- Tampa Bay Rays \|website\=espn.com \|publisher\=\[\[ESPN Inc.]] \|access\-date\=August 26, 2016}}
### Cincinnati Reds
On February 9, 2017, Jennings signed a minor league contract with the [Cincinnati Reds](/wiki/Cincinnati_Reds "Cincinnati Reds").{{cite web\|url\=http://m.reds.mlb.com/news/article/215628028/reds\-sign\-of\-desmond\-jennings\-to\-minors\-deal/\|title\=Reds sign OF Jennings to Minors deal\|last\=Sheldon\|first\=Mark\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=February 9, 2017\|access\-date\=February 9, 2017\|archive\-date\=February 10, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210015122/http://m.reds.mlb.com/news/article/215628028/reds\-sign\-of\-desmond\-jennings\-to\-minors\-deal/\|url\-status\=dead}} He was released by Cincinnati on March 31, 2017\.
### New York Mets
On April 5, 2017, Jennings signed a minor league contract with the [New York Mets](/wiki/New_York_Mets "New York Mets"); he was assigned to the Mets' Triple\-A affiliate, the [Las Vegas 51s](/wiki/Las_Vegas_51s "Las Vegas 51s"). He was released from the Mets organization on June 16, 2017\.
### Acereros de Monclova
On April 11, 2018, Jennings signed with the [Acereros de Monclova](/wiki/Acereros_de_Monclova "Acereros de Monclova") of the [Mexican Baseball League](/wiki/Mexican_Baseball_League "Mexican Baseball League").{{cite web\|title\=Desmond Jennings fortalece a Acereros\|url\=http://acereros.com.mx/2018/04/11/desmond\-jennings\-fortalece\-a\-acereros/\|language\=es\|access\-date\=April 11, 2018}}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} He became a free agent following the 2018 season.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Tampa Bay Rays",
"Jennings was the Rays' fifth\\-best prospect heading into the 2009 season according to *[Baseball America](/wiki/Baseball_America \"Baseball America\")*,{{cite web \\|last\\=Ballew \\|first\\=Bill \\|url\\=http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/prospects/rankings/organization\\-top\\-10\\-prospects/2009/267162\\.html \\|title\\=Tampa Bay Rays top 10 prospects \\|publisher\\=Baseballamerica.com \\|date\\=November 12, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 30, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730015942/http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/prospects/rankings/organization\\-top\\-10\\-prospects/2009/267162\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and the 18th\\-best prospect overall in their midseason top 25\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.baseballamerica.com/blog/prospects/?p\\=5456 \\|title\\=Midseason Top 25 Prospects \\|publisher\\=Baseballamerica.com \\|date\\=July 9, 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2011}}",
"Jennings was named to the 2010 [All\\-Star Futures Game](/wiki/All-Star_Futures_Game \"All-Star Futures Game\"). From 2008 to 2011, Jennings was a top\\-100 prospect in baseball in each preseason ranking of both *Baseball America* and [Baseball Prospectus](/wiki/Baseball_Prospectus \"Baseball Prospectus\"). He peaked at sixth overall in *Baseball America'*s pre\\-2010 ranking.{{cite web\\|title\\=Desmond Jennings Minor \\& Fall Leagues Statistics \\& History {{!}} Baseball\\-Reference.com\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/register/player.fcgi?id\\=jennin001des\\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sports Reference LLC]]\\|access\\-date\\=5 April 2017\\|language\\=en}}",
"In 2010, he batted .278 for the season in Triple\\-A Durham, and .190 in 21 at\\-bats with Tampa Bay.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/minors/player.cgi?id\\=jennin001des \\|title\\=Desmond Jennings Minor League Statistics \\& History \\|publisher\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2011}}",
"Jennings was called up from Triple\\-A Durham on July 23, 2011, as the Rays optioned [Reid Brignac](/wiki/Reid_Brignac \"Reid Brignac\") to Durham. At the time of his call\\-up, Jennings was batting .275 and leading the International League in runs scored, with 68\\.[http://www.cfnews13\\.com/article/sports/2011/july/284115/Rays\\-send\\-Brignac\\-Down\\-\\-Recall\\-Outfielder\\-Desmond\\-Jennings](http://www.cfnews13.com/article/sports/2011/july/284115/Rays-send-Brignac-Down--Recall-Outfielder-Desmond-Jennings){{Dead link\\|date\\=July 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}\nOn July 28, 2011, Jennings blasted his first career home run, a two\\-run shot against the Oakland Athletics. On September 7, 2011, Jennings hit his first career [walk\\-off home run](/wiki/Walk-off_home_run \"Walk-off home run\") off [Mark Lowe](/wiki/Mark_Lowe \"Mark Lowe\") to give the Rays a 5\\-4 win over the Texas Rangers and give them their 1,000th win in franchise history.",
"With the departure of [B.J. Upton](/wiki/B.J._Upton \"B.J. Upton\") to Atlanta, Jennings began the 2013 season as the starting center fielder and lead\\-off hitter, with [Sam Fuld](/wiki/Sam_Fuld \"Sam Fuld\") as his backup. On August 3, Jennings fractured his left middle finger, and was placed on the disabled list 3 days later.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cbssports.com/mlb/eye\\-on\\-baseball/23038636/rays\\-lose\\-leadoff\\-hitter\\-desmond\\-jennings\\-to\\-15day\\-dl \\|title\\=Rays lose leadoff hitter Desmond Jennings to 15\\-day DL \\|work\\=CBS Sports \\|first\\=Mike \\|last\\=Axisa \\|date\\=August 6, 2013}} Jennings returned on August 19, and finished the season with Tampa Bay. In 139 games, he hit .252/.334/.414 with 14 home runs, 54 RBI, 82 runs scored and 20 stolen bases. He led the team in triples (6\\) and stolen bases.",
"On May 7, 2013, Jennings hit a line drive which hit [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays \"Toronto Blue Jays\") pitcher [J. A. Happ](/wiki/J._A._Happ \"J. A. Happ\") in the head. Happ needed to be carried off the field on a stretcher after an 11\\-minute delay. Jennings was visibly shaken by the accident but remained in the game.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/mlb/story/?id\\=422636\\|title\\=Happ hit by line drive, taken to hospital; Jays top Rays\\|publisher\\=TSN.ca\\|date\\=May 8, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ctpost.com/news/article/Jennings\\-Rays\\-shaken\\-by\\-Happ\\-getting\\-hit\\-in\\-head\\-4497138\\.php\\|title\\=Jennings, Rays shaken by Happ getting hit in the head\\|publisher\\=ctpost.com\\|date\\=May 8, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2013}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=January 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"On May 3, 2015, Jennings was placed on the 15\\-day disabled list due to left knee bursitis.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Kolligan\\|first1\\=Michael\\|title\\=Jennings placed on 15\\-day DL with knee bursitis.\\|url\\=http://m.mlb.com/news/article/122059150/ailing\\-knee\\-forces\\-jennings\\-to\\-disabled\\-list\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=May 6, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506005807/http://m.mlb.com/news/article/122059150/ailing\\-knee\\-forces\\-jennings\\-to\\-disabled\\-list\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"On August 26, 2016, The Rays announced that Jennings would be released the next day.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2016\\\\08/rays\\-to\\-release\\-desmond\\-jennings.html \\|title\\=Rays To Release Desmond Jennings \\|website\\=MLBTradeRumors.com \\|publisher\\=MLBTradeRumors \\|access\\-date\\=27 August 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912100115/http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2016/08/rays\\-to\\-release\\-desmond\\-jennings.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 September 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Over his seven\\-year career with the [Tampa Bay Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays \"Tampa Bay Rays\"), he batted .245 with 55 home runs, 191 RBI, and 95 stolen bases. His 567 games with the Rays are the most for any player who exclusively played for the team.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.espn.com/mlb/player/stats/\\_/id/30493/desmond\\-jennings \\|title\\=Desmond Jennings Stats \\- Tampa Bay Rays \\|website\\=espn.com \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN Inc.]] \\|access\\-date\\=August 26, 2016}}",
"### Cincinnati Reds",
"On February 9, 2017, Jennings signed a minor league contract with the [Cincinnati Reds](/wiki/Cincinnati_Reds \"Cincinnati Reds\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://m.reds.mlb.com/news/article/215628028/reds\\-sign\\-of\\-desmond\\-jennings\\-to\\-minors\\-deal/\\|title\\=Reds sign OF Jennings to Minors deal\\|last\\=Sheldon\\|first\\=Mark\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=February 9, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=February 9, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=February 10, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210015122/http://m.reds.mlb.com/news/article/215628028/reds\\-sign\\-of\\-desmond\\-jennings\\-to\\-minors\\-deal/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was released by Cincinnati on March 31, 2017\\.",
"### New York Mets",
"On April 5, 2017, Jennings signed a minor league contract with the [New York Mets](/wiki/New_York_Mets \"New York Mets\"); he was assigned to the Mets' Triple\\-A affiliate, the [Las Vegas 51s](/wiki/Las_Vegas_51s \"Las Vegas 51s\"). He was released from the Mets organization on June 16, 2017\\.",
"### Acereros de Monclova",
"On April 11, 2018, Jennings signed with the [Acereros de Monclova](/wiki/Acereros_de_Monclova \"Acereros de Monclova\") of the [Mexican Baseball League](/wiki/Mexican_Baseball_League \"Mexican Baseball League\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Desmond Jennings fortalece a Acereros\\|url\\=http://acereros.com.mx/2018/04/11/desmond\\-jennings\\-fortalece\\-a\\-acereros/\\|language\\=es\\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2018}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} He became a free agent following the 2018 season.",
""
] |
History
-------
In November 1939, {{convert\|2930\|acre\|km2}} of land was compulsorily acquired in the [Allandale](/wiki/Allandale%2C_New_South_Wales "Allandale, New South Wales")\-Greta area to create one of the Australian Army's largest training camps. Built for the training of the [6th Division](/wiki/6th_Division_%28Australia%29 "6th Division (Australia)") of the 2AIF because the existing Australian army facilities were occupied by [Citizens Military Force](/wiki/Australian_Army_Reserve "Australian Army Reserve") units.
The [2/11th Battalion](/wiki/2/11th_Australian_Infantry_Battalion "2/11th Australian Infantry Battalion") arrived at the camp on 15 December 1939 and were later joined by the [2/10th Battalion](/wiki/2/10th_Australian_Infantry_Battalion "2/10th Australian Infantry Battalion"). The camp facilities were expanded during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), with two parts of the camp known as "Chocolate City", due to the brown\-coloured oiled timber weatherboard buildings in that part of the camp and "Silver City", due to corrugated iron [Nissen huts](/wiki/Nissen_hut "Nissen hut") built in that part of the camp. Citizens Military Force units were also trained at the camp, with up to 60,000 Australian soldiers trained during World War II.
After the war, much of the field training areas were returned to grazing purposes, however the camp was still used for the training of troops preparing to join the British Commonwealth [Occupation Forces in Japan](/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan "Occupation of Japan").
### Greta Migrant Camp
[thumb\|Students at the Greta Migrant Camp School in 1952](/wiki/File:Greta_Migrant_Camp_School_-_1952.png "Greta Migrant Camp School - 1952.png")
In 1949 Greta Camp was transferred to the [Department of Immigration](/wiki/Department_of_Immigration_and_Citizenship "Department of Immigration and Citizenship") who transformed it into one of Australia's largest [migrant reception and training centres](/wiki/Post-war_immigration_to_Australia%23Migrant_reception_and_training_centres "Post-war immigration to Australia#Migrant reception and training centres"). Between June 1949 and January 1960 as part of the [post\-war immigration to Australia](/wiki/Post-war_immigration_to_Australia "Post-war immigration to Australia"), over 100,000 new migrants seeking a new life in Australia passed through the camp. The first group of 600 migrants arrived 7 June 1949 from the [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales "Bathurst, New South Wales") Migrant Reception and Training Centre and were followed on 19 August 1949 by migrants who travelled directly by disembarking from the *[Fairsea](/wiki/USS_Charger "USS Charger")* at Newcastle and who arrived at Greta via the railway.{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article117089160 \|title\=GRETA CAMP FOR MIGRANTS \|newspaper\=\[\[Queensland Times]] \|issue\=19,459 \|location\=Queensland, Australia \|date\=20 April 1949 \|accessdate\=24 October 2023 \|page\=3 (DAILY) \|via\=National Library of Australia}} In total, about 100,000 migrants from various countries, including Austria, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and Yugoslavia, sprent time in the camp.
Men were required to sign a two\-year work contract and were housed at "Chocolate City" when they were not away at jobsites, such as cutting sugar cane in Queensland, steelworks, the railways, or the [Snowy Mountains Scheme](/wiki/Snowy_Mountains_Scheme "Snowy Mountains Scheme"). Women and children were housed at the holding centre in "Silver City".
The migrant camp closed in 1960, and the Army occasionally used the site for training exercises until it was sold at auction in 1980\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In November 1939, {{convert\\|2930\\|acre\\|km2}} of land was compulsorily acquired in the [Allandale](/wiki/Allandale%2C_New_South_Wales \"Allandale, New South Wales\")\\-Greta area to create one of the Australian Army's largest training camps. Built for the training of the [6th Division](/wiki/6th_Division_%28Australia%29 \"6th Division (Australia)\") of the 2AIF because the existing Australian army facilities were occupied by [Citizens Military Force](/wiki/Australian_Army_Reserve \"Australian Army Reserve\") units.",
"The [2/11th Battalion](/wiki/2/11th_Australian_Infantry_Battalion \"2/11th Australian Infantry Battalion\") arrived at the camp on 15 December 1939 and were later joined by the [2/10th Battalion](/wiki/2/10th_Australian_Infantry_Battalion \"2/10th Australian Infantry Battalion\"). The camp facilities were expanded during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), with two parts of the camp known as \"Chocolate City\", due to the brown\\-coloured oiled timber weatherboard buildings in that part of the camp and \"Silver City\", due to corrugated iron [Nissen huts](/wiki/Nissen_hut \"Nissen hut\") built in that part of the camp. Citizens Military Force units were also trained at the camp, with up to 60,000 Australian soldiers trained during World War II.",
"After the war, much of the field training areas were returned to grazing purposes, however the camp was still used for the training of troops preparing to join the British Commonwealth [Occupation Forces in Japan](/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan \"Occupation of Japan\").",
"### Greta Migrant Camp",
"[thumb\\|Students at the Greta Migrant Camp School in 1952](/wiki/File:Greta_Migrant_Camp_School_-_1952.png \"Greta Migrant Camp School - 1952.png\")\nIn 1949 Greta Camp was transferred to the [Department of Immigration](/wiki/Department_of_Immigration_and_Citizenship \"Department of Immigration and Citizenship\") who transformed it into one of Australia's largest [migrant reception and training centres](/wiki/Post-war_immigration_to_Australia%23Migrant_reception_and_training_centres \"Post-war immigration to Australia#Migrant reception and training centres\"). Between June 1949 and January 1960 as part of the [post\\-war immigration to Australia](/wiki/Post-war_immigration_to_Australia \"Post-war immigration to Australia\"), over 100,000 new migrants seeking a new life in Australia passed through the camp. The first group of 600 migrants arrived 7 June 1949 from the [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales \"Bathurst, New South Wales\") Migrant Reception and Training Centre and were followed on 19 August 1949 by migrants who travelled directly by disembarking from the *[Fairsea](/wiki/USS_Charger \"USS Charger\")* at Newcastle and who arrived at Greta via the railway.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article117089160 \\|title\\=GRETA CAMP FOR MIGRANTS \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Queensland Times]] \\|issue\\=19,459 \\|location\\=Queensland, Australia \\|date\\=20 April 1949 \\|accessdate\\=24 October 2023 \\|page\\=3 (DAILY) \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}} In total, about 100,000 migrants from various countries, including Austria, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and Yugoslavia, sprent time in the camp.",
"Men were required to sign a two\\-year work contract and were housed at \"Chocolate City\" when they were not away at jobsites, such as cutting sugar cane in Queensland, steelworks, the railways, or the [Snowy Mountains Scheme](/wiki/Snowy_Mountains_Scheme \"Snowy Mountains Scheme\"). Women and children were housed at the holding centre in \"Silver City\".",
"The migrant camp closed in 1960, and the Army occasionally used the site for training exercises until it was sold at auction in 1980\\.",
""
] |
Origin and history
------------------
Biblical dramas were being performed in Latin across continental Europe as early as the 10th century dramatizing the events surrounding the birth of Christ. Later, priests of [Benediktbeuern Abbey](/wiki/Benediktbeuern_Abbey "Benediktbeuern Abbey") in Bavaria combined costumes and content from the Old Testament with their Christmas plays.Zarrilli, B. Phillip, et al. Theatre Histories: An Introduction. Second Edition ed., Routledge, 2010\. 73\-75
By the late 12th century, biblical plays were performed outside of churches and were written in vernacular languages. They still emphasized incidents of the Old and New Testaments but were more dramatic and less strict about following biblical accounts. The 1150 AD performance titled The Play of Adam from Norman France dramatized the fall of Adam in the garden of Eden.
The inclusion of drama was extremely popular among the French population and found similar popularity in England. In the 14th century, vernacular Bible dramas were performed across England for three main reasons: the introduction of the [Feast of Corpus Christi](/wiki/Feast_of_Corpus_Christi "Feast of Corpus Christi"), the growing population of towns and municipal governments independent of feudal lords, and the development of trade guilds.
[Pope Urban IV](/wiki/Pope_Urban_IV "Pope Urban IV") created the Feast of Corpus Christi in 1264 to celebrate the literal presence of Christ within the bread and wine of the Catholic Eucharist. The feast occurred on [Trinity Sunday](/wiki/Trinity_Sunday "Trinity Sunday") between May and June, and priests processed through the streets displaying the “Host” of Jesus which was a consecrated wafer encased within a casket.{{Cite journal\|last\=Foley\|first\=Michael P.\|date\=2007\|title\=Oxford History of Christian Worship (review)\|url\=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal\_of\_early\_christian\_studies/v015/15\.1foley.html\|journal\=Journal of Early Christian Studies\|language\=en\|volume\=15\|issue\=1\|pages\=108–110\|doi\=10\.1353/earl.2007\.0013\|s2cid\=170869009\|issn\=1086\-3184}}
The urbanization of townships resulted in populations becoming increasingly dependent on each other, enabling the specialization of labor. There were trade guilds for bakers, tailors, and goldsmiths who trained apprentices and regulated wages and working conditions. These skilled laborers working with their local communities helped build the stages and props for the performances. Subsequently, the staging of these dramatic performances became increasingly urban and informed from continental Europe by constant trade crossing the channel into England.{{Cite journal\|last\=Langille\|first\=E. M.\|date\=1999\|title\=The Stage as Mirror: Civic Theatre in the Late Middle Ages. Edited by Alan E. Knight. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1997\. Pp. viii \+ 216 \+ illus. £35; $65 Hb.\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1017/s0307883300020836\|journal\=Theatre Research International\|volume\=24\|issue\=2\|pages\=213\|doi\=10\.1017/s0307883300020836\|s2cid\=162149222 \|issn\=0307\-8833}}
The “Host” would be accompanied by a tableau of biblical scenes which represented sacred Christian history which is the origin of the cycle plays. By 1394, biblical plays were being performed in York, England. The usage of pageant wagons enabled performances to travel across the country to various communities throughout England. The plays attracted people to the towns, and communities benefited from the commercial trade.
The Mystery plays were banned nationally in the 16th century. Chester was the last to concede in 1578 and so became the longest\-running cycle in medieval times. It was revived in 1951 for the [Festival of Britain](/wiki/Festival_of_Britain "Festival of Britain"), and they have since been staged every five years. {{Cite web\|url\=https://chestermysteryplays.com/history/moreHistory/\|title \= Chester Mystery Plays \- More History}}
Prior to the performance, the Crier (officer) read out these banns: "The Aldermen and stewards of every society and company draw yourselves to your said several companies according to Ancient Custom and so to appear with your said several Companies every man as you are Called upon pain that shall fall thereon". Such early banns exhorted each company to perform well.
Under Queen [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I "Elizabeth I"), the plays were seen as "[Popery](/wiki/Popery "Popery")" and banned by the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England "Church of England"). Despite this, a play cycle was performed in 1568 and the cathedral paid for the stage and beer as in 1562\. They were performed in 1572 despite a protest by a minister.{{cite web \|url\=https://pls.artsci.utoronto.ca/wp\-content/uploads/2015/09/index.html \|title\=The Chester Plays \|last\=Johnston\|first\=Alexandra F.\|date\=2010\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-22}}
One edition of the plays begins with "The [Banes](/wiki/wiktionary:Banns "Banns") which are reade beefore the beginninge of the playes of Chester, 4 June 1600". Each play ends with "Finis. Deo gracias! per me Georgi Bellin. 1592".{{cite book\|title\=The Chester Plays: a Collection of Mysteries Founded Upon Scriptural Subjects, and Formerly Represented by the Trades of Chester at Whitsuntide\|editor1\-first\=Thomas \|editor1\-last\=Wright\|year\=1843\|location\=London\|publisher\=The Shakespeare Society\|volume\=In two volumes}}. Images:
[title page](https://archive.org/details/chesterplaysaco01wriggoog/page/n4), [start of the Banes](https://archive.org/details/chesterplaysaco01wriggoog/page/n28) and [end of the first play](https://archive.org/details/chesterplaysaco01wriggoog/page/n46).
|
[
"Origin and history\n------------------",
"Biblical dramas were being performed in Latin across continental Europe as early as the 10th century dramatizing the events surrounding the birth of Christ. Later, priests of [Benediktbeuern Abbey](/wiki/Benediktbeuern_Abbey \"Benediktbeuern Abbey\") in Bavaria combined costumes and content from the Old Testament with their Christmas plays.Zarrilli, B. Phillip, et al. Theatre Histories: An Introduction. Second Edition ed., Routledge, 2010\\. 73\\-75",
"By the late 12th century, biblical plays were performed outside of churches and were written in vernacular languages. They still emphasized incidents of the Old and New Testaments but were more dramatic and less strict about following biblical accounts. The 1150 AD performance titled The Play of Adam from Norman France dramatized the fall of Adam in the garden of Eden.",
"The inclusion of drama was extremely popular among the French population and found similar popularity in England. In the 14th century, vernacular Bible dramas were performed across England for three main reasons: the introduction of the [Feast of Corpus Christi](/wiki/Feast_of_Corpus_Christi \"Feast of Corpus Christi\"), the growing population of towns and municipal governments independent of feudal lords, and the development of trade guilds.",
"[Pope Urban IV](/wiki/Pope_Urban_IV \"Pope Urban IV\") created the Feast of Corpus Christi in 1264 to celebrate the literal presence of Christ within the bread and wine of the Catholic Eucharist. The feast occurred on [Trinity Sunday](/wiki/Trinity_Sunday \"Trinity Sunday\") between May and June, and priests processed through the streets displaying the “Host” of Jesus which was a consecrated wafer encased within a casket.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Foley\\|first\\=Michael P.\\|date\\=2007\\|title\\=Oxford History of Christian Worship (review)\\|url\\=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal\\_of\\_early\\_christian\\_studies/v015/15\\.1foley.html\\|journal\\=Journal of Early Christian Studies\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=15\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=108–110\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/earl.2007\\.0013\\|s2cid\\=170869009\\|issn\\=1086\\-3184}}",
"The urbanization of townships resulted in populations becoming increasingly dependent on each other, enabling the specialization of labor. There were trade guilds for bakers, tailors, and goldsmiths who trained apprentices and regulated wages and working conditions. These skilled laborers working with their local communities helped build the stages and props for the performances. Subsequently, the staging of these dramatic performances became increasingly urban and informed from continental Europe by constant trade crossing the channel into England.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Langille\\|first\\=E. M.\\|date\\=1999\\|title\\=The Stage as Mirror: Civic Theatre in the Late Middle Ages. Edited by Alan E. Knight. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1997\\. Pp. viii \\+ 216 \\+ illus. £35; $65 Hb.\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1017/s0307883300020836\\|journal\\=Theatre Research International\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=213\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/s0307883300020836\\|s2cid\\=162149222 \\|issn\\=0307\\-8833}}",
"The “Host” would be accompanied by a tableau of biblical scenes which represented sacred Christian history which is the origin of the cycle plays. By 1394, biblical plays were being performed in York, England. The usage of pageant wagons enabled performances to travel across the country to various communities throughout England. The plays attracted people to the towns, and communities benefited from the commercial trade.",
"The Mystery plays were banned nationally in the 16th century. Chester was the last to concede in 1578 and so became the longest\\-running cycle in medieval times. It was revived in 1951 for the [Festival of Britain](/wiki/Festival_of_Britain \"Festival of Britain\"), and they have since been staged every five years. {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://chestermysteryplays.com/history/moreHistory/\\|title \\= Chester Mystery Plays \\- More History}}",
"Prior to the performance, the Crier (officer) read out these banns: \"The Aldermen and stewards of every society and company draw yourselves to your said several companies according to Ancient Custom and so to appear with your said several Companies every man as you are Called upon pain that shall fall thereon\". Such early banns exhorted each company to perform well.",
"Under Queen [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I \"Elizabeth I\"), the plays were seen as \"[Popery](/wiki/Popery \"Popery\")\" and banned by the [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\"). Despite this, a play cycle was performed in 1568 and the cathedral paid for the stage and beer as in 1562\\. They were performed in 1572 despite a protest by a minister.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://pls.artsci.utoronto.ca/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/09/index.html \\|title\\=The Chester Plays \\|last\\=Johnston\\|first\\=Alexandra F.\\|date\\=2010\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-22}}",
"One edition of the plays begins with \"The [Banes](/wiki/wiktionary:Banns \"Banns\") which are reade beefore the beginninge of the playes of Chester, 4 June 1600\". Each play ends with \"Finis. Deo gracias! per me Georgi Bellin. 1592\".{{cite book\\|title\\=The Chester Plays: a Collection of Mysteries Founded Upon Scriptural Subjects, and Formerly Represented by the Trades of Chester at Whitsuntide\\|editor1\\-first\\=Thomas \\|editor1\\-last\\=Wright\\|year\\=1843\\|location\\=London\\|publisher\\=The Shakespeare Society\\|volume\\=In two volumes}}. Images:\n[title page](https://archive.org/details/chesterplaysaco01wriggoog/page/n4), [start of the Banes](https://archive.org/details/chesterplaysaco01wriggoog/page/n28) and [end of the first play](https://archive.org/details/chesterplaysaco01wriggoog/page/n46).",
""
] |
Plot
----
During an archaeological dig in [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel"), American college student Stephen Cornelius Foxx discovers the remains of a man who seemingly died about two thousand years ago. Among the dead man's belongings is a small [linen](/wiki/Linen "Linen") bag that holds the [user manual](/wiki/User_guide "User guide") for a [digital video camera](/wiki/Video_camera "Video camera"). Foxx and his mentor, Professor Wilford\-Smith, later find out that this particular model will not be released by its producer, [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony"), for another three years. Soon they begin to speculate that the dead man may have been a [time traveller](/wiki/Time_travel "Time travel") from the future, who went back in time to film a significant event two millennia ago—and of course, the most significant thing to film during that era was [Jesus Christ](/wiki/Jesus "Jesus").
Media magnate John Kaun, the financier of the dig, initiates a search for the camera, which seems to be hidden at an unknown location. Stephen, however, wants to find it on his own, with help from fellow student Judith Menez and her brother, Yehoshuah. A race for the Jesus Video begins, and soon becomes more dangerous than anyone imagined, as the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church") is doing all in its power to keep the video from going public.
Stephen and Judith eventually find the camera, which they discover has been guarded by a secret order of monks for centuries, but are unable to access its memory because the batteries are empty. As the military and the Vatican's agents follow them, they flee into the desert, where they eventually succumb to the heat.
The two young people are saved by John Kaun and Professor Wilford\-Smith, who treat them and reactivate the camera. However, at that moment Father Scarfaro and other agents of the Church show up, take the camera, and destroy it. Scarfaro explains that if Jesus had lived today, he would only have been a troublemaker, as he was in his own time, and it would be the Church allegedly founded on his teachings who would try him.
Three years pass. Stephen gets a call from a video company that gets him very excited; he goes to meet with Professor Wilford\-Smith and finally learns the truth: Wilford\-Smith discovered two strange video cassettes back in 1947, but had no means to watch the footage on them as the technology had not been invented yet. Once enough time had passed for him to realize what they were, he began looking for the camera. Now, he has gotten his hands on a new Sony video player that can play the footage.
Just then, an armed commando unit enters Wilford\-Smith's home and demands the cassette. The professor has no problem with them taking it, as he has already distributed hundreds of copies all over the world. The video spreads, but reactions vary greatly: for some people, the humble man in the footage, and his message of love, are deeply touching, inspiring them to completely re\-think their life and their values, while others only see a blurry video of a plain, uninteresting [rabbi](/wiki/Rabbi "Rabbi"). Still, it sires a new sect of Christianity based on what its followers believe to be Christ's original teachings.
Another two and a half years later: Stephen and Judith, who are now in a committed relationship, manage a [motel](/wiki/Motel "Motel") together. They meet with Peter Eisenhardt, an author who was also part of John Kaun's team, and who, unlike them, still believes the video to be a fake. At this point, a young man named John enters in on the discussion. Before getting on his bus to the airport, he tells them that he will be going on a tourist trip to Israel—and shows them his brand new Sony MR\-01 digital video camera.Andreas Eschbach. *Jesus Video*, Schneekluth 1998\.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"During an archaeological dig in [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\"), American college student Stephen Cornelius Foxx discovers the remains of a man who seemingly died about two thousand years ago. Among the dead man's belongings is a small [linen](/wiki/Linen \"Linen\") bag that holds the [user manual](/wiki/User_guide \"User guide\") for a [digital video camera](/wiki/Video_camera \"Video camera\"). Foxx and his mentor, Professor Wilford\\-Smith, later find out that this particular model will not be released by its producer, [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\"), for another three years. Soon they begin to speculate that the dead man may have been a [time traveller](/wiki/Time_travel \"Time travel\") from the future, who went back in time to film a significant event two millennia ago—and of course, the most significant thing to film during that era was [Jesus Christ](/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\").",
"Media magnate John Kaun, the financier of the dig, initiates a search for the camera, which seems to be hidden at an unknown location. Stephen, however, wants to find it on his own, with help from fellow student Judith Menez and her brother, Yehoshuah. A race for the Jesus Video begins, and soon becomes more dangerous than anyone imagined, as the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") is doing all in its power to keep the video from going public.",
"Stephen and Judith eventually find the camera, which they discover has been guarded by a secret order of monks for centuries, but are unable to access its memory because the batteries are empty. As the military and the Vatican's agents follow them, they flee into the desert, where they eventually succumb to the heat.",
"The two young people are saved by John Kaun and Professor Wilford\\-Smith, who treat them and reactivate the camera. However, at that moment Father Scarfaro and other agents of the Church show up, take the camera, and destroy it. Scarfaro explains that if Jesus had lived today, he would only have been a troublemaker, as he was in his own time, and it would be the Church allegedly founded on his teachings who would try him.",
"Three years pass. Stephen gets a call from a video company that gets him very excited; he goes to meet with Professor Wilford\\-Smith and finally learns the truth: Wilford\\-Smith discovered two strange video cassettes back in 1947, but had no means to watch the footage on them as the technology had not been invented yet. Once enough time had passed for him to realize what they were, he began looking for the camera. Now, he has gotten his hands on a new Sony video player that can play the footage.",
"Just then, an armed commando unit enters Wilford\\-Smith's home and demands the cassette. The professor has no problem with them taking it, as he has already distributed hundreds of copies all over the world. The video spreads, but reactions vary greatly: for some people, the humble man in the footage, and his message of love, are deeply touching, inspiring them to completely re\\-think their life and their values, while others only see a blurry video of a plain, uninteresting [rabbi](/wiki/Rabbi \"Rabbi\"). Still, it sires a new sect of Christianity based on what its followers believe to be Christ's original teachings.",
"Another two and a half years later: Stephen and Judith, who are now in a committed relationship, manage a [motel](/wiki/Motel \"Motel\") together. They meet with Peter Eisenhardt, an author who was also part of John Kaun's team, and who, unlike them, still believes the video to be a fake. At this point, a young man named John enters in on the discussion. Before getting on his bus to the airport, he tells them that he will be going on a tourist trip to Israel—and shows them his brand new Sony MR\\-01 digital video camera.Andreas Eschbach. *Jesus Video*, Schneekluth 1998\\.",
""
] |
Success factors
---------------
Most of the hidden champions produce inconspicuous products. In the market for these products they are the top producer in the world. Often, but not always, these companies are family owned. They export most of their products, and so contribute significantly to the current account of their countries, and are more successful than the average.
The idea of market leadership means more than counting market share. Leaders as employees need an "inner flame" to become, and to remain, the number one. Hidden champions normally work in [niche markets](/wiki/Niche_market "Niche market"). For these markets they design unique products, which are produced with a high [real net output ratio](/wiki/Real_net_output_ratio "Real net output ratio"). They have to accept the risk of being a single product manufacturer. They divide between "good" and "bad" market share. The good is earned by performance and a solid foundation, the bad from price aggression and discounting.
One result of working with unique products in niche markets is quite often the need to deal on the global market in order to achieve [economies of scale](/wiki/Economies_of_scale "Economies of scale"). For this reason, hidden champions feel a strong need to work abroad early in their company's development. Hidden champions also operate extremely close to their customers, and their customers' needs are an important driver for their innovations. On the other hand, customers of hidden champions depend on their products and they cannot easily change their source. This often makes for a high level of co\-dependence between the producer and the customer, a result of the one product risk.
A lot of the hidden champions established their main product as an innovation and were able to keep this single position in the market, or were at least able to keep a leading position. Their markets are mostly [oligopolistic](/wiki/Oligopoly "Oligopoly") with intense competition.
Competitive advantages of hidden champions are rarely because of [cost leadership](/wiki/Cost_leadership "Cost leadership"), more because of quality, [total cost of ownership](/wiki/Total_cost_of_ownership "Total cost of ownership"), high performance, and consultation close to the customer. They "earn" their market leadership through performance and not through price aggression. Their high real net output ratio is often achieved by working with proprietary processes which make it hard for competitors to imitate their products. On the other hand, management tasks like finance are often outsourced.
It also seems to be evident that to maintain market leadership hidden champions do business on their own, rather than depend on working in cooperation with others. Even sales in countries abroad are often organized from the parent company base. This keeps significant know\-how inside, and helps recruit highly qualified staff at a small company.
The corporate culture of hidden champions is distinctive. Their values are conservative: hard work, strict selection, intolerance of underperformance, low sickness rates and high employee loyalty –and most are based in smaller towns.
Leadership style is authoritarian on strategic issues but participative on operations level. The leaders identify themselves with the company, are focused on their products, and stay for a long time, much longer than is normal in large public corporations.
A serious problem for hidden champions, as it is for [SMEs](/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises "Small and medium-sized enterprises") in general, is to attract international professionals. Hidden champions need people who are happy to live in a remote location, who are attracted by job content, and who do not care much for a formal and prescribed career path. In Germany the concept of *hidden champion* is known to some extent, and therefore hidden champions there are able to utilise this label to recruit staff.Venohr, Bernd; Meyer, Klaus E.: The German Miracle Keeps Running : How Germany’s Hidden Champions Stay Ahead in the Global Economy Berlin: Working Paper No. 30, Institute of Management Berlin, Berlin School of Economics, 2007\. In 2011, the first "Hidden Champions Day" was organized by the student initiative bdvb e.V. at the [University of Mannheim](/wiki/University_of_Mannheim "University of Mannheim") in order to promote the advantages and opportunities of working for a [SME](/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises "Small and medium-sized enterprises").<https://web.archive.org/web/20110929140118/http://www.hiddenchampionsday.de/>{{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929140118/http://www.hiddenchampionsday.de/\|date\=September 29, 2011\|title\=Website des „Hidden Champions Day“}}
|
[
"Success factors\n---------------",
"Most of the hidden champions produce inconspicuous products. In the market for these products they are the top producer in the world. Often, but not always, these companies are family owned. They export most of their products, and so contribute significantly to the current account of their countries, and are more successful than the average.",
"The idea of market leadership means more than counting market share. Leaders as employees need an \"inner flame\" to become, and to remain, the number one. Hidden champions normally work in [niche markets](/wiki/Niche_market \"Niche market\"). For these markets they design unique products, which are produced with a high [real net output ratio](/wiki/Real_net_output_ratio \"Real net output ratio\"). They have to accept the risk of being a single product manufacturer. They divide between \"good\" and \"bad\" market share. The good is earned by performance and a solid foundation, the bad from price aggression and discounting.",
"One result of working with unique products in niche markets is quite often the need to deal on the global market in order to achieve [economies of scale](/wiki/Economies_of_scale \"Economies of scale\"). For this reason, hidden champions feel a strong need to work abroad early in their company's development. Hidden champions also operate extremely close to their customers, and their customers' needs are an important driver for their innovations. On the other hand, customers of hidden champions depend on their products and they cannot easily change their source. This often makes for a high level of co\\-dependence between the producer and the customer, a result of the one product risk.",
"A lot of the hidden champions established their main product as an innovation and were able to keep this single position in the market, or were at least able to keep a leading position. Their markets are mostly [oligopolistic](/wiki/Oligopoly \"Oligopoly\") with intense competition.",
"Competitive advantages of hidden champions are rarely because of [cost leadership](/wiki/Cost_leadership \"Cost leadership\"), more because of quality, [total cost of ownership](/wiki/Total_cost_of_ownership \"Total cost of ownership\"), high performance, and consultation close to the customer. They \"earn\" their market leadership through performance and not through price aggression. Their high real net output ratio is often achieved by working with proprietary processes which make it hard for competitors to imitate their products. On the other hand, management tasks like finance are often outsourced.",
"It also seems to be evident that to maintain market leadership hidden champions do business on their own, rather than depend on working in cooperation with others. Even sales in countries abroad are often organized from the parent company base. This keeps significant know\\-how inside, and helps recruit highly qualified staff at a small company.",
"The corporate culture of hidden champions is distinctive. Their values are conservative: hard work, strict selection, intolerance of underperformance, low sickness rates and high employee loyalty –and most are based in smaller towns.",
"Leadership style is authoritarian on strategic issues but participative on operations level. The leaders identify themselves with the company, are focused on their products, and stay for a long time, much longer than is normal in large public corporations.",
"A serious problem for hidden champions, as it is for [SMEs](/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises \"Small and medium-sized enterprises\") in general, is to attract international professionals. Hidden champions need people who are happy to live in a remote location, who are attracted by job content, and who do not care much for a formal and prescribed career path. In Germany the concept of *hidden champion* is known to some extent, and therefore hidden champions there are able to utilise this label to recruit staff.Venohr, Bernd; Meyer, Klaus E.: The German Miracle Keeps Running : How Germany’s Hidden Champions Stay Ahead in the Global Economy Berlin: Working Paper No. 30, Institute of Management Berlin, Berlin School of Economics, 2007\\. In 2011, the first \"Hidden Champions Day\" was organized by the student initiative bdvb e.V. at the [University of Mannheim](/wiki/University_of_Mannheim \"University of Mannheim\") in order to promote the advantages and opportunities of working for a [SME](/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises \"Small and medium-sized enterprises\").<https://web.archive.org/web/20110929140118/http://www.hiddenchampionsday.de/>{{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929140118/http://www.hiddenchampionsday.de/\\|date\\=September 29, 2011\\|title\\=Website des „Hidden Champions Day“}}",
""
] |
Programming
-----------
Over the years, KCRA has preempted some NBC programming, notably the soap opera *[Another World](/wiki/Another_World_%28TV_series%29 "Another World (TV series)")*. That show would air on the station for a brief time,{{When\|date\=January 2013}} but was dropped again due to low ratings. Eventually, *Another World* would air instead on future sister station KQCA (at the time, under a [local marketing agreement](/wiki/Local_marketing_agreement "Local marketing agreement")) until the show's cancellation in 1999\. Given its format as a news\-intensive station, KCRA also preempted the [weekend edition](/wiki/Weekend_Today "Weekend Today") of *[Today](/wiki/Today_%28American_TV_program%29 "Today (American TV program)")* and the Saturday morning *[T\-NBC](/wiki/T-NBC "T-NBC")* lineup during the 1990s, to run a weekend morning newscast. It also aired a 4:30 p.m. newscast, pushing *[Days of Our Lives](/wiki/Days_of_Our_Lives "Days of Our Lives")*{{'}} start time back a half\-hour earlier than the typical practice; that newscast ended after the station began airing *[The Oprah Winfrey Show](/wiki/The_Oprah_Winfrey_Show "The Oprah Winfrey Show")*; in September 2002; since then, *Days* aired at the network\-recommended 1 p.m. timeslot on weekdays until the show's move to streaming service [Peacock](/wiki/Peacock_%28streaming_service%29 "Peacock (streaming service)") in September 2022\. However, despite NBC's historically low tolerance towards program preemptions, the network has been more than satisfied with KCRA, given its near\-total ratings dominance in the Sacramento market.
Currently, KCRA airs *[Today 3rd Hour](/wiki/Today_3rd_Hour "Today 3rd Hour")* on a one\-hour [delay](/wiki/Broadcast_delay "Broadcast delay") due to *[Live with Kelly and Mark](/wiki/Live_with_Kelly_and_Mark "Live with Kelly and Mark")* airing in the 9 a.m. timeslot (until 1999, the show aired on KOVR, even back in its days as an ABC station); the [fourth hour](/wiki/Today_with_Hoda_%26_Jenna "Today with Hoda & Jenna") used to air after a repeat of the 11 p.m. newscast at 2:12 a.m. (when NBC rebroadcast the fourth hour nationally as part of its overnight schedule); sister stations [KSBW\-TV](/wiki/KSBW-TV "KSBW-TV") in Salinas, California, WXII\-TV in Greensboro, WBAL\-TV in Baltimore and [WYFF](/wiki/WYFF "WYFF") in [Greenville, South Carolina](/wiki/Greenville%2C_South_Carolina "Greenville, South Carolina") also opted to delay the fourth hour of *Today* until the overnight hours, but on March 28, 2022, the rebroadcast of the fourth hour was replaced by a rebroadcast of [NBC News Now](/wiki/NBC_News_Now "NBC News Now")'s *Top Story with Tom Llamas*, effectively preempting the program altogether and becoming the only current NBC program to not air on KCRA. Other [syndicated](/wiki/Broadcast_syndication "Broadcast syndication") programming seen on KCRA includes *[Access Hollywood](/wiki/Access_Hollywood "Access Hollywood")* and its [live counterpart](/wiki/Access_Hollywood%23Access_Daily "Access Hollywood#Access Daily"), *[The Kelly Clarkson Show](/wiki/The_Kelly_Clarkson_Show "The Kelly Clarkson Show")*, and *[Extra](/wiki/Extra_%28American_TV_program%29 "Extra (American TV program)")*. The first three are distributed by [NBC's corporate cousin](/wiki/NBCUniversal_Syndication_Studios "NBCUniversal Syndication Studios").
Occasionally as time permits, sister station KQCA may air NBC network programs whenever KCRA is unable to in the event of extended breaking news coverage or scheduled special programming or run KCRA newscasts in their scheduled airtimes due to overruns or scheduled preemptions resulting from [network sports coverage](/wiki/NBC_Sports "NBC Sports") airing on channel 3\.
KCRA carried select [Sacramento Kings](/wiki/Sacramento_Kings "Sacramento Kings") games through [the network's broadcast contract with the NBA](/wiki/NBA_on_NBC "NBA on NBC") from [1990](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_Sacramento_Kings_season "1990–91 Sacramento Kings season") to [2002](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Sacramento_Kings_season "2001–02 Sacramento Kings season").
### News operation
KCRA presently broadcasts 45 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with {{frac\|7\|1\|2}} hours each weekday, four hours on Saturdays and {{frac\|3\|1\|2}} hours on Sundays). KCRA also produces 22 hours a week of local newscasts for sister station KQCA with a three\-hour extension of KCRA's weekday morning newscast from 7 to 10 a.m. and a nightly full\-hour prime time broadcast at 10 p.m., with a total of 67 hours of locally produced newscasts combined. The station's longtime slogan, "Where The News Comes First", has become a symbol for its news coverage. The slogan was first used by KCRA in December 1958 (Kelly filed to [trademark](/wiki/Trademark "Trademark") the slogan in 1980\)United States PTO trademark filing, SN 73216228\) and has been licensed to other television stations. KCRA has long been the dominant news station in the Sacramento market, with some newscasts having more viewers than the competing stations combined.{{Cite web \|date\=August 9, 2023 \|title\=KCRA 3 News tops Sacramento sweeps period for July \|url\=https://www.kcra.com/article/kcra\-3\-news\-tops\-sacramento\-sweeps\-period\-for\-july/44775230 \|access\-date\=August 10, 2023 \|website\=KCRA \|language\=en}} The station credited the high ratings to a stable news team and being the only station with a news helicopter.{{Cite web \|last\=Turner \|first\=Melanie \|date\=December 9, 2010 \|title\=Nielsen: KCRA, KOVR newscasts top ratings \|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/sacramento/blog/marketing\_media/2010/12/nielsen\-kcra\-channel\-13\-top\-news.html \|access\-date\=August 10, 2023 \|website\=Sacramento Business Journal}}{{Cite web \|last\=Malone \|first\=Michael \|date\=October 28, 2019 \|title\=Sac Race in California Capital \|url\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/sac\-race\-in\-california\-capital \|access\-date\=August 10, 2023 \|website\=Broadcasting Cable \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Staff \|date\=December 11, 2015 \|title\=KCRA November Sweeps Elevator Pitch \|url\=https://marketshare.tvnewscheck.com/2015/12/11/kcra\-november\-sweeps\-elevator\-pitch/ \|access\-date\=August 10, 2023 \|website\=TV NewsCheck \|language\=en\-US}}
From 1991 to 1993, KCRA (later to be joined by [KRON\-TV](/wiki/KRON-TV "KRON-TV") and [KPIX](/wiki/KPIX "KPIX") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco")) participated in an experiment in which prime time programming would air one hour earlier (from 7 to 10 p.m., mirroring typical network scheduling in the [Central](/wiki/Central_Time_Zone "Central Time Zone"), [Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_Time_Zone "Mountain Time Zone") and [Hawaii Time Zones](/wiki/Hawaii_Time_Zone "Hawaii Time Zone"), instead of the standard 8 to 11 p.m. slot for [Pacific Time Zone](/wiki/Pacific_Time_Zone "Pacific Time Zone") stations). The [early prime time](/wiki/Early_prime_time "Early prime time") idea led to only a slight decrease in KCRA's ratings, and its 10 p.m. newscast remained the highest\-rated late local news program on the West Coast. A station survey showed that 63% of viewers thought a 10 p.m. newscast was a good idea. However, pressure from NBC, who threatened to yank the station's affiliation, forced KCRA to end the practice and revert to the time zone's standard prime time scheduling, announcing its demise a week after KRON\-TV discontinued the experiment;Benson, Jim. ["KCRA dumps early prime"](https://www.variety.com/article/VR109588?refcatid=14&printerfriendly=true), *[Variety](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 "Variety (magazine)")*, August 11, 1993\. however, it also resulted in KCRA beginning a 10 p.m. newscast on channel 58, which was then KSCH.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79731458/\|accessdate\=June 17, 2021\|pages\=EA 10, \[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79731173/ksch/ 13]\|title\=Success no news for independent station\|first\=Sid\|last\=Mandel\|date\=March 13, 1994\|work\=The Sacramento Bee}} KOVR would itself switch to an early prime time schedule two years later after switching to CBS.
Under Hearst ownership, KCRA has either hosted or co\-hosted many gubernatorial debates within California, often with political reporter Kevin Riggs serving as moderator and one other personality hosting the debate. Many of these debates are simulcast on sister station KSBW in Salinas. A notable example of such is the debate between [Meg Whitman](/wiki/Meg_Whitman "Meg Whitman") and [Jerry Brown](/wiki/Jerry_Brown "Jerry Brown").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ksbw.com/politics/25203206/detail.html \|title\=Videos: Watch Brown, Whitman Debate – Politics News Story – KSBW The Central Coast \|publisher\=\[\[KSBW]] \|date\=September 29, 2010 \|access\-date\=November 14, 2011}}
From about 1960 until the late 1980s, its logo was an Arabic numeral 3 inside a green square with rounded corners and convex sides (to represent the shape of a TV tube).Design of KCRA\-TV's boxed "3" logo is credited to Bob Miller, the station's first art director. Jessica Goldman, "A Passion for the Past: This Artist Paints Pictures of Sacramento's Bygone Landmarks," *Inside East Sacramento* newspaper, July 2008 edition, p. 70\. The current logo, a partially modified version of the original design, was adopted in the late 1980s. Also, it referred to its newscasts as *Channel 3 Reports* rather than *Channel 3 News*. The branding was slightly modified after the Hearst purchase to *KCRA 3 Reports*, even as its newscasts on KQCA began to be titled as *KCRA 3 News*. However, in August 2009, KCRA retitled its 11 p.m. newscast as the *KCRA 3 Night Team*. In July 2011, the *Reports* branding was phased out from the station's news branding, which changed to *KCRA 3 News*.
In late December 2005, KCRA began using a new "Triple Doppler" system for weather reports. In addition to KCRA's own Doppler weather radar system at Walnut Grove, range and accuracy were increased by adding data from [NEXRAD](/wiki/NEXRAD "NEXRAD") sites operated by the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service "National Weather Service") located north of [Reno](/wiki/Reno "Reno") on [Virginia Peak](/wiki/Virginia_Peak_%28Nevada%29 "Virginia Peak (Nevada)"), south of [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California") on [Mount Umunhum](/wiki/Mount_Umunhum "Mount Umunhum"), and at [Beale Air Force Base](/wiki/Beale_Air_Force_Base "Beale Air Force Base").
On February 12, 2007, KCRA became the first television station in the Sacramento market and the first among Hearst\-Argyle's station portfolio to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition (with the exception of its noon newscast until 2008 as it was still broadcasting in [standard\-definition](/wiki/Standard-definition "Standard-definition") at Arden Fair Mall); this came with the introduction of a new news set designed by FX Group and upgrades to its news helicopter, LiveCopter 3\. Upon the conversion to HD, the KCRA logo was modified to include the NBC peacock logo and an "HD" lettering. Only in\-studio cameras record in HD, while the helicopter's camera, field cameras and other station camera feeds are in standard definition and are upconverted to a [16:9](/wiki/16:9 "9") [widescreen](/wiki/Widescreen "Widescreen") format in the control room. In September 2008, KCRA began using a new "Triple Doppler" system with high\-definition graphics. As of August 25, 2010, with KSBW upgrading its newscasts to HD, both KCRA and KSBW now share resources in this format when covering news stories from their respective markets.
On December 21, 2015, KCRA announced the addition of a new 4 p.m. newscast, anchored by Lisa Gonzales and Brian Heap. The newscast premiered on January 25, 2016\.{{cite news\|title\=KCRA 3 News to launch weekday 4 p.m. newscast\|url\=http://m.kcra.com/news/kcra\-3\-news\-to\-launch\-weekday\-4\-pm\-newscast/37068404\|access\-date\=December 24, 2015\|agency\=KCRA\-TV\|publisher\=Hearst Television\|date\=December 21, 2015}} A [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language_in_the_United_States "Spanish language in the United States")\-subtitled simulcast of KCRA's 5 p.m. newscast was added to sister station [KQCA](/wiki/KQCA "KQCA")'s [Estrella TV](/wiki/Estrella_TV "Estrella TV") subchannel on September 5, 2017\. This newscast was not in direct competition with any Spanish\-language newscast in the market until March 18, 2020, when [Telemundo](/wiki/Telemundo "Telemundo") owned\-and\-operated station [KCSO\-LD](/wiki/KCSO-LD "KCSO-LD") launched newscasts at 5 p.m. and 5:30 p.m. On April 23, 2018, KCRA began its expanded weekday morning newscast with an extra half\-hour starting at 4 a.m.
In March 2020, amidst the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_California "COVID-19 pandemic in California"), the station added an additional hour of news and launched a new 7 p.m. newscast that airs on weekdays. The newscast remains on\-air today as a half\-hour program.{{Cite web \|date\=March 5, 2021 \|title\=KCRA 3 dominates February sweeps in Sacramento \|url\=https://www.kcra.com/article/kcra\-3\-dominates\-february\-sweeps\-in\-sacramento\-2021/35747618 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-16 \|website\=KCRA \|language\=en}}
#### Notable former on\-air staff
{{div col\|colwidth\=30em}}
* [Miguel Almaguer](/wiki/Miguel_Almaguer "Miguel Almaguer") – reporter (2003–2006; later with [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles")\-based correspondent for [NBC News](/wiki/NBC_News "NBC News"))
* [Stan Atkinson](/wiki/Stan_Atkinson "Stan Atkinson") – anchor (1959–1963, 1976–1994; later moved to [KOVR](/wiki/KOVR "KOVR") in Sacramento, now retired)
* [Maurice DuBois](/wiki/Maurice_DuBois "Maurice DuBois") – anchor/reporter (now at [WCBS\-TV](/wiki/WCBS-TV "WCBS-TV") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"))
* [Jim Finnerty](/wiki/Jim_Finnerty "Jim Finnerty") – host of local talk show *Finnerty and Company* (later renamed *Look Who's Talking*)
* [Gary Gerould](/wiki/Gary_Gerould "Gary Gerould") – sports anchor (now radio play\-by\-play for the [Sacramento Kings](/wiki/Sacramento_Kings "Sacramento Kings"))
* [John Gibson](/wiki/John_Gibson_%28media_host%29 "John Gibson (media host)") – Bay Area correspondent (now at [Fox News Channel](/wiki/Fox_News_Channel "Fox News Channel"))
* [David Gregory](/wiki/David_Gregory_%28journalist%29 "David Gregory (journalist)") (moderator of *[Meet the Press](/wiki/Meet_the_Press "Meet the Press")* from 2008–2014\)
* [Kristine Hanson](/wiki/Kristine_Hanson "Kristine Hanson") – sports anchor/weather anchor/entertainment reporter (1980s; former [Playboy Playmate](/wiki/Playboy_Playmate "Playboy Playmate"))
* [Lois Hart](/wiki/Lois_Hart "Lois Hart") – 5 and 6:30 p.m. anchor (1990–2008; retired)
* [Bob Hogue](/wiki/Bob_Hogue "Bob Hogue") – sports director (early 1980s, former [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") State Senator)
* [Joe Lizura](/wiki/Joe_Lizura "Joe Lizura") – meteorologist (1987–1989, moved to [WLWT](/wiki/WLWT "WLWT") in [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati"), then [KNSD](/wiki/KNSD "KNSD") and [KUSI\-TV](/wiki/KUSI-TV "KUSI-TV") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), now CEO at Allowance Media Group)
* [Joan Lunden](/wiki/Joan_Lunden "Joan Lunden") (1970s as first television job; she later changed her surname to Lunden, moved to ABC's *[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America "Good Morning America")*)
* [Rob Mayeda](/wiki/Rob_Mayeda "Rob Mayeda") – meteorologist/anchor/reporter (1999–2000; now at [KNTV](/wiki/KNTV "KNTV") in [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California")–San Francisco)
* [Byron Miranda](/wiki/Byron_Miranda "Byron Miranda") – meteorologist (now with [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX "WPIX") in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"))
* [Leyna Nguyen](/wiki/Leyna_Nguyen "Leyna Nguyen") – anchor/reporter (now at [KCAL](/wiki/KCAL-TV "KCAL-TV") in Los Angeles)
* [Jeff Ranieri](/wiki/Jeff_Ranieri "Jeff Ranieri") – meteorologist (2000–2005; later at [MSNBC](/wiki/MSNBC "MSNBC")/[NBC Weather Plus](/wiki/NBC_Weather_Plus "NBC Weather Plus"), now chief meteorologist at [KNTV](/wiki/KNTV "KNTV") in San Jose/San Francisco)
* [Bianca Solorzano](/wiki/Bianca_Solorzano "Bianca Solorzano") – weekend morning anchor/reporter (1999–2003; now a [CBS News](/wiki/CBS_News "CBS News") correspondent in New York City)
* [Kaity Tong](/wiki/Kaity_Tong "Kaity Tong") – anchor/reporter (1979–1981; now at [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX "WPIX") in New York City)
* [David Walker](/wiki/David_Walker_%28journalist%29 "David Walker (journalist)") – 5 and 6:30 p.m. anchor (1990–2008; retired)
* [Pamela Wu](/wiki/Pamela_Wu "Pamela Wu") – weekend anchor/reporter (2001–2009; now director of marketing and communications at the [University of California, Davis School of Law](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Davis_School_of_Law "University of California, Davis School of Law") ([King Hall](/wiki/UC_Davis_School_of_Law "UC Davis School of Law"))
{{div col end}}
|
[
"Programming\n-----------",
"Over the years, KCRA has preempted some NBC programming, notably the soap opera *[Another World](/wiki/Another_World_%28TV_series%29 \"Another World (TV series)\")*. That show would air on the station for a brief time,{{When\\|date\\=January 2013}} but was dropped again due to low ratings. Eventually, *Another World* would air instead on future sister station KQCA (at the time, under a [local marketing agreement](/wiki/Local_marketing_agreement \"Local marketing agreement\")) until the show's cancellation in 1999\\. Given its format as a news\\-intensive station, KCRA also preempted the [weekend edition](/wiki/Weekend_Today \"Weekend Today\") of *[Today](/wiki/Today_%28American_TV_program%29 \"Today (American TV program)\")* and the Saturday morning *[T\\-NBC](/wiki/T-NBC \"T-NBC\")* lineup during the 1990s, to run a weekend morning newscast. It also aired a 4:30 p.m. newscast, pushing *[Days of Our Lives](/wiki/Days_of_Our_Lives \"Days of Our Lives\")*{{'}} start time back a half\\-hour earlier than the typical practice; that newscast ended after the station began airing *[The Oprah Winfrey Show](/wiki/The_Oprah_Winfrey_Show \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\")*; in September 2002; since then, *Days* aired at the network\\-recommended 1 p.m. timeslot on weekdays until the show's move to streaming service [Peacock](/wiki/Peacock_%28streaming_service%29 \"Peacock (streaming service)\") in September 2022\\. However, despite NBC's historically low tolerance towards program preemptions, the network has been more than satisfied with KCRA, given its near\\-total ratings dominance in the Sacramento market.",
"Currently, KCRA airs *[Today 3rd Hour](/wiki/Today_3rd_Hour \"Today 3rd Hour\")* on a one\\-hour [delay](/wiki/Broadcast_delay \"Broadcast delay\") due to *[Live with Kelly and Mark](/wiki/Live_with_Kelly_and_Mark \"Live with Kelly and Mark\")* airing in the 9 a.m. timeslot (until 1999, the show aired on KOVR, even back in its days as an ABC station); the [fourth hour](/wiki/Today_with_Hoda_%26_Jenna \"Today with Hoda & Jenna\") used to air after a repeat of the 11 p.m. newscast at 2:12 a.m. (when NBC rebroadcast the fourth hour nationally as part of its overnight schedule); sister stations [KSBW\\-TV](/wiki/KSBW-TV \"KSBW-TV\") in Salinas, California, WXII\\-TV in Greensboro, WBAL\\-TV in Baltimore and [WYFF](/wiki/WYFF \"WYFF\") in [Greenville, South Carolina](/wiki/Greenville%2C_South_Carolina \"Greenville, South Carolina\") also opted to delay the fourth hour of *Today* until the overnight hours, but on March 28, 2022, the rebroadcast of the fourth hour was replaced by a rebroadcast of [NBC News Now](/wiki/NBC_News_Now \"NBC News Now\")'s *Top Story with Tom Llamas*, effectively preempting the program altogether and becoming the only current NBC program to not air on KCRA. Other [syndicated](/wiki/Broadcast_syndication \"Broadcast syndication\") programming seen on KCRA includes *[Access Hollywood](/wiki/Access_Hollywood \"Access Hollywood\")* and its [live counterpart](/wiki/Access_Hollywood%23Access_Daily \"Access Hollywood#Access Daily\"), *[The Kelly Clarkson Show](/wiki/The_Kelly_Clarkson_Show \"The Kelly Clarkson Show\")*, and *[Extra](/wiki/Extra_%28American_TV_program%29 \"Extra (American TV program)\")*. The first three are distributed by [NBC's corporate cousin](/wiki/NBCUniversal_Syndication_Studios \"NBCUniversal Syndication Studios\").",
"Occasionally as time permits, sister station KQCA may air NBC network programs whenever KCRA is unable to in the event of extended breaking news coverage or scheduled special programming or run KCRA newscasts in their scheduled airtimes due to overruns or scheduled preemptions resulting from [network sports coverage](/wiki/NBC_Sports \"NBC Sports\") airing on channel 3\\.",
"KCRA carried select [Sacramento Kings](/wiki/Sacramento_Kings \"Sacramento Kings\") games through [the network's broadcast contract with the NBA](/wiki/NBA_on_NBC \"NBA on NBC\") from [1990](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_Sacramento_Kings_season \"1990–91 Sacramento Kings season\") to [2002](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Sacramento_Kings_season \"2001–02 Sacramento Kings season\").",
"### News operation",
"KCRA presently broadcasts 45 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with {{frac\\|7\\|1\\|2}} hours each weekday, four hours on Saturdays and {{frac\\|3\\|1\\|2}} hours on Sundays). KCRA also produces 22 hours a week of local newscasts for sister station KQCA with a three\\-hour extension of KCRA's weekday morning newscast from 7 to 10 a.m. and a nightly full\\-hour prime time broadcast at 10 p.m., with a total of 67 hours of locally produced newscasts combined. The station's longtime slogan, \"Where The News Comes First\", has become a symbol for its news coverage. The slogan was first used by KCRA in December 1958 (Kelly filed to [trademark](/wiki/Trademark \"Trademark\") the slogan in 1980\\)United States PTO trademark filing, SN 73216228\\) and has been licensed to other television stations. KCRA has long been the dominant news station in the Sacramento market, with some newscasts having more viewers than the competing stations combined.{{Cite web \\|date\\=August 9, 2023 \\|title\\=KCRA 3 News tops Sacramento sweeps period for July \\|url\\=https://www.kcra.com/article/kcra\\-3\\-news\\-tops\\-sacramento\\-sweeps\\-period\\-for\\-july/44775230 \\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2023 \\|website\\=KCRA \\|language\\=en}} The station credited the high ratings to a stable news team and being the only station with a news helicopter.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Turner \\|first\\=Melanie \\|date\\=December 9, 2010 \\|title\\=Nielsen: KCRA, KOVR newscasts top ratings \\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/sacramento/blog/marketing\\_media/2010/12/nielsen\\-kcra\\-channel\\-13\\-top\\-news.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2023 \\|website\\=Sacramento Business Journal}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Malone \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=October 28, 2019 \\|title\\=Sac Race in California Capital \\|url\\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/sac\\-race\\-in\\-california\\-capital \\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2023 \\|website\\=Broadcasting Cable \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Staff \\|date\\=December 11, 2015 \\|title\\=KCRA November Sweeps Elevator Pitch \\|url\\=https://marketshare.tvnewscheck.com/2015/12/11/kcra\\-november\\-sweeps\\-elevator\\-pitch/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2023 \\|website\\=TV NewsCheck \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"From 1991 to 1993, KCRA (later to be joined by [KRON\\-TV](/wiki/KRON-TV \"KRON-TV\") and [KPIX](/wiki/KPIX \"KPIX\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\")) participated in an experiment in which prime time programming would air one hour earlier (from 7 to 10 p.m., mirroring typical network scheduling in the [Central](/wiki/Central_Time_Zone \"Central Time Zone\"), [Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_Time_Zone \"Mountain Time Zone\") and [Hawaii Time Zones](/wiki/Hawaii_Time_Zone \"Hawaii Time Zone\"), instead of the standard 8 to 11 p.m. slot for [Pacific Time Zone](/wiki/Pacific_Time_Zone \"Pacific Time Zone\") stations). The [early prime time](/wiki/Early_prime_time \"Early prime time\") idea led to only a slight decrease in KCRA's ratings, and its 10 p.m. newscast remained the highest\\-rated late local news program on the West Coast. A station survey showed that 63% of viewers thought a 10 p.m. newscast was a good idea. However, pressure from NBC, who threatened to yank the station's affiliation, forced KCRA to end the practice and revert to the time zone's standard prime time scheduling, announcing its demise a week after KRON\\-TV discontinued the experiment;Benson, Jim. [\"KCRA dumps early prime\"](https://www.variety.com/article/VR109588?refcatid=14&printerfriendly=true), *[Variety](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 \"Variety (magazine)\")*, August 11, 1993\\. however, it also resulted in KCRA beginning a 10 p.m. newscast on channel 58, which was then KSCH.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79731458/\\|accessdate\\=June 17, 2021\\|pages\\=EA 10, \\[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79731173/ksch/ 13]\\|title\\=Success no news for independent station\\|first\\=Sid\\|last\\=Mandel\\|date\\=March 13, 1994\\|work\\=The Sacramento Bee}} KOVR would itself switch to an early prime time schedule two years later after switching to CBS.",
"Under Hearst ownership, KCRA has either hosted or co\\-hosted many gubernatorial debates within California, often with political reporter Kevin Riggs serving as moderator and one other personality hosting the debate. Many of these debates are simulcast on sister station KSBW in Salinas. A notable example of such is the debate between [Meg Whitman](/wiki/Meg_Whitman \"Meg Whitman\") and [Jerry Brown](/wiki/Jerry_Brown \"Jerry Brown\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ksbw.com/politics/25203206/detail.html \\|title\\=Videos: Watch Brown, Whitman Debate – Politics News Story – KSBW The Central Coast \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[KSBW]] \\|date\\=September 29, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2011}}",
"From about 1960 until the late 1980s, its logo was an Arabic numeral 3 inside a green square with rounded corners and convex sides (to represent the shape of a TV tube).Design of KCRA\\-TV's boxed \"3\" logo is credited to Bob Miller, the station's first art director. Jessica Goldman, \"A Passion for the Past: This Artist Paints Pictures of Sacramento's Bygone Landmarks,\" *Inside East Sacramento* newspaper, July 2008 edition, p. 70\\. The current logo, a partially modified version of the original design, was adopted in the late 1980s. Also, it referred to its newscasts as *Channel 3 Reports* rather than *Channel 3 News*. The branding was slightly modified after the Hearst purchase to *KCRA 3 Reports*, even as its newscasts on KQCA began to be titled as *KCRA 3 News*. However, in August 2009, KCRA retitled its 11 p.m. newscast as the *KCRA 3 Night Team*. In July 2011, the *Reports* branding was phased out from the station's news branding, which changed to *KCRA 3 News*.",
"In late December 2005, KCRA began using a new \"Triple Doppler\" system for weather reports. In addition to KCRA's own Doppler weather radar system at Walnut Grove, range and accuracy were increased by adding data from [NEXRAD](/wiki/NEXRAD \"NEXRAD\") sites operated by the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service \"National Weather Service\") located north of [Reno](/wiki/Reno \"Reno\") on [Virginia Peak](/wiki/Virginia_Peak_%28Nevada%29 \"Virginia Peak (Nevada)\"), south of [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\") on [Mount Umunhum](/wiki/Mount_Umunhum \"Mount Umunhum\"), and at [Beale Air Force Base](/wiki/Beale_Air_Force_Base \"Beale Air Force Base\").",
"On February 12, 2007, KCRA became the first television station in the Sacramento market and the first among Hearst\\-Argyle's station portfolio to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition (with the exception of its noon newscast until 2008 as it was still broadcasting in [standard\\-definition](/wiki/Standard-definition \"Standard-definition\") at Arden Fair Mall); this came with the introduction of a new news set designed by FX Group and upgrades to its news helicopter, LiveCopter 3\\. Upon the conversion to HD, the KCRA logo was modified to include the NBC peacock logo and an \"HD\" lettering. Only in\\-studio cameras record in HD, while the helicopter's camera, field cameras and other station camera feeds are in standard definition and are upconverted to a [16:9](/wiki/16:9 \"9\") [widescreen](/wiki/Widescreen \"Widescreen\") format in the control room. In September 2008, KCRA began using a new \"Triple Doppler\" system with high\\-definition graphics. As of August 25, 2010, with KSBW upgrading its newscasts to HD, both KCRA and KSBW now share resources in this format when covering news stories from their respective markets.",
"On December 21, 2015, KCRA announced the addition of a new 4 p.m. newscast, anchored by Lisa Gonzales and Brian Heap. The newscast premiered on January 25, 2016\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=KCRA 3 News to launch weekday 4 p.m. newscast\\|url\\=http://m.kcra.com/news/kcra\\-3\\-news\\-to\\-launch\\-weekday\\-4\\-pm\\-newscast/37068404\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2015\\|agency\\=KCRA\\-TV\\|publisher\\=Hearst Television\\|date\\=December 21, 2015}} A [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language_in_the_United_States \"Spanish language in the United States\")\\-subtitled simulcast of KCRA's 5 p.m. newscast was added to sister station [KQCA](/wiki/KQCA \"KQCA\")'s [Estrella TV](/wiki/Estrella_TV \"Estrella TV\") subchannel on September 5, 2017\\. This newscast was not in direct competition with any Spanish\\-language newscast in the market until March 18, 2020, when [Telemundo](/wiki/Telemundo \"Telemundo\") owned\\-and\\-operated station [KCSO\\-LD](/wiki/KCSO-LD \"KCSO-LD\") launched newscasts at 5 p.m. and 5:30 p.m. On April 23, 2018, KCRA began its expanded weekday morning newscast with an extra half\\-hour starting at 4 a.m.",
"In March 2020, amidst the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_California \"COVID-19 pandemic in California\"), the station added an additional hour of news and launched a new 7 p.m. newscast that airs on weekdays. The newscast remains on\\-air today as a half\\-hour program.{{Cite web \\|date\\=March 5, 2021 \\|title\\=KCRA 3 dominates February sweeps in Sacramento \\|url\\=https://www.kcra.com/article/kcra\\-3\\-dominates\\-february\\-sweeps\\-in\\-sacramento\\-2021/35747618 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-16 \\|website\\=KCRA \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Notable former on\\-air staff",
"{{div col\\|colwidth\\=30em}}\n* [Miguel Almaguer](/wiki/Miguel_Almaguer \"Miguel Almaguer\") – reporter (2003–2006; later with [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\")\\-based correspondent for [NBC News](/wiki/NBC_News \"NBC News\"))\n* [Stan Atkinson](/wiki/Stan_Atkinson \"Stan Atkinson\") – anchor (1959–1963, 1976–1994; later moved to [KOVR](/wiki/KOVR \"KOVR\") in Sacramento, now retired)\n* [Maurice DuBois](/wiki/Maurice_DuBois \"Maurice DuBois\") – anchor/reporter (now at [WCBS\\-TV](/wiki/WCBS-TV \"WCBS-TV\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"))\n* [Jim Finnerty](/wiki/Jim_Finnerty \"Jim Finnerty\") – host of local talk show *Finnerty and Company* (later renamed *Look Who's Talking*)\n* [Gary Gerould](/wiki/Gary_Gerould \"Gary Gerould\") – sports anchor (now radio play\\-by\\-play for the [Sacramento Kings](/wiki/Sacramento_Kings \"Sacramento Kings\"))\n* [John Gibson](/wiki/John_Gibson_%28media_host%29 \"John Gibson (media host)\") – Bay Area correspondent (now at [Fox News Channel](/wiki/Fox_News_Channel \"Fox News Channel\"))\n* [David Gregory](/wiki/David_Gregory_%28journalist%29 \"David Gregory (journalist)\") (moderator of *[Meet the Press](/wiki/Meet_the_Press \"Meet the Press\")* from 2008–2014\\)\n* [Kristine Hanson](/wiki/Kristine_Hanson \"Kristine Hanson\") – sports anchor/weather anchor/entertainment reporter (1980s; former [Playboy Playmate](/wiki/Playboy_Playmate \"Playboy Playmate\"))\n* [Lois Hart](/wiki/Lois_Hart \"Lois Hart\") – 5 and 6:30 p.m. anchor (1990–2008; retired)\n* [Bob Hogue](/wiki/Bob_Hogue \"Bob Hogue\") – sports director (early 1980s, former [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") State Senator)\n* [Joe Lizura](/wiki/Joe_Lizura \"Joe Lizura\") – meteorologist (1987–1989, moved to [WLWT](/wiki/WLWT \"WLWT\") in [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\"), then [KNSD](/wiki/KNSD \"KNSD\") and [KUSI\\-TV](/wiki/KUSI-TV \"KUSI-TV\") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), now CEO at Allowance Media Group)\n* [Joan Lunden](/wiki/Joan_Lunden \"Joan Lunden\") (1970s as first television job; she later changed her surname to Lunden, moved to ABC's *[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America \"Good Morning America\")*)\n* [Rob Mayeda](/wiki/Rob_Mayeda \"Rob Mayeda\") – meteorologist/anchor/reporter (1999–2000; now at [KNTV](/wiki/KNTV \"KNTV\") in [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\")–San Francisco)\n* [Byron Miranda](/wiki/Byron_Miranda \"Byron Miranda\") – meteorologist (now with [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX \"WPIX\") in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"))\n* [Leyna Nguyen](/wiki/Leyna_Nguyen \"Leyna Nguyen\") – anchor/reporter (now at [KCAL](/wiki/KCAL-TV \"KCAL-TV\") in Los Angeles)\n* [Jeff Ranieri](/wiki/Jeff_Ranieri \"Jeff Ranieri\") – meteorologist (2000–2005; later at [MSNBC](/wiki/MSNBC \"MSNBC\")/[NBC Weather Plus](/wiki/NBC_Weather_Plus \"NBC Weather Plus\"), now chief meteorologist at [KNTV](/wiki/KNTV \"KNTV\") in San Jose/San Francisco)\n* [Bianca Solorzano](/wiki/Bianca_Solorzano \"Bianca Solorzano\") – weekend morning anchor/reporter (1999–2003; now a [CBS News](/wiki/CBS_News \"CBS News\") correspondent in New York City)\n* [Kaity Tong](/wiki/Kaity_Tong \"Kaity Tong\") – anchor/reporter (1979–1981; now at [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX \"WPIX\") in New York City)\n* [David Walker](/wiki/David_Walker_%28journalist%29 \"David Walker (journalist)\") – 5 and 6:30 p.m. anchor (1990–2008; retired)\n* [Pamela Wu](/wiki/Pamela_Wu \"Pamela Wu\") – weekend anchor/reporter (2001–2009; now director of marketing and communications at the [University of California, Davis School of Law](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Davis_School_of_Law \"University of California, Davis School of Law\") ([King Hall](/wiki/UC_Davis_School_of_Law \"UC Davis School of Law\"))\n{{div col end}}",
""
] |
### News operation
KCRA presently broadcasts 45 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with {{frac\|7\|1\|2}} hours each weekday, four hours on Saturdays and {{frac\|3\|1\|2}} hours on Sundays). KCRA also produces 22 hours a week of local newscasts for sister station KQCA with a three\-hour extension of KCRA's weekday morning newscast from 7 to 10 a.m. and a nightly full\-hour prime time broadcast at 10 p.m., with a total of 67 hours of locally produced newscasts combined. The station's longtime slogan, "Where The News Comes First", has become a symbol for its news coverage. The slogan was first used by KCRA in December 1958 (Kelly filed to [trademark](/wiki/Trademark "Trademark") the slogan in 1980\)United States PTO trademark filing, SN 73216228\) and has been licensed to other television stations. KCRA has long been the dominant news station in the Sacramento market, with some newscasts having more viewers than the competing stations combined.{{Cite web \|date\=August 9, 2023 \|title\=KCRA 3 News tops Sacramento sweeps period for July \|url\=https://www.kcra.com/article/kcra\-3\-news\-tops\-sacramento\-sweeps\-period\-for\-july/44775230 \|access\-date\=August 10, 2023 \|website\=KCRA \|language\=en}} The station credited the high ratings to a stable news team and being the only station with a news helicopter.{{Cite web \|last\=Turner \|first\=Melanie \|date\=December 9, 2010 \|title\=Nielsen: KCRA, KOVR newscasts top ratings \|url\=https://www.bizjournals.com/sacramento/blog/marketing\_media/2010/12/nielsen\-kcra\-channel\-13\-top\-news.html \|access\-date\=August 10, 2023 \|website\=Sacramento Business Journal}}{{Cite web \|last\=Malone \|first\=Michael \|date\=October 28, 2019 \|title\=Sac Race in California Capital \|url\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/sac\-race\-in\-california\-capital \|access\-date\=August 10, 2023 \|website\=Broadcasting Cable \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Staff \|date\=December 11, 2015 \|title\=KCRA November Sweeps Elevator Pitch \|url\=https://marketshare.tvnewscheck.com/2015/12/11/kcra\-november\-sweeps\-elevator\-pitch/ \|access\-date\=August 10, 2023 \|website\=TV NewsCheck \|language\=en\-US}}
From 1991 to 1993, KCRA (later to be joined by [KRON\-TV](/wiki/KRON-TV "KRON-TV") and [KPIX](/wiki/KPIX "KPIX") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco")) participated in an experiment in which prime time programming would air one hour earlier (from 7 to 10 p.m., mirroring typical network scheduling in the [Central](/wiki/Central_Time_Zone "Central Time Zone"), [Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_Time_Zone "Mountain Time Zone") and [Hawaii Time Zones](/wiki/Hawaii_Time_Zone "Hawaii Time Zone"), instead of the standard 8 to 11 p.m. slot for [Pacific Time Zone](/wiki/Pacific_Time_Zone "Pacific Time Zone") stations). The [early prime time](/wiki/Early_prime_time "Early prime time") idea led to only a slight decrease in KCRA's ratings, and its 10 p.m. newscast remained the highest\-rated late local news program on the West Coast. A station survey showed that 63% of viewers thought a 10 p.m. newscast was a good idea. However, pressure from NBC, who threatened to yank the station's affiliation, forced KCRA to end the practice and revert to the time zone's standard prime time scheduling, announcing its demise a week after KRON\-TV discontinued the experiment;Benson, Jim. ["KCRA dumps early prime"](https://www.variety.com/article/VR109588?refcatid=14&printerfriendly=true), *[Variety](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 "Variety (magazine)")*, August 11, 1993\. however, it also resulted in KCRA beginning a 10 p.m. newscast on channel 58, which was then KSCH.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79731458/\|accessdate\=June 17, 2021\|pages\=EA 10, \[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79731173/ksch/ 13]\|title\=Success no news for independent station\|first\=Sid\|last\=Mandel\|date\=March 13, 1994\|work\=The Sacramento Bee}} KOVR would itself switch to an early prime time schedule two years later after switching to CBS.
Under Hearst ownership, KCRA has either hosted or co\-hosted many gubernatorial debates within California, often with political reporter Kevin Riggs serving as moderator and one other personality hosting the debate. Many of these debates are simulcast on sister station KSBW in Salinas. A notable example of such is the debate between [Meg Whitman](/wiki/Meg_Whitman "Meg Whitman") and [Jerry Brown](/wiki/Jerry_Brown "Jerry Brown").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ksbw.com/politics/25203206/detail.html \|title\=Videos: Watch Brown, Whitman Debate – Politics News Story – KSBW The Central Coast \|publisher\=\[\[KSBW]] \|date\=September 29, 2010 \|access\-date\=November 14, 2011}}
From about 1960 until the late 1980s, its logo was an Arabic numeral 3 inside a green square with rounded corners and convex sides (to represent the shape of a TV tube).Design of KCRA\-TV's boxed "3" logo is credited to Bob Miller, the station's first art director. Jessica Goldman, "A Passion for the Past: This Artist Paints Pictures of Sacramento's Bygone Landmarks," *Inside East Sacramento* newspaper, July 2008 edition, p. 70\. The current logo, a partially modified version of the original design, was adopted in the late 1980s. Also, it referred to its newscasts as *Channel 3 Reports* rather than *Channel 3 News*. The branding was slightly modified after the Hearst purchase to *KCRA 3 Reports*, even as its newscasts on KQCA began to be titled as *KCRA 3 News*. However, in August 2009, KCRA retitled its 11 p.m. newscast as the *KCRA 3 Night Team*. In July 2011, the *Reports* branding was phased out from the station's news branding, which changed to *KCRA 3 News*.
In late December 2005, KCRA began using a new "Triple Doppler" system for weather reports. In addition to KCRA's own Doppler weather radar system at Walnut Grove, range and accuracy were increased by adding data from [NEXRAD](/wiki/NEXRAD "NEXRAD") sites operated by the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service "National Weather Service") located north of [Reno](/wiki/Reno "Reno") on [Virginia Peak](/wiki/Virginia_Peak_%28Nevada%29 "Virginia Peak (Nevada)"), south of [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California") on [Mount Umunhum](/wiki/Mount_Umunhum "Mount Umunhum"), and at [Beale Air Force Base](/wiki/Beale_Air_Force_Base "Beale Air Force Base").
On February 12, 2007, KCRA became the first television station in the Sacramento market and the first among Hearst\-Argyle's station portfolio to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition (with the exception of its noon newscast until 2008 as it was still broadcasting in [standard\-definition](/wiki/Standard-definition "Standard-definition") at Arden Fair Mall); this came with the introduction of a new news set designed by FX Group and upgrades to its news helicopter, LiveCopter 3\. Upon the conversion to HD, the KCRA logo was modified to include the NBC peacock logo and an "HD" lettering. Only in\-studio cameras record in HD, while the helicopter's camera, field cameras and other station camera feeds are in standard definition and are upconverted to a [16:9](/wiki/16:9 "9") [widescreen](/wiki/Widescreen "Widescreen") format in the control room. In September 2008, KCRA began using a new "Triple Doppler" system with high\-definition graphics. As of August 25, 2010, with KSBW upgrading its newscasts to HD, both KCRA and KSBW now share resources in this format when covering news stories from their respective markets.
On December 21, 2015, KCRA announced the addition of a new 4 p.m. newscast, anchored by Lisa Gonzales and Brian Heap. The newscast premiered on January 25, 2016\.{{cite news\|title\=KCRA 3 News to launch weekday 4 p.m. newscast\|url\=http://m.kcra.com/news/kcra\-3\-news\-to\-launch\-weekday\-4\-pm\-newscast/37068404\|access\-date\=December 24, 2015\|agency\=KCRA\-TV\|publisher\=Hearst Television\|date\=December 21, 2015}} A [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language_in_the_United_States "Spanish language in the United States")\-subtitled simulcast of KCRA's 5 p.m. newscast was added to sister station [KQCA](/wiki/KQCA "KQCA")'s [Estrella TV](/wiki/Estrella_TV "Estrella TV") subchannel on September 5, 2017\. This newscast was not in direct competition with any Spanish\-language newscast in the market until March 18, 2020, when [Telemundo](/wiki/Telemundo "Telemundo") owned\-and\-operated station [KCSO\-LD](/wiki/KCSO-LD "KCSO-LD") launched newscasts at 5 p.m. and 5:30 p.m. On April 23, 2018, KCRA began its expanded weekday morning newscast with an extra half\-hour starting at 4 a.m.
In March 2020, amidst the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_California "COVID-19 pandemic in California"), the station added an additional hour of news and launched a new 7 p.m. newscast that airs on weekdays. The newscast remains on\-air today as a half\-hour program.{{Cite web \|date\=March 5, 2021 \|title\=KCRA 3 dominates February sweeps in Sacramento \|url\=https://www.kcra.com/article/kcra\-3\-dominates\-february\-sweeps\-in\-sacramento\-2021/35747618 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-16 \|website\=KCRA \|language\=en}}
#### Notable former on\-air staff
{{div col\|colwidth\=30em}}
* [Miguel Almaguer](/wiki/Miguel_Almaguer "Miguel Almaguer") – reporter (2003–2006; later with [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles")\-based correspondent for [NBC News](/wiki/NBC_News "NBC News"))
* [Stan Atkinson](/wiki/Stan_Atkinson "Stan Atkinson") – anchor (1959–1963, 1976–1994; later moved to [KOVR](/wiki/KOVR "KOVR") in Sacramento, now retired)
* [Maurice DuBois](/wiki/Maurice_DuBois "Maurice DuBois") – anchor/reporter (now at [WCBS\-TV](/wiki/WCBS-TV "WCBS-TV") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"))
* [Jim Finnerty](/wiki/Jim_Finnerty "Jim Finnerty") – host of local talk show *Finnerty and Company* (later renamed *Look Who's Talking*)
* [Gary Gerould](/wiki/Gary_Gerould "Gary Gerould") – sports anchor (now radio play\-by\-play for the [Sacramento Kings](/wiki/Sacramento_Kings "Sacramento Kings"))
* [John Gibson](/wiki/John_Gibson_%28media_host%29 "John Gibson (media host)") – Bay Area correspondent (now at [Fox News Channel](/wiki/Fox_News_Channel "Fox News Channel"))
* [David Gregory](/wiki/David_Gregory_%28journalist%29 "David Gregory (journalist)") (moderator of *[Meet the Press](/wiki/Meet_the_Press "Meet the Press")* from 2008–2014\)
* [Kristine Hanson](/wiki/Kristine_Hanson "Kristine Hanson") – sports anchor/weather anchor/entertainment reporter (1980s; former [Playboy Playmate](/wiki/Playboy_Playmate "Playboy Playmate"))
* [Lois Hart](/wiki/Lois_Hart "Lois Hart") – 5 and 6:30 p.m. anchor (1990–2008; retired)
* [Bob Hogue](/wiki/Bob_Hogue "Bob Hogue") – sports director (early 1980s, former [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii") State Senator)
* [Joe Lizura](/wiki/Joe_Lizura "Joe Lizura") – meteorologist (1987–1989, moved to [WLWT](/wiki/WLWT "WLWT") in [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati"), then [KNSD](/wiki/KNSD "KNSD") and [KUSI\-TV](/wiki/KUSI-TV "KUSI-TV") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), now CEO at Allowance Media Group)
* [Joan Lunden](/wiki/Joan_Lunden "Joan Lunden") (1970s as first television job; she later changed her surname to Lunden, moved to ABC's *[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America "Good Morning America")*)
* [Rob Mayeda](/wiki/Rob_Mayeda "Rob Mayeda") – meteorologist/anchor/reporter (1999–2000; now at [KNTV](/wiki/KNTV "KNTV") in [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California")–San Francisco)
* [Byron Miranda](/wiki/Byron_Miranda "Byron Miranda") – meteorologist (now with [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX "WPIX") in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"))
* [Leyna Nguyen](/wiki/Leyna_Nguyen "Leyna Nguyen") – anchor/reporter (now at [KCAL](/wiki/KCAL-TV "KCAL-TV") in Los Angeles)
* [Jeff Ranieri](/wiki/Jeff_Ranieri "Jeff Ranieri") – meteorologist (2000–2005; later at [MSNBC](/wiki/MSNBC "MSNBC")/[NBC Weather Plus](/wiki/NBC_Weather_Plus "NBC Weather Plus"), now chief meteorologist at [KNTV](/wiki/KNTV "KNTV") in San Jose/San Francisco)
* [Bianca Solorzano](/wiki/Bianca_Solorzano "Bianca Solorzano") – weekend morning anchor/reporter (1999–2003; now a [CBS News](/wiki/CBS_News "CBS News") correspondent in New York City)
* [Kaity Tong](/wiki/Kaity_Tong "Kaity Tong") – anchor/reporter (1979–1981; now at [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX "WPIX") in New York City)
* [David Walker](/wiki/David_Walker_%28journalist%29 "David Walker (journalist)") – 5 and 6:30 p.m. anchor (1990–2008; retired)
* [Pamela Wu](/wiki/Pamela_Wu "Pamela Wu") – weekend anchor/reporter (2001–2009; now director of marketing and communications at the [University of California, Davis School of Law](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Davis_School_of_Law "University of California, Davis School of Law") ([King Hall](/wiki/UC_Davis_School_of_Law "UC Davis School of Law"))
{{div col end}}
|
[
"### News operation",
"KCRA presently broadcasts 45 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with {{frac\\|7\\|1\\|2}} hours each weekday, four hours on Saturdays and {{frac\\|3\\|1\\|2}} hours on Sundays). KCRA also produces 22 hours a week of local newscasts for sister station KQCA with a three\\-hour extension of KCRA's weekday morning newscast from 7 to 10 a.m. and a nightly full\\-hour prime time broadcast at 10 p.m., with a total of 67 hours of locally produced newscasts combined. The station's longtime slogan, \"Where The News Comes First\", has become a symbol for its news coverage. The slogan was first used by KCRA in December 1958 (Kelly filed to [trademark](/wiki/Trademark \"Trademark\") the slogan in 1980\\)United States PTO trademark filing, SN 73216228\\) and has been licensed to other television stations. KCRA has long been the dominant news station in the Sacramento market, with some newscasts having more viewers than the competing stations combined.{{Cite web \\|date\\=August 9, 2023 \\|title\\=KCRA 3 News tops Sacramento sweeps period for July \\|url\\=https://www.kcra.com/article/kcra\\-3\\-news\\-tops\\-sacramento\\-sweeps\\-period\\-for\\-july/44775230 \\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2023 \\|website\\=KCRA \\|language\\=en}} The station credited the high ratings to a stable news team and being the only station with a news helicopter.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Turner \\|first\\=Melanie \\|date\\=December 9, 2010 \\|title\\=Nielsen: KCRA, KOVR newscasts top ratings \\|url\\=https://www.bizjournals.com/sacramento/blog/marketing\\_media/2010/12/nielsen\\-kcra\\-channel\\-13\\-top\\-news.html \\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2023 \\|website\\=Sacramento Business Journal}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Malone \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=October 28, 2019 \\|title\\=Sac Race in California Capital \\|url\\=https://www.nexttv.com/news/sac\\-race\\-in\\-california\\-capital \\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2023 \\|website\\=Broadcasting Cable \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Staff \\|date\\=December 11, 2015 \\|title\\=KCRA November Sweeps Elevator Pitch \\|url\\=https://marketshare.tvnewscheck.com/2015/12/11/kcra\\-november\\-sweeps\\-elevator\\-pitch/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 10, 2023 \\|website\\=TV NewsCheck \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"From 1991 to 1993, KCRA (later to be joined by [KRON\\-TV](/wiki/KRON-TV \"KRON-TV\") and [KPIX](/wiki/KPIX \"KPIX\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\")) participated in an experiment in which prime time programming would air one hour earlier (from 7 to 10 p.m., mirroring typical network scheduling in the [Central](/wiki/Central_Time_Zone \"Central Time Zone\"), [Mountain](/wiki/Mountain_Time_Zone \"Mountain Time Zone\") and [Hawaii Time Zones](/wiki/Hawaii_Time_Zone \"Hawaii Time Zone\"), instead of the standard 8 to 11 p.m. slot for [Pacific Time Zone](/wiki/Pacific_Time_Zone \"Pacific Time Zone\") stations). The [early prime time](/wiki/Early_prime_time \"Early prime time\") idea led to only a slight decrease in KCRA's ratings, and its 10 p.m. newscast remained the highest\\-rated late local news program on the West Coast. A station survey showed that 63% of viewers thought a 10 p.m. newscast was a good idea. However, pressure from NBC, who threatened to yank the station's affiliation, forced KCRA to end the practice and revert to the time zone's standard prime time scheduling, announcing its demise a week after KRON\\-TV discontinued the experiment;Benson, Jim. [\"KCRA dumps early prime\"](https://www.variety.com/article/VR109588?refcatid=14&printerfriendly=true), *[Variety](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 \"Variety (magazine)\")*, August 11, 1993\\. however, it also resulted in KCRA beginning a 10 p.m. newscast on channel 58, which was then KSCH.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79731458/\\|accessdate\\=June 17, 2021\\|pages\\=EA 10, \\[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79731173/ksch/ 13]\\|title\\=Success no news for independent station\\|first\\=Sid\\|last\\=Mandel\\|date\\=March 13, 1994\\|work\\=The Sacramento Bee}} KOVR would itself switch to an early prime time schedule two years later after switching to CBS.",
"Under Hearst ownership, KCRA has either hosted or co\\-hosted many gubernatorial debates within California, often with political reporter Kevin Riggs serving as moderator and one other personality hosting the debate. Many of these debates are simulcast on sister station KSBW in Salinas. A notable example of such is the debate between [Meg Whitman](/wiki/Meg_Whitman \"Meg Whitman\") and [Jerry Brown](/wiki/Jerry_Brown \"Jerry Brown\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ksbw.com/politics/25203206/detail.html \\|title\\=Videos: Watch Brown, Whitman Debate – Politics News Story – KSBW The Central Coast \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[KSBW]] \\|date\\=September 29, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2011}}",
"From about 1960 until the late 1980s, its logo was an Arabic numeral 3 inside a green square with rounded corners and convex sides (to represent the shape of a TV tube).Design of KCRA\\-TV's boxed \"3\" logo is credited to Bob Miller, the station's first art director. Jessica Goldman, \"A Passion for the Past: This Artist Paints Pictures of Sacramento's Bygone Landmarks,\" *Inside East Sacramento* newspaper, July 2008 edition, p. 70\\. The current logo, a partially modified version of the original design, was adopted in the late 1980s. Also, it referred to its newscasts as *Channel 3 Reports* rather than *Channel 3 News*. The branding was slightly modified after the Hearst purchase to *KCRA 3 Reports*, even as its newscasts on KQCA began to be titled as *KCRA 3 News*. However, in August 2009, KCRA retitled its 11 p.m. newscast as the *KCRA 3 Night Team*. In July 2011, the *Reports* branding was phased out from the station's news branding, which changed to *KCRA 3 News*.",
"In late December 2005, KCRA began using a new \"Triple Doppler\" system for weather reports. In addition to KCRA's own Doppler weather radar system at Walnut Grove, range and accuracy were increased by adding data from [NEXRAD](/wiki/NEXRAD \"NEXRAD\") sites operated by the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service \"National Weather Service\") located north of [Reno](/wiki/Reno \"Reno\") on [Virginia Peak](/wiki/Virginia_Peak_%28Nevada%29 \"Virginia Peak (Nevada)\"), south of [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\") on [Mount Umunhum](/wiki/Mount_Umunhum \"Mount Umunhum\"), and at [Beale Air Force Base](/wiki/Beale_Air_Force_Base \"Beale Air Force Base\").",
"On February 12, 2007, KCRA became the first television station in the Sacramento market and the first among Hearst\\-Argyle's station portfolio to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition (with the exception of its noon newscast until 2008 as it was still broadcasting in [standard\\-definition](/wiki/Standard-definition \"Standard-definition\") at Arden Fair Mall); this came with the introduction of a new news set designed by FX Group and upgrades to its news helicopter, LiveCopter 3\\. Upon the conversion to HD, the KCRA logo was modified to include the NBC peacock logo and an \"HD\" lettering. Only in\\-studio cameras record in HD, while the helicopter's camera, field cameras and other station camera feeds are in standard definition and are upconverted to a [16:9](/wiki/16:9 \"9\") [widescreen](/wiki/Widescreen \"Widescreen\") format in the control room. In September 2008, KCRA began using a new \"Triple Doppler\" system with high\\-definition graphics. As of August 25, 2010, with KSBW upgrading its newscasts to HD, both KCRA and KSBW now share resources in this format when covering news stories from their respective markets.",
"On December 21, 2015, KCRA announced the addition of a new 4 p.m. newscast, anchored by Lisa Gonzales and Brian Heap. The newscast premiered on January 25, 2016\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=KCRA 3 News to launch weekday 4 p.m. newscast\\|url\\=http://m.kcra.com/news/kcra\\-3\\-news\\-to\\-launch\\-weekday\\-4\\-pm\\-newscast/37068404\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2015\\|agency\\=KCRA\\-TV\\|publisher\\=Hearst Television\\|date\\=December 21, 2015}} A [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language_in_the_United_States \"Spanish language in the United States\")\\-subtitled simulcast of KCRA's 5 p.m. newscast was added to sister station [KQCA](/wiki/KQCA \"KQCA\")'s [Estrella TV](/wiki/Estrella_TV \"Estrella TV\") subchannel on September 5, 2017\\. This newscast was not in direct competition with any Spanish\\-language newscast in the market until March 18, 2020, when [Telemundo](/wiki/Telemundo \"Telemundo\") owned\\-and\\-operated station [KCSO\\-LD](/wiki/KCSO-LD \"KCSO-LD\") launched newscasts at 5 p.m. and 5:30 p.m. On April 23, 2018, KCRA began its expanded weekday morning newscast with an extra half\\-hour starting at 4 a.m.",
"In March 2020, amidst the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_California \"COVID-19 pandemic in California\"), the station added an additional hour of news and launched a new 7 p.m. newscast that airs on weekdays. The newscast remains on\\-air today as a half\\-hour program.{{Cite web \\|date\\=March 5, 2021 \\|title\\=KCRA 3 dominates February sweeps in Sacramento \\|url\\=https://www.kcra.com/article/kcra\\-3\\-dominates\\-february\\-sweeps\\-in\\-sacramento\\-2021/35747618 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-16 \\|website\\=KCRA \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Notable former on\\-air staff",
"{{div col\\|colwidth\\=30em}}\n* [Miguel Almaguer](/wiki/Miguel_Almaguer \"Miguel Almaguer\") – reporter (2003–2006; later with [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\")\\-based correspondent for [NBC News](/wiki/NBC_News \"NBC News\"))\n* [Stan Atkinson](/wiki/Stan_Atkinson \"Stan Atkinson\") – anchor (1959–1963, 1976–1994; later moved to [KOVR](/wiki/KOVR \"KOVR\") in Sacramento, now retired)\n* [Maurice DuBois](/wiki/Maurice_DuBois \"Maurice DuBois\") – anchor/reporter (now at [WCBS\\-TV](/wiki/WCBS-TV \"WCBS-TV\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"))\n* [Jim Finnerty](/wiki/Jim_Finnerty \"Jim Finnerty\") – host of local talk show *Finnerty and Company* (later renamed *Look Who's Talking*)\n* [Gary Gerould](/wiki/Gary_Gerould \"Gary Gerould\") – sports anchor (now radio play\\-by\\-play for the [Sacramento Kings](/wiki/Sacramento_Kings \"Sacramento Kings\"))\n* [John Gibson](/wiki/John_Gibson_%28media_host%29 \"John Gibson (media host)\") – Bay Area correspondent (now at [Fox News Channel](/wiki/Fox_News_Channel \"Fox News Channel\"))\n* [David Gregory](/wiki/David_Gregory_%28journalist%29 \"David Gregory (journalist)\") (moderator of *[Meet the Press](/wiki/Meet_the_Press \"Meet the Press\")* from 2008–2014\\)\n* [Kristine Hanson](/wiki/Kristine_Hanson \"Kristine Hanson\") – sports anchor/weather anchor/entertainment reporter (1980s; former [Playboy Playmate](/wiki/Playboy_Playmate \"Playboy Playmate\"))\n* [Lois Hart](/wiki/Lois_Hart \"Lois Hart\") – 5 and 6:30 p.m. anchor (1990–2008; retired)\n* [Bob Hogue](/wiki/Bob_Hogue \"Bob Hogue\") – sports director (early 1980s, former [Hawaiian](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\") State Senator)\n* [Joe Lizura](/wiki/Joe_Lizura \"Joe Lizura\") – meteorologist (1987–1989, moved to [WLWT](/wiki/WLWT \"WLWT\") in [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\"), then [KNSD](/wiki/KNSD \"KNSD\") and [KUSI\\-TV](/wiki/KUSI-TV \"KUSI-TV\") in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), now CEO at Allowance Media Group)\n* [Joan Lunden](/wiki/Joan_Lunden \"Joan Lunden\") (1970s as first television job; she later changed her surname to Lunden, moved to ABC's *[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America \"Good Morning America\")*)\n* [Rob Mayeda](/wiki/Rob_Mayeda \"Rob Mayeda\") – meteorologist/anchor/reporter (1999–2000; now at [KNTV](/wiki/KNTV \"KNTV\") in [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\")–San Francisco)\n* [Byron Miranda](/wiki/Byron_Miranda \"Byron Miranda\") – meteorologist (now with [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX \"WPIX\") in [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"))\n* [Leyna Nguyen](/wiki/Leyna_Nguyen \"Leyna Nguyen\") – anchor/reporter (now at [KCAL](/wiki/KCAL-TV \"KCAL-TV\") in Los Angeles)\n* [Jeff Ranieri](/wiki/Jeff_Ranieri \"Jeff Ranieri\") – meteorologist (2000–2005; later at [MSNBC](/wiki/MSNBC \"MSNBC\")/[NBC Weather Plus](/wiki/NBC_Weather_Plus \"NBC Weather Plus\"), now chief meteorologist at [KNTV](/wiki/KNTV \"KNTV\") in San Jose/San Francisco)\n* [Bianca Solorzano](/wiki/Bianca_Solorzano \"Bianca Solorzano\") – weekend morning anchor/reporter (1999–2003; now a [CBS News](/wiki/CBS_News \"CBS News\") correspondent in New York City)\n* [Kaity Tong](/wiki/Kaity_Tong \"Kaity Tong\") – anchor/reporter (1979–1981; now at [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX \"WPIX\") in New York City)\n* [David Walker](/wiki/David_Walker_%28journalist%29 \"David Walker (journalist)\") – 5 and 6:30 p.m. anchor (1990–2008; retired)\n* [Pamela Wu](/wiki/Pamela_Wu \"Pamela Wu\") – weekend anchor/reporter (2001–2009; now director of marketing and communications at the [University of California, Davis School of Law](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Davis_School_of_Law \"University of California, Davis School of Law\") ([King Hall](/wiki/UC_Davis_School_of_Law \"UC Davis School of Law\"))\n{{div col end}}",
""
] |
Non\-recurring and sporadic events
----------------------------------
### Annual Spontaneous Tuition Riot
This "annual" event is generally not scheduled in advance, but occurs spontaneously in the Spring in response to the MIT administration's announcement of the tuition increase for the following year. The "riot" usually consists of a noisy protest march through the campus, accompanied by traditional chants of "$$$ is Too Damn Much!", where "$$$" is replaced by the newly announced tuition amount. Participants generally let off steam in a good\-natured way, and injuries or property damage are extremely rare. The tradition has died out and then been revived several times.{{cite news\|last\=McGuire\|first\=Dan\|title\=Students Protest Tuition Hike, Revive Traditional Annual Riot\|url\=http://tech.mit.edu/V118/N11/ariot.11n.html\|access\-date\=2011\-07\-09\|newspaper\=The Tech\|date\=March 10, 1998}}
### *Chrysalis*, *Monarch*, and *Daedalus* human\-powered aircraft
[thumb\|right\|The MIT *Daedalus* human\-powered aircraft](/wiki/File:Daedalus-human-powered-aircraft.jpg "Daedalus-human-powered-aircraft.jpg")
From the 1970s until the early 1990s, MIT had a succession of student\-led projects which designed, built, and flew [human\-powered aircraft](/wiki/Human-powered_aircraft "Human-powered aircraft") (HPA), starting with [*BURD*](/wiki/MIT_BURD "MIT BURD") and [*BURD II*](/wiki/MIT_BURD_II "MIT BURD II"), and evolving into the flight of the [*Chrysalis*](/wiki/MIT_Chrysalis "MIT Chrysalis") in 1979, the first of the MIT HPAs to successfully fly.{{cite magazine\|author\=M.L.\|date\=August–September 1979\|title\=''Chrysalis'', Human\-Powered Airplane: It Flew the First Time Out!\|magazine\=MIT Technology Review\|location\=Cambridge, MA, USA\| publisher\=Massachusetts Institute of Technology\| pages\=A2–A7\|url\=https://archive.org/details/MIT\-Technology\-Review\-1979\-08/page/n48/mode/1up\|volume\=81\|number\=8\|access\-date\=April 2, 2023\|issn\=0040\-1692}} *Chrysalis* went on to have over 44 pilots, including the first female pilots of an HPA.[The Gossamers and Other Planes](http://www.humanpoweredflying.propdesigner.co.uk/html/the_gossamers_and_other_planes.html), Royal Aeronautical Society Human Powered Aircraft Group (accessed November 13, 2012\)
The [*Monarch A*](/wiki/MIT_Monarch_A "MIT Monarch A") was an HPA built and flown by a student team in 1983, with the aim of winning a £20,000 [Kremer Prize](/wiki/Kremer_prizes "Kremer prizes") for sustaining a speed of over 30 km/h over a 1\.5 km triangular course. A modified version of that craft, the [MIT *Monarch B*](/wiki/MIT_Monarch_B "MIT Monarch B"), won the prize the following year.Geoffrey A. Landis, [Human Powered Aircraft – Monarch Crew](http://www.geoffreylandis.com/monarch.htp) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202160016/http://www.geoffreylandis.com/monarch.htp \|date\=2012\-02\-02 }} (accessed November 13, 2012\) The *Chrysalis* and the *Monarch* HPAs were precursors to the [*Daedalus*](/wiki/MIT_Daedalus "MIT Daedalus") aircraft, which flew, solely under human\-power, from [Crete](/wiki/Crete "Crete") to the island of [Santorini](/wiki/Santorini "Santorini") off the Greek mainland in 1988\.Tim Townsend, "[Daedulus project documented in The Fullness of Wings](http://tech.mit.edu/V110/N31/wings.31a.html)," *The Tech,* Volume 110, Issue 31, Friday, August 31, 1990 (accessed November 13, 2012\)
### MIT Blackjack Team
{{Main\|MIT Blackjack Team}}
### MIT Gangnam Style
MIT students produced "MIT Gangnam Style", a lighthearted parody of the "[Gangnam Style](/wiki/Gangnam_Style "Gangnam Style")" [music video](/wiki/Music_video "Music video") which was an Internet phenomenon in 2012\. The video featured hundreds of MIT students dancing in a wide overview of dozens of extracurricular student activities across the campus. The music video closely followed the original version, and included cameo appearances by MIT professors [Donald Sadoway](/wiki/Donald_Sadoway "Donald Sadoway"), recognized by *Time Magazine* in 2012 as one of the "Top 100 Most Influential People in the World", [Eric Lander](/wiki/Eric_Lander "Eric Lander"), who was co\-chairman of President Barack Obama's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, and [Noam Chomsky](/wiki/Noam_Chomsky "Noam Chomsky"), a pioneer of modern linguistics.
Soon after the video's release, *[The Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post "The Huffington Post")* published an article with the headline "MIT 'Chomsky Style' Best Gangnam Parody Yet? Noted Intellectual Steals The Wacky Show".MIT 'Chomsky Style' Best Gangnam Parody Yet? Noted Intellectual Steals The Wacky Show (2012\). The Huffington Post. Retrieved from: [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/29/mit\-chomsky\-style\-best\-gagnam\-style\-parody\-yet\_n\_2040053\.html?ir\=Technology](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/29/mit-chomsky-style-best-gagnam-style-parody-yet_n_2040053.html?ir=Technology)
### Sodium Drop
The Sodium Drop traditionally consisted of a bar of metallic [sodium](/wiki/Sodium "Sodium") dropped into the [Charles River](/wiki/Charles_River "Charles River"), producing loud explosions due to the rapid [exothermic](/wiki/Exothermic "Exothermic") conversion of sodium metal to [sodium hydroxide](/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide "Sodium hydroxide") and the ignition of the resulting [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") gas. In the past, Sodium Drops occurred sporadically, initiated by impromptu groups of students from various dorms and fraternities.
However, in 2007, five volunteers using a boat to clean up trash from the river banks were injured by a small explosion and fire, apparently caused by unreacted sodium residue.{{cite news\|title\=Sodium Injures Five in Charles River Fire\|url\=https://thetech.com/2007/09/11/sodiumdrop\-v127\-n37\|access\-date\=2024\-10\-07\|newspaper\=The Tech\|date\=September 11, 2007\|author\=Nick Semenkovich\|author2\=Angeline Wang}} MIT quickly donated funds to pay for decontaminating and repairing the boat, although it was not clear at the time who was responsible for the damage.{{cite news\|last\=Semenkovich\|first\=Nick\|title\=MIT Gives Charles River Volunteer Group $6,000 To Decontaminate Boat\|url\=https://thetech.com/2007/09/21/sodium\-v127\-n40\|newspaper\=The Tech\|date\=September 21, 2007}}
A criminal case was initiated, and a graduate student accepted responsibility, resulting in a fine and a community\-service sentence. In addition, a long\-running civil suit against a fraternity resulted from this incident, culminating in a six\-figure out\-of\-court settlement.{{cite news\|last\=Liu\|first\=Jessica\|title\=2007 sodium drop lawsuit against TEPs is dismissed, probably settled\|url\=https://thetech.com/2010/08/04/sodiumcasedismissed\-v130\-n30\|newspaper\=The Tech\|date\=August 4, 2010}}{{cite news\|last\=Kao\|first\=Joanna\|title\=TEP sodium drop suit ended in six\-figure settlement\|url\=https://thetech.com/2010/09/07/tepsodium\-v130\-n34\|newspaper\=The Tech\|date\=September 7, 2010}} The student newspaper *The Tech* has published an editorial urging readers to take responsibility for any injuries to innocent parties that result from the prank.{{cite news\|title\=Editorial: Sodium Doesn't Just Fall From the Sky\|url\=https://thetech.com/2007/09/18/editorial\-v127\-n39\|access\-date\=2024\-10\-07\|newspaper\=The Tech\|date\=September 18, 2007}}
### Time Traveler Convention
The Time Traveler Convention is a single\-event [convention](/wiki/Convention_%28meeting%29 "Convention (meeting)") held at [MIT](/wiki/MIT "MIT") on May 7, 2005, in the hopes of making contact with [time travelers](/wiki/Time_travel "Time travel") from the future. The convention is organized by [Amal Dorai](/wiki/Amal_Dorai "Amal Dorai") with help from current and former residents of the MIT living group Putz, one of the halls in the [East Campus](/wiki/List_of_MIT_undergraduate_dormitories%23East_Campus_Alumni_Memorial_Housing "List of MIT undergraduate dormitories#East Campus Alumni Memorial Housing") dorm. As of the date of the event, it was the most significantly publicized Time Traveler Convention, including front\-page coverage in the [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"), *[Wired](/wiki/Wired_magazine "Wired magazine")*, and [Slashdot](/wiki/Slashdot "Slashdot").{{cite news
\| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/06/national/06time.html?ex\=1273032000\&en\=cade63cb7f6e26cf\&ei\=5090\&partner\=rssuserland\&emc\=rss
\| title \= Time Travelers to Meet in Not Too Distant Future
\| newspaper \= The New York Times
\| author \= Belluck, Pam
\| access\-date \= 2006\-04\-11
\| date\=2005\-05\-06
}}{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,67451,00\.html\|title\=Time Travelers welcome at MIT\|author\=Mark Baard\|magazine\=Wired\|access\-date\=2006\-07\-31\|date\=2005\-05\-09}}{{cite web\|url\=http://science.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid\=05/05/01/2247248\&from\=rss\|title\=Time Travelers' Convention\|publisher\=Slashdot\|access\-date\=2006\-07\-31}} It was presumed time travelers would have the capability to visit any particular time if they could travel to that general time period at all. The idea originated in a [Cat and Girl](/wiki/Cat_and_Girl "Cat and Girl") strip by [Dorothy Gambrell](/wiki/Dorothy_Gambrell "Dorothy Gambrell").{{cite web \|first \= Amal \|last \= Dorai \|title\=MIT Student Holds Time\-Travel Convention \|interviewer \= Melissa Block \|date\=2 May 2005 \|publisher \= \[\[NPR]] \|url\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\=4627767}}
The convention is held at 22:00 [EDT](/wiki/Eastern_Daylight_Time "Eastern Daylight Time") on May 7, 2005 (May 8, 02:00 [UTC](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time "Coordinated Universal Time")) in the East Campus courtyard and Walker Memorial at MIT. That location is 42\.360007 degrees north [latitude](/wiki/Latitude "Latitude"), 71\.087870 degrees west [longitude](/wiki/Longitude "Longitude").Note: The point listed lies just North of and outside of the tennis court on most current satellite maps. For instance, Google maps shows the center of the court at 42\.359477, \-71\.087763 . The Convention was announced in advance (that is, before the event) and over 300 contemporary people attended. (For fire safety reasons, a handful of attendees watched the convention via a closed circuit broadcast.) The spacetime coordinates continue to be publicized prominently and indefinitely, so that future time travelers will be aware and have the opportunity to have attended.
The convention featured lectures on various aspects of time travel from MIT professors and faculty, including [Erik Demaine](/wiki/Erik_Demaine "Erik Demaine"), a [MacArthur "genius grant"](/wiki/Macarthur_fellowship "Macarthur fellowship") winner, [Alan Guth](/wiki/Alan_Guth "Alan Guth"), an [Eddington Medal](/wiki/Eddington_Medal "Eddington Medal") winner for [theoretical astrophysics](/wiki/Theoretical_astrophysics "Theoretical astrophysics"), and [Edward Farhi](/wiki/Edward_Farhi "Edward Farhi"), winner of numerous MIT teaching awards. A [Delorean](/wiki/DMC_DeLorean "DMC DeLorean"), the car featured in the [*Back to the Future* trilogy](/wiki/Back_to_the_Future_%28franchise%29 "Back to the Future (franchise)"), was also on display, near the "landing pad" located at the exact coordinates advertised.
The convention inspired a full\-length musical entitled *The Time Travelers Convention*, in which three college students, who all want to change their pasts, hold a convention in the hopes that they will be able to borrow an attendee's time machine. Although the school in the musical is not MIT, MIT is mentioned twice, once by name and once in the coordinates, which are the same as the coordinates given in the original convention.
|
[
"Non\\-recurring and sporadic events\n----------------------------------",
"### Annual Spontaneous Tuition Riot",
"This \"annual\" event is generally not scheduled in advance, but occurs spontaneously in the Spring in response to the MIT administration's announcement of the tuition increase for the following year. The \"riot\" usually consists of a noisy protest march through the campus, accompanied by traditional chants of \"$$$ is Too Damn Much!\", where \"$$$\" is replaced by the newly announced tuition amount. Participants generally let off steam in a good\\-natured way, and injuries or property damage are extremely rare. The tradition has died out and then been revived several times.{{cite news\\|last\\=McGuire\\|first\\=Dan\\|title\\=Students Protest Tuition Hike, Revive Traditional Annual Riot\\|url\\=http://tech.mit.edu/V118/N11/ariot.11n.html\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-09\\|newspaper\\=The Tech\\|date\\=March 10, 1998}}",
"### *Chrysalis*, *Monarch*, and *Daedalus* human\\-powered aircraft",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The MIT *Daedalus* human\\-powered aircraft](/wiki/File:Daedalus-human-powered-aircraft.jpg \"Daedalus-human-powered-aircraft.jpg\")",
"From the 1970s until the early 1990s, MIT had a succession of student\\-led projects which designed, built, and flew [human\\-powered aircraft](/wiki/Human-powered_aircraft \"Human-powered aircraft\") (HPA), starting with [*BURD*](/wiki/MIT_BURD \"MIT BURD\") and [*BURD II*](/wiki/MIT_BURD_II \"MIT BURD II\"), and evolving into the flight of the [*Chrysalis*](/wiki/MIT_Chrysalis \"MIT Chrysalis\") in 1979, the first of the MIT HPAs to successfully fly.{{cite magazine\\|author\\=M.L.\\|date\\=August–September 1979\\|title\\=''Chrysalis'', Human\\-Powered Airplane: It Flew the First Time Out!\\|magazine\\=MIT Technology Review\\|location\\=Cambridge, MA, USA\\| publisher\\=Massachusetts Institute of Technology\\| pages\\=A2–A7\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/MIT\\-Technology\\-Review\\-1979\\-08/page/n48/mode/1up\\|volume\\=81\\|number\\=8\\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2023\\|issn\\=0040\\-1692}} *Chrysalis* went on to have over 44 pilots, including the first female pilots of an HPA.[The Gossamers and Other Planes](http://www.humanpoweredflying.propdesigner.co.uk/html/the_gossamers_and_other_planes.html), Royal Aeronautical Society Human Powered Aircraft Group (accessed November 13, 2012\\)",
"The [*Monarch A*](/wiki/MIT_Monarch_A \"MIT Monarch A\") was an HPA built and flown by a student team in 1983, with the aim of winning a £20,000 [Kremer Prize](/wiki/Kremer_prizes \"Kremer prizes\") for sustaining a speed of over 30 km/h over a 1\\.5 km triangular course. A modified version of that craft, the [MIT *Monarch B*](/wiki/MIT_Monarch_B \"MIT Monarch B\"), won the prize the following year.Geoffrey A. Landis, [Human Powered Aircraft – Monarch Crew](http://www.geoffreylandis.com/monarch.htp) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202160016/http://www.geoffreylandis.com/monarch.htp \\|date\\=2012\\-02\\-02 }} (accessed November 13, 2012\\) The *Chrysalis* and the *Monarch* HPAs were precursors to the [*Daedalus*](/wiki/MIT_Daedalus \"MIT Daedalus\") aircraft, which flew, solely under human\\-power, from [Crete](/wiki/Crete \"Crete\") to the island of [Santorini](/wiki/Santorini \"Santorini\") off the Greek mainland in 1988\\.Tim Townsend, \"[Daedulus project documented in The Fullness of Wings](http://tech.mit.edu/V110/N31/wings.31a.html),\" *The Tech,* Volume 110, Issue 31, Friday, August 31, 1990 (accessed November 13, 2012\\)",
"### MIT Blackjack Team",
"{{Main\\|MIT Blackjack Team}}",
"### MIT Gangnam Style",
"MIT students produced \"MIT Gangnam Style\", a lighthearted parody of the \"[Gangnam Style](/wiki/Gangnam_Style \"Gangnam Style\")\" [music video](/wiki/Music_video \"Music video\") which was an Internet phenomenon in 2012\\. The video featured hundreds of MIT students dancing in a wide overview of dozens of extracurricular student activities across the campus. The music video closely followed the original version, and included cameo appearances by MIT professors [Donald Sadoway](/wiki/Donald_Sadoway \"Donald Sadoway\"), recognized by *Time Magazine* in 2012 as one of the \"Top 100 Most Influential People in the World\", [Eric Lander](/wiki/Eric_Lander \"Eric Lander\"), who was co\\-chairman of President Barack Obama's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, and [Noam Chomsky](/wiki/Noam_Chomsky \"Noam Chomsky\"), a pioneer of modern linguistics.",
"Soon after the video's release, *[The Huffington Post](/wiki/The_Huffington_Post \"The Huffington Post\")* published an article with the headline \"MIT 'Chomsky Style' Best Gangnam Parody Yet? Noted Intellectual Steals The Wacky Show\".MIT 'Chomsky Style' Best Gangnam Parody Yet? Noted Intellectual Steals The Wacky Show (2012\\). The Huffington Post. Retrieved from: [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/29/mit\\-chomsky\\-style\\-best\\-gagnam\\-style\\-parody\\-yet\\_n\\_2040053\\.html?ir\\=Technology](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/29/mit-chomsky-style-best-gagnam-style-parody-yet_n_2040053.html?ir=Technology)",
"### Sodium Drop",
"The Sodium Drop traditionally consisted of a bar of metallic [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") dropped into the [Charles River](/wiki/Charles_River \"Charles River\"), producing loud explosions due to the rapid [exothermic](/wiki/Exothermic \"Exothermic\") conversion of sodium metal to [sodium hydroxide](/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide \"Sodium hydroxide\") and the ignition of the resulting [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") gas. In the past, Sodium Drops occurred sporadically, initiated by impromptu groups of students from various dorms and fraternities.",
"However, in 2007, five volunteers using a boat to clean up trash from the river banks were injured by a small explosion and fire, apparently caused by unreacted sodium residue.{{cite news\\|title\\=Sodium Injures Five in Charles River Fire\\|url\\=https://thetech.com/2007/09/11/sodiumdrop\\-v127\\-n37\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-07\\|newspaper\\=The Tech\\|date\\=September 11, 2007\\|author\\=Nick Semenkovich\\|author2\\=Angeline Wang}} MIT quickly donated funds to pay for decontaminating and repairing the boat, although it was not clear at the time who was responsible for the damage.{{cite news\\|last\\=Semenkovich\\|first\\=Nick\\|title\\=MIT Gives Charles River Volunteer Group $6,000 To Decontaminate Boat\\|url\\=https://thetech.com/2007/09/21/sodium\\-v127\\-n40\\|newspaper\\=The Tech\\|date\\=September 21, 2007}}",
"A criminal case was initiated, and a graduate student accepted responsibility, resulting in a fine and a community\\-service sentence. In addition, a long\\-running civil suit against a fraternity resulted from this incident, culminating in a six\\-figure out\\-of\\-court settlement.{{cite news\\|last\\=Liu\\|first\\=Jessica\\|title\\=2007 sodium drop lawsuit against TEPs is dismissed, probably settled\\|url\\=https://thetech.com/2010/08/04/sodiumcasedismissed\\-v130\\-n30\\|newspaper\\=The Tech\\|date\\=August 4, 2010}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Kao\\|first\\=Joanna\\|title\\=TEP sodium drop suit ended in six\\-figure settlement\\|url\\=https://thetech.com/2010/09/07/tepsodium\\-v130\\-n34\\|newspaper\\=The Tech\\|date\\=September 7, 2010}} The student newspaper *The Tech* has published an editorial urging readers to take responsibility for any injuries to innocent parties that result from the prank.{{cite news\\|title\\=Editorial: Sodium Doesn't Just Fall From the Sky\\|url\\=https://thetech.com/2007/09/18/editorial\\-v127\\-n39\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-07\\|newspaper\\=The Tech\\|date\\=September 18, 2007}}",
"### Time Traveler Convention",
"The Time Traveler Convention is a single\\-event [convention](/wiki/Convention_%28meeting%29 \"Convention (meeting)\") held at [MIT](/wiki/MIT \"MIT\") on May 7, 2005, in the hopes of making contact with [time travelers](/wiki/Time_travel \"Time travel\") from the future. The convention is organized by [Amal Dorai](/wiki/Amal_Dorai \"Amal Dorai\") with help from current and former residents of the MIT living group Putz, one of the halls in the [East Campus](/wiki/List_of_MIT_undergraduate_dormitories%23East_Campus_Alumni_Memorial_Housing \"List of MIT undergraduate dormitories#East Campus Alumni Memorial Housing\") dorm. As of the date of the event, it was the most significantly publicized Time Traveler Convention, including front\\-page coverage in the [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"), *[Wired](/wiki/Wired_magazine \"Wired magazine\")*, and [Slashdot](/wiki/Slashdot \"Slashdot\").{{cite news\n \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/06/national/06time.html?ex\\=1273032000\\&en\\=cade63cb7f6e26cf\\&ei\\=5090\\&partner\\=rssuserland\\&emc\\=rss\n \\| title \\= Time Travelers to Meet in Not Too Distant Future\n \\| newspaper \\= The New York Times\n \\| author \\= Belluck, Pam\n \\| access\\-date \\= 2006\\-04\\-11\n\\| date\\=2005\\-05\\-06\n}}{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,67451,00\\.html\\|title\\=Time Travelers welcome at MIT\\|author\\=Mark Baard\\|magazine\\=Wired\\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-07\\-31\\|date\\=2005\\-05\\-09}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://science.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid\\=05/05/01/2247248\\&from\\=rss\\|title\\=Time Travelers' Convention\\|publisher\\=Slashdot\\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-07\\-31}} It was presumed time travelers would have the capability to visit any particular time if they could travel to that general time period at all. The idea originated in a [Cat and Girl](/wiki/Cat_and_Girl \"Cat and Girl\") strip by [Dorothy Gambrell](/wiki/Dorothy_Gambrell \"Dorothy Gambrell\").{{cite web \\|first \\= Amal \\|last \\= Dorai \\|title\\=MIT Student Holds Time\\-Travel Convention \\|interviewer \\= Melissa Block \\|date\\=2 May 2005 \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[NPR]] \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId\\=4627767}}",
"The convention is held at 22:00 [EDT](/wiki/Eastern_Daylight_Time \"Eastern Daylight Time\") on May 7, 2005 (May 8, 02:00 [UTC](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time \"Coordinated Universal Time\")) in the East Campus courtyard and Walker Memorial at MIT. That location is 42\\.360007 degrees north [latitude](/wiki/Latitude \"Latitude\"), 71\\.087870 degrees west [longitude](/wiki/Longitude \"Longitude\").Note: The point listed lies just North of and outside of the tennis court on most current satellite maps. For instance, Google maps shows the center of the court at 42\\.359477, \\-71\\.087763 . The Convention was announced in advance (that is, before the event) and over 300 contemporary people attended. (For fire safety reasons, a handful of attendees watched the convention via a closed circuit broadcast.) The spacetime coordinates continue to be publicized prominently and indefinitely, so that future time travelers will be aware and have the opportunity to have attended.",
"The convention featured lectures on various aspects of time travel from MIT professors and faculty, including [Erik Demaine](/wiki/Erik_Demaine \"Erik Demaine\"), a [MacArthur \"genius grant\"](/wiki/Macarthur_fellowship \"Macarthur fellowship\") winner, [Alan Guth](/wiki/Alan_Guth \"Alan Guth\"), an [Eddington Medal](/wiki/Eddington_Medal \"Eddington Medal\") winner for [theoretical astrophysics](/wiki/Theoretical_astrophysics \"Theoretical astrophysics\"), and [Edward Farhi](/wiki/Edward_Farhi \"Edward Farhi\"), winner of numerous MIT teaching awards. A [Delorean](/wiki/DMC_DeLorean \"DMC DeLorean\"), the car featured in the [*Back to the Future* trilogy](/wiki/Back_to_the_Future_%28franchise%29 \"Back to the Future (franchise)\"), was also on display, near the \"landing pad\" located at the exact coordinates advertised.",
"The convention inspired a full\\-length musical entitled *The Time Travelers Convention*, in which three college students, who all want to change their pasts, hold a convention in the hopes that they will be able to borrow an attendee's time machine. Although the school in the musical is not MIT, MIT is mentioned twice, once by name and once in the coordinates, which are the same as the coordinates given in the original convention.",
""
] |
Activities
----------
MIT has over 380 recognized student activity groups.{{cite web\|title\=MIT Association of Student Activities \|url\=http://web.mit.edu/asa/resources/group\-list.html \|access\-date\=2006\-11\-01}} These are mostly governed by the MIT Association of Student Activities.
### Educational Studies Program
{{Main\|MIT Educational Studies Program}}
[thumb\|right\|Christian Ferko and Colin Nancarrow teach a class called "Quantum Physics in Flatland" to high school students at MIT ESP Splash 2018\.](/wiki/File:MIT_ESP_Splash_2018_Lecture_Class.jpg "MIT ESP Splash 2018 Lecture Class.jpg")
The MIT Educational Studies Program (ESP) was created by MIT students in 1957 to make a difference in the community by sharing MIT's knowledge and creativity with local high school students. Since then, its programs have grown to support well over 3000 students each year.{{cite web \|title\=MIT Educational Studies Program (ESP) (Cambridge, MA) \|url\=http://www.davidsongifted.org/search\-database/entry/r12556 \|website\=www.davidsongifted.org \|access\-date\=25 May 2020}} ESP classes are developed and taught by MIT undergraduates, graduate students, alumni, and members of the local community. ESP's students are given the chance to learn from passionate and knowledgeable teachers; ESP's teachers can gain experience developing their own curricula with access to students with strong desires to learn.{{cite web \|title\=MIT ESP \- Welcome to ESP! \|url\=https://esp.mit.edu/about/welcome.html \|website\=esp.mit.edu \|access\-date\=25 May 2020}}
ESP pioneered [Splash](/wiki/Splash%21_%28academic_outreach_program%29 "Splash! (academic outreach program)"), a large, short\-term academic outreach program that involves over two thousand teachers and five hundred classes.{{cite web \|author1\=CJ Q. \|title\=Two thousand high schoolers walk into MIT \|url\=https://mitadmissions.org/blogs/entry/two\-thousand\-high\-schoolers/ \|website\=MIT Admissions \|date\=28 December 2019}} The program has grown in popularity and attracted students from well beyond the local Boston area.{{cite magazine \|last1\=Ceceri \|first1\=Kathy \|title\=Splash for the Weekend at MIT \|url\=https://www.wired.com/2012/11/splash\-mit/ \|magazine\=Wired \|date\=16 November 2012}} Splash emphasizes having a diverse range of class topics, covering a variety of academic fields as well as non\-academic games and practical skills.
In 2007, ESP alumni founded [Learning Unlimited](/wiki/Learning_Unlimited "Learning Unlimited") (LU), a non\-profit organization dedicated to supporting educational opportunities like Splash at universities throughout the United States and beyond. LU provides assistance, including mentorship and software support, that helps new Splash programs start successfully.{{cite web \|last1\=Landry \| first1\=Lauren \|title\=Splash: How One Boston\-Based Startup, MIT \& BC Have Engaged Students in Education \|url\=https://www.americaninno.com/boston/splash\-how\-one\-boston\-based\-startup\-mit\-bc\-have\-engaged\-students\-in\-education/ \|website\=www.americaninno.com \|date\=3 November 2011}} {{As of\|2020\|post\=,}} there are over thirty LU affiliated programs in the United States and one in the United Kingdom.{{Cite web\|title\=When \& Where? :: Current Programs\|url\=https://www.learningu.org/current\-programs/\|website\=www.learningu.org\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-24}}
### Lecture Series Committee
The Lecture Series Committee (LSC) organizes weekly screenings of popular films as well as lectures by prominent speakers.
As one of the few Institute\-wide gatherings on a weekly basis over the years, LSC movie screenings have developed and retained a few quirky traditions which sometimes befuddle outsiders. One unspoken tradition relates to the 1950s style introductory film clips that announce "coming attractions" [movie trailers](/wiki/Movie_trailers "Movie trailers"). When [stereophonic sound](/wiki/Stereophonic_sound "Stereophonic sound") was a new development in movies, the movie trailers would be preceded by a clip announcing, "Coming Next Week", followed by "In Stereo". For whatever reason, MIT audiences would spontaneously read the announcements aloud, in [unison](/wiki/Unison "Unison"). This eventually became such an ingrained habit that, even though LSC discontinued screening the "stereo" announcements, the audience would intone the (now unseen) words. Even though LSC has replaced the sound system several times since the appearance of stereo sound, and now operates a [Dolby](/wiki/Dolby "Dolby")/[Bose](/wiki/Bose_Corporation "Bose Corporation") multi\-channel theatrical sound system, the tradition has continued unchanged for decades.
A second tradition is less obscure; if there is an annoying technical problem with the screening (e.g. bad focus, bad sound, a botched film reel switchover), eventually an annoyed patron will yell out "Focus!" (for example), and "LSC...Sucks!", with the crowd chiming in loudly on the second word.{{cite web \|last1\=Nash \|first1\=Ashley \|title\=LSC: A Brief Summary \|url\=https://mitadmissions.org/blogs/entry/lsc\_a\_brief\_summary/ \|website\=MIT Admissions \|date\=2 May 2008}} This outcry alerts the [projectionist](/wiki/Projectionist "Projectionist"), who might not have noticed the defect, to fix the problem.
### Student Information Processing Board
{{Main\|Student Information Processing Board}}
The Student Information Processing Board (SIPB) is a computing and information technology student group at MIT. SIPB was founded in 1969 by [Bob Frankston](/wiki/Bob_Frankston "Bob Frankston").{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XR\_vBwAAQBAJ\|title\=Beyond Calculation: The Next Fifty Years of Computing\|last1\=Denning\|first1\=Peter J.\|last2\=Metcalfe\|first2\=Robert M.\|date\=2012\-12\-06\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=9781461206859\|page\=293\|language\=en}} The organization helps MIT students access computing resources and use them effectively.
SIPB has funded, developed, and maintained several important software projects at MIT, including a [dynamic](/wiki/Dynamic_web_page "Dynamic web page") [web hosting service](/wiki/Web_hosting_service "Web hosting service"), a course planning assistant, a [virtual machine](/wiki/Virtual_machine "Virtual machine") service, and an [instant messaging](/wiki/Instant_messaging "Instant messaging") client.{{cite web \|title\=Projects and Services \|url\=https://sipb.mit.edu/projects/ \|website\=sipb.mit.edu\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-04}} SIPB has contributed extensively to [Project Athena](/wiki/Project_Athena "Project Athena"), the distributed academic computing environment used at MIT today.{{cite news \| url\=http://simson.net/clips/1989/1989\.TechRev.Athena.pdf \| title\=A Second Wind for Athena \| work\=Technology Review \| date\=November–December 1988 \| access\-date\=25 January 2016 \| author\=Garfinkel, Simson L. \| author\-link\=Simson Garfinkel}}
### TechX
[thumb\|right\|Logo for [HackMIT](/wiki/HackMIT "HackMIT") 2016](/wiki/File:HackMIT_2016_Logo.svg "HackMIT 2016 Logo.svg")
TechX is a student group that organizes events that bring technology, new ideas, and [tech\-industry](/wiki/High_tech "High tech") innovators to MIT's campus.{{cite web \|title\=TECHX \|url\=https://innovation.mit.edu/resource/techx/ \|website\=MIT Innovation Initiative \|access\-date\=25 May 2020 \|language\=en}} These events include:
* [HackMIT](/wiki/HackMIT "HackMIT"), the university's largest annual [hackathon](/wiki/Hackathon "Hackathon")
* xFair, a [job fair](/wiki/Job_fair "Job fair") and technology expo
* MakeMIT, a hackathon dedicated to [hardware](/wiki/Computer_hardware "Computer hardware") and [making](/wiki/Maker_culture "Maker culture")
* Blueprint, a hackathon for local high school students
* THINK, a [STEM](/wiki/Science%2C_technology%2C_engineering%2C_and_mathematics "Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics") educational outreach initiative
* ProjX, a program that provides funding for MIT student projects
### Miscellaneous
{{More citations needed\|section\|find\=MIT student activities\|find2\=MIT student groups\|access\-date\=9 February 2022\|date\=February 2022}}
MIT has many student groups.{{cite web \|title\=Groups \|url\=https://engage.mit.edu/club\_signup?group\_type\=9999 \|website\=Engage@MIT \|access\-date\=9 February 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://studentlife.mit.edu/impact\-opportunities/diversity\-inclusion/womenmit/get\-involved\-student\-organizations/undergraduate\-organizations\|title\=Undergraduate Organizations \| Division of Student Life\|website\=studentlife.mit.edu\|access\-date\=9 February 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://stuff.mit.edu/activities/\|title\=MIT Activities and Organizations\|website\=stuff.mit.edu\|publisher\=MIT Student Processing Board\|access\-date\=9 February 2022}} Other notable ones include:
* MIT EMS — student\-run ambulance
* [MIT Outing Club](/wiki/MIT_Outing_Club "MIT Outing Club") — student\-run outdoors club
* [Pi Tau Sigma](/wiki/Pi_Tau_Sigma "Pi Tau Sigma") — Mechanical Engineering honorary society{{citation needed\|date\=February 2022}}
* [Eta Kappa Nu](/wiki/Eta_Kappa_Nu "Eta Kappa Nu") — Electrical Engineering and Computer Science honorary society{{citation needed\|date\=February 2022}}
* [MIT Science Fiction Society](/wiki/MIT_Science_Fiction_Society "MIT Science Fiction Society") — claims to have the "world's largest open\-shelf collection of science fiction" in English.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2022}}
* MIT Assassins' Guild — a live\-action roleplaying group{{citation needed\|date\=February 2022}}
* Sloan Business Club — Largest undergraduate business club{{citation needed\|date\=February 2022}}
|
[
"Activities\n----------",
"MIT has over 380 recognized student activity groups.{{cite web\\|title\\=MIT Association of Student Activities \\|url\\=http://web.mit.edu/asa/resources/group\\-list.html \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-11\\-01}} These are mostly governed by the MIT Association of Student Activities.",
"### Educational Studies Program",
"{{Main\\|MIT Educational Studies Program}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Christian Ferko and Colin Nancarrow teach a class called \"Quantum Physics in Flatland\" to high school students at MIT ESP Splash 2018\\.](/wiki/File:MIT_ESP_Splash_2018_Lecture_Class.jpg \"MIT ESP Splash 2018 Lecture Class.jpg\")",
"The MIT Educational Studies Program (ESP) was created by MIT students in 1957 to make a difference in the community by sharing MIT's knowledge and creativity with local high school students. Since then, its programs have grown to support well over 3000 students each year.{{cite web \\|title\\=MIT Educational Studies Program (ESP) (Cambridge, MA) \\|url\\=http://www.davidsongifted.org/search\\-database/entry/r12556 \\|website\\=www.davidsongifted.org \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2020}} ESP classes are developed and taught by MIT undergraduates, graduate students, alumni, and members of the local community. ESP's students are given the chance to learn from passionate and knowledgeable teachers; ESP's teachers can gain experience developing their own curricula with access to students with strong desires to learn.{{cite web \\|title\\=MIT ESP \\- Welcome to ESP! \\|url\\=https://esp.mit.edu/about/welcome.html \\|website\\=esp.mit.edu \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2020}}",
"ESP pioneered [Splash](/wiki/Splash%21_%28academic_outreach_program%29 \"Splash! (academic outreach program)\"), a large, short\\-term academic outreach program that involves over two thousand teachers and five hundred classes.{{cite web \\|author1\\=CJ Q. \\|title\\=Two thousand high schoolers walk into MIT \\|url\\=https://mitadmissions.org/blogs/entry/two\\-thousand\\-high\\-schoolers/ \\|website\\=MIT Admissions \\|date\\=28 December 2019}} The program has grown in popularity and attracted students from well beyond the local Boston area.{{cite magazine \\|last1\\=Ceceri \\|first1\\=Kathy \\|title\\=Splash for the Weekend at MIT \\|url\\=https://www.wired.com/2012/11/splash\\-mit/ \\|magazine\\=Wired \\|date\\=16 November 2012}} Splash emphasizes having a diverse range of class topics, covering a variety of academic fields as well as non\\-academic games and practical skills.",
"In 2007, ESP alumni founded [Learning Unlimited](/wiki/Learning_Unlimited \"Learning Unlimited\") (LU), a non\\-profit organization dedicated to supporting educational opportunities like Splash at universities throughout the United States and beyond. LU provides assistance, including mentorship and software support, that helps new Splash programs start successfully.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Landry \\| first1\\=Lauren \\|title\\=Splash: How One Boston\\-Based Startup, MIT \\& BC Have Engaged Students in Education \\|url\\=https://www.americaninno.com/boston/splash\\-how\\-one\\-boston\\-based\\-startup\\-mit\\-bc\\-have\\-engaged\\-students\\-in\\-education/ \\|website\\=www.americaninno.com \\|date\\=3 November 2011}} {{As of\\|2020\\|post\\=,}} there are over thirty LU affiliated programs in the United States and one in the United Kingdom.{{Cite web\\|title\\=When \\& Where? :: Current Programs\\|url\\=https://www.learningu.org/current\\-programs/\\|website\\=www.learningu.org\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-24}}",
"### Lecture Series Committee",
"The Lecture Series Committee (LSC) organizes weekly screenings of popular films as well as lectures by prominent speakers.",
"As one of the few Institute\\-wide gatherings on a weekly basis over the years, LSC movie screenings have developed and retained a few quirky traditions which sometimes befuddle outsiders. One unspoken tradition relates to the 1950s style introductory film clips that announce \"coming attractions\" [movie trailers](/wiki/Movie_trailers \"Movie trailers\"). When [stereophonic sound](/wiki/Stereophonic_sound \"Stereophonic sound\") was a new development in movies, the movie trailers would be preceded by a clip announcing, \"Coming Next Week\", followed by \"In Stereo\". For whatever reason, MIT audiences would spontaneously read the announcements aloud, in [unison](/wiki/Unison \"Unison\"). This eventually became such an ingrained habit that, even though LSC discontinued screening the \"stereo\" announcements, the audience would intone the (now unseen) words. Even though LSC has replaced the sound system several times since the appearance of stereo sound, and now operates a [Dolby](/wiki/Dolby \"Dolby\")/[Bose](/wiki/Bose_Corporation \"Bose Corporation\") multi\\-channel theatrical sound system, the tradition has continued unchanged for decades.",
"A second tradition is less obscure; if there is an annoying technical problem with the screening (e.g. bad focus, bad sound, a botched film reel switchover), eventually an annoyed patron will yell out \"Focus!\" (for example), and \"LSC...Sucks!\", with the crowd chiming in loudly on the second word.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Nash \\|first1\\=Ashley \\|title\\=LSC: A Brief Summary \\|url\\=https://mitadmissions.org/blogs/entry/lsc\\_a\\_brief\\_summary/ \\|website\\=MIT Admissions \\|date\\=2 May 2008}} This outcry alerts the [projectionist](/wiki/Projectionist \"Projectionist\"), who might not have noticed the defect, to fix the problem.",
"### Student Information Processing Board",
"{{Main\\|Student Information Processing Board}}",
"The Student Information Processing Board (SIPB) is a computing and information technology student group at MIT. SIPB was founded in 1969 by [Bob Frankston](/wiki/Bob_Frankston \"Bob Frankston\").{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XR\\_vBwAAQBAJ\\|title\\=Beyond Calculation: The Next Fifty Years of Computing\\|last1\\=Denning\\|first1\\=Peter J.\\|last2\\=Metcalfe\\|first2\\=Robert M.\\|date\\=2012\\-12\\-06\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=9781461206859\\|page\\=293\\|language\\=en}} The organization helps MIT students access computing resources and use them effectively.",
"SIPB has funded, developed, and maintained several important software projects at MIT, including a [dynamic](/wiki/Dynamic_web_page \"Dynamic web page\") [web hosting service](/wiki/Web_hosting_service \"Web hosting service\"), a course planning assistant, a [virtual machine](/wiki/Virtual_machine \"Virtual machine\") service, and an [instant messaging](/wiki/Instant_messaging \"Instant messaging\") client.{{cite web \\|title\\=Projects and Services \\|url\\=https://sipb.mit.edu/projects/ \\|website\\=sipb.mit.edu\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-04}} SIPB has contributed extensively to [Project Athena](/wiki/Project_Athena \"Project Athena\"), the distributed academic computing environment used at MIT today.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://simson.net/clips/1989/1989\\.TechRev.Athena.pdf \\| title\\=A Second Wind for Athena \\| work\\=Technology Review \\| date\\=November–December 1988 \\| access\\-date\\=25 January 2016 \\| author\\=Garfinkel, Simson L. \\| author\\-link\\=Simson Garfinkel}}",
"### TechX",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Logo for [HackMIT](/wiki/HackMIT \"HackMIT\") 2016](/wiki/File:HackMIT_2016_Logo.svg \"HackMIT 2016 Logo.svg\")",
"TechX is a student group that organizes events that bring technology, new ideas, and [tech\\-industry](/wiki/High_tech \"High tech\") innovators to MIT's campus.{{cite web \\|title\\=TECHX \\|url\\=https://innovation.mit.edu/resource/techx/ \\|website\\=MIT Innovation Initiative \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2020 \\|language\\=en}} These events include:\n* [HackMIT](/wiki/HackMIT \"HackMIT\"), the university's largest annual [hackathon](/wiki/Hackathon \"Hackathon\")\n* xFair, a [job fair](/wiki/Job_fair \"Job fair\") and technology expo\n* MakeMIT, a hackathon dedicated to [hardware](/wiki/Computer_hardware \"Computer hardware\") and [making](/wiki/Maker_culture \"Maker culture\")\n* Blueprint, a hackathon for local high school students\n* THINK, a [STEM](/wiki/Science%2C_technology%2C_engineering%2C_and_mathematics \"Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics\") educational outreach initiative\n* ProjX, a program that provides funding for MIT student projects",
"### Miscellaneous",
"{{More citations needed\\|section\\|find\\=MIT student activities\\|find2\\=MIT student groups\\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2022\\|date\\=February 2022}}\nMIT has many student groups.{{cite web \\|title\\=Groups \\|url\\=https://engage.mit.edu/club\\_signup?group\\_type\\=9999 \\|website\\=Engage@MIT \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://studentlife.mit.edu/impact\\-opportunities/diversity\\-inclusion/womenmit/get\\-involved\\-student\\-organizations/undergraduate\\-organizations\\|title\\=Undergraduate Organizations \\| Division of Student Life\\|website\\=studentlife.mit.edu\\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://stuff.mit.edu/activities/\\|title\\=MIT Activities and Organizations\\|website\\=stuff.mit.edu\\|publisher\\=MIT Student Processing Board\\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2022}} Other notable ones include:\n* MIT EMS — student\\-run ambulance\n* [MIT Outing Club](/wiki/MIT_Outing_Club \"MIT Outing Club\") — student\\-run outdoors club\n* [Pi Tau Sigma](/wiki/Pi_Tau_Sigma \"Pi Tau Sigma\") — Mechanical Engineering honorary society{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}\n* [Eta Kappa Nu](/wiki/Eta_Kappa_Nu \"Eta Kappa Nu\") — Electrical Engineering and Computer Science honorary society{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}\n* [MIT Science Fiction Society](/wiki/MIT_Science_Fiction_Society \"MIT Science Fiction Society\") — claims to have the \"world's largest open\\-shelf collection of science fiction\" in English.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}\n* MIT Assassins' Guild — a live\\-action roleplaying group{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}\n* Sloan Business Club — Largest undergraduate business club{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}",
""
] |
Competitions
------------
### $100K Entrepreneurship Competition
{{Main\|MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition}}
The annual MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition has supported the creation of at least 60 companies worth a combined $10\.5 billion since it started in 1990\.{{cite web\|title\=MIT $100K:: About \|url\=http://www.mit100k.org/about/ \|access\-date\=2006\-11\-01 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20061024041021/http://www.mit100k.org/about/ \|archive\-date \= 2006\-10\-24}}
### Harvard–MIT Mathematics Tournament
{{main\|Harvard–MIT Mathematics Tournament}}
The Harvard–MIT Mathematics Tournament (HMMT) is a [mathematics competition](/wiki/List_of_mathematics_competitions "List of mathematics competitions") for high school students. It is held twice each year in February and November.
### IDEAS Global Challenge
MIT IDEAS Global Challenge encourages teams to develop and implement projects that make a positive change in the world. Entries are judged on their innovation, feasibility, and community impact. One component of the competition is the Yunus Challenge, named in honor of 2006 Nobel Prize winner Dr. Muhammad Yunus, where teams are invited to tackle a specific development need. Previous topics include increasing adherence to tuberculosis drug regimens and affordable small\-scale energy storage.
The competition was developed in part by [Amy Smith](/wiki/Amy_B._Smith "Amy B. Smith"), who has developed a number of inventions useful to poor communities.
### Mystery Hunt
[thumb\|right\|A [MIT Mystery Hunt](/wiki/MIT_Mystery_Hunt "MIT Mystery Hunt") team solves puzzles in a room with chalkboards, projectors, computers, and food](/wiki/File:Teamsolvingpuzzle.jpg "Teamsolvingpuzzle.jpg")
{{Main\|MIT Mystery Hunt}}
The MIT Mystery Hunt is one of the world's oldest [puzzlehunts](/wiki/Puzzlehunt "Puzzlehunt"). It is held annually in January over the [Martin Luther King Jr. Day](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day "Martin Luther King Jr. Day") long weekend, during MIT's IAP period.
### THINK Competition
THINK stands for Technology for Humanity guided by Innovation, Networking, and Knowledge. The competition challenges high school students across the United States to take a refreshing approach to designing a technological solution to a social problem. Its founding vision is that applicants will learn how to be resourceful in society, which makes networking a core component of the competition. It aims to connect high school students with professors and MIT students so that they can develop an innovation for the world.
Each year, six high school student groups are invited to MIT to attend Techfair and to present their project proposal to the THINK administrators. The proposal consists of a summary, technical plan, and budget. Three student groups are then chosen to develop their proposals over a semester long period.
### IAP Competitions
#### Battlecode (6\.147\)
Battlecode, also known previously as The ACM/IEEE Programming Competition, 6\.370, or RoboCraft, is a computer game AI programming competition. It was originally organized by the MIT ACM/IEEE Club,{{cite web\|url\=http://web.mit.edu/ieee/6\.370/2001/web/ \|title\=IEEE IAP Programming Contest 2000 \|access\-date\=2014\-12\-31}} but is now a separate student organization.
Battlecode held every year during the Independent Activities Period at MIT, and the competition is changed annually. The game consists of armies of virtual robots battling each other, controlled solely by the AIs written by competition participants. For many years, Battlecode was programmed in [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 "Java (programming language)"). {{As of\|2018}}, [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 "C (programming language)"), Java, and [Python](/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29 "Python (programming language)") are supported.{{cite web\|url\=http://battlecode.org/\#/materials/releases \| title\=Battlecode \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-03}}
The final tournament is held in Kresge Auditorium, and features commentary from the contestants and Battlecode developers.
As of 2008, Battlecode has been opened up to virtually anyone interested in participating outside of MIT. The competition is a class at MIT and its software has been used for several other classes and projects.
#### Mobile Autonomous Systems Laboratory competition (MASLAB)
{{Main\|Mobile Autonomous Systems Laboratory\#Mobile\_Autonomous\_Systems\_Laboratory\_competition\_.28Maslab.29\|l1\=Mobile Autonomous Systems Laboratory}}
### Other Competitions
* 2\.007 Design \& Manufacturing competition
* [MIT ASO Science and Technology Awards](/wiki/MIT_ASO_Science_and_Technology_Awards "MIT ASO Science and Technology Awards")
|
[
"Competitions\n------------",
"### $100K Entrepreneurship Competition",
"{{Main\\|MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition}}\nThe annual MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition has supported the creation of at least 60 companies worth a combined $10\\.5 billion since it started in 1990\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=MIT $100K:: About \\|url\\=http://www.mit100k.org/about/ \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-11\\-01 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20061024041021/http://www.mit100k.org/about/ \\|archive\\-date \\= 2006\\-10\\-24}}",
"### Harvard–MIT Mathematics Tournament",
"{{main\\|Harvard–MIT Mathematics Tournament}}\nThe Harvard–MIT Mathematics Tournament (HMMT) is a [mathematics competition](/wiki/List_of_mathematics_competitions \"List of mathematics competitions\") for high school students. It is held twice each year in February and November.",
"### IDEAS Global Challenge",
"MIT IDEAS Global Challenge encourages teams to develop and implement projects that make a positive change in the world. Entries are judged on their innovation, feasibility, and community impact. One component of the competition is the Yunus Challenge, named in honor of 2006 Nobel Prize winner Dr. Muhammad Yunus, where teams are invited to tackle a specific development need. Previous topics include increasing adherence to tuberculosis drug regimens and affordable small\\-scale energy storage.",
"The competition was developed in part by [Amy Smith](/wiki/Amy_B._Smith \"Amy B. Smith\"), who has developed a number of inventions useful to poor communities.",
"### Mystery Hunt",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A [MIT Mystery Hunt](/wiki/MIT_Mystery_Hunt \"MIT Mystery Hunt\") team solves puzzles in a room with chalkboards, projectors, computers, and food](/wiki/File:Teamsolvingpuzzle.jpg \"Teamsolvingpuzzle.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|MIT Mystery Hunt}}\nThe MIT Mystery Hunt is one of the world's oldest [puzzlehunts](/wiki/Puzzlehunt \"Puzzlehunt\"). It is held annually in January over the [Martin Luther King Jr. Day](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day \"Martin Luther King Jr. Day\") long weekend, during MIT's IAP period.",
"### THINK Competition",
"THINK stands for Technology for Humanity guided by Innovation, Networking, and Knowledge. The competition challenges high school students across the United States to take a refreshing approach to designing a technological solution to a social problem. Its founding vision is that applicants will learn how to be resourceful in society, which makes networking a core component of the competition. It aims to connect high school students with professors and MIT students so that they can develop an innovation for the world.",
"Each year, six high school student groups are invited to MIT to attend Techfair and to present their project proposal to the THINK administrators. The proposal consists of a summary, technical plan, and budget. Three student groups are then chosen to develop their proposals over a semester long period.",
"### IAP Competitions",
"#### Battlecode (6\\.147\\)",
"Battlecode, also known previously as The ACM/IEEE Programming Competition, 6\\.370, or RoboCraft, is a computer game AI programming competition. It was originally organized by the MIT ACM/IEEE Club,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://web.mit.edu/ieee/6\\.370/2001/web/ \\|title\\=IEEE IAP Programming Contest 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-12\\-31}} but is now a separate student organization.",
"Battlecode held every year during the Independent Activities Period at MIT, and the competition is changed annually. The game consists of armies of virtual robots battling each other, controlled solely by the AIs written by competition participants. For many years, Battlecode was programmed in [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\"). {{As of\\|2018}}, [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\"), Java, and [Python](/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29 \"Python (programming language)\") are supported.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://battlecode.org/\\#/materials/releases \\| title\\=Battlecode \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-03}}",
"The final tournament is held in Kresge Auditorium, and features commentary from the contestants and Battlecode developers.",
"As of 2008, Battlecode has been opened up to virtually anyone interested in participating outside of MIT. The competition is a class at MIT and its software has been used for several other classes and projects.",
"#### Mobile Autonomous Systems Laboratory competition (MASLAB)",
"{{Main\\|Mobile Autonomous Systems Laboratory\\#Mobile\\_Autonomous\\_Systems\\_Laboratory\\_competition\\_.28Maslab.29\\|l1\\=Mobile Autonomous Systems Laboratory}}",
"### Other Competitions",
"* 2\\.007 Design \\& Manufacturing competition\n* [MIT ASO Science and Technology Awards](/wiki/MIT_ASO_Science_and_Technology_Awards \"MIT ASO Science and Technology Awards\")"
] |
Performing arts
---------------
### Asymptones
The Asymptones are MIT's lowest time\-commitment a cappella group. Founded in 2007, they have regular concerts in conjunction with Roadkill Buffet, the on campus [improv comedy](/wiki/Improv_comedy "Improv comedy") group, focusing on [parodies](/wiki/Parodies "Parodies") and more [meme](/wiki/Meme "Meme")\-y songs.
### Chorallaries
The Chorallaries of MIT are the first co\-ed a cappella performing group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Founded in the winter of 1976–77, the group is typically composed of undergraduates, graduates, and occasionally faculty. They perform several free public concerts a year on the MIT campus, as well as at a numerous on\-campus events and at concerts, festivals, and private venues off\-campus. The Chorallaries, as keepers of the MIT alma mater ("Arise All Ye of MIT") also perform at Freshman Convocation in September and at the Commencement Ceremony in June.
Their signature song, the [Engineer's Drinking Song](/wiki/Godiva%27s_Hymn "Godiva's Hymn"), is a traditional tech favorite.
The Chorallaries compete in the [International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella](/wiki/International_Championship_of_Collegiate_A_Cappella "International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella") every three years; they won the quarter\-finals in 2000, 2003, and 2006, as well as the semi\-finals in 1996 and 2006\. In 2010 the Chorallaries of MIT released their most recent album "Stereophony," whose track "Hot Air Balloon" was featured on both Voices Only 2010 and Best of College A Cappella 2011\. Previous recognitions include:
* "Papercut" (Positive Chorallation) – nominated for Best Mixed Song from the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (CARA)
* "Rainbow Connection" (Positive Chorallation) – Voices Only 2008\.
* "Pretty Good Year" (Contents Under Pressure) – Best of College A Cappella 1999
In total, the Chorallaries have produced 15 albums:
* *Seeing Red* (2019\)
* *Dischord* (2017\)
* *Stereophony* (2010\)
* *Positive Chorallation* (2007\)
* *Staring Down the Infinite* (2004\)
* *Chorallaries Live: Spring Concert* (2003\)
* *After Taste* (2002\)
* *Pokerface* (2001\)
* *Contents Under Pressure* (1998\)
* *Earshot* (1995\)
* *Better Late Than Never* (1993\)
* *TimeSync* (1989\)
* *No Instruments Allowed* (1985\)
* *Making It In Massachusetts* (1981\)
* *Take Me Back to Tech* (19??)
The group is known for its humor and creativity, culminating in "The Nth Annual **Concert in Bad Taste**".
**Bad Taste** is a concert devoted solely to off\-color, nerdy, controversial, offensive, and often humorous material; a good\-faith effort is made to offend everybody equally, but no quarter is given. Popular topics include: offensive sexual references; mocking the MIT administration; lambasting [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), [Wellesley College](/wiki/Wellesley_College "Wellesley College"), [Simmons College](/wiki/Simmons_College_%28Massachusetts%29 "Simmons College (Massachusetts)") and other colleges in the region; excruciatingly hilarious science puns; and disgusting sexual references. The concert is usually about 2½ hours long, with a mixture of skits, songs, and general hilarity.
### Cross Products
The Cross Products are MIT's Christian co\-ed a cappella singing group. Founded in 1988, their stated purpose is: "We exist to glorify God through music, and to tell others about the ways that He has changed our lives: we are each products of the cross of Jesus Christ."
### Folk Dance Club
The MIT Folk Dance Club, founded in 1959, sponsors 3 public dance sessions every week: [international folk dancing](/wiki/International_folk_dancing "International folk dancing"), [contra dancing](/wiki/Contra_dancing "Contra dancing"), and [Israeli dancing](/wiki/Israeli_folk_dancing "Israeli folk dancing"). In the 1960s it sponsored four Folk Dance Festivals.
### Gamelan Galak Tika
{{anchor\|Gamelan Galak Tika}}
Founded and directed by Professor [Evan Ziporyn](/wiki/Evan_Ziporyn "Evan Ziporyn") in September 1993,{{cite web\|title\=Gamelan Galak Tika\|url\=http://web.mit.edu/galak\-tika/www/aboutgt.shtml\|website\=web.mit.edu\|publisher\=Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-03}} this MIT\-based authentic [gamelan](/wiki/Gamelan "Gamelan") orchestra performs on campus, and has toured nationally and internationally, including to [Bali, Indonesia](/wiki/Bali%2C_Indonesia "Bali, Indonesia"), the birthplace of this musical genre.{{cite web\|title\=About Gamelan Galak Tika\|url\=http://www.galaktika.org/about.html\|website\=www.galaktika.org\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-03}} The ensemble performs classical Balinese compositions with [traditionally costumed dancers](/wiki/Balinese_dance "Balinese dance"), as well as contemporary and experimental pieces specially commissioned for the group. Experimental pieces have incorporated non\-traditional instruments such as [electric guitars](/wiki/Electric_guitar "Electric guitar"), glass chimes, and one\-of\-a\-kind novel [electronic and computer\-controlled instruments](/wiki/Electronic_music "Electronic music"), in a variety of musical styles. Guest composer\-performers have included [Terry Riley](/wiki/Terry_Riley "Terry Riley"), a pioneer of minimal music.{{cite web\|title\=Gamelan Galak Tika : Performance History \|url\=http://www.galaktika.org/history.html \|website\=www.galaktika.org \|access\-date\=2018\-04\-03}} [Christine Southworth](/wiki/Christine_Southworth "Christine Southworth"), an MIT alumna, has performed several of her compositions and has long been an active member of the orchestra.
Gamelan Galak Tika uses authentic [percussion](/wiki/Percussion "Percussion") instruments made in Indonesia, and the musicians perform [barefoot](/wiki/Barefoot "Barefoot") in authentic [Balinese costumes](/wiki/Kebaya "Kebaya"). Concerts are usually started with placement of a traditional Balinese centerpiece made of fresh fruit onto the stage ([incense](/wiki/Incense "Incense") sticks were lit up in earlier years, but this practice was discontinued due to concerns about [allergies](/wiki/Allergies "Allergies") and poor [indoor air quality](/wiki/Indoor_air_quality "Indoor air quality")). After a concert, the audience is usually invited to come up on stage to get a closer look at the gamelan instruments, and to try hands\-on playing of them under the guidance of orchestra members. Also, pieces of the fresh fruit centerpiece are offered to audience members, for a gustatory remembrance of the event.
The group [learns aurally](/wiki/Learning_styles "Learning styles"), without the aid of [musical notation](/wiki/Musical_notation "Musical notation"), and functions in the tradition of a Balinese village *sekeha*, with decisions made communally and responsibilities shared among the members of the ensemble. The name of the ensemble means "intense togetherness" in Bahasa Kawi (classical [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_language "Javanese language"), a dialect of [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit")), and is also a cross\-lingual [pun](/wiki/Pun "Pun") on the title of the old television show *[Battlestar Galactica](/wiki/Battlestar_Galactica "Battlestar Galactica")*. The group performs with three sets of gamelan instruments: a traditional *pelog* set, another tuned in [just intonation](/wiki/Just_intonation "Just intonation"), and the completely electronic Gamelan Elektrika, based on a design developed at the [MIT Media Lab](/wiki/MIT_Media_Lab "MIT Media Lab").
### Live Music Connection (LMC)
A co\-op of MIT's bands on campus, the LMC provides a venue for artists to play as well as open jam sessions for students. Started in 2009 by MIT student band, The Guitar Knives, the LMC is now an official student group that holds concerts about once every 2 weeks in the Student Center, usually featuring 2 MIT bands. The LMC recently put out the first official CD of MIT bands that can be found on their website, as well as below. This sets a precedent at the school in that the CD is offered for Free Download, publicizing MIT's up and coming artists that also play the LMC's Concert Series. The LMC is also responsible for holding MIT's Battle of the Bands at Campus Preview Weekend, which it has recently taken over and established as a competitive ground for solely MIT bands.
### Logarhythms
Founded in 1949, the MIT Logarhythms is an all\-male [a cappella](/wiki/Collegiate_a_cappella "Collegiate a cappella") performance group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The Logs began as a close\-harmony octet, singing popular and comedy melodies of the 1940s. The Logarhythms were named by one of their founding members, Ed Kerwin. Their current repertoire consists primarily of modern pop, hip hop, and classic rock, and their close\-harmony lives on in many tunes.
The Logs perform throughout Massachusetts and the New England area. Recent biannual tours have included performances around Washington DC, California, Michigan, and Texas. The group has earned songs on the Best of College A Cappella (BOCA) compilation albums from 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2009, and their album *Soundproof* received near\-perfect marks in its review from the Recorded A Cappella Review Board.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rarb.org/reviews/albums/480\-soundproof/\|title\=Logarhythms \- Soundproof (2004\)\|website\=www.rarb.org}}
In March 2007, the Logs participated in and took first place in WERS' All A Cappella Live competition at the Majestic Theatre in Boston, competing against the Tufts Beelzebubs, Brandeis VoiceMale, and the Harvard Low Keys.{{Cite web\|url\=https://thetech.com/2007/03/16/acappella\-v127\-n12\|title\=CONCERT REVIEW A Cappella Group Vaults to Top of the 'Log' Scale\|website\=The Tech}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.mit.edu/2007/logarhythms\-0321\|title\=MIT a cappella group rules over rivals with Van Halen, Gorillaz\|website\=MIT News \| Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}
* *Give Us Back Our Spyplane* (2008\)
* *Natural* (2006\)
* *Soundproof* (2004\)
* *Superlogs* (2002\)
* *Mind the Logs* (1999\)
* *Redwood* (1997\)
* *Songs From The Bagel* (1994\)
*Natural* features cover songs performed and recorded by the '04–05 and '05–06 members of the MIT Logarhythms. The tracks were recorded at MIT at the Logarhythms' studio. Tracks were subsequently mixed by producer John Clark.
"Part\-Time Lover" soloist Chris Vu won a 2007 CARA award as Best Male Collegiate Soloist.{{Cite web\|url\=https://casa.org/\|title\=A Cappella Music For All \| Acapela Festivals \& Awards \| CASA\|date\=April 21, 2016}} "Such Great Heights" received a 2007 CARA nomination for Best Male Collegiate Song.
*Soundproof* features cover songs performed and recorded by the '02–03 and '03–04 members of the MIT Logarhythms. The tracks were recorded at MIT at the Logarhythms' newly built studio.{{Cite web\|url\=http://tech.mit.edu/V123/N15/14Logstudio.15n.html\|title\=Logs Will Build New Studio Open to A Capella Groups \- The Tech\|website\=tech.mit.edu\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302082607/http://tech.mit.edu/V123/N15/14Logstudio.15n.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-02}} Track one was mixed by Viktor Kray. All remaining tracks were mixed by John Clark.
"The Kids Aren't Alright" was featured as the first track on the Best of College A Cappella 2005 compilation.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.a\-cappella.com/product/745/boca\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914090227/http://www.a\-cappella.com/product/745/boca\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=BOCA CDs – BOCA 2005: Best of College A Cappella '05 (CD)\|archivedate\=September 14, 2007}} "No Such Thing" appeared as track nine on the Best of College A Cappella 2004 compilation.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.a\-cappella.com/product/1808C\_BOCA\_2004/boca\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914112638/http://www.a\-cappella.com/product/1808C\_BOCA\_2004/boca\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=BOCA CDs – BOCA 2004: Best of College A Cappella '04 (CD)\|archivedate\=September 14, 2007}} "Learn to Fly" was Runner Up for Best Male Collegiate Arrangement in the 2005 CARA awards.
### Marching Band
The [MIT Marching Band](/wiki/MIT_Marching_Band "MIT Marching Band") is purely student run, and is open to the entire MIT community.
The band plays at all types of events year\-round. In its recent history, it has performed at football, basketball, lacrosse, field hockey, women's rugby, water polo, and hockey games. The band has also played for events such as the re\-opening of the [MIT Museum](/wiki/MIT_Museum "MIT Museum") and the Cambridge Science Festival. During MIT's Campus Preview Weekend in April, the band leads the prospective freshmen from the keynote address in Rockwell Cage to an activities fair in Johnson Ice Rink. Every December, the band tours downtown [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") playing holiday music.
### Muses
The MIT Muses, MIT's only all\-female a cappella group, was founded in 1988\.{{cite journal \|title\=Ambrosia \|date\=1995 \|page\=Compact Disc Liner Notes}}
The name of the a cappella group is based on the definition of the ancient Greek [Muses](/wiki/Muses "Muses"). The members of the **MIT Muses** named their first album *Ambrosia* because it was the food of the ancient Greek gods.
#### Discography
* *Elysian Fields* (1998\)
* *Ambrosia* (1995\)
### Musical Theater Guild
The Musical Theatre Guild is an entirely student\-run theater group which performs four musicals per year (spring term, summer, fall term, and IAP). Membership is open to anyone, but preference is given to MIT students and MIT community members for cast and production roles. Performances are open to the general public.
In IAP 2003, MTG produced Star Wars: Musical Edition, a musical version of the original Star Wars movie, featuring musical numbers from existing musicals with the lyrics changed to fit the plot. In April 2005, part of the group performed selections from the show at Celebration III, a Star Wars convention for which George Lucas was present. In the fall of 2005, MTG produced Star Wars Trilogy: Musical Edition, which encompassed the entire original trilogy.
### Resonance
MIT Resonance is a student rock/pop [a cappella](/wiki/A_cappella "A cappella") group from MIT. Founded in the 2000–2001 school year, the group is co\-ed and typically consists of sixteen undergraduate and graduate students (though its size varies). It is one of seven a cappella groups at the school, and is known across campus for its frequent free performances and its funny, edgy interludes used to keep audiences amused between songs.
Nationally, Resonance is perhaps best known for its recognition through CASA, the Contemporary A Cappella Society, having received a 2004 and 2008 Contemporary A Cappella Recording Award (CARA) nomination for Best Mixed Collegiate Arrangement, a 2008 CARA award for Best Scholastic Original, as well as a berth on the 2006 [Best of College A Cappella](/wiki/Best_of_College_A_Cappella "Best of College A Cappella") compilation CD. The group is also known for regularly hosting the [International Championship of College A Cappella](/wiki/International_Championship_of_College_A_Cappella "International Championship of College A Cappella") New England Semifinals.
The group has produced three albums, its latest being the self\-titled "Resonance" released in fall 2007\.
Resonance was envisioned by Sara Jo Elice who, with her friend (and eventual co\-founder) Jessica Hinel, fleshed out the original idea while waiting to audition for an MIT Musical Theatre Guild production. Jay Humphries was auditioning for the same production and ended up becoming an inaugural Resonance member as well. In 2001, the MIT Association of Student Activities recognized Resonance as its seventh a cappella group on campus at the time.
The name Resonance follows an established joke among MIT a cappella groups of using a science or math\-based pun to name the group. In science, resonance has to do with vibration and harmony. Specifically, resonant frequencies are the frequencies that cause natural amplification of signal – a commonly cited example being the singer who can, at the right frequency, break glass with their voice. Keeping with the theme, the resonance name is often formatted as **"res(((o)))nance."** and displayed alongside a logo of a shattered wine glass.
Resonance regularly performs on the MIT campus, at the minimum presenting a single full\-length concert per term. Each concert is primarily composed of a collection of songs, both covers and originals, selected and arranged for a cappella by members of the group. Over 100 different songs have been performed by the group since 2001\.
Resonance, like many a cappella groups, has a single "alum" song, taught to all members and used to close almost all performances. Group alumni are invited to join the current members on stage to finish the night. Resonance's alum song is "Easy People" by the [Nields](/wiki/The_Nields "The Nields").
Resonance has released three albums:
* *Resonance* (2007\)
* *Left On Red* (2005\)
* *First Harmonic* (2003\)
Resonance is also featured on two a cappella collections:
* *acaTunes Awards 2007* (2007\) – Collection, features "So Little Notice" by Sarah Dupuis as performed by Resonance
* *[Best of College A Cappella](/wiki/Best_of_College_A_Cappella "Best of College A Cappella") 2006* (2006\) – Collection, features "Mystify (Atrévete)" by [Chenoa](/wiki/Chenoa "Chenoa") as performed by Resonance
All three Resonance full\-length albums are available only through the group directly. Best of College A Cappella is produced and distributed to various retail sources by Varsity Vocals. acaTunes awards are produced by acaTunes.
### Shakespeare Ensemble
Founded in 1974, the MIT Shakespeare Ensemble, denoted "Ensemble" for short, is a student\-run theater group. The group puts on one Shakespeare play each semester as well as one non\-Shakespeare play each IAP and summer. These shows are open to the public. Unlike other MIT theater groups, the Shakespeare Ensemble works with professional directors in the area. In the past, the Ensemble has taken their shows on tour; previous tours have included the East Coast, California, and England.{{Cite web\|url\=http://ensemble.mit.edu/archive/\|title\=The MIT Shakespeare Ensemble \| Archives\|website\=ensemble.mit.edu}}
Ensemble traditions include a bi\-annual "spearing" ceremony to welcome new members, as well as a semi\-formal gathering called Ensemball. The Ensemble also regularly performs "Scene Nights", which showcase a collection of scenes, and "24\-hour shows", which entail writing, rehearsing, and performing a play all within a 24\-hour period.{{Cite web\|url\=http://ensemble.mit.edu/about/index.php\|title\=The MIT Shakespeare Ensemble \| About\|website\=ensemble.mit.edu}} Shakespeare Ensemble also has a strong tech community, with its own traditions. One such tradition is the "sex\-light", denoting pink\- or purple\-tinted lights shined during a scene with romantic or sexual connotations.
### Symphony Orchestra
[thumb\|right\|An MIT student orchestra performs in [Kresge Auditorium](/wiki/Kresge_Auditorium "Kresge Auditorium")](/wiki/File:Kresge_Auditorium%2C_MIT_%28interior_with_concert%29.JPG "Kresge Auditorium, MIT (interior with concert).JPG")
The MIT Symphony Orchestra is the [symphony orchestra](/wiki/Symphony_orchestra "Symphony orchestra") of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The origins of the MIT Symphony Orchestra (MITSO) date back as far as 1884 when the first MIT Tech Orchestra appeared on campus along with the Banjo and Glee Clubs. The orchestra disbanded and re\-appeared several times over the years that followed until 1947, when [Klaus Liepmann](/wiki/Klaus_Liepmann "Klaus Liepmann") (1907–1990\), MIT's first full\-time professor of music and founder of the music program, became director of the MIT Glee Club, the Symphony and the Choral Society.
Nine years later John Corley (1919–2000\) took over the direction of the Symphony until 1966, when David Epstein (1931–2002\) became the Symphony Orchestra's music director. Under Prof. Epstein, the orchestra performed at [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall "Carnegie Hall") and made several LP recordings. David Epstein's tenure ended in the spring of 1998 upon his retirement from the Institute. The MITSO has also performed with artists such as [Peter Schickele](/wiki/Peter_Schickele "Peter Schickele"), when he performed works of [P.D.Q. Bach](/wiki/P.D.Q._Bach "P.D.Q. Bach") as a dog chained to the concertmaster. After an international search, Dante Anzolini became Music Director of the Orchestra and Associate Professor of Music at MIT in September 1998\. For the 2006–2007 season, Paul Biss from Indiana University served as interim conductor for MITSO, and in the fall of 2007, Adam Boyles began his tenure as the current music director.
### Syncopasian
Syncopasian is an Asian a cappella group at MIT. Founded in 2008, Syncopasian's mission is to promote Asian music and pop culture at MIT and in the surrounding community. Unlike other a cappella groups on campus, its repertoire includes songs in not only English, but also in Chinese, Cantonese, Japanese, Korean, and other East Asian languages. The group holds two large concerts in the winter and spring and also performs at a variety of other on\-campus events. It released its first album titled Syncopasian in 2011\.
### Techiya
Techiya is MIT's Jewish, Hebrew, Israeli a cappella group. Founded in 1994, the group released a demo tape in 1997\. Since then, they have released three albums: *Half\-Life* (2002\), *Techiya Sunrise* (2010\), and *Technetium* (2015\). The group sings a wide variety of songs, including traditional liturgy, Israeli pop songs, Broadway, and original parodies.
In addition to a concert near the end of each semester, Techiya performed at on\-campus events, at local synagogues, and in NYC every spring. They sing songs in many languages, including Hebrew, English, Yiddish, Ladino, French, Japanese, Chinese, Greek, and Amharic. The group unfortunately became inactive around Fall 2017\.
### Tech Squares
{{main\|Tech Squares}}
Tech Squares is a [square](/wiki/Square_dance "Square dance") and [round dance](/wiki/Round_dance "Round dance") club founded in 1967\. It is known for technical proficiency, often pursuing difficult and challenging choreography.
### Toons
The MIT/Wellesley Toons are a cross\-campus, co\-ed college [a cappella](/wiki/A_cappella "A cappella") singing group. Founded in 1990, the group takes its members from both the undergraduate and graduate students of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the undergraduates of [Wellesley College](/wiki/Wellesley_College "Wellesley College"). The group performs several times each year at free concerts on both campuses, as well as at a variety of other venues both nearby and out\-of\-state.
The Toons host an annual *Concert for a Cure* in support of [multiple sclerosis](/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis "Multiple sclerosis") research, which draws large crowds from around the Boston area to enjoy music, dance, and other performing arts from a diverse array of groups from [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England") colleges and universities. The fourth annual concert – held in November 2009 – raised nearly $3000 in audience donations, which was donated to the [Accelerated Cure Project](/wiki/Accelerated_Cure_Project "Accelerated Cure Project").
The Toons have released five albums:
* *Part of This Complete Breakfast* (2007\)
* *All Jokes Aside* (2003\)
* *Holding Our Own* (2001\)
* *59th Street Bridge* (1998\)
* *Target Practice* (1995\)
### Wind Ensemble
The MIT Wind Ensemble, also known as MITWE or 21M.426, is a group of instrumental performers who are students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The group performs classic (such as [Holst](/wiki/Gustav_Holst "Gustav Holst") and [Grainger](/wiki/Percy_Grainger "Percy Grainger")) and contemporary [wind ensemble](/wiki/Wind_ensemble "Wind ensemble") repertoire. It also [commissions](/wiki/Contract "Contract") many new works.
The ensemble was formed in 1999 by [Dr. Frederick Harris Jr.](/wiki/Dr._Frederick_Harris_Jr. "Dr. Frederick Harris Jr.") It is led by him and [Kenneth Amis](/wiki/Kenneth_Amis "Kenneth Amis"), [tuba](/wiki/Tuba "Tuba") player in the [Empire Brass](/wiki/Empire_Brass "Empire Brass").
The ensemble performs 4 concerts per year in [Kresge Auditorium](/wiki/Kresge_Auditorium "Kresge Auditorium"). The concerts are open to the public. The ensemble also has performed with local [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school "Middle school") and [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school") bands, as part of an outreach program. The ensemble has taken two international tours: to the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic "Dominican Republic") in 2019 and to [Manaus, Brazil](/wiki/Manaus%2C_Brazil "Manaus, Brazil") in 2023\.
Admission to the MIT Wind Ensemble is by [audition](/wiki/Audition_%28performing_arts%29 "Audition (performing arts)") only. Current players must re\-audition at the beginning of every year to remain in the ensemble. The audition consists of a short piece of the student's choice, a [sight reading](/wiki/Sight_reading "Sight reading") exercise, and a [chromatic scale](/wiki/Chromatic_scale "Chromatic scale"). [Undergraduate](/wiki/Undergraduate "Undergraduate") students in the ensemble may choose to take MITWE for [academic credit](/wiki/Credit_%28education%29 "Credit (education)"). In this case, the student must take a short playing exam at the end of each term.
In 2002 and 2003, the ensemble recorded its first CD ("Waking Winds") featuring 4 works by [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") area composers:
* Concertino for Violin and Chamber Winds, by Peter Child
* The Congress of the Insomniacs, by Brian Robison
* Song and Dance, by [Gunther Schuller](/wiki/Gunther_Schuller "Gunther Schuller")
* Drill, by [Evan Ziporyn](/wiki/Evan_Ziporyn "Evan Ziporyn")
The recording sessions took place in [Jordan Hall](/wiki/Jordan_Hall_%28Boston%29 "Jordan Hall (Boston)"), Kresge Auditorium, and Killian Hall.
The ensemble's second CD ("Solo Eclipse") was released in 2008, featuring new works by:
* Kenneth Amis
* [Ran Blake](/wiki/Ran_Blake "Ran Blake")
* [Guillermo Klein](/wiki/Guillermo_Klein "Guillermo Klein")
The ensemble has commissioned many works for Wind Band, including pieces by Kenneth Amis, [Kenny Werner](/wiki/Kenny_Werner "Kenny Werner"), [Erica Foin](/wiki/Erica_Foin "Erica Foin"), [Forrest Larson](/wiki/Forrest_Larson "Forrest Larson"), Ran Blake, Guillermo Klein, Evan Ziporyn, and others.
|
[
"Performing arts\n---------------",
"### Asymptones",
"The Asymptones are MIT's lowest time\\-commitment a cappella group. Founded in 2007, they have regular concerts in conjunction with Roadkill Buffet, the on campus [improv comedy](/wiki/Improv_comedy \"Improv comedy\") group, focusing on [parodies](/wiki/Parodies \"Parodies\") and more [meme](/wiki/Meme \"Meme\")\\-y songs.",
"### Chorallaries",
"The Chorallaries of MIT are the first co\\-ed a cappella performing group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Founded in the winter of 1976–77, the group is typically composed of undergraduates, graduates, and occasionally faculty. They perform several free public concerts a year on the MIT campus, as well as at a numerous on\\-campus events and at concerts, festivals, and private venues off\\-campus. The Chorallaries, as keepers of the MIT alma mater (\"Arise All Ye of MIT\") also perform at Freshman Convocation in September and at the Commencement Ceremony in June.",
"Their signature song, the [Engineer's Drinking Song](/wiki/Godiva%27s_Hymn \"Godiva's Hymn\"), is a traditional tech favorite.",
"The Chorallaries compete in the [International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella](/wiki/International_Championship_of_Collegiate_A_Cappella \"International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella\") every three years; they won the quarter\\-finals in 2000, 2003, and 2006, as well as the semi\\-finals in 1996 and 2006\\. In 2010 the Chorallaries of MIT released their most recent album \"Stereophony,\" whose track \"Hot Air Balloon\" was featured on both Voices Only 2010 and Best of College A Cappella 2011\\. Previous recognitions include:",
"* \"Papercut\" (Positive Chorallation) – nominated for Best Mixed Song from the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (CARA)\n* \"Rainbow Connection\" (Positive Chorallation) – Voices Only 2008\\.\n* \"Pretty Good Year\" (Contents Under Pressure) – Best of College A Cappella 1999",
"In total, the Chorallaries have produced 15 albums:",
"* *Seeing Red* (2019\\)\n* *Dischord* (2017\\)\n* *Stereophony* (2010\\)\n* *Positive Chorallation* (2007\\)\n* *Staring Down the Infinite* (2004\\)\n* *Chorallaries Live: Spring Concert* (2003\\)\n* *After Taste* (2002\\)\n* *Pokerface* (2001\\)\n* *Contents Under Pressure* (1998\\)\n* *Earshot* (1995\\)\n* *Better Late Than Never* (1993\\)\n* *TimeSync* (1989\\)\n* *No Instruments Allowed* (1985\\)\n* *Making It In Massachusetts* (1981\\)\n* *Take Me Back to Tech* (19??)",
"The group is known for its humor and creativity, culminating in \"The Nth Annual **Concert in Bad Taste**\".",
"**Bad Taste** is a concert devoted solely to off\\-color, nerdy, controversial, offensive, and often humorous material; a good\\-faith effort is made to offend everybody equally, but no quarter is given. Popular topics include: offensive sexual references; mocking the MIT administration; lambasting [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), [Wellesley College](/wiki/Wellesley_College \"Wellesley College\"), [Simmons College](/wiki/Simmons_College_%28Massachusetts%29 \"Simmons College (Massachusetts)\") and other colleges in the region; excruciatingly hilarious science puns; and disgusting sexual references. The concert is usually about 2½ hours long, with a mixture of skits, songs, and general hilarity.",
"### Cross Products",
"The Cross Products are MIT's Christian co\\-ed a cappella singing group. Founded in 1988, their stated purpose is: \"We exist to glorify God through music, and to tell others about the ways that He has changed our lives: we are each products of the cross of Jesus Christ.\"",
"### Folk Dance Club",
"The MIT Folk Dance Club, founded in 1959, sponsors 3 public dance sessions every week: [international folk dancing](/wiki/International_folk_dancing \"International folk dancing\"), [contra dancing](/wiki/Contra_dancing \"Contra dancing\"), and [Israeli dancing](/wiki/Israeli_folk_dancing \"Israeli folk dancing\"). In the 1960s it sponsored four Folk Dance Festivals.",
"### Gamelan Galak Tika",
"{{anchor\\|Gamelan Galak Tika}}\nFounded and directed by Professor [Evan Ziporyn](/wiki/Evan_Ziporyn \"Evan Ziporyn\") in September 1993,{{cite web\\|title\\=Gamelan Galak Tika\\|url\\=http://web.mit.edu/galak\\-tika/www/aboutgt.shtml\\|website\\=web.mit.edu\\|publisher\\=Massachusetts Institute of Technology\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-03}} this MIT\\-based authentic [gamelan](/wiki/Gamelan \"Gamelan\") orchestra performs on campus, and has toured nationally and internationally, including to [Bali, Indonesia](/wiki/Bali%2C_Indonesia \"Bali, Indonesia\"), the birthplace of this musical genre.{{cite web\\|title\\=About Gamelan Galak Tika\\|url\\=http://www.galaktika.org/about.html\\|website\\=www.galaktika.org\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-03}} The ensemble performs classical Balinese compositions with [traditionally costumed dancers](/wiki/Balinese_dance \"Balinese dance\"), as well as contemporary and experimental pieces specially commissioned for the group. Experimental pieces have incorporated non\\-traditional instruments such as [electric guitars](/wiki/Electric_guitar \"Electric guitar\"), glass chimes, and one\\-of\\-a\\-kind novel [electronic and computer\\-controlled instruments](/wiki/Electronic_music \"Electronic music\"), in a variety of musical styles. Guest composer\\-performers have included [Terry Riley](/wiki/Terry_Riley \"Terry Riley\"), a pioneer of minimal music.{{cite web\\|title\\=Gamelan Galak Tika : Performance History \\|url\\=http://www.galaktika.org/history.html \\|website\\=www.galaktika.org \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-03}} [Christine Southworth](/wiki/Christine_Southworth \"Christine Southworth\"), an MIT alumna, has performed several of her compositions and has long been an active member of the orchestra.",
"Gamelan Galak Tika uses authentic [percussion](/wiki/Percussion \"Percussion\") instruments made in Indonesia, and the musicians perform [barefoot](/wiki/Barefoot \"Barefoot\") in authentic [Balinese costumes](/wiki/Kebaya \"Kebaya\"). Concerts are usually started with placement of a traditional Balinese centerpiece made of fresh fruit onto the stage ([incense](/wiki/Incense \"Incense\") sticks were lit up in earlier years, but this practice was discontinued due to concerns about [allergies](/wiki/Allergies \"Allergies\") and poor [indoor air quality](/wiki/Indoor_air_quality \"Indoor air quality\")). After a concert, the audience is usually invited to come up on stage to get a closer look at the gamelan instruments, and to try hands\\-on playing of them under the guidance of orchestra members. Also, pieces of the fresh fruit centerpiece are offered to audience members, for a gustatory remembrance of the event.",
"The group [learns aurally](/wiki/Learning_styles \"Learning styles\"), without the aid of [musical notation](/wiki/Musical_notation \"Musical notation\"), and functions in the tradition of a Balinese village *sekeha*, with decisions made communally and responsibilities shared among the members of the ensemble. The name of the ensemble means \"intense togetherness\" in Bahasa Kawi (classical [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_language \"Javanese language\"), a dialect of [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit \"Sanskrit\")), and is also a cross\\-lingual [pun](/wiki/Pun \"Pun\") on the title of the old television show *[Battlestar Galactica](/wiki/Battlestar_Galactica \"Battlestar Galactica\")*. The group performs with three sets of gamelan instruments: a traditional *pelog* set, another tuned in [just intonation](/wiki/Just_intonation \"Just intonation\"), and the completely electronic Gamelan Elektrika, based on a design developed at the [MIT Media Lab](/wiki/MIT_Media_Lab \"MIT Media Lab\").",
"### Live Music Connection (LMC)",
"A co\\-op of MIT's bands on campus, the LMC provides a venue for artists to play as well as open jam sessions for students. Started in 2009 by MIT student band, The Guitar Knives, the LMC is now an official student group that holds concerts about once every 2 weeks in the Student Center, usually featuring 2 MIT bands. The LMC recently put out the first official CD of MIT bands that can be found on their website, as well as below. This sets a precedent at the school in that the CD is offered for Free Download, publicizing MIT's up and coming artists that also play the LMC's Concert Series. The LMC is also responsible for holding MIT's Battle of the Bands at Campus Preview Weekend, which it has recently taken over and established as a competitive ground for solely MIT bands.",
"### Logarhythms",
"Founded in 1949, the MIT Logarhythms is an all\\-male [a cappella](/wiki/Collegiate_a_cappella \"Collegiate a cappella\") performance group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The Logs began as a close\\-harmony octet, singing popular and comedy melodies of the 1940s. The Logarhythms were named by one of their founding members, Ed Kerwin. Their current repertoire consists primarily of modern pop, hip hop, and classic rock, and their close\\-harmony lives on in many tunes.",
"The Logs perform throughout Massachusetts and the New England area. Recent biannual tours have included performances around Washington DC, California, Michigan, and Texas. The group has earned songs on the Best of College A Cappella (BOCA) compilation albums from 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2009, and their album *Soundproof* received near\\-perfect marks in its review from the Recorded A Cappella Review Board.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rarb.org/reviews/albums/480\\-soundproof/\\|title\\=Logarhythms \\- Soundproof (2004\\)\\|website\\=www.rarb.org}}",
"In March 2007, the Logs participated in and took first place in WERS' All A Cappella Live competition at the Majestic Theatre in Boston, competing against the Tufts Beelzebubs, Brandeis VoiceMale, and the Harvard Low Keys.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://thetech.com/2007/03/16/acappella\\-v127\\-n12\\|title\\=CONCERT REVIEW A Cappella Group Vaults to Top of the 'Log' Scale\\|website\\=The Tech}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.mit.edu/2007/logarhythms\\-0321\\|title\\=MIT a cappella group rules over rivals with Van Halen, Gorillaz\\|website\\=MIT News \\| Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}\n* *Give Us Back Our Spyplane* (2008\\)\n* *Natural* (2006\\)\n* *Soundproof* (2004\\)\n* *Superlogs* (2002\\)\n* *Mind the Logs* (1999\\)\n* *Redwood* (1997\\)\n* *Songs From The Bagel* (1994\\)",
"*Natural* features cover songs performed and recorded by the '04–05 and '05–06 members of the MIT Logarhythms. The tracks were recorded at MIT at the Logarhythms' studio. Tracks were subsequently mixed by producer John Clark.",
"\"Part\\-Time Lover\" soloist Chris Vu won a 2007 CARA award as Best Male Collegiate Soloist.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://casa.org/\\|title\\=A Cappella Music For All \\| Acapela Festivals \\& Awards \\| CASA\\|date\\=April 21, 2016}} \"Such Great Heights\" received a 2007 CARA nomination for Best Male Collegiate Song.",
"*Soundproof* features cover songs performed and recorded by the '02–03 and '03–04 members of the MIT Logarhythms. The tracks were recorded at MIT at the Logarhythms' newly built studio.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://tech.mit.edu/V123/N15/14Logstudio.15n.html\\|title\\=Logs Will Build New Studio Open to A Capella Groups \\- The Tech\\|website\\=tech.mit.edu\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302082607/http://tech.mit.edu/V123/N15/14Logstudio.15n.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-02}} Track one was mixed by Viktor Kray. All remaining tracks were mixed by John Clark.",
"\"The Kids Aren't Alright\" was featured as the first track on the Best of College A Cappella 2005 compilation.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.a\\-cappella.com/product/745/boca\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914090227/http://www.a\\-cappella.com/product/745/boca\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=BOCA CDs – BOCA 2005: Best of College A Cappella '05 (CD)\\|archivedate\\=September 14, 2007}} \"No Such Thing\" appeared as track nine on the Best of College A Cappella 2004 compilation.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.a\\-cappella.com/product/1808C\\_BOCA\\_2004/boca\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914112638/http://www.a\\-cappella.com/product/1808C\\_BOCA\\_2004/boca\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=BOCA CDs – BOCA 2004: Best of College A Cappella '04 (CD)\\|archivedate\\=September 14, 2007}} \"Learn to Fly\" was Runner Up for Best Male Collegiate Arrangement in the 2005 CARA awards.",
"### Marching Band",
"The [MIT Marching Band](/wiki/MIT_Marching_Band \"MIT Marching Band\") is purely student run, and is open to the entire MIT community.",
"The band plays at all types of events year\\-round. In its recent history, it has performed at football, basketball, lacrosse, field hockey, women's rugby, water polo, and hockey games. The band has also played for events such as the re\\-opening of the [MIT Museum](/wiki/MIT_Museum \"MIT Museum\") and the Cambridge Science Festival. During MIT's Campus Preview Weekend in April, the band leads the prospective freshmen from the keynote address in Rockwell Cage to an activities fair in Johnson Ice Rink. Every December, the band tours downtown [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") playing holiday music.",
"### Muses",
"The MIT Muses, MIT's only all\\-female a cappella group, was founded in 1988\\.{{cite journal \\|title\\=Ambrosia \\|date\\=1995 \\|page\\=Compact Disc Liner Notes}}",
"The name of the a cappella group is based on the definition of the ancient Greek [Muses](/wiki/Muses \"Muses\"). The members of the **MIT Muses** named their first album *Ambrosia* because it was the food of the ancient Greek gods.",
"#### Discography",
"* *Elysian Fields* (1998\\)\n* *Ambrosia* (1995\\)",
"### Musical Theater Guild",
"The Musical Theatre Guild is an entirely student\\-run theater group which performs four musicals per year (spring term, summer, fall term, and IAP). Membership is open to anyone, but preference is given to MIT students and MIT community members for cast and production roles. Performances are open to the general public.",
"In IAP 2003, MTG produced Star Wars: Musical Edition, a musical version of the original Star Wars movie, featuring musical numbers from existing musicals with the lyrics changed to fit the plot. In April 2005, part of the group performed selections from the show at Celebration III, a Star Wars convention for which George Lucas was present. In the fall of 2005, MTG produced Star Wars Trilogy: Musical Edition, which encompassed the entire original trilogy.",
"### Resonance",
"MIT Resonance is a student rock/pop [a cappella](/wiki/A_cappella \"A cappella\") group from MIT. Founded in the 2000–2001 school year, the group is co\\-ed and typically consists of sixteen undergraduate and graduate students (though its size varies). It is one of seven a cappella groups at the school, and is known across campus for its frequent free performances and its funny, edgy interludes used to keep audiences amused between songs.",
"Nationally, Resonance is perhaps best known for its recognition through CASA, the Contemporary A Cappella Society, having received a 2004 and 2008 Contemporary A Cappella Recording Award (CARA) nomination for Best Mixed Collegiate Arrangement, a 2008 CARA award for Best Scholastic Original, as well as a berth on the 2006 [Best of College A Cappella](/wiki/Best_of_College_A_Cappella \"Best of College A Cappella\") compilation CD. The group is also known for regularly hosting the [International Championship of College A Cappella](/wiki/International_Championship_of_College_A_Cappella \"International Championship of College A Cappella\") New England Semifinals.",
"The group has produced three albums, its latest being the self\\-titled \"Resonance\" released in fall 2007\\.",
"Resonance was envisioned by Sara Jo Elice who, with her friend (and eventual co\\-founder) Jessica Hinel, fleshed out the original idea while waiting to audition for an MIT Musical Theatre Guild production. Jay Humphries was auditioning for the same production and ended up becoming an inaugural Resonance member as well. In 2001, the MIT Association of Student Activities recognized Resonance as its seventh a cappella group on campus at the time.",
"The name Resonance follows an established joke among MIT a cappella groups of using a science or math\\-based pun to name the group. In science, resonance has to do with vibration and harmony. Specifically, resonant frequencies are the frequencies that cause natural amplification of signal – a commonly cited example being the singer who can, at the right frequency, break glass with their voice. Keeping with the theme, the resonance name is often formatted as **\"res(((o)))nance.\"** and displayed alongside a logo of a shattered wine glass.",
"Resonance regularly performs on the MIT campus, at the minimum presenting a single full\\-length concert per term. Each concert is primarily composed of a collection of songs, both covers and originals, selected and arranged for a cappella by members of the group. Over 100 different songs have been performed by the group since 2001\\.",
"Resonance, like many a cappella groups, has a single \"alum\" song, taught to all members and used to close almost all performances. Group alumni are invited to join the current members on stage to finish the night. Resonance's alum song is \"Easy People\" by the [Nields](/wiki/The_Nields \"The Nields\").",
"Resonance has released three albums:\n* *Resonance* (2007\\)\n* *Left On Red* (2005\\)\n* *First Harmonic* (2003\\)",
"Resonance is also featured on two a cappella collections:\n* *acaTunes Awards 2007* (2007\\) – Collection, features \"So Little Notice\" by Sarah Dupuis as performed by Resonance\n* *[Best of College A Cappella](/wiki/Best_of_College_A_Cappella \"Best of College A Cappella\") 2006* (2006\\) – Collection, features \"Mystify (Atrévete)\" by [Chenoa](/wiki/Chenoa \"Chenoa\") as performed by Resonance",
"All three Resonance full\\-length albums are available only through the group directly. Best of College A Cappella is produced and distributed to various retail sources by Varsity Vocals. acaTunes awards are produced by acaTunes.",
"### Shakespeare Ensemble",
"Founded in 1974, the MIT Shakespeare Ensemble, denoted \"Ensemble\" for short, is a student\\-run theater group. The group puts on one Shakespeare play each semester as well as one non\\-Shakespeare play each IAP and summer. These shows are open to the public. Unlike other MIT theater groups, the Shakespeare Ensemble works with professional directors in the area. In the past, the Ensemble has taken their shows on tour; previous tours have included the East Coast, California, and England.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ensemble.mit.edu/archive/\\|title\\=The MIT Shakespeare Ensemble \\| Archives\\|website\\=ensemble.mit.edu}}",
"Ensemble traditions include a bi\\-annual \"spearing\" ceremony to welcome new members, as well as a semi\\-formal gathering called Ensemball. The Ensemble also regularly performs \"Scene Nights\", which showcase a collection of scenes, and \"24\\-hour shows\", which entail writing, rehearsing, and performing a play all within a 24\\-hour period.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://ensemble.mit.edu/about/index.php\\|title\\=The MIT Shakespeare Ensemble \\| About\\|website\\=ensemble.mit.edu}} Shakespeare Ensemble also has a strong tech community, with its own traditions. One such tradition is the \"sex\\-light\", denoting pink\\- or purple\\-tinted lights shined during a scene with romantic or sexual connotations.",
"### Symphony Orchestra",
"[thumb\\|right\\|An MIT student orchestra performs in [Kresge Auditorium](/wiki/Kresge_Auditorium \"Kresge Auditorium\")](/wiki/File:Kresge_Auditorium%2C_MIT_%28interior_with_concert%29.JPG \"Kresge Auditorium, MIT (interior with concert).JPG\")\nThe MIT Symphony Orchestra is the [symphony orchestra](/wiki/Symphony_orchestra \"Symphony orchestra\") of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.",
"The origins of the MIT Symphony Orchestra (MITSO) date back as far as 1884 when the first MIT Tech Orchestra appeared on campus along with the Banjo and Glee Clubs. The orchestra disbanded and re\\-appeared several times over the years that followed until 1947, when [Klaus Liepmann](/wiki/Klaus_Liepmann \"Klaus Liepmann\") (1907–1990\\), MIT's first full\\-time professor of music and founder of the music program, became director of the MIT Glee Club, the Symphony and the Choral Society.",
"Nine years later John Corley (1919–2000\\) took over the direction of the Symphony until 1966, when David Epstein (1931–2002\\) became the Symphony Orchestra's music director. Under Prof. Epstein, the orchestra performed at [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall \"Carnegie Hall\") and made several LP recordings. David Epstein's tenure ended in the spring of 1998 upon his retirement from the Institute. The MITSO has also performed with artists such as [Peter Schickele](/wiki/Peter_Schickele \"Peter Schickele\"), when he performed works of [P.D.Q. Bach](/wiki/P.D.Q._Bach \"P.D.Q. Bach\") as a dog chained to the concertmaster. After an international search, Dante Anzolini became Music Director of the Orchestra and Associate Professor of Music at MIT in September 1998\\. For the 2006–2007 season, Paul Biss from Indiana University served as interim conductor for MITSO, and in the fall of 2007, Adam Boyles began his tenure as the current music director.",
"### Syncopasian",
"Syncopasian is an Asian a cappella group at MIT. Founded in 2008, Syncopasian's mission is to promote Asian music and pop culture at MIT and in the surrounding community. Unlike other a cappella groups on campus, its repertoire includes songs in not only English, but also in Chinese, Cantonese, Japanese, Korean, and other East Asian languages. The group holds two large concerts in the winter and spring and also performs at a variety of other on\\-campus events. It released its first album titled Syncopasian in 2011\\.",
"### Techiya",
"Techiya is MIT's Jewish, Hebrew, Israeli a cappella group. Founded in 1994, the group released a demo tape in 1997\\. Since then, they have released three albums: *Half\\-Life* (2002\\), *Techiya Sunrise* (2010\\), and *Technetium* (2015\\). The group sings a wide variety of songs, including traditional liturgy, Israeli pop songs, Broadway, and original parodies.",
"In addition to a concert near the end of each semester, Techiya performed at on\\-campus events, at local synagogues, and in NYC every spring. They sing songs in many languages, including Hebrew, English, Yiddish, Ladino, French, Japanese, Chinese, Greek, and Amharic. The group unfortunately became inactive around Fall 2017\\.",
"### Tech Squares",
"{{main\\|Tech Squares}}\nTech Squares is a [square](/wiki/Square_dance \"Square dance\") and [round dance](/wiki/Round_dance \"Round dance\") club founded in 1967\\. It is known for technical proficiency, often pursuing difficult and challenging choreography.",
"### Toons",
"The MIT/Wellesley Toons are a cross\\-campus, co\\-ed college [a cappella](/wiki/A_cappella \"A cappella\") singing group. Founded in 1990, the group takes its members from both the undergraduate and graduate students of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the undergraduates of [Wellesley College](/wiki/Wellesley_College \"Wellesley College\"). The group performs several times each year at free concerts on both campuses, as well as at a variety of other venues both nearby and out\\-of\\-state.",
"The Toons host an annual *Concert for a Cure* in support of [multiple sclerosis](/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis \"Multiple sclerosis\") research, which draws large crowds from around the Boston area to enjoy music, dance, and other performing arts from a diverse array of groups from [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\") colleges and universities. The fourth annual concert – held in November 2009 – raised nearly $3000 in audience donations, which was donated to the [Accelerated Cure Project](/wiki/Accelerated_Cure_Project \"Accelerated Cure Project\").",
"The Toons have released five albums:\n* *Part of This Complete Breakfast* (2007\\)\n* *All Jokes Aside* (2003\\)\n* *Holding Our Own* (2001\\)\n* *59th Street Bridge* (1998\\)\n* *Target Practice* (1995\\)",
"### Wind Ensemble",
"The MIT Wind Ensemble, also known as MITWE or 21M.426, is a group of instrumental performers who are students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The group performs classic (such as [Holst](/wiki/Gustav_Holst \"Gustav Holst\") and [Grainger](/wiki/Percy_Grainger \"Percy Grainger\")) and contemporary [wind ensemble](/wiki/Wind_ensemble \"Wind ensemble\") repertoire. It also [commissions](/wiki/Contract \"Contract\") many new works.",
"The ensemble was formed in 1999 by [Dr. Frederick Harris Jr.](/wiki/Dr._Frederick_Harris_Jr. \"Dr. Frederick Harris Jr.\") It is led by him and [Kenneth Amis](/wiki/Kenneth_Amis \"Kenneth Amis\"), [tuba](/wiki/Tuba \"Tuba\") player in the [Empire Brass](/wiki/Empire_Brass \"Empire Brass\").",
"The ensemble performs 4 concerts per year in [Kresge Auditorium](/wiki/Kresge_Auditorium \"Kresge Auditorium\"). The concerts are open to the public. The ensemble also has performed with local [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school \"Middle school\") and [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\") bands, as part of an outreach program. The ensemble has taken two international tours: to the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") in 2019 and to [Manaus, Brazil](/wiki/Manaus%2C_Brazil \"Manaus, Brazil\") in 2023\\.",
"Admission to the MIT Wind Ensemble is by [audition](/wiki/Audition_%28performing_arts%29 \"Audition (performing arts)\") only. Current players must re\\-audition at the beginning of every year to remain in the ensemble. The audition consists of a short piece of the student's choice, a [sight reading](/wiki/Sight_reading \"Sight reading\") exercise, and a [chromatic scale](/wiki/Chromatic_scale \"Chromatic scale\"). [Undergraduate](/wiki/Undergraduate \"Undergraduate\") students in the ensemble may choose to take MITWE for [academic credit](/wiki/Credit_%28education%29 \"Credit (education)\"). In this case, the student must take a short playing exam at the end of each term.",
"In 2002 and 2003, the ensemble recorded its first CD (\"Waking Winds\") featuring 4 works by [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") area composers:\n* Concertino for Violin and Chamber Winds, by Peter Child\n* The Congress of the Insomniacs, by Brian Robison\n* Song and Dance, by [Gunther Schuller](/wiki/Gunther_Schuller \"Gunther Schuller\")\n* Drill, by [Evan Ziporyn](/wiki/Evan_Ziporyn \"Evan Ziporyn\")\nThe recording sessions took place in [Jordan Hall](/wiki/Jordan_Hall_%28Boston%29 \"Jordan Hall (Boston)\"), Kresge Auditorium, and Killian Hall.",
"The ensemble's second CD (\"Solo Eclipse\") was released in 2008, featuring new works by:\n* Kenneth Amis\n* [Ran Blake](/wiki/Ran_Blake \"Ran Blake\")\n* [Guillermo Klein](/wiki/Guillermo_Klein \"Guillermo Klein\")",
"The ensemble has commissioned many works for Wind Band, including pieces by Kenneth Amis, [Kenny Werner](/wiki/Kenny_Werner \"Kenny Werner\"), [Erica Foin](/wiki/Erica_Foin \"Erica Foin\"), [Forrest Larson](/wiki/Forrest_Larson \"Forrest Larson\"), Ran Blake, Guillermo Klein, Evan Ziporyn, and others.",
""
] |
### Resonance
MIT Resonance is a student rock/pop [a cappella](/wiki/A_cappella "A cappella") group from MIT. Founded in the 2000–2001 school year, the group is co\-ed and typically consists of sixteen undergraduate and graduate students (though its size varies). It is one of seven a cappella groups at the school, and is known across campus for its frequent free performances and its funny, edgy interludes used to keep audiences amused between songs.
Nationally, Resonance is perhaps best known for its recognition through CASA, the Contemporary A Cappella Society, having received a 2004 and 2008 Contemporary A Cappella Recording Award (CARA) nomination for Best Mixed Collegiate Arrangement, a 2008 CARA award for Best Scholastic Original, as well as a berth on the 2006 [Best of College A Cappella](/wiki/Best_of_College_A_Cappella "Best of College A Cappella") compilation CD. The group is also known for regularly hosting the [International Championship of College A Cappella](/wiki/International_Championship_of_College_A_Cappella "International Championship of College A Cappella") New England Semifinals.
The group has produced three albums, its latest being the self\-titled "Resonance" released in fall 2007\.
Resonance was envisioned by Sara Jo Elice who, with her friend (and eventual co\-founder) Jessica Hinel, fleshed out the original idea while waiting to audition for an MIT Musical Theatre Guild production. Jay Humphries was auditioning for the same production and ended up becoming an inaugural Resonance member as well. In 2001, the MIT Association of Student Activities recognized Resonance as its seventh a cappella group on campus at the time.
The name Resonance follows an established joke among MIT a cappella groups of using a science or math\-based pun to name the group. In science, resonance has to do with vibration and harmony. Specifically, resonant frequencies are the frequencies that cause natural amplification of signal – a commonly cited example being the singer who can, at the right frequency, break glass with their voice. Keeping with the theme, the resonance name is often formatted as **"res(((o)))nance."** and displayed alongside a logo of a shattered wine glass.
Resonance regularly performs on the MIT campus, at the minimum presenting a single full\-length concert per term. Each concert is primarily composed of a collection of songs, both covers and originals, selected and arranged for a cappella by members of the group. Over 100 different songs have been performed by the group since 2001\.
Resonance, like many a cappella groups, has a single "alum" song, taught to all members and used to close almost all performances. Group alumni are invited to join the current members on stage to finish the night. Resonance's alum song is "Easy People" by the [Nields](/wiki/The_Nields "The Nields").
Resonance has released three albums:
* *Resonance* (2007\)
* *Left On Red* (2005\)
* *First Harmonic* (2003\)
Resonance is also featured on two a cappella collections:
* *acaTunes Awards 2007* (2007\) – Collection, features "So Little Notice" by Sarah Dupuis as performed by Resonance
* *[Best of College A Cappella](/wiki/Best_of_College_A_Cappella "Best of College A Cappella") 2006* (2006\) – Collection, features "Mystify (Atrévete)" by [Chenoa](/wiki/Chenoa "Chenoa") as performed by Resonance
All three Resonance full\-length albums are available only through the group directly. Best of College A Cappella is produced and distributed to various retail sources by Varsity Vocals. acaTunes awards are produced by acaTunes.
|
[
"### Resonance",
"MIT Resonance is a student rock/pop [a cappella](/wiki/A_cappella \"A cappella\") group from MIT. Founded in the 2000–2001 school year, the group is co\\-ed and typically consists of sixteen undergraduate and graduate students (though its size varies). It is one of seven a cappella groups at the school, and is known across campus for its frequent free performances and its funny, edgy interludes used to keep audiences amused between songs.",
"Nationally, Resonance is perhaps best known for its recognition through CASA, the Contemporary A Cappella Society, having received a 2004 and 2008 Contemporary A Cappella Recording Award (CARA) nomination for Best Mixed Collegiate Arrangement, a 2008 CARA award for Best Scholastic Original, as well as a berth on the 2006 [Best of College A Cappella](/wiki/Best_of_College_A_Cappella \"Best of College A Cappella\") compilation CD. The group is also known for regularly hosting the [International Championship of College A Cappella](/wiki/International_Championship_of_College_A_Cappella \"International Championship of College A Cappella\") New England Semifinals.",
"The group has produced three albums, its latest being the self\\-titled \"Resonance\" released in fall 2007\\.",
"Resonance was envisioned by Sara Jo Elice who, with her friend (and eventual co\\-founder) Jessica Hinel, fleshed out the original idea while waiting to audition for an MIT Musical Theatre Guild production. Jay Humphries was auditioning for the same production and ended up becoming an inaugural Resonance member as well. In 2001, the MIT Association of Student Activities recognized Resonance as its seventh a cappella group on campus at the time.",
"The name Resonance follows an established joke among MIT a cappella groups of using a science or math\\-based pun to name the group. In science, resonance has to do with vibration and harmony. Specifically, resonant frequencies are the frequencies that cause natural amplification of signal – a commonly cited example being the singer who can, at the right frequency, break glass with their voice. Keeping with the theme, the resonance name is often formatted as **\"res(((o)))nance.\"** and displayed alongside a logo of a shattered wine glass.",
"Resonance regularly performs on the MIT campus, at the minimum presenting a single full\\-length concert per term. Each concert is primarily composed of a collection of songs, both covers and originals, selected and arranged for a cappella by members of the group. Over 100 different songs have been performed by the group since 2001\\.",
"Resonance, like many a cappella groups, has a single \"alum\" song, taught to all members and used to close almost all performances. Group alumni are invited to join the current members on stage to finish the night. Resonance's alum song is \"Easy People\" by the [Nields](/wiki/The_Nields \"The Nields\").",
"Resonance has released three albums:\n* *Resonance* (2007\\)\n* *Left On Red* (2005\\)\n* *First Harmonic* (2003\\)",
"Resonance is also featured on two a cappella collections:\n* *acaTunes Awards 2007* (2007\\) – Collection, features \"So Little Notice\" by Sarah Dupuis as performed by Resonance\n* *[Best of College A Cappella](/wiki/Best_of_College_A_Cappella \"Best of College A Cappella\") 2006* (2006\\) – Collection, features \"Mystify (Atrévete)\" by [Chenoa](/wiki/Chenoa \"Chenoa\") as performed by Resonance",
"All three Resonance full\\-length albums are available only through the group directly. Best of College A Cappella is produced and distributed to various retail sources by Varsity Vocals. acaTunes awards are produced by acaTunes.",
""
] |
### Wind Ensemble
The MIT Wind Ensemble, also known as MITWE or 21M.426, is a group of instrumental performers who are students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The group performs classic (such as [Holst](/wiki/Gustav_Holst "Gustav Holst") and [Grainger](/wiki/Percy_Grainger "Percy Grainger")) and contemporary [wind ensemble](/wiki/Wind_ensemble "Wind ensemble") repertoire. It also [commissions](/wiki/Contract "Contract") many new works.
The ensemble was formed in 1999 by [Dr. Frederick Harris Jr.](/wiki/Dr._Frederick_Harris_Jr. "Dr. Frederick Harris Jr.") It is led by him and [Kenneth Amis](/wiki/Kenneth_Amis "Kenneth Amis"), [tuba](/wiki/Tuba "Tuba") player in the [Empire Brass](/wiki/Empire_Brass "Empire Brass").
The ensemble performs 4 concerts per year in [Kresge Auditorium](/wiki/Kresge_Auditorium "Kresge Auditorium"). The concerts are open to the public. The ensemble also has performed with local [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school "Middle school") and [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school") bands, as part of an outreach program. The ensemble has taken two international tours: to the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic "Dominican Republic") in 2019 and to [Manaus, Brazil](/wiki/Manaus%2C_Brazil "Manaus, Brazil") in 2023\.
Admission to the MIT Wind Ensemble is by [audition](/wiki/Audition_%28performing_arts%29 "Audition (performing arts)") only. Current players must re\-audition at the beginning of every year to remain in the ensemble. The audition consists of a short piece of the student's choice, a [sight reading](/wiki/Sight_reading "Sight reading") exercise, and a [chromatic scale](/wiki/Chromatic_scale "Chromatic scale"). [Undergraduate](/wiki/Undergraduate "Undergraduate") students in the ensemble may choose to take MITWE for [academic credit](/wiki/Credit_%28education%29 "Credit (education)"). In this case, the student must take a short playing exam at the end of each term.
In 2002 and 2003, the ensemble recorded its first CD ("Waking Winds") featuring 4 works by [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") area composers:
* Concertino for Violin and Chamber Winds, by Peter Child
* The Congress of the Insomniacs, by Brian Robison
* Song and Dance, by [Gunther Schuller](/wiki/Gunther_Schuller "Gunther Schuller")
* Drill, by [Evan Ziporyn](/wiki/Evan_Ziporyn "Evan Ziporyn")
The recording sessions took place in [Jordan Hall](/wiki/Jordan_Hall_%28Boston%29 "Jordan Hall (Boston)"), Kresge Auditorium, and Killian Hall.
The ensemble's second CD ("Solo Eclipse") was released in 2008, featuring new works by:
* Kenneth Amis
* [Ran Blake](/wiki/Ran_Blake "Ran Blake")
* [Guillermo Klein](/wiki/Guillermo_Klein "Guillermo Klein")
The ensemble has commissioned many works for Wind Band, including pieces by Kenneth Amis, [Kenny Werner](/wiki/Kenny_Werner "Kenny Werner"), [Erica Foin](/wiki/Erica_Foin "Erica Foin"), [Forrest Larson](/wiki/Forrest_Larson "Forrest Larson"), Ran Blake, Guillermo Klein, Evan Ziporyn, and others.
|
[
"### Wind Ensemble",
"The MIT Wind Ensemble, also known as MITWE or 21M.426, is a group of instrumental performers who are students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The group performs classic (such as [Holst](/wiki/Gustav_Holst \"Gustav Holst\") and [Grainger](/wiki/Percy_Grainger \"Percy Grainger\")) and contemporary [wind ensemble](/wiki/Wind_ensemble \"Wind ensemble\") repertoire. It also [commissions](/wiki/Contract \"Contract\") many new works.",
"The ensemble was formed in 1999 by [Dr. Frederick Harris Jr.](/wiki/Dr._Frederick_Harris_Jr. \"Dr. Frederick Harris Jr.\") It is led by him and [Kenneth Amis](/wiki/Kenneth_Amis \"Kenneth Amis\"), [tuba](/wiki/Tuba \"Tuba\") player in the [Empire Brass](/wiki/Empire_Brass \"Empire Brass\").",
"The ensemble performs 4 concerts per year in [Kresge Auditorium](/wiki/Kresge_Auditorium \"Kresge Auditorium\"). The concerts are open to the public. The ensemble also has performed with local [middle school](/wiki/Middle_school \"Middle school\") and [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\") bands, as part of an outreach program. The ensemble has taken two international tours: to the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") in 2019 and to [Manaus, Brazil](/wiki/Manaus%2C_Brazil \"Manaus, Brazil\") in 2023\\.",
"Admission to the MIT Wind Ensemble is by [audition](/wiki/Audition_%28performing_arts%29 \"Audition (performing arts)\") only. Current players must re\\-audition at the beginning of every year to remain in the ensemble. The audition consists of a short piece of the student's choice, a [sight reading](/wiki/Sight_reading \"Sight reading\") exercise, and a [chromatic scale](/wiki/Chromatic_scale \"Chromatic scale\"). [Undergraduate](/wiki/Undergraduate \"Undergraduate\") students in the ensemble may choose to take MITWE for [academic credit](/wiki/Credit_%28education%29 \"Credit (education)\"). In this case, the student must take a short playing exam at the end of each term.",
"In 2002 and 2003, the ensemble recorded its first CD (\"Waking Winds\") featuring 4 works by [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") area composers:\n* Concertino for Violin and Chamber Winds, by Peter Child\n* The Congress of the Insomniacs, by Brian Robison\n* Song and Dance, by [Gunther Schuller](/wiki/Gunther_Schuller \"Gunther Schuller\")\n* Drill, by [Evan Ziporyn](/wiki/Evan_Ziporyn \"Evan Ziporyn\")\nThe recording sessions took place in [Jordan Hall](/wiki/Jordan_Hall_%28Boston%29 \"Jordan Hall (Boston)\"), Kresge Auditorium, and Killian Hall.",
"The ensemble's second CD (\"Solo Eclipse\") was released in 2008, featuring new works by:\n* Kenneth Amis\n* [Ran Blake](/wiki/Ran_Blake \"Ran Blake\")\n* [Guillermo Klein](/wiki/Guillermo_Klein \"Guillermo Klein\")",
"The ensemble has commissioned many works for Wind Band, including pieces by Kenneth Amis, [Kenny Werner](/wiki/Kenny_Werner \"Kenny Werner\"), [Erica Foin](/wiki/Erica_Foin \"Erica Foin\"), [Forrest Larson](/wiki/Forrest_Larson \"Forrest Larson\"), Ran Blake, Guillermo Klein, Evan Ziporyn, and others.",
""
] |
Independence period
-------------------
[thumb\|left\|Suryadarma being transferred outside of Java after his capture in Yogyakarta in 1948](/wiki/File:De_Republikeinse_autoriteiten_die_bij_de_bezetting_van_Djocja_aldaar_voorlopig_w%2C_Bestanddeelnr_5305.jpg "De Republikeinse autoriteiten die bij de bezetting van Djocja aldaar voorlopig w, Bestanddeelnr 5305.jpg")
During the [Indonesian Revolution](/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution "Indonesian National Revolution"), Suryadarma, as the first [Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force](/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Indonesian_Air_Force "Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force"), first as an Air Commodore, and then as an Air Vice Marshal, from his appointment in late 1945, began developing an interest in "aerospace" through the establishment of an [Aeroclub](/wiki/Aeroclub "Aeroclub"), with basic military aviation education and training in [Maguwo](/wiki/Maguwo "Maguwo"), [Maospati](/wiki/Maospati "Maospati") and [Malang](/wiki/Malang "Malang") (radio engineering, radio operators, pilots, paratroops, air supplies and morse code training). Suryadarma realized the importance of paratroopers, given the geographical condition of Indonesia, consisting of thousands of islands, which became the forerunner of the first paratrooper unit in Indonesia, establishing the *Pasukan Gerak Tjepat* (PGT) which became the Indonesian Air Force's [Kopasgat](/wiki/Kopasgat "Kopasgat"), the oldest special forces unit in Southeast Asia. He was the one who gave the blessing for the first combat paradrop in the country. Suryadarma strongly supported the ideas of Wiweko Supeno and Nurtanio in various experiments on airplanes and helicopter production in Maospati. He along with [Halim Perdanakusuma](/wiki/Halim_Perdanakusuma "Halim Perdanakusuma") and Wiweko invited foreign transport planes to break through the Dutch air blockade against Indonesia.
### Post\-independence
From 1950 to 1954, then Air Marshal Suryadarma prioritized the establishment of flight training and education schools with military and civil aviation technical vocational training, by utilizing Dutch experts (former East Indies Air force and Naval aviation) as instructors, lecturers and education quality supervisors, while the Airborne Officers' School employed instructors from the United States Army and Air Force. In 1954 the education instructors were handled by the Air Force officers and non\-commissioned officers, for prospective educational instructors who excelled, Suryadarma sent these officers and non\-commissioned officers to train with the [Indian Air Force](/wiki/Indian_Air_Force "Indian Air Force") in large numbers to receive additional training in Western aircraft.
From 1950 to 1955, he founded Aeroclubs in several provincial capitals. His policies were allowing civilians interested in flying with the [Piper Cub L4\-J](/wiki/Piper_Cub_L-4 "Piper Cub L-4") training aircraft, as long as they met the requirements. There were two classes that would fulfill the requirements as Pilot\-III (klein brevet), with 60–65 flight hours. The instructors were Air Force pilots and this course was limited to Cililitan ([Halim](/wiki/Halim_Perdanakusuma_International_Airport "Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport")), Andir (Sulaiman, [Bandung](/wiki/Bandung "Bandung")) and Maguwo ([Adisucipto](/wiki/Adisutjipto_Airport "Adisutjipto Airport")). Most of the civilian students were young lecturers from universities. Suryadarma initiated publication of the aerospace magazine *Angkasa* by the Air Force Information Service in 1950\. Now *Angkasa* magazine is published and preserved by the [Kompas Gramedia group](/wiki/Kompas_Gramedia_Group "Kompas Gramedia Group") under [Jakob Oetama](/wiki/Jakob_Oetama "Jakob Oetama").
[thumb\|Suryadi Suryadarma in 1954](/wiki/File:Soerjadi_Soerjadarma%2C_Kami_Perkenalkan_%281954%29%2C_p47.jpg "Soerjadi Soerjadarma, Kami Perkenalkan (1954), p47.jpg")
Suryadarma together with Soetanandika (Chief of the [Directorate General of Civil Aviation](/wiki/Directorate_General_of_Civil_Aviation_%28Indonesia%29 "Directorate General of Civil Aviation (Indonesia)")) initiated the establishment of the Curug Aviation Academy (Aviation School, Air Engineering School, Aviation Traffic School, and Meteorology School) fulfilling [ICAO](/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization "International Civil Aviation Organization") requirements. In the first years, these schools used Air Force instructors, but later replaced by foreign workers on the recommendation of the ICAO and added civilian personnel who met ICAO qualifications{{Cite web \|last\=Bachtiar \|first\=Imelda \|editor\-last\=Syatiri \|editor\-first\=Ana Shofiana \|title\=Bapak AURI Marsekal Suryadarma, Pembangun Dirgantara {{!}} Kompas.com \|url\=https://today.line.me/id/v2/article/JeE5Nk \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623041412/https://today.line.me/id/v2/article/JeE5Nk \|archive\-date\=23 June 2022 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-23 \|website\=LINE TODAY \|language\=id}}
He played a role in the negotiations for the takeover of [KNILM](/wiki/KNILM "KNILM")/[KLM](/wiki/KLM "KLM") to become [Garuda Indonesia Airways](/wiki/Garuda_Indonesia "Garuda Indonesia") (GIA) in the 1950s and the pilots came from the first batch of graduates of the Air Force Aviation Officers School. In addition, Suryadarma also initiated a program for pilots and civil aviation crews becoming officers and non\-commissioned officers of the Air Force reserve \- a practice adopted from [Aeroflot](/wiki/Aeroflot "Aeroflot"), whose staff formed part of the reserve of the [Soviet Air Forces](/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces "Soviet Air Forces"). Civilians involved in civil aviation were also appointed as officers with a titular rank in the reserves.
Suryadarma strongly supported the efforts of [Nurtanio Pringgoadisuryo](/wiki/Nurtanio_Pringgoadisuryo "Nurtanio Pringgoadisuryo") to build an aviation industry in Indonesia. In its early stage, the
project was named the Institute for Aviation Industry Preparation (LAPIP), which was within the Air Force and Suryadarma as Chief of Staff of the Air Force (later Minister of the Air Force) determined the policies of the agency. LAPIP later changed to the Nurtanio Aircraft Industries Institution (LIPNUR) in 1976 and in 1980 it was changed to the Nusantara Aircraft Industry (IPTN) by future president [B.J. Habibie](/wiki/B._J._Habibie "B. J. Habibie"), its long time chairman, it would be the basis for [Indonesian Aerospace](/wiki/Indonesian_Aerospace "Indonesian Aerospace"). The Chief of Staff thus presided over the manufacture of the first ever aircraft made by Indonesians and funded by Indonesian capital.
On 9 March 1960, Suryadi Suryadarma had requested to resign as a form of accountability for the actions of Second Lieutenant [Daniel Maukar](/wiki/Daniel_Alexander_Maukar "Daniel Alexander Maukar") who opened fire at the [Jakarta State Palace](/wiki/Istana_Negara_%28Jakarta%29 "Istana Negara (Jakarta)") with a [MiG\-17F "Fresco"](/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-17 "Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17") fighter from the 11th Air Squadron, but the request was rejected by the President [Sukarno](/wiki/Sukarno "Sukarno").{{Cite web \|date\=5 October 2020 \|editor\-last\=Umar \|editor\-first\=Rhendi \|title\=SOSOK Soerjadi Soerjadarma KASAU Pertama di Indonesia, Disebut Pelopor Penerbangan Komersial \|url\=https://manado.tribunnews.com/2020/10/05/sosok\-soerjadi\-soerjadarma\-kasau\-pertama\-di\-indonesia\-disebut\-pelopor\-penerbangan\-komersial \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623041547/https://manado.tribunnews.com/2020/10/05/sosok\-soerjadi\-soerjadarma\-kasau\-pertama\-di\-indonesia\-disebut\-pelopor\-penerbangan\-komersial \|archive\-date\=23 June 2022 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-23 \|website\=Tribun Manado \|language\=id\-ID}}
On 19 January 1962, Suryadarma was forced to resign from his position as Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force as a result of the [Battle of Arafura Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_Arafura_Sea "Battle of Arafura Sea") \- during the then ongoing [Operation Trikora](/wiki/Operation_Trikora "Operation Trikora") \- in which Commodore [Yos Sudarso](/wiki/Yos_Sudarso "Yos Sudarso") died, as the Indonesian Air Force at was deemed insufficient in providing air protection to the [Indonesian Navy](/wiki/Indonesian_Navy "Indonesian Navy") from attacks by [Royal Netherlands Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Air_Force "Royal Netherlands Air Force") aircraft flying from Papuan bases. His position as Chief of Staff was replaced by Air Marshal [Omar Dhani](/wiki/Omar_Dhani "Omar Dhani") on the same day, effectively retiring after 16 years of service to the air force as the first Air Chief Marshal in Indonesia's military history. Regardless of the outcome, he laid the groundwork for the transformation of the Air Force into a powerful service \- by the time he retired the TNI\-AU \- then AURI \- had become one of the strongest in the Asia\-Pacific and the world at large, with its fleets of MiG fighters, Soviet built transports and bombers, and a first surface to air missile system for the country \- the Soviet produced [S\-75 Dvina](/wiki/S-75_Dvina "S-75 Dvina") \- serving alongside Western systems acquired during his long tenure. Under his leadership the Air Force, post\-independence, with its aircraft and Kopasgat elements, fought the bitter regional rebellions of the 1950s, and ensured Indonesian air dominance in West Papua against Dutch aviation.
On the next day, 20 January 1962, he was appointed as Military Advisor to the President by President Sukarno. In 1966, he was appointed as [Minister of Post and Telecommunications](/wiki/Ministry_of_Communication_and_Information_Technology_%28Indonesia%29 "Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (Indonesia)") in the [Revised Dwikora Cabinet](/wiki/Revised_Dwikora_Cabinet "Revised Dwikora Cabinet"). As a tribute to his services, the Indonesian Air Force named [Suryadarma Air Base](/wiki/Suryadarma_Air_Force_Base "Suryadarma Air Force Base") in Kalijati, [Subang Regency](/wiki/Subang_Regency "Subang Regency"), West Java after him. He was also the namesake of a university owned by the Indonesian Air Force, Suryadarma University, in Halim Perdanakusuma, [East Jakarta](/wiki/East_Jakarta "East Jakarta").
In 2000, in honor of his efforts for the building of the Air Force and of Indonesian aviation in general, he was granted the title *Father of the Indonesian Air Force*.
|
[
"Independence period\n-------------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Suryadarma being transferred outside of Java after his capture in Yogyakarta in 1948](/wiki/File:De_Republikeinse_autoriteiten_die_bij_de_bezetting_van_Djocja_aldaar_voorlopig_w%2C_Bestanddeelnr_5305.jpg \"De Republikeinse autoriteiten die bij de bezetting van Djocja aldaar voorlopig w, Bestanddeelnr 5305.jpg\")\nDuring the [Indonesian Revolution](/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution \"Indonesian National Revolution\"), Suryadarma, as the first [Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force](/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_Indonesian_Air_Force \"Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force\"), first as an Air Commodore, and then as an Air Vice Marshal, from his appointment in late 1945, began developing an interest in \"aerospace\" through the establishment of an [Aeroclub](/wiki/Aeroclub \"Aeroclub\"), with basic military aviation education and training in [Maguwo](/wiki/Maguwo \"Maguwo\"), [Maospati](/wiki/Maospati \"Maospati\") and [Malang](/wiki/Malang \"Malang\") (radio engineering, radio operators, pilots, paratroops, air supplies and morse code training). Suryadarma realized the importance of paratroopers, given the geographical condition of Indonesia, consisting of thousands of islands, which became the forerunner of the first paratrooper unit in Indonesia, establishing the *Pasukan Gerak Tjepat* (PGT) which became the Indonesian Air Force's [Kopasgat](/wiki/Kopasgat \"Kopasgat\"), the oldest special forces unit in Southeast Asia. He was the one who gave the blessing for the first combat paradrop in the country. Suryadarma strongly supported the ideas of Wiweko Supeno and Nurtanio in various experiments on airplanes and helicopter production in Maospati. He along with [Halim Perdanakusuma](/wiki/Halim_Perdanakusuma \"Halim Perdanakusuma\") and Wiweko invited foreign transport planes to break through the Dutch air blockade against Indonesia.",
"### Post\\-independence",
"From 1950 to 1954, then Air Marshal Suryadarma prioritized the establishment of flight training and education schools with military and civil aviation technical vocational training, by utilizing Dutch experts (former East Indies Air force and Naval aviation) as instructors, lecturers and education quality supervisors, while the Airborne Officers' School employed instructors from the United States Army and Air Force. In 1954 the education instructors were handled by the Air Force officers and non\\-commissioned officers, for prospective educational instructors who excelled, Suryadarma sent these officers and non\\-commissioned officers to train with the [Indian Air Force](/wiki/Indian_Air_Force \"Indian Air Force\") in large numbers to receive additional training in Western aircraft.",
"From 1950 to 1955, he founded Aeroclubs in several provincial capitals. His policies were allowing civilians interested in flying with the [Piper Cub L4\\-J](/wiki/Piper_Cub_L-4 \"Piper Cub L-4\") training aircraft, as long as they met the requirements. There were two classes that would fulfill the requirements as Pilot\\-III (klein brevet), with 60–65 flight hours. The instructors were Air Force pilots and this course was limited to Cililitan ([Halim](/wiki/Halim_Perdanakusuma_International_Airport \"Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport\")), Andir (Sulaiman, [Bandung](/wiki/Bandung \"Bandung\")) and Maguwo ([Adisucipto](/wiki/Adisutjipto_Airport \"Adisutjipto Airport\")). Most of the civilian students were young lecturers from universities. Suryadarma initiated publication of the aerospace magazine *Angkasa* by the Air Force Information Service in 1950\\. Now *Angkasa* magazine is published and preserved by the [Kompas Gramedia group](/wiki/Kompas_Gramedia_Group \"Kompas Gramedia Group\") under [Jakob Oetama](/wiki/Jakob_Oetama \"Jakob Oetama\").\n[thumb\\|Suryadi Suryadarma in 1954](/wiki/File:Soerjadi_Soerjadarma%2C_Kami_Perkenalkan_%281954%29%2C_p47.jpg \"Soerjadi Soerjadarma, Kami Perkenalkan (1954), p47.jpg\")\nSuryadarma together with Soetanandika (Chief of the [Directorate General of Civil Aviation](/wiki/Directorate_General_of_Civil_Aviation_%28Indonesia%29 \"Directorate General of Civil Aviation (Indonesia)\")) initiated the establishment of the Curug Aviation Academy (Aviation School, Air Engineering School, Aviation Traffic School, and Meteorology School) fulfilling [ICAO](/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization \"International Civil Aviation Organization\") requirements. In the first years, these schools used Air Force instructors, but later replaced by foreign workers on the recommendation of the ICAO and added civilian personnel who met ICAO qualifications{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bachtiar \\|first\\=Imelda \\|editor\\-last\\=Syatiri \\|editor\\-first\\=Ana Shofiana \\|title\\=Bapak AURI Marsekal Suryadarma, Pembangun Dirgantara {{!}} Kompas.com \\|url\\=https://today.line.me/id/v2/article/JeE5Nk \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623041412/https://today.line.me/id/v2/article/JeE5Nk \\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=LINE TODAY \\|language\\=id}}",
"He played a role in the negotiations for the takeover of [KNILM](/wiki/KNILM \"KNILM\")/[KLM](/wiki/KLM \"KLM\") to become [Garuda Indonesia Airways](/wiki/Garuda_Indonesia \"Garuda Indonesia\") (GIA) in the 1950s and the pilots came from the first batch of graduates of the Air Force Aviation Officers School. In addition, Suryadarma also initiated a program for pilots and civil aviation crews becoming officers and non\\-commissioned officers of the Air Force reserve \\- a practice adopted from [Aeroflot](/wiki/Aeroflot \"Aeroflot\"), whose staff formed part of the reserve of the [Soviet Air Forces](/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces \"Soviet Air Forces\"). Civilians involved in civil aviation were also appointed as officers with a titular rank in the reserves.",
"Suryadarma strongly supported the efforts of [Nurtanio Pringgoadisuryo](/wiki/Nurtanio_Pringgoadisuryo \"Nurtanio Pringgoadisuryo\") to build an aviation industry in Indonesia. In its early stage, the \nproject was named the Institute for Aviation Industry Preparation (LAPIP), which was within the Air Force and Suryadarma as Chief of Staff of the Air Force (later Minister of the Air Force) determined the policies of the agency. LAPIP later changed to the Nurtanio Aircraft Industries Institution (LIPNUR) in 1976 and in 1980 it was changed to the Nusantara Aircraft Industry (IPTN) by future president [B.J. Habibie](/wiki/B._J._Habibie \"B. J. Habibie\"), its long time chairman, it would be the basis for [Indonesian Aerospace](/wiki/Indonesian_Aerospace \"Indonesian Aerospace\"). The Chief of Staff thus presided over the manufacture of the first ever aircraft made by Indonesians and funded by Indonesian capital.",
"On 9 March 1960, Suryadi Suryadarma had requested to resign as a form of accountability for the actions of Second Lieutenant [Daniel Maukar](/wiki/Daniel_Alexander_Maukar \"Daniel Alexander Maukar\") who opened fire at the [Jakarta State Palace](/wiki/Istana_Negara_%28Jakarta%29 \"Istana Negara (Jakarta)\") with a [MiG\\-17F \"Fresco\"](/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-17 \"Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17\") fighter from the 11th Air Squadron, but the request was rejected by the President [Sukarno](/wiki/Sukarno \"Sukarno\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=5 October 2020 \\|editor\\-last\\=Umar \\|editor\\-first\\=Rhendi \\|title\\=SOSOK Soerjadi Soerjadarma KASAU Pertama di Indonesia, Disebut Pelopor Penerbangan Komersial \\|url\\=https://manado.tribunnews.com/2020/10/05/sosok\\-soerjadi\\-soerjadarma\\-kasau\\-pertama\\-di\\-indonesia\\-disebut\\-pelopor\\-penerbangan\\-komersial \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623041547/https://manado.tribunnews.com/2020/10/05/sosok\\-soerjadi\\-soerjadarma\\-kasau\\-pertama\\-di\\-indonesia\\-disebut\\-pelopor\\-penerbangan\\-komersial \\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=Tribun Manado \\|language\\=id\\-ID}}",
"On 19 January 1962, Suryadarma was forced to resign from his position as Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force as a result of the [Battle of Arafura Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_Arafura_Sea \"Battle of Arafura Sea\") \\- during the then ongoing [Operation Trikora](/wiki/Operation_Trikora \"Operation Trikora\") \\- in which Commodore [Yos Sudarso](/wiki/Yos_Sudarso \"Yos Sudarso\") died, as the Indonesian Air Force at was deemed insufficient in providing air protection to the [Indonesian Navy](/wiki/Indonesian_Navy \"Indonesian Navy\") from attacks by [Royal Netherlands Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Air_Force \"Royal Netherlands Air Force\") aircraft flying from Papuan bases. His position as Chief of Staff was replaced by Air Marshal [Omar Dhani](/wiki/Omar_Dhani \"Omar Dhani\") on the same day, effectively retiring after 16 years of service to the air force as the first Air Chief Marshal in Indonesia's military history. Regardless of the outcome, he laid the groundwork for the transformation of the Air Force into a powerful service \\- by the time he retired the TNI\\-AU \\- then AURI \\- had become one of the strongest in the Asia\\-Pacific and the world at large, with its fleets of MiG fighters, Soviet built transports and bombers, and a first surface to air missile system for the country \\- the Soviet produced [S\\-75 Dvina](/wiki/S-75_Dvina \"S-75 Dvina\") \\- serving alongside Western systems acquired during his long tenure. Under his leadership the Air Force, post\\-independence, with its aircraft and Kopasgat elements, fought the bitter regional rebellions of the 1950s, and ensured Indonesian air dominance in West Papua against Dutch aviation.",
"On the next day, 20 January 1962, he was appointed as Military Advisor to the President by President Sukarno. In 1966, he was appointed as [Minister of Post and Telecommunications](/wiki/Ministry_of_Communication_and_Information_Technology_%28Indonesia%29 \"Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (Indonesia)\") in the [Revised Dwikora Cabinet](/wiki/Revised_Dwikora_Cabinet \"Revised Dwikora Cabinet\"). As a tribute to his services, the Indonesian Air Force named [Suryadarma Air Base](/wiki/Suryadarma_Air_Force_Base \"Suryadarma Air Force Base\") in Kalijati, [Subang Regency](/wiki/Subang_Regency \"Subang Regency\"), West Java after him. He was also the namesake of a university owned by the Indonesian Air Force, Suryadarma University, in Halim Perdanakusuma, [East Jakarta](/wiki/East_Jakarta \"East Jakarta\").",
"In 2000, in honor of his efforts for the building of the Air Force and of Indonesian aviation in general, he was granted the title *Father of the Indonesian Air Force*.",
""
] |
### Post\-independence
From 1950 to 1954, then Air Marshal Suryadarma prioritized the establishment of flight training and education schools with military and civil aviation technical vocational training, by utilizing Dutch experts (former East Indies Air force and Naval aviation) as instructors, lecturers and education quality supervisors, while the Airborne Officers' School employed instructors from the United States Army and Air Force. In 1954 the education instructors were handled by the Air Force officers and non\-commissioned officers, for prospective educational instructors who excelled, Suryadarma sent these officers and non\-commissioned officers to train with the [Indian Air Force](/wiki/Indian_Air_Force "Indian Air Force") in large numbers to receive additional training in Western aircraft.
From 1950 to 1955, he founded Aeroclubs in several provincial capitals. His policies were allowing civilians interested in flying with the [Piper Cub L4\-J](/wiki/Piper_Cub_L-4 "Piper Cub L-4") training aircraft, as long as they met the requirements. There were two classes that would fulfill the requirements as Pilot\-III (klein brevet), with 60–65 flight hours. The instructors were Air Force pilots and this course was limited to Cililitan ([Halim](/wiki/Halim_Perdanakusuma_International_Airport "Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport")), Andir (Sulaiman, [Bandung](/wiki/Bandung "Bandung")) and Maguwo ([Adisucipto](/wiki/Adisutjipto_Airport "Adisutjipto Airport")). Most of the civilian students were young lecturers from universities. Suryadarma initiated publication of the aerospace magazine *Angkasa* by the Air Force Information Service in 1950\. Now *Angkasa* magazine is published and preserved by the [Kompas Gramedia group](/wiki/Kompas_Gramedia_Group "Kompas Gramedia Group") under [Jakob Oetama](/wiki/Jakob_Oetama "Jakob Oetama").
[thumb\|Suryadi Suryadarma in 1954](/wiki/File:Soerjadi_Soerjadarma%2C_Kami_Perkenalkan_%281954%29%2C_p47.jpg "Soerjadi Soerjadarma, Kami Perkenalkan (1954), p47.jpg")
Suryadarma together with Soetanandika (Chief of the [Directorate General of Civil Aviation](/wiki/Directorate_General_of_Civil_Aviation_%28Indonesia%29 "Directorate General of Civil Aviation (Indonesia)")) initiated the establishment of the Curug Aviation Academy (Aviation School, Air Engineering School, Aviation Traffic School, and Meteorology School) fulfilling [ICAO](/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization "International Civil Aviation Organization") requirements. In the first years, these schools used Air Force instructors, but later replaced by foreign workers on the recommendation of the ICAO and added civilian personnel who met ICAO qualifications{{Cite web \|last\=Bachtiar \|first\=Imelda \|editor\-last\=Syatiri \|editor\-first\=Ana Shofiana \|title\=Bapak AURI Marsekal Suryadarma, Pembangun Dirgantara {{!}} Kompas.com \|url\=https://today.line.me/id/v2/article/JeE5Nk \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623041412/https://today.line.me/id/v2/article/JeE5Nk \|archive\-date\=23 June 2022 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-23 \|website\=LINE TODAY \|language\=id}}
He played a role in the negotiations for the takeover of [KNILM](/wiki/KNILM "KNILM")/[KLM](/wiki/KLM "KLM") to become [Garuda Indonesia Airways](/wiki/Garuda_Indonesia "Garuda Indonesia") (GIA) in the 1950s and the pilots came from the first batch of graduates of the Air Force Aviation Officers School. In addition, Suryadarma also initiated a program for pilots and civil aviation crews becoming officers and non\-commissioned officers of the Air Force reserve \- a practice adopted from [Aeroflot](/wiki/Aeroflot "Aeroflot"), whose staff formed part of the reserve of the [Soviet Air Forces](/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces "Soviet Air Forces"). Civilians involved in civil aviation were also appointed as officers with a titular rank in the reserves.
Suryadarma strongly supported the efforts of [Nurtanio Pringgoadisuryo](/wiki/Nurtanio_Pringgoadisuryo "Nurtanio Pringgoadisuryo") to build an aviation industry in Indonesia. In its early stage, the
project was named the Institute for Aviation Industry Preparation (LAPIP), which was within the Air Force and Suryadarma as Chief of Staff of the Air Force (later Minister of the Air Force) determined the policies of the agency. LAPIP later changed to the Nurtanio Aircraft Industries Institution (LIPNUR) in 1976 and in 1980 it was changed to the Nusantara Aircraft Industry (IPTN) by future president [B.J. Habibie](/wiki/B._J._Habibie "B. J. Habibie"), its long time chairman, it would be the basis for [Indonesian Aerospace](/wiki/Indonesian_Aerospace "Indonesian Aerospace"). The Chief of Staff thus presided over the manufacture of the first ever aircraft made by Indonesians and funded by Indonesian capital.
On 9 March 1960, Suryadi Suryadarma had requested to resign as a form of accountability for the actions of Second Lieutenant [Daniel Maukar](/wiki/Daniel_Alexander_Maukar "Daniel Alexander Maukar") who opened fire at the [Jakarta State Palace](/wiki/Istana_Negara_%28Jakarta%29 "Istana Negara (Jakarta)") with a [MiG\-17F "Fresco"](/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-17 "Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17") fighter from the 11th Air Squadron, but the request was rejected by the President [Sukarno](/wiki/Sukarno "Sukarno").{{Cite web \|date\=5 October 2020 \|editor\-last\=Umar \|editor\-first\=Rhendi \|title\=SOSOK Soerjadi Soerjadarma KASAU Pertama di Indonesia, Disebut Pelopor Penerbangan Komersial \|url\=https://manado.tribunnews.com/2020/10/05/sosok\-soerjadi\-soerjadarma\-kasau\-pertama\-di\-indonesia\-disebut\-pelopor\-penerbangan\-komersial \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623041547/https://manado.tribunnews.com/2020/10/05/sosok\-soerjadi\-soerjadarma\-kasau\-pertama\-di\-indonesia\-disebut\-pelopor\-penerbangan\-komersial \|archive\-date\=23 June 2022 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-23 \|website\=Tribun Manado \|language\=id\-ID}}
On 19 January 1962, Suryadarma was forced to resign from his position as Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force as a result of the [Battle of Arafura Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_Arafura_Sea "Battle of Arafura Sea") \- during the then ongoing [Operation Trikora](/wiki/Operation_Trikora "Operation Trikora") \- in which Commodore [Yos Sudarso](/wiki/Yos_Sudarso "Yos Sudarso") died, as the Indonesian Air Force at was deemed insufficient in providing air protection to the [Indonesian Navy](/wiki/Indonesian_Navy "Indonesian Navy") from attacks by [Royal Netherlands Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Air_Force "Royal Netherlands Air Force") aircraft flying from Papuan bases. His position as Chief of Staff was replaced by Air Marshal [Omar Dhani](/wiki/Omar_Dhani "Omar Dhani") on the same day, effectively retiring after 16 years of service to the air force as the first Air Chief Marshal in Indonesia's military history. Regardless of the outcome, he laid the groundwork for the transformation of the Air Force into a powerful service \- by the time he retired the TNI\-AU \- then AURI \- had become one of the strongest in the Asia\-Pacific and the world at large, with its fleets of MiG fighters, Soviet built transports and bombers, and a first surface to air missile system for the country \- the Soviet produced [S\-75 Dvina](/wiki/S-75_Dvina "S-75 Dvina") \- serving alongside Western systems acquired during his long tenure. Under his leadership the Air Force, post\-independence, with its aircraft and Kopasgat elements, fought the bitter regional rebellions of the 1950s, and ensured Indonesian air dominance in West Papua against Dutch aviation.
On the next day, 20 January 1962, he was appointed as Military Advisor to the President by President Sukarno. In 1966, he was appointed as [Minister of Post and Telecommunications](/wiki/Ministry_of_Communication_and_Information_Technology_%28Indonesia%29 "Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (Indonesia)") in the [Revised Dwikora Cabinet](/wiki/Revised_Dwikora_Cabinet "Revised Dwikora Cabinet"). As a tribute to his services, the Indonesian Air Force named [Suryadarma Air Base](/wiki/Suryadarma_Air_Force_Base "Suryadarma Air Force Base") in Kalijati, [Subang Regency](/wiki/Subang_Regency "Subang Regency"), West Java after him. He was also the namesake of a university owned by the Indonesian Air Force, Suryadarma University, in Halim Perdanakusuma, [East Jakarta](/wiki/East_Jakarta "East Jakarta").
In 2000, in honor of his efforts for the building of the Air Force and of Indonesian aviation in general, he was granted the title *Father of the Indonesian Air Force*.
|
[
"### Post\\-independence",
"From 1950 to 1954, then Air Marshal Suryadarma prioritized the establishment of flight training and education schools with military and civil aviation technical vocational training, by utilizing Dutch experts (former East Indies Air force and Naval aviation) as instructors, lecturers and education quality supervisors, while the Airborne Officers' School employed instructors from the United States Army and Air Force. In 1954 the education instructors were handled by the Air Force officers and non\\-commissioned officers, for prospective educational instructors who excelled, Suryadarma sent these officers and non\\-commissioned officers to train with the [Indian Air Force](/wiki/Indian_Air_Force \"Indian Air Force\") in large numbers to receive additional training in Western aircraft.",
"From 1950 to 1955, he founded Aeroclubs in several provincial capitals. His policies were allowing civilians interested in flying with the [Piper Cub L4\\-J](/wiki/Piper_Cub_L-4 \"Piper Cub L-4\") training aircraft, as long as they met the requirements. There were two classes that would fulfill the requirements as Pilot\\-III (klein brevet), with 60–65 flight hours. The instructors were Air Force pilots and this course was limited to Cililitan ([Halim](/wiki/Halim_Perdanakusuma_International_Airport \"Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport\")), Andir (Sulaiman, [Bandung](/wiki/Bandung \"Bandung\")) and Maguwo ([Adisucipto](/wiki/Adisutjipto_Airport \"Adisutjipto Airport\")). Most of the civilian students were young lecturers from universities. Suryadarma initiated publication of the aerospace magazine *Angkasa* by the Air Force Information Service in 1950\\. Now *Angkasa* magazine is published and preserved by the [Kompas Gramedia group](/wiki/Kompas_Gramedia_Group \"Kompas Gramedia Group\") under [Jakob Oetama](/wiki/Jakob_Oetama \"Jakob Oetama\").\n[thumb\\|Suryadi Suryadarma in 1954](/wiki/File:Soerjadi_Soerjadarma%2C_Kami_Perkenalkan_%281954%29%2C_p47.jpg \"Soerjadi Soerjadarma, Kami Perkenalkan (1954), p47.jpg\")\nSuryadarma together with Soetanandika (Chief of the [Directorate General of Civil Aviation](/wiki/Directorate_General_of_Civil_Aviation_%28Indonesia%29 \"Directorate General of Civil Aviation (Indonesia)\")) initiated the establishment of the Curug Aviation Academy (Aviation School, Air Engineering School, Aviation Traffic School, and Meteorology School) fulfilling [ICAO](/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization \"International Civil Aviation Organization\") requirements. In the first years, these schools used Air Force instructors, but later replaced by foreign workers on the recommendation of the ICAO and added civilian personnel who met ICAO qualifications{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bachtiar \\|first\\=Imelda \\|editor\\-last\\=Syatiri \\|editor\\-first\\=Ana Shofiana \\|title\\=Bapak AURI Marsekal Suryadarma, Pembangun Dirgantara {{!}} Kompas.com \\|url\\=https://today.line.me/id/v2/article/JeE5Nk \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623041412/https://today.line.me/id/v2/article/JeE5Nk \\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=LINE TODAY \\|language\\=id}}",
"He played a role in the negotiations for the takeover of [KNILM](/wiki/KNILM \"KNILM\")/[KLM](/wiki/KLM \"KLM\") to become [Garuda Indonesia Airways](/wiki/Garuda_Indonesia \"Garuda Indonesia\") (GIA) in the 1950s and the pilots came from the first batch of graduates of the Air Force Aviation Officers School. In addition, Suryadarma also initiated a program for pilots and civil aviation crews becoming officers and non\\-commissioned officers of the Air Force reserve \\- a practice adopted from [Aeroflot](/wiki/Aeroflot \"Aeroflot\"), whose staff formed part of the reserve of the [Soviet Air Forces](/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces \"Soviet Air Forces\"). Civilians involved in civil aviation were also appointed as officers with a titular rank in the reserves.",
"Suryadarma strongly supported the efforts of [Nurtanio Pringgoadisuryo](/wiki/Nurtanio_Pringgoadisuryo \"Nurtanio Pringgoadisuryo\") to build an aviation industry in Indonesia. In its early stage, the \nproject was named the Institute for Aviation Industry Preparation (LAPIP), which was within the Air Force and Suryadarma as Chief of Staff of the Air Force (later Minister of the Air Force) determined the policies of the agency. LAPIP later changed to the Nurtanio Aircraft Industries Institution (LIPNUR) in 1976 and in 1980 it was changed to the Nusantara Aircraft Industry (IPTN) by future president [B.J. Habibie](/wiki/B._J._Habibie \"B. J. Habibie\"), its long time chairman, it would be the basis for [Indonesian Aerospace](/wiki/Indonesian_Aerospace \"Indonesian Aerospace\"). The Chief of Staff thus presided over the manufacture of the first ever aircraft made by Indonesians and funded by Indonesian capital.",
"On 9 March 1960, Suryadi Suryadarma had requested to resign as a form of accountability for the actions of Second Lieutenant [Daniel Maukar](/wiki/Daniel_Alexander_Maukar \"Daniel Alexander Maukar\") who opened fire at the [Jakarta State Palace](/wiki/Istana_Negara_%28Jakarta%29 \"Istana Negara (Jakarta)\") with a [MiG\\-17F \"Fresco\"](/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-17 \"Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17\") fighter from the 11th Air Squadron, but the request was rejected by the President [Sukarno](/wiki/Sukarno \"Sukarno\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=5 October 2020 \\|editor\\-last\\=Umar \\|editor\\-first\\=Rhendi \\|title\\=SOSOK Soerjadi Soerjadarma KASAU Pertama di Indonesia, Disebut Pelopor Penerbangan Komersial \\|url\\=https://manado.tribunnews.com/2020/10/05/sosok\\-soerjadi\\-soerjadarma\\-kasau\\-pertama\\-di\\-indonesia\\-disebut\\-pelopor\\-penerbangan\\-komersial \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623041547/https://manado.tribunnews.com/2020/10/05/sosok\\-soerjadi\\-soerjadarma\\-kasau\\-pertama\\-di\\-indonesia\\-disebut\\-pelopor\\-penerbangan\\-komersial \\|archive\\-date\\=23 June 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=Tribun Manado \\|language\\=id\\-ID}}",
"On 19 January 1962, Suryadarma was forced to resign from his position as Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force as a result of the [Battle of Arafura Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_Arafura_Sea \"Battle of Arafura Sea\") \\- during the then ongoing [Operation Trikora](/wiki/Operation_Trikora \"Operation Trikora\") \\- in which Commodore [Yos Sudarso](/wiki/Yos_Sudarso \"Yos Sudarso\") died, as the Indonesian Air Force at was deemed insufficient in providing air protection to the [Indonesian Navy](/wiki/Indonesian_Navy \"Indonesian Navy\") from attacks by [Royal Netherlands Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Air_Force \"Royal Netherlands Air Force\") aircraft flying from Papuan bases. His position as Chief of Staff was replaced by Air Marshal [Omar Dhani](/wiki/Omar_Dhani \"Omar Dhani\") on the same day, effectively retiring after 16 years of service to the air force as the first Air Chief Marshal in Indonesia's military history. Regardless of the outcome, he laid the groundwork for the transformation of the Air Force into a powerful service \\- by the time he retired the TNI\\-AU \\- then AURI \\- had become one of the strongest in the Asia\\-Pacific and the world at large, with its fleets of MiG fighters, Soviet built transports and bombers, and a first surface to air missile system for the country \\- the Soviet produced [S\\-75 Dvina](/wiki/S-75_Dvina \"S-75 Dvina\") \\- serving alongside Western systems acquired during his long tenure. Under his leadership the Air Force, post\\-independence, with its aircraft and Kopasgat elements, fought the bitter regional rebellions of the 1950s, and ensured Indonesian air dominance in West Papua against Dutch aviation.",
"On the next day, 20 January 1962, he was appointed as Military Advisor to the President by President Sukarno. In 1966, he was appointed as [Minister of Post and Telecommunications](/wiki/Ministry_of_Communication_and_Information_Technology_%28Indonesia%29 \"Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (Indonesia)\") in the [Revised Dwikora Cabinet](/wiki/Revised_Dwikora_Cabinet \"Revised Dwikora Cabinet\"). As a tribute to his services, the Indonesian Air Force named [Suryadarma Air Base](/wiki/Suryadarma_Air_Force_Base \"Suryadarma Air Force Base\") in Kalijati, [Subang Regency](/wiki/Subang_Regency \"Subang Regency\"), West Java after him. He was also the namesake of a university owned by the Indonesian Air Force, Suryadarma University, in Halim Perdanakusuma, [East Jakarta](/wiki/East_Jakarta \"East Jakarta\").",
"In 2000, in honor of his efforts for the building of the Air Force and of Indonesian aviation in general, he was granted the title *Father of the Indonesian Air Force*.",
""
] |
Career
------
In 1973, Jackson joined Shepards Bush as lead guitarist. It was here that he met [Felix Hanemann](/wiki/Felix_Hanemann "Felix Hanemann"). Hanemann worked at Jazz City Studios in New Orleans owned by [Cosimo Matassa](/wiki/Cosimo_Matassa "Cosimo Matassa"). Shepards Bush recorded a demo at the studio which was Jackson's first experience in a recording studio. Jackson and Hanemann left Shepards Bush a year later. They soon met drummer Guy Gelso and formed "Zebra" in 1975\. It was at this point that Jackson started singing lead vocals. After playing the New Orleans area for two years, Zebra moved to [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island "Long Island") in New York in 1977 and dedicated themselves to playing in that area's club and college scene, mainly as a cover band. Even with their limited selection of original music. Zebra was talented enough to impress Atlantic Records, who signed the group to a five album deal right out of the gate in late 1982\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.classicrockreview.com/2013/05/1983\-zebra/\|title\=Zebra 1983 debut album review – Classic Rock Review\|website\=Classicrockreview.com\|date\=May 19, 2013 \|accessdate\=May 21, 2018}}
[thumb\|Jackson at the Long Island Club Rockaways in 1983](/wiki/File:RANDY_JACKSON_OF_ZEBRA_AT_ROCKAWAYS_-_LI%2C_NY%2C_1980s.jpg "RANDY JACKSON OF ZEBRA AT ROCKAWAYS - LI, NY, 1980s.jpg")
Their first album, *Zebra* was produced by [Jack Douglas](/wiki/Jack_Douglas_%28record_producer%29 "Jack Douglas (record producer)"), went gold and was the fastest selling debut album in the history of Atlantic Records. Zebra sold over 75,000 copies in its first week and spent eight months on the Billboard charts, peaked at number 29\. During the next couple of years Zebra played opener for [Aerosmith](/wiki/Aerosmith "Aerosmith"), [Journey](/wiki/Journey_%28band%29 "Journey (band)"), [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top "ZZ Top"), [Loverboy](/wiki/Loverboy "Loverboy"), [Cheap Trick](/wiki/Cheap_Trick "Cheap Trick"), [Sammy Hagar](/wiki/Sammy_Hagar "Sammy Hagar") and [REO Speedwagon](/wiki/REO_Speedwagon "REO Speedwagon").
The group has produced five albums and five videos with combined sales of over 2,000,000\.
In addition to working with Zebra, Jackson performs lead vocals for The Music of Led Zeppelin,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.themusicofledzeppelin.com/bios\_randyjackson.html \|title\=The Music of Led Zeppelin Musician Bios: Randy Jackson \|accessdate\=July 13, 2008 \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115162619/http://www.themusicofledzeppelin.com/bios\_randyjackson.html \|archivedate\=January 15, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} The Music of Pink Floyd{{cite web\|url\=http://www.themusicofledzeppelin.com/show\_pf.php\|title\=Windborne Music\|publisher\=Themusicofledzeppelin.com\|accessdate\=January 4, 2015}} and The Music of The Doors;{{cite web\|url\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/BLABBERMOUTH.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=94727 \|title\=Zebra's Randy Jackson To Perform After Storm Game In Tampa \|accessdate\=July 13, 2008 \|publisher\=\[\[Blabbermouth.net]] }}{{dead link\|date\=January 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} tributes to the eponymous bands as backed by an orchestra. He also frequently plays live [acoustic](/wiki/Acoustic_music "Acoustic music") shows across the country.
In 1989, Jackson got a call from drummer [Kenny Aronoff](/wiki/Kenny_Aronoff "Kenny Aronoff") to join him and tour playing guitar and keyboards with the original [Jefferson Airplane](/wiki/Jefferson_Airplane "Jefferson Airplane") ([Grace Slick](/wiki/Grace_Slick "Grace Slick"), [Marty Balin](/wiki/Marty_Balin "Marty Balin"), [Paul Kantner](/wiki/Paul_Kantner "Paul Kantner"), [Jorma Kaukonen](/wiki/Jorma_Kaukonen "Jorma Kaukonen") and [Jack Casady](/wiki/Jack_Casady "Jack Casady")) on their U.S. reunion tour.{{cite news\|last1\=Pareles\|first1\=Jon\|title\=Review/Rock; Reunited Jefferson Airplane: Still Loose, Still Utopian\|work\=The New York Times \|date\=August 31, 1989 \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/31/arts/review\-rock\-reunited\-jefferson\-airplane\-still\-loose\-still\-utopian.html\|accessdate\=May 21, 2017}}
*Randy Jackson's China Rain*, a project that featured songs co\-written with [Mark Slaughter](/wiki/Mark_Slaughter "Mark Slaughter") and [Jack Ponti](/wiki/Jack_Ponti "Jack Ponti") was released in 1991 in North America, Europe and Japan.
In 1992, Jackson started performing "Solo" live with the use of a [Macintosh SE/30](/wiki/Macintosh_SE/30 "Macintosh SE/30") computer he programmed to perform the drums, bass and keyboards, and called it "The Midi Show". He also programmed the computer to run the sound mix and lights during the show. He toured all over the southern and the northeastern U.S. with the show.
From 1992 to 1996, Jackson was involved with Lonestar Technologies (Long Island) in the hardware and software development of an Interactive Multimedia Musical Instrument called "The Key" which allows anyone to play music instantly. [Jon Anderson](/wiki/Jon_Anderson "Jon Anderson") of "Yes" used "The Key" to perform live and wrote many songs with the instrument during that time.
{{cite web\|url\=http://www.matrixsynth.com/2010/06/1995\-lonestar\-technologies\-key\-guitar.html\|title\=MATRIXSYNTH\|publisher\=Matrixsynth.com\|accessdate\=January 4, 2015}}
Jackson completed work on *[Zebra IV](/wiki/Zebra_IV "Zebra IV")* which was released on July 8, 2003\. He produced and engineered the entire album.
The Sign were formed by [Mark Mangold](/wiki/Mark_Mangold "Mark Mangold") (Drive), Randy Jackson (Zebra), Terry Brock (Strangeways), [Billy Greer](/wiki/Billy_Greer "Billy Greer") (Kansas) and [Bobby Rondinelli](/wiki/Bobby_Rondinelli "Bobby Rondinelli") (Rainbow \& Black Sabbath). Their début album, released in 2000, was *Signs Of Life*. Their second album, *The Second Coming*, for which Jackson co\-wrote songs and shared vocals, was released in August 2005 on [Frontiers Records](/wiki/Frontiers_Records "Frontiers Records").{{cite web\|last1\=Mason\|first1\=Stewart\|title\=AllMusic Review\|url\=http://www.allmusic.com/album/the\-second\-coming\-mw0000744540/credits\|website\=allmusic.com\|accessdate\=May 21, 2017}}
In 2005, Jackson sang on three tracks on the album: "Subdivisions: A Tribute to Rush." The tracks were "[Distant Early Warning](/wiki/Distant_Early_Warning_%28song%29 "Distant Early Warning (song)")," "[Subdivisions](/wiki/Subdivisions_%28song%29 "Subdivisions (song)")," and "[A Farewell to Kings](/wiki/A_Farewell_to_Kings_%28song%29 "A Farewell to Kings (song)")."{{cite web \|title\=Subdivisions: A Tribute to Rush \|url\=https://magnacartarecords.bandcamp.com/album/subdivisions\-a\-tribute\-to\-rush \|website\=Bandcamp}}
Jackson sang The National Anthem at [Shea Stadium](/wiki/Shea_Stadium "Shea Stadium") in Flushing, New York on July 7, 2006\.
On July 10, 2010, Zebra was inducted into the [Louisiana Music Hall of Fame](/wiki/Louisiana_Music_Hall_of_Fame "Louisiana Music Hall of Fame").{{cite web\|url\=http://louisianamusichalloffame.org/content/view/673/147/\|title\=Louisiana Music Hall of Fame – RANDY JACKSON\|author\=Mike Shepherd\|publisher\=\|accessdate\=January 4, 2015}} On October 18, 2012, Zebra was inducted into the [Long Island Music Hall of Fame](/wiki/Long_Island_Music_Hall_of_Fame "Long Island Music Hall of Fame").
In 2010, Jackson participated in a tribute album titled *Mister Bolin's Late Night Revival*, a compilation of 17 previously unreleased tracks written by guitarist [Tommy Bolin](/wiki/Tommy_Bolin "Tommy Bolin") prior to his death in 1976\. The CD includes other artists such as [HiFi Superstar](/wiki/HiFi_Superstar "HiFi Superstar"), [Doogie White](/wiki/Doogie_White "Doogie White"), [Eric Martin](/wiki/Eric_Martin_%28singer%29 "Eric Martin (singer)"), [Troy Luccketta](/wiki/Troy_Luccketta "Troy Luccketta"), [Jeff Pilson](/wiki/Jeff_Pilson "Jeff Pilson"), [Rachel Barton](/wiki/Rachel_Barton_Pine "Rachel Barton Pine"), [Rex Carroll](/wiki/Rex_Carroll "Rex Carroll"), [Derek St. Holmes](/wiki/Derek_St._Holmes "Derek St. Holmes"), [Kimberley Dahme](/wiki/Kimberley_Dahme "Kimberley Dahme"), and [The 77's](/wiki/The_77s "The 77s"). "A percentage of the proceeds from this project will benefit the Jackson Recovery Centers." The Center is located in Tommy Bolin's home town of [Sioux City, Iowa](/wiki/Sioux_City%2C_Iowa "Sioux City, Iowa") and is not named for Randy Jackson.<http://www.misterbolinslatenightrevival.com/> {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822005548/http://www.misterbolinslatenightrevival.com/\|date\=August 22, 2010}}
On February 4, 2014, *Empathy for the Walrus* was released by Red River Records.{{cite web\|url\=http://empathyforthewalrus.com\|title\=Empathy for the Walrus – by Randy Jackson\|website\=Empathyforthewalrus.com\|accessdate\=January 4, 2015}} Jackson produced and engineered *Empathy For The Walrus*, playing all instruments and singing all the parts.
{{anchor\|Ashes of Eagles}}{{anchor\|Silvergun}}In late 2014, Jackson recorded "What it Feels Like" with Silvergun,{{efn\|group\=upper\-alpha\|name\=fn1\|In March 2015, Silvergun was renamed Ashes of Eagles.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.facebook.com/LOUD.Media.Group\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20150309172443/https://www.facebook.com/LOUD.Media.Group\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=(1\) LOUD Media Group LLC\|date\=March 9, 2015\|archivedate\=March 9, 2015\|website\=Facebook.com\|accessdate\=May 21, 2018}}}} an American rock band from [Dallas, Texas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas "Dallas, Texas"), starring Darren "DPaul" Wise of [The Drew Pearson Show band](/wiki/Drew_Pearson_%28American_football%29%23After_the_NFL "Drew Pearson (American football)#After the NFL").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In 1973, Jackson joined Shepards Bush as lead guitarist. It was here that he met [Felix Hanemann](/wiki/Felix_Hanemann \"Felix Hanemann\"). Hanemann worked at Jazz City Studios in New Orleans owned by [Cosimo Matassa](/wiki/Cosimo_Matassa \"Cosimo Matassa\"). Shepards Bush recorded a demo at the studio which was Jackson's first experience in a recording studio. Jackson and Hanemann left Shepards Bush a year later. They soon met drummer Guy Gelso and formed \"Zebra\" in 1975\\. It was at this point that Jackson started singing lead vocals. After playing the New Orleans area for two years, Zebra moved to [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\") in New York in 1977 and dedicated themselves to playing in that area's club and college scene, mainly as a cover band. Even with their limited selection of original music. Zebra was talented enough to impress Atlantic Records, who signed the group to a five album deal right out of the gate in late 1982\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.classicrockreview.com/2013/05/1983\\-zebra/\\|title\\=Zebra 1983 debut album review – Classic Rock Review\\|website\\=Classicrockreview.com\\|date\\=May 19, 2013 \\|accessdate\\=May 21, 2018}}",
"[thumb\\|Jackson at the Long Island Club Rockaways in 1983](/wiki/File:RANDY_JACKSON_OF_ZEBRA_AT_ROCKAWAYS_-_LI%2C_NY%2C_1980s.jpg \"RANDY JACKSON OF ZEBRA AT ROCKAWAYS - LI, NY, 1980s.jpg\")\nTheir first album, *Zebra* was produced by [Jack Douglas](/wiki/Jack_Douglas_%28record_producer%29 \"Jack Douglas (record producer)\"), went gold and was the fastest selling debut album in the history of Atlantic Records. Zebra sold over 75,000 copies in its first week and spent eight months on the Billboard charts, peaked at number 29\\. During the next couple of years Zebra played opener for [Aerosmith](/wiki/Aerosmith \"Aerosmith\"), [Journey](/wiki/Journey_%28band%29 \"Journey (band)\"), [ZZ Top](/wiki/ZZ_Top \"ZZ Top\"), [Loverboy](/wiki/Loverboy \"Loverboy\"), [Cheap Trick](/wiki/Cheap_Trick \"Cheap Trick\"), [Sammy Hagar](/wiki/Sammy_Hagar \"Sammy Hagar\") and [REO Speedwagon](/wiki/REO_Speedwagon \"REO Speedwagon\").",
"The group has produced five albums and five videos with combined sales of over 2,000,000\\.",
"In addition to working with Zebra, Jackson performs lead vocals for The Music of Led Zeppelin,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.themusicofledzeppelin.com/bios\\_randyjackson.html \\|title\\=The Music of Led Zeppelin Musician Bios: Randy Jackson \\|accessdate\\=July 13, 2008 \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115162619/http://www.themusicofledzeppelin.com/bios\\_randyjackson.html \\|archivedate\\=January 15, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The Music of Pink Floyd{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.themusicofledzeppelin.com/show\\_pf.php\\|title\\=Windborne Music\\|publisher\\=Themusicofledzeppelin.com\\|accessdate\\=January 4, 2015}} and The Music of The Doors;{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/BLABBERMOUTH.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=94727 \\|title\\=Zebra's Randy Jackson To Perform After Storm Game In Tampa \\|accessdate\\=July 13, 2008 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Blabbermouth.net]] }}{{dead link\\|date\\=January 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} tributes to the eponymous bands as backed by an orchestra. He also frequently plays live [acoustic](/wiki/Acoustic_music \"Acoustic music\") shows across the country.",
"In 1989, Jackson got a call from drummer [Kenny Aronoff](/wiki/Kenny_Aronoff \"Kenny Aronoff\") to join him and tour playing guitar and keyboards with the original [Jefferson Airplane](/wiki/Jefferson_Airplane \"Jefferson Airplane\") ([Grace Slick](/wiki/Grace_Slick \"Grace Slick\"), [Marty Balin](/wiki/Marty_Balin \"Marty Balin\"), [Paul Kantner](/wiki/Paul_Kantner \"Paul Kantner\"), [Jorma Kaukonen](/wiki/Jorma_Kaukonen \"Jorma Kaukonen\") and [Jack Casady](/wiki/Jack_Casady \"Jack Casady\")) on their U.S. reunion tour.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Pareles\\|first1\\=Jon\\|title\\=Review/Rock; Reunited Jefferson Airplane: Still Loose, Still Utopian\\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=August 31, 1989 \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/31/arts/review\\-rock\\-reunited\\-jefferson\\-airplane\\-still\\-loose\\-still\\-utopian.html\\|accessdate\\=May 21, 2017}}",
"*Randy Jackson's China Rain*, a project that featured songs co\\-written with [Mark Slaughter](/wiki/Mark_Slaughter \"Mark Slaughter\") and [Jack Ponti](/wiki/Jack_Ponti \"Jack Ponti\") was released in 1991 in North America, Europe and Japan.",
"In 1992, Jackson started performing \"Solo\" live with the use of a [Macintosh SE/30](/wiki/Macintosh_SE/30 \"Macintosh SE/30\") computer he programmed to perform the drums, bass and keyboards, and called it \"The Midi Show\". He also programmed the computer to run the sound mix and lights during the show. He toured all over the southern and the northeastern U.S. with the show.",
"From 1992 to 1996, Jackson was involved with Lonestar Technologies (Long Island) in the hardware and software development of an Interactive Multimedia Musical Instrument called \"The Key\" which allows anyone to play music instantly. [Jon Anderson](/wiki/Jon_Anderson \"Jon Anderson\") of \"Yes\" used \"The Key\" to perform live and wrote many songs with the instrument during that time.\n{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.matrixsynth.com/2010/06/1995\\-lonestar\\-technologies\\-key\\-guitar.html\\|title\\=MATRIXSYNTH\\|publisher\\=Matrixsynth.com\\|accessdate\\=January 4, 2015}}",
"Jackson completed work on *[Zebra IV](/wiki/Zebra_IV \"Zebra IV\")* which was released on July 8, 2003\\. He produced and engineered the entire album.",
"The Sign were formed by [Mark Mangold](/wiki/Mark_Mangold \"Mark Mangold\") (Drive), Randy Jackson (Zebra), Terry Brock (Strangeways), [Billy Greer](/wiki/Billy_Greer \"Billy Greer\") (Kansas) and [Bobby Rondinelli](/wiki/Bobby_Rondinelli \"Bobby Rondinelli\") (Rainbow \\& Black Sabbath). Their début album, released in 2000, was *Signs Of Life*. Their second album, *The Second Coming*, for which Jackson co\\-wrote songs and shared vocals, was released in August 2005 on [Frontiers Records](/wiki/Frontiers_Records \"Frontiers Records\").{{cite web\\|last1\\=Mason\\|first1\\=Stewart\\|title\\=AllMusic Review\\|url\\=http://www.allmusic.com/album/the\\-second\\-coming\\-mw0000744540/credits\\|website\\=allmusic.com\\|accessdate\\=May 21, 2017}}",
"In 2005, Jackson sang on three tracks on the album: \"Subdivisions: A Tribute to Rush.\" The tracks were \"[Distant Early Warning](/wiki/Distant_Early_Warning_%28song%29 \"Distant Early Warning (song)\"),\" \"[Subdivisions](/wiki/Subdivisions_%28song%29 \"Subdivisions (song)\"),\" and \"[A Farewell to Kings](/wiki/A_Farewell_to_Kings_%28song%29 \"A Farewell to Kings (song)\").\"{{cite web \\|title\\=Subdivisions: A Tribute to Rush \\|url\\=https://magnacartarecords.bandcamp.com/album/subdivisions\\-a\\-tribute\\-to\\-rush \\|website\\=Bandcamp}}",
"Jackson sang The National Anthem at [Shea Stadium](/wiki/Shea_Stadium \"Shea Stadium\") in Flushing, New York on July 7, 2006\\.",
"On July 10, 2010, Zebra was inducted into the [Louisiana Music Hall of Fame](/wiki/Louisiana_Music_Hall_of_Fame \"Louisiana Music Hall of Fame\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://louisianamusichalloffame.org/content/view/673/147/\\|title\\=Louisiana Music Hall of Fame – RANDY JACKSON\\|author\\=Mike Shepherd\\|publisher\\=\\|accessdate\\=January 4, 2015}} On October 18, 2012, Zebra was inducted into the [Long Island Music Hall of Fame](/wiki/Long_Island_Music_Hall_of_Fame \"Long Island Music Hall of Fame\").",
"In 2010, Jackson participated in a tribute album titled *Mister Bolin's Late Night Revival*, a compilation of 17 previously unreleased tracks written by guitarist [Tommy Bolin](/wiki/Tommy_Bolin \"Tommy Bolin\") prior to his death in 1976\\. The CD includes other artists such as [HiFi Superstar](/wiki/HiFi_Superstar \"HiFi Superstar\"), [Doogie White](/wiki/Doogie_White \"Doogie White\"), [Eric Martin](/wiki/Eric_Martin_%28singer%29 \"Eric Martin (singer)\"), [Troy Luccketta](/wiki/Troy_Luccketta \"Troy Luccketta\"), [Jeff Pilson](/wiki/Jeff_Pilson \"Jeff Pilson\"), [Rachel Barton](/wiki/Rachel_Barton_Pine \"Rachel Barton Pine\"), [Rex Carroll](/wiki/Rex_Carroll \"Rex Carroll\"), [Derek St. Holmes](/wiki/Derek_St._Holmes \"Derek St. Holmes\"), [Kimberley Dahme](/wiki/Kimberley_Dahme \"Kimberley Dahme\"), and [The 77's](/wiki/The_77s \"The 77s\"). \"A percentage of the proceeds from this project will benefit the Jackson Recovery Centers.\" The Center is located in Tommy Bolin's home town of [Sioux City, Iowa](/wiki/Sioux_City%2C_Iowa \"Sioux City, Iowa\") and is not named for Randy Jackson.<http://www.misterbolinslatenightrevival.com/> {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822005548/http://www.misterbolinslatenightrevival.com/\\|date\\=August 22, 2010}}",
"On February 4, 2014, *Empathy for the Walrus* was released by Red River Records.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://empathyforthewalrus.com\\|title\\=Empathy for the Walrus – by Randy Jackson\\|website\\=Empathyforthewalrus.com\\|accessdate\\=January 4, 2015}} Jackson produced and engineered *Empathy For The Walrus*, playing all instruments and singing all the parts.",
"{{anchor\\|Ashes of Eagles}}{{anchor\\|Silvergun}}In late 2014, Jackson recorded \"What it Feels Like\" with Silvergun,{{efn\\|group\\=upper\\-alpha\\|name\\=fn1\\|In March 2015, Silvergun was renamed Ashes of Eagles.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/LOUD.Media.Group\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20150309172443/https://www.facebook.com/LOUD.Media.Group\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=(1\\) LOUD Media Group LLC\\|date\\=March 9, 2015\\|archivedate\\=March 9, 2015\\|website\\=Facebook.com\\|accessdate\\=May 21, 2018}}}} an American rock band from [Dallas, Texas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas \"Dallas, Texas\"), starring Darren \"DPaul\" Wise of [The Drew Pearson Show band](/wiki/Drew_Pearson_%28American_football%29%23After_the_NFL \"Drew Pearson (American football)#After the NFL\").",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|Entrance to the *Villa Albani* from via Salaria, 92](/wiki/File:Villa_Albani_Roma.jpg "Villa Albani Roma.jpg")
Planned in 1743, the building of the villa began in 1747 according to [Giuseppe Vasi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Vasi "Giuseppe Vasi") and was celebrated as complete in 1763\. Its purpose was to house Cardinal Albani's evolving and renewed collections of antiquities and ancient Roman sculpture, which soon filled the casino that faced the Villa down a series of formal parterres.
The villa with its collection, fountains, statues, stairways and frescoes, and Italian\-style garden, the hemicycle of the Kaffeehaus, constitutes a sublime testimony of that particular antiquarian taste which came to the fore in mid\-18th\-century, that for which Rome had become a key destination on the [Grand Tour](/wiki/Grand_Tour "Grand Tour").
While the Cardinal was the real director of works, for the layout of the works Albani's lifelong friend [Carlo Marchionni](/wiki/Carlo_Marchionni "Carlo Marchionni") was the architect in charge, at the Villa and perhaps also for the two temples in the park, an Ionic temple of Diana and a sham ruin. It is hypothesized that Marchionni took advice from Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who at that time, having been hired as librarian by the Cardinal (1759\), was creating a catalogue of the collections of antiquities of his patron, paving the way for the reappraisal of Greek art. Winckelmann was a notable force behind the enlargement of the collection, and as he would write in a letter dated August 1766, in the construction process, Albani always adopted Descartes’s maxim not to leave any space empty. And so, in the Sala di Antinoo, the famous relief of Villa Adriana embellished the fireplace, and this room also hosts the famous fresco of Parnassus (1761\), created by [Anton Raphael Mengs](/wiki/Anton_Raphael_Mengs "Anton Raphael Mengs") for the vault of the Galleria, which would go on to become the pictorial manifesto of the nascent neoclassical style. Winckelmann was supported by Albani from the time when the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War "Seven Years' War") stranded him in Rome without his pension, and whose own connoisseur ship was sharpened by the connection. The nephew of Pope Clement XI, respectful patron and skilled diplomat, Cardinal Alessandro Albani (1692\-1779\) was in fact one of the greatest collectors of ancient sculptures in 18th\-century Rome, and a promoter of that Neo\-classical taste that forms the basis of modern archaeological studies.
The Villa, lying just outside the city walls, along the Via Salaria, was built between 1747 and 1763, designed by the architect Carlo Marchionni, when the extensive green area, previously owned by Accoramboni, Ercolani and Orsi, was purchased by Cardinal Albani. A building of representation more than a residence, as suggested by the high\-ceilinged rooms, the care of the interiors, the elegant interior façade covering two floors with the majestic terraced loggia, looking onto the Italian\-style garden, the Villa was most of all a cultural powerhouse, hosting pleasant moments for the circle of antiquarian friends that the learned churchman had gathered around him. This was the stage of erudite discussions, concerts, dances and masked comedies, and guests would be astonished by the wealth of the furnishings, made up of polychrome marbles, stuccoes, tapestry, paintings, and above all, an exceptional collection of original Greek and Roman sculptures: a passion for the ancient world that Albani had nurtured since his youth, sponsoring vast excavation projects and making purchases both in Rome and in the surrounding areas.
Cardinal Alessandro Albani had another villa and park at Porto d'[Anzio](/wiki/Anzio "Anzio"), that was finished in February 1732, but was habitable for a few weeks only in spring because of malaria. The Villa remained largely intact even after the death of the Cardinal: the works removed during the Napoleonic period (1797\-1815\) to decorate the Musée Napoléon in Paris were in fact partly returned after 1815 to their legitimate owner, Prince Carlo Albani while the residence remained property of the Albani family up until the first half of the 19th century, when from the last heir it was passed on to the Albani\-Castelbarco family, from whom the Torlonia Family soon after purchased it.
An exceptional building, developed with eclectic taste in a swift succession of rooms decorated with masterpieces like the Apollo Sauroctono and the Parnassus fresco (1761\) by Mengs (1728\-1779\) considered to be the manifesto of the neoclassical style. The world\-wide famous bas\-relief of the Antinoo from Villa Adriana, depicting the young lover of Emperor Adriano along with the collections showcasing works by Perugino, Vanvitelli, Baciccio among the others.
The [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin") inscription in bronze lettering on the façade: “Alexander Albani vir eminentissimus instruxit et ornavit / Alexander Torlonia vir princeps in melius restituit” ("The most eminent Alessandro Albani designed and decorated \[this building] / Prince Alessandro Torlonia restored it to better appearance"), tells the story of the house.
The Villa has been saved from the destruction of the Umbertine urbanisation, which soon afterwards would wipe out most of the historical villas of the city, thus dispersing the ancient heritage that for three centuries had made Rome the heart of European artistic life.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Entrance to the *Villa Albani* from via Salaria, 92](/wiki/File:Villa_Albani_Roma.jpg \"Villa Albani Roma.jpg\")",
"Planned in 1743, the building of the villa began in 1747 according to [Giuseppe Vasi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Vasi \"Giuseppe Vasi\") and was celebrated as complete in 1763\\. Its purpose was to house Cardinal Albani's evolving and renewed collections of antiquities and ancient Roman sculpture, which soon filled the casino that faced the Villa down a series of formal parterres.",
"The villa with its collection, fountains, statues, stairways and frescoes, and Italian\\-style garden, the hemicycle of the Kaffeehaus, constitutes a sublime testimony of that particular antiquarian taste which came to the fore in mid\\-18th\\-century, that for which Rome had become a key destination on the [Grand Tour](/wiki/Grand_Tour \"Grand Tour\").",
"While the Cardinal was the real director of works, for the layout of the works Albani's lifelong friend [Carlo Marchionni](/wiki/Carlo_Marchionni \"Carlo Marchionni\") was the architect in charge, at the Villa and perhaps also for the two temples in the park, an Ionic temple of Diana and a sham ruin. It is hypothesized that Marchionni took advice from Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who at that time, having been hired as librarian by the Cardinal (1759\\), was creating a catalogue of the collections of antiquities of his patron, paving the way for the reappraisal of Greek art. Winckelmann was a notable force behind the enlargement of the collection, and as he would write in a letter dated August 1766, in the construction process, Albani always adopted Descartes’s maxim not to leave any space empty. And so, in the Sala di Antinoo, the famous relief of Villa Adriana embellished the fireplace, and this room also hosts the famous fresco of Parnassus (1761\\), created by [Anton Raphael Mengs](/wiki/Anton_Raphael_Mengs \"Anton Raphael Mengs\") for the vault of the Galleria, which would go on to become the pictorial manifesto of the nascent neoclassical style. Winckelmann was supported by Albani from the time when the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War \"Seven Years' War\") stranded him in Rome without his pension, and whose own connoisseur ship was sharpened by the connection. The nephew of Pope Clement XI, respectful patron and skilled diplomat, Cardinal Alessandro Albani (1692\\-1779\\) was in fact one of the greatest collectors of ancient sculptures in 18th\\-century Rome, and a promoter of that Neo\\-classical taste that forms the basis of modern archaeological studies.",
"The Villa, lying just outside the city walls, along the Via Salaria, was built between 1747 and 1763, designed by the architect Carlo Marchionni, when the extensive green area, previously owned by Accoramboni, Ercolani and Orsi, was purchased by Cardinal Albani. A building of representation more than a residence, as suggested by the high\\-ceilinged rooms, the care of the interiors, the elegant interior façade covering two floors with the majestic terraced loggia, looking onto the Italian\\-style garden, the Villa was most of all a cultural powerhouse, hosting pleasant moments for the circle of antiquarian friends that the learned churchman had gathered around him. This was the stage of erudite discussions, concerts, dances and masked comedies, and guests would be astonished by the wealth of the furnishings, made up of polychrome marbles, stuccoes, tapestry, paintings, and above all, an exceptional collection of original Greek and Roman sculptures: a passion for the ancient world that Albani had nurtured since his youth, sponsoring vast excavation projects and making purchases both in Rome and in the surrounding areas.",
"Cardinal Alessandro Albani had another villa and park at Porto d'[Anzio](/wiki/Anzio \"Anzio\"), that was finished in February 1732, but was habitable for a few weeks only in spring because of malaria. The Villa remained largely intact even after the death of the Cardinal: the works removed during the Napoleonic period (1797\\-1815\\) to decorate the Musée Napoléon in Paris were in fact partly returned after 1815 to their legitimate owner, Prince Carlo Albani while the residence remained property of the Albani family up until the first half of the 19th century, when from the last heir it was passed on to the Albani\\-Castelbarco family, from whom the Torlonia Family soon after purchased it.",
"An exceptional building, developed with eclectic taste in a swift succession of rooms decorated with masterpieces like the Apollo Sauroctono and the Parnassus fresco (1761\\) by Mengs (1728\\-1779\\) considered to be the manifesto of the neoclassical style. The world\\-wide famous bas\\-relief of the Antinoo from Villa Adriana, depicting the young lover of Emperor Adriano along with the collections showcasing works by Perugino, Vanvitelli, Baciccio among the others.",
"The [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") inscription in bronze lettering on the façade: “Alexander Albani vir eminentissimus instruxit et ornavit / Alexander Torlonia vir princeps in melius restituit” (\"The most eminent Alessandro Albani designed and decorated \\[this building] / Prince Alessandro Torlonia restored it to better appearance\"), tells the story of the house.",
"The Villa has been saved from the destruction of the Umbertine urbanisation, which soon afterwards would wipe out most of the historical villas of the city, thus dispersing the ancient heritage that for three centuries had made Rome the heart of European artistic life.",
""
] |
Geography
---------
{{See also\|Geography of Saudi Arabia}}
[thumb\|[Rub' al Khali](/wiki/Rub%27_al_Khali "Rub' al Khali") is part of the larger [Arabian Desert](/wiki/Arabian_Desert "Arabian Desert")](/wiki/File:Dune_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg "Dune - panoramio (1).jpg")
The Arabian Peninsula is located in the continent of Asia and is bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the northeast, the [Strait of Hormuz](/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuz "Strait of Hormuz") and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the southeast, the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden "Gulf of Aden"), and the [Guardafui Channel](/wiki/Guardafui_Channel "Guardafui Channel") on the south, and the [Bab\-el\-Mandeb](/wiki/Bab-el-Mandeb "Bab-el-Mandeb") strait on the southwest and the Red Sea, which is located on the southwest and west. The northern portion of the peninsula merges with the [Syrian Desert](/wiki/Syrian_Desert "Syrian Desert") with no clear borderline, although the northern boundary of the peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, also southern regions of Iraq and Jordan.
The most prominent feature of the peninsula is [desert](/wiki/Desert "Desert"), but in the southwest, there are mountain ranges, which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the peninsula. [Harrat ash Shaam](/wiki/Harrat_ash_Shaam "Harrat ash Shaam") is a large volcanic field that extends from northwestern Arabia into Jordan and southern [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria").{{cite journal \|last\=Weinstein \|first\=Y. \|title\=A transition from strombolian to phreatomagmatic activity induced by a lava flow damming water in a valley\|journal\= Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research \|date\=1 January 2007 \|volume\=159 \|issue\=1–3 \|pages\=267–284 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006\.06\.015\|bibcode\=2007JVGR..159\..267W }}
### Political boundaries
[thumb\|219px\|The constituent countries of Arabia](/wiki/File:Arabian_Peninsula_Map.svg "Arabian Peninsula Map.svg")
The Peninsula's constituent countries are (clockwise from north to south) Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the east, Oman on the southeast, Yemen on the south, and Saudi Arabia at the center. The island country of Bahrain lies just off the east coast of the Peninsula. Due to Yemen's jurisdiction over the [Socotra Archipelago](/wiki/Socotra_Governorate "Socotra Governorate"), the Peninsula's geopolitical outline faces the [Guardafui Channel](/wiki/Guardafui_Channel "Guardafui Channel") and the Somali Sea to the south.McLaughlin, Rob (2015\). "The Continuing Conundrum of the Somali Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone". *The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law* 30\.2\. 305–334\.
The six countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE form the [Gulf Cooperation Council](/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council "Gulf Cooperation Council") (GCC).A.S. Alsharhan, Z. A. Rizk, A. E. M. Nairn \[et al.], 2001, *Waterology of an Arid Region*, Elsevier.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the Peninsula. The majority of the population of the Peninsula lives in Saudi Arabia and Yemen.{{Cite web \|title\=Arabian Peninsula Countries 2021 \|url\=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country\-rankings/arabian\-peninsula\-countries \|access\-date\=2021\-07\-08 \|publisher\=worldpopulationreview.com \|archive\-date\=9 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190530/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country\-rankings/arabian\-peninsula\-countries \|url\-status\=live}} The Peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of oil. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, the only peninsular country in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home to the [Arabic\-language](/wiki/Arabic_language "Arabic language") television station [Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network "Al Jazeera Media Network") and its English\-language subsidiary [Al Jazeera English](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English "Al Jazeera English"). Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States")–led [2003 invasion of Iraq](/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq "2003 invasion of Iraq").
### Population
{{Historical populations
\|type \=
\|footnote \= Political Definition: Gulf Cooperation Council and Yemen
Sources:1950–2000{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N\=%20Results%20\&T\=6\&A\=separate\&RT\=0\&Y\=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010\&R\=\-1\&C\=BA,KU,MU,QA,SA,AE,YM\|title\=International Programs\|work\=census.gov\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-14\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924122421/http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N\=%20Results%20\&T\=6\&A\=separate\&RT\=0\&Y\=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010\&R\=\-1\&C\=BA,KU,MU,QA,SA,AE,YM\|archive\-date\=2015\-09\-24\|url\-status\=dead}} 2000–2014{{cite web\|url\=http://www.citypopulation.de/Asia.html\|title\=Asia: Population Statistics in Maps and Charts for Cities, Agglomerations and Administrative Divisions of all Countries in Asia\|work\=citypopulation.de\|access\-date\=26 October 2014\|archive\-date\=6 November 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106080903/http://citypopulation.de/Asia.html\|url\-status\=live}}
\|1950 \| 9,481,713
\|1960 \| 11,788,232
\|1970 \| 15,319,678
\|1980 \| 23,286,256
\|1990 \| 35,167,708
\|2000 \| 47,466,523
\|2010 \| 63,364,000
\|2014 \| 77,584,000
\|2018 \| 86,221,765
\|2023\|93,900,000}}
{{Historical populations
\|type \=
\|title \= Historical population (Gulf 4\)
\|footnote \= Population of 4 smallest (in area) \[\[Gulf Cooperation Council\|GCC]] states with their coastline in the Persian Gulf: UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait
Sources:1950–2000{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N\=%20Results%20\&T\=6\&A\=both\&RT\=0\&Y\=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010\&R\=\-1\&C\=BA,KU,QA,AE\|title\=International Programs\|work\=census.gov\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-14\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924122419/http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N\=%20Results%20\&T\=6\&A\=both\&RT\=0\&Y\=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010\&R\=\-1\&C\=BA,KU,QA,AE\|archive\-date\=2015\-09\-24\|url\-status\=dead}} 2000–2014
\|1950 \| 356,235
\|1970 \| 1,329,168
\|1990 \| 4,896,491
\|2010 \| 11,457,000
\|2014 \| 17,086,000
\|2018 \| 18,675,440
}}
Despite its historically sparse population, political Arabia stands out for its rapid population growth, driven by both significant inflows of migrant labor and persistently high birth rates. The population is characterized by its relative youth and a heavily skewed gender ratio favoring males. In several states, the number of South Asians surpasses that of the native population. The four smallest states (by area), with coastlines entirely bordering the Persian Gulf, showcase the world's most extreme population growth, nearly tripling every two decades. In 2014, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936 (including expatriates).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the\-world\-factbook/index.html\|title\=The World Fact book\|publisher\=\[\[Central Intelligence Agency]]\|access\-date\=2008\-08\-12 \|date\=2007\-08\-07\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080812233855/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the\-world\-factbook/index.html\| archive\-date\= 12 August 2008 \| url\-status\= dead}} The Arabian Peninsula is known for having one of the most uneven adult sex ratios in the world, with females in some regions (especially the east) constituting only a quarter of people aged between 20 and 40\.Alrouh, Hekmat, Awatef Ismail, and Sohaila Cheema. "Demographic and health indicators in Gulf Cooperation Council nations with an emphasis on Qatar." Journal of Local and Global Health Perspectives (2013\): p 4
#### Cities
[thumb\|[Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh "Riyadh"), [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia"), the most populous city in the Arabian Peninsula](/wiki/File:Riyadh_Skyline.jpg "Riyadh Skyline.jpg")
The eleven most populous cities on the Arabian Peninsula are:
| Rank | City | Population |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|KSA}} [Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh "Riyadh") | {{right}} 7,538,200 |
| 2 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|KSA}} [Jeddah](/wiki/Jeddah "Jeddah") | {{right}} 4,780,740 |
| 3 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|KUW}} [Kuwait City](/wiki/Kuwait_City "Kuwait City") | {{right}} 3,238,523 |
| 4 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|YEM}} [Sanaa](/wiki/Sanaa "Sanaa") | {{right}} 3,181,655 |
| 5 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|UAE}} [Dubai](/wiki/Dubai "Dubai") | {{right}} 2,964,382 |
| 6 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|KSA}} [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca") | {{right}} 2,114,675 |
| 7 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|UAE}} [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah "Sharjah") | {{right}} 1,785,684 |
| 8 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|OMA}} [Muscat](/wiki/Muscat "Muscat") | {{right}} 1,622,620 |
| 9 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|KSA}} [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina") | {{right}} 1,545,420 |
| 10 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|UAE}} [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi") | {{right}} 1,539,830 |
| 11 | {{left}} {{flagicon\|IRQ}} [Basra](/wiki/Basra "Basra") | {{right}} 1,485,000 |
|Source: 2022{{Cite web\|url\=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world\-cities\|title\=World City Populations 2022\|website\=worldpopulationreview.com\|access\-date\=10 June 2020\|archive\-date\=20 February 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220194018/http://worldpopulationreview.com/world\-cities/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Landscape
{{multiple image \|align\=right \|direction\=vertical
\|image1\=A journey.jpg \|caption1\=A caravan crossing \[\[Ad\-Dahna Desert]] in central Saudi Arabia
\|image2\=Ras al jinz flickr01\.jpg \|caption2\=\[\[Ras al\-Jinz]] in southeastern Arabia (Oman), also known as the 'Turtle Beach'
\|image3\=Arabian Plate map\-uni.png \|caption3\=AR\-Arabian Plate, velocities with respect to Africa in millimeters per year
}}
The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the [Arabian\-Nubian Shield](/wiki/Arabian-Nubian_Shield "Arabian-Nubian Shield") near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best\-preserved [ophiolite](/wiki/Ophiolite "Ophiolite") on Earth, the [Semail Ophiolite](/wiki/Semail_Ophiolite "Semail Ophiolite"), lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.
The peninsula consists of:
1. A central plateau, the [Najd](/wiki/Najd "Najd"), with fertile valleys and pastures used for the grazing of [sheep](/wiki/Sheep "Sheep") and other livestock
2. A range of deserts: the [Nefud](/wiki/Nefud "Nefud") in the north,{{cite book\|last\=Prothero\|first\=G.W.\|title\=Arabia\|year\=1920\|publisher\=H.M. Stationery Office\|location\=London\|page\=15\|url\=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/\|access\-date\=8 September 2013\|archive\-date\=31 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031163556/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/\|url\-status\=live}} which is stony; the [Rub' al Khali](/wiki/Rub%27_al_Khali "Rub' al Khali") or Great [Arabian Desert](/wiki/Arabian_Desert "Arabian Desert") in the south, with sand estimated to extend {{convert\|600\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} below the surface; between them, the [Dahna](/wiki/Dahna "Dahna") [Mountains](/wiki/%23Mountains "#Mountains"){{cite book \|author\=Robert D. Burrowes \|title\=Historical Dictionary of Yemen \|pages\=5–340 \|publisher\=\[\[Rowman \& Littlefield]] \|year\=2010 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=tjXRfqBv\_0UC \|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-5528\-1 \|access\-date\=19 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=15 February 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215025046/https://books.google.com/books?id\=tjXRfqBv\_0UC \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last\=McLaughlin \|first\=Daniel \|title\=Yemen \|publisher\=\[\[Bradt Travel Guides]] \|chapter\=1: Background \|page\=3 \|isbn\=978\-1\-8416\-2212\-5 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eQvhZaEVzjcC \|year\=2008 \|access\-date\=29 December 2018 \|archive\-date\=2 July 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702224444/https://books.google.com/books?id\=eQvhZaEVzjcC \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last1\=Cavendish \|first1\=Marshall \|author\-link\=Marshall Cavendish \|title\=World and Its Peoples \|volume\=1 \|chapter\=Geography and climate \|date\=2007 \|publisher\=Cavendish Square Publishing \|isbn\=978\-0\-7614\-7571\-2 \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/n151 8]–19 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=j894miuOqc4C\&pg\=PA8 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse \|url\-access\=limited }}
3. Stretches of dry or marshy coastland with coral reefs on the Red Sea side ([Tihamah](/wiki/Tihamah "Tihamah"))
4. Oases and marshy coast\-land in [Eastern Arabia](/wiki/Eastern_Arabia "Eastern Arabia"), the most important of which are those of the [Al Ain emirate](/wiki/Al_Ain%2C_Emirate_of_Abu_Dhabi "Al Ain, Emirate of Abu Dhabi") ([Tawam](/wiki/Tawam_%28region%29 "Tawam (region)") region) and [Hofuf](/wiki/Hofuf "Hofuf")/[Al\-Ahsa](/wiki/Al-Ahsa_Oasis "Al-Ahsa Oasis") (in modern\-day Saudi Arabia), according to an author
5. The southwest [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon "Monsoon") coastline of [Dhofar](/wiki/Dhofar_Governorate%23Geography "Dhofar Governorate#Geography") and Eastern Yemen ([Mahra](/wiki/Al_Mahrah_Governorate "Al Mahrah Governorate")).
Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called [wadis](/wiki/Wadi "Wadi"), which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient [aquifers](/wiki/Aquifer "Aquifer") exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, [oases](/wiki/Oases "Oases") form (e.g. Al\-Hasa and [Qatif](/wiki/Qatif "Qatif"), two of the world's largest [oases](/wiki/Oases "Oases")) and permit agriculture, especially [palm trees](/wiki/Palm_trees "Palm trees"), which allowed the peninsula to produce more [dates](/wiki/Date_palm "Date palm") than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and [arid](/wiki/Desert "Desert"), although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert\-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.
A plateau more than {{convert\|2500\|ft\|m}} high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterized by *cuestas* and valleys, drained by a system of *wadis*. A crescent of sand and [gravel](/wiki/Gravel "Gravel") deserts lies to the east.
#### Mountains
[thumb\|The [Haraz Mountains](/wiki/Jabal_Haraz "Jabal Haraz") in the west of present\-day Yemen include Arabia's highest mountain, [Jabal An\-Nabi Shu'ayb](/wiki/Jabal_An-Nabi_Shu%27ayb "Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb") or Jabal Hadhur near [Sanaa](/wiki/Sanaa "Sanaa")](/wiki/File:Kawkaban_-68_%28353668857%29.jpg "Kawkaban -68 (353668857).jpg")
There are mountains at the eastern, southern and northwestern borders of the peninsula. Broadly, the ranges can be grouped as follows:
* Northeast: The [Hajar range](/wiki/Hajar_Mountains "Hajar Mountains"), of UAE and Oman
* Southeast: The [Dhofar Mountains](/wiki/Dhofar_Mountains "Dhofar Mountains") of southern Oman, contiguous with the eastern Yemeni [Hadhramaut](/wiki/Hadhramaut_Mountains "Hadhramaut Mountains"){{cite book \|last\=Scoville \|first\=Sheila A. \|title\=Gazetteer of Arabia: a geographical and tribal history of the Arabian Peninsula \|volume\=2 \|pages\=117–288 \|publisher\=Akademische Druck\- u. Verlagsanstalt \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AH8YAQAAMAAJ\&q\=hadhramaut\+mountains \|isbn\=978\-0\-7614\-7571\-2 \|year\=2006 \|access\-date\=19 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=31 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101208/https://books.google.com/books?id\=AH8YAQAAMAAJ\&q\=hadhramaut\+mountains \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last1\=Ghazanfar \|first1\=Shahina A. \|author\-link\=Shahina A. Ghazanfar \|title\=Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula \|last2\=Fisher \|first2\=Martin \|date\=2013\-04\-17 \|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media\|Springer Science \& Business Media]] \|isbn\=978\-9\-4017\-3637\-4 \|location\=\[\[Sultan Qaboos University]], \[\[Muscat]] \|pages\=27–55 \|chapter\=1–2 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uc\_tCAAAQBAJ\&q\=hadhramaut\+highlands\&pg\=PA52 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101205/https://books.google.com/books?id\=uc\_tCAAAQBAJ\&q\=hadhramaut\+highlands\&pg\=PA52 \|archive\-date\=31 October 2021 \|url\-status\=live}}
* West: Bordering the [eastern coast](/wiki/Tihamah "Tihamah") of the Red Sea are the [Sarawat](/wiki/Sarawat_Mountains "Sarawat Mountains"), which can be seen to include the [Haraz Mountains](/wiki/Jabal_Haraz "Jabal Haraz") to the east of Yemen, as well as those of ['Asir](/wiki/Asir_Mountains "Asir Mountains") (once part of Yemen) {{cite book \|last\=Overstreet \|first\=William Courtney \|title\=Tertiary laterite of the As Sarat Mountains, Asir Province, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia \|publisher\=Directorate General of Mineral Resources \|volume\=2 \|pages\=iii–2 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KmxPAQAAIAAJ\&q\=sarat\+mountains \|year\=1977 \|access\-date\=19 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=8 December 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208154921/https://books.google.com/books?id\=KmxPAQAAIAAJ\&q\=sarat\+mountains \|url\-status\=live }} and [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz_vilayet "Hejaz vilayet"){{cite book \|last\=Mandal \|first\=Ram Bahadur \|title\=Patterns of Regional Geography: World regions \|publisher\=Concept Publishing Company \|chapter\=VI: A Regional Geography \|page\=354 \|isbn\=978\-8\-1702\-2292\-7 \|location\=\[\[New Delhi]], \[\[India]] \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XWwCHWwgKt0C\&q\=sarawat\+mountains\&pg\=PA354 \|year\=1990 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=3 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603000536/https://books.google.com/books?id\=XWwCHWwgKt0C\&q\=sarawat\+mountains\&pg\=PA354 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last\=Nasr \|first\=Seyyed Hossein \|author\-link\=Hossein Nasr \|title\=Mecca the Blessed, Medina the Radiant: The Holiest Cities of Islam \|publisher\=\[\[Tuttle Publishing]] \|chapter\=1: The Holiest Cities of Islam \|isbn\=978\-1\-4629\-1365\-7 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4RvQAgAAQBAJ\&q\=sarat\+mountains \|year\=2013 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=31 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101203/https://books.google.com/books?id\=4RvQAgAAQBAJ\&q\=sarat\+mountains \|url\-status\=live }} the latter including the [Midian](/wiki/Midian_Mountains "Midian Mountains") in what is now northwestern Saudi Arabia
* Northwest: Aside from the Sarawat, the northern portion of Saudi Arabia hosts the [Jabal Shamar Mountains](/wiki/Shammar_Mountains "Shammar Mountains"), which include the Aja and [Salma](/wiki/Salma_Mountains "Salma Mountains") subranges
* Central: The Najd hosts the [Tuwaiq](/wiki/Tuwaiq "Tuwaiq") Escarpment or Tuwair range
From the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz") southwards, the mountains show a steady increase in altitude westward as they get nearer to Yemen, and the highest peaks and ranges are all located in Yemen. The highest, [Jabal An\-Nabi Shu'ayb](/wiki/Jabal_An-Nabi_Shu%27ayb "Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb") or Jabal Hadhur{{Cite book \|last\=زبارة \|first\=محمد بن محمد بن يحيى اليمني/الصنعاني \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=L4dyDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT359 \|title\=نيل الوطر من تراجم رجال اليمن في القرن الثالث عشر 1–2 ج1 \|date\=1998\-01\-01 \|publisher\=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah (دار الكتب العلمية) \|isbn\=978\-2\-7451\-2623\-8 \|language\=ar \|access\-date\=18 April 2020 \|archive\-date\=25 February 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225083339/https://books.google.nl/books?id\=L4dyDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT359\&redir\_esc\=y \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|publisher\=\[\[Qatar Digital Library]] \|title\=Gazetteer of Arabia \|volume\=II \[1044] (81/688\) \|url\=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc\_100023727632\.0x000052 \|year\=1917 \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-17 \|archive\-date\=9 March 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309051759/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc\_100023727632\.0x000052 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|publisher\=Mindat.org \|title\=Jabal an\-Nabī Shu'ayb, Bani Matar, Sanaa, Yemen \|url\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\-72377\.html \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-17 \|archive\-date\=12 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612211036/https://www.mindat.org/feature\-72377\.html \|url\-status\=live }} of the Haraz subrange of the Sarawat range, is {{convert\|3666\|m\|ft\|0}} high. By comparison, the [Tuwayr](/wiki/Tuwayr_Mountains "Tuwayr Mountains"), Shammar and Dhofar generally do not exceed {{convert\|1,000\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} in height.
Not all mountains in the peninsula are visibly within ranges. [Jebel Hafeet](/wiki/Jebel_Hafeet "Jebel Hafeet") in particular, on the border of the UAE and Oman, measuring between {{cvt\|1,100\|and\|1,300\|m\|abbr\=on}},{{cite web \|last\=Gardner \|first\=Andrew Somerville \|title\=The reptiles of Jebel Hafeet \|publisher\=\[\[Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations\|ADCO]] and Emirates Natural History Group \|pages\=149–168 \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847 \|date\=January 2004 \|access\-date\=2019\-01\-14 \|archive\-date\=14 January 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114153347/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847\_The\_reptiles\_of\_Jebel\_Hafit \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|editor\-last1\=Lieth \|editor\-first1\=Helmut \|editor\-last2\=Al Masoom \|editor\-first2\=A. A. \|title\=Towards the rational use of high salinity tolerant plants: Vol 2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions \|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media]] \|volume\=2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions \|chapter\=Reclamation potentials of saline degraded lands in Abu Dhabi eastern region using high salinity\-tolerant woody plants and some salt marsh species \|pages\=271–274 \|isbn\=978\-9\-4011\-1860\-6 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Y\-fqCAAAQBAJ\&q\=hafit \|date\=2012\-12\-06 \|access\-date\=13 January 2019 \|archive\-date\=30 March 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330131859/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Y\-fqCAAAQBAJ\&q\=hafit \|url\-status\=live }} is not within the Hajar range, but may be considered an [outlier](/wiki/Outlier "Outlier") of that range.
File:Salalah Oman.jpg\|\[\[Dhofar Governorate\|Dhofar]]
File:Yemen landscape 05\.jpg\|\[\[At Tawilah District\|At\-Tawilah]], \[\[Al Mahwit]], \[\[Yemen]]
File:شعيب جو بجبال أجـــا \- panoramio.jpg\|A subrange of the Jabal Shammar mountains in the desert region of \[\[Ha'il]], Saudi Arabia
### Land and sea
{{multiple image \|align\=right \|direction\=vertical
\|image1 \= Al hafa corniche.jpg
\|caption1 \= Coconut palms line corniches of Al\-Hafa, Oman
\|image2 \= Coral Reef in the Red Sea.JPG
\|caption2 \= Red Sea coral reefs
\|image3 \= Al\-Shaggain, Mukalla.jpg
\|caption3 \= Al\-Shaggain in \[\[Mukalla]], Yemen
}}
Most of the Arabian Peninsula is unsuited to agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential. The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1% of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, [coffee](/wiki/Coffee "Coffee") and [tropical fruits](/wiki/Tropical_fruit "Tropical fruit"). Goat, sheep, and [camel](/wiki/Camel "Camel") husbandry is widespread elsewhere throughout the rest of the Peninsula. Some areas have a summer humid [tropical monsoon climate](/wiki/Tropical_monsoon_climate "Tropical monsoon climate"), in particular the [Dhofar](/wiki/Dhofar "Dhofar") and [Al Mahrah](/wiki/Al_Mahrah "Al Mahrah") areas of Oman and Yemen. These areas allow for large scale coconut plantations. Much of Yemen has a tropical [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon "Monsoon") rain influenced mountain climate. The plains usually have either a tropical or subtropical arid [desert climate](/wiki/Desert_climate "Desert climate") or arid [steppe climate](/wiki/Steppe_climate "Steppe climate"). The sea surrounding the Arabian Peninsula is generally [tropical sea](/wiki/Coral_Sea "Coral Sea") with a very rich tropical sea life and some of the world's largest, undestroyed and most pristine coral reefs. In addition, the organisms living in [symbiosis](/wiki/Symbiosis "Symbiosis") with the Red Sea coral, the [protozoa](/wiki/Protozoa "Protozoa") and [zooxanthellae](/wiki/Zooxanthellae "Zooxanthellae"), have a unique hot weather adaptation to sudden rise (and fall) in sea water temperature. Hence, these coral reefs are not affected by coral bleaching caused by rise in temperature as elsewhere in the [indopacific](/wiki/Indopacific "Indopacific") coral sea. The reefs are also unaffected by mass tourism and diving or other large scale human interference. The Persian gulf has suffered significant loss and degradation of coral reefs with the biggest ongoing threat believed to be coastal construction activity altering the marine environment.{{cite book \|last1\=Riegl \|first1\=Bernhard \|last2\=Purkis \|first2\=Samuel\|date\=2011 \|editor\-last\=Hopley \|editor\-first\=D \|title\= Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs \|publisher\=Springer \|pages\=790–798 \|chapter\=Persian/Arabian Gulf Coral Reefs \|isbn\=978\-90\-481\-2639\-2\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-90\-481\-2639\-2\_123}}
The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at {{convert\|10000\|ft\|m}}. In the higher elevations, elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate grain, fruit, coffee, ginger and [khat](/wiki/Khat "Khat") cultivation. The Arabian peninsula is known for its rich oil, i.e. petroleum production due to its geographical location.{{cite web \|last1\=Sorkhabi \|first1\=Rasoul \|title\=The Emergence of the Arabian Oil Industry \|url\=https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2008/06/the\-emergence\-of\-the\-arabian\-oil\-industry \|website\=Geoexpro \|date\=June 2008 \|access\-date\=16 April 2021 \|archive\-date\=1 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601235624/https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2008/06/the\-emergence\-of\-the\-arabian\-oil\-industry \|url\-status\=live }}
According to NASA's [Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment](/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment "Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment") (GRACE) satellite data (2003–2013\) analysed in a [University of California, Irvine (UCI)](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Irvine "University of California, Irvine")\-led study published in [Water Resources Research](/wiki/Water_Resources_Research "Water Resources Research") on 16 June 2015, the most over\-stressed aquifer system in the world is the [Arabian Aquifer System](/wiki/Arabian_Aquifer_System "Arabian Aquifer System"), upon which more than 60 million people depend for water.{{citation \|url\=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature\=4626 \|work\=NASA \|date\=16 June 2015 \|access\-date\=26 June 2015 \|title\=Study: Third of Big Groundwater Basins in Distress \|archive\-date\=27 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627045543/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature\=4626 \|url\-status\=live }} Twenty\-one of the thirty seven largest aquifers "have exceeded sustainability tipping points and are being depleted" and thirteen of them are "considered significantly distressed".
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"{{See also\\|Geography of Saudi Arabia}}\n[thumb\\|[Rub' al Khali](/wiki/Rub%27_al_Khali \"Rub' al Khali\") is part of the larger [Arabian Desert](/wiki/Arabian_Desert \"Arabian Desert\")](/wiki/File:Dune_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg \"Dune - panoramio (1).jpg\")\nThe Arabian Peninsula is located in the continent of Asia and is bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the northeast, the [Strait of Hormuz](/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuz \"Strait of Hormuz\") and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the southeast, the [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden \"Gulf of Aden\"), and the [Guardafui Channel](/wiki/Guardafui_Channel \"Guardafui Channel\") on the south, and the [Bab\\-el\\-Mandeb](/wiki/Bab-el-Mandeb \"Bab-el-Mandeb\") strait on the southwest and the Red Sea, which is located on the southwest and west. The northern portion of the peninsula merges with the [Syrian Desert](/wiki/Syrian_Desert \"Syrian Desert\") with no clear borderline, although the northern boundary of the peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, also southern regions of Iraq and Jordan.",
"The most prominent feature of the peninsula is [desert](/wiki/Desert \"Desert\"), but in the southwest, there are mountain ranges, which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the peninsula. [Harrat ash Shaam](/wiki/Harrat_ash_Shaam \"Harrat ash Shaam\") is a large volcanic field that extends from northwestern Arabia into Jordan and southern [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Weinstein \\|first\\=Y. \\|title\\=A transition from strombolian to phreatomagmatic activity induced by a lava flow damming water in a valley\\|journal\\= Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research \\|date\\=1 January 2007 \\|volume\\=159 \\|issue\\=1–3 \\|pages\\=267–284 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006\\.06\\.015\\|bibcode\\=2007JVGR..159\\..267W }}",
"### Political boundaries",
"[thumb\\|219px\\|The constituent countries of Arabia](/wiki/File:Arabian_Peninsula_Map.svg \"Arabian Peninsula Map.svg\")",
"The Peninsula's constituent countries are (clockwise from north to south) Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the east, Oman on the southeast, Yemen on the south, and Saudi Arabia at the center. The island country of Bahrain lies just off the east coast of the Peninsula. Due to Yemen's jurisdiction over the [Socotra Archipelago](/wiki/Socotra_Governorate \"Socotra Governorate\"), the Peninsula's geopolitical outline faces the [Guardafui Channel](/wiki/Guardafui_Channel \"Guardafui Channel\") and the Somali Sea to the south.McLaughlin, Rob (2015\\). \"The Continuing Conundrum of the Somali Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone\". *The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law* 30\\.2\\. 305–334\\.",
"The six countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE form the [Gulf Cooperation Council](/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council \"Gulf Cooperation Council\") (GCC).A.S. Alsharhan, Z. A. Rizk, A. E. M. Nairn \\[et al.], 2001, *Waterology of an Arid Region*, Elsevier.",
"The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the Peninsula. The majority of the population of the Peninsula lives in Saudi Arabia and Yemen.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Arabian Peninsula Countries 2021 \\|url\\=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country\\-rankings/arabian\\-peninsula\\-countries \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-08 \\|publisher\\=worldpopulationreview.com \\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190530/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country\\-rankings/arabian\\-peninsula\\-countries \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of oil. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, the only peninsular country in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home to the [Arabic\\-language](/wiki/Arabic_language \"Arabic language\") television station [Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network \"Al Jazeera Media Network\") and its English\\-language subsidiary [Al Jazeera English](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English \"Al Jazeera English\"). Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\")–led [2003 invasion of Iraq](/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq \"2003 invasion of Iraq\").",
"### Population",
"{{Historical populations\n\\|type \\=\n\\|footnote \\= Political Definition: Gulf Cooperation Council and Yemen \nSources:1950–2000{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N\\=%20Results%20\\&T\\=6\\&A\\=separate\\&RT\\=0\\&Y\\=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010\\&R\\=\\-1\\&C\\=BA,KU,MU,QA,SA,AE,YM\\|title\\=International Programs\\|work\\=census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-14\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924122421/http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N\\=%20Results%20\\&T\\=6\\&A\\=separate\\&RT\\=0\\&Y\\=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010\\&R\\=\\-1\\&C\\=BA,KU,MU,QA,SA,AE,YM\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-24\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} 2000–2014{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.citypopulation.de/Asia.html\\|title\\=Asia: Population Statistics in Maps and Charts for Cities, Agglomerations and Administrative Divisions of all Countries in Asia\\|work\\=citypopulation.de\\|access\\-date\\=26 October 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=6 November 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106080903/http://citypopulation.de/Asia.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n\\|1950 \\| 9,481,713\n\\|1960 \\| 11,788,232\n\\|1970 \\| 15,319,678\n\\|1980 \\| 23,286,256\n\\|1990 \\| 35,167,708\n\\|2000 \\| 47,466,523\n\\|2010 \\| 63,364,000\n\\|2014 \\| 77,584,000\n\\|2018 \\| 86,221,765\n\\|2023\\|93,900,000}}\n{{Historical populations\n\\|type \\=\n\\|title \\= Historical population (Gulf 4\\)\n\\|footnote \\= Population of 4 smallest (in area) \\[\\[Gulf Cooperation Council\\|GCC]] states with their coastline in the Persian Gulf: UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait \nSources:1950–2000{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N\\=%20Results%20\\&T\\=6\\&A\\=both\\&RT\\=0\\&Y\\=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010\\&R\\=\\-1\\&C\\=BA,KU,QA,AE\\|title\\=International Programs\\|work\\=census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-14\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924122419/http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N\\=%20Results%20\\&T\\=6\\&A\\=both\\&RT\\=0\\&Y\\=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010\\&R\\=\\-1\\&C\\=BA,KU,QA,AE\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-24\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} 2000–2014\n\\|1950 \\| 356,235\n\\|1970 \\| 1,329,168\n\\|1990 \\| 4,896,491\n\\|2010 \\| 11,457,000\n\\|2014 \\| 17,086,000\n\\|2018 \\| 18,675,440\n}}",
"Despite its historically sparse population, political Arabia stands out for its rapid population growth, driven by both significant inflows of migrant labor and persistently high birth rates. The population is characterized by its relative youth and a heavily skewed gender ratio favoring males. In several states, the number of South Asians surpasses that of the native population. The four smallest states (by area), with coastlines entirely bordering the Persian Gulf, showcase the world's most extreme population growth, nearly tripling every two decades. In 2014, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936 (including expatriates).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the\\-world\\-factbook/index.html\\|title\\=The World Fact book\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Central Intelligence Agency]]\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-12 \\|date\\=2007\\-08\\-07\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080812233855/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the\\-world\\-factbook/index.html\\| archive\\-date\\= 12 August 2008 \\| url\\-status\\= dead}} The Arabian Peninsula is known for having one of the most uneven adult sex ratios in the world, with females in some regions (especially the east) constituting only a quarter of people aged between 20 and 40\\.Alrouh, Hekmat, Awatef Ismail, and Sohaila Cheema. \"Demographic and health indicators in Gulf Cooperation Council nations with an emphasis on Qatar.\" Journal of Local and Global Health Perspectives (2013\\): p 4",
"#### Cities",
"[thumb\\|[Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh \"Riyadh\"), [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\"), the most populous city in the Arabian Peninsula](/wiki/File:Riyadh_Skyline.jpg \"Riyadh Skyline.jpg\")\nThe eleven most populous cities on the Arabian Peninsula are:",
"",
"| Rank | City | Population |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|KSA}} [Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh \"Riyadh\") | {{right}} 7,538,200 |\n| 2 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|KSA}} [Jeddah](/wiki/Jeddah \"Jeddah\") | {{right}} 4,780,740 |\n| 3 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|KUW}} [Kuwait City](/wiki/Kuwait_City \"Kuwait City\") | {{right}} 3,238,523 |\n| 4 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|YEM}} [Sanaa](/wiki/Sanaa \"Sanaa\") | {{right}} 3,181,655 |\n| 5 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|UAE}} [Dubai](/wiki/Dubai \"Dubai\") | {{right}} 2,964,382 |\n| 6 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|KSA}} [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\") | {{right}} 2,114,675 |\n| 7 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|UAE}} [Sharjah](/wiki/Sharjah \"Sharjah\") | {{right}} 1,785,684 |\n| 8 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|OMA}} [Muscat](/wiki/Muscat \"Muscat\") | {{right}} 1,622,620 |\n| 9 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|KSA}} [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\") | {{right}} 1,545,420 |\n| 10 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|UAE}} [Abu Dhabi](/wiki/Abu_Dhabi \"Abu Dhabi\") | {{right}} 1,539,830 |\n| 11 | {{left}} {{flagicon\\|IRQ}} [Basra](/wiki/Basra \"Basra\") | {{right}} 1,485,000 |\n|Source: 2022{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world\\-cities\\|title\\=World City Populations 2022\\|website\\=worldpopulationreview.com\\|access\\-date\\=10 June 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=20 February 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220194018/http://worldpopulationreview.com/world\\-cities/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"",
"### Landscape",
"{{multiple image \\|align\\=right \\|direction\\=vertical\n \\|image1\\=A journey.jpg \\|caption1\\=A caravan crossing \\[\\[Ad\\-Dahna Desert]] in central Saudi Arabia\n \\|image2\\=Ras al jinz flickr01\\.jpg \\|caption2\\=\\[\\[Ras al\\-Jinz]] in southeastern Arabia (Oman), also known as the 'Turtle Beach'\n \\|image3\\=Arabian Plate map\\-uni.png \\|caption3\\=AR\\-Arabian Plate, velocities with respect to Africa in millimeters per year\n}}",
"The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the [Arabian\\-Nubian Shield](/wiki/Arabian-Nubian_Shield \"Arabian-Nubian Shield\") near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best\\-preserved [ophiolite](/wiki/Ophiolite \"Ophiolite\") on Earth, the [Semail Ophiolite](/wiki/Semail_Ophiolite \"Semail Ophiolite\"), lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.",
"The peninsula consists of:",
"1. A central plateau, the [Najd](/wiki/Najd \"Najd\"), with fertile valleys and pastures used for the grazing of [sheep](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\") and other livestock\n2. A range of deserts: the [Nefud](/wiki/Nefud \"Nefud\") in the north,{{cite book\\|last\\=Prothero\\|first\\=G.W.\\|title\\=Arabia\\|year\\=1920\\|publisher\\=H.M. Stationery Office\\|location\\=London\\|page\\=15\\|url\\=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/\\|access\\-date\\=8 September 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031163556/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} which is stony; the [Rub' al Khali](/wiki/Rub%27_al_Khali \"Rub' al Khali\") or Great [Arabian Desert](/wiki/Arabian_Desert \"Arabian Desert\") in the south, with sand estimated to extend {{convert\\|600\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} below the surface; between them, the [Dahna](/wiki/Dahna \"Dahna\") [Mountains](/wiki/%23Mountains \"#Mountains\"){{cite book \\|author\\=Robert D. Burrowes \\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Yemen \\|pages\\=5–340 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rowman \\& Littlefield]] \\|year\\=2010 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tjXRfqBv\\_0UC \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-5528\\-1 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215025046/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tjXRfqBv\\_0UC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last\\=McLaughlin \\|first\\=Daniel \\|title\\=Yemen \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bradt Travel Guides]] \\|chapter\\=1: Background \\|page\\=3 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-8416\\-2212\\-5 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eQvhZaEVzjcC \\|year\\=2008 \\|access\\-date\\=29 December 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 July 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702224444/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eQvhZaEVzjcC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cavendish \\|first1\\=Marshall \\|author\\-link\\=Marshall Cavendish \\|title\\=World and Its Peoples \\|volume\\=1 \\|chapter\\=Geography and climate \\|date\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Cavendish Square Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7614\\-7571\\-2 \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/n151 8]–19 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=j894miuOqc4C\\&pg\\=PA8 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse \\|url\\-access\\=limited }}\n3. Stretches of dry or marshy coastland with coral reefs on the Red Sea side ([Tihamah](/wiki/Tihamah \"Tihamah\"))\n4. Oases and marshy coast\\-land in [Eastern Arabia](/wiki/Eastern_Arabia \"Eastern Arabia\"), the most important of which are those of the [Al Ain emirate](/wiki/Al_Ain%2C_Emirate_of_Abu_Dhabi \"Al Ain, Emirate of Abu Dhabi\") ([Tawam](/wiki/Tawam_%28region%29 \"Tawam (region)\") region) and [Hofuf](/wiki/Hofuf \"Hofuf\")/[Al\\-Ahsa](/wiki/Al-Ahsa_Oasis \"Al-Ahsa Oasis\") (in modern\\-day Saudi Arabia), according to an author\n5. The southwest [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon \"Monsoon\") coastline of [Dhofar](/wiki/Dhofar_Governorate%23Geography \"Dhofar Governorate#Geography\") and Eastern Yemen ([Mahra](/wiki/Al_Mahrah_Governorate \"Al Mahrah Governorate\")).",
"Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called [wadis](/wiki/Wadi \"Wadi\"), which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient [aquifers](/wiki/Aquifer \"Aquifer\") exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, [oases](/wiki/Oases \"Oases\") form (e.g. Al\\-Hasa and [Qatif](/wiki/Qatif \"Qatif\"), two of the world's largest [oases](/wiki/Oases \"Oases\")) and permit agriculture, especially [palm trees](/wiki/Palm_trees \"Palm trees\"), which allowed the peninsula to produce more [dates](/wiki/Date_palm \"Date palm\") than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and [arid](/wiki/Desert \"Desert\"), although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert\\-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.",
"A plateau more than {{convert\\|2500\\|ft\\|m}} high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterized by *cuestas* and valleys, drained by a system of *wadis*. A crescent of sand and [gravel](/wiki/Gravel \"Gravel\") deserts lies to the east.",
"#### Mountains",
"[thumb\\|The [Haraz Mountains](/wiki/Jabal_Haraz \"Jabal Haraz\") in the west of present\\-day Yemen include Arabia's highest mountain, [Jabal An\\-Nabi Shu'ayb](/wiki/Jabal_An-Nabi_Shu%27ayb \"Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb\") or Jabal Hadhur near [Sanaa](/wiki/Sanaa \"Sanaa\")](/wiki/File:Kawkaban_-68_%28353668857%29.jpg \"Kawkaban -68 (353668857).jpg\")",
"There are mountains at the eastern, southern and northwestern borders of the peninsula. Broadly, the ranges can be grouped as follows:\n* Northeast: The [Hajar range](/wiki/Hajar_Mountains \"Hajar Mountains\"), of UAE and Oman\n* Southeast: The [Dhofar Mountains](/wiki/Dhofar_Mountains \"Dhofar Mountains\") of southern Oman, contiguous with the eastern Yemeni [Hadhramaut](/wiki/Hadhramaut_Mountains \"Hadhramaut Mountains\"){{cite book \\|last\\=Scoville \\|first\\=Sheila A. \\|title\\=Gazetteer of Arabia: a geographical and tribal history of the Arabian Peninsula \\|volume\\=2 \\|pages\\=117–288 \\|publisher\\=Akademische Druck\\- u. Verlagsanstalt \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AH8YAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=hadhramaut\\+mountains \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7614\\-7571\\-2 \\|year\\=2006 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101208/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AH8YAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=hadhramaut\\+mountains \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ghazanfar \\|first1\\=Shahina A. \\|author\\-link\\=Shahina A. Ghazanfar \\|title\\=Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula \\|last2\\=Fisher \\|first2\\=Martin \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-17 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media\\|Springer Science \\& Business Media]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-9\\-4017\\-3637\\-4 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Sultan Qaboos University]], \\[\\[Muscat]] \\|pages\\=27–55 \\|chapter\\=1–2 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uc\\_tCAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=hadhramaut\\+highlands\\&pg\\=PA52 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101205/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uc\\_tCAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=hadhramaut\\+highlands\\&pg\\=PA52 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n* West: Bordering the [eastern coast](/wiki/Tihamah \"Tihamah\") of the Red Sea are the [Sarawat](/wiki/Sarawat_Mountains \"Sarawat Mountains\"), which can be seen to include the [Haraz Mountains](/wiki/Jabal_Haraz \"Jabal Haraz\") to the east of Yemen, as well as those of ['Asir](/wiki/Asir_Mountains \"Asir Mountains\") (once part of Yemen) {{cite book \\|last\\=Overstreet \\|first\\=William Courtney \\|title\\=Tertiary laterite of the As Sarat Mountains, Asir Province, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia \\|publisher\\=Directorate General of Mineral Resources \\|volume\\=2 \\|pages\\=iii–2 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KmxPAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=sarat\\+mountains \\|year\\=1977 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208154921/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KmxPAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=sarat\\+mountains \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz_vilayet \"Hejaz vilayet\"){{cite book \\|last\\=Mandal \\|first\\=Ram Bahadur \\|title\\=Patterns of Regional Geography: World regions \\|publisher\\=Concept Publishing Company \\|chapter\\=VI: A Regional Geography \\|page\\=354 \\|isbn\\=978\\-8\\-1702\\-2292\\-7 \\|location\\=\\[\\[New Delhi]], \\[\\[India]] \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XWwCHWwgKt0C\\&q\\=sarawat\\+mountains\\&pg\\=PA354 \\|year\\=1990 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603000536/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XWwCHWwgKt0C\\&q\\=sarawat\\+mountains\\&pg\\=PA354 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last\\=Nasr \\|first\\=Seyyed Hossein \\|author\\-link\\=Hossein Nasr \\|title\\=Mecca the Blessed, Medina the Radiant: The Holiest Cities of Islam \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Tuttle Publishing]] \\|chapter\\=1: The Holiest Cities of Islam \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4629\\-1365\\-7 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4RvQAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=sarat\\+mountains \\|year\\=2013 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101203/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4RvQAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=sarat\\+mountains \\|url\\-status\\=live }} the latter including the [Midian](/wiki/Midian_Mountains \"Midian Mountains\") in what is now northwestern Saudi Arabia\n* Northwest: Aside from the Sarawat, the northern portion of Saudi Arabia hosts the [Jabal Shamar Mountains](/wiki/Shammar_Mountains \"Shammar Mountains\"), which include the Aja and [Salma](/wiki/Salma_Mountains \"Salma Mountains\") subranges\n* Central: The Najd hosts the [Tuwaiq](/wiki/Tuwaiq \"Tuwaiq\") Escarpment or Tuwair range",
"From the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\") southwards, the mountains show a steady increase in altitude westward as they get nearer to Yemen, and the highest peaks and ranges are all located in Yemen. The highest, [Jabal An\\-Nabi Shu'ayb](/wiki/Jabal_An-Nabi_Shu%27ayb \"Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb\") or Jabal Hadhur{{Cite book \\|last\\=زبارة \\|first\\=محمد بن محمد بن يحيى اليمني/الصنعاني \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=L4dyDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT359 \\|title\\=نيل الوطر من تراجم رجال اليمن في القرن الثالث عشر 1–2 ج1 \\|date\\=1998\\-01\\-01 \\|publisher\\=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah (دار الكتب العلمية) \\|isbn\\=978\\-2\\-7451\\-2623\\-8 \\|language\\=ar \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225083339/https://books.google.nl/books?id\\=L4dyDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT359\\&redir\\_esc\\=y \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Qatar Digital Library]] \\|title\\=Gazetteer of Arabia \\|volume\\=II \\[1044] (81/688\\) \\|url\\=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc\\_100023727632\\.0x000052 \\|year\\=1917 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309051759/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc\\_100023727632\\.0x000052 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|publisher\\=Mindat.org \\|title\\=Jabal an\\-Nabī Shu'ayb, Bani Matar, Sanaa, Yemen \\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\\-72377\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612211036/https://www.mindat.org/feature\\-72377\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} of the Haraz subrange of the Sarawat range, is {{convert\\|3666\\|m\\|ft\\|0}} high. By comparison, the [Tuwayr](/wiki/Tuwayr_Mountains \"Tuwayr Mountains\"), Shammar and Dhofar generally do not exceed {{convert\\|1,000\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} in height.",
"Not all mountains in the peninsula are visibly within ranges. [Jebel Hafeet](/wiki/Jebel_Hafeet \"Jebel Hafeet\") in particular, on the border of the UAE and Oman, measuring between {{cvt\\|1,100\\|and\\|1,300\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}},{{cite web \\|last\\=Gardner \\|first\\=Andrew Somerville \\|title\\=The reptiles of Jebel Hafeet \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations\\|ADCO]] and Emirates Natural History Group \\|pages\\=149–168 \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847 \\|date\\=January 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114153347/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847\\_The\\_reptiles\\_of\\_Jebel\\_Hafit \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|editor\\-last1\\=Lieth \\|editor\\-first1\\=Helmut \\|editor\\-last2\\=Al Masoom \\|editor\\-first2\\=A. A. \\|title\\=Towards the rational use of high salinity tolerant plants: Vol 2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media]] \\|volume\\=2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions \\|chapter\\=Reclamation potentials of saline degraded lands in Abu Dhabi eastern region using high salinity\\-tolerant woody plants and some salt marsh species \\|pages\\=271–274 \\|isbn\\=978\\-9\\-4011\\-1860\\-6 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Y\\-fqCAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=hafit \\|date\\=2012\\-12\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=13 January 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330131859/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Y\\-fqCAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=hafit \\|url\\-status\\=live }} is not within the Hajar range, but may be considered an [outlier](/wiki/Outlier \"Outlier\") of that range.",
"",
"File:Salalah Oman.jpg\\|\\[\\[Dhofar Governorate\\|Dhofar]]\nFile:Yemen landscape 05\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[At Tawilah District\\|At\\-Tawilah]], \\[\\[Al Mahwit]], \\[\\[Yemen]]\nFile:شعيب جو بجبال أجـــا \\- panoramio.jpg\\|A subrange of the Jabal Shammar mountains in the desert region of \\[\\[Ha'il]], Saudi Arabia",
"",
"### Land and sea",
"{{multiple image \\|align\\=right \\|direction\\=vertical\n \\|image1 \\= Al hafa corniche.jpg \n \\|caption1 \\= Coconut palms line corniches of Al\\-Hafa, Oman\n \\|image2 \\= Coral Reef in the Red Sea.JPG \n \\|caption2 \\= Red Sea coral reefs\n \\|image3 \\= Al\\-Shaggain, Mukalla.jpg\n \\|caption3 \\= Al\\-Shaggain in \\[\\[Mukalla]], Yemen\n}}",
"Most of the Arabian Peninsula is unsuited to agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential. The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1% of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, [coffee](/wiki/Coffee \"Coffee\") and [tropical fruits](/wiki/Tropical_fruit \"Tropical fruit\"). Goat, sheep, and [camel](/wiki/Camel \"Camel\") husbandry is widespread elsewhere throughout the rest of the Peninsula. Some areas have a summer humid [tropical monsoon climate](/wiki/Tropical_monsoon_climate \"Tropical monsoon climate\"), in particular the [Dhofar](/wiki/Dhofar \"Dhofar\") and [Al Mahrah](/wiki/Al_Mahrah \"Al Mahrah\") areas of Oman and Yemen. These areas allow for large scale coconut plantations. Much of Yemen has a tropical [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon \"Monsoon\") rain influenced mountain climate. The plains usually have either a tropical or subtropical arid [desert climate](/wiki/Desert_climate \"Desert climate\") or arid [steppe climate](/wiki/Steppe_climate \"Steppe climate\"). The sea surrounding the Arabian Peninsula is generally [tropical sea](/wiki/Coral_Sea \"Coral Sea\") with a very rich tropical sea life and some of the world's largest, undestroyed and most pristine coral reefs. In addition, the organisms living in [symbiosis](/wiki/Symbiosis \"Symbiosis\") with the Red Sea coral, the [protozoa](/wiki/Protozoa \"Protozoa\") and [zooxanthellae](/wiki/Zooxanthellae \"Zooxanthellae\"), have a unique hot weather adaptation to sudden rise (and fall) in sea water temperature. Hence, these coral reefs are not affected by coral bleaching caused by rise in temperature as elsewhere in the [indopacific](/wiki/Indopacific \"Indopacific\") coral sea. The reefs are also unaffected by mass tourism and diving or other large scale human interference. The Persian gulf has suffered significant loss and degradation of coral reefs with the biggest ongoing threat believed to be coastal construction activity altering the marine environment.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Riegl \\|first1\\=Bernhard \\|last2\\=Purkis \\|first2\\=Samuel\\|date\\=2011 \\|editor\\-last\\=Hopley \\|editor\\-first\\=D \\|title\\= Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|pages\\=790–798 \\|chapter\\=Persian/Arabian Gulf Coral Reefs \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-481\\-2639\\-2\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-90\\-481\\-2639\\-2\\_123}}",
"The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at {{convert\\|10000\\|ft\\|m}}. In the higher elevations, elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate grain, fruit, coffee, ginger and [khat](/wiki/Khat \"Khat\") cultivation. The Arabian peninsula is known for its rich oil, i.e. petroleum production due to its geographical location.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Sorkhabi \\|first1\\=Rasoul \\|title\\=The Emergence of the Arabian Oil Industry \\|url\\=https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2008/06/the\\-emergence\\-of\\-the\\-arabian\\-oil\\-industry \\|website\\=Geoexpro \\|date\\=June 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601235624/https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2008/06/the\\-emergence\\-of\\-the\\-arabian\\-oil\\-industry \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"According to NASA's [Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment](/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment \"Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment\") (GRACE) satellite data (2003–2013\\) analysed in a [University of California, Irvine (UCI)](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Irvine \"University of California, Irvine\")\\-led study published in [Water Resources Research](/wiki/Water_Resources_Research \"Water Resources Research\") on 16 June 2015, the most over\\-stressed aquifer system in the world is the [Arabian Aquifer System](/wiki/Arabian_Aquifer_System \"Arabian Aquifer System\"), upon which more than 60 million people depend for water.{{citation \\|url\\=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature\\=4626 \\|work\\=NASA \\|date\\=16 June 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2015 \\|title\\=Study: Third of Big Groundwater Basins in Distress \\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627045543/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature\\=4626 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Twenty\\-one of the thirty seven largest aquifers \"have exceeded sustainability tipping points and are being depleted\" and thirteen of them are \"considered significantly distressed\".",
""
] |
### Landscape
{{multiple image \|align\=right \|direction\=vertical
\|image1\=A journey.jpg \|caption1\=A caravan crossing \[\[Ad\-Dahna Desert]] in central Saudi Arabia
\|image2\=Ras al jinz flickr01\.jpg \|caption2\=\[\[Ras al\-Jinz]] in southeastern Arabia (Oman), also known as the 'Turtle Beach'
\|image3\=Arabian Plate map\-uni.png \|caption3\=AR\-Arabian Plate, velocities with respect to Africa in millimeters per year
}}
The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the [Arabian\-Nubian Shield](/wiki/Arabian-Nubian_Shield "Arabian-Nubian Shield") near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best\-preserved [ophiolite](/wiki/Ophiolite "Ophiolite") on Earth, the [Semail Ophiolite](/wiki/Semail_Ophiolite "Semail Ophiolite"), lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.
The peninsula consists of:
1. A central plateau, the [Najd](/wiki/Najd "Najd"), with fertile valleys and pastures used for the grazing of [sheep](/wiki/Sheep "Sheep") and other livestock
2. A range of deserts: the [Nefud](/wiki/Nefud "Nefud") in the north,{{cite book\|last\=Prothero\|first\=G.W.\|title\=Arabia\|year\=1920\|publisher\=H.M. Stationery Office\|location\=London\|page\=15\|url\=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/\|access\-date\=8 September 2013\|archive\-date\=31 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031163556/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/\|url\-status\=live}} which is stony; the [Rub' al Khali](/wiki/Rub%27_al_Khali "Rub' al Khali") or Great [Arabian Desert](/wiki/Arabian_Desert "Arabian Desert") in the south, with sand estimated to extend {{convert\|600\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} below the surface; between them, the [Dahna](/wiki/Dahna "Dahna") [Mountains](/wiki/%23Mountains "#Mountains"){{cite book \|author\=Robert D. Burrowes \|title\=Historical Dictionary of Yemen \|pages\=5–340 \|publisher\=\[\[Rowman \& Littlefield]] \|year\=2010 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=tjXRfqBv\_0UC \|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-5528\-1 \|access\-date\=19 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=15 February 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215025046/https://books.google.com/books?id\=tjXRfqBv\_0UC \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last\=McLaughlin \|first\=Daniel \|title\=Yemen \|publisher\=\[\[Bradt Travel Guides]] \|chapter\=1: Background \|page\=3 \|isbn\=978\-1\-8416\-2212\-5 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eQvhZaEVzjcC \|year\=2008 \|access\-date\=29 December 2018 \|archive\-date\=2 July 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702224444/https://books.google.com/books?id\=eQvhZaEVzjcC \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last1\=Cavendish \|first1\=Marshall \|author\-link\=Marshall Cavendish \|title\=World and Its Peoples \|volume\=1 \|chapter\=Geography and climate \|date\=2007 \|publisher\=Cavendish Square Publishing \|isbn\=978\-0\-7614\-7571\-2 \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/n151 8]–19 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=j894miuOqc4C\&pg\=PA8 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse \|url\-access\=limited }}
3. Stretches of dry or marshy coastland with coral reefs on the Red Sea side ([Tihamah](/wiki/Tihamah "Tihamah"))
4. Oases and marshy coast\-land in [Eastern Arabia](/wiki/Eastern_Arabia "Eastern Arabia"), the most important of which are those of the [Al Ain emirate](/wiki/Al_Ain%2C_Emirate_of_Abu_Dhabi "Al Ain, Emirate of Abu Dhabi") ([Tawam](/wiki/Tawam_%28region%29 "Tawam (region)") region) and [Hofuf](/wiki/Hofuf "Hofuf")/[Al\-Ahsa](/wiki/Al-Ahsa_Oasis "Al-Ahsa Oasis") (in modern\-day Saudi Arabia), according to an author
5. The southwest [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon "Monsoon") coastline of [Dhofar](/wiki/Dhofar_Governorate%23Geography "Dhofar Governorate#Geography") and Eastern Yemen ([Mahra](/wiki/Al_Mahrah_Governorate "Al Mahrah Governorate")).
Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called [wadis](/wiki/Wadi "Wadi"), which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient [aquifers](/wiki/Aquifer "Aquifer") exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, [oases](/wiki/Oases "Oases") form (e.g. Al\-Hasa and [Qatif](/wiki/Qatif "Qatif"), two of the world's largest [oases](/wiki/Oases "Oases")) and permit agriculture, especially [palm trees](/wiki/Palm_trees "Palm trees"), which allowed the peninsula to produce more [dates](/wiki/Date_palm "Date palm") than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and [arid](/wiki/Desert "Desert"), although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert\-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.
A plateau more than {{convert\|2500\|ft\|m}} high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterized by *cuestas* and valleys, drained by a system of *wadis*. A crescent of sand and [gravel](/wiki/Gravel "Gravel") deserts lies to the east.
#### Mountains
[thumb\|The [Haraz Mountains](/wiki/Jabal_Haraz "Jabal Haraz") in the west of present\-day Yemen include Arabia's highest mountain, [Jabal An\-Nabi Shu'ayb](/wiki/Jabal_An-Nabi_Shu%27ayb "Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb") or Jabal Hadhur near [Sanaa](/wiki/Sanaa "Sanaa")](/wiki/File:Kawkaban_-68_%28353668857%29.jpg "Kawkaban -68 (353668857).jpg")
There are mountains at the eastern, southern and northwestern borders of the peninsula. Broadly, the ranges can be grouped as follows:
* Northeast: The [Hajar range](/wiki/Hajar_Mountains "Hajar Mountains"), of UAE and Oman
* Southeast: The [Dhofar Mountains](/wiki/Dhofar_Mountains "Dhofar Mountains") of southern Oman, contiguous with the eastern Yemeni [Hadhramaut](/wiki/Hadhramaut_Mountains "Hadhramaut Mountains"){{cite book \|last\=Scoville \|first\=Sheila A. \|title\=Gazetteer of Arabia: a geographical and tribal history of the Arabian Peninsula \|volume\=2 \|pages\=117–288 \|publisher\=Akademische Druck\- u. Verlagsanstalt \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AH8YAQAAMAAJ\&q\=hadhramaut\+mountains \|isbn\=978\-0\-7614\-7571\-2 \|year\=2006 \|access\-date\=19 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=31 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101208/https://books.google.com/books?id\=AH8YAQAAMAAJ\&q\=hadhramaut\+mountains \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last1\=Ghazanfar \|first1\=Shahina A. \|author\-link\=Shahina A. Ghazanfar \|title\=Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula \|last2\=Fisher \|first2\=Martin \|date\=2013\-04\-17 \|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media\|Springer Science \& Business Media]] \|isbn\=978\-9\-4017\-3637\-4 \|location\=\[\[Sultan Qaboos University]], \[\[Muscat]] \|pages\=27–55 \|chapter\=1–2 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uc\_tCAAAQBAJ\&q\=hadhramaut\+highlands\&pg\=PA52 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101205/https://books.google.com/books?id\=uc\_tCAAAQBAJ\&q\=hadhramaut\+highlands\&pg\=PA52 \|archive\-date\=31 October 2021 \|url\-status\=live}}
* West: Bordering the [eastern coast](/wiki/Tihamah "Tihamah") of the Red Sea are the [Sarawat](/wiki/Sarawat_Mountains "Sarawat Mountains"), which can be seen to include the [Haraz Mountains](/wiki/Jabal_Haraz "Jabal Haraz") to the east of Yemen, as well as those of ['Asir](/wiki/Asir_Mountains "Asir Mountains") (once part of Yemen) {{cite book \|last\=Overstreet \|first\=William Courtney \|title\=Tertiary laterite of the As Sarat Mountains, Asir Province, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia \|publisher\=Directorate General of Mineral Resources \|volume\=2 \|pages\=iii–2 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KmxPAQAAIAAJ\&q\=sarat\+mountains \|year\=1977 \|access\-date\=19 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=8 December 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208154921/https://books.google.com/books?id\=KmxPAQAAIAAJ\&q\=sarat\+mountains \|url\-status\=live }} and [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz_vilayet "Hejaz vilayet"){{cite book \|last\=Mandal \|first\=Ram Bahadur \|title\=Patterns of Regional Geography: World regions \|publisher\=Concept Publishing Company \|chapter\=VI: A Regional Geography \|page\=354 \|isbn\=978\-8\-1702\-2292\-7 \|location\=\[\[New Delhi]], \[\[India]] \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XWwCHWwgKt0C\&q\=sarawat\+mountains\&pg\=PA354 \|year\=1990 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=3 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603000536/https://books.google.com/books?id\=XWwCHWwgKt0C\&q\=sarawat\+mountains\&pg\=PA354 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last\=Nasr \|first\=Seyyed Hossein \|author\-link\=Hossein Nasr \|title\=Mecca the Blessed, Medina the Radiant: The Holiest Cities of Islam \|publisher\=\[\[Tuttle Publishing]] \|chapter\=1: The Holiest Cities of Islam \|isbn\=978\-1\-4629\-1365\-7 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4RvQAgAAQBAJ\&q\=sarat\+mountains \|year\=2013 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=31 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101203/https://books.google.com/books?id\=4RvQAgAAQBAJ\&q\=sarat\+mountains \|url\-status\=live }} the latter including the [Midian](/wiki/Midian_Mountains "Midian Mountains") in what is now northwestern Saudi Arabia
* Northwest: Aside from the Sarawat, the northern portion of Saudi Arabia hosts the [Jabal Shamar Mountains](/wiki/Shammar_Mountains "Shammar Mountains"), which include the Aja and [Salma](/wiki/Salma_Mountains "Salma Mountains") subranges
* Central: The Najd hosts the [Tuwaiq](/wiki/Tuwaiq "Tuwaiq") Escarpment or Tuwair range
From the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz") southwards, the mountains show a steady increase in altitude westward as they get nearer to Yemen, and the highest peaks and ranges are all located in Yemen. The highest, [Jabal An\-Nabi Shu'ayb](/wiki/Jabal_An-Nabi_Shu%27ayb "Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb") or Jabal Hadhur{{Cite book \|last\=زبارة \|first\=محمد بن محمد بن يحيى اليمني/الصنعاني \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=L4dyDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT359 \|title\=نيل الوطر من تراجم رجال اليمن في القرن الثالث عشر 1–2 ج1 \|date\=1998\-01\-01 \|publisher\=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah (دار الكتب العلمية) \|isbn\=978\-2\-7451\-2623\-8 \|language\=ar \|access\-date\=18 April 2020 \|archive\-date\=25 February 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225083339/https://books.google.nl/books?id\=L4dyDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT359\&redir\_esc\=y \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|publisher\=\[\[Qatar Digital Library]] \|title\=Gazetteer of Arabia \|volume\=II \[1044] (81/688\) \|url\=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc\_100023727632\.0x000052 \|year\=1917 \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-17 \|archive\-date\=9 March 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309051759/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc\_100023727632\.0x000052 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|publisher\=Mindat.org \|title\=Jabal an\-Nabī Shu'ayb, Bani Matar, Sanaa, Yemen \|url\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\-72377\.html \|access\-date\=2020\-04\-17 \|archive\-date\=12 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612211036/https://www.mindat.org/feature\-72377\.html \|url\-status\=live }} of the Haraz subrange of the Sarawat range, is {{convert\|3666\|m\|ft\|0}} high. By comparison, the [Tuwayr](/wiki/Tuwayr_Mountains "Tuwayr Mountains"), Shammar and Dhofar generally do not exceed {{convert\|1,000\|m\|ft\|abbr\=on}} in height.
Not all mountains in the peninsula are visibly within ranges. [Jebel Hafeet](/wiki/Jebel_Hafeet "Jebel Hafeet") in particular, on the border of the UAE and Oman, measuring between {{cvt\|1,100\|and\|1,300\|m\|abbr\=on}},{{cite web \|last\=Gardner \|first\=Andrew Somerville \|title\=The reptiles of Jebel Hafeet \|publisher\=\[\[Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations\|ADCO]] and Emirates Natural History Group \|pages\=149–168 \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847 \|date\=January 2004 \|access\-date\=2019\-01\-14 \|archive\-date\=14 January 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114153347/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847\_The\_reptiles\_of\_Jebel\_Hafit \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|editor\-last1\=Lieth \|editor\-first1\=Helmut \|editor\-last2\=Al Masoom \|editor\-first2\=A. A. \|title\=Towards the rational use of high salinity tolerant plants: Vol 2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions \|publisher\=\[\[Springer Science\+Business Media]] \|volume\=2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions \|chapter\=Reclamation potentials of saline degraded lands in Abu Dhabi eastern region using high salinity\-tolerant woody plants and some salt marsh species \|pages\=271–274 \|isbn\=978\-9\-4011\-1860\-6 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Y\-fqCAAAQBAJ\&q\=hafit \|date\=2012\-12\-06 \|access\-date\=13 January 2019 \|archive\-date\=30 March 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330131859/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Y\-fqCAAAQBAJ\&q\=hafit \|url\-status\=live }} is not within the Hajar range, but may be considered an [outlier](/wiki/Outlier "Outlier") of that range.
File:Salalah Oman.jpg\|\[\[Dhofar Governorate\|Dhofar]]
File:Yemen landscape 05\.jpg\|\[\[At Tawilah District\|At\-Tawilah]], \[\[Al Mahwit]], \[\[Yemen]]
File:شعيب جو بجبال أجـــا \- panoramio.jpg\|A subrange of the Jabal Shammar mountains in the desert region of \[\[Ha'il]], Saudi Arabia
|
[
"### Landscape",
"{{multiple image \\|align\\=right \\|direction\\=vertical\n \\|image1\\=A journey.jpg \\|caption1\\=A caravan crossing \\[\\[Ad\\-Dahna Desert]] in central Saudi Arabia\n \\|image2\\=Ras al jinz flickr01\\.jpg \\|caption2\\=\\[\\[Ras al\\-Jinz]] in southeastern Arabia (Oman), also known as the 'Turtle Beach'\n \\|image3\\=Arabian Plate map\\-uni.png \\|caption3\\=AR\\-Arabian Plate, velocities with respect to Africa in millimeters per year\n}}",
"The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the [Arabian\\-Nubian Shield](/wiki/Arabian-Nubian_Shield \"Arabian-Nubian Shield\") near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best\\-preserved [ophiolite](/wiki/Ophiolite \"Ophiolite\") on Earth, the [Semail Ophiolite](/wiki/Semail_Ophiolite \"Semail Ophiolite\"), lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.",
"The peninsula consists of:",
"1. A central plateau, the [Najd](/wiki/Najd \"Najd\"), with fertile valleys and pastures used for the grazing of [sheep](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\") and other livestock\n2. A range of deserts: the [Nefud](/wiki/Nefud \"Nefud\") in the north,{{cite book\\|last\\=Prothero\\|first\\=G.W.\\|title\\=Arabia\\|year\\=1920\\|publisher\\=H.M. Stationery Office\\|location\\=London\\|page\\=15\\|url\\=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/\\|access\\-date\\=8 September 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031163556/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} which is stony; the [Rub' al Khali](/wiki/Rub%27_al_Khali \"Rub' al Khali\") or Great [Arabian Desert](/wiki/Arabian_Desert \"Arabian Desert\") in the south, with sand estimated to extend {{convert\\|600\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} below the surface; between them, the [Dahna](/wiki/Dahna \"Dahna\") [Mountains](/wiki/%23Mountains \"#Mountains\"){{cite book \\|author\\=Robert D. Burrowes \\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Yemen \\|pages\\=5–340 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rowman \\& Littlefield]] \\|year\\=2010 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tjXRfqBv\\_0UC \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-5528\\-1 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215025046/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tjXRfqBv\\_0UC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last\\=McLaughlin \\|first\\=Daniel \\|title\\=Yemen \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bradt Travel Guides]] \\|chapter\\=1: Background \\|page\\=3 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-8416\\-2212\\-5 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eQvhZaEVzjcC \\|year\\=2008 \\|access\\-date\\=29 December 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 July 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702224444/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eQvhZaEVzjcC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cavendish \\|first1\\=Marshall \\|author\\-link\\=Marshall Cavendish \\|title\\=World and Its Peoples \\|volume\\=1 \\|chapter\\=Geography and climate \\|date\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Cavendish Square Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7614\\-7571\\-2 \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/n151 8]–19 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=j894miuOqc4C\\&pg\\=PA8 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse \\|url\\-access\\=limited }}\n3. Stretches of dry or marshy coastland with coral reefs on the Red Sea side ([Tihamah](/wiki/Tihamah \"Tihamah\"))\n4. Oases and marshy coast\\-land in [Eastern Arabia](/wiki/Eastern_Arabia \"Eastern Arabia\"), the most important of which are those of the [Al Ain emirate](/wiki/Al_Ain%2C_Emirate_of_Abu_Dhabi \"Al Ain, Emirate of Abu Dhabi\") ([Tawam](/wiki/Tawam_%28region%29 \"Tawam (region)\") region) and [Hofuf](/wiki/Hofuf \"Hofuf\")/[Al\\-Ahsa](/wiki/Al-Ahsa_Oasis \"Al-Ahsa Oasis\") (in modern\\-day Saudi Arabia), according to an author\n5. The southwest [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon \"Monsoon\") coastline of [Dhofar](/wiki/Dhofar_Governorate%23Geography \"Dhofar Governorate#Geography\") and Eastern Yemen ([Mahra](/wiki/Al_Mahrah_Governorate \"Al Mahrah Governorate\")).",
"Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called [wadis](/wiki/Wadi \"Wadi\"), which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient [aquifers](/wiki/Aquifer \"Aquifer\") exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, [oases](/wiki/Oases \"Oases\") form (e.g. Al\\-Hasa and [Qatif](/wiki/Qatif \"Qatif\"), two of the world's largest [oases](/wiki/Oases \"Oases\")) and permit agriculture, especially [palm trees](/wiki/Palm_trees \"Palm trees\"), which allowed the peninsula to produce more [dates](/wiki/Date_palm \"Date palm\") than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and [arid](/wiki/Desert \"Desert\"), although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert\\-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.",
"A plateau more than {{convert\\|2500\\|ft\\|m}} high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterized by *cuestas* and valleys, drained by a system of *wadis*. A crescent of sand and [gravel](/wiki/Gravel \"Gravel\") deserts lies to the east.",
"#### Mountains",
"[thumb\\|The [Haraz Mountains](/wiki/Jabal_Haraz \"Jabal Haraz\") in the west of present\\-day Yemen include Arabia's highest mountain, [Jabal An\\-Nabi Shu'ayb](/wiki/Jabal_An-Nabi_Shu%27ayb \"Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb\") or Jabal Hadhur near [Sanaa](/wiki/Sanaa \"Sanaa\")](/wiki/File:Kawkaban_-68_%28353668857%29.jpg \"Kawkaban -68 (353668857).jpg\")",
"There are mountains at the eastern, southern and northwestern borders of the peninsula. Broadly, the ranges can be grouped as follows:\n* Northeast: The [Hajar range](/wiki/Hajar_Mountains \"Hajar Mountains\"), of UAE and Oman\n* Southeast: The [Dhofar Mountains](/wiki/Dhofar_Mountains \"Dhofar Mountains\") of southern Oman, contiguous with the eastern Yemeni [Hadhramaut](/wiki/Hadhramaut_Mountains \"Hadhramaut Mountains\"){{cite book \\|last\\=Scoville \\|first\\=Sheila A. \\|title\\=Gazetteer of Arabia: a geographical and tribal history of the Arabian Peninsula \\|volume\\=2 \\|pages\\=117–288 \\|publisher\\=Akademische Druck\\- u. Verlagsanstalt \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AH8YAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=hadhramaut\\+mountains \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7614\\-7571\\-2 \\|year\\=2006 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101208/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AH8YAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=hadhramaut\\+mountains \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Ghazanfar \\|first1\\=Shahina A. \\|author\\-link\\=Shahina A. Ghazanfar \\|title\\=Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula \\|last2\\=Fisher \\|first2\\=Martin \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-17 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media\\|Springer Science \\& Business Media]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-9\\-4017\\-3637\\-4 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Sultan Qaboos University]], \\[\\[Muscat]] \\|pages\\=27–55 \\|chapter\\=1–2 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uc\\_tCAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=hadhramaut\\+highlands\\&pg\\=PA52 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101205/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uc\\_tCAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=hadhramaut\\+highlands\\&pg\\=PA52 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n* West: Bordering the [eastern coast](/wiki/Tihamah \"Tihamah\") of the Red Sea are the [Sarawat](/wiki/Sarawat_Mountains \"Sarawat Mountains\"), which can be seen to include the [Haraz Mountains](/wiki/Jabal_Haraz \"Jabal Haraz\") to the east of Yemen, as well as those of ['Asir](/wiki/Asir_Mountains \"Asir Mountains\") (once part of Yemen) {{cite book \\|last\\=Overstreet \\|first\\=William Courtney \\|title\\=Tertiary laterite of the As Sarat Mountains, Asir Province, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia \\|publisher\\=Directorate General of Mineral Resources \\|volume\\=2 \\|pages\\=iii–2 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KmxPAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=sarat\\+mountains \\|year\\=1977 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208154921/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KmxPAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=sarat\\+mountains \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz_vilayet \"Hejaz vilayet\"){{cite book \\|last\\=Mandal \\|first\\=Ram Bahadur \\|title\\=Patterns of Regional Geography: World regions \\|publisher\\=Concept Publishing Company \\|chapter\\=VI: A Regional Geography \\|page\\=354 \\|isbn\\=978\\-8\\-1702\\-2292\\-7 \\|location\\=\\[\\[New Delhi]], \\[\\[India]] \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XWwCHWwgKt0C\\&q\\=sarawat\\+mountains\\&pg\\=PA354 \\|year\\=1990 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603000536/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XWwCHWwgKt0C\\&q\\=sarawat\\+mountains\\&pg\\=PA354 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last\\=Nasr \\|first\\=Seyyed Hossein \\|author\\-link\\=Hossein Nasr \\|title\\=Mecca the Blessed, Medina the Radiant: The Holiest Cities of Islam \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Tuttle Publishing]] \\|chapter\\=1: The Holiest Cities of Islam \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4629\\-1365\\-7 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4RvQAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=sarat\\+mountains \\|year\\=2013 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031101203/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4RvQAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=sarat\\+mountains \\|url\\-status\\=live }} the latter including the [Midian](/wiki/Midian_Mountains \"Midian Mountains\") in what is now northwestern Saudi Arabia\n* Northwest: Aside from the Sarawat, the northern portion of Saudi Arabia hosts the [Jabal Shamar Mountains](/wiki/Shammar_Mountains \"Shammar Mountains\"), which include the Aja and [Salma](/wiki/Salma_Mountains \"Salma Mountains\") subranges\n* Central: The Najd hosts the [Tuwaiq](/wiki/Tuwaiq \"Tuwaiq\") Escarpment or Tuwair range",
"From the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\") southwards, the mountains show a steady increase in altitude westward as they get nearer to Yemen, and the highest peaks and ranges are all located in Yemen. The highest, [Jabal An\\-Nabi Shu'ayb](/wiki/Jabal_An-Nabi_Shu%27ayb \"Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb\") or Jabal Hadhur{{Cite book \\|last\\=زبارة \\|first\\=محمد بن محمد بن يحيى اليمني/الصنعاني \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=L4dyDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT359 \\|title\\=نيل الوطر من تراجم رجال اليمن في القرن الثالث عشر 1–2 ج1 \\|date\\=1998\\-01\\-01 \\|publisher\\=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah (دار الكتب العلمية) \\|isbn\\=978\\-2\\-7451\\-2623\\-8 \\|language\\=ar \\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225083339/https://books.google.nl/books?id\\=L4dyDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT359\\&redir\\_esc\\=y \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Qatar Digital Library]] \\|title\\=Gazetteer of Arabia \\|volume\\=II \\[1044] (81/688\\) \\|url\\=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc\\_100023727632\\.0x000052 \\|year\\=1917 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309051759/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc\\_100023727632\\.0x000052 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|publisher\\=Mindat.org \\|title\\=Jabal an\\-Nabī Shu'ayb, Bani Matar, Sanaa, Yemen \\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\\-72377\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-04\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612211036/https://www.mindat.org/feature\\-72377\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} of the Haraz subrange of the Sarawat range, is {{convert\\|3666\\|m\\|ft\\|0}} high. By comparison, the [Tuwayr](/wiki/Tuwayr_Mountains \"Tuwayr Mountains\"), Shammar and Dhofar generally do not exceed {{convert\\|1,000\\|m\\|ft\\|abbr\\=on}} in height.",
"Not all mountains in the peninsula are visibly within ranges. [Jebel Hafeet](/wiki/Jebel_Hafeet \"Jebel Hafeet\") in particular, on the border of the UAE and Oman, measuring between {{cvt\\|1,100\\|and\\|1,300\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}},{{cite web \\|last\\=Gardner \\|first\\=Andrew Somerville \\|title\\=The reptiles of Jebel Hafeet \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations\\|ADCO]] and Emirates Natural History Group \\|pages\\=149–168 \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847 \\|date\\=January 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114153347/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847\\_The\\_reptiles\\_of\\_Jebel\\_Hafit \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|editor\\-last1\\=Lieth \\|editor\\-first1\\=Helmut \\|editor\\-last2\\=Al Masoom \\|editor\\-first2\\=A. A. \\|title\\=Towards the rational use of high salinity tolerant plants: Vol 2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media]] \\|volume\\=2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions \\|chapter\\=Reclamation potentials of saline degraded lands in Abu Dhabi eastern region using high salinity\\-tolerant woody plants and some salt marsh species \\|pages\\=271–274 \\|isbn\\=978\\-9\\-4011\\-1860\\-6 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Y\\-fqCAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=hafit \\|date\\=2012\\-12\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=13 January 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330131859/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Y\\-fqCAAAQBAJ\\&q\\=hafit \\|url\\-status\\=live }} is not within the Hajar range, but may be considered an [outlier](/wiki/Outlier \"Outlier\") of that range.",
"",
"File:Salalah Oman.jpg\\|\\[\\[Dhofar Governorate\\|Dhofar]]\nFile:Yemen landscape 05\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[At Tawilah District\\|At\\-Tawilah]], \\[\\[Al Mahwit]], \\[\\[Yemen]]\nFile:شعيب جو بجبال أجـــا \\- panoramio.jpg\\|A subrange of the Jabal Shammar mountains in the desert region of \\[\\[Ha'il]], Saudi Arabia",
"",
""
] |
History
-------
Stone tools from the [Middle Paleolithic](/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic "Middle Paleolithic") age along with fossils of other animals discovered at Ti's al Ghadah, in northwestern Saudi Arabia, might imply that [hominins](/wiki/Hominins "Hominins") migrated through a "Green Arabia" between 300,000 and 500,000 years ago.{{cite journal \|last1\=Roberts \|first1\=Patrick \|last2\=Stewart \|first2\=Mathew \|last3\=Alagaili \|first3\=Abdulaziz N. \|last4\=Breeze \|first4\=Paul \|last5\=Candy \|first5\=Ian \|last6\=Drake \|first6\=Nick \|last7\=Groucutt \|first7\=Huw S. \|last8\=Scerri \|first8\=Eleanor M. L. \|last9\=Lee\-Thorp \|first9\=Julia \|author\-link9\=Julia Lee\-Thorp \|last10\=Louys \|first10\=Julien \|last11\=Zalmout \|first11\=Iyad S. \|last12\=Al\-Mufarreh \|first12\=Yahya S. A. \|last13\=Zech \|first13\=Jana \|last14\=Alsharekh \|first14\=Abdullah M. \|last15\=al Omari \|first15\=Abdulaziz \|date\=29 October 2018 \|title\=Fossil herbivore stable isotopes reveal middle Pleistocene hominin palaeoenvironment in 'Green Arabia' \|url\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559\-018\-0698\-9\.epdf?referrer\_access\_token\=hySAQNyjvRiQRNjo0mIXTNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0N9kU6ZdocH1K5tlqbulC1NGihAtdUvadgd\-Ce3IG8XflefNUJloWb0eiaik74msA1h2rnnGtKxsacM4n3oeY0ox3pyrnXIUsPX\-0WqdUkvypjbH2\-2zqzS6cX7GNA5XLxPMYuIOIGe73T9jrg26kRslQtiKDIo\-6b8uybLbkRmsnPtcQEVDKKZEyjcImvRdVONyF\_xvx1mOlrO4zI7po2NWcmKfmlFba5CH0PjStE6EJ1Ro0X\_YiKSXL\-TWWd0OVI%3D\&tracking\_referrer\=www.sciencenews.org \|url\-status\=live \|journal\=Nature Ecology \& Evolution \|publisher\=Nature \|volume\=2 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=1871–1878 \|bibcode\=2018NatEE...2\.1871R \|doi\=10\.1038/s41559\-018\-0698\-9 \|pmid\=30374171 \|s2cid\=53099270 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614014654/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559\-018\-0698\-9\.epdf?referrer\_access\_token\=hySAQNyjvRiQRNjo0mIXTNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0N9kU6ZdocH1K5tlqbulC1NGihAtdUvadgd\-Ce3IG8XflefNUJloWb0eiaik74msA1h2rnnGtKxsacM4n3oeY0ox3pyrnXIUsPX\-0WqdUkvypjbH2\-2zqzS6cX7GNA5XLxPMYuIOIGe73T9jrg26kRslQtiKDIo\-6b8uybLbkRmsnPtcQEVDKKZEyjcImvRdVONyF\_xvx1mOlrO4zI7po2NWcmKfmlFba5CH0PjStE6EJ1Ro0X\_YiKSXL\-TWWd0OVI%3D\&tracking\_referrer\=www.sciencenews.org \|archive\-date\=14 June 2020 \|access\-date\=1 November 2018 \|hdl\-access\=free \|last16\=Boivin \|first16\=Nicole \|last17\=Petraglia \|first17\=Michael \|hdl\=10072/382068}} 200,000\-year\-old stone tools were discovered at Shuaib Al\-Adgham in the eastern [Al\-Qassim Province](/wiki/Al-Qassim_Province "Al-Qassim Province"), which would indicate that many prehistoric sites, located along a network of rivers, had once existed in the area.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1785951/saudi\-arabia \|title\=Saudi Arabia's Qassim stone axe find points to prehistoric 'crossroads' \|website\=Arab News \|date\=2 January 2021 }} [Acheulean](/wiki/Acheulean "Acheulean") tools found in Saffaqah, [Riyadh Region](/wiki/Riyadh_Region "Riyadh Region") reveal that hominins lived in the Arabian Peninsula around 188,000 years ago.{{cite journal \| last1\=Scerri \| first1\=Eleanor M. L. \| last2\=Shipton \| first2\=Ceri \| last3\=Clark\-Balzan \| first3\=Laine \| last4\=Frouin \| first4\=Marine \| last5\=Schwenninger \| first5\=Jean\-Luc \| last6\=Groucutt \| first6\=Huw S. \| last7\=Breeze \| first7\=Paul S. \| last8\=Parton \| first8\=Ash \| last9\=Blinkhorn \| first9\=James \| last10\=Drake \| first10\=Nick A. \| last11\=Jennings \| first11\=Richard \| last12\=Cuthbertson \| first12\=Patrick \| last13\=Al Omari \| first13\=Abdulaziz \| last14\=Alsharekh \| first14\=Abdullah M. \| last15\=Petraglia \| first15\=Michael D. \| title\=The expansion of later Acheulean hominins into the Arabian Peninsula \| journal\=Scientific Reports \| volume\=8 \| issue\=1 \| pages\=17165 \| date\=29 November 2018 \| doi\=10\.1038/s41598\-018\-35242\-5 \| pmid\=30498259 \| pmc\=6265249 \| bibcode\=2018NatSR...817165S }} Human habitation in Arabia may have occurred as early as 130,000 years ago.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Uerpmann\|first1\=Hans\-Peter\|last2\=Usik\|first2\=Vitaly I.\|last3\=Parker\|first3\=Adrian G.\|last4\=Marks\|first4\=Anthony E.\|last5\=Jasim\|first5\=Sabah A. \|last6\=Armitage\|first6\=Simon J.\|date\=2011\-01\-28\|title\=The Southern Route "Out of Africa": Evidence for an Early Expansion of Modern Humans into Arabia \|journal\=Science \|language\=en \|volume\=331 \|issue\=6016 \|pages\=453–456 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.1199113 \|issn\=0036\-8075 \|pmid\=21273486 \|bibcode\=2011Sci...331\..453A \|s2cid\=20296624}} A fossilized *[Homo sapiens](/wiki/Homo_sapiens "Homo sapiens")* finger bone found at Al Wusta in the [Nefud Desert](/wiki/Nefud_Desert "Nefud Desert") dates to approximately 90,000 years ago and is the oldest human fossil discovered outside of Africa and the Levant. This indicates human migrations from Africa to Arabia occurred around this time.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub\_releases/2018\-04/mpif\-fhm040418\.php\|title\=First human migration out of Africa more geographically widespread than previously thought\|work\=Eurek Alert\|date\=9 April 2018\|access\-date\=1 November 2018\|archive\-date\=2 December 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202070454/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub\_releases/2018\-04/mpif\-fhm040418\.php\|url\-status\=live}} The Arabian Peninsula may have been the homeland of a '[Basal Eurasian](/wiki/Basal_Eurasian "Basal Eurasian")' population, which diverged from other Eurasians soon after the Out\-of\-Africa migration, and subsequently became isolated, until it started to mix with other populations in the Middle East since around 25,000 years ago. These different Middle Eastern populations would later spread Basal Eurasian ancestry via the [Neolithic Revolution](/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution "Neolithic Revolution") to all of Western Eurasia.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Vallini \|first1\=Leonardo \|last2\=Zampieri \|first2\=Carlo \|last3\=Shoaee \|first3\=Mohamed Javad \|last4\=Bortolini \|first4\=Eugenio \|last5\=Marciani \|first5\=Giulia \|last6\=Aneli \|first6\=Serena \|last7\=Pievani \|first7\=Telmo \|last8\=Benazzi \|first8\=Stefano \|last9\=Barausse \|first9\=Alberto \|last10\=Mezzavilla \|first10\=Massimo \|last11\=Petraglia \|first11\=Michael D. \|last12\=Pagani \|first12\=Luca \|date\=2024\-03\-25 \|title\=The Persian plateau served as hub for Homo sapiens after the main out of Africa dispersal \|journal\=Nature Communications \|language\=en \|volume\=15 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=1882 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41467\-024\-46161\-7 \|pmid\=38528002 \|issn\=2041\-1723\|pmc\=10963722 \|bibcode\=2024NatCo..15\.1882V }}
### Pre\-Islamic Arabia
{{main article\|Pre\-Islamic Arabia\|Arabian Peninsula in the Roman era}}
[thumb\|Pre\-Islamic Arabia in 1000 BC](/wiki/File:Near_East_in_1000bc_%28en%29.jpg "Near East in 1000bc (en).jpg")
{{further\|Religion in pre\-Islamic Arabia}}There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 106,000 to 130,000 years ago.[Saudi Embassy (US) Website](http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/history/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062348/http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country\-information/history/ \|date\=2016\-03\-04 }} retrieved 20 January 2011 The harsh climate historically{{when\|date\=July 2019}} prevented much settlement in the pre\-Islamic Arabian Peninsula, apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca") and [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina"), located in the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz") in the west of the peninsula.{{cite book \|title\=The Rise of Islam \|url\=https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord \|url\-access\=registration \|last\=Gordon \|first\=Matthew \|year\=2005 \|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-32522\-9 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord/page/4 4]\|publisher\=Bloomsbury Academic }}
[Archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology") has revealed the existence of many civilizations in pre\-Islamic Arabia (such as the [Thamud](/wiki/Thamud "Thamud")), especially in [South Arabia](/wiki/South_Arabia "South Arabia").{{cite book\|author\=Robert D. Burrowes\|year\=2010\|title\=Historical Dictionary of Yemen\|page\=319\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield\|isbn\=978\-0810855281}}{{cite book\|author\=Kenneth Anderson Kitchen\|year\=2003\|title\=On the Reliability of the Old Testament\|url\=https://archive.org/details/onreliabilityold00kitc\|url\-access\=limited\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/onreliabilityold00kitc/page/n139 116]\|publisher\=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing\|isbn\=978\-0802849601}} [South Arabian civilizations](/wiki/South_Arabian_kingdoms_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia "South Arabian kingdoms in pre-Islamic Arabia") include the [Himyarite Kingdom](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom "Himyarite Kingdom"), the [Kingdom of Awsan](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Awsan "Kingdom of Awsan"), the [Kingdom of Ma'īn](/wiki/Minaeans "Minaeans"), and the [Sabaean Kingdom](/wiki/Sabaean_Kingdom "Sabaean Kingdom") (usually considered to be the biblical land of [Sheba](/wiki/Sheba "Sheba")). From 106 AD to 630 AD northwestern Arabia was under the control of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"), which renamed it [Arabia Petraea](/wiki/Arabia_Petraea "Arabia Petraea").{{Cite book\|last\=Taylor\|first\=Jane\|title\=Petra\|publisher\=Aurum Press Ltd\|year\=2005\|isbn\=9957\-451\-04\-9\|location\=London\|pages\=25–31}} Central Arabia was the location of the [Kingdom of Kinda](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda "Kingdom of Kinda") in the 4th, 5th and early 6th centuries. Eastern Arabia was home to the [Dilmun civilization](/wiki/Dilmun_civilization "Dilmun civilization"). The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighbouring areas.Philip Khuri Hitti (2002\), History of the Arabs, Revised: 10th Edition
The Arabian Peninsula has long been accepted as the original *[Urheimat](/wiki/Urheimat "Urheimat")* of the [Semitic languages](/wiki/Semitic_languages "Semitic languages") by most scholars.Gray, Louis Herbert (2006\) *Introduction to Semitic Comparative Linguistics*Courtenay, James John (2009\) *The Language of Palestine and Adjacent Regions*Kienast, Burkhart. (2001\). *Historische semitische Sprachwissenschaft*.Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995\) *The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia*
### Rise of Islam
{{main article\|Early Muslim conquests\|Islamic Golden Age}}
[thumb\|The [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate "Umayyad Caliphate") (661–750\)](/wiki/File:Umayyad750ADloc.png "Umayyad750ADloc.png")
The seventh century saw the rise of Islam as the peninsula's dominant religion. The [Islamic prophet](/wiki/Islamic_prophet "Islamic prophet") [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad "Muhammad") was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but [migrated](/wiki/Hijra_%28Islam%29 "Hijra (Islam)") to [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina") in 622\. From there he and his companions united the [tribes of Arabia](/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia "Tribes of Arabia") under the banner of [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") and created the [First Islamic State](/wiki/First_Islamic_State "First Islamic State") \- a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian Peninsula.
Under the subsequent [Rashidun](/wiki/Rashidun "Rashidun") and [Umayyad](/wiki/Umayyad "Umayyad") [Caliphates](/wiki/Caliphate "Caliphate"), rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula formed a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from the northwest [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent"), across [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East"), [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa"), southern [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), and the [Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula "Iberian Peninsula"), to the [Pyrenees](/wiki/Pyrenees "Pyrenees").
With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. [Umar ibn al\-Khattab](/wiki/Umar_ibn_al-Khattab "Umar ibn al-Khattab"), a prominent [companion](/wiki/Sahaba "Sahaba") of Muhammad, nominated [Abu Bakr](/wiki/Abu_Bakr "Abu Bakr"), who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first [caliph](/wiki/Caliph "Caliph"). This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that [Ali ibn Abi Talib](/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib "Ali ibn Abi Talib"), his cousin and son\-in\-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine "Byzantine") (or [Eastern Roman Empire](/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire "Eastern Roman Empire")) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the [Ridda wars](/wiki/Ridda_wars "Ridda wars"), or "Wars of Apostasy".See:
Holt (1977a), p.57
Hourani (2003\), p.22
Lapidus (2002\), p.32
Madelung (1996\), p.43
Tabatabaei (1979\), p.30–50
* + - * + [thumb\|right\|The Middle East, c. 1190\. [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin")'s empire and its vassals shown in red](/wiki/Image:Ayyubid.png "Ayyubid.png")
On his death in 634, he was succeeded by [Umar](/wiki/Umar "Umar") as caliph, followed by [Uthman ibn al\-Affan](/wiki/Uthman_ibn_al-Affan "Uthman ibn al-Affan") and [Ali ibn Abi Talib](/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib "Ali ibn Abi Talib"). The period of these first four caliphs is known as *al\-khulafā' ar\-rāshidūn*: the [Rashidun or "rightly guided" Caliphate](/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate "Rashidun Caliphate"). Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their [Umayyad successors](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate "Umayyad Caliphate"), the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the [Byzantine army](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") and destroyed the [Persian Empire](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire "Sassanid Empire"), [conquering huge swathes of territory](/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests "Early Muslim conquests") from the [Iberian peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_peninsula "Iberian peninsula") to India. The political focus of the Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories.See: Holt (1977a), p.57, Hourani (2003\), p.22, Lapidus (2002\), p.32, Madelung (1996\), p.43, Tabatabaei (1979\), p.30–50{{cite encyclopedia\|title\=Islam\|encyclopedia\=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online\|author\=L. Gardet\|author2\=J. Jomier}}
Nevertheless, [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca") and [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina") remained the spiritually most important places in the [Muslim world](/wiki/Muslim_world "Muslim world"). The [Qur'an](/wiki/Qur%27an "Qur'an") requires every able\-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the [five pillars of Islam](/wiki/Five_pillars_of_Islam "Five pillars of Islam"), to make a pilgrimage, or [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj"), to [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca") during the [Islamic month](/wiki/Islamic_calendar "Islamic calendar") of [Dhu al\-Hijjah](/wiki/Dhu_al-Hijjah "Dhu al-Hijjah") at least once in his or her lifetime.Farah, Caesar (1994\). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.), pp.145–147 {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8120\-1853\-0}} The [Masjid al\-Haram](/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram "Masjid al-Haram") (the Grand Mosque) in [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca") is the location of the [Kaaba](/wiki/Kaaba "Kaaba"), Islam's holiest site, and the [Masjid al\-Nabawi](/wiki/Masjid_al-Nabawi "Masjid al-Nabawi") (the Prophet's Mosque) in [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina") is the location of [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad "Muhammad")'s grave; as a result, from the 7th century, [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca") and [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina") became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the [Islamic world](/wiki/Islamic_world "Islamic world").Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005\). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.), p.48 {{ISBN\|978\-0\-8133\-4275\-7}}
### Middle Ages
[thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|[Portuguese colonies](/wiki/Portuguese_Empire "Portuguese Empire") in Arabia.](/wiki/File:Persian_Gulf_z1507-1750.gif "Persian Gulf z1507-1750.gif")
Despite its spiritual importance, in political terms Arabia soon became a peripheral region of the [Islamic world](/wiki/Islamic_world "Islamic world"), in which the most important [medieval Islamic states](/wiki/Caliphate "Caliphate") were based at various times in such far away cities as [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus "Damascus"), [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad"), and [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo").
However, from the 10th century (and, in fact, until the 20th century) the [Hashemite](/wiki/Hashemite "Hashemite") [Sharifs of Mecca](/wiki/Sharifs_of_Mecca "Sharifs of Mecca") maintained a state in the most developed part of the region, the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz"). Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca "Mecca") and [Medina](/wiki/Medina "Medina") but in the 13th century it was extended to include the rest of the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz"). Although, the Sharifs exercised at most times independent authority in the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz"), they were usually subject to the [suzerainty](/wiki/Suzerainty "Suzerainty") of one of the major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages, these included the [Abbasids](/wiki/Abbasids "Abbasids") of [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad"), and the [Fatimids](/wiki/Fatimids "Fatimids"), [Ayyubids](/wiki/Ayyubids "Ayyubids"), and [Mamluks](/wiki/Mamluks "Mamluks") of [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt").[Encyclopædia Britannica Online: History of Arabia](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503091224/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history\-of\-Arabia \|date\=3 May 2015 }} retrieved 18 January 2011
### Modern history
[thumb\|Expansion of the [first Saudi State](/wiki/Emirate_of_Diriyah "Emirate of Diriyah") from 1744 to 1814](/wiki/File:First_saudi_state.png "First saudi state.png")
[thumb\|The Arabian Peninsula in 1914](/wiki/File:Arabia_1914.png "Arabia 1914.png")
[thumb\|Territorial evolution of the [Third Saudi State](/wiki/Third_Saudi_State "Third Saudi State") (1902–1934\)](/wiki/File:Saudi_Unification_Map.png "Saudi Unification Map.png")
The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was headquartered in [Syria](/wiki/Syria_%28region%29 "Syria (region)"), which included Palestine, the Transjordan region in addition to Lebanon ([Mount Lebanon was, however, a semi\-autonomous mutasarrifate](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate "Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate")). It was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula.see History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw, Cambridge University Press, 1977, {{ISBN\|0\-521\-29166\-6}}, page 85[The Politics of Interventionism in Ottoman Lebanon, 1830–1861, by Caesar E. Farah](https://books.google.com/books?id=Uxkz9D4Ff_sC&pg=PA417) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514211350/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Uxkz9D4Ff\_sC\&pg\=PA417\&dq\=\&lr\=\&ei\=BoDxSP2rFZbMzQTO3MXtBg\&client\= \|date\=14 May 2016 }}, explains that Mount Lebanon was in the jurisdiction of the Arabistan Army, and that its headquarters was briefly moved to Beirut. The Ottomans never had any control over central Arabia, also known as the [Najd](/wiki/Najd "Najd") region.
The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the [Al Saud](/wiki/House_of_Saud "House of Saud"), began in [Najd](/wiki/Najd "Najd") in central Arabia in 1744, when [Muhammad bin Saud](/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Saud "Muhammad bin Saud"), founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader [Muhammad ibn Abd al\-Wahhab](/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab "Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab"), founder of the [Wahhabi movement](/wiki/Wahhabism "Wahhabism"), a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.{{cite book \|title\=Contemporary Religions: A World Guide \|first1\=Ian \|last1\=Harris \|first2\=Stuart\|last2\=Mews\|first3\=Paul\|last3\=Morris\|first4\= John \|last4\= Shepherd \|year\=1992 \|isbn\=978\-0\-582\-08695\-1 \|page\=369\|publisher\=Longman }} The [Emirate of Diriyah](/wiki/Emirate_of_Diriyah "Emirate of Diriyah") established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present\-day territory of Saudi Arabia, [sacking Karbala](/wiki/Wahhabi_sack_of_Karbala "Wahhabi sack of Karbala") in 1802, and [capturing Mecca](/wiki/Destruction_of_early_Islamic_heritage_sites_in_Saudi_Arabia "Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia") in 1803\."[The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam](http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316131703/http://countrystudies.us/saudi\-arabia/7\.htm \|date\=16 March 2017 }}". Library of Congress Country Studies.
The [Damascus Protocol](/wiki/Damascus_Protocol "Damascus Protocol") of 1914 provides an illustration of the regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz "Hejaz"), asked for a British guarantee of independence. Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present\-day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have comprised [Cilicia](/wiki/Cilicia "Cilicia") – [İskenderun](/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun "İskenderun") and [Mersin](/wiki/Mersin "Mersin"), Iraq with Kuwait, Syria, [Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate "Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate"), Jordan, and [Palestine](/wiki/State_of_Palestine "State of Palestine").As cited by R, John and S. Hadawi's, Palestine Diary, pp. 30–31, the 'Damascus Protocol' stated: "The recognition by Great Britain of the independence of the Arab countries lying within the following frontiers: North: The Line Mersin\_Adana to parallel 37N. and thence along the line Birejek\-Urga\-Mardin\-Kidiat\-Jazirat (Ibn 'Unear)\-Amadia to the Persian frontier; East: The Persian frontier down to the Persian Gulf; South: The Indian Ocean (with the exclusion of Aden, whose status was to be maintained). West: The Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea back to Mersin. The abolition of all exceptional privileges granted to foreigners under the capitulations. The conclusion of a defensive alliance between Great Britain *and the future independent Arab State*. The grant of economic preference to Great Britain." see [*King Husain and the Kingdom of Hejaz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=n706ShSYt-sC) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322142502/http://books.google.com/books?id\=n706ShSYt\-sC\&printsec\=toc\&dq\=\&source\=gbs\_summary\_s\&cad\=0\#PPA65,M1 \|date\=22 March 2015 }}, By Randall Baker, Oleander Press, 1979, {{ISBN\|0\-900891\-48\-3}}, pages 64–65
In the modern era, the term bilad al\-Yaman came to refer specifically to the southwestern parts of the peninsula. Arab geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as 'jazirat al\-Arab', or the peninsula of the Arabs.
#### Late Ottoman rule and the Hejaz Railway
The railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan [Abdul Hamid II](/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II "Abdul Hamid II") and was built largely by the [Turks](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), with [German](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire") advice and support. A public subscription was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund the construction. The railway was to be a [waqf](/wiki/Waqf "Waqf"), an inalienable religious endowment or charitable trust.King Hussein and the Kingdom of Hejaz, Randall Baker, Oleander Press 1979, {{ISBN\|0\-900891\-48\-3}}, page 18
#### The Arab Revolt and the foundation of Saudi Arabia
[thumb\|Physical and political elements of Arabia in 1929](/wiki/File:Map_Arabia_1929_-_Touring_Club_Italiano_CART-TRC-10.jpg "Map Arabia 1929 - Touring Club Italiano CART-TRC-10.jpg")
[thumb\|[Abdulaziz Ibn Saud](/wiki/Ibn_Saud "Ibn Saud"), the founding father and first king of [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia")](/wiki/File:%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AD.jpg "الملك عبد العزيز مع الشيخ جابر الأحمد الصباح.jpg")
The major developments of the early 20th century were the [Arab Revolt](/wiki/Arab_Revolt "Arab Revolt") during World War I and the subsequent collapse and [partitioning of the Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empire "Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire"). The Arab Revolt (1916–1918\) was initiated by the [Sherif Hussein ibn Ali](/wiki/Sherif_Hussein_ibn_Ali "Sherif Hussein ibn Ali") with the aim of securing independence from the ruling [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo "Aleppo") in Syria to [Aden](/wiki/Aden "Aden") in Yemen. During World War I, the Sharif Hussein entered into an alliance with the United Kingdom and France against the Ottomans in June 1916\.
[thumb\|The Arabian Peninsula in 1923](/wiki/File:Map_of_the_states_of_the_Arabian_Peninsula_%281905-1923%29.svg "Map of the states of the Arabian Peninsula (1905-1923).svg")
These events were followed by the foundation of Saudi Arabia under King [Abdulaziz Ibn Saud](/wiki/Ibn_Saud_of_Saudi_Arabia "Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia"). In 1902, Ibn Saud had captured [Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh "Riyadh"). Continuing his conquests, Abdulaziz subdued Al\-Hasa, [Jabal Shammar](/wiki/Emirate_of_Jabal_Shammar "Emirate of Jabal Shammar"), [Hejaz](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz "Kingdom of Hejaz") between 1913 and 1926 founded the modern state of Saudi Arabia. The Saudis absorbed the [Emirate of Asir](/wiki/Idrisid_Emirate_of_Asir "Idrisid Emirate of Asir"), with their expansion only ending in 1934 after a [war with Yemen](/wiki/Saudi%E2%80%93Yemeni_War_%281934%29 "Saudi–Yemeni War (1934)"). Two Saudi states were formed and controlled much of Arabia before Ibn Saud was even born. Ibn Saud, however, established the third Saudi state.
#### Oil reserves
The second major development has been the discovery of [vast reserves of oil](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves "List of countries by proven oil reserves") in the 1930s. Its production brought great wealth to all countries of the region, with the exception of Yemen.
#### North Yemen Civil War
{{main\|North Yemen Civil War}}
The North Yemen Civil War was fought in [North Yemen](/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic "Yemen Arab Republic") between royalists of the [Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen](/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen "Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen") and factions of the [Yemen Arab Republic](/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic "Yemen Arab Republic") from 1962 to 1970\. The war began with a [coup d'état](/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "Coup d'état") carried out by the republican leader, [Abdullah as\-Sallal](/wiki/Abdullah_as-Sallal "Abdullah as-Sallal"), which dethroned the newly crowned [Muhammad al\-Badr](/wiki/Muhammad_al-Badr "Muhammad al-Badr") and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support.
The royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia, while the republicans were supported by Egypt and the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. The [Egyptian President](/wiki/President_of_Egypt "President of Egypt"), [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser "Gamal Abdel Nasser"), supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 troops. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egypt's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") of June 1967, after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen.
By 1970, King [Faisal of Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia "Faisal of Saudi Arabia") recognized the republic and a truce was signed. Egyptian military historians refer to Egypt's role in the war in Yemen as analogous to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States")' role in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War").{{Cite news \|issue\=Jan–Feb, 2004 \|last\=Aboul\-Enein \|first\=Youssef \|title\=The Egyptian\-Yemen War: Egyptian perspectives on Guerrilla warfare \|work\=Infantry Magazine \|access\-date\=October 3, 2008 \|date\=2004\-01\-01 \|url\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m0IAV/is\_1\_93/ai\_n6123802 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203161830/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m0IAV/is\_1\_93/ai\_n6123802 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2007\-02\-03}}
#### Gulf War
{{main article\|Gulf War}}
In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait.see Richard Schofield, Kuwait and Iraq: Historical Claims and Territorial. Disputes, London: Royal Institute of International Affairs 1991, {{ISBN\|0\-905031\-35\-0}} and The Kuwait Crisis: Basic Documents, By E. Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood, Marc Weller, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1991, {{ISBN\|0\-521\-46308\-4}} The [invasion of Kuwait](/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait "Invasion of Kuwait") by Iraqi forces led to the 1990–91 [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War"). Egypt, Qatar, Syria, and Saudi Arabia joined a multinational [coalition](/wiki/Coalition_of_the_Gulf_War "Coalition of the Gulf War") that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq by Jordan and Palestine resulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After the war, a so\-called "Damascus Declaration" formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC member states.Egypt's Bid for Arab Leadership: Implications for U.S. Policy, By Gregory L. Aftandilian, Published by Council on Foreign Relations, 1993, {{ISBN\|0\-87609\-146\-X}}, pages 6–8
#### 2014 Yemen civil war
{{main\|Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)}}
The [Arab Spring](/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring") reached Yemen in January 2011\.BBC World News, Arab Uprising:Country by Country \-Yemen People of Yemen took to the street demonstrating against three decades of rule by President [Ali Abdullah Saleh](/wiki/Ali_Abdullah_Saleh "Ali Abdullah Saleh").Cornell University Library. Arab Spring:A Research \& Study Guide:Yemen guides. library.cornell.edu. Last Updated: May 9, 2019 The demonstration led to cracks in the ruling General People's Congress (GPC) and Saleh's Sanhani clan.Britannica.com. "Yemen Uprising of 2011–12". Written By:The editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. Saleh used tactics of concession and violence to save his presidency.University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana\-champaign. guides.library.edu. Arab Spring Workshop:Yemen After numerous attempts, Saleh accepted the Gulf Cooperation Council's mediation. He eventually handed power to Vice President Hadi, who was sworn in as President of Yemen on 25 February 2012\. Hadi launched a national dialogue to address new constitutional, political and social issues. The [Houthi movement](/wiki/Houthi_movement "Houthi movement"), dissatisfied with the outcomes of the national dialogue, [launched an offensive](/wiki/Houthi_takeover_in_Yemen "Houthi takeover in Yemen") and stormed the Yemeni capital Sanaa on 21 September 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/01/23/how\-the\-houthis\-did\-it\-yemen\-hadi\-arab\-spring/\|first\=Laura\|last\=Kasinof\|title\=How the Houthis Did It\|date\=2015\|website\=Foreign Policy\|access\-date\=15 February 2015\|archive\-date\=30 March 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330021054/https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/01/23/how\-the\-houthis\-did\-it\-yemen\-hadi\-arab\-spring/\|url\-status\=live}} In response, Saudi Arabia launched a [military intervention in Yemen](/wiki/Saudi_Arabian-led_intervention_in_Yemen "Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen") in March 2015\.{{cite news\|last\=Wintour\|first\=Patrick\|date\=3 September 2019\|title\=UK, US and France may be complicit in Yemen war crimes – UN report\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/03/uk\-us\-and\-france\-may\-be\-complicit\-in\-yemen\-war\-crimes\-un\-report\|work\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=17 May 2020\|archive\-date\=22 October 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022141109/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/03/uk\-us\-and\-france\-may\-be\-complicit\-in\-yemen\-war\-crimes\-un\-report\|url\-status\=live}} The civil war and subsequent military intervention and [blockade](/wiki/Blockade_of_Yemen "Blockade of Yemen") caused a [famine in Yemen](/wiki/Famine_in_Yemen_%282016%E2%80%93present%29 "Famine in Yemen (2016–present)").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/31/opinion/columnists/yemen\-famine\-cholera.html\|title\=The Photos the U.S. and Saudi Arabia Don't Want You to See\|first\=Nicholas\|last\=Kristof\|date\=31 August 2017\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=17 May 2020\|archive\-date\=31 August 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831091519/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/31/opinion/columnists/yemen\-famine\-cholera.html\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Stone tools from the [Middle Paleolithic](/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic \"Middle Paleolithic\") age along with fossils of other animals discovered at Ti's al Ghadah, in northwestern Saudi Arabia, might imply that [hominins](/wiki/Hominins \"Hominins\") migrated through a \"Green Arabia\" between 300,000 and 500,000 years ago.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Roberts \\|first1\\=Patrick \\|last2\\=Stewart \\|first2\\=Mathew \\|last3\\=Alagaili \\|first3\\=Abdulaziz N. \\|last4\\=Breeze \\|first4\\=Paul \\|last5\\=Candy \\|first5\\=Ian \\|last6\\=Drake \\|first6\\=Nick \\|last7\\=Groucutt \\|first7\\=Huw S. \\|last8\\=Scerri \\|first8\\=Eleanor M. L. \\|last9\\=Lee\\-Thorp \\|first9\\=Julia \\|author\\-link9\\=Julia Lee\\-Thorp \\|last10\\=Louys \\|first10\\=Julien \\|last11\\=Zalmout \\|first11\\=Iyad S. \\|last12\\=Al\\-Mufarreh \\|first12\\=Yahya S. A. \\|last13\\=Zech \\|first13\\=Jana \\|last14\\=Alsharekh \\|first14\\=Abdullah M. \\|last15\\=al Omari \\|first15\\=Abdulaziz \\|date\\=29 October 2018 \\|title\\=Fossil herbivore stable isotopes reveal middle Pleistocene hominin palaeoenvironment in 'Green Arabia' \\|url\\=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559\\-018\\-0698\\-9\\.epdf?referrer\\_access\\_token\\=hySAQNyjvRiQRNjo0mIXTNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0N9kU6ZdocH1K5tlqbulC1NGihAtdUvadgd\\-Ce3IG8XflefNUJloWb0eiaik74msA1h2rnnGtKxsacM4n3oeY0ox3pyrnXIUsPX\\-0WqdUkvypjbH2\\-2zqzS6cX7GNA5XLxPMYuIOIGe73T9jrg26kRslQtiKDIo\\-6b8uybLbkRmsnPtcQEVDKKZEyjcImvRdVONyF\\_xvx1mOlrO4zI7po2NWcmKfmlFba5CH0PjStE6EJ1Ro0X\\_YiKSXL\\-TWWd0OVI%3D\\&tracking\\_referrer\\=www.sciencenews.org \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|journal\\=Nature Ecology \\& Evolution \\|publisher\\=Nature \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=1871–1878 \\|bibcode\\=2018NatEE...2\\.1871R \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41559\\-018\\-0698\\-9 \\|pmid\\=30374171 \\|s2cid\\=53099270 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614014654/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559\\-018\\-0698\\-9\\.epdf?referrer\\_access\\_token\\=hySAQNyjvRiQRNjo0mIXTNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0N9kU6ZdocH1K5tlqbulC1NGihAtdUvadgd\\-Ce3IG8XflefNUJloWb0eiaik74msA1h2rnnGtKxsacM4n3oeY0ox3pyrnXIUsPX\\-0WqdUkvypjbH2\\-2zqzS6cX7GNA5XLxPMYuIOIGe73T9jrg26kRslQtiKDIo\\-6b8uybLbkRmsnPtcQEVDKKZEyjcImvRdVONyF\\_xvx1mOlrO4zI7po2NWcmKfmlFba5CH0PjStE6EJ1Ro0X\\_YiKSXL\\-TWWd0OVI%3D\\&tracking\\_referrer\\=www.sciencenews.org \\|archive\\-date\\=14 June 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2018 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|last16\\=Boivin \\|first16\\=Nicole \\|last17\\=Petraglia \\|first17\\=Michael \\|hdl\\=10072/382068}} 200,000\\-year\\-old stone tools were discovered at Shuaib Al\\-Adgham in the eastern [Al\\-Qassim Province](/wiki/Al-Qassim_Province \"Al-Qassim Province\"), which would indicate that many prehistoric sites, located along a network of rivers, had once existed in the area.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1785951/saudi\\-arabia \\|title\\=Saudi Arabia's Qassim stone axe find points to prehistoric 'crossroads' \\|website\\=Arab News \\|date\\=2 January 2021 }} [Acheulean](/wiki/Acheulean \"Acheulean\") tools found in Saffaqah, [Riyadh Region](/wiki/Riyadh_Region \"Riyadh Region\") reveal that hominins lived in the Arabian Peninsula around 188,000 years ago.{{cite journal \\| last1\\=Scerri \\| first1\\=Eleanor M. L. \\| last2\\=Shipton \\| first2\\=Ceri \\| last3\\=Clark\\-Balzan \\| first3\\=Laine \\| last4\\=Frouin \\| first4\\=Marine \\| last5\\=Schwenninger \\| first5\\=Jean\\-Luc \\| last6\\=Groucutt \\| first6\\=Huw S. \\| last7\\=Breeze \\| first7\\=Paul S. \\| last8\\=Parton \\| first8\\=Ash \\| last9\\=Blinkhorn \\| first9\\=James \\| last10\\=Drake \\| first10\\=Nick A. \\| last11\\=Jennings \\| first11\\=Richard \\| last12\\=Cuthbertson \\| first12\\=Patrick \\| last13\\=Al Omari \\| first13\\=Abdulaziz \\| last14\\=Alsharekh \\| first14\\=Abdullah M. \\| last15\\=Petraglia \\| first15\\=Michael D. \\| title\\=The expansion of later Acheulean hominins into the Arabian Peninsula \\| journal\\=Scientific Reports \\| volume\\=8 \\| issue\\=1 \\| pages\\=17165 \\| date\\=29 November 2018 \\| doi\\=10\\.1038/s41598\\-018\\-35242\\-5 \\| pmid\\=30498259 \\| pmc\\=6265249 \\| bibcode\\=2018NatSR...817165S }} Human habitation in Arabia may have occurred as early as 130,000 years ago.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Uerpmann\\|first1\\=Hans\\-Peter\\|last2\\=Usik\\|first2\\=Vitaly I.\\|last3\\=Parker\\|first3\\=Adrian G.\\|last4\\=Marks\\|first4\\=Anthony E.\\|last5\\=Jasim\\|first5\\=Sabah A. \\|last6\\=Armitage\\|first6\\=Simon J.\\|date\\=2011\\-01\\-28\\|title\\=The Southern Route \"Out of Africa\": Evidence for an Early Expansion of Modern Humans into Arabia \\|journal\\=Science \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=331 \\|issue\\=6016 \\|pages\\=453–456 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.1199113 \\|issn\\=0036\\-8075 \\|pmid\\=21273486 \\|bibcode\\=2011Sci...331\\..453A \\|s2cid\\=20296624}} A fossilized *[Homo sapiens](/wiki/Homo_sapiens \"Homo sapiens\")* finger bone found at Al Wusta in the [Nefud Desert](/wiki/Nefud_Desert \"Nefud Desert\") dates to approximately 90,000 years ago and is the oldest human fossil discovered outside of Africa and the Levant. This indicates human migrations from Africa to Arabia occurred around this time.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub\\_releases/2018\\-04/mpif\\-fhm040418\\.php\\|title\\=First human migration out of Africa more geographically widespread than previously thought\\|work\\=Eurek Alert\\|date\\=9 April 2018\\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=2 December 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202070454/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub\\_releases/2018\\-04/mpif\\-fhm040418\\.php\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Arabian Peninsula may have been the homeland of a '[Basal Eurasian](/wiki/Basal_Eurasian \"Basal Eurasian\")' population, which diverged from other Eurasians soon after the Out\\-of\\-Africa migration, and subsequently became isolated, until it started to mix with other populations in the Middle East since around 25,000 years ago. These different Middle Eastern populations would later spread Basal Eurasian ancestry via the [Neolithic Revolution](/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution \"Neolithic Revolution\") to all of Western Eurasia.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Vallini \\|first1\\=Leonardo \\|last2\\=Zampieri \\|first2\\=Carlo \\|last3\\=Shoaee \\|first3\\=Mohamed Javad \\|last4\\=Bortolini \\|first4\\=Eugenio \\|last5\\=Marciani \\|first5\\=Giulia \\|last6\\=Aneli \\|first6\\=Serena \\|last7\\=Pievani \\|first7\\=Telmo \\|last8\\=Benazzi \\|first8\\=Stefano \\|last9\\=Barausse \\|first9\\=Alberto \\|last10\\=Mezzavilla \\|first10\\=Massimo \\|last11\\=Petraglia \\|first11\\=Michael D. \\|last12\\=Pagani \\|first12\\=Luca \\|date\\=2024\\-03\\-25 \\|title\\=The Persian plateau served as hub for Homo sapiens after the main out of Africa dispersal \\|journal\\=Nature Communications \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=1882 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41467\\-024\\-46161\\-7 \\|pmid\\=38528002 \\|issn\\=2041\\-1723\\|pmc\\=10963722 \\|bibcode\\=2024NatCo..15\\.1882V }}",
"### Pre\\-Islamic Arabia",
"{{main article\\|Pre\\-Islamic Arabia\\|Arabian Peninsula in the Roman era}}\n[thumb\\|Pre\\-Islamic Arabia in 1000 BC](/wiki/File:Near_East_in_1000bc_%28en%29.jpg \"Near East in 1000bc (en).jpg\")\n{{further\\|Religion in pre\\-Islamic Arabia}}There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 106,000 to 130,000 years ago.[Saudi Embassy (US) Website](http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/history/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062348/http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country\\-information/history/ \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-04 }} retrieved 20 January 2011 The harsh climate historically{{when\\|date\\=July 2019}} prevented much settlement in the pre\\-Islamic Arabian Peninsula, apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\") and [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\"), located in the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\") in the west of the peninsula.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Rise of Islam \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|last\\=Gordon \\|first\\=Matthew \\|year\\=2005 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-32522\\-9 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord/page/4 4]\\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Academic }}",
"[Archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\") has revealed the existence of many civilizations in pre\\-Islamic Arabia (such as the [Thamud](/wiki/Thamud \"Thamud\")), especially in [South Arabia](/wiki/South_Arabia \"South Arabia\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Robert D. Burrowes\\|year\\=2010\\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Yemen\\|page\\=319\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield\\|isbn\\=978\\-0810855281}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Kenneth Anderson Kitchen\\|year\\=2003\\|title\\=On the Reliability of the Old Testament\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/onreliabilityold00kitc\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/onreliabilityold00kitc/page/n139 116]\\|publisher\\=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-0802849601}} [South Arabian civilizations](/wiki/South_Arabian_kingdoms_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia \"South Arabian kingdoms in pre-Islamic Arabia\") include the [Himyarite Kingdom](/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom \"Himyarite Kingdom\"), the [Kingdom of Awsan](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Awsan \"Kingdom of Awsan\"), the [Kingdom of Ma'īn](/wiki/Minaeans \"Minaeans\"), and the [Sabaean Kingdom](/wiki/Sabaean_Kingdom \"Sabaean Kingdom\") (usually considered to be the biblical land of [Sheba](/wiki/Sheba \"Sheba\")). From 106 AD to 630 AD northwestern Arabia was under the control of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"), which renamed it [Arabia Petraea](/wiki/Arabia_Petraea \"Arabia Petraea\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Taylor\\|first\\=Jane\\|title\\=Petra\\|publisher\\=Aurum Press Ltd\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=9957\\-451\\-04\\-9\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=25–31}} Central Arabia was the location of the [Kingdom of Kinda](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda \"Kingdom of Kinda\") in the 4th, 5th and early 6th centuries. Eastern Arabia was home to the [Dilmun civilization](/wiki/Dilmun_civilization \"Dilmun civilization\"). The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighbouring areas.Philip Khuri Hitti (2002\\), History of the Arabs, Revised: 10th Edition",
"The Arabian Peninsula has long been accepted as the original *[Urheimat](/wiki/Urheimat \"Urheimat\")* of the [Semitic languages](/wiki/Semitic_languages \"Semitic languages\") by most scholars.Gray, Louis Herbert (2006\\) *Introduction to Semitic Comparative Linguistics*Courtenay, James John (2009\\) *The Language of Palestine and Adjacent Regions*Kienast, Burkhart. (2001\\). *Historische semitische Sprachwissenschaft*.Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995\\) *The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia*",
"### Rise of Islam",
"{{main article\\|Early Muslim conquests\\|Islamic Golden Age}}\n[thumb\\|The [Umayyad Caliphate](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate \"Umayyad Caliphate\") (661–750\\)](/wiki/File:Umayyad750ADloc.png \"Umayyad750ADloc.png\")\nThe seventh century saw the rise of Islam as the peninsula's dominant religion. The [Islamic prophet](/wiki/Islamic_prophet \"Islamic prophet\") [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad \"Muhammad\") was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but [migrated](/wiki/Hijra_%28Islam%29 \"Hijra (Islam)\") to [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\") in 622\\. From there he and his companions united the [tribes of Arabia](/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia \"Tribes of Arabia\") under the banner of [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") and created the [First Islamic State](/wiki/First_Islamic_State \"First Islamic State\") \\- a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian Peninsula.",
"Under the subsequent [Rashidun](/wiki/Rashidun \"Rashidun\") and [Umayyad](/wiki/Umayyad \"Umayyad\") [Caliphates](/wiki/Caliphate \"Caliphate\"), rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula formed a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from the northwest [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent \"Indian subcontinent\"), across [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"), the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\"), [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\"), southern [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), and the [Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula \"Iberian Peninsula\"), to the [Pyrenees](/wiki/Pyrenees \"Pyrenees\").",
"With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. [Umar ibn al\\-Khattab](/wiki/Umar_ibn_al-Khattab \"Umar ibn al-Khattab\"), a prominent [companion](/wiki/Sahaba \"Sahaba\") of Muhammad, nominated [Abu Bakr](/wiki/Abu_Bakr \"Abu Bakr\"), who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first [caliph](/wiki/Caliph \"Caliph\"). This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that [Ali ibn Abi Talib](/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib \"Ali ibn Abi Talib\"), his cousin and son\\-in\\-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine \"Byzantine\") (or [Eastern Roman Empire](/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire \"Eastern Roman Empire\")) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the [Ridda wars](/wiki/Ridda_wars \"Ridda wars\"), or \"Wars of Apostasy\".See:\n Holt (1977a), p.57\n Hourani (2003\\), p.22\n Lapidus (2002\\), p.32\n Madelung (1996\\), p.43\n Tabatabaei (1979\\), p.30–50\n* + - * + [thumb\\|right\\|The Middle East, c. 1190\\. [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\")'s empire and its vassals shown in red](/wiki/Image:Ayyubid.png \"Ayyubid.png\")\n\t\t\t\tOn his death in 634, he was succeeded by [Umar](/wiki/Umar \"Umar\") as caliph, followed by [Uthman ibn al\\-Affan](/wiki/Uthman_ibn_al-Affan \"Uthman ibn al-Affan\") and [Ali ibn Abi Talib](/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib \"Ali ibn Abi Talib\"). The period of these first four caliphs is known as *al\\-khulafā' ar\\-rāshidūn*: the [Rashidun or \"rightly guided\" Caliphate](/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate \"Rashidun Caliphate\"). Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their [Umayyad successors](/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate \"Umayyad Caliphate\"), the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the [Byzantine army](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") and destroyed the [Persian Empire](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire \"Sassanid Empire\"), [conquering huge swathes of territory](/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests \"Early Muslim conquests\") from the [Iberian peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_peninsula \"Iberian peninsula\") to India. The political focus of the Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories.See: Holt (1977a), p.57, Hourani (2003\\), p.22, Lapidus (2002\\), p.32, Madelung (1996\\), p.43, Tabatabaei (1979\\), p.30–50{{cite encyclopedia\\|title\\=Islam\\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online\\|author\\=L. Gardet\\|author2\\=J. Jomier}}",
"Nevertheless, [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\") and [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\") remained the spiritually most important places in the [Muslim world](/wiki/Muslim_world \"Muslim world\"). The [Qur'an](/wiki/Qur%27an \"Qur'an\") requires every able\\-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the [five pillars of Islam](/wiki/Five_pillars_of_Islam \"Five pillars of Islam\"), to make a pilgrimage, or [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\"), to [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\") during the [Islamic month](/wiki/Islamic_calendar \"Islamic calendar\") of [Dhu al\\-Hijjah](/wiki/Dhu_al-Hijjah \"Dhu al-Hijjah\") at least once in his or her lifetime.Farah, Caesar (1994\\). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.), pp.145–147 {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8120\\-1853\\-0}} The [Masjid al\\-Haram](/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram \"Masjid al-Haram\") (the Grand Mosque) in [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\") is the location of the [Kaaba](/wiki/Kaaba \"Kaaba\"), Islam's holiest site, and the [Masjid al\\-Nabawi](/wiki/Masjid_al-Nabawi \"Masjid al-Nabawi\") (the Prophet's Mosque) in [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\") is the location of [Muhammad](/wiki/Muhammad \"Muhammad\")'s grave; as a result, from the 7th century, [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\") and [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\") became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the [Islamic world](/wiki/Islamic_world \"Islamic world\").Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005\\). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.), p.48 {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-8133\\-4275\\-7}}",
"### Middle Ages",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|[Portuguese colonies](/wiki/Portuguese_Empire \"Portuguese Empire\") in Arabia.](/wiki/File:Persian_Gulf_z1507-1750.gif \"Persian Gulf z1507-1750.gif\")\nDespite its spiritual importance, in political terms Arabia soon became a peripheral region of the [Islamic world](/wiki/Islamic_world \"Islamic world\"), in which the most important [medieval Islamic states](/wiki/Caliphate \"Caliphate\") were based at various times in such far away cities as [Damascus](/wiki/Damascus \"Damascus\"), [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\"), and [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\").\nHowever, from the 10th century (and, in fact, until the 20th century) the [Hashemite](/wiki/Hashemite \"Hashemite\") [Sharifs of Mecca](/wiki/Sharifs_of_Mecca \"Sharifs of Mecca\") maintained a state in the most developed part of the region, the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\"). Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of [Mecca](/wiki/Mecca \"Mecca\") and [Medina](/wiki/Medina \"Medina\") but in the 13th century it was extended to include the rest of the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\"). Although, the Sharifs exercised at most times independent authority in the [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\"), they were usually subject to the [suzerainty](/wiki/Suzerainty \"Suzerainty\") of one of the major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages, these included the [Abbasids](/wiki/Abbasids \"Abbasids\") of [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\"), and the [Fatimids](/wiki/Fatimids \"Fatimids\"), [Ayyubids](/wiki/Ayyubids \"Ayyubids\"), and [Mamluks](/wiki/Mamluks \"Mamluks\") of [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\").[Encyclopædia Britannica Online: History of Arabia](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503091224/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history\\-of\\-Arabia \\|date\\=3 May 2015 }} retrieved 18 January 2011",
"### Modern history",
"[thumb\\|Expansion of the [first Saudi State](/wiki/Emirate_of_Diriyah \"Emirate of Diriyah\") from 1744 to 1814](/wiki/File:First_saudi_state.png \"First saudi state.png\")\n[thumb\\|The Arabian Peninsula in 1914](/wiki/File:Arabia_1914.png \"Arabia 1914.png\")\n[thumb\\|Territorial evolution of the [Third Saudi State](/wiki/Third_Saudi_State \"Third Saudi State\") (1902–1934\\)](/wiki/File:Saudi_Unification_Map.png \"Saudi Unification Map.png\")\nThe provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was headquartered in [Syria](/wiki/Syria_%28region%29 \"Syria (region)\"), which included Palestine, the Transjordan region in addition to Lebanon ([Mount Lebanon was, however, a semi\\-autonomous mutasarrifate](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate \"Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate\")). It was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula.see History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw, Cambridge University Press, 1977, {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-29166\\-6}}, page 85[The Politics of Interventionism in Ottoman Lebanon, 1830–1861, by Caesar E. Farah](https://books.google.com/books?id=Uxkz9D4Ff_sC&pg=PA417) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514211350/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Uxkz9D4Ff\\_sC\\&pg\\=PA417\\&dq\\=\\&lr\\=\\&ei\\=BoDxSP2rFZbMzQTO3MXtBg\\&client\\= \\|date\\=14 May 2016 }}, explains that Mount Lebanon was in the jurisdiction of the Arabistan Army, and that its headquarters was briefly moved to Beirut. The Ottomans never had any control over central Arabia, also known as the [Najd](/wiki/Najd \"Najd\") region.",
"The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the [Al Saud](/wiki/House_of_Saud \"House of Saud\"), began in [Najd](/wiki/Najd \"Najd\") in central Arabia in 1744, when [Muhammad bin Saud](/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Saud \"Muhammad bin Saud\"), founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader [Muhammad ibn Abd al\\-Wahhab](/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab \"Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab\"), founder of the [Wahhabi movement](/wiki/Wahhabism \"Wahhabism\"), a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.{{cite book \\|title\\=Contemporary Religions: A World Guide \\|first1\\=Ian \\|last1\\=Harris \\|first2\\=Stuart\\|last2\\=Mews\\|first3\\=Paul\\|last3\\=Morris\\|first4\\= John \\|last4\\= Shepherd \\|year\\=1992 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-582\\-08695\\-1 \\|page\\=369\\|publisher\\=Longman }} The [Emirate of Diriyah](/wiki/Emirate_of_Diriyah \"Emirate of Diriyah\") established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present\\-day territory of Saudi Arabia, [sacking Karbala](/wiki/Wahhabi_sack_of_Karbala \"Wahhabi sack of Karbala\") in 1802, and [capturing Mecca](/wiki/Destruction_of_early_Islamic_heritage_sites_in_Saudi_Arabia \"Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia\") in 1803\\.\"[The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam](http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316131703/http://countrystudies.us/saudi\\-arabia/7\\.htm \\|date\\=16 March 2017 }}\". Library of Congress Country Studies.",
"The [Damascus Protocol](/wiki/Damascus_Protocol \"Damascus Protocol\") of 1914 provides an illustration of the regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of [Hejaz](/wiki/Hejaz \"Hejaz\"), asked for a British guarantee of independence. Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present\\-day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have comprised [Cilicia](/wiki/Cilicia \"Cilicia\") – [İskenderun](/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun \"İskenderun\") and [Mersin](/wiki/Mersin \"Mersin\"), Iraq with Kuwait, Syria, [Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate \"Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate\"), Jordan, and [Palestine](/wiki/State_of_Palestine \"State of Palestine\").As cited by R, John and S. Hadawi's, Palestine Diary, pp. 30–31, the 'Damascus Protocol' stated: \"The recognition by Great Britain of the independence of the Arab countries lying within the following frontiers: North: The Line Mersin\\_Adana to parallel 37N. and thence along the line Birejek\\-Urga\\-Mardin\\-Kidiat\\-Jazirat (Ibn 'Unear)\\-Amadia to the Persian frontier; East: The Persian frontier down to the Persian Gulf; South: The Indian Ocean (with the exclusion of Aden, whose status was to be maintained). West: The Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea back to Mersin. The abolition of all exceptional privileges granted to foreigners under the capitulations. The conclusion of a defensive alliance between Great Britain *and the future independent Arab State*. The grant of economic preference to Great Britain.\" see [*King Husain and the Kingdom of Hejaz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=n706ShSYt-sC) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322142502/http://books.google.com/books?id\\=n706ShSYt\\-sC\\&printsec\\=toc\\&dq\\=\\&source\\=gbs\\_summary\\_s\\&cad\\=0\\#PPA65,M1 \\|date\\=22 March 2015 }}, By Randall Baker, Oleander Press, 1979, {{ISBN\\|0\\-900891\\-48\\-3}}, pages 64–65",
"In the modern era, the term bilad al\\-Yaman came to refer specifically to the southwestern parts of the peninsula. Arab geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as 'jazirat al\\-Arab', or the peninsula of the Arabs.",
"#### Late Ottoman rule and the Hejaz Railway",
"The railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan [Abdul Hamid II](/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II \"Abdul Hamid II\") and was built largely by the [Turks](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"), with [German](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\") advice and support. A public subscription was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund the construction. The railway was to be a [waqf](/wiki/Waqf \"Waqf\"), an inalienable religious endowment or charitable trust.King Hussein and the Kingdom of Hejaz, Randall Baker, Oleander Press 1979, {{ISBN\\|0\\-900891\\-48\\-3}}, page 18",
"#### The Arab Revolt and the foundation of Saudi Arabia",
"[thumb\\|Physical and political elements of Arabia in 1929](/wiki/File:Map_Arabia_1929_-_Touring_Club_Italiano_CART-TRC-10.jpg \"Map Arabia 1929 - Touring Club Italiano CART-TRC-10.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Abdulaziz Ibn Saud](/wiki/Ibn_Saud \"Ibn Saud\"), the founding father and first king of [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\")](/wiki/File:%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AD.jpg \"الملك عبد العزيز مع الشيخ جابر الأحمد الصباح.jpg\")\nThe major developments of the early 20th century were the [Arab Revolt](/wiki/Arab_Revolt \"Arab Revolt\") during World War I and the subsequent collapse and [partitioning of the Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empire \"Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire\"). The Arab Revolt (1916–1918\\) was initiated by the [Sherif Hussein ibn Ali](/wiki/Sherif_Hussein_ibn_Ali \"Sherif Hussein ibn Ali\") with the aim of securing independence from the ruling [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo \"Aleppo\") in Syria to [Aden](/wiki/Aden \"Aden\") in Yemen. During World War I, the Sharif Hussein entered into an alliance with the United Kingdom and France against the Ottomans in June 1916\\.\n[thumb\\|The Arabian Peninsula in 1923](/wiki/File:Map_of_the_states_of_the_Arabian_Peninsula_%281905-1923%29.svg \"Map of the states of the Arabian Peninsula (1905-1923).svg\")\nThese events were followed by the foundation of Saudi Arabia under King [Abdulaziz Ibn Saud](/wiki/Ibn_Saud_of_Saudi_Arabia \"Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia\"). In 1902, Ibn Saud had captured [Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh \"Riyadh\"). Continuing his conquests, Abdulaziz subdued Al\\-Hasa, [Jabal Shammar](/wiki/Emirate_of_Jabal_Shammar \"Emirate of Jabal Shammar\"), [Hejaz](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz \"Kingdom of Hejaz\") between 1913 and 1926 founded the modern state of Saudi Arabia. The Saudis absorbed the [Emirate of Asir](/wiki/Idrisid_Emirate_of_Asir \"Idrisid Emirate of Asir\"), with their expansion only ending in 1934 after a [war with Yemen](/wiki/Saudi%E2%80%93Yemeni_War_%281934%29 \"Saudi–Yemeni War (1934)\"). Two Saudi states were formed and controlled much of Arabia before Ibn Saud was even born. Ibn Saud, however, established the third Saudi state.",
"#### Oil reserves",
"The second major development has been the discovery of [vast reserves of oil](/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves \"List of countries by proven oil reserves\") in the 1930s. Its production brought great wealth to all countries of the region, with the exception of Yemen.",
"#### North Yemen Civil War",
"{{main\\|North Yemen Civil War}}\nThe North Yemen Civil War was fought in [North Yemen](/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic \"Yemen Arab Republic\") between royalists of the [Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen](/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen \"Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen\") and factions of the [Yemen Arab Republic](/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic \"Yemen Arab Republic\") from 1962 to 1970\\. The war began with a [coup d'état](/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"Coup d'état\") carried out by the republican leader, [Abdullah as\\-Sallal](/wiki/Abdullah_as-Sallal \"Abdullah as-Sallal\"), which dethroned the newly crowned [Muhammad al\\-Badr](/wiki/Muhammad_al-Badr \"Muhammad al-Badr\") and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support.",
"The royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia, while the republicans were supported by Egypt and the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. The [Egyptian President](/wiki/President_of_Egypt \"President of Egypt\"), [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser \"Gamal Abdel Nasser\"), supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 troops. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egypt's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\") of June 1967, after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen.",
"By 1970, King [Faisal of Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia \"Faisal of Saudi Arabia\") recognized the republic and a truce was signed. Egyptian military historians refer to Egypt's role in the war in Yemen as analogous to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\")' role in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\").{{Cite news \\|issue\\=Jan–Feb, 2004 \\|last\\=Aboul\\-Enein \\|first\\=Youssef \\|title\\=The Egyptian\\-Yemen War: Egyptian perspectives on Guerrilla warfare \\|work\\=Infantry Magazine \\|access\\-date\\=October 3, 2008 \\|date\\=2004\\-01\\-01 \\|url\\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m0IAV/is\\_1\\_93/ai\\_n6123802 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203161830/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m0IAV/is\\_1\\_93/ai\\_n6123802 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-02\\-03}}",
"#### Gulf War",
"{{main article\\|Gulf War}}\nIn 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait.see Richard Schofield, Kuwait and Iraq: Historical Claims and Territorial. Disputes, London: Royal Institute of International Affairs 1991, {{ISBN\\|0\\-905031\\-35\\-0}} and The Kuwait Crisis: Basic Documents, By E. Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood, Marc Weller, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1991, {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-46308\\-4}} The [invasion of Kuwait](/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait \"Invasion of Kuwait\") by Iraqi forces led to the 1990–91 [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\"). Egypt, Qatar, Syria, and Saudi Arabia joined a multinational [coalition](/wiki/Coalition_of_the_Gulf_War \"Coalition of the Gulf War\") that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq by Jordan and Palestine resulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After the war, a so\\-called \"Damascus Declaration\" formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC member states.Egypt's Bid for Arab Leadership: Implications for U.S. Policy, By Gregory L. Aftandilian, Published by Council on Foreign Relations, 1993, {{ISBN\\|0\\-87609\\-146\\-X}}, pages 6–8",
"#### 2014 Yemen civil war",
"{{main\\|Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)}}\nThe [Arab Spring](/wiki/Arab_Spring \"Arab Spring\") reached Yemen in January 2011\\.BBC World News, Arab Uprising:Country by Country \\-Yemen People of Yemen took to the street demonstrating against three decades of rule by President [Ali Abdullah Saleh](/wiki/Ali_Abdullah_Saleh \"Ali Abdullah Saleh\").Cornell University Library. Arab Spring:A Research \\& Study Guide:Yemen guides. library.cornell.edu. Last Updated: May 9, 2019 The demonstration led to cracks in the ruling General People's Congress (GPC) and Saleh's Sanhani clan.Britannica.com. \"Yemen Uprising of 2011–12\". Written By:The editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. Saleh used tactics of concession and violence to save his presidency.University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana\\-champaign. guides.library.edu. Arab Spring Workshop:Yemen After numerous attempts, Saleh accepted the Gulf Cooperation Council's mediation. He eventually handed power to Vice President Hadi, who was sworn in as President of Yemen on 25 February 2012\\. Hadi launched a national dialogue to address new constitutional, political and social issues. The [Houthi movement](/wiki/Houthi_movement \"Houthi movement\"), dissatisfied with the outcomes of the national dialogue, [launched an offensive](/wiki/Houthi_takeover_in_Yemen \"Houthi takeover in Yemen\") and stormed the Yemeni capital Sanaa on 21 September 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/01/23/how\\-the\\-houthis\\-did\\-it\\-yemen\\-hadi\\-arab\\-spring/\\|first\\=Laura\\|last\\=Kasinof\\|title\\=How the Houthis Did It\\|date\\=2015\\|website\\=Foreign Policy\\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=30 March 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330021054/https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/01/23/how\\-the\\-houthis\\-did\\-it\\-yemen\\-hadi\\-arab\\-spring/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In response, Saudi Arabia launched a [military intervention in Yemen](/wiki/Saudi_Arabian-led_intervention_in_Yemen \"Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen\") in March 2015\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Wintour\\|first\\=Patrick\\|date\\=3 September 2019\\|title\\=UK, US and France may be complicit in Yemen war crimes – UN report\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/03/uk\\-us\\-and\\-france\\-may\\-be\\-complicit\\-in\\-yemen\\-war\\-crimes\\-un\\-report\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=22 October 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022141109/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/03/uk\\-us\\-and\\-france\\-may\\-be\\-complicit\\-in\\-yemen\\-war\\-crimes\\-un\\-report\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The civil war and subsequent military intervention and [blockade](/wiki/Blockade_of_Yemen \"Blockade of Yemen\") caused a [famine in Yemen](/wiki/Famine_in_Yemen_%282016%E2%80%93present%29 \"Famine in Yemen (2016–present)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/31/opinion/columnists/yemen\\-famine\\-cholera.html\\|title\\=The Photos the U.S. and Saudi Arabia Don't Want You to See\\|first\\=Nicholas\\|last\\=Kristof\\|date\\=31 August 2017\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=31 August 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831091519/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/31/opinion/columnists/yemen\\-famine\\-cholera.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Geography
---------
[thumb\|[Mill Creek](/wiki/Mill_Creek_%28Lake_Erie%29 "Mill Creek (Lake Erie)") passes through much of Erie, including the grounds of the [Erie Zoo](/wiki/Erie_Zoo "Erie Zoo").](/wiki/File:Mill_Creek_in_City_downstream_from_38th.jpg "Mill Creek in City downstream from 38th.jpg")
Erie is situated in [Northwestern Pennsylvania](/wiki/Northwestern_Pennsylvania "Northwestern Pennsylvania") at {{Coord\|42\|6\|52\|N\|80\|4\|34\|W\|type:city}} (42\.114507, \-80\.076213\),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\-files/time\-series/geo/gazetteer\-files.html \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=April 23, 2011 \|date\=February 12, 2011 \|title\=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990}} on the southern shore of [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie") across from the Canadian province of Ontario. It is {{convert\|100\|mi}} northeast of [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio"), {{Convert\|90\|mi}} southwest of [Buffalo, New York](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York "Buffalo, New York"), and {{convert\|128\|mi}} north of [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh"). Erie's bedrock is [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian "Devonian") [shale](/wiki/Shale "Shale") and [siltstone](/wiki/Siltstone "Siltstone"), overlain by glacial [tills](/wiki/Till "Till") and [stratified drift](/wiki/Outwash_plain "Outwash plain"). Stream drainage in the city flows northward into Lake Erie, then through Lake Ontario into the [St. Lawrence River](/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River "Saint Lawrence River"), and out to the Atlantic Ocean. South of Erie is a drainage divide, beyond which most of the streams in western Pennsylvania flow south into the [Allegheny](/wiki/Allegheny_River "Allegheny River") or [Ohio Rivers](/wiki/Ohio_River "Ohio River").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/topogeo/pub/generalgeology/G32/G32\.aspx \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20031230145939/http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/topogeo/pub/GeneralGeology/G32/G32\.aspx \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=December 30, 2003 \|title\=General Geology Report 32 \|access\-date\=November 2, 2007 \|publisher\=Pennsylvania Geological Survey}} Lake Erie is about {{convert\|571\|ft\|m\|0\|abbr\=on}} above sea level, while the city of Erie is about {{convert\|728\|ft\|m\|0\|abbr\=on}} above sea level.
According to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"), the city has a total area of {{convert\|49\.9\|sqkm\|order\=flip}}, with {{convert\|49\.4\|sqkm\|order\=flip}} being land and the remaining {{Convert\|0\.5\|sqkm\|order\=flip\|1}}, or 1\.03%, being water.{{cite web \|url\=http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\.0/en/DEC/10\_SF1/G001/1600000US4224000 \|title\=Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001\): Erie city, Pennsylvania \|work\=American Factfinder \|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau \|access\-date\=March 14, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20200213065240/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\.0/en/DEC/10\_SF1/G001/1600000US4224000 \|archive\-date\=February 13, 2020 \|url\-status\=dead}} Presque Isle State Park (referred to by locals as "the Peninsula" or simply "the beach"), is a recurving sandspit peninsula that stretches north into Lake Erie, providing a fine, natural harbor for Erie and offers {{convert\|7\|mi\|0}} of public beaches, wetlands, and fishing sites.
Erie fronts [Presque Isle Bay](/wiki/Presque_Isle_Bay "Presque Isle Bay") and is laid out in a grid surrounding [Perry Square](/wiki/Perry_Square "Perry Square") in the downtown area.{{Cite map \|title\=City of Erie, Erie County \|publisher\=Pennsylvania Department of Transportation \|date\=December 1, 2005 \|format\=PDF \|series\=Type 5C \|url\=http://www.dot7\.state.pa.us/BPR\_pdf\_files/Maps/Type5/25302\.pdf}} The downtown area is separated from the waterfront by the Bayfront Parkway. The tallest structure in Erie is [St. Peter Cathedral](/wiki/St._Peter_Cathedral_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "St. Peter Cathedral (Erie, Pennsylvania)") at {{convert\|265\|ft\|m\|0\|abbr\=on}}, and the tallest building is [Renaissance Centre](/wiki/Renaissance_Centre_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "Renaissance Centre (Erie, Pennsylvania)") at {{convert\|198\|ft\|m\|0\|abbr\=on}}. Historically, Erie had numerous ethnic neighborhoods, including Little Italy, which is located on Erie's west side, featuring the West 18th Street commercial corridor. South of 38th Street, the grid gives way to curvilinear roads of post\-1970 suburban development. [Millcreek Township](/wiki/Millcreek_Township%2C_Erie_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Millcreek Township, Erie County, Pennsylvania") and upper [Peach Street](/wiki/Peach_Street "Peach Street") in [Summit Township](/wiki/Summit_Township%2C_Erie_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Summit Township, Erie County, Pennsylvania") include the Erie metropolitan area's newer developments.
Post\-industrial redevelopment of Erie's waterfront aimed at recreational and tourism uses include the [Bayfront Parkway](/wiki/Bayfront_Parkway "Bayfront Parkway"), Niagara Pier, Perry's Landing Marina, Liberty Park \& Amphitheater, [Bayfront Convention Center](/wiki/Bayfront_Convention_Center "Bayfront Convention Center"), hotels, and [Dobbins Landing](/wiki/Dobbins_Landing "Dobbins Landing"), which features the [Bicentennial Tower](/wiki/Bicentennial_Tower "Bicentennial Tower") at its northern end. On the east side of the bayfront, the [Erie Maritime Museum](/wiki/Erie_Maritime_Museum "Erie Maritime Museum") and the Erie County main library (third\-largest in Pennsylvania), host the [USS *Niagara*](/wiki/USS_Niagara_%281813%29 "USS Niagara (1813)"). Docks and [marinas](/wiki/Marina "Marina") fill the freshwater shoreline in between.
### Climate
Under the [Köppen climate classification](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification"), Erie falls within either a [hot\-summer humid continental climate](/wiki/Hot-summer_humid_continental_climate "Hot-summer humid continental climate") (*Dfa*) if the {{convert\|0\|°C}} isotherm is used or a [humid subtropical climate](/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate "Humid subtropical climate") (*Cfa*) if the {{convert\|\-3\|°C}} isotherm is used. It is located in the [snow belt](/wiki/Snow_belt "Snow belt") that stretches from [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio "Cleveland, Ohio") to [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_New_York "Syracuse, New York") and [Watertown](/wiki/Watertown_%28city%29%2C_New_York "Watertown (city), New York"); winters are moderately cold, with heavy [lake\-effect snow](/wiki/Lake_effect_snow "Lake effect snow"), but also with occasional stretches of mild weather that cause accumulated snow to melt. The city experiences a full range of weather events, including snow, ice, rain, thunderstorms, and fog. The city's lakeside location helps to temper summer heat, with an average of 4 days with highs at or above {{convert\|90\|°F\|0}} annually, and the highest temperature ever recorded was {{convert\|100\|°F\|0}} on June 25, 1988\. An average of 3 days have lows of {{convert\|0\|°F\|0}} or colder annually, and the lowest temperature ever recorded was {{convert\|−18\|°F\|0}} on January 19, 1994, and February 16, 2015\.
Erie is third on *[The Daily Beast](/wiki/The_Daily_Beast "The Daily Beast")*{{'}}s list of snowiest places in the United States, averaging {{convert\|78\.7\|in\|cm}};{{cite web \|date\=December 27, 2010 \|work\=\[\[The Daily Beast]] \|url\=http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs\-and\-stories/2010\-12\-27/americas\-20\-snowiest\-cities\-from\-denver\-to\-duluth\-buffalo\-to\-billings \|title\=America's 20 Snowiest Cities, from Denver to Duluth, Buffalo to Billings \|access\-date\=December 29, 2010}} however, the 1981–2010 normal seasonal snowfall is {{convert\|100\.8\|in\|cm\|0}}. Average annual snowfall in the decade 2010\-2019 was {{convert\|100\.7\|in\|cm\|0}}.{{cite web \|title\=Erie PA Snowfall Totals \& Snow Accumulation Averages \- Current Results \|url\=https://www.currentresults.com/Weather/Pennsylvania/Places/erie\-snowfall\-totals\-snow\-accumulation\-averages.php \|website\=currentresults.com \|access\-date\=May 23, 2021}} The adverse winter conditions caused USAir Flight 499 to overrun the runway at [Erie International Airport](/wiki/Erie_International_Airport "Erie International Airport") on February 21, 1986, and caused [whiteouts](/wiki/Whiteout_%28weather%29 "Whiteout (weather)") that were responsible for a 50\-car [pile\-up](/wiki/Multiple-vehicle_collision "Multiple-vehicle collision") on [Interstate 90](/wiki/Interstate_90_in_Pennsylvania "Interstate 90 in Pennsylvania") on January 25, 2007\.{{cite news \|agency\=Associated Press \|date\=January 26, 2007 \|newspaper\=USA Today \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007\-01\-25\-penn\-pileup\_x.htm \|title\=50\-car pileup on snowy Erie highway \|access\-date\=May 29, 2007}}{{cite web \|publisher\=\[\[National Transportation Safety Board]] \|url\=https://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/brief.asp?ev\_id\=20001213X32835\&key\=1 \|title\=Accident Report \|access\-date\=May 29, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124133/https://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/brief.asp?ev\_id\=20001213X32835\&key\=1 \|archive\-date\=September 29, 2007}}
The coldest maximum temperature on record was {{convert\|\-4\|F\|C}} in 1994 and the average coldest maximum between 1991 and 2020 was {{convert\|13\|F\|C}}. The warmest overnight low on record was {{convert\|82\|F\|C}} once in 1918 and another time during the [1936 North American heat wave](/wiki/1936_North_American_heat_wave "1936 North American heat wave"). On average, the warmest low of the year is quite muggy {{convert\|75\|F\|C}}.
On December 24 and 25, 2017, Erie received {{convert\|53\|in\|cm\|0}} of snowfall, breaking a record for the largest two\-day snowfall anywhere in Pennsylvania.Craig, Tim (December 26, 2017\). "[Record\-setting Christmas storm buries Pennsylvania's fourth largest city under more than 4 feet of snow](https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2017/12/26/record-setting-christmas-storm-buries-pennsylvanias-fourth-largest-under-more-than-4-feet-of-snow/)". *The Washington Post*.Fritz, Angela (December 26, 2017\). "[How this Pennsylvania city got more than 4 feet of snow in just 30 hours](https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/12/26/how-this-pennsylvania-city-got-more-than-4-feet-of-snow-in-just-30-hours/)". *The Washington Post*. By the close of the 2017–2018 snow season, Erie had recorded {{convert\|198\.5\|in\|m\|abbr\=on}} of snow, its snowiest season on record, breaking the previous record of {{convert\|149\.1\|in\|m\|abbr\=on}} inches set in 2000–2001 by a large margin.
The [hardiness zone](/wiki/Hardiness_zone "Hardiness zone") is now 7a along the lakeshore and 6b in the remainder of the city. <https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/>
{{Erie, Pennsylvania weatherbox}}
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|[Mill Creek](/wiki/Mill_Creek_%28Lake_Erie%29 \"Mill Creek (Lake Erie)\") passes through much of Erie, including the grounds of the [Erie Zoo](/wiki/Erie_Zoo \"Erie Zoo\").](/wiki/File:Mill_Creek_in_City_downstream_from_38th.jpg \"Mill Creek in City downstream from 38th.jpg\")\nErie is situated in [Northwestern Pennsylvania](/wiki/Northwestern_Pennsylvania \"Northwestern Pennsylvania\") at {{Coord\\|42\\|6\\|52\\|N\\|80\\|4\\|34\\|W\\|type:city}} (42\\.114507, \\-80\\.076213\\),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\\-files/time\\-series/geo/gazetteer\\-files.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2011 \\|date\\=February 12, 2011 \\|title\\=US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990}} on the southern shore of [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\") across from the Canadian province of Ontario. It is {{convert\\|100\\|mi}} northeast of [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\"), {{Convert\\|90\\|mi}} southwest of [Buffalo, New York](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York \"Buffalo, New York\"), and {{convert\\|128\\|mi}} north of [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\"). Erie's bedrock is [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\") [shale](/wiki/Shale \"Shale\") and [siltstone](/wiki/Siltstone \"Siltstone\"), overlain by glacial [tills](/wiki/Till \"Till\") and [stratified drift](/wiki/Outwash_plain \"Outwash plain\"). Stream drainage in the city flows northward into Lake Erie, then through Lake Ontario into the [St. Lawrence River](/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River \"Saint Lawrence River\"), and out to the Atlantic Ocean. South of Erie is a drainage divide, beyond which most of the streams in western Pennsylvania flow south into the [Allegheny](/wiki/Allegheny_River \"Allegheny River\") or [Ohio Rivers](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/topogeo/pub/generalgeology/G32/G32\\.aspx \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20031230145939/http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/topogeo/pub/GeneralGeology/G32/G32\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=December 30, 2003 \\|title\\=General Geology Report 32 \\|access\\-date\\=November 2, 2007 \\|publisher\\=Pennsylvania Geological Survey}} Lake Erie is about {{convert\\|571\\|ft\\|m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} above sea level, while the city of Erie is about {{convert\\|728\\|ft\\|m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} above sea level.",
"According to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the city has a total area of {{convert\\|49\\.9\\|sqkm\\|order\\=flip}}, with {{convert\\|49\\.4\\|sqkm\\|order\\=flip}} being land and the remaining {{Convert\\|0\\.5\\|sqkm\\|order\\=flip\\|1}}, or 1\\.03%, being water.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\\.0/en/DEC/10\\_SF1/G001/1600000US4224000 \\|title\\=Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001\\): Erie city, Pennsylvania \\|work\\=American Factfinder \\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau \\|access\\-date\\=March 14, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20200213065240/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\\.0/en/DEC/10\\_SF1/G001/1600000US4224000 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 13, 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Presque Isle State Park (referred to by locals as \"the Peninsula\" or simply \"the beach\"), is a recurving sandspit peninsula that stretches north into Lake Erie, providing a fine, natural harbor for Erie and offers {{convert\\|7\\|mi\\|0}} of public beaches, wetlands, and fishing sites.",
"Erie fronts [Presque Isle Bay](/wiki/Presque_Isle_Bay \"Presque Isle Bay\") and is laid out in a grid surrounding [Perry Square](/wiki/Perry_Square \"Perry Square\") in the downtown area.{{Cite map \\|title\\=City of Erie, Erie County \\|publisher\\=Pennsylvania Department of Transportation \\|date\\=December 1, 2005 \\|format\\=PDF \\|series\\=Type 5C \\|url\\=http://www.dot7\\.state.pa.us/BPR\\_pdf\\_files/Maps/Type5/25302\\.pdf}} The downtown area is separated from the waterfront by the Bayfront Parkway. The tallest structure in Erie is [St. Peter Cathedral](/wiki/St._Peter_Cathedral_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"St. Peter Cathedral (Erie, Pennsylvania)\") at {{convert\\|265\\|ft\\|m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, and the tallest building is [Renaissance Centre](/wiki/Renaissance_Centre_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Renaissance Centre (Erie, Pennsylvania)\") at {{convert\\|198\\|ft\\|m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. Historically, Erie had numerous ethnic neighborhoods, including Little Italy, which is located on Erie's west side, featuring the West 18th Street commercial corridor. South of 38th Street, the grid gives way to curvilinear roads of post\\-1970 suburban development. [Millcreek Township](/wiki/Millcreek_Township%2C_Erie_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Millcreek Township, Erie County, Pennsylvania\") and upper [Peach Street](/wiki/Peach_Street \"Peach Street\") in [Summit Township](/wiki/Summit_Township%2C_Erie_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Summit Township, Erie County, Pennsylvania\") include the Erie metropolitan area's newer developments.",
"Post\\-industrial redevelopment of Erie's waterfront aimed at recreational and tourism uses include the [Bayfront Parkway](/wiki/Bayfront_Parkway \"Bayfront Parkway\"), Niagara Pier, Perry's Landing Marina, Liberty Park \\& Amphitheater, [Bayfront Convention Center](/wiki/Bayfront_Convention_Center \"Bayfront Convention Center\"), hotels, and [Dobbins Landing](/wiki/Dobbins_Landing \"Dobbins Landing\"), which features the [Bicentennial Tower](/wiki/Bicentennial_Tower \"Bicentennial Tower\") at its northern end. On the east side of the bayfront, the [Erie Maritime Museum](/wiki/Erie_Maritime_Museum \"Erie Maritime Museum\") and the Erie County main library (third\\-largest in Pennsylvania), host the [USS *Niagara*](/wiki/USS_Niagara_%281813%29 \"USS Niagara (1813)\"). Docks and [marinas](/wiki/Marina \"Marina\") fill the freshwater shoreline in between.",
"### Climate",
"Under the [Köppen climate classification](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\"), Erie falls within either a [hot\\-summer humid continental climate](/wiki/Hot-summer_humid_continental_climate \"Hot-summer humid continental climate\") (*Dfa*) if the {{convert\\|0\\|°C}} isotherm is used or a [humid subtropical climate](/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate \"Humid subtropical climate\") (*Cfa*) if the {{convert\\|\\-3\\|°C}} isotherm is used. It is located in the [snow belt](/wiki/Snow_belt \"Snow belt\") that stretches from [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio \"Cleveland, Ohio\") to [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_New_York \"Syracuse, New York\") and [Watertown](/wiki/Watertown_%28city%29%2C_New_York \"Watertown (city), New York\"); winters are moderately cold, with heavy [lake\\-effect snow](/wiki/Lake_effect_snow \"Lake effect snow\"), but also with occasional stretches of mild weather that cause accumulated snow to melt. The city experiences a full range of weather events, including snow, ice, rain, thunderstorms, and fog. The city's lakeside location helps to temper summer heat, with an average of 4 days with highs at or above {{convert\\|90\\|°F\\|0}} annually, and the highest temperature ever recorded was {{convert\\|100\\|°F\\|0}} on June 25, 1988\\. An average of 3 days have lows of {{convert\\|0\\|°F\\|0}} or colder annually, and the lowest temperature ever recorded was {{convert\\|−18\\|°F\\|0}} on January 19, 1994, and February 16, 2015\\.",
"Erie is third on *[The Daily Beast](/wiki/The_Daily_Beast \"The Daily Beast\")*{{'}}s list of snowiest places in the United States, averaging {{convert\\|78\\.7\\|in\\|cm}};{{cite web \\|date\\=December 27, 2010 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Daily Beast]] \\|url\\=http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs\\-and\\-stories/2010\\-12\\-27/americas\\-20\\-snowiest\\-cities\\-from\\-denver\\-to\\-duluth\\-buffalo\\-to\\-billings \\|title\\=America's 20 Snowiest Cities, from Denver to Duluth, Buffalo to Billings \\|access\\-date\\=December 29, 2010}} however, the 1981–2010 normal seasonal snowfall is {{convert\\|100\\.8\\|in\\|cm\\|0}}. Average annual snowfall in the decade 2010\\-2019 was {{convert\\|100\\.7\\|in\\|cm\\|0}}.{{cite web \\|title\\=Erie PA Snowfall Totals \\& Snow Accumulation Averages \\- Current Results \\|url\\=https://www.currentresults.com/Weather/Pennsylvania/Places/erie\\-snowfall\\-totals\\-snow\\-accumulation\\-averages.php \\|website\\=currentresults.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 23, 2021}} The adverse winter conditions caused USAir Flight 499 to overrun the runway at [Erie International Airport](/wiki/Erie_International_Airport \"Erie International Airport\") on February 21, 1986, and caused [whiteouts](/wiki/Whiteout_%28weather%29 \"Whiteout (weather)\") that were responsible for a 50\\-car [pile\\-up](/wiki/Multiple-vehicle_collision \"Multiple-vehicle collision\") on [Interstate 90](/wiki/Interstate_90_in_Pennsylvania \"Interstate 90 in Pennsylvania\") on January 25, 2007\\.{{cite news \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|date\\=January 26, 2007 \\|newspaper\\=USA Today \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007\\-01\\-25\\-penn\\-pileup\\_x.htm \\|title\\=50\\-car pileup on snowy Erie highway \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2007}}{{cite web \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Transportation Safety Board]] \\|url\\=https://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/brief.asp?ev\\_id\\=20001213X32835\\&key\\=1 \\|title\\=Accident Report \\|access\\-date\\=May 29, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124133/https://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/brief.asp?ev\\_id\\=20001213X32835\\&key\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 29, 2007}}",
"The coldest maximum temperature on record was {{convert\\|\\-4\\|F\\|C}} in 1994 and the average coldest maximum between 1991 and 2020 was {{convert\\|13\\|F\\|C}}. The warmest overnight low on record was {{convert\\|82\\|F\\|C}} once in 1918 and another time during the [1936 North American heat wave](/wiki/1936_North_American_heat_wave \"1936 North American heat wave\"). On average, the warmest low of the year is quite muggy {{convert\\|75\\|F\\|C}}.",
"On December 24 and 25, 2017, Erie received {{convert\\|53\\|in\\|cm\\|0}} of snowfall, breaking a record for the largest two\\-day snowfall anywhere in Pennsylvania.Craig, Tim (December 26, 2017\\). \"[Record\\-setting Christmas storm buries Pennsylvania's fourth largest city under more than 4 feet of snow](https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2017/12/26/record-setting-christmas-storm-buries-pennsylvanias-fourth-largest-under-more-than-4-feet-of-snow/)\". *The Washington Post*.Fritz, Angela (December 26, 2017\\). \"[How this Pennsylvania city got more than 4 feet of snow in just 30 hours](https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/12/26/how-this-pennsylvania-city-got-more-than-4-feet-of-snow-in-just-30-hours/)\". *The Washington Post*. By the close of the 2017–2018 snow season, Erie had recorded {{convert\\|198\\.5\\|in\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} of snow, its snowiest season on record, breaking the previous record of {{convert\\|149\\.1\\|in\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} inches set in 2000–2001 by a large margin.",
"The [hardiness zone](/wiki/Hardiness_zone \"Hardiness zone\") is now 7a along the lakeshore and 6b in the remainder of the city. <https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/>",
"{{Erie, Pennsylvania weatherbox}}",
""
] |
Arts and culture
----------------
[thumb\|[Bicentennial Tower](/wiki/Bicentennial_Tower "Bicentennial Tower") and the *[Niagara](/wiki/USS_Niagara_%281813%29 "USS Niagara (1813)")*](/wiki/File:Flagship-Niagara-Dobbins-Landing-Erie-July4-2009.jpg "Flagship-Niagara-Dobbins-Landing-Erie-July4-2009.jpg")
### Museums
The [Erie Art Museum](/wiki/Erie_Art_Museum "Erie Art Museum") is the city's main [art gallery](/wiki/Art_gallery "Art gallery"), located in the [Old Customshouse](/wiki/Old_Customshouse_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "Old Customshouse (Erie, Pennsylvania)") on State Street. Its collection has an emphasis on [folk art](/wiki/Folk_art "Folk art") and [modern art](/wiki/Modern_art "Modern art") and it hosts a popular blues and jazz concert series. The museum also works on public art projects to revitalize and improve the city. In 2000, it created a project entitled GoFish, similar to [CowParade](/wiki/CowParade "CowParade"); 95 fiberglass fish were decorated by Erie artists and placed throughout the city. Patrons paid $3,000 for a fish and the proceeds went to [Gannon University](/wiki/Gannon_University "Gannon University")'s scholarship fund and the Erie Public Art endowment fund.{{cite web \|last\=Hubert \|first\=Tom \|title\=Baked Fish \|url\=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/6037130/baked\-fish \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304174410/http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/6037130/baked\-fish \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2013 \|work\=Ceramics Monthly \|access\-date\=September 27, 2012}} The Erie Art Museum created a similar public art project in 2004 that involved frogs rather than fish.{{cite book \|last\=Paris \|first\=Vanessa W. \|title\=LeapFrog! the Ribbitting Tale: 2004 Lake Erie Art Project \|year\=2004 \|publisher\=Erie Art Museum \|location\=Erie, Pennsylvania \|isbn\=978\-0\-9709282\-8\-3}} In 2012, the Erie Art Museum began a project to create 40 artistic and functional bike racks, designed and created by local artists.{{cite news \|last\=Erwin \|first\=Erica \|title\=Erie Art Museum unveils latest public art project \|url\=http://www.goerie.com/article/20120914/NEWS02/309139868/Erie\-Art\-Museum\-unveils\-latest\-public\-art\-project \|access\-date\=September 28, 2012 \|newspaper\=Erie Times\-News \|date\=September 14, 2012 \|archive\-date\=July 26, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726043834/https://www.goerie.com/article/20120914/NEWS02/309139868/Erie\-Art\-Museum\-unveils\-latest\-public\-art\-project \|url\-status\=dead }} The museum intends to add color and interest to downtown Erie and to promote bicycling, encourage healthy lifestyles, and provide environmental awareness.{{cite web \|title\=Bike Rack Public Art \|url\=http://www.erieartmuseum.org/exhibits/public\_art/BikeRack\_PublicArt/BikeRackPublicArt.html \|publisher\=Erie Art Museum \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727102620/http://www.erieartmuseum.org/exhibits/public\_art/BikeRack\_PublicArt/BikeRackPublicArt.html \|archive\-date\=July 27, 2013}}
The [Erie Maritime Museum](/wiki/Erie_Maritime_Museum "Erie Maritime Museum") commemorates and explains Erie's significance during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812"); it is home to the [USS Brig *Niagara*](/wiki/USS_Niagara_%281813%29 "USS Niagara (1813)"), a modern recreation of the 1813 USS *Niagara* that served as Commodore [Oliver Hazard Perry](/wiki/Oliver_Hazard_Perry "Oliver Hazard Perry")'s relief [flagship](/wiki/Flagship "Flagship") during the [Battle of Lake Erie](/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Erie "Battle of Lake Erie").{{Cite book\|title\=Erie Maritime Museum and U.S. Brig Niagara\|last\=Magoc\|first\=Chris J.\|publisher\=Stackpole Books \& Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission\|year\=2001\|isbn\=0\-811727564\|pages\=33}}
### Entertainment
[thumb\|upright\|[Warner Theatre](/wiki/Warner_Theatre_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "Warner Theatre (Erie, Pennsylvania)")](/wiki/File:Warner_Theatre_Erie_Front_2007.jpg "Warner Theatre Erie Front 2007.jpg")
Erie is home to several professional and amateur performing arts groups. The most significant is the [Erie Philharmonic](/wiki/Erie_Philharmonic "Erie Philharmonic"), in existence since 1913 (except an [interregnum](/wiki/Interregnum "Interregnum") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II")). This group of professional musicians also has a full [chorus](/wiki/Choir "Choir") and a junior philharmonic division that tours the area. The Lake Erie Ballet is a professional company that performs well\-known programs throughout the year.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lakeerieballet.org \|title\=Lake Erie Ballet \|access\-date\=May 25, 2007}} The Erie Civic Music Association attracts, sponsors, and books performances by professional musicians, singers, entertainers, and ensembles from around the world.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.eriecivicmusic.com/ \|title\=Erie Civic Music Association \|access\-date\=May 25, 2007}}
Downtown Erie's historic and ornate [Warner Theatre](/wiki/Warner_Theatre_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "Warner Theatre (Erie, Pennsylvania)") hosts a range of performances. Renovated in the 1980s and again in 2007,{{cite web \|publisher\=\[\[WSEE\-TV]] \|url\=http://www.goerie.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20070323/WSEE01/70322036\&SearchID\=73279381497185 \|title\=Warner Renovations Unveiled \|date\=March 23, 2007 \|access\-date\=May 21, 2007}} the Warner is the hub of Erie's [Civic Center](/wiki/Louis_J._Tullio_Arena "Louis J. Tullio Arena"). The downtown area is the home of the [Erie Playhouse](/wiki/Erie_Playhouse "Erie Playhouse"), one of the leading community theaters in the country, and the third\-oldest community theater in the U.S.{{Cite book \|author\=Erie Area Convention and Visitors Bureau \|title\=ERIE 2007–2008 All Seasons Visitors Guide \|place\=Erie \|year\=2007}} Erie is also home to several other community theatres, including Dramashop, PACA, and All an Act Theatre. In addition to regular performances, Erie has many festivals including motorcycle rallies. Since 2007, the annual [Roar on the Shore](/wiki/Roar_on_the_Shore "Roar on the Shore") [motorcycle rally](/wiki/Motorcycle_rally "Motorcycle rally") has taken place in Erie, although in 2019, it moved to the Lake Erie Speedway.
[Presque Isle Downs \& Casino](/wiki/Presque_Isle_Downs_%26_Casino "Presque Isle Downs & Casino") opened on February 28, 2007, and was the fourth slots parlor in the state and the first in Western Pennsylvania.{{Cite news \|last1\=Miller \|first1\=George \|last2\=Thompson \|first2\=Lisa \|title\=$8\.9 million take \|date\=March 2, 2007 \|newspaper\=Erie Times\-News \|url\=http://www.goerie.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20070302/NEWS02/703020365 \|access\-date\=February 3, 2011}} [Table games](/wiki/Casino_game%23Table_games "Casino game#Table games") opened at the casino on July 8, 2010\.{{Cite news \|last\=Guerriero \|first\=John \|title\=Table games and equipment arrives at Presque Isle Downs \|date\=June 22, 2011 \|newspaper\=Erie Times\-News \|url\=http://www.goerie.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\=/20100622/NEWS02/306219928/\-1/ETN \|access\-date\=February 3, 2011}}
Erie is home to [The Cadets Drum and Bugle Corps](/wiki/The_Cadets_Drum_and_Bugle_Corps "The Cadets Drum and Bugle Corps"), ten\-time [Drum Corps International](/wiki/Drum_Corps_International "Drum Corps International") World Champion as of 2023\. The Cadets entered a long\-term partnership with the Erie Sports Center in February 2023, prompting them to move all operations of Cadets Arts \& Entertainment, Inc. to Erie.{{Cite web \|title\=Erie Sports Center to Become Permanent Home for The Cadets Drum Corps \|url\=https://www.erienewsnow.com/story/48381432/erie\-sports\-center\-to\-become\-permanent\-home\-for\-the\-cadets\-drum\-corps \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-08 \|website\=www.erienewsnow.com \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=The Cadets Announce Move to Erie, Pa. {{!}} The Cadets \- A World Champion Drum Corps \|url\=https://cadets.org/cadets\-announce\-move\-erie\-pa \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-08 \|website\=cadets.org}}
Erie has been the location for many movies; for example, it is the hometown of the fictional band The Wonders in *[That Thing You Do!](/wiki/That_Thing_You_Do%21 "That Thing You Do!")* featuring [Tom Hanks](/wiki/Tom_Hanks "Tom Hanks"). Erie is the hometown of [Train](/wiki/Train_%28band%29 "Train (band)") lead singer [Patrick Monahan](/wiki/Patrick_Monahan "Patrick Monahan") and of [Marc Brown](/wiki/Marc_Brown_%28author%29 "Marc Brown (author)"), the author and illustrator of [*Arthur*](/wiki/Arthur_%28TV_series%29 "Arthur (TV series)") books and TV series.
### Libraries
[thumb\|The [Erie Maritime Museum](/wiki/Erie_Maritime_Museum "Erie Maritime Museum"), the *Niagara*, and the [Main Library](/wiki/Main_Library_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "Main Library (Erie, Pennsylvania)")](/wiki/File:Brig_Niagara_behind_museum.jpg "Brig Niagara behind museum.jpg")
There are five Erie County library system branches in Erie and a [bookmobile](/wiki/Bookmobile "Bookmobile").{{Cite web\|url\=https://erielibrary.org/services/facilities/\|title\=Facilities – Erie County Public Library\|date\=September 2, 2010\|website\=erielibrary.org}} The [Main Library](/wiki/Main_Library_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "Main Library (Erie, Pennsylvania)") opened in 1996,{{cite web \|publisher\=Erie's Libraries \|url\=http://www.erielibrary.org/library\-info\-2/history\-of\-the\-library/ \|title\=History of the Library \|access\-date\=February 16, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224225929/http://www.erielibrary.org/library\-info\-2/history\-of\-the\-library/ \|archive\-date\=February 24, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} and is the third\-largest library in Pennsylvania.{{cite web \|publisher\=City of Erie \|url\=http://www.ci.erie.pa.us/AboutErie/Facts/tabid/80/Default.aspx \|title\=Raymond M. Blasco Library \|access\-date\=May 21, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808225109/http://www.ci.erie.pa.us/AboutErie/Facts/tabid/80/Default.aspx \|archive\-date\=August 8, 2007}} It is connected to the [Erie Maritime Museum](/wiki/Erie_Maritime_Museum "Erie Maritime Museum"), and has waterfront views of the [Presque Isle Bay](/wiki/Presque_Isle_Bay "Presque Isle Bay"). The Main Library contains an art collection and provides internet access to patrons.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2016/09/a\-waterfront\-library/498665/ \|title\=This Seaport is Now a Library, but It's Still a Portal to the World \|website\=\[\[The Atlantic]] \|date\=September 5, 2016}} The four remaining libraries are the Edinboro Branch Library, Iroquois Avenue Branch Library, Lincoln Community Center Branch Library, and Millcreek Branch Library.
### Historic structures
Along West 6th Street is Millionaires Row, a collection of 19th\-century [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture "Victorian architecture") mansions. The [John Hill House](/wiki/John_Hill_House "John Hill House") is one of the notable residences. [First Presbyterian Church of the Covenant](/wiki/First_Presbyterian_Church_of_the_Covenant_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "First Presbyterian Church of the Covenant (Erie, Pennsylvania)"), a well\-known landmark, is also located here. The Watson\-Curtze Mansion, one of the most notable residences on this street, is also home to the Erie County Historical Society.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.eriehistory.org/\|title\=Hagen History Center \- Home\|website\=Hagen History Center}} Permanent and rotating exhibits showcase the life of some of Erie's influential founders and the development of Erie.
The [Erie Land Light](/wiki/Erie_Land_Light "Erie Land Light") stands at the foot of Lighthouse Street.{{cite web \|publisher\=The National Park Service \|url\=http://www.cr.nps.gov/maritime/light/erieland.htm \|title\=Inventory of Historic Light Stations Pennsylvania Lighthouses−Erie Land Lighthouse \|access\-date\=May 30, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901221638/http://www.cr.nps.gov/maritime/light/erieland.htm \|archive\-date\=September 1, 2013}} The lighthouse was built in 1818 and replaced in 1867\.
The [Bicentennial Tower](/wiki/Bicentennial_Tower "Bicentennial Tower"), on Dobbins Landing at the foot of State Street, was built in 1995−96 to celebrate the city's bicentennial. It is {{convert\|187\|ft\|m\|abbr\=on}} tall and gives a panoramic view of Lake Erie and downtown. The Blasco Library and Erie Maritime Museum are its neighbors to the east.
|
[
"Arts and culture\n----------------",
"[thumb\\|[Bicentennial Tower](/wiki/Bicentennial_Tower \"Bicentennial Tower\") and the *[Niagara](/wiki/USS_Niagara_%281813%29 \"USS Niagara (1813)\")*](/wiki/File:Flagship-Niagara-Dobbins-Landing-Erie-July4-2009.jpg \"Flagship-Niagara-Dobbins-Landing-Erie-July4-2009.jpg\")",
"### Museums",
"The [Erie Art Museum](/wiki/Erie_Art_Museum \"Erie Art Museum\") is the city's main [art gallery](/wiki/Art_gallery \"Art gallery\"), located in the [Old Customshouse](/wiki/Old_Customshouse_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Old Customshouse (Erie, Pennsylvania)\") on State Street. Its collection has an emphasis on [folk art](/wiki/Folk_art \"Folk art\") and [modern art](/wiki/Modern_art \"Modern art\") and it hosts a popular blues and jazz concert series. The museum also works on public art projects to revitalize and improve the city. In 2000, it created a project entitled GoFish, similar to [CowParade](/wiki/CowParade \"CowParade\"); 95 fiberglass fish were decorated by Erie artists and placed throughout the city. Patrons paid $3,000 for a fish and the proceeds went to [Gannon University](/wiki/Gannon_University \"Gannon University\")'s scholarship fund and the Erie Public Art endowment fund.{{cite web \\|last\\=Hubert \\|first\\=Tom \\|title\\=Baked Fish \\|url\\=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/6037130/baked\\-fish \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304174410/http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/6037130/baked\\-fish \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2013 \\|work\\=Ceramics Monthly \\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2012}} The Erie Art Museum created a similar public art project in 2004 that involved frogs rather than fish.{{cite book \\|last\\=Paris \\|first\\=Vanessa W. \\|title\\=LeapFrog! the Ribbitting Tale: 2004 Lake Erie Art Project \\|year\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=Erie Art Museum \\|location\\=Erie, Pennsylvania \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9709282\\-8\\-3}} In 2012, the Erie Art Museum began a project to create 40 artistic and functional bike racks, designed and created by local artists.{{cite news \\|last\\=Erwin \\|first\\=Erica \\|title\\=Erie Art Museum unveils latest public art project \\|url\\=http://www.goerie.com/article/20120914/NEWS02/309139868/Erie\\-Art\\-Museum\\-unveils\\-latest\\-public\\-art\\-project \\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2012 \\|newspaper\\=Erie Times\\-News \\|date\\=September 14, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 26, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726043834/https://www.goerie.com/article/20120914/NEWS02/309139868/Erie\\-Art\\-Museum\\-unveils\\-latest\\-public\\-art\\-project \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The museum intends to add color and interest to downtown Erie and to promote bicycling, encourage healthy lifestyles, and provide environmental awareness.{{cite web \\|title\\=Bike Rack Public Art \\|url\\=http://www.erieartmuseum.org/exhibits/public\\_art/BikeRack\\_PublicArt/BikeRackPublicArt.html \\|publisher\\=Erie Art Museum \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727102620/http://www.erieartmuseum.org/exhibits/public\\_art/BikeRack\\_PublicArt/BikeRackPublicArt.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 27, 2013}}",
"The [Erie Maritime Museum](/wiki/Erie_Maritime_Museum \"Erie Maritime Museum\") commemorates and explains Erie's significance during the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\"); it is home to the [USS Brig *Niagara*](/wiki/USS_Niagara_%281813%29 \"USS Niagara (1813)\"), a modern recreation of the 1813 USS *Niagara* that served as Commodore [Oliver Hazard Perry](/wiki/Oliver_Hazard_Perry \"Oliver Hazard Perry\")'s relief [flagship](/wiki/Flagship \"Flagship\") during the [Battle of Lake Erie](/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Erie \"Battle of Lake Erie\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Erie Maritime Museum and U.S. Brig Niagara\\|last\\=Magoc\\|first\\=Chris J.\\|publisher\\=Stackpole Books \\& Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission\\|year\\=2001\\|isbn\\=0\\-811727564\\|pages\\=33}}",
"### Entertainment",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Warner Theatre](/wiki/Warner_Theatre_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Warner Theatre (Erie, Pennsylvania)\")](/wiki/File:Warner_Theatre_Erie_Front_2007.jpg \"Warner Theatre Erie Front 2007.jpg\")\nErie is home to several professional and amateur performing arts groups. The most significant is the [Erie Philharmonic](/wiki/Erie_Philharmonic \"Erie Philharmonic\"), in existence since 1913 (except an [interregnum](/wiki/Interregnum \"Interregnum\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\")). This group of professional musicians also has a full [chorus](/wiki/Choir \"Choir\") and a junior philharmonic division that tours the area. The Lake Erie Ballet is a professional company that performs well\\-known programs throughout the year.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lakeerieballet.org \\|title\\=Lake Erie Ballet \\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2007}} The Erie Civic Music Association attracts, sponsors, and books performances by professional musicians, singers, entertainers, and ensembles from around the world.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.eriecivicmusic.com/ \\|title\\=Erie Civic Music Association \\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2007}}",
"Downtown Erie's historic and ornate [Warner Theatre](/wiki/Warner_Theatre_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Warner Theatre (Erie, Pennsylvania)\") hosts a range of performances. Renovated in the 1980s and again in 2007,{{cite web \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[WSEE\\-TV]] \\|url\\=http://www.goerie.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20070323/WSEE01/70322036\\&SearchID\\=73279381497185 \\|title\\=Warner Renovations Unveiled \\|date\\=March 23, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2007}} the Warner is the hub of Erie's [Civic Center](/wiki/Louis_J._Tullio_Arena \"Louis J. Tullio Arena\"). The downtown area is the home of the [Erie Playhouse](/wiki/Erie_Playhouse \"Erie Playhouse\"), one of the leading community theaters in the country, and the third\\-oldest community theater in the U.S.{{Cite book \\|author\\=Erie Area Convention and Visitors Bureau \\|title\\=ERIE 2007–2008 All Seasons Visitors Guide \\|place\\=Erie \\|year\\=2007}} Erie is also home to several other community theatres, including Dramashop, PACA, and All an Act Theatre. In addition to regular performances, Erie has many festivals including motorcycle rallies. Since 2007, the annual [Roar on the Shore](/wiki/Roar_on_the_Shore \"Roar on the Shore\") [motorcycle rally](/wiki/Motorcycle_rally \"Motorcycle rally\") has taken place in Erie, although in 2019, it moved to the Lake Erie Speedway.",
"[Presque Isle Downs \\& Casino](/wiki/Presque_Isle_Downs_%26_Casino \"Presque Isle Downs & Casino\") opened on February 28, 2007, and was the fourth slots parlor in the state and the first in Western Pennsylvania.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Miller \\|first1\\=George \\|last2\\=Thompson \\|first2\\=Lisa \\|title\\=$8\\.9 million take \\|date\\=March 2, 2007 \\|newspaper\\=Erie Times\\-News \\|url\\=http://www.goerie.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20070302/NEWS02/703020365 \\|access\\-date\\=February 3, 2011}} [Table games](/wiki/Casino_game%23Table_games \"Casino game#Table games\") opened at the casino on July 8, 2010\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Guerriero \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=Table games and equipment arrives at Presque Isle Downs \\|date\\=June 22, 2011 \\|newspaper\\=Erie Times\\-News \\|url\\=http://www.goerie.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID\\=/20100622/NEWS02/306219928/\\-1/ETN \\|access\\-date\\=February 3, 2011}}",
"Erie is home to [The Cadets Drum and Bugle Corps](/wiki/The_Cadets_Drum_and_Bugle_Corps \"The Cadets Drum and Bugle Corps\"), ten\\-time [Drum Corps International](/wiki/Drum_Corps_International \"Drum Corps International\") World Champion as of 2023\\. The Cadets entered a long\\-term partnership with the Erie Sports Center in February 2023, prompting them to move all operations of Cadets Arts \\& Entertainment, Inc. to Erie.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Erie Sports Center to Become Permanent Home for The Cadets Drum Corps \\|url\\=https://www.erienewsnow.com/story/48381432/erie\\-sports\\-center\\-to\\-become\\-permanent\\-home\\-for\\-the\\-cadets\\-drum\\-corps \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-08 \\|website\\=www.erienewsnow.com \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Cadets Announce Move to Erie, Pa. {{!}} The Cadets \\- A World Champion Drum Corps \\|url\\=https://cadets.org/cadets\\-announce\\-move\\-erie\\-pa \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-08 \\|website\\=cadets.org}}",
"Erie has been the location for many movies; for example, it is the hometown of the fictional band The Wonders in *[That Thing You Do!](/wiki/That_Thing_You_Do%21 \"That Thing You Do!\")* featuring [Tom Hanks](/wiki/Tom_Hanks \"Tom Hanks\"). Erie is the hometown of [Train](/wiki/Train_%28band%29 \"Train (band)\") lead singer [Patrick Monahan](/wiki/Patrick_Monahan \"Patrick Monahan\") and of [Marc Brown](/wiki/Marc_Brown_%28author%29 \"Marc Brown (author)\"), the author and illustrator of [*Arthur*](/wiki/Arthur_%28TV_series%29 \"Arthur (TV series)\") books and TV series.",
"### Libraries",
"[thumb\\|The [Erie Maritime Museum](/wiki/Erie_Maritime_Museum \"Erie Maritime Museum\"), the *Niagara*, and the [Main Library](/wiki/Main_Library_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Main Library (Erie, Pennsylvania)\")](/wiki/File:Brig_Niagara_behind_museum.jpg \"Brig Niagara behind museum.jpg\")\nThere are five Erie County library system branches in Erie and a [bookmobile](/wiki/Bookmobile \"Bookmobile\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://erielibrary.org/services/facilities/\\|title\\=Facilities – Erie County Public Library\\|date\\=September 2, 2010\\|website\\=erielibrary.org}} The [Main Library](/wiki/Main_Library_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Main Library (Erie, Pennsylvania)\") opened in 1996,{{cite web \\|publisher\\=Erie's Libraries \\|url\\=http://www.erielibrary.org/library\\-info\\-2/history\\-of\\-the\\-library/ \\|title\\=History of the Library \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224225929/http://www.erielibrary.org/library\\-info\\-2/history\\-of\\-the\\-library/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 24, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and is the third\\-largest library in Pennsylvania.{{cite web \\|publisher\\=City of Erie \\|url\\=http://www.ci.erie.pa.us/AboutErie/Facts/tabid/80/Default.aspx \\|title\\=Raymond M. Blasco Library \\|access\\-date\\=May 21, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808225109/http://www.ci.erie.pa.us/AboutErie/Facts/tabid/80/Default.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=August 8, 2007}} It is connected to the [Erie Maritime Museum](/wiki/Erie_Maritime_Museum \"Erie Maritime Museum\"), and has waterfront views of the [Presque Isle Bay](/wiki/Presque_Isle_Bay \"Presque Isle Bay\"). The Main Library contains an art collection and provides internet access to patrons.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2016/09/a\\-waterfront\\-library/498665/ \\|title\\=This Seaport is Now a Library, but It's Still a Portal to the World \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Atlantic]] \\|date\\=September 5, 2016}} The four remaining libraries are the Edinboro Branch Library, Iroquois Avenue Branch Library, Lincoln Community Center Branch Library, and Millcreek Branch Library.",
"### Historic structures",
"Along West 6th Street is Millionaires Row, a collection of 19th\\-century [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture \"Victorian architecture\") mansions. The [John Hill House](/wiki/John_Hill_House \"John Hill House\") is one of the notable residences. [First Presbyterian Church of the Covenant](/wiki/First_Presbyterian_Church_of_the_Covenant_%28Erie%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"First Presbyterian Church of the Covenant (Erie, Pennsylvania)\"), a well\\-known landmark, is also located here. The Watson\\-Curtze Mansion, one of the most notable residences on this street, is also home to the Erie County Historical Society.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.eriehistory.org/\\|title\\=Hagen History Center \\- Home\\|website\\=Hagen History Center}} Permanent and rotating exhibits showcase the life of some of Erie's influential founders and the development of Erie.",
"The [Erie Land Light](/wiki/Erie_Land_Light \"Erie Land Light\") stands at the foot of Lighthouse Street.{{cite web \\|publisher\\=The National Park Service \\|url\\=http://www.cr.nps.gov/maritime/light/erieland.htm \\|title\\=Inventory of Historic Light Stations Pennsylvania Lighthouses−Erie Land Lighthouse \\|access\\-date\\=May 30, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901221638/http://www.cr.nps.gov/maritime/light/erieland.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=September 1, 2013}} The lighthouse was built in 1818 and replaced in 1867\\.",
"The [Bicentennial Tower](/wiki/Bicentennial_Tower \"Bicentennial Tower\"), on Dobbins Landing at the foot of State Street, was built in 1995−96 to celebrate the city's bicentennial. It is {{convert\\|187\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=on}} tall and gives a panoramic view of Lake Erie and downtown. The Blasco Library and Erie Maritime Museum are its neighbors to the east.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Before 1826
[thumb\|left\|150px\|Sir [Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles "Stamford Raffles") (6 July 1781 – 5 July 1826\)](/wiki/File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg "StamfordRaffles.jpeg")
Modern Singapore was founded on 6 February 1819 by Sir [Stamford Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles "Stamford Raffles"), an officer of the [British East India Company](/wiki/British_East_India_Company "British East India Company") and [Lieutenant\-Governor](/wiki/Bencoolen_Presidency "Bencoolen Presidency") of [Bencoolen](/wiki/Bengkulu "Bengkulu"), in an attempt to counter Dutch domination of trade in the East. Permission for the East India Company to set up a "factory" on the island was obtained from the [Sultan of Johor](/wiki/Sultan_of_Johor "Sultan of Johor") and [Temenggung](/wiki/Temenggung "Temenggung") of Johor on that date under the terms of the [Treaty of Singapore](/wiki/1819_Singapore_Treaty "1819 Singapore Treaty"), and outright [cession](/wiki/Cession "Cession") of Singapore took place in 1824\. It has been suggested that prior to British acquisition of the island, the [Malay](/wiki/Malay_people "Malay people") chief in charge of Singapore was the Temenggung of Johor. The [Johor Sultanate](/wiki/Johor_Sultanate "Johor Sultanate") was the successor of the [Malacca Sultanate](/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate "Malacca Sultanate"), both of which had their own codes of law. It is also possible that [adat law](/wiki/Adat "Adat"), often inadequately translated as "customary law", governed the inhabitants of the island prior to its acquisition by the British. However, little, if anything, is known about the laws that were actually applicable. The British have always assumed that no law prevailed on the island of Singapore when it was acquired.
In 1823 Raffles promulgated "Regulations" for the administration of the island. Regulation III of 20 January 1823 established a [magistracy](/wiki/Magistrate "Magistrate") which had jurisdiction over "all descriptions of persons resorting under the British flag". The magistrates were enjoined to "follow the course of the British magistracy, as far as local circumstances permit, avoiding technicalities and unnecessary forms as much as possible, and executing the duties of their office with temper and discretion, according to the best of their judgement and conscience and the principles of substantial justice". Raffles' Regulations were most likely illegal as he was acting beyond the scope of his legal powers in making them – although he had power to place the factory at Singapore under the jurisdiction of Bencoolen, he was not vested with power to place the entire island under Bencoolen's control. In this respect, he had treated Singapore as if the entire island had been ceded to the British when the Treaty with the Sultan and the Temenggung had only permitted the establishment of a trading factory.{{citation\|author\=Kevin Y\[ew] L\[ee] Tan\|chapter\=A Short Legal and Constitutional History of Singapore\|editor\=Walter Woon\|editor\-link\=Walter Woon\|title\=The Singapore Legal System\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Longman\|year\=1989\|isbn\=978\-9971\-89\-993\-6\|page\=3 at 8}}.
The same year, Raffles appointed [John Crawfurd](/wiki/John_Crawfurd "John Crawfurd") as [Resident](/wiki/Resident_%28title%29%23Residents_in_%28British%29_Asia "Resident (title)#Residents in (British) Asia") of Singapore. Crawfurd doubted the legitimacy of the judicial system set up by Raffles, and annulled proceedings in which magistrates had ordered the flogging of gamblers and the seizure of their properties. He eventually abolished the magistracy, replacing it with a [Court of Requests](/wiki/Court_of_Requests "Court of Requests") overseen by an Assistant Resident which dealt with minor civil cases, and a Resident's Court hearing all other cases which he himself presided over. Crawfurd had no authoritative guide to the applicable law, so he decided cases on "general principles of English law", taking into account so far as he could the "character and manners of the different classes" of local inhabitants.{{citation\|author\=L.A. Mills\|title\=British Malaya 1824–1867\|journal\=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society\|year\=1960\|volume\=XXXIII\|issue\=3}}, cited in {{citation\|author\=Mavis Chionh\|chapter\=The Development of the Court System\|editor\=Kevin Y\[ew] L\[ee] Tan\|title\=Essays in Singapore Legal History\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=\[\[Singapore Academy of Law]]; Marshall Cavendish Academic\|year\=2005\|isbn\=978\-981\-210\-389\-5\|page\=93 at 99}}. Unfortunately, Crawfurd's courts also lacked legal foundation, and he had no legal powers over Europeans in Singapore. Serious cases involving British subjects had to be referred to Calcutta; otherwise, all he could do was to banish them from the island.Chionh, pp. 97–98\.
Despite the dubious legal status of the courts established in Singapore by Raffles and Crawfurd, they indicate that the *de facto* position was that between 1819 and 1826 English legal principles applied to Singapore.{{citation\|author\=Walter Woon\|chapter\=The Applicability of English Law in Singapore\|editor\=Walter Woon\|title\=The Singapore Legal System\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Longman\|year\=1989\|isbn\=978\-9971\-89\-993\-6\|page\=107 at 112–113}}.
On 24 June 1824 Singapore and Malacca were formally transferred to the East India Company's administration by the [Transfer of Singapore to East India Company, etc. Act 1824](/wiki/Transfer_of_Singapore_to_East_India_Company%2C_etc._Act_1824 "Transfer of Singapore to East India Company, etc. Act 1824") ([5 Geo. 4](/wiki/5_Geo._4 "5 Geo. 4"). c. 108 (UK)). By virtue of the [Fort Marlborough in India Act 1802](/wiki/Fort_Marlborough_in_India_Act_1802 "Fort Marlborough in India Act 1802") ([42 Geo. 3](/wiki/42_Geo._3 "42 Geo. 3"). c. 29 (UK)). both territories, together with others in the region ceded to Britain by the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), became subordinate to the [Presidency](/wiki/Bengal_Presidency "Bengal Presidency") of [Fort William](/wiki/Fort_William%2C_India "Fort William, India") in [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal "Bengal"), and under the [Government of India Act 1800](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1800 "Government of India Act 1800")39 \& 40 Geo. 3 c. 79 (UK) these territories became subject to the [jurisdiction](/wiki/Jurisdiction "Jurisdiction") of the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_court "Supreme court") of Fort William.
The [Indian Salaries and Pensions Act 1825](/wiki/Indian_Salaries_and_Pensions_Act_1825 "Indian Salaries and Pensions Act 1825")6 Geo. 4 c. 85 (UK). authorised the East India Company to place Singapore and Malacca under the administration of Prince of Wales' Island (now [Penang](/wiki/Penang "Penang")). The Company did so, thus creating the [Straits Settlements](/wiki/Straits_Settlements "Straits Settlements").{{citation \|first1\=Geoffrey Wilson \|last1\=Bartholomew\|first2\=Elizabeth \|last2\=Srinivasagam\|first3\=Pascal Baylon \|last3\=Netto\|title\=Sesquicentennial Chronological Tables of the Written Laws of the Republic of Singapore 1834\-1984\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Malaya Law Review, Malayan Law Journal\|year\=1987\|isbn\=978\-9971\-70\-053\-9\|page\=xxvii}}.
### 1826–1867: The "Indian period"
[thumb\|The [East India House](/wiki/East_India_House "East India House"), the headquarters of the East India Company, in Leadenhall Street, London, as seen {{circa}} 1817; it was demolished in 1869\.](/wiki/File:East_India_House_THS_1817_edited.jpg "East India House THS 1817 edited.jpg")
The statute 6 Geo. 4 c. 85 empowered the [British Crown](/wiki/The_Crown%23United_Kingdom "The Crown#United Kingdom") to issue [letters patent](/wiki/Letters_patent "Letters patent") providing for the administration of justice in the Straits Settlements. The East India Company petitioned the Crown for the grant of such letters patent establishing "such Courts and Judicatures for the due administration of Justice and the security of the persons rights and property of the Inhabitants and the Public Revenue of and the Trial and Punishment of Capital and other Offences committed and the repression of vice within the said Settlement of Prince of Wales’ Island Singapore and Malacca…"
Granting the petition, the Crown issued the [Second Charter of Justice](/wiki/Second_Charter_of_Justice "Second Charter of Justice") on 27 November 1826\.The First Charter of Justice of 1807 applied only to Prince of Wales' Island (Penang). The Charter established the Court of Judicature of Prince of Wales' Island, Singapore and Malacca, which was conferred "full Power and Authority… to give and pass Judgement and Sentence according to Justice and Right". This key clause was later judicially interpreted to have introduced English law into the Straits Settlements. The present understanding of this clause is that it made all English statutes and principles of English [common law](/wiki/Common_law "Common law") and equity in force as at 27 November 1826 applicable in the Straits Settlements (including Singapore), unless they were both unsuitable to local conditions and could not be modified to avoid causing injustice or oppression.{{citation\|author\=Andrew Phang Boon Leong\|author\-link\=Andrew Phang\|title\=From Foundation to Legacy: The Second Charter of Justice\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Singapore Academy of Law\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-981\-05\-7194\-8\|pages\=19–23}}.
The Charter provided that the Court of Judicature was to be presided over by the [Governor](/wiki/Governor%23British_Empire_and_Commonwealth "Governor#British Empire and Commonwealth") of the Straits Settlements and [Resident Councillor](/wiki/Resident_Councillor "Resident Councillor") of the settlement where the court was to be held, and another judge called the [Recorder](/wiki/Recorder_%28judge%29 "Recorder (judge)"). Problems occurred with the first Recorder, Sir [John Thomas Claridge](/wiki/John_Thomas_Claridge "John Thomas Claridge"). He complained that the Governor and Resident Councillors had refused to take any judicial business, and so responded by also refusing to take on the full business of the Court. He also bemoaned the lack of a "full, efficient and respectable court establishment of clerks, interpreters. etc." Although expected to travel from his base at Prince of Wales' Island to Singapore and Malacca, due to disputes over travelling expenses and arrangements, Claridge refused to do so. Thus, on 22 May 1828 the Governor [Robert Fullerton](/wiki/Robert_Fullerton "Robert Fullerton"), together with the Resident Councillor [Kenneth Murchison](/wiki/Kenneth_Murchison%2C_Resident_Counsellor_of_Singapore "Kenneth Murchison, Resident Counsellor of Singapore"), were obliged to hold the first [assizes](/wiki/Assizes "Assizes") in Singapore by themselves. Claridge was eventually recalled to the UK in 1829\.Chionh, pp. 99–100\.
[thumb\|250px\|left\|The title page of the Second Charter of Justice of 27 November 1826, from the edition published in London by J. L. Cox in February 1827\. This copy of the Charter was originally owned by the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements, and a photocopy of it is presently in the collection of the Library of the Supreme Court of Singapore.](/wiki/File:18261127-SecondCharterofJustice-titlepg.jpg "18261127-SecondCharterofJustice-titlepg.jpg")
The Charter conferred no legislative power on the Governor and Council of Prince of Wales' Island or, indeed, on any other individual or institution.Bartholomew, p. xxxiii. The general power to make laws was vested with the Supreme Government of India and the British Parliament.Tan, p. 11\. By the East India Company Act 1813 (also known as the [Charter Act 1813](/wiki/Charter_Act_1813 "Charter Act 1813")) ([53 Geo. 3](/wiki/53_Geo._3 "53 Geo. 3"). c. 155 (UK)), Prince of Wales' Island itself had been conferred an extremely limited power to issue regulations relating to duties and taxes it was empowered to levy; pursuant to this power, it issued nine regulations that applied to the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xxxiv. However, on 20 June 1830 the East India Company reduced the status of Prince of Wales' Island from a Presidency to a Residency.Bartholomew, p. xxxv. The island thus lost power to legislate for the Straits Settlements, which power was assumed by the [Governor General of Bengal](/wiki/Governor_General_of_India "Governor General of India"). He issued four such regulations applicable to the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xxxvii.
Upon the downgrading of the Straits Settlements, the offices of Governor and Resident Councillors were abolished. This led Governor Fullerton to conclude that neither he nor the Resident Councillors were empowered any longer to administer justice under the Second Charter. In late 1830, Fullerton closed the courts and dismissed the judicial establishment before leaving for England. This led to legal chaos. Members of the mercantile community were in an uproar as they felt the ensuing confusion and inconvenience of having no local courts would disrupt commercial activity. In Singapore the Deputy Resident Murchison felt compelled to convene a court. However, the Acting Registrar James LochIt is not known whether this is the same person as the [James Loch](/wiki/James_Loch "James Loch") (1780–1855\), a Scottish estate commissioner and a Member of Parliament. took the view that the court was illegal, and it was soon closed again. In September 1831 merchants of the Straits Settlements appealed to the British Parliament. By then, the East India Company had already decided that Fullerton had been mistaken. It decided to restore the titles of Governor and Resident Councillor so that these officers could continue to administer justice pursuant to the Charter. On 9 June 1832 the Court of Judicature reopened at Prince of Wales' Island, and disposed of many outstanding cases that had amassed during the two years when the courts were closed.Chionh, pp. 100–101\.
In 1833, the [Government of India Act 1833](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1833 "Government of India Act 1833") (also known as the Charter Act 1833\) ([3 \& 4 Will. 4](/wiki/3_%26_4_Will._4 "3 & 4 Will. 4"). c. 85]] (UK)). was passed by the British Parliament for the better government of the East India Company's possessions. Sole legislative power was transferred to the [Governor General of India in Council](/wiki/Governor_General_of_India%23Council "Governor General of India#Council"), thus inaugurating the period of Straits Settlements history known as the period of the "Indian Acts".Bartholomew, p. xxxix.
The Court of Judicature was reorganised by the [Third Charter of Justice](/wiki/Third_Charter_of_Justice "Third Charter of Justice") of 12 August 1855\. The Straits Settlements now had two Recorders, one for Prince of Wales' Island, the other for Singapore and Malacca.Chionh, p. 103\.
In 1858 the East India Company was abolished, and territories formerly administered by the Company were transferred to the Crown acting through the recently appointed [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India "Secretary of State for India"). This was effected by the Government of India Act 1858 ([21 \& 22 Vict.](/wiki/21_%26_22_Vict. "21 & 22 Vict.") c. 106 (UK)). There was no change to the structure of the legal system – the Governor General of India continued to legislate for the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xlvi.
Unfortunately, many Acts passed by the Governor General during this period were not relevant to the Straits Settlements, and it was difficult to determine which were applicable. The situation was remedied by the passing of the Statute Law Revision Ordinance 1889 (No. 8 of 1889\) (Ind.), which appointed commissioners to inquire into the matter and empowered them to publish a volume containing the text of any Indian Acts considered in force. Any Acts not included ceased to be applicable forthwith.Bartholomew, p. xl.
### 1867–1942: The Straits Settlements as a Crown colony
On 1 April 1867, the [Straits Settlements](/wiki/Straits_Settlements "Straits Settlements") were detached from India and constituted as a separate [Crown colony](/wiki/British_overseas_territories "British overseas territories") by way of the [Straits Settlements Act 1866](/wiki/Straits_Settlements_Act_1866 "Straits Settlements Act 1866") ([29 \& 30 Vict.](/wiki/29_%26_30_Vict. "29 & 30 Vict.") c. 115 (UK)).Bartholomew, p. xlvi. A separate [Legislative Council](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_the_Straits_Settlements "Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements") with the authority to make laws was set up for the Straits Settlements. Pieces of legislation passed by the Legislative Council were known as "ordinances".Bartholomew, p. xlvii.
By the Supreme Court Ordinance 1868 (S.S.),Ordinance No. 5 of 1868 (S.S.). the Court of Judicature of the Straits Settlements was abolished, and in its place the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements was established. The GovernorBy the Judicial Duties Act (No. 3 of 1867\) (S.S.). and Resident CouncillorsBy the Supreme Court Ordinance 1868 (No. 5 of 1868\) (S.S.). ceased to be judges of the Court.
In 1873, the Supreme Court was reconstituted to consist of the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice "Chief Justice") and the Judge at Penang as well as a Senior and a Junior [Puisne Judge](/wiki/Puisne_Judge "Puisne Judge"). There were two divisions of the court, one at Singapore and Malacca and the other at Penang. As Singapore had become the Straits Settlements' centre of government and trade, the Chief Justice and Senior Puisne Judge were required to reside in Singapore, while the Judge of Penang and the Junior Puisne Judge resided in Penang. The Supreme Court was also conferred with jurisdiction to sit as a [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeals "Court of Appeals") in [civil matters](/wiki/Civil_law_%28common_law%29 "Civil law (common law)"). Following changes in the court structure in England, in 1878 the jurisdiction and residence of judges was made more flexible, thus impliedly abolishing the geographical division of the Supreme Court.Tan, p. 18\. The first hierarchy of courts was also established, consisting of the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements, Courts of Request, Courts of Two Magistrates, Magistrates' Courts, Coroners' Courts and Justices of the Peace. Appeals from decisions of the Supreme Court lay in the first instance to the Court of Appeal, and then to Her Majesty in Council, the latter appeals being heard by the [Judicial Committee of Her Britannic Majesty's Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council").The 1878 reforms were effected by the Courts Ordinance 1878 (No. 3 of 1878\) (S.S.).
Also in 1878, a provision later known as section 5 of the Civil Law Act{{Singapore legislation\|title\=Civil Law Act\|cap\=43\|ed\=1985\|lk\=off}}. was introduced into Straits Settlements law.By the Civil Law Ordinance 1878 (No. 4 of 1878\) (S.S.). The provision stated that if a question or issue arose locally with respect to certain named categories of law or with respect to [mercantile law](/wiki/Law_merchant "Law merchant") generally, the law to be administered was to be the same as that administered in England at the corresponding period, unless other provision had been made by any law having force locally. It was felt the provision was needed because the Straits Settlements Supreme Court had a tendency to follow English case law premised on the existence of statutes that were not in force in the Colony. There was also a general sentiment that the common law should be common to the whole Empire.{{citation\|author\=Walter Woon\|chapter\=The Continuing Reception of English Commercial Law\|editor\=Walter Woon\|title\=The Singapore Legal System\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Longman\|year\=1989\|isbn\=978\-9971\-89\-993\-6\|page\=139 at 139–141}}. However, the manner in which section 5 was worded created much difficulty in determining whether particular English statutes applied locally.See, generally, Woon, pp. 142–153; and Phang, pp. 27–35\. Despite major amendments to the provision in 1979,By the Civil Law (Amendment No. 2\) Act 1979 (No. 24 of 1979\). the problems with it were not resolved until it was finally repealed in 1993 ([see below](/wiki/%231965_to_the_present:Singapore_as_a_fully_independent_nation "Singapore as a fully independent nation")).
Under the Courts Ordinance Amendment 1885 (S.S.),Ordinance No. 15 of 1885 (S.S.) the set\-up of the Supreme Court was again altered so that it now consisted of the Chief Justice and three puisne judges.Chionh, pp. 104–106\. In 1907 the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court was given a major overhaul.By the Courts Ordinance 1907 (No. 30 of 1907\) (S.S.). The Court was split into two divisions – a Civil Division and a Criminal Division, each with both [original](/wiki/Original_jurisdiction "Original jurisdiction") and [appellate jurisdiction](/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction "Appellate jurisdiction"). District Courts and Police Courts, which replaced the Magistrates' Courts, were also established. The Court of Requests, the jurisdiction of which had been drastically reduced in the intervening years, was abolished.Chionh, pp. 106–107\. The last major changes in the court system before World War II took place in 1934 when a Court of Criminal Appeal, essentially an extension of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction, was created,By way of the Court of Criminal Appeal Ordinance 1931 (No. 5 of 1931\) (S.S.): Tan, p. 19\. and in 1936 when it was declared that the Supreme Court would consist of a High Court and Court of Appeal.By the Courts Ordinance (Cap. 10, 1936 Rev. Ed.) (S.S.).
### 1942–1946: Singapore under Japanese and British Military Administration
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Gen. [Tomoyuki Yamashita](/wiki/Tomoyuki_Yamashita "Tomoyuki Yamashita") *(seated, left of centre)* of the [Japanese Imperial Army](/wiki/Japanese_Imperial_Army "Japanese Imperial Army") thumps the table with his fist to emphasise his terms – unconditional surrender of Singapore. Lt.\-Gen. [Arthur Percival](/wiki/Arthur_Ernest_Percival "Arthur Ernest Percival"), General Officer Commanding (Malaya) of the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") *(right, back to camera)* sits between his officers, his clenched hand to his mouth.](/wiki/File:BritishSurrender.jpg "BritishSurrender.jpg")
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Singapore fell under Japanese Military Administration on 15 February 1942\. There is much confusion as to where legislative authority lay, as there were several government or military bodies which had the power to make laws. These were, in order of descending authority, the Supreme Command of the Southern Army Headquarters, the 25th Army Headquarters, the Military Administration Department, the Malay (Malayan) Military Administration Headquarters, and the City Government of Tokubetu\-si. Numerous regulations, laws and notices were issued by all these bodies through the Tokubetu\-si without adhering to the normal chain of command. Although these laws were often contradictory, the body higher in the hierarchy always prevailed.
When the [Japanese occupation of Singapore](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore "Japanese occupation of Singapore") began, all existing courts ceased to function. By a decree of 7 April 1942, a Military Court of Justice of the Nippon Army was established, and the civil courts were reopened by a proclamation dated 27 May. This Proclamation made all former British laws applicable so long as they did not interfere with the Military Administration. The highest court was the Syonan Koto\-Hoin (Syonan Supreme Court) which was opened on 29 May. Although a court of appeal was constituted, it never sat.Tan, p. 20\.
There is some disagreement as to the status of judgments handed down by courts during the Japanese Occupation. The view has been taken by some post\-Occupation courts that decisions by Japanese tribunals applying the law were valid. Others have held that since the Japanese administration did not set up tribunals in compliance with the requirements of Straits Settlements law, while the law continued to apply there were no proper courts in existence to enforce it.Bartholomew, pp. lxviii–lxix.
The Japanese surrendered on 12 September 1945\. By Proclamation No. 1 (1945\), the [Supreme Allied Commander](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander "Supreme Allied Commander") [South East Asia](/wiki/South_East_Asia_Command "South East Asia Command") established the [British Military Administration](/wiki/British_Military_Administration_%28Malaya%29 "British Military Administration (Malaya)") which assumed full judicial, legislative, executive and administrative powers and responsibilities and conclusive jurisdiction over all persons and property throughout such areas of Malaya as were at any given time under the control of forces under his command.Bartholomew, p. lxix. The proclamation also declared that all laws and customs existing immediately prior to the Japanese Occupation would be respected, except that such of the existing law as the Chief Civil Affairs Officer considered practicable to administer during the period of military administration. Otherwise, all proclamations and legislative enactments of whatever kind issued by or under the authority of the Japanese Military Administration ceased to have effect.Bartholomew, p. lxx.
By Proclamation No. 23 (1945\), the Deputy Chief Civil Affairs Officer for the Singapore Division provided that every conviction of any offence by a tribunal established by the Japanese Military Administration was quashed, and any judgment convicting or purporting to convict any person or any offence was set aside. Civil proceedings were dealt with by the Japanese Judgements and Civil Proceedings Ordinance 1946 (No. 3 of 1946\), which had the effect of permitting post\-Occupation courts to review the decrees of Japanese tribunals and to confirm, modify or reverse them.Bartholomew, p. lxxi.
### 1946–1963: The end of the Straits Settlements: Singapore as a separate colony and self\-governing state
The British Military Administration was terminated by Proclamation No. 77 (1946\) dated 18 March 1946, and with effect from 1 April, the Straits Settlements were disbanded by the [Straits Settlements (Repeal) Act 1946](/wiki/Straits_Settlements_%28Repeal%29_Act_1946 "Straits Settlements (Repeal) Act 1946") ([9 \& 10 Geo. 6](/wiki/9_%26_10_Geo._6 "9 & 10 Geo. 6") c. 37 (UK)). By the Singapore Colony Order in Council 1946,S.R. \& O. 1946 No. 464 (UK) Singapore was constituted as a new colony under the [British Settlements Acts 1887](/wiki/British_Settlements_Acts_1887 "British Settlements Acts 1887") ([50 \& 51 Vict.](/wiki/50_%26_51_Vict. "50 & 51 Vict.") c. 54 (UK)). A Singapore Legislative Council was created with power to legislate for the peace, order and good government of the Colony.Bartholomew, pp. lxxxi–lxxxii. The High Court and Court of Appeal of the Straits Settlements became the Colony of Singapore High Court and Court of Appeal.
In 1958 Singapore was granted internal self\-government and became the State of Singapore. This change was put into place by the Singapore (Constitution) Order in Council 1958[S.I. 1958 No. 1946](/wiki/List_of_Statutory_Instruments_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_1958 "List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom, 1958") (UK). made under powers conferred by the [State of Singapore Act 1958](/wiki/State_of_Singapore_Act_1958 "State of Singapore Act 1958") ([6 \& 7 Eliz. 2](/wiki/6_%26_7_Eliz._2 "6 & 7 Eliz. 2"). c. 59 (UK)).Bartholomew, p. lxxiv. The Legislative Council was transformed into a Legislative Assembly consisting mainly of elected members.
During this period, the basic structure of the courts remained much as it had been in the pre\-war colonial era, with only minor changes being made such as the redesignation of the Police Courts as Magistrates' Courts in 1955\.By way of the Courts Ordinance 1955 (No. 14 of 1955, later Cap. 3, 1955 Rev. Ed.): Chionh, p. 113\.
### 1963–1965: Independence from the British Empire and merger with Malaysia
Singapore joined the [Federation of Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") on 16 September 1963, and thus ceased to be a colony of the British empire. The legal arrangements were effected by the enactment of the [Malaysia Act 1963](/wiki/Malaysia_Act_1963 "Malaysia Act 1963") ([c. 35](/wiki/List_of_Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_from_1963 "List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1963") (UK)). the Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore (State Constitutions) Order in Council 1963[S.I. 1963 No. 1493](/wiki/List_of_Statutory_Instruments_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_1963 "List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom, 1963") (UK). and the Malaysia Act 1963 (Malaysia).No. 26 of 1963 (M'sia): Bartholomew, p. lxxvi. The 1963 Order in Council provided that all laws in force in Singapore continued to apply subject to modifications, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions that might be necessary to bring them into conformity with its new Constitution and the Malaysia Act.Bartholomew, p. lxxvii. With Singapore now a state in a larger federation, the Singapore Legislative Assembly was transformed into the Legislature of Singapore with power to make laws only regarding certain matters set out in the [Malaysian Federal Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Malaysia "Constitution of Malaysia"). Article 75 of the Federal Constitution also stated: "If any state law is inconsistent with a federal law, the federal law shall prevail and the state law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void."
During this period, a substantial number of Malaysian laws, including [Federated Malay States](/wiki/Federated_Malay_States "Federated Malay States") Enactments and [Malayan Union](/wiki/Malayan_Union "Malayan Union") and [Federation of Malaya](/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya "Federation of Malaya") Ordinances, were extended to Singapore. Some of these statutes continue to apply, often in modified form, in Singapore today.Bartholomew, p. lxxix.
Under the Malaysia Act 1963, the judicial power of Malaysia was vested in a [Federal Court](/wiki/Courts_of_Malaysia%23Federal_Court "Courts of Malaysia#Federal Court"), a [High Court](/wiki/Courts_of_Malaysia%23High_courts "Courts of Malaysia#High courts") in Malaya, a High Court in Borneo and a High Court in Singapore. This new structure was officialised with effect from 16 March 1964 through the Courts of Judicature Act 1964 (M'sia),No. 7 of 1964 (M'sia), reprinted as Act No. 6 of 1966 in the *Singapore Reprints Supplement (Acts)*. which replaced the Supreme Court of the Colony of Singapore with the High Court of Malaysia in Singapore.Tan, p. 30\. The jurisdiction of the High Court in Singapore was limited to all territory in the State of Singapore.Chionh, p. 113\.
### 1965 to the present: Singapore as a fully independent nation
[thumb\|left\|[Parliament House, Singapore](/wiki/Parliament_House%2C_Singapore "Parliament House, Singapore"), which was officially opened on 4 October 1999](/wiki/File:Parliament_House_Singapore.jpg "Parliament House Singapore.jpg")
Merger with Malaysia did not last: within two years, on 9 August 1965, Singapore was expelled from the Federation and became a fully independent [republic](/wiki/Republic "Republic"). This was effected by the signing of the Independence of Singapore Agreement of 7 August 1965 by Singapore and Malaysia, and the changes consequent to the Agreement were implemented by two Malaysian Acts, the Constitution and Malaysia (Singapore Amendment) Act 1965No. 31 of 1965 (M'sia). and the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1966;No. 59 of 1966 (M'sia). and by two Singapore Acts, the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1965No. 8 of 1965 (S'pore). and the Republic of Singapore Independence Act 1965\.No. 9 of 1965 (S'pore). Section 5 of the latter Act provided that the legislative powers of the [Yang di\-Pertuan Agong](/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong "Yang di-Pertuan Agong"), the supreme ruler of Malaysia, ceased to extend to Singapore, and vested instead in the Head of State (that is, the [President of Singapore](/wiki/President_of_Singapore "President of Singapore")) and the Legislature of Singapore. Again, all laws were expressed to continue in force with such modifications, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions as might be necessary to bring them into conformity with the independent status of Singapore upon separation from Malaysia.Bartholomew, pp. lxxix–lxxx. Today, the [Parliament of Singapore](/wiki/Parliament_of_Singapore "Parliament of Singapore") is an organ of state with [plenary power](/wiki/Plenary_power "Plenary power") to enact legislation for Singapore.
At the time of independence, the Singapore Parliament did not make any changes to the judicial system. Thus, for an anomalous four\-year period, the High Court in Singapore remained part of the Malaysian court structure. This was remedied in 1969, when the Constitution was amended to establish the [Supreme Court of Singapore](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Singapore "Supreme Court of Singapore") replacing the Federal Court of Malaysia with respect to Singapore, while retaining the [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council") in London as Singapore's court of final appeal.By the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1969 (No. 19 of 1969\): Tan, pp. 30 and 32\. The Supreme Court was divided into two divisions: the upper division consisted of the Court of Appeal and the Court of Criminal Appeal, which respectively dealt with civil and criminal matters; the lower division being the [High Court of Singapore](/wiki/High_Court_of_Singapore "High Court of Singapore").Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1969 (No. 24 of 1969\), now {{Singapore legislation\|cap\=322\|ed\=1999}}.
[thumb\|The [Supreme Court Building](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Singapore "Supreme Court of Singapore"), designed by Foster \& Partners, which commenced operations on 20 June 2005, as it appeared in August 2006](/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_Building%2C_Aug_06.JPG "Supreme Court Building, Aug 06.JPG")
In 1970 the subordinate courts were re\-organised.By the Subordinate Courts Act 1970 (No. 19 of 1970\), now {{Singapore legislation\|cap\=321\|ed\=1999}}. Since that time, the Subordinate Courts of Singapore have consisted of the District Courts, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Courts and the Coroners' Courts.Chionh, pp. 114–115\. The Subordinate Courts were renamed the [State Courts of Singapore](/wiki/State_Courts_of_Singapore "State Courts of Singapore") on 7 March 2014\.
Steps to restrict appeals to the Privy Council were first taken in 1989\. In that year, the law was changedBy the Judicial Committee (Amendment) Act 1989 (No. 21 of 1989\). such that appeals to the Privy Council would only be permitted in a civil case if all the parties agreed to such an appeal prior to the hearing of the case by the Court of Appeal. In criminal cases, an appeal to the Privy Council could only be taken if the death penalty was involved and if the judges of the Court of Criminal Appeal were not unanimous in their decision. These changes came shortly after the Privy Council restored a prominent opposition Member of Parliament, [Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam](/wiki/Joshua_Benjamin_Jeyaretnam "Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam"), to the roll of advocates and solicitors of the Supreme Court of Singapore after he had been struck off for a criminal conviction for making false statements in a [statutory declaration](/wiki/Statutory_declaration "Statutory declaration"); the court described the conviction as "a grievous injustice".*Jeyaretnam v. Law Society of Singapore* \[1988] 2 S.L.R.(R.) \[*Singapore Law Reports (Reissue)*] 470 at 489, para. 59, [\[1988] UKPC 25](http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/1988/1988_25.html), \[1989] A.C. 608 at 631, Privy Council (on appeal from Singapore); see also {{citation\|author\=Geoffrey Robertson\|author\-link\=Geoffrey Robertson\|title\=Joshua Jeyaretnam: Lawyer and activist, he was for many years the only political opposition to Singapore's rulers \[obituary]\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/07/2\|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|location\=London\|date\=7 October 2008}}. In 1993, the previous set\-up of a separate Court of Appeal and Court of Criminal Appeal was done away with, and in their place a unified Court of Appeal was constituted for both civil and criminal appeals.By the Supreme Court of Judicature (Amendment) Act 1993 (No. 16 of 1993\). Judges of Appeal appointed to the Court of Appeal were no longer required to engage in High Court work. The Chief Justice sat as the President of the Court of Appeal. The establishment of the permanent Court of Appeal paved the way for the abolition of all appeals to the Privy Council with effect from 8 April 1994\.The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (Amendment) Act 1994 (No. 5 of 1994\) repealed Art. 100 of the Constitution, which had provided that the President could make arrangements with Her Majesty for reference to the Privy Council of appeals from the Supreme Court. The Judicial Committee Act 1966 (No. 37 of 1966, later {{Singapore legislation\|cap\=148\|ed\=1985}}, which regulated the procedure for such appeals, was repealed by the Judicial Committee (Repeal) Act 1994 (No. 2 of 1994\). Following this, the Court of Appeal issued a Practice Statement dated 11 July 1994, stating that while the Court would treat its own prior decisions and those of the Privy Council as normally binding, where it appeared that adherence to such decisions "would cause injustice in a particular case or constrain the development of the law in conformity with the circumstances of Singapore" it would regard itself as free to depart from such decisions. It added that this power would be exercised sparingly, bearing in mind the danger of retrospectively disturbing contractual, proprietary and other legal rights.Chionh, pp. 116–117\. Today, the [Court of Appeal of Singapore](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_Singapore "Court of Appeal of Singapore") is the highest court in the land.
The independent status of Singapore's legal system was underlined by the repeal of section 5 of the Civil Law Act ([see above](/wiki/%231867%E2%80%931942:The_Straits_Settlements_as_a_Crown_colony "The Straits Settlements as a Crown colony")) on 12 November 1993 by the Application of English Law Act 1993\.No. 35 of 1993, now {{Singapore legislation\|cap\=7A\|ed\=1994}}. The Act aims to clarify the extent of the application of English law in Singapore. It states that the common law of England (including the principles and rules of equity), so far as it was part of the law of Singapore immediately before the commencement of the Act, continues to be part of Singapore law so far as it is applicable to the circumstances of Singapore and its inhabitants and subject to such modifications as those circumstances may require.Application of English Law Act, s. 3\. As for English statutes, only those that are listed in the Schedules to the Act apply or continue to apply in Singapore; no other English enactment is part of Singapore law.Application of English Law Act, ss. 4 and 5\. See, generally, Phang, pp. 37–49\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Before 1826",
"[thumb\\|left\\|150px\\|Sir [Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles \"Stamford Raffles\") (6 July 1781 – 5 July 1826\\)](/wiki/File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg \"StamfordRaffles.jpeg\")",
"Modern Singapore was founded on 6 February 1819 by Sir [Stamford Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles \"Stamford Raffles\"), an officer of the [British East India Company](/wiki/British_East_India_Company \"British East India Company\") and [Lieutenant\\-Governor](/wiki/Bencoolen_Presidency \"Bencoolen Presidency\") of [Bencoolen](/wiki/Bengkulu \"Bengkulu\"), in an attempt to counter Dutch domination of trade in the East. Permission for the East India Company to set up a \"factory\" on the island was obtained from the [Sultan of Johor](/wiki/Sultan_of_Johor \"Sultan of Johor\") and [Temenggung](/wiki/Temenggung \"Temenggung\") of Johor on that date under the terms of the [Treaty of Singapore](/wiki/1819_Singapore_Treaty \"1819 Singapore Treaty\"), and outright [cession](/wiki/Cession \"Cession\") of Singapore took place in 1824\\. It has been suggested that prior to British acquisition of the island, the [Malay](/wiki/Malay_people \"Malay people\") chief in charge of Singapore was the Temenggung of Johor. The [Johor Sultanate](/wiki/Johor_Sultanate \"Johor Sultanate\") was the successor of the [Malacca Sultanate](/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate \"Malacca Sultanate\"), both of which had their own codes of law. It is also possible that [adat law](/wiki/Adat \"Adat\"), often inadequately translated as \"customary law\", governed the inhabitants of the island prior to its acquisition by the British. However, little, if anything, is known about the laws that were actually applicable. The British have always assumed that no law prevailed on the island of Singapore when it was acquired.",
"In 1823 Raffles promulgated \"Regulations\" for the administration of the island. Regulation III of 20 January 1823 established a [magistracy](/wiki/Magistrate \"Magistrate\") which had jurisdiction over \"all descriptions of persons resorting under the British flag\". The magistrates were enjoined to \"follow the course of the British magistracy, as far as local circumstances permit, avoiding technicalities and unnecessary forms as much as possible, and executing the duties of their office with temper and discretion, according to the best of their judgement and conscience and the principles of substantial justice\". Raffles' Regulations were most likely illegal as he was acting beyond the scope of his legal powers in making them – although he had power to place the factory at Singapore under the jurisdiction of Bencoolen, he was not vested with power to place the entire island under Bencoolen's control. In this respect, he had treated Singapore as if the entire island had been ceded to the British when the Treaty with the Sultan and the Temenggung had only permitted the establishment of a trading factory.{{citation\\|author\\=Kevin Y\\[ew] L\\[ee] Tan\\|chapter\\=A Short Legal and Constitutional History of Singapore\\|editor\\=Walter Woon\\|editor\\-link\\=Walter Woon\\|title\\=The Singapore Legal System\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Longman\\|year\\=1989\\|isbn\\=978\\-9971\\-89\\-993\\-6\\|page\\=3 at 8}}.",
"The same year, Raffles appointed [John Crawfurd](/wiki/John_Crawfurd \"John Crawfurd\") as [Resident](/wiki/Resident_%28title%29%23Residents_in_%28British%29_Asia \"Resident (title)#Residents in (British) Asia\") of Singapore. Crawfurd doubted the legitimacy of the judicial system set up by Raffles, and annulled proceedings in which magistrates had ordered the flogging of gamblers and the seizure of their properties. He eventually abolished the magistracy, replacing it with a [Court of Requests](/wiki/Court_of_Requests \"Court of Requests\") overseen by an Assistant Resident which dealt with minor civil cases, and a Resident's Court hearing all other cases which he himself presided over. Crawfurd had no authoritative guide to the applicable law, so he decided cases on \"general principles of English law\", taking into account so far as he could the \"character and manners of the different classes\" of local inhabitants.{{citation\\|author\\=L.A. Mills\\|title\\=British Malaya 1824–1867\\|journal\\=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society\\|year\\=1960\\|volume\\=XXXIII\\|issue\\=3}}, cited in {{citation\\|author\\=Mavis Chionh\\|chapter\\=The Development of the Court System\\|editor\\=Kevin Y\\[ew] L\\[ee] Tan\\|title\\=Essays in Singapore Legal History\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Singapore Academy of Law]]; Marshall Cavendish Academic\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=978\\-981\\-210\\-389\\-5\\|page\\=93 at 99}}. Unfortunately, Crawfurd's courts also lacked legal foundation, and he had no legal powers over Europeans in Singapore. Serious cases involving British subjects had to be referred to Calcutta; otherwise, all he could do was to banish them from the island.Chionh, pp. 97–98\\.",
"Despite the dubious legal status of the courts established in Singapore by Raffles and Crawfurd, they indicate that the *de facto* position was that between 1819 and 1826 English legal principles applied to Singapore.{{citation\\|author\\=Walter Woon\\|chapter\\=The Applicability of English Law in Singapore\\|editor\\=Walter Woon\\|title\\=The Singapore Legal System\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Longman\\|year\\=1989\\|isbn\\=978\\-9971\\-89\\-993\\-6\\|page\\=107 at 112–113}}.",
"On 24 June 1824 Singapore and Malacca were formally transferred to the East India Company's administration by the [Transfer of Singapore to East India Company, etc. Act 1824](/wiki/Transfer_of_Singapore_to_East_India_Company%2C_etc._Act_1824 \"Transfer of Singapore to East India Company, etc. Act 1824\") ([5 Geo. 4](/wiki/5_Geo._4 \"5 Geo. 4\"). c. 108 (UK)). By virtue of the [Fort Marlborough in India Act 1802](/wiki/Fort_Marlborough_in_India_Act_1802 \"Fort Marlborough in India Act 1802\") ([42 Geo. 3](/wiki/42_Geo._3 \"42 Geo. 3\"). c. 29 (UK)). both territories, together with others in the region ceded to Britain by the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), became subordinate to the [Presidency](/wiki/Bengal_Presidency \"Bengal Presidency\") of [Fort William](/wiki/Fort_William%2C_India \"Fort William, India\") in [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal \"Bengal\"), and under the [Government of India Act 1800](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1800 \"Government of India Act 1800\")39 \\& 40 Geo. 3 c. 79 (UK) these territories became subject to the [jurisdiction](/wiki/Jurisdiction \"Jurisdiction\") of the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_court \"Supreme court\") of Fort William.",
"The [Indian Salaries and Pensions Act 1825](/wiki/Indian_Salaries_and_Pensions_Act_1825 \"Indian Salaries and Pensions Act 1825\")6 Geo. 4 c. 85 (UK). authorised the East India Company to place Singapore and Malacca under the administration of Prince of Wales' Island (now [Penang](/wiki/Penang \"Penang\")). The Company did so, thus creating the [Straits Settlements](/wiki/Straits_Settlements \"Straits Settlements\").{{citation \\|first1\\=Geoffrey Wilson \\|last1\\=Bartholomew\\|first2\\=Elizabeth \\|last2\\=Srinivasagam\\|first3\\=Pascal Baylon \\|last3\\=Netto\\|title\\=Sesquicentennial Chronological Tables of the Written Laws of the Republic of Singapore 1834\\-1984\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Malaya Law Review, Malayan Law Journal\\|year\\=1987\\|isbn\\=978\\-9971\\-70\\-053\\-9\\|page\\=xxvii}}.",
"### 1826–1867: The \"Indian period\"",
"[thumb\\|The [East India House](/wiki/East_India_House \"East India House\"), the headquarters of the East India Company, in Leadenhall Street, London, as seen {{circa}} 1817; it was demolished in 1869\\.](/wiki/File:East_India_House_THS_1817_edited.jpg \"East India House THS 1817 edited.jpg\")",
"The statute 6 Geo. 4 c. 85 empowered the [British Crown](/wiki/The_Crown%23United_Kingdom \"The Crown#United Kingdom\") to issue [letters patent](/wiki/Letters_patent \"Letters patent\") providing for the administration of justice in the Straits Settlements. The East India Company petitioned the Crown for the grant of such letters patent establishing \"such Courts and Judicatures for the due administration of Justice and the security of the persons rights and property of the Inhabitants and the Public Revenue of and the Trial and Punishment of Capital and other Offences committed and the repression of vice within the said Settlement of Prince of Wales’ Island Singapore and Malacca…\"",
"Granting the petition, the Crown issued the [Second Charter of Justice](/wiki/Second_Charter_of_Justice \"Second Charter of Justice\") on 27 November 1826\\.The First Charter of Justice of 1807 applied only to Prince of Wales' Island (Penang). The Charter established the Court of Judicature of Prince of Wales' Island, Singapore and Malacca, which was conferred \"full Power and Authority… to give and pass Judgement and Sentence according to Justice and Right\". This key clause was later judicially interpreted to have introduced English law into the Straits Settlements. The present understanding of this clause is that it made all English statutes and principles of English [common law](/wiki/Common_law \"Common law\") and equity in force as at 27 November 1826 applicable in the Straits Settlements (including Singapore), unless they were both unsuitable to local conditions and could not be modified to avoid causing injustice or oppression.{{citation\\|author\\=Andrew Phang Boon Leong\\|author\\-link\\=Andrew Phang\\|title\\=From Foundation to Legacy: The Second Charter of Justice\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Singapore Academy of Law\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-981\\-05\\-7194\\-8\\|pages\\=19–23}}.",
"The Charter provided that the Court of Judicature was to be presided over by the [Governor](/wiki/Governor%23British_Empire_and_Commonwealth \"Governor#British Empire and Commonwealth\") of the Straits Settlements and [Resident Councillor](/wiki/Resident_Councillor \"Resident Councillor\") of the settlement where the court was to be held, and another judge called the [Recorder](/wiki/Recorder_%28judge%29 \"Recorder (judge)\"). Problems occurred with the first Recorder, Sir [John Thomas Claridge](/wiki/John_Thomas_Claridge \"John Thomas Claridge\"). He complained that the Governor and Resident Councillors had refused to take any judicial business, and so responded by also refusing to take on the full business of the Court. He also bemoaned the lack of a \"full, efficient and respectable court establishment of clerks, interpreters. etc.\" Although expected to travel from his base at Prince of Wales' Island to Singapore and Malacca, due to disputes over travelling expenses and arrangements, Claridge refused to do so. Thus, on 22 May 1828 the Governor [Robert Fullerton](/wiki/Robert_Fullerton \"Robert Fullerton\"), together with the Resident Councillor [Kenneth Murchison](/wiki/Kenneth_Murchison%2C_Resident_Counsellor_of_Singapore \"Kenneth Murchison, Resident Counsellor of Singapore\"), were obliged to hold the first [assizes](/wiki/Assizes \"Assizes\") in Singapore by themselves. Claridge was eventually recalled to the UK in 1829\\.Chionh, pp. 99–100\\.",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|left\\|The title page of the Second Charter of Justice of 27 November 1826, from the edition published in London by J. L. Cox in February 1827\\. This copy of the Charter was originally owned by the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements, and a photocopy of it is presently in the collection of the Library of the Supreme Court of Singapore.](/wiki/File:18261127-SecondCharterofJustice-titlepg.jpg \"18261127-SecondCharterofJustice-titlepg.jpg\")",
"The Charter conferred no legislative power on the Governor and Council of Prince of Wales' Island or, indeed, on any other individual or institution.Bartholomew, p. xxxiii. The general power to make laws was vested with the Supreme Government of India and the British Parliament.Tan, p. 11\\. By the East India Company Act 1813 (also known as the [Charter Act 1813](/wiki/Charter_Act_1813 \"Charter Act 1813\")) ([53 Geo. 3](/wiki/53_Geo._3 \"53 Geo. 3\"). c. 155 (UK)), Prince of Wales' Island itself had been conferred an extremely limited power to issue regulations relating to duties and taxes it was empowered to levy; pursuant to this power, it issued nine regulations that applied to the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xxxiv. However, on 20 June 1830 the East India Company reduced the status of Prince of Wales' Island from a Presidency to a Residency.Bartholomew, p. xxxv. The island thus lost power to legislate for the Straits Settlements, which power was assumed by the [Governor General of Bengal](/wiki/Governor_General_of_India \"Governor General of India\"). He issued four such regulations applicable to the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xxxvii.",
"Upon the downgrading of the Straits Settlements, the offices of Governor and Resident Councillors were abolished. This led Governor Fullerton to conclude that neither he nor the Resident Councillors were empowered any longer to administer justice under the Second Charter. In late 1830, Fullerton closed the courts and dismissed the judicial establishment before leaving for England. This led to legal chaos. Members of the mercantile community were in an uproar as they felt the ensuing confusion and inconvenience of having no local courts would disrupt commercial activity. In Singapore the Deputy Resident Murchison felt compelled to convene a court. However, the Acting Registrar James LochIt is not known whether this is the same person as the [James Loch](/wiki/James_Loch \"James Loch\") (1780–1855\\), a Scottish estate commissioner and a Member of Parliament. took the view that the court was illegal, and it was soon closed again. In September 1831 merchants of the Straits Settlements appealed to the British Parliament. By then, the East India Company had already decided that Fullerton had been mistaken. It decided to restore the titles of Governor and Resident Councillor so that these officers could continue to administer justice pursuant to the Charter. On 9 June 1832 the Court of Judicature reopened at Prince of Wales' Island, and disposed of many outstanding cases that had amassed during the two years when the courts were closed.Chionh, pp. 100–101\\.",
"In 1833, the [Government of India Act 1833](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1833 \"Government of India Act 1833\") (also known as the Charter Act 1833\\) ([3 \\& 4 Will. 4](/wiki/3_%26_4_Will._4 \"3 & 4 Will. 4\"). c. 85]] (UK)). was passed by the British Parliament for the better government of the East India Company's possessions. Sole legislative power was transferred to the [Governor General of India in Council](/wiki/Governor_General_of_India%23Council \"Governor General of India#Council\"), thus inaugurating the period of Straits Settlements history known as the period of the \"Indian Acts\".Bartholomew, p. xxxix.",
"The Court of Judicature was reorganised by the [Third Charter of Justice](/wiki/Third_Charter_of_Justice \"Third Charter of Justice\") of 12 August 1855\\. The Straits Settlements now had two Recorders, one for Prince of Wales' Island, the other for Singapore and Malacca.Chionh, p. 103\\.",
"In 1858 the East India Company was abolished, and territories formerly administered by the Company were transferred to the Crown acting through the recently appointed [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India \"Secretary of State for India\"). This was effected by the Government of India Act 1858 ([21 \\& 22 Vict.](/wiki/21_%26_22_Vict. \"21 & 22 Vict.\") c. 106 (UK)). There was no change to the structure of the legal system – the Governor General of India continued to legislate for the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xlvi.",
"Unfortunately, many Acts passed by the Governor General during this period were not relevant to the Straits Settlements, and it was difficult to determine which were applicable. The situation was remedied by the passing of the Statute Law Revision Ordinance 1889 (No. 8 of 1889\\) (Ind.), which appointed commissioners to inquire into the matter and empowered them to publish a volume containing the text of any Indian Acts considered in force. Any Acts not included ceased to be applicable forthwith.Bartholomew, p. xl.",
"### 1867–1942: The Straits Settlements as a Crown colony",
"On 1 April 1867, the [Straits Settlements](/wiki/Straits_Settlements \"Straits Settlements\") were detached from India and constituted as a separate [Crown colony](/wiki/British_overseas_territories \"British overseas territories\") by way of the [Straits Settlements Act 1866](/wiki/Straits_Settlements_Act_1866 \"Straits Settlements Act 1866\") ([29 \\& 30 Vict.](/wiki/29_%26_30_Vict. \"29 & 30 Vict.\") c. 115 (UK)).Bartholomew, p. xlvi. A separate [Legislative Council](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_the_Straits_Settlements \"Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements\") with the authority to make laws was set up for the Straits Settlements. Pieces of legislation passed by the Legislative Council were known as \"ordinances\".Bartholomew, p. xlvii.",
"By the Supreme Court Ordinance 1868 (S.S.),Ordinance No. 5 of 1868 (S.S.). the Court of Judicature of the Straits Settlements was abolished, and in its place the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements was established. The GovernorBy the Judicial Duties Act (No. 3 of 1867\\) (S.S.). and Resident CouncillorsBy the Supreme Court Ordinance 1868 (No. 5 of 1868\\) (S.S.). ceased to be judges of the Court.",
"In 1873, the Supreme Court was reconstituted to consist of the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice \"Chief Justice\") and the Judge at Penang as well as a Senior and a Junior [Puisne Judge](/wiki/Puisne_Judge \"Puisne Judge\"). There were two divisions of the court, one at Singapore and Malacca and the other at Penang. As Singapore had become the Straits Settlements' centre of government and trade, the Chief Justice and Senior Puisne Judge were required to reside in Singapore, while the Judge of Penang and the Junior Puisne Judge resided in Penang. The Supreme Court was also conferred with jurisdiction to sit as a [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeals \"Court of Appeals\") in [civil matters](/wiki/Civil_law_%28common_law%29 \"Civil law (common law)\"). Following changes in the court structure in England, in 1878 the jurisdiction and residence of judges was made more flexible, thus impliedly abolishing the geographical division of the Supreme Court.Tan, p. 18\\. The first hierarchy of courts was also established, consisting of the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements, Courts of Request, Courts of Two Magistrates, Magistrates' Courts, Coroners' Courts and Justices of the Peace. Appeals from decisions of the Supreme Court lay in the first instance to the Court of Appeal, and then to Her Majesty in Council, the latter appeals being heard by the [Judicial Committee of Her Britannic Majesty's Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council \"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council\").The 1878 reforms were effected by the Courts Ordinance 1878 (No. 3 of 1878\\) (S.S.).",
"Also in 1878, a provision later known as section 5 of the Civil Law Act{{Singapore legislation\\|title\\=Civil Law Act\\|cap\\=43\\|ed\\=1985\\|lk\\=off}}. was introduced into Straits Settlements law.By the Civil Law Ordinance 1878 (No. 4 of 1878\\) (S.S.). The provision stated that if a question or issue arose locally with respect to certain named categories of law or with respect to [mercantile law](/wiki/Law_merchant \"Law merchant\") generally, the law to be administered was to be the same as that administered in England at the corresponding period, unless other provision had been made by any law having force locally. It was felt the provision was needed because the Straits Settlements Supreme Court had a tendency to follow English case law premised on the existence of statutes that were not in force in the Colony. There was also a general sentiment that the common law should be common to the whole Empire.{{citation\\|author\\=Walter Woon\\|chapter\\=The Continuing Reception of English Commercial Law\\|editor\\=Walter Woon\\|title\\=The Singapore Legal System\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Longman\\|year\\=1989\\|isbn\\=978\\-9971\\-89\\-993\\-6\\|page\\=139 at 139–141}}. However, the manner in which section 5 was worded created much difficulty in determining whether particular English statutes applied locally.See, generally, Woon, pp. 142–153; and Phang, pp. 27–35\\. Despite major amendments to the provision in 1979,By the Civil Law (Amendment No. 2\\) Act 1979 (No. 24 of 1979\\). the problems with it were not resolved until it was finally repealed in 1993 ([see below](/wiki/%231965_to_the_present:Singapore_as_a_fully_independent_nation \"Singapore as a fully independent nation\")).",
"Under the Courts Ordinance Amendment 1885 (S.S.),Ordinance No. 15 of 1885 (S.S.) the set\\-up of the Supreme Court was again altered so that it now consisted of the Chief Justice and three puisne judges.Chionh, pp. 104–106\\. In 1907 the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court was given a major overhaul.By the Courts Ordinance 1907 (No. 30 of 1907\\) (S.S.). The Court was split into two divisions – a Civil Division and a Criminal Division, each with both [original](/wiki/Original_jurisdiction \"Original jurisdiction\") and [appellate jurisdiction](/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction \"Appellate jurisdiction\"). District Courts and Police Courts, which replaced the Magistrates' Courts, were also established. The Court of Requests, the jurisdiction of which had been drastically reduced in the intervening years, was abolished.Chionh, pp. 106–107\\. The last major changes in the court system before World War II took place in 1934 when a Court of Criminal Appeal, essentially an extension of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction, was created,By way of the Court of Criminal Appeal Ordinance 1931 (No. 5 of 1931\\) (S.S.): Tan, p. 19\\. and in 1936 when it was declared that the Supreme Court would consist of a High Court and Court of Appeal.By the Courts Ordinance (Cap. 10, 1936 Rev. Ed.) (S.S.).",
"### 1942–1946: Singapore under Japanese and British Military Administration",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Gen. [Tomoyuki Yamashita](/wiki/Tomoyuki_Yamashita \"Tomoyuki Yamashita\") *(seated, left of centre)* of the [Japanese Imperial Army](/wiki/Japanese_Imperial_Army \"Japanese Imperial Army\") thumps the table with his fist to emphasise his terms – unconditional surrender of Singapore. Lt.\\-Gen. [Arthur Percival](/wiki/Arthur_Ernest_Percival \"Arthur Ernest Percival\"), General Officer Commanding (Malaya) of the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") *(right, back to camera)* sits between his officers, his clenched hand to his mouth.](/wiki/File:BritishSurrender.jpg \"BritishSurrender.jpg\")",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Singapore fell under Japanese Military Administration on 15 February 1942\\. There is much confusion as to where legislative authority lay, as there were several government or military bodies which had the power to make laws. These were, in order of descending authority, the Supreme Command of the Southern Army Headquarters, the 25th Army Headquarters, the Military Administration Department, the Malay (Malayan) Military Administration Headquarters, and the City Government of Tokubetu\\-si. Numerous regulations, laws and notices were issued by all these bodies through the Tokubetu\\-si without adhering to the normal chain of command. Although these laws were often contradictory, the body higher in the hierarchy always prevailed.",
"When the [Japanese occupation of Singapore](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore \"Japanese occupation of Singapore\") began, all existing courts ceased to function. By a decree of 7 April 1942, a Military Court of Justice of the Nippon Army was established, and the civil courts were reopened by a proclamation dated 27 May. This Proclamation made all former British laws applicable so long as they did not interfere with the Military Administration. The highest court was the Syonan Koto\\-Hoin (Syonan Supreme Court) which was opened on 29 May. Although a court of appeal was constituted, it never sat.Tan, p. 20\\.",
"There is some disagreement as to the status of judgments handed down by courts during the Japanese Occupation. The view has been taken by some post\\-Occupation courts that decisions by Japanese tribunals applying the law were valid. Others have held that since the Japanese administration did not set up tribunals in compliance with the requirements of Straits Settlements law, while the law continued to apply there were no proper courts in existence to enforce it.Bartholomew, pp. lxviii–lxix.",
"The Japanese surrendered on 12 September 1945\\. By Proclamation No. 1 (1945\\), the [Supreme Allied Commander](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander \"Supreme Allied Commander\") [South East Asia](/wiki/South_East_Asia_Command \"South East Asia Command\") established the [British Military Administration](/wiki/British_Military_Administration_%28Malaya%29 \"British Military Administration (Malaya)\") which assumed full judicial, legislative, executive and administrative powers and responsibilities and conclusive jurisdiction over all persons and property throughout such areas of Malaya as were at any given time under the control of forces under his command.Bartholomew, p. lxix. The proclamation also declared that all laws and customs existing immediately prior to the Japanese Occupation would be respected, except that such of the existing law as the Chief Civil Affairs Officer considered practicable to administer during the period of military administration. Otherwise, all proclamations and legislative enactments of whatever kind issued by or under the authority of the Japanese Military Administration ceased to have effect.Bartholomew, p. lxx.",
"By Proclamation No. 23 (1945\\), the Deputy Chief Civil Affairs Officer for the Singapore Division provided that every conviction of any offence by a tribunal established by the Japanese Military Administration was quashed, and any judgment convicting or purporting to convict any person or any offence was set aside. Civil proceedings were dealt with by the Japanese Judgements and Civil Proceedings Ordinance 1946 (No. 3 of 1946\\), which had the effect of permitting post\\-Occupation courts to review the decrees of Japanese tribunals and to confirm, modify or reverse them.Bartholomew, p. lxxi.",
"### 1946–1963: The end of the Straits Settlements: Singapore as a separate colony and self\\-governing state",
"The British Military Administration was terminated by Proclamation No. 77 (1946\\) dated 18 March 1946, and with effect from 1 April, the Straits Settlements were disbanded by the [Straits Settlements (Repeal) Act 1946](/wiki/Straits_Settlements_%28Repeal%29_Act_1946 \"Straits Settlements (Repeal) Act 1946\") ([9 \\& 10 Geo. 6](/wiki/9_%26_10_Geo._6 \"9 & 10 Geo. 6\") c. 37 (UK)). By the Singapore Colony Order in Council 1946,S.R. \\& O. 1946 No. 464 (UK) Singapore was constituted as a new colony under the [British Settlements Acts 1887](/wiki/British_Settlements_Acts_1887 \"British Settlements Acts 1887\") ([50 \\& 51 Vict.](/wiki/50_%26_51_Vict. \"50 & 51 Vict.\") c. 54 (UK)). A Singapore Legislative Council was created with power to legislate for the peace, order and good government of the Colony.Bartholomew, pp. lxxxi–lxxxii. The High Court and Court of Appeal of the Straits Settlements became the Colony of Singapore High Court and Court of Appeal.",
"In 1958 Singapore was granted internal self\\-government and became the State of Singapore. This change was put into place by the Singapore (Constitution) Order in Council 1958[S.I. 1958 No. 1946](/wiki/List_of_Statutory_Instruments_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_1958 \"List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom, 1958\") (UK). made under powers conferred by the [State of Singapore Act 1958](/wiki/State_of_Singapore_Act_1958 \"State of Singapore Act 1958\") ([6 \\& 7 Eliz. 2](/wiki/6_%26_7_Eliz._2 \"6 & 7 Eliz. 2\"). c. 59 (UK)).Bartholomew, p. lxxiv. The Legislative Council was transformed into a Legislative Assembly consisting mainly of elected members.",
"During this period, the basic structure of the courts remained much as it had been in the pre\\-war colonial era, with only minor changes being made such as the redesignation of the Police Courts as Magistrates' Courts in 1955\\.By way of the Courts Ordinance 1955 (No. 14 of 1955, later Cap. 3, 1955 Rev. Ed.): Chionh, p. 113\\.",
"### 1963–1965: Independence from the British Empire and merger with Malaysia",
"Singapore joined the [Federation of Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\") on 16 September 1963, and thus ceased to be a colony of the British empire. The legal arrangements were effected by the enactment of the [Malaysia Act 1963](/wiki/Malaysia_Act_1963 \"Malaysia Act 1963\") ([c. 35](/wiki/List_of_Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_from_1963 \"List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1963\") (UK)). the Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore (State Constitutions) Order in Council 1963[S.I. 1963 No. 1493](/wiki/List_of_Statutory_Instruments_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_1963 \"List of Statutory Instruments of the United Kingdom, 1963\") (UK). and the Malaysia Act 1963 (Malaysia).No. 26 of 1963 (M'sia): Bartholomew, p. lxxvi. The 1963 Order in Council provided that all laws in force in Singapore continued to apply subject to modifications, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions that might be necessary to bring them into conformity with its new Constitution and the Malaysia Act.Bartholomew, p. lxxvii. With Singapore now a state in a larger federation, the Singapore Legislative Assembly was transformed into the Legislature of Singapore with power to make laws only regarding certain matters set out in the [Malaysian Federal Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Malaysia \"Constitution of Malaysia\"). Article 75 of the Federal Constitution also stated: \"If any state law is inconsistent with a federal law, the federal law shall prevail and the state law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.\"",
"During this period, a substantial number of Malaysian laws, including [Federated Malay States](/wiki/Federated_Malay_States \"Federated Malay States\") Enactments and [Malayan Union](/wiki/Malayan_Union \"Malayan Union\") and [Federation of Malaya](/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya \"Federation of Malaya\") Ordinances, were extended to Singapore. Some of these statutes continue to apply, often in modified form, in Singapore today.Bartholomew, p. lxxix.",
"Under the Malaysia Act 1963, the judicial power of Malaysia was vested in a [Federal Court](/wiki/Courts_of_Malaysia%23Federal_Court \"Courts of Malaysia#Federal Court\"), a [High Court](/wiki/Courts_of_Malaysia%23High_courts \"Courts of Malaysia#High courts\") in Malaya, a High Court in Borneo and a High Court in Singapore. This new structure was officialised with effect from 16 March 1964 through the Courts of Judicature Act 1964 (M'sia),No. 7 of 1964 (M'sia), reprinted as Act No. 6 of 1966 in the *Singapore Reprints Supplement (Acts)*. which replaced the Supreme Court of the Colony of Singapore with the High Court of Malaysia in Singapore.Tan, p. 30\\. The jurisdiction of the High Court in Singapore was limited to all territory in the State of Singapore.Chionh, p. 113\\.",
"### 1965 to the present: Singapore as a fully independent nation",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Parliament House, Singapore](/wiki/Parliament_House%2C_Singapore \"Parliament House, Singapore\"), which was officially opened on 4 October 1999](/wiki/File:Parliament_House_Singapore.jpg \"Parliament House Singapore.jpg\")",
"Merger with Malaysia did not last: within two years, on 9 August 1965, Singapore was expelled from the Federation and became a fully independent [republic](/wiki/Republic \"Republic\"). This was effected by the signing of the Independence of Singapore Agreement of 7 August 1965 by Singapore and Malaysia, and the changes consequent to the Agreement were implemented by two Malaysian Acts, the Constitution and Malaysia (Singapore Amendment) Act 1965No. 31 of 1965 (M'sia). and the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1966;No. 59 of 1966 (M'sia). and by two Singapore Acts, the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1965No. 8 of 1965 (S'pore). and the Republic of Singapore Independence Act 1965\\.No. 9 of 1965 (S'pore). Section 5 of the latter Act provided that the legislative powers of the [Yang di\\-Pertuan Agong](/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong \"Yang di-Pertuan Agong\"), the supreme ruler of Malaysia, ceased to extend to Singapore, and vested instead in the Head of State (that is, the [President of Singapore](/wiki/President_of_Singapore \"President of Singapore\")) and the Legislature of Singapore. Again, all laws were expressed to continue in force with such modifications, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions as might be necessary to bring them into conformity with the independent status of Singapore upon separation from Malaysia.Bartholomew, pp. lxxix–lxxx. Today, the [Parliament of Singapore](/wiki/Parliament_of_Singapore \"Parliament of Singapore\") is an organ of state with [plenary power](/wiki/Plenary_power \"Plenary power\") to enact legislation for Singapore.",
"At the time of independence, the Singapore Parliament did not make any changes to the judicial system. Thus, for an anomalous four\\-year period, the High Court in Singapore remained part of the Malaysian court structure. This was remedied in 1969, when the Constitution was amended to establish the [Supreme Court of Singapore](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Singapore \"Supreme Court of Singapore\") replacing the Federal Court of Malaysia with respect to Singapore, while retaining the [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council \"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council\") in London as Singapore's court of final appeal.By the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1969 (No. 19 of 1969\\): Tan, pp. 30 and 32\\. The Supreme Court was divided into two divisions: the upper division consisted of the Court of Appeal and the Court of Criminal Appeal, which respectively dealt with civil and criminal matters; the lower division being the [High Court of Singapore](/wiki/High_Court_of_Singapore \"High Court of Singapore\").Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1969 (No. 24 of 1969\\), now {{Singapore legislation\\|cap\\=322\\|ed\\=1999}}.",
"[thumb\\|The [Supreme Court Building](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Singapore \"Supreme Court of Singapore\"), designed by Foster \\& Partners, which commenced operations on 20 June 2005, as it appeared in August 2006](/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_Building%2C_Aug_06.JPG \"Supreme Court Building, Aug 06.JPG\")",
"In 1970 the subordinate courts were re\\-organised.By the Subordinate Courts Act 1970 (No. 19 of 1970\\), now {{Singapore legislation\\|cap\\=321\\|ed\\=1999}}. Since that time, the Subordinate Courts of Singapore have consisted of the District Courts, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Courts and the Coroners' Courts.Chionh, pp. 114–115\\. The Subordinate Courts were renamed the [State Courts of Singapore](/wiki/State_Courts_of_Singapore \"State Courts of Singapore\") on 7 March 2014\\.",
"Steps to restrict appeals to the Privy Council were first taken in 1989\\. In that year, the law was changedBy the Judicial Committee (Amendment) Act 1989 (No. 21 of 1989\\). such that appeals to the Privy Council would only be permitted in a civil case if all the parties agreed to such an appeal prior to the hearing of the case by the Court of Appeal. In criminal cases, an appeal to the Privy Council could only be taken if the death penalty was involved and if the judges of the Court of Criminal Appeal were not unanimous in their decision. These changes came shortly after the Privy Council restored a prominent opposition Member of Parliament, [Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam](/wiki/Joshua_Benjamin_Jeyaretnam \"Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam\"), to the roll of advocates and solicitors of the Supreme Court of Singapore after he had been struck off for a criminal conviction for making false statements in a [statutory declaration](/wiki/Statutory_declaration \"Statutory declaration\"); the court described the conviction as \"a grievous injustice\".*Jeyaretnam v. Law Society of Singapore* \\[1988] 2 S.L.R.(R.) \\[*Singapore Law Reports (Reissue)*] 470 at 489, para. 59, [\\[1988] UKPC 25](http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/1988/1988_25.html), \\[1989] A.C. 608 at 631, Privy Council (on appeal from Singapore); see also {{citation\\|author\\=Geoffrey Robertson\\|author\\-link\\=Geoffrey Robertson\\|title\\=Joshua Jeyaretnam: Lawyer and activist, he was for many years the only political opposition to Singapore's rulers \\[obituary]\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/07/2\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|location\\=London\\|date\\=7 October 2008}}. In 1993, the previous set\\-up of a separate Court of Appeal and Court of Criminal Appeal was done away with, and in their place a unified Court of Appeal was constituted for both civil and criminal appeals.By the Supreme Court of Judicature (Amendment) Act 1993 (No. 16 of 1993\\). Judges of Appeal appointed to the Court of Appeal were no longer required to engage in High Court work. The Chief Justice sat as the President of the Court of Appeal. The establishment of the permanent Court of Appeal paved the way for the abolition of all appeals to the Privy Council with effect from 8 April 1994\\.The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (Amendment) Act 1994 (No. 5 of 1994\\) repealed Art. 100 of the Constitution, which had provided that the President could make arrangements with Her Majesty for reference to the Privy Council of appeals from the Supreme Court. The Judicial Committee Act 1966 (No. 37 of 1966, later {{Singapore legislation\\|cap\\=148\\|ed\\=1985}}, which regulated the procedure for such appeals, was repealed by the Judicial Committee (Repeal) Act 1994 (No. 2 of 1994\\). Following this, the Court of Appeal issued a Practice Statement dated 11 July 1994, stating that while the Court would treat its own prior decisions and those of the Privy Council as normally binding, where it appeared that adherence to such decisions \"would cause injustice in a particular case or constrain the development of the law in conformity with the circumstances of Singapore\" it would regard itself as free to depart from such decisions. It added that this power would be exercised sparingly, bearing in mind the danger of retrospectively disturbing contractual, proprietary and other legal rights.Chionh, pp. 116–117\\. Today, the [Court of Appeal of Singapore](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_Singapore \"Court of Appeal of Singapore\") is the highest court in the land.",
"The independent status of Singapore's legal system was underlined by the repeal of section 5 of the Civil Law Act ([see above](/wiki/%231867%E2%80%931942:The_Straits_Settlements_as_a_Crown_colony \"The Straits Settlements as a Crown colony\")) on 12 November 1993 by the Application of English Law Act 1993\\.No. 35 of 1993, now {{Singapore legislation\\|cap\\=7A\\|ed\\=1994}}. The Act aims to clarify the extent of the application of English law in Singapore. It states that the common law of England (including the principles and rules of equity), so far as it was part of the law of Singapore immediately before the commencement of the Act, continues to be part of Singapore law so far as it is applicable to the circumstances of Singapore and its inhabitants and subject to such modifications as those circumstances may require.Application of English Law Act, s. 3\\. As for English statutes, only those that are listed in the Schedules to the Act apply or continue to apply in Singapore; no other English enactment is part of Singapore law.Application of English Law Act, ss. 4 and 5\\. See, generally, Phang, pp. 37–49\\.",
""
] |
### Before 1826
[thumb\|left\|150px\|Sir [Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles "Stamford Raffles") (6 July 1781 – 5 July 1826\)](/wiki/File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg "StamfordRaffles.jpeg")
Modern Singapore was founded on 6 February 1819 by Sir [Stamford Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles "Stamford Raffles"), an officer of the [British East India Company](/wiki/British_East_India_Company "British East India Company") and [Lieutenant\-Governor](/wiki/Bencoolen_Presidency "Bencoolen Presidency") of [Bencoolen](/wiki/Bengkulu "Bengkulu"), in an attempt to counter Dutch domination of trade in the East. Permission for the East India Company to set up a "factory" on the island was obtained from the [Sultan of Johor](/wiki/Sultan_of_Johor "Sultan of Johor") and [Temenggung](/wiki/Temenggung "Temenggung") of Johor on that date under the terms of the [Treaty of Singapore](/wiki/1819_Singapore_Treaty "1819 Singapore Treaty"), and outright [cession](/wiki/Cession "Cession") of Singapore took place in 1824\. It has been suggested that prior to British acquisition of the island, the [Malay](/wiki/Malay_people "Malay people") chief in charge of Singapore was the Temenggung of Johor. The [Johor Sultanate](/wiki/Johor_Sultanate "Johor Sultanate") was the successor of the [Malacca Sultanate](/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate "Malacca Sultanate"), both of which had their own codes of law. It is also possible that [adat law](/wiki/Adat "Adat"), often inadequately translated as "customary law", governed the inhabitants of the island prior to its acquisition by the British. However, little, if anything, is known about the laws that were actually applicable. The British have always assumed that no law prevailed on the island of Singapore when it was acquired.
In 1823 Raffles promulgated "Regulations" for the administration of the island. Regulation III of 20 January 1823 established a [magistracy](/wiki/Magistrate "Magistrate") which had jurisdiction over "all descriptions of persons resorting under the British flag". The magistrates were enjoined to "follow the course of the British magistracy, as far as local circumstances permit, avoiding technicalities and unnecessary forms as much as possible, and executing the duties of their office with temper and discretion, according to the best of their judgement and conscience and the principles of substantial justice". Raffles' Regulations were most likely illegal as he was acting beyond the scope of his legal powers in making them – although he had power to place the factory at Singapore under the jurisdiction of Bencoolen, he was not vested with power to place the entire island under Bencoolen's control. In this respect, he had treated Singapore as if the entire island had been ceded to the British when the Treaty with the Sultan and the Temenggung had only permitted the establishment of a trading factory.{{citation\|author\=Kevin Y\[ew] L\[ee] Tan\|chapter\=A Short Legal and Constitutional History of Singapore\|editor\=Walter Woon\|editor\-link\=Walter Woon\|title\=The Singapore Legal System\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Longman\|year\=1989\|isbn\=978\-9971\-89\-993\-6\|page\=3 at 8}}.
The same year, Raffles appointed [John Crawfurd](/wiki/John_Crawfurd "John Crawfurd") as [Resident](/wiki/Resident_%28title%29%23Residents_in_%28British%29_Asia "Resident (title)#Residents in (British) Asia") of Singapore. Crawfurd doubted the legitimacy of the judicial system set up by Raffles, and annulled proceedings in which magistrates had ordered the flogging of gamblers and the seizure of their properties. He eventually abolished the magistracy, replacing it with a [Court of Requests](/wiki/Court_of_Requests "Court of Requests") overseen by an Assistant Resident which dealt with minor civil cases, and a Resident's Court hearing all other cases which he himself presided over. Crawfurd had no authoritative guide to the applicable law, so he decided cases on "general principles of English law", taking into account so far as he could the "character and manners of the different classes" of local inhabitants.{{citation\|author\=L.A. Mills\|title\=British Malaya 1824–1867\|journal\=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society\|year\=1960\|volume\=XXXIII\|issue\=3}}, cited in {{citation\|author\=Mavis Chionh\|chapter\=The Development of the Court System\|editor\=Kevin Y\[ew] L\[ee] Tan\|title\=Essays in Singapore Legal History\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=\[\[Singapore Academy of Law]]; Marshall Cavendish Academic\|year\=2005\|isbn\=978\-981\-210\-389\-5\|page\=93 at 99}}. Unfortunately, Crawfurd's courts also lacked legal foundation, and he had no legal powers over Europeans in Singapore. Serious cases involving British subjects had to be referred to Calcutta; otherwise, all he could do was to banish them from the island.Chionh, pp. 97–98\.
Despite the dubious legal status of the courts established in Singapore by Raffles and Crawfurd, they indicate that the *de facto* position was that between 1819 and 1826 English legal principles applied to Singapore.{{citation\|author\=Walter Woon\|chapter\=The Applicability of English Law in Singapore\|editor\=Walter Woon\|title\=The Singapore Legal System\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Longman\|year\=1989\|isbn\=978\-9971\-89\-993\-6\|page\=107 at 112–113}}.
On 24 June 1824 Singapore and Malacca were formally transferred to the East India Company's administration by the [Transfer of Singapore to East India Company, etc. Act 1824](/wiki/Transfer_of_Singapore_to_East_India_Company%2C_etc._Act_1824 "Transfer of Singapore to East India Company, etc. Act 1824") ([5 Geo. 4](/wiki/5_Geo._4 "5 Geo. 4"). c. 108 (UK)). By virtue of the [Fort Marlborough in India Act 1802](/wiki/Fort_Marlborough_in_India_Act_1802 "Fort Marlborough in India Act 1802") ([42 Geo. 3](/wiki/42_Geo._3 "42 Geo. 3"). c. 29 (UK)). both territories, together with others in the region ceded to Britain by the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), became subordinate to the [Presidency](/wiki/Bengal_Presidency "Bengal Presidency") of [Fort William](/wiki/Fort_William%2C_India "Fort William, India") in [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal "Bengal"), and under the [Government of India Act 1800](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1800 "Government of India Act 1800")39 \& 40 Geo. 3 c. 79 (UK) these territories became subject to the [jurisdiction](/wiki/Jurisdiction "Jurisdiction") of the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_court "Supreme court") of Fort William.
The [Indian Salaries and Pensions Act 1825](/wiki/Indian_Salaries_and_Pensions_Act_1825 "Indian Salaries and Pensions Act 1825")6 Geo. 4 c. 85 (UK). authorised the East India Company to place Singapore and Malacca under the administration of Prince of Wales' Island (now [Penang](/wiki/Penang "Penang")). The Company did so, thus creating the [Straits Settlements](/wiki/Straits_Settlements "Straits Settlements").{{citation \|first1\=Geoffrey Wilson \|last1\=Bartholomew\|first2\=Elizabeth \|last2\=Srinivasagam\|first3\=Pascal Baylon \|last3\=Netto\|title\=Sesquicentennial Chronological Tables of the Written Laws of the Republic of Singapore 1834\-1984\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Malaya Law Review, Malayan Law Journal\|year\=1987\|isbn\=978\-9971\-70\-053\-9\|page\=xxvii}}.
|
[
"### Before 1826",
"[thumb\\|left\\|150px\\|Sir [Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles \"Stamford Raffles\") (6 July 1781 – 5 July 1826\\)](/wiki/File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg \"StamfordRaffles.jpeg\")",
"Modern Singapore was founded on 6 February 1819 by Sir [Stamford Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles \"Stamford Raffles\"), an officer of the [British East India Company](/wiki/British_East_India_Company \"British East India Company\") and [Lieutenant\\-Governor](/wiki/Bencoolen_Presidency \"Bencoolen Presidency\") of [Bencoolen](/wiki/Bengkulu \"Bengkulu\"), in an attempt to counter Dutch domination of trade in the East. Permission for the East India Company to set up a \"factory\" on the island was obtained from the [Sultan of Johor](/wiki/Sultan_of_Johor \"Sultan of Johor\") and [Temenggung](/wiki/Temenggung \"Temenggung\") of Johor on that date under the terms of the [Treaty of Singapore](/wiki/1819_Singapore_Treaty \"1819 Singapore Treaty\"), and outright [cession](/wiki/Cession \"Cession\") of Singapore took place in 1824\\. It has been suggested that prior to British acquisition of the island, the [Malay](/wiki/Malay_people \"Malay people\") chief in charge of Singapore was the Temenggung of Johor. The [Johor Sultanate](/wiki/Johor_Sultanate \"Johor Sultanate\") was the successor of the [Malacca Sultanate](/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate \"Malacca Sultanate\"), both of which had their own codes of law. It is also possible that [adat law](/wiki/Adat \"Adat\"), often inadequately translated as \"customary law\", governed the inhabitants of the island prior to its acquisition by the British. However, little, if anything, is known about the laws that were actually applicable. The British have always assumed that no law prevailed on the island of Singapore when it was acquired.",
"In 1823 Raffles promulgated \"Regulations\" for the administration of the island. Regulation III of 20 January 1823 established a [magistracy](/wiki/Magistrate \"Magistrate\") which had jurisdiction over \"all descriptions of persons resorting under the British flag\". The magistrates were enjoined to \"follow the course of the British magistracy, as far as local circumstances permit, avoiding technicalities and unnecessary forms as much as possible, and executing the duties of their office with temper and discretion, according to the best of their judgement and conscience and the principles of substantial justice\". Raffles' Regulations were most likely illegal as he was acting beyond the scope of his legal powers in making them – although he had power to place the factory at Singapore under the jurisdiction of Bencoolen, he was not vested with power to place the entire island under Bencoolen's control. In this respect, he had treated Singapore as if the entire island had been ceded to the British when the Treaty with the Sultan and the Temenggung had only permitted the establishment of a trading factory.{{citation\\|author\\=Kevin Y\\[ew] L\\[ee] Tan\\|chapter\\=A Short Legal and Constitutional History of Singapore\\|editor\\=Walter Woon\\|editor\\-link\\=Walter Woon\\|title\\=The Singapore Legal System\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Longman\\|year\\=1989\\|isbn\\=978\\-9971\\-89\\-993\\-6\\|page\\=3 at 8}}.",
"The same year, Raffles appointed [John Crawfurd](/wiki/John_Crawfurd \"John Crawfurd\") as [Resident](/wiki/Resident_%28title%29%23Residents_in_%28British%29_Asia \"Resident (title)#Residents in (British) Asia\") of Singapore. Crawfurd doubted the legitimacy of the judicial system set up by Raffles, and annulled proceedings in which magistrates had ordered the flogging of gamblers and the seizure of their properties. He eventually abolished the magistracy, replacing it with a [Court of Requests](/wiki/Court_of_Requests \"Court of Requests\") overseen by an Assistant Resident which dealt with minor civil cases, and a Resident's Court hearing all other cases which he himself presided over. Crawfurd had no authoritative guide to the applicable law, so he decided cases on \"general principles of English law\", taking into account so far as he could the \"character and manners of the different classes\" of local inhabitants.{{citation\\|author\\=L.A. Mills\\|title\\=British Malaya 1824–1867\\|journal\\=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society\\|year\\=1960\\|volume\\=XXXIII\\|issue\\=3}}, cited in {{citation\\|author\\=Mavis Chionh\\|chapter\\=The Development of the Court System\\|editor\\=Kevin Y\\[ew] L\\[ee] Tan\\|title\\=Essays in Singapore Legal History\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Singapore Academy of Law]]; Marshall Cavendish Academic\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=978\\-981\\-210\\-389\\-5\\|page\\=93 at 99}}. Unfortunately, Crawfurd's courts also lacked legal foundation, and he had no legal powers over Europeans in Singapore. Serious cases involving British subjects had to be referred to Calcutta; otherwise, all he could do was to banish them from the island.Chionh, pp. 97–98\\.",
"Despite the dubious legal status of the courts established in Singapore by Raffles and Crawfurd, they indicate that the *de facto* position was that between 1819 and 1826 English legal principles applied to Singapore.{{citation\\|author\\=Walter Woon\\|chapter\\=The Applicability of English Law in Singapore\\|editor\\=Walter Woon\\|title\\=The Singapore Legal System\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Longman\\|year\\=1989\\|isbn\\=978\\-9971\\-89\\-993\\-6\\|page\\=107 at 112–113}}.",
"On 24 June 1824 Singapore and Malacca were formally transferred to the East India Company's administration by the [Transfer of Singapore to East India Company, etc. Act 1824](/wiki/Transfer_of_Singapore_to_East_India_Company%2C_etc._Act_1824 \"Transfer of Singapore to East India Company, etc. Act 1824\") ([5 Geo. 4](/wiki/5_Geo._4 \"5 Geo. 4\"). c. 108 (UK)). By virtue of the [Fort Marlborough in India Act 1802](/wiki/Fort_Marlborough_in_India_Act_1802 \"Fort Marlborough in India Act 1802\") ([42 Geo. 3](/wiki/42_Geo._3 \"42 Geo. 3\"). c. 29 (UK)). both territories, together with others in the region ceded to Britain by the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), became subordinate to the [Presidency](/wiki/Bengal_Presidency \"Bengal Presidency\") of [Fort William](/wiki/Fort_William%2C_India \"Fort William, India\") in [Bengal](/wiki/Bengal \"Bengal\"), and under the [Government of India Act 1800](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1800 \"Government of India Act 1800\")39 \\& 40 Geo. 3 c. 79 (UK) these territories became subject to the [jurisdiction](/wiki/Jurisdiction \"Jurisdiction\") of the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_court \"Supreme court\") of Fort William.",
"The [Indian Salaries and Pensions Act 1825](/wiki/Indian_Salaries_and_Pensions_Act_1825 \"Indian Salaries and Pensions Act 1825\")6 Geo. 4 c. 85 (UK). authorised the East India Company to place Singapore and Malacca under the administration of Prince of Wales' Island (now [Penang](/wiki/Penang \"Penang\")). The Company did so, thus creating the [Straits Settlements](/wiki/Straits_Settlements \"Straits Settlements\").{{citation \\|first1\\=Geoffrey Wilson \\|last1\\=Bartholomew\\|first2\\=Elizabeth \\|last2\\=Srinivasagam\\|first3\\=Pascal Baylon \\|last3\\=Netto\\|title\\=Sesquicentennial Chronological Tables of the Written Laws of the Republic of Singapore 1834\\-1984\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Malaya Law Review, Malayan Law Journal\\|year\\=1987\\|isbn\\=978\\-9971\\-70\\-053\\-9\\|page\\=xxvii}}.",
""
] |
### 1826–1867: The "Indian period"
[thumb\|The [East India House](/wiki/East_India_House "East India House"), the headquarters of the East India Company, in Leadenhall Street, London, as seen {{circa}} 1817; it was demolished in 1869\.](/wiki/File:East_India_House_THS_1817_edited.jpg "East India House THS 1817 edited.jpg")
The statute 6 Geo. 4 c. 85 empowered the [British Crown](/wiki/The_Crown%23United_Kingdom "The Crown#United Kingdom") to issue [letters patent](/wiki/Letters_patent "Letters patent") providing for the administration of justice in the Straits Settlements. The East India Company petitioned the Crown for the grant of such letters patent establishing "such Courts and Judicatures for the due administration of Justice and the security of the persons rights and property of the Inhabitants and the Public Revenue of and the Trial and Punishment of Capital and other Offences committed and the repression of vice within the said Settlement of Prince of Wales’ Island Singapore and Malacca…"
Granting the petition, the Crown issued the [Second Charter of Justice](/wiki/Second_Charter_of_Justice "Second Charter of Justice") on 27 November 1826\.The First Charter of Justice of 1807 applied only to Prince of Wales' Island (Penang). The Charter established the Court of Judicature of Prince of Wales' Island, Singapore and Malacca, which was conferred "full Power and Authority… to give and pass Judgement and Sentence according to Justice and Right". This key clause was later judicially interpreted to have introduced English law into the Straits Settlements. The present understanding of this clause is that it made all English statutes and principles of English [common law](/wiki/Common_law "Common law") and equity in force as at 27 November 1826 applicable in the Straits Settlements (including Singapore), unless they were both unsuitable to local conditions and could not be modified to avoid causing injustice or oppression.{{citation\|author\=Andrew Phang Boon Leong\|author\-link\=Andrew Phang\|title\=From Foundation to Legacy: The Second Charter of Justice\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Singapore Academy of Law\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-981\-05\-7194\-8\|pages\=19–23}}.
The Charter provided that the Court of Judicature was to be presided over by the [Governor](/wiki/Governor%23British_Empire_and_Commonwealth "Governor#British Empire and Commonwealth") of the Straits Settlements and [Resident Councillor](/wiki/Resident_Councillor "Resident Councillor") of the settlement where the court was to be held, and another judge called the [Recorder](/wiki/Recorder_%28judge%29 "Recorder (judge)"). Problems occurred with the first Recorder, Sir [John Thomas Claridge](/wiki/John_Thomas_Claridge "John Thomas Claridge"). He complained that the Governor and Resident Councillors had refused to take any judicial business, and so responded by also refusing to take on the full business of the Court. He also bemoaned the lack of a "full, efficient and respectable court establishment of clerks, interpreters. etc." Although expected to travel from his base at Prince of Wales' Island to Singapore and Malacca, due to disputes over travelling expenses and arrangements, Claridge refused to do so. Thus, on 22 May 1828 the Governor [Robert Fullerton](/wiki/Robert_Fullerton "Robert Fullerton"), together with the Resident Councillor [Kenneth Murchison](/wiki/Kenneth_Murchison%2C_Resident_Counsellor_of_Singapore "Kenneth Murchison, Resident Counsellor of Singapore"), were obliged to hold the first [assizes](/wiki/Assizes "Assizes") in Singapore by themselves. Claridge was eventually recalled to the UK in 1829\.Chionh, pp. 99–100\.
[thumb\|250px\|left\|The title page of the Second Charter of Justice of 27 November 1826, from the edition published in London by J. L. Cox in February 1827\. This copy of the Charter was originally owned by the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements, and a photocopy of it is presently in the collection of the Library of the Supreme Court of Singapore.](/wiki/File:18261127-SecondCharterofJustice-titlepg.jpg "18261127-SecondCharterofJustice-titlepg.jpg")
The Charter conferred no legislative power on the Governor and Council of Prince of Wales' Island or, indeed, on any other individual or institution.Bartholomew, p. xxxiii. The general power to make laws was vested with the Supreme Government of India and the British Parliament.Tan, p. 11\. By the East India Company Act 1813 (also known as the [Charter Act 1813](/wiki/Charter_Act_1813 "Charter Act 1813")) ([53 Geo. 3](/wiki/53_Geo._3 "53 Geo. 3"). c. 155 (UK)), Prince of Wales' Island itself had been conferred an extremely limited power to issue regulations relating to duties and taxes it was empowered to levy; pursuant to this power, it issued nine regulations that applied to the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xxxiv. However, on 20 June 1830 the East India Company reduced the status of Prince of Wales' Island from a Presidency to a Residency.Bartholomew, p. xxxv. The island thus lost power to legislate for the Straits Settlements, which power was assumed by the [Governor General of Bengal](/wiki/Governor_General_of_India "Governor General of India"). He issued four such regulations applicable to the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xxxvii.
Upon the downgrading of the Straits Settlements, the offices of Governor and Resident Councillors were abolished. This led Governor Fullerton to conclude that neither he nor the Resident Councillors were empowered any longer to administer justice under the Second Charter. In late 1830, Fullerton closed the courts and dismissed the judicial establishment before leaving for England. This led to legal chaos. Members of the mercantile community were in an uproar as they felt the ensuing confusion and inconvenience of having no local courts would disrupt commercial activity. In Singapore the Deputy Resident Murchison felt compelled to convene a court. However, the Acting Registrar James LochIt is not known whether this is the same person as the [James Loch](/wiki/James_Loch "James Loch") (1780–1855\), a Scottish estate commissioner and a Member of Parliament. took the view that the court was illegal, and it was soon closed again. In September 1831 merchants of the Straits Settlements appealed to the British Parliament. By then, the East India Company had already decided that Fullerton had been mistaken. It decided to restore the titles of Governor and Resident Councillor so that these officers could continue to administer justice pursuant to the Charter. On 9 June 1832 the Court of Judicature reopened at Prince of Wales' Island, and disposed of many outstanding cases that had amassed during the two years when the courts were closed.Chionh, pp. 100–101\.
In 1833, the [Government of India Act 1833](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1833 "Government of India Act 1833") (also known as the Charter Act 1833\) ([3 \& 4 Will. 4](/wiki/3_%26_4_Will._4 "3 & 4 Will. 4"). c. 85]] (UK)). was passed by the British Parliament for the better government of the East India Company's possessions. Sole legislative power was transferred to the [Governor General of India in Council](/wiki/Governor_General_of_India%23Council "Governor General of India#Council"), thus inaugurating the period of Straits Settlements history known as the period of the "Indian Acts".Bartholomew, p. xxxix.
The Court of Judicature was reorganised by the [Third Charter of Justice](/wiki/Third_Charter_of_Justice "Third Charter of Justice") of 12 August 1855\. The Straits Settlements now had two Recorders, one for Prince of Wales' Island, the other for Singapore and Malacca.Chionh, p. 103\.
In 1858 the East India Company was abolished, and territories formerly administered by the Company were transferred to the Crown acting through the recently appointed [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India "Secretary of State for India"). This was effected by the Government of India Act 1858 ([21 \& 22 Vict.](/wiki/21_%26_22_Vict. "21 & 22 Vict.") c. 106 (UK)). There was no change to the structure of the legal system – the Governor General of India continued to legislate for the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xlvi.
Unfortunately, many Acts passed by the Governor General during this period were not relevant to the Straits Settlements, and it was difficult to determine which were applicable. The situation was remedied by the passing of the Statute Law Revision Ordinance 1889 (No. 8 of 1889\) (Ind.), which appointed commissioners to inquire into the matter and empowered them to publish a volume containing the text of any Indian Acts considered in force. Any Acts not included ceased to be applicable forthwith.Bartholomew, p. xl.
|
[
"### 1826–1867: The \"Indian period\"",
"[thumb\\|The [East India House](/wiki/East_India_House \"East India House\"), the headquarters of the East India Company, in Leadenhall Street, London, as seen {{circa}} 1817; it was demolished in 1869\\.](/wiki/File:East_India_House_THS_1817_edited.jpg \"East India House THS 1817 edited.jpg\")",
"The statute 6 Geo. 4 c. 85 empowered the [British Crown](/wiki/The_Crown%23United_Kingdom \"The Crown#United Kingdom\") to issue [letters patent](/wiki/Letters_patent \"Letters patent\") providing for the administration of justice in the Straits Settlements. The East India Company petitioned the Crown for the grant of such letters patent establishing \"such Courts and Judicatures for the due administration of Justice and the security of the persons rights and property of the Inhabitants and the Public Revenue of and the Trial and Punishment of Capital and other Offences committed and the repression of vice within the said Settlement of Prince of Wales’ Island Singapore and Malacca…\"",
"Granting the petition, the Crown issued the [Second Charter of Justice](/wiki/Second_Charter_of_Justice \"Second Charter of Justice\") on 27 November 1826\\.The First Charter of Justice of 1807 applied only to Prince of Wales' Island (Penang). The Charter established the Court of Judicature of Prince of Wales' Island, Singapore and Malacca, which was conferred \"full Power and Authority… to give and pass Judgement and Sentence according to Justice and Right\". This key clause was later judicially interpreted to have introduced English law into the Straits Settlements. The present understanding of this clause is that it made all English statutes and principles of English [common law](/wiki/Common_law \"Common law\") and equity in force as at 27 November 1826 applicable in the Straits Settlements (including Singapore), unless they were both unsuitable to local conditions and could not be modified to avoid causing injustice or oppression.{{citation\\|author\\=Andrew Phang Boon Leong\\|author\\-link\\=Andrew Phang\\|title\\=From Foundation to Legacy: The Second Charter of Justice\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Singapore Academy of Law\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-981\\-05\\-7194\\-8\\|pages\\=19–23}}.",
"The Charter provided that the Court of Judicature was to be presided over by the [Governor](/wiki/Governor%23British_Empire_and_Commonwealth \"Governor#British Empire and Commonwealth\") of the Straits Settlements and [Resident Councillor](/wiki/Resident_Councillor \"Resident Councillor\") of the settlement where the court was to be held, and another judge called the [Recorder](/wiki/Recorder_%28judge%29 \"Recorder (judge)\"). Problems occurred with the first Recorder, Sir [John Thomas Claridge](/wiki/John_Thomas_Claridge \"John Thomas Claridge\"). He complained that the Governor and Resident Councillors had refused to take any judicial business, and so responded by also refusing to take on the full business of the Court. He also bemoaned the lack of a \"full, efficient and respectable court establishment of clerks, interpreters. etc.\" Although expected to travel from his base at Prince of Wales' Island to Singapore and Malacca, due to disputes over travelling expenses and arrangements, Claridge refused to do so. Thus, on 22 May 1828 the Governor [Robert Fullerton](/wiki/Robert_Fullerton \"Robert Fullerton\"), together with the Resident Councillor [Kenneth Murchison](/wiki/Kenneth_Murchison%2C_Resident_Counsellor_of_Singapore \"Kenneth Murchison, Resident Counsellor of Singapore\"), were obliged to hold the first [assizes](/wiki/Assizes \"Assizes\") in Singapore by themselves. Claridge was eventually recalled to the UK in 1829\\.Chionh, pp. 99–100\\.",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|left\\|The title page of the Second Charter of Justice of 27 November 1826, from the edition published in London by J. L. Cox in February 1827\\. This copy of the Charter was originally owned by the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements, and a photocopy of it is presently in the collection of the Library of the Supreme Court of Singapore.](/wiki/File:18261127-SecondCharterofJustice-titlepg.jpg \"18261127-SecondCharterofJustice-titlepg.jpg\")",
"The Charter conferred no legislative power on the Governor and Council of Prince of Wales' Island or, indeed, on any other individual or institution.Bartholomew, p. xxxiii. The general power to make laws was vested with the Supreme Government of India and the British Parliament.Tan, p. 11\\. By the East India Company Act 1813 (also known as the [Charter Act 1813](/wiki/Charter_Act_1813 \"Charter Act 1813\")) ([53 Geo. 3](/wiki/53_Geo._3 \"53 Geo. 3\"). c. 155 (UK)), Prince of Wales' Island itself had been conferred an extremely limited power to issue regulations relating to duties and taxes it was empowered to levy; pursuant to this power, it issued nine regulations that applied to the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xxxiv. However, on 20 June 1830 the East India Company reduced the status of Prince of Wales' Island from a Presidency to a Residency.Bartholomew, p. xxxv. The island thus lost power to legislate for the Straits Settlements, which power was assumed by the [Governor General of Bengal](/wiki/Governor_General_of_India \"Governor General of India\"). He issued four such regulations applicable to the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xxxvii.",
"Upon the downgrading of the Straits Settlements, the offices of Governor and Resident Councillors were abolished. This led Governor Fullerton to conclude that neither he nor the Resident Councillors were empowered any longer to administer justice under the Second Charter. In late 1830, Fullerton closed the courts and dismissed the judicial establishment before leaving for England. This led to legal chaos. Members of the mercantile community were in an uproar as they felt the ensuing confusion and inconvenience of having no local courts would disrupt commercial activity. In Singapore the Deputy Resident Murchison felt compelled to convene a court. However, the Acting Registrar James LochIt is not known whether this is the same person as the [James Loch](/wiki/James_Loch \"James Loch\") (1780–1855\\), a Scottish estate commissioner and a Member of Parliament. took the view that the court was illegal, and it was soon closed again. In September 1831 merchants of the Straits Settlements appealed to the British Parliament. By then, the East India Company had already decided that Fullerton had been mistaken. It decided to restore the titles of Governor and Resident Councillor so that these officers could continue to administer justice pursuant to the Charter. On 9 June 1832 the Court of Judicature reopened at Prince of Wales' Island, and disposed of many outstanding cases that had amassed during the two years when the courts were closed.Chionh, pp. 100–101\\.",
"In 1833, the [Government of India Act 1833](/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1833 \"Government of India Act 1833\") (also known as the Charter Act 1833\\) ([3 \\& 4 Will. 4](/wiki/3_%26_4_Will._4 \"3 & 4 Will. 4\"). c. 85]] (UK)). was passed by the British Parliament for the better government of the East India Company's possessions. Sole legislative power was transferred to the [Governor General of India in Council](/wiki/Governor_General_of_India%23Council \"Governor General of India#Council\"), thus inaugurating the period of Straits Settlements history known as the period of the \"Indian Acts\".Bartholomew, p. xxxix.",
"The Court of Judicature was reorganised by the [Third Charter of Justice](/wiki/Third_Charter_of_Justice \"Third Charter of Justice\") of 12 August 1855\\. The Straits Settlements now had two Recorders, one for Prince of Wales' Island, the other for Singapore and Malacca.Chionh, p. 103\\.",
"In 1858 the East India Company was abolished, and territories formerly administered by the Company were transferred to the Crown acting through the recently appointed [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India \"Secretary of State for India\"). This was effected by the Government of India Act 1858 ([21 \\& 22 Vict.](/wiki/21_%26_22_Vict. \"21 & 22 Vict.\") c. 106 (UK)). There was no change to the structure of the legal system – the Governor General of India continued to legislate for the Straits Settlements.Bartholomew, p. xlvi.",
"Unfortunately, many Acts passed by the Governor General during this period were not relevant to the Straits Settlements, and it was difficult to determine which were applicable. The situation was remedied by the passing of the Statute Law Revision Ordinance 1889 (No. 8 of 1889\\) (Ind.), which appointed commissioners to inquire into the matter and empowered them to publish a volume containing the text of any Indian Acts considered in force. Any Acts not included ceased to be applicable forthwith.Bartholomew, p. xl.",
""
] |
### 1867–1942: The Straits Settlements as a Crown colony
On 1 April 1867, the [Straits Settlements](/wiki/Straits_Settlements "Straits Settlements") were detached from India and constituted as a separate [Crown colony](/wiki/British_overseas_territories "British overseas territories") by way of the [Straits Settlements Act 1866](/wiki/Straits_Settlements_Act_1866 "Straits Settlements Act 1866") ([29 \& 30 Vict.](/wiki/29_%26_30_Vict. "29 & 30 Vict.") c. 115 (UK)).Bartholomew, p. xlvi. A separate [Legislative Council](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_the_Straits_Settlements "Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements") with the authority to make laws was set up for the Straits Settlements. Pieces of legislation passed by the Legislative Council were known as "ordinances".Bartholomew, p. xlvii.
By the Supreme Court Ordinance 1868 (S.S.),Ordinance No. 5 of 1868 (S.S.). the Court of Judicature of the Straits Settlements was abolished, and in its place the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements was established. The GovernorBy the Judicial Duties Act (No. 3 of 1867\) (S.S.). and Resident CouncillorsBy the Supreme Court Ordinance 1868 (No. 5 of 1868\) (S.S.). ceased to be judges of the Court.
In 1873, the Supreme Court was reconstituted to consist of the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice "Chief Justice") and the Judge at Penang as well as a Senior and a Junior [Puisne Judge](/wiki/Puisne_Judge "Puisne Judge"). There were two divisions of the court, one at Singapore and Malacca and the other at Penang. As Singapore had become the Straits Settlements' centre of government and trade, the Chief Justice and Senior Puisne Judge were required to reside in Singapore, while the Judge of Penang and the Junior Puisne Judge resided in Penang. The Supreme Court was also conferred with jurisdiction to sit as a [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeals "Court of Appeals") in [civil matters](/wiki/Civil_law_%28common_law%29 "Civil law (common law)"). Following changes in the court structure in England, in 1878 the jurisdiction and residence of judges was made more flexible, thus impliedly abolishing the geographical division of the Supreme Court.Tan, p. 18\. The first hierarchy of courts was also established, consisting of the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements, Courts of Request, Courts of Two Magistrates, Magistrates' Courts, Coroners' Courts and Justices of the Peace. Appeals from decisions of the Supreme Court lay in the first instance to the Court of Appeal, and then to Her Majesty in Council, the latter appeals being heard by the [Judicial Committee of Her Britannic Majesty's Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council").The 1878 reforms were effected by the Courts Ordinance 1878 (No. 3 of 1878\) (S.S.).
Also in 1878, a provision later known as section 5 of the Civil Law Act{{Singapore legislation\|title\=Civil Law Act\|cap\=43\|ed\=1985\|lk\=off}}. was introduced into Straits Settlements law.By the Civil Law Ordinance 1878 (No. 4 of 1878\) (S.S.). The provision stated that if a question or issue arose locally with respect to certain named categories of law or with respect to [mercantile law](/wiki/Law_merchant "Law merchant") generally, the law to be administered was to be the same as that administered in England at the corresponding period, unless other provision had been made by any law having force locally. It was felt the provision was needed because the Straits Settlements Supreme Court had a tendency to follow English case law premised on the existence of statutes that were not in force in the Colony. There was also a general sentiment that the common law should be common to the whole Empire.{{citation\|author\=Walter Woon\|chapter\=The Continuing Reception of English Commercial Law\|editor\=Walter Woon\|title\=The Singapore Legal System\|location\=Singapore\|publisher\=Longman\|year\=1989\|isbn\=978\-9971\-89\-993\-6\|page\=139 at 139–141}}. However, the manner in which section 5 was worded created much difficulty in determining whether particular English statutes applied locally.See, generally, Woon, pp. 142–153; and Phang, pp. 27–35\. Despite major amendments to the provision in 1979,By the Civil Law (Amendment No. 2\) Act 1979 (No. 24 of 1979\). the problems with it were not resolved until it was finally repealed in 1993 ([see below](/wiki/%231965_to_the_present:Singapore_as_a_fully_independent_nation "Singapore as a fully independent nation")).
Under the Courts Ordinance Amendment 1885 (S.S.),Ordinance No. 15 of 1885 (S.S.) the set\-up of the Supreme Court was again altered so that it now consisted of the Chief Justice and three puisne judges.Chionh, pp. 104–106\. In 1907 the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court was given a major overhaul.By the Courts Ordinance 1907 (No. 30 of 1907\) (S.S.). The Court was split into two divisions – a Civil Division and a Criminal Division, each with both [original](/wiki/Original_jurisdiction "Original jurisdiction") and [appellate jurisdiction](/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction "Appellate jurisdiction"). District Courts and Police Courts, which replaced the Magistrates' Courts, were also established. The Court of Requests, the jurisdiction of which had been drastically reduced in the intervening years, was abolished.Chionh, pp. 106–107\. The last major changes in the court system before World War II took place in 1934 when a Court of Criminal Appeal, essentially an extension of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction, was created,By way of the Court of Criminal Appeal Ordinance 1931 (No. 5 of 1931\) (S.S.): Tan, p. 19\. and in 1936 when it was declared that the Supreme Court would consist of a High Court and Court of Appeal.By the Courts Ordinance (Cap. 10, 1936 Rev. Ed.) (S.S.).
|
[
"### 1867–1942: The Straits Settlements as a Crown colony",
"On 1 April 1867, the [Straits Settlements](/wiki/Straits_Settlements \"Straits Settlements\") were detached from India and constituted as a separate [Crown colony](/wiki/British_overseas_territories \"British overseas territories\") by way of the [Straits Settlements Act 1866](/wiki/Straits_Settlements_Act_1866 \"Straits Settlements Act 1866\") ([29 \\& 30 Vict.](/wiki/29_%26_30_Vict. \"29 & 30 Vict.\") c. 115 (UK)).Bartholomew, p. xlvi. A separate [Legislative Council](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_the_Straits_Settlements \"Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements\") with the authority to make laws was set up for the Straits Settlements. Pieces of legislation passed by the Legislative Council were known as \"ordinances\".Bartholomew, p. xlvii.",
"By the Supreme Court Ordinance 1868 (S.S.),Ordinance No. 5 of 1868 (S.S.). the Court of Judicature of the Straits Settlements was abolished, and in its place the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements was established. The GovernorBy the Judicial Duties Act (No. 3 of 1867\\) (S.S.). and Resident CouncillorsBy the Supreme Court Ordinance 1868 (No. 5 of 1868\\) (S.S.). ceased to be judges of the Court.",
"In 1873, the Supreme Court was reconstituted to consist of the [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice \"Chief Justice\") and the Judge at Penang as well as a Senior and a Junior [Puisne Judge](/wiki/Puisne_Judge \"Puisne Judge\"). There were two divisions of the court, one at Singapore and Malacca and the other at Penang. As Singapore had become the Straits Settlements' centre of government and trade, the Chief Justice and Senior Puisne Judge were required to reside in Singapore, while the Judge of Penang and the Junior Puisne Judge resided in Penang. The Supreme Court was also conferred with jurisdiction to sit as a [Court of Appeal](/wiki/Court_of_Appeals \"Court of Appeals\") in [civil matters](/wiki/Civil_law_%28common_law%29 \"Civil law (common law)\"). Following changes in the court structure in England, in 1878 the jurisdiction and residence of judges was made more flexible, thus impliedly abolishing the geographical division of the Supreme Court.Tan, p. 18\\. The first hierarchy of courts was also established, consisting of the Supreme Court of the Straits Settlements, Courts of Request, Courts of Two Magistrates, Magistrates' Courts, Coroners' Courts and Justices of the Peace. Appeals from decisions of the Supreme Court lay in the first instance to the Court of Appeal, and then to Her Majesty in Council, the latter appeals being heard by the [Judicial Committee of Her Britannic Majesty's Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council \"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council\").The 1878 reforms were effected by the Courts Ordinance 1878 (No. 3 of 1878\\) (S.S.).",
"Also in 1878, a provision later known as section 5 of the Civil Law Act{{Singapore legislation\\|title\\=Civil Law Act\\|cap\\=43\\|ed\\=1985\\|lk\\=off}}. was introduced into Straits Settlements law.By the Civil Law Ordinance 1878 (No. 4 of 1878\\) (S.S.). The provision stated that if a question or issue arose locally with respect to certain named categories of law or with respect to [mercantile law](/wiki/Law_merchant \"Law merchant\") generally, the law to be administered was to be the same as that administered in England at the corresponding period, unless other provision had been made by any law having force locally. It was felt the provision was needed because the Straits Settlements Supreme Court had a tendency to follow English case law premised on the existence of statutes that were not in force in the Colony. There was also a general sentiment that the common law should be common to the whole Empire.{{citation\\|author\\=Walter Woon\\|chapter\\=The Continuing Reception of English Commercial Law\\|editor\\=Walter Woon\\|title\\=The Singapore Legal System\\|location\\=Singapore\\|publisher\\=Longman\\|year\\=1989\\|isbn\\=978\\-9971\\-89\\-993\\-6\\|page\\=139 at 139–141}}. However, the manner in which section 5 was worded created much difficulty in determining whether particular English statutes applied locally.See, generally, Woon, pp. 142–153; and Phang, pp. 27–35\\. Despite major amendments to the provision in 1979,By the Civil Law (Amendment No. 2\\) Act 1979 (No. 24 of 1979\\). the problems with it were not resolved until it was finally repealed in 1993 ([see below](/wiki/%231965_to_the_present:Singapore_as_a_fully_independent_nation \"Singapore as a fully independent nation\")).",
"Under the Courts Ordinance Amendment 1885 (S.S.),Ordinance No. 15 of 1885 (S.S.) the set\\-up of the Supreme Court was again altered so that it now consisted of the Chief Justice and three puisne judges.Chionh, pp. 104–106\\. In 1907 the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court was given a major overhaul.By the Courts Ordinance 1907 (No. 30 of 1907\\) (S.S.). The Court was split into two divisions – a Civil Division and a Criminal Division, each with both [original](/wiki/Original_jurisdiction \"Original jurisdiction\") and [appellate jurisdiction](/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction \"Appellate jurisdiction\"). District Courts and Police Courts, which replaced the Magistrates' Courts, were also established. The Court of Requests, the jurisdiction of which had been drastically reduced in the intervening years, was abolished.Chionh, pp. 106–107\\. The last major changes in the court system before World War II took place in 1934 when a Court of Criminal Appeal, essentially an extension of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction, was created,By way of the Court of Criminal Appeal Ordinance 1931 (No. 5 of 1931\\) (S.S.): Tan, p. 19\\. and in 1936 when it was declared that the Supreme Court would consist of a High Court and Court of Appeal.By the Courts Ordinance (Cap. 10, 1936 Rev. Ed.) (S.S.).",
""
] |
### 1942–1946: Singapore under Japanese and British Military Administration
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Gen. [Tomoyuki Yamashita](/wiki/Tomoyuki_Yamashita "Tomoyuki Yamashita") *(seated, left of centre)* of the [Japanese Imperial Army](/wiki/Japanese_Imperial_Army "Japanese Imperial Army") thumps the table with his fist to emphasise his terms – unconditional surrender of Singapore. Lt.\-Gen. [Arthur Percival](/wiki/Arthur_Ernest_Percival "Arthur Ernest Percival"), General Officer Commanding (Malaya) of the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") *(right, back to camera)* sits between his officers, his clenched hand to his mouth.](/wiki/File:BritishSurrender.jpg "BritishSurrender.jpg")
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Singapore fell under Japanese Military Administration on 15 February 1942\. There is much confusion as to where legislative authority lay, as there were several government or military bodies which had the power to make laws. These were, in order of descending authority, the Supreme Command of the Southern Army Headquarters, the 25th Army Headquarters, the Military Administration Department, the Malay (Malayan) Military Administration Headquarters, and the City Government of Tokubetu\-si. Numerous regulations, laws and notices were issued by all these bodies through the Tokubetu\-si without adhering to the normal chain of command. Although these laws were often contradictory, the body higher in the hierarchy always prevailed.
When the [Japanese occupation of Singapore](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore "Japanese occupation of Singapore") began, all existing courts ceased to function. By a decree of 7 April 1942, a Military Court of Justice of the Nippon Army was established, and the civil courts were reopened by a proclamation dated 27 May. This Proclamation made all former British laws applicable so long as they did not interfere with the Military Administration. The highest court was the Syonan Koto\-Hoin (Syonan Supreme Court) which was opened on 29 May. Although a court of appeal was constituted, it never sat.Tan, p. 20\.
There is some disagreement as to the status of judgments handed down by courts during the Japanese Occupation. The view has been taken by some post\-Occupation courts that decisions by Japanese tribunals applying the law were valid. Others have held that since the Japanese administration did not set up tribunals in compliance with the requirements of Straits Settlements law, while the law continued to apply there were no proper courts in existence to enforce it.Bartholomew, pp. lxviii–lxix.
The Japanese surrendered on 12 September 1945\. By Proclamation No. 1 (1945\), the [Supreme Allied Commander](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander "Supreme Allied Commander") [South East Asia](/wiki/South_East_Asia_Command "South East Asia Command") established the [British Military Administration](/wiki/British_Military_Administration_%28Malaya%29 "British Military Administration (Malaya)") which assumed full judicial, legislative, executive and administrative powers and responsibilities and conclusive jurisdiction over all persons and property throughout such areas of Malaya as were at any given time under the control of forces under his command.Bartholomew, p. lxix. The proclamation also declared that all laws and customs existing immediately prior to the Japanese Occupation would be respected, except that such of the existing law as the Chief Civil Affairs Officer considered practicable to administer during the period of military administration. Otherwise, all proclamations and legislative enactments of whatever kind issued by or under the authority of the Japanese Military Administration ceased to have effect.Bartholomew, p. lxx.
By Proclamation No. 23 (1945\), the Deputy Chief Civil Affairs Officer for the Singapore Division provided that every conviction of any offence by a tribunal established by the Japanese Military Administration was quashed, and any judgment convicting or purporting to convict any person or any offence was set aside. Civil proceedings were dealt with by the Japanese Judgements and Civil Proceedings Ordinance 1946 (No. 3 of 1946\), which had the effect of permitting post\-Occupation courts to review the decrees of Japanese tribunals and to confirm, modify or reverse them.Bartholomew, p. lxxi.
|
[
"### 1942–1946: Singapore under Japanese and British Military Administration",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Gen. [Tomoyuki Yamashita](/wiki/Tomoyuki_Yamashita \"Tomoyuki Yamashita\") *(seated, left of centre)* of the [Japanese Imperial Army](/wiki/Japanese_Imperial_Army \"Japanese Imperial Army\") thumps the table with his fist to emphasise his terms – unconditional surrender of Singapore. Lt.\\-Gen. [Arthur Percival](/wiki/Arthur_Ernest_Percival \"Arthur Ernest Percival\"), General Officer Commanding (Malaya) of the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") *(right, back to camera)* sits between his officers, his clenched hand to his mouth.](/wiki/File:BritishSurrender.jpg \"BritishSurrender.jpg\")",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Singapore fell under Japanese Military Administration on 15 February 1942\\. There is much confusion as to where legislative authority lay, as there were several government or military bodies which had the power to make laws. These were, in order of descending authority, the Supreme Command of the Southern Army Headquarters, the 25th Army Headquarters, the Military Administration Department, the Malay (Malayan) Military Administration Headquarters, and the City Government of Tokubetu\\-si. Numerous regulations, laws and notices were issued by all these bodies through the Tokubetu\\-si without adhering to the normal chain of command. Although these laws were often contradictory, the body higher in the hierarchy always prevailed.",
"When the [Japanese occupation of Singapore](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore \"Japanese occupation of Singapore\") began, all existing courts ceased to function. By a decree of 7 April 1942, a Military Court of Justice of the Nippon Army was established, and the civil courts were reopened by a proclamation dated 27 May. This Proclamation made all former British laws applicable so long as they did not interfere with the Military Administration. The highest court was the Syonan Koto\\-Hoin (Syonan Supreme Court) which was opened on 29 May. Although a court of appeal was constituted, it never sat.Tan, p. 20\\.",
"There is some disagreement as to the status of judgments handed down by courts during the Japanese Occupation. The view has been taken by some post\\-Occupation courts that decisions by Japanese tribunals applying the law were valid. Others have held that since the Japanese administration did not set up tribunals in compliance with the requirements of Straits Settlements law, while the law continued to apply there were no proper courts in existence to enforce it.Bartholomew, pp. lxviii–lxix.",
"The Japanese surrendered on 12 September 1945\\. By Proclamation No. 1 (1945\\), the [Supreme Allied Commander](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander \"Supreme Allied Commander\") [South East Asia](/wiki/South_East_Asia_Command \"South East Asia Command\") established the [British Military Administration](/wiki/British_Military_Administration_%28Malaya%29 \"British Military Administration (Malaya)\") which assumed full judicial, legislative, executive and administrative powers and responsibilities and conclusive jurisdiction over all persons and property throughout such areas of Malaya as were at any given time under the control of forces under his command.Bartholomew, p. lxix. The proclamation also declared that all laws and customs existing immediately prior to the Japanese Occupation would be respected, except that such of the existing law as the Chief Civil Affairs Officer considered practicable to administer during the period of military administration. Otherwise, all proclamations and legislative enactments of whatever kind issued by or under the authority of the Japanese Military Administration ceased to have effect.Bartholomew, p. lxx.",
"By Proclamation No. 23 (1945\\), the Deputy Chief Civil Affairs Officer for the Singapore Division provided that every conviction of any offence by a tribunal established by the Japanese Military Administration was quashed, and any judgment convicting or purporting to convict any person or any offence was set aside. Civil proceedings were dealt with by the Japanese Judgements and Civil Proceedings Ordinance 1946 (No. 3 of 1946\\), which had the effect of permitting post\\-Occupation courts to review the decrees of Japanese tribunals and to confirm, modify or reverse them.Bartholomew, p. lxxi.",
""
] |
### 1965 to the present: Singapore as a fully independent nation
[thumb\|left\|[Parliament House, Singapore](/wiki/Parliament_House%2C_Singapore "Parliament House, Singapore"), which was officially opened on 4 October 1999](/wiki/File:Parliament_House_Singapore.jpg "Parliament House Singapore.jpg")
Merger with Malaysia did not last: within two years, on 9 August 1965, Singapore was expelled from the Federation and became a fully independent [republic](/wiki/Republic "Republic"). This was effected by the signing of the Independence of Singapore Agreement of 7 August 1965 by Singapore and Malaysia, and the changes consequent to the Agreement were implemented by two Malaysian Acts, the Constitution and Malaysia (Singapore Amendment) Act 1965No. 31 of 1965 (M'sia). and the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1966;No. 59 of 1966 (M'sia). and by two Singapore Acts, the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1965No. 8 of 1965 (S'pore). and the Republic of Singapore Independence Act 1965\.No. 9 of 1965 (S'pore). Section 5 of the latter Act provided that the legislative powers of the [Yang di\-Pertuan Agong](/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong "Yang di-Pertuan Agong"), the supreme ruler of Malaysia, ceased to extend to Singapore, and vested instead in the Head of State (that is, the [President of Singapore](/wiki/President_of_Singapore "President of Singapore")) and the Legislature of Singapore. Again, all laws were expressed to continue in force with such modifications, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions as might be necessary to bring them into conformity with the independent status of Singapore upon separation from Malaysia.Bartholomew, pp. lxxix–lxxx. Today, the [Parliament of Singapore](/wiki/Parliament_of_Singapore "Parliament of Singapore") is an organ of state with [plenary power](/wiki/Plenary_power "Plenary power") to enact legislation for Singapore.
At the time of independence, the Singapore Parliament did not make any changes to the judicial system. Thus, for an anomalous four\-year period, the High Court in Singapore remained part of the Malaysian court structure. This was remedied in 1969, when the Constitution was amended to establish the [Supreme Court of Singapore](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Singapore "Supreme Court of Singapore") replacing the Federal Court of Malaysia with respect to Singapore, while retaining the [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council") in London as Singapore's court of final appeal.By the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1969 (No. 19 of 1969\): Tan, pp. 30 and 32\. The Supreme Court was divided into two divisions: the upper division consisted of the Court of Appeal and the Court of Criminal Appeal, which respectively dealt with civil and criminal matters; the lower division being the [High Court of Singapore](/wiki/High_Court_of_Singapore "High Court of Singapore").Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1969 (No. 24 of 1969\), now {{Singapore legislation\|cap\=322\|ed\=1999}}.
[thumb\|The [Supreme Court Building](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Singapore "Supreme Court of Singapore"), designed by Foster \& Partners, which commenced operations on 20 June 2005, as it appeared in August 2006](/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_Building%2C_Aug_06.JPG "Supreme Court Building, Aug 06.JPG")
In 1970 the subordinate courts were re\-organised.By the Subordinate Courts Act 1970 (No. 19 of 1970\), now {{Singapore legislation\|cap\=321\|ed\=1999}}. Since that time, the Subordinate Courts of Singapore have consisted of the District Courts, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Courts and the Coroners' Courts.Chionh, pp. 114–115\. The Subordinate Courts were renamed the [State Courts of Singapore](/wiki/State_Courts_of_Singapore "State Courts of Singapore") on 7 March 2014\.
Steps to restrict appeals to the Privy Council were first taken in 1989\. In that year, the law was changedBy the Judicial Committee (Amendment) Act 1989 (No. 21 of 1989\). such that appeals to the Privy Council would only be permitted in a civil case if all the parties agreed to such an appeal prior to the hearing of the case by the Court of Appeal. In criminal cases, an appeal to the Privy Council could only be taken if the death penalty was involved and if the judges of the Court of Criminal Appeal were not unanimous in their decision. These changes came shortly after the Privy Council restored a prominent opposition Member of Parliament, [Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam](/wiki/Joshua_Benjamin_Jeyaretnam "Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam"), to the roll of advocates and solicitors of the Supreme Court of Singapore after he had been struck off for a criminal conviction for making false statements in a [statutory declaration](/wiki/Statutory_declaration "Statutory declaration"); the court described the conviction as "a grievous injustice".*Jeyaretnam v. Law Society of Singapore* \[1988] 2 S.L.R.(R.) \[*Singapore Law Reports (Reissue)*] 470 at 489, para. 59, [\[1988] UKPC 25](http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/1988/1988_25.html), \[1989] A.C. 608 at 631, Privy Council (on appeal from Singapore); see also {{citation\|author\=Geoffrey Robertson\|author\-link\=Geoffrey Robertson\|title\=Joshua Jeyaretnam: Lawyer and activist, he was for many years the only political opposition to Singapore's rulers \[obituary]\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/07/2\|newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]]\|location\=London\|date\=7 October 2008}}. In 1993, the previous set\-up of a separate Court of Appeal and Court of Criminal Appeal was done away with, and in their place a unified Court of Appeal was constituted for both civil and criminal appeals.By the Supreme Court of Judicature (Amendment) Act 1993 (No. 16 of 1993\). Judges of Appeal appointed to the Court of Appeal were no longer required to engage in High Court work. The Chief Justice sat as the President of the Court of Appeal. The establishment of the permanent Court of Appeal paved the way for the abolition of all appeals to the Privy Council with effect from 8 April 1994\.The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (Amendment) Act 1994 (No. 5 of 1994\) repealed Art. 100 of the Constitution, which had provided that the President could make arrangements with Her Majesty for reference to the Privy Council of appeals from the Supreme Court. The Judicial Committee Act 1966 (No. 37 of 1966, later {{Singapore legislation\|cap\=148\|ed\=1985}}, which regulated the procedure for such appeals, was repealed by the Judicial Committee (Repeal) Act 1994 (No. 2 of 1994\). Following this, the Court of Appeal issued a Practice Statement dated 11 July 1994, stating that while the Court would treat its own prior decisions and those of the Privy Council as normally binding, where it appeared that adherence to such decisions "would cause injustice in a particular case or constrain the development of the law in conformity with the circumstances of Singapore" it would regard itself as free to depart from such decisions. It added that this power would be exercised sparingly, bearing in mind the danger of retrospectively disturbing contractual, proprietary and other legal rights.Chionh, pp. 116–117\. Today, the [Court of Appeal of Singapore](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_Singapore "Court of Appeal of Singapore") is the highest court in the land.
The independent status of Singapore's legal system was underlined by the repeal of section 5 of the Civil Law Act ([see above](/wiki/%231867%E2%80%931942:The_Straits_Settlements_as_a_Crown_colony "The Straits Settlements as a Crown colony")) on 12 November 1993 by the Application of English Law Act 1993\.No. 35 of 1993, now {{Singapore legislation\|cap\=7A\|ed\=1994}}. The Act aims to clarify the extent of the application of English law in Singapore. It states that the common law of England (including the principles and rules of equity), so far as it was part of the law of Singapore immediately before the commencement of the Act, continues to be part of Singapore law so far as it is applicable to the circumstances of Singapore and its inhabitants and subject to such modifications as those circumstances may require.Application of English Law Act, s. 3\. As for English statutes, only those that are listed in the Schedules to the Act apply or continue to apply in Singapore; no other English enactment is part of Singapore law.Application of English Law Act, ss. 4 and 5\. See, generally, Phang, pp. 37–49\.
|
[
"### 1965 to the present: Singapore as a fully independent nation",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Parliament House, Singapore](/wiki/Parliament_House%2C_Singapore \"Parliament House, Singapore\"), which was officially opened on 4 October 1999](/wiki/File:Parliament_House_Singapore.jpg \"Parliament House Singapore.jpg\")",
"Merger with Malaysia did not last: within two years, on 9 August 1965, Singapore was expelled from the Federation and became a fully independent [republic](/wiki/Republic \"Republic\"). This was effected by the signing of the Independence of Singapore Agreement of 7 August 1965 by Singapore and Malaysia, and the changes consequent to the Agreement were implemented by two Malaysian Acts, the Constitution and Malaysia (Singapore Amendment) Act 1965No. 31 of 1965 (M'sia). and the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1966;No. 59 of 1966 (M'sia). and by two Singapore Acts, the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1965No. 8 of 1965 (S'pore). and the Republic of Singapore Independence Act 1965\\.No. 9 of 1965 (S'pore). Section 5 of the latter Act provided that the legislative powers of the [Yang di\\-Pertuan Agong](/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong \"Yang di-Pertuan Agong\"), the supreme ruler of Malaysia, ceased to extend to Singapore, and vested instead in the Head of State (that is, the [President of Singapore](/wiki/President_of_Singapore \"President of Singapore\")) and the Legislature of Singapore. Again, all laws were expressed to continue in force with such modifications, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions as might be necessary to bring them into conformity with the independent status of Singapore upon separation from Malaysia.Bartholomew, pp. lxxix–lxxx. Today, the [Parliament of Singapore](/wiki/Parliament_of_Singapore \"Parliament of Singapore\") is an organ of state with [plenary power](/wiki/Plenary_power \"Plenary power\") to enact legislation for Singapore.",
"At the time of independence, the Singapore Parliament did not make any changes to the judicial system. Thus, for an anomalous four\\-year period, the High Court in Singapore remained part of the Malaysian court structure. This was remedied in 1969, when the Constitution was amended to establish the [Supreme Court of Singapore](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Singapore \"Supreme Court of Singapore\") replacing the Federal Court of Malaysia with respect to Singapore, while retaining the [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council \"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council\") in London as Singapore's court of final appeal.By the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1969 (No. 19 of 1969\\): Tan, pp. 30 and 32\\. The Supreme Court was divided into two divisions: the upper division consisted of the Court of Appeal and the Court of Criminal Appeal, which respectively dealt with civil and criminal matters; the lower division being the [High Court of Singapore](/wiki/High_Court_of_Singapore \"High Court of Singapore\").Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1969 (No. 24 of 1969\\), now {{Singapore legislation\\|cap\\=322\\|ed\\=1999}}.",
"[thumb\\|The [Supreme Court Building](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Singapore \"Supreme Court of Singapore\"), designed by Foster \\& Partners, which commenced operations on 20 June 2005, as it appeared in August 2006](/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_Building%2C_Aug_06.JPG \"Supreme Court Building, Aug 06.JPG\")",
"In 1970 the subordinate courts were re\\-organised.By the Subordinate Courts Act 1970 (No. 19 of 1970\\), now {{Singapore legislation\\|cap\\=321\\|ed\\=1999}}. Since that time, the Subordinate Courts of Singapore have consisted of the District Courts, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Courts and the Coroners' Courts.Chionh, pp. 114–115\\. The Subordinate Courts were renamed the [State Courts of Singapore](/wiki/State_Courts_of_Singapore \"State Courts of Singapore\") on 7 March 2014\\.",
"Steps to restrict appeals to the Privy Council were first taken in 1989\\. In that year, the law was changedBy the Judicial Committee (Amendment) Act 1989 (No. 21 of 1989\\). such that appeals to the Privy Council would only be permitted in a civil case if all the parties agreed to such an appeal prior to the hearing of the case by the Court of Appeal. In criminal cases, an appeal to the Privy Council could only be taken if the death penalty was involved and if the judges of the Court of Criminal Appeal were not unanimous in their decision. These changes came shortly after the Privy Council restored a prominent opposition Member of Parliament, [Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam](/wiki/Joshua_Benjamin_Jeyaretnam \"Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam\"), to the roll of advocates and solicitors of the Supreme Court of Singapore after he had been struck off for a criminal conviction for making false statements in a [statutory declaration](/wiki/Statutory_declaration \"Statutory declaration\"); the court described the conviction as \"a grievous injustice\".*Jeyaretnam v. Law Society of Singapore* \\[1988] 2 S.L.R.(R.) \\[*Singapore Law Reports (Reissue)*] 470 at 489, para. 59, [\\[1988] UKPC 25](http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/1988/1988_25.html), \\[1989] A.C. 608 at 631, Privy Council (on appeal from Singapore); see also {{citation\\|author\\=Geoffrey Robertson\\|author\\-link\\=Geoffrey Robertson\\|title\\=Joshua Jeyaretnam: Lawyer and activist, he was for many years the only political opposition to Singapore's rulers \\[obituary]\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/07/2\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|location\\=London\\|date\\=7 October 2008}}. In 1993, the previous set\\-up of a separate Court of Appeal and Court of Criminal Appeal was done away with, and in their place a unified Court of Appeal was constituted for both civil and criminal appeals.By the Supreme Court of Judicature (Amendment) Act 1993 (No. 16 of 1993\\). Judges of Appeal appointed to the Court of Appeal were no longer required to engage in High Court work. The Chief Justice sat as the President of the Court of Appeal. The establishment of the permanent Court of Appeal paved the way for the abolition of all appeals to the Privy Council with effect from 8 April 1994\\.The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (Amendment) Act 1994 (No. 5 of 1994\\) repealed Art. 100 of the Constitution, which had provided that the President could make arrangements with Her Majesty for reference to the Privy Council of appeals from the Supreme Court. The Judicial Committee Act 1966 (No. 37 of 1966, later {{Singapore legislation\\|cap\\=148\\|ed\\=1985}}, which regulated the procedure for such appeals, was repealed by the Judicial Committee (Repeal) Act 1994 (No. 2 of 1994\\). Following this, the Court of Appeal issued a Practice Statement dated 11 July 1994, stating that while the Court would treat its own prior decisions and those of the Privy Council as normally binding, where it appeared that adherence to such decisions \"would cause injustice in a particular case or constrain the development of the law in conformity with the circumstances of Singapore\" it would regard itself as free to depart from such decisions. It added that this power would be exercised sparingly, bearing in mind the danger of retrospectively disturbing contractual, proprietary and other legal rights.Chionh, pp. 116–117\\. Today, the [Court of Appeal of Singapore](/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_Singapore \"Court of Appeal of Singapore\") is the highest court in the land.",
"The independent status of Singapore's legal system was underlined by the repeal of section 5 of the Civil Law Act ([see above](/wiki/%231867%E2%80%931942:The_Straits_Settlements_as_a_Crown_colony \"The Straits Settlements as a Crown colony\")) on 12 November 1993 by the Application of English Law Act 1993\\.No. 35 of 1993, now {{Singapore legislation\\|cap\\=7A\\|ed\\=1994}}. The Act aims to clarify the extent of the application of English law in Singapore. It states that the common law of England (including the principles and rules of equity), so far as it was part of the law of Singapore immediately before the commencement of the Act, continues to be part of Singapore law so far as it is applicable to the circumstances of Singapore and its inhabitants and subject to such modifications as those circumstances may require.Application of English Law Act, s. 3\\. As for English statutes, only those that are listed in the Schedules to the Act apply or continue to apply in Singapore; no other English enactment is part of Singapore law.Application of English Law Act, ss. 4 and 5\\. See, generally, Phang, pp. 37–49\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Organization
The command was established on 14 November 1918 by Brigadier General [William Mitchell](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell "Billy Mitchell"), who was appointed as Commander, Third Army Air Service. The command was organized as part of the [United States Third Army](/wiki/United_States_Third_Army "United States Third Army") for the occupation of German Territory west of the [Rhine River](/wiki/Rhine_River "Rhine River") as agreed under the terms of the 11 November Armistice with Germany.
The Headquarters staff was originally organized about 15 October when about half dozen officers and some twenty enlisted men were withdrawn from Headquarters Detachment of the First Army Air Service at [Souilly Aerodrome](/wiki/Souilly_Aerodrome "Souilly Aerodrome"), France and used as a nucleus upon to build up a staff for a planned Army Group. The Army Group was planned as a Headquarters for both the First and Second Army Air Services. With the Armistice with Germany ending combat on 11 November, and the formation of Third Army, the staff was re\-designated as the Third Army Air Service. Once formed, the staff moved from Souilly to [Ligny\-en\-Barrois](/wiki/Ligny-en-Barrois "Ligny-en-Barrois"), France on 14 November.
A few days after the arrival of the staff at Ligny, a carload of necessary office supplies, equipment and other necessities began to arrive which enabled the command to begin operations. Everything was prepared for an extended move into Germany, and on 21 November, orders were received to move to [Longuyon](/wiki/Longuyon "Longuyon"), France. The Headquarters began its trip into Germany, arriving at Longuyon on the 22d. Owing to the terms that no Allied troops would cross into Germany until 1 December, on 5 December orders were received to move the Headquarters to [Euren](/wiki/Euren "Euren"), a suburb of [Trier](/wiki/Trier "Trier"), Germany. The truck train route taken took the Headquarters though [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg"). Quarters in Euren consisted of several old German Barracks, and the offices were set up in one of the barracks. The facilities were very unkempt and in a filthy condition, and it was necessary to send an advance detail to clean the facilities.
Lastly, on 16 December, orders were received for Headquarters to proceed to [Coblenz](/wiki/Coblenz "Coblenz"). On the morning of the 18th, a truck train of eight trucks began the move. It was hoped to make the trip in one day, however considerable difficulties were encountered on the road, and the convoy did not arrive in Coblenz until the evening of the 19th.
### Initial operations
Upon the command's arrival in Germany, an airfield was constructed on the former parade ground of Fort Kaiser Alexander for aircraft squadrons being assigned to Coblenz. The former [Deutsche Luftstreitkräfte](/wiki/Luftstreitkr%C3%A4fte "Luftstreitkräfte") (German Air Force) aerodromes at Trier and [Weißenthurm](/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fenthurm "Weißenthurm") were also taken over by the Command.
[thumb\|left\|Lion's Gate Entrance to Fort Kaiser Alexander](/wiki/File:91st_Aero_Squadron_-_Coblenz2_-_Jan_1919.jpg "91st Aero Squadron - Coblenz2 - Jan 1919.jpg")
Initial Observation units assigned to the Headquarters were the [1st Aero Squadron](/wiki/1st_Aero_Squadron "1st Aero Squadron") at Weißenthurm, the [12th Aero Squadron](/wiki/12th_Aero_Squadron "12th Aero Squadron") at Coblenz, and the [88th Aero Squadron](/wiki/88th_Aero_Squadron "88th Aero Squadron") at Trier. These units were initially ordered to photograph the entire corps area, including interesting features of the terrain, cities and towns, the road and railroad network and any such points as Headquarters may designated. The [94th Aero Squadron](/wiki/94th_Aero_Squadron "94th Aero Squadron") (Pursuit) and [166th Aero Squadron](/wiki/166th_Aero_Squadron "166th Aero Squadron") (Bombardment), both at Coblenz were ordered to carry out "show of force" formations over the Third Army area. Whenever possible, large formations of aircraft were to fly low over cities and towns, but no lower than 500m altitude. Acrobatic and stunt flying was to be avoided. The [9th Aero Squadron](/wiki/9th_Aero_Squadron "9th Aero Squadron") (Night Observation) was assigned as a courier squadron for the Commander of Third Army.
An extensive training program was organized in Aerial photography, infantry liaison, artillery adjustments, machine guns, infantry drill regulations, map reading and the study of photographs, lectures on the cooperation of aviation with the other branches of the Army. Practice flights included long\-distance cross country, photographic missions, formation flying and also, the flying of German aircraft obtained and evaluation of their capabilities and other aspects of their construction.
The VII Corps Observation Group established an infantry liaison school at Trier in January 1919\. The mission of the school was to train infantry units in displaying panels by the front line troops, the use of pyrotechnics as employed to signal from the ground to aircraft and from the aircraft to the ground. Artillery units were trained in the use of aircraft for adjusting barrages. As many officers and non\-commissioned officers as possible were taken up in airplanes to view the exercises. Radio officers were taken up to perform duties in actual exercises.
### Realignment and demobilization
[thumb\|Hangars and aircraft on display at the Coblenz Aviation Show, April 1919](/wiki/File:Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg "Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg")
[thumb\|Observation Balloon demonstration at the Coblenz Aviation Show](/wiki/File:Observation_Balloon_demonstration_-_Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg "Observation Balloon demonstration - Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg")
[thumb\|1st Aero Squadron Salmson 2A2 planes on display at the Coblenz Aviation Show](/wiki/File:Air_Service_Aircraft_on_Display_-_Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg "Air Service Aircraft on Display - Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg")
On 7 April the construction of a new aerodrome at [Sinzing](/wiki/Sinzing "Sinzing") was commenced to take care of additional squadrons moving in from the First and Second Armies in France, and for that same reason, the aerodrome at Weißenthurm was expanded. Also plans were made to place a main Supply Depot adjacent to the airfield at Weißenthurm.
The next day, 8 April 1919, with the pending assignment of replacement units from France, the 12th, 91st, 94th and 166th Aero Squadrons were relieved from duty with the Third AS and on 16 April ordered to proceed to the Services of Supply 1st Air Depot at [Colombey\-les\-Belles Airdrome](/wiki/Colombey-les-Belles_Airdrome "Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome"), France, for immediate demobilization and return to the United States.
With the demobilization of the First and Second Army Air Services on 15 April, additional squadrons were transferred to Third Army to supplement units already in Germany. The [5th Pursuit Group](/wiki/5th_Pursuit_Group "5th Pursuit Group"), formerly of Second Army in France was moved to Coblenz, and the IV Corps Observation Group was moved to the new Aerodrome at Sinzig. There, IV Corps was to establish a Liaison School, modeled on the one operating by VII Corps at Trier. Other new units assigned to the Third Army AS were the 166th, 24th and 256th Aero Squadrons to the III Corps, and the 278th and 354th AS to IV Corps.
Between 23 and 27 April, the Third Army held a Horse\-Motor and Aviation Show at Coblenz. The Air Service took a large part, putting on both air and Ground exhibitions. Pursuit, Observation, Day Bombardment, and Aerial Reconnaissance planes were placed on display, all fully equipped for duty over the lines. Also a Radio Section was on display showing the methods of liaison from ground to air and air to ground employed by the Air Service during the War. Other displays presented were from the Armament Section, with a full display of munitions and other pyrotechnics; various aircraft engines, aerial cameras, and a Balloon Exhibit of lighter\-than\-air observation craft. Pursuit plane races, message dropping contests, the winner being the one dropping a message from an aircraft closest to a panel, and a demonstration of aerobatic stunt flying by members of the Air Service.
The show was attended by several thousand Air Service personnel, members of Third Army and also, and most importantly, members of the general public, who saw the capabilities of the Air Service on display. The walls, ceilings, and fronts of two aircraft hangars used for the exhibits were completely covered by large U.S. Flags. An orchestra furnished music both mornings and afternoons.
However, the entire Third Army Air Service, excepting that of the III Corps [138th Aero Squadron](/wiki/138th_Aero_Squadron "138th Aero Squadron"), one air park, and one construction squadron were relieved from further duty with the Third Army on 12 May 1919, and ordered to proceed to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey, France, for demobilization. The 138th was reassigned to Air Service HQ and took over the courier and liaison duties of the 9th Aero until the entire Third Army Air Service Headquarters itself was demobilized on 2 July 1919\.
### Lineage
* Organized in France as: **Third Army Air Service**, on 14 November 1918
Demobilized on 2 July 1919
### Assignments
* [United States Third Army](/wiki/United_States_Third_Army "United States Third Army"), 14 November 1918 – 2 July 1919
### Components
{{Col\-begin}}
{{Col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* [5th Pursuit Group](/wiki/5th_Pursuit_Group "5th Pursuit Group"), 15 April – 12 May 1919
Coblenz Airdrome, Fort Kaiser Alexander
[138th Aero Squadron](/wiki/138th_Aero_Squadron "138th Aero Squadron") relieved on 1 July 1919
* [III Corps Observation Group](/wiki/III_Corps_Observation_Group "III Corps Observation Group"), 21 November 1918 – 12 May 1919
Weißenthurm Airdrome
{{Col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* [IV Corps Observation Group](/wiki/IV_Corps_Observation_Group "IV Corps Observation Group"), 21 November 1918 – 12 May 1919
Coblenz Airdrome until 15 April, then Sinzig Airdrome
* [VII Corps Observation Group](/wiki/VII_Corps_Observation_Group "VII Corps Observation Group"), 22 November 1918 – 12 May 1919
[Trier Airdrome](/wiki/Trier_Airdrome "Trier Airdrome")
{{col\-end}}
### Headquarters
* [Ligny\-en\-Barrois](/wiki/Ligny-en-Barrois "Ligny-en-Barrois"), France, 14 November 1918
* [Longuyon](/wiki/Longuyon "Longuyon"), France, 22 November 1918
* Euren, near [Trier Airdrome](/wiki/Trier_Airdrome "Trier Airdrome"), Germany 8 December 1918
* Coblenz Airdrome, Fort Kaiser Alexander, Germany, 19 December 1918 – 2 July 1919
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Organization",
"The command was established on 14 November 1918 by Brigadier General [William Mitchell](/wiki/Billy_Mitchell \"Billy Mitchell\"), who was appointed as Commander, Third Army Air Service. The command was organized as part of the [United States Third Army](/wiki/United_States_Third_Army \"United States Third Army\") for the occupation of German Territory west of the [Rhine River](/wiki/Rhine_River \"Rhine River\") as agreed under the terms of the 11 November Armistice with Germany.",
"The Headquarters staff was originally organized about 15 October when about half dozen officers and some twenty enlisted men were withdrawn from Headquarters Detachment of the First Army Air Service at [Souilly Aerodrome](/wiki/Souilly_Aerodrome \"Souilly Aerodrome\"), France and used as a nucleus upon to build up a staff for a planned Army Group. The Army Group was planned as a Headquarters for both the First and Second Army Air Services. With the Armistice with Germany ending combat on 11 November, and the formation of Third Army, the staff was re\\-designated as the Third Army Air Service. Once formed, the staff moved from Souilly to [Ligny\\-en\\-Barrois](/wiki/Ligny-en-Barrois \"Ligny-en-Barrois\"), France on 14 November.",
"A few days after the arrival of the staff at Ligny, a carload of necessary office supplies, equipment and other necessities began to arrive which enabled the command to begin operations. Everything was prepared for an extended move into Germany, and on 21 November, orders were received to move to [Longuyon](/wiki/Longuyon \"Longuyon\"), France. The Headquarters began its trip into Germany, arriving at Longuyon on the 22d. Owing to the terms that no Allied troops would cross into Germany until 1 December, on 5 December orders were received to move the Headquarters to [Euren](/wiki/Euren \"Euren\"), a suburb of [Trier](/wiki/Trier \"Trier\"), Germany. The truck train route taken took the Headquarters though [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\"). Quarters in Euren consisted of several old German Barracks, and the offices were set up in one of the barracks. The facilities were very unkempt and in a filthy condition, and it was necessary to send an advance detail to clean the facilities.",
"Lastly, on 16 December, orders were received for Headquarters to proceed to [Coblenz](/wiki/Coblenz \"Coblenz\"). On the morning of the 18th, a truck train of eight trucks began the move. It was hoped to make the trip in one day, however considerable difficulties were encountered on the road, and the convoy did not arrive in Coblenz until the evening of the 19th.",
"### Initial operations",
"Upon the command's arrival in Germany, an airfield was constructed on the former parade ground of Fort Kaiser Alexander for aircraft squadrons being assigned to Coblenz. The former [Deutsche Luftstreitkräfte](/wiki/Luftstreitkr%C3%A4fte \"Luftstreitkräfte\") (German Air Force) aerodromes at Trier and [Weißenthurm](/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fenthurm \"Weißenthurm\") were also taken over by the Command.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Lion's Gate Entrance to Fort Kaiser Alexander](/wiki/File:91st_Aero_Squadron_-_Coblenz2_-_Jan_1919.jpg \"91st Aero Squadron - Coblenz2 - Jan 1919.jpg\")\nInitial Observation units assigned to the Headquarters were the [1st Aero Squadron](/wiki/1st_Aero_Squadron \"1st Aero Squadron\") at Weißenthurm, the [12th Aero Squadron](/wiki/12th_Aero_Squadron \"12th Aero Squadron\") at Coblenz, and the [88th Aero Squadron](/wiki/88th_Aero_Squadron \"88th Aero Squadron\") at Trier. These units were initially ordered to photograph the entire corps area, including interesting features of the terrain, cities and towns, the road and railroad network and any such points as Headquarters may designated. The [94th Aero Squadron](/wiki/94th_Aero_Squadron \"94th Aero Squadron\") (Pursuit) and [166th Aero Squadron](/wiki/166th_Aero_Squadron \"166th Aero Squadron\") (Bombardment), both at Coblenz were ordered to carry out \"show of force\" formations over the Third Army area. Whenever possible, large formations of aircraft were to fly low over cities and towns, but no lower than 500m altitude. Acrobatic and stunt flying was to be avoided. The [9th Aero Squadron](/wiki/9th_Aero_Squadron \"9th Aero Squadron\") (Night Observation) was assigned as a courier squadron for the Commander of Third Army.",
"An extensive training program was organized in Aerial photography, infantry liaison, artillery adjustments, machine guns, infantry drill regulations, map reading and the study of photographs, lectures on the cooperation of aviation with the other branches of the Army. Practice flights included long\\-distance cross country, photographic missions, formation flying and also, the flying of German aircraft obtained and evaluation of their capabilities and other aspects of their construction.",
"The VII Corps Observation Group established an infantry liaison school at Trier in January 1919\\. The mission of the school was to train infantry units in displaying panels by the front line troops, the use of pyrotechnics as employed to signal from the ground to aircraft and from the aircraft to the ground. Artillery units were trained in the use of aircraft for adjusting barrages. As many officers and non\\-commissioned officers as possible were taken up in airplanes to view the exercises. Radio officers were taken up to perform duties in actual exercises.",
"### Realignment and demobilization",
"[thumb\\|Hangars and aircraft on display at the Coblenz Aviation Show, April 1919](/wiki/File:Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg \"Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Observation Balloon demonstration at the Coblenz Aviation Show](/wiki/File:Observation_Balloon_demonstration_-_Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg \"Observation Balloon demonstration - Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|1st Aero Squadron Salmson 2A2 planes on display at the Coblenz Aviation Show](/wiki/File:Air_Service_Aircraft_on_Display_-_Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg \"Air Service Aircraft on Display - Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg\")\nOn 7 April the construction of a new aerodrome at [Sinzing](/wiki/Sinzing \"Sinzing\") was commenced to take care of additional squadrons moving in from the First and Second Armies in France, and for that same reason, the aerodrome at Weißenthurm was expanded. Also plans were made to place a main Supply Depot adjacent to the airfield at Weißenthurm.",
"The next day, 8 April 1919, with the pending assignment of replacement units from France, the 12th, 91st, 94th and 166th Aero Squadrons were relieved from duty with the Third AS and on 16 April ordered to proceed to the Services of Supply 1st Air Depot at [Colombey\\-les\\-Belles Airdrome](/wiki/Colombey-les-Belles_Airdrome \"Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome\"), France, for immediate demobilization and return to the United States.",
"With the demobilization of the First and Second Army Air Services on 15 April, additional squadrons were transferred to Third Army to supplement units already in Germany. The [5th Pursuit Group](/wiki/5th_Pursuit_Group \"5th Pursuit Group\"), formerly of Second Army in France was moved to Coblenz, and the IV Corps Observation Group was moved to the new Aerodrome at Sinzig. There, IV Corps was to establish a Liaison School, modeled on the one operating by VII Corps at Trier. Other new units assigned to the Third Army AS were the 166th, 24th and 256th Aero Squadrons to the III Corps, and the 278th and 354th AS to IV Corps.",
"Between 23 and 27 April, the Third Army held a Horse\\-Motor and Aviation Show at Coblenz. The Air Service took a large part, putting on both air and Ground exhibitions. Pursuit, Observation, Day Bombardment, and Aerial Reconnaissance planes were placed on display, all fully equipped for duty over the lines. Also a Radio Section was on display showing the methods of liaison from ground to air and air to ground employed by the Air Service during the War. Other displays presented were from the Armament Section, with a full display of munitions and other pyrotechnics; various aircraft engines, aerial cameras, and a Balloon Exhibit of lighter\\-than\\-air observation craft. Pursuit plane races, message dropping contests, the winner being the one dropping a message from an aircraft closest to a panel, and a demonstration of aerobatic stunt flying by members of the Air Service.",
"The show was attended by several thousand Air Service personnel, members of Third Army and also, and most importantly, members of the general public, who saw the capabilities of the Air Service on display. The walls, ceilings, and fronts of two aircraft hangars used for the exhibits were completely covered by large U.S. Flags. An orchestra furnished music both mornings and afternoons.",
"However, the entire Third Army Air Service, excepting that of the III Corps [138th Aero Squadron](/wiki/138th_Aero_Squadron \"138th Aero Squadron\"), one air park, and one construction squadron were relieved from further duty with the Third Army on 12 May 1919, and ordered to proceed to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey, France, for demobilization. The 138th was reassigned to Air Service HQ and took over the courier and liaison duties of the 9th Aero until the entire Third Army Air Service Headquarters itself was demobilized on 2 July 1919\\.",
"### Lineage",
"* Organized in France as: **Third Army Air Service**, on 14 November 1918",
"Demobilized on 2 July 1919\n### Assignments",
"* [United States Third Army](/wiki/United_States_Third_Army \"United States Third Army\"), 14 November 1918 – 2 July 1919",
"### Components",
"{{Col\\-begin}}\n{{Col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* [5th Pursuit Group](/wiki/5th_Pursuit_Group \"5th Pursuit Group\"), 15 April – 12 May 1919",
"Coblenz Airdrome, Fort Kaiser Alexander\n [138th Aero Squadron](/wiki/138th_Aero_Squadron \"138th Aero Squadron\") relieved on 1 July 1919\n* [III Corps Observation Group](/wiki/III_Corps_Observation_Group \"III Corps Observation Group\"), 21 November 1918 – 12 May 1919",
"Weißenthurm Airdrome\n{{Col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* [IV Corps Observation Group](/wiki/IV_Corps_Observation_Group \"IV Corps Observation Group\"), 21 November 1918 – 12 May 1919",
"Coblenz Airdrome until 15 April, then Sinzig Airdrome\n* [VII Corps Observation Group](/wiki/VII_Corps_Observation_Group \"VII Corps Observation Group\"), 22 November 1918 – 12 May 1919",
"[Trier Airdrome](/wiki/Trier_Airdrome \"Trier Airdrome\")\n{{col\\-end}}",
"### Headquarters",
"* [Ligny\\-en\\-Barrois](/wiki/Ligny-en-Barrois \"Ligny-en-Barrois\"), France, 14 November 1918\n* [Longuyon](/wiki/Longuyon \"Longuyon\"), France, 22 November 1918\n* Euren, near [Trier Airdrome](/wiki/Trier_Airdrome \"Trier Airdrome\"), Germany 8 December 1918\n* Coblenz Airdrome, Fort Kaiser Alexander, Germany, 19 December 1918 – 2 July 1919"
] |
### Realignment and demobilization
[thumb\|Hangars and aircraft on display at the Coblenz Aviation Show, April 1919](/wiki/File:Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg "Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg")
[thumb\|Observation Balloon demonstration at the Coblenz Aviation Show](/wiki/File:Observation_Balloon_demonstration_-_Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg "Observation Balloon demonstration - Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg")
[thumb\|1st Aero Squadron Salmson 2A2 planes on display at the Coblenz Aviation Show](/wiki/File:Air_Service_Aircraft_on_Display_-_Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg "Air Service Aircraft on Display - Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg")
On 7 April the construction of a new aerodrome at [Sinzing](/wiki/Sinzing "Sinzing") was commenced to take care of additional squadrons moving in from the First and Second Armies in France, and for that same reason, the aerodrome at Weißenthurm was expanded. Also plans were made to place a main Supply Depot adjacent to the airfield at Weißenthurm.
The next day, 8 April 1919, with the pending assignment of replacement units from France, the 12th, 91st, 94th and 166th Aero Squadrons were relieved from duty with the Third AS and on 16 April ordered to proceed to the Services of Supply 1st Air Depot at [Colombey\-les\-Belles Airdrome](/wiki/Colombey-les-Belles_Airdrome "Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome"), France, for immediate demobilization and return to the United States.
With the demobilization of the First and Second Army Air Services on 15 April, additional squadrons were transferred to Third Army to supplement units already in Germany. The [5th Pursuit Group](/wiki/5th_Pursuit_Group "5th Pursuit Group"), formerly of Second Army in France was moved to Coblenz, and the IV Corps Observation Group was moved to the new Aerodrome at Sinzig. There, IV Corps was to establish a Liaison School, modeled on the one operating by VII Corps at Trier. Other new units assigned to the Third Army AS were the 166th, 24th and 256th Aero Squadrons to the III Corps, and the 278th and 354th AS to IV Corps.
Between 23 and 27 April, the Third Army held a Horse\-Motor and Aviation Show at Coblenz. The Air Service took a large part, putting on both air and Ground exhibitions. Pursuit, Observation, Day Bombardment, and Aerial Reconnaissance planes were placed on display, all fully equipped for duty over the lines. Also a Radio Section was on display showing the methods of liaison from ground to air and air to ground employed by the Air Service during the War. Other displays presented were from the Armament Section, with a full display of munitions and other pyrotechnics; various aircraft engines, aerial cameras, and a Balloon Exhibit of lighter\-than\-air observation craft. Pursuit plane races, message dropping contests, the winner being the one dropping a message from an aircraft closest to a panel, and a demonstration of aerobatic stunt flying by members of the Air Service.
The show was attended by several thousand Air Service personnel, members of Third Army and also, and most importantly, members of the general public, who saw the capabilities of the Air Service on display. The walls, ceilings, and fronts of two aircraft hangars used for the exhibits were completely covered by large U.S. Flags. An orchestra furnished music both mornings and afternoons.
However, the entire Third Army Air Service, excepting that of the III Corps [138th Aero Squadron](/wiki/138th_Aero_Squadron "138th Aero Squadron"), one air park, and one construction squadron were relieved from further duty with the Third Army on 12 May 1919, and ordered to proceed to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey, France, for demobilization. The 138th was reassigned to Air Service HQ and took over the courier and liaison duties of the 9th Aero until the entire Third Army Air Service Headquarters itself was demobilized on 2 July 1919\.
|
[
"### Realignment and demobilization",
"[thumb\\|Hangars and aircraft on display at the Coblenz Aviation Show, April 1919](/wiki/File:Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg \"Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Observation Balloon demonstration at the Coblenz Aviation Show](/wiki/File:Observation_Balloon_demonstration_-_Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg \"Observation Balloon demonstration - Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|1st Aero Squadron Salmson 2A2 planes on display at the Coblenz Aviation Show](/wiki/File:Air_Service_Aircraft_on_Display_-_Coblenz_Air_Show_-_April_1919.jpg \"Air Service Aircraft on Display - Coblenz Air Show - April 1919.jpg\")\nOn 7 April the construction of a new aerodrome at [Sinzing](/wiki/Sinzing \"Sinzing\") was commenced to take care of additional squadrons moving in from the First and Second Armies in France, and for that same reason, the aerodrome at Weißenthurm was expanded. Also plans were made to place a main Supply Depot adjacent to the airfield at Weißenthurm.",
"The next day, 8 April 1919, with the pending assignment of replacement units from France, the 12th, 91st, 94th and 166th Aero Squadrons were relieved from duty with the Third AS and on 16 April ordered to proceed to the Services of Supply 1st Air Depot at [Colombey\\-les\\-Belles Airdrome](/wiki/Colombey-les-Belles_Airdrome \"Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome\"), France, for immediate demobilization and return to the United States.",
"With the demobilization of the First and Second Army Air Services on 15 April, additional squadrons were transferred to Third Army to supplement units already in Germany. The [5th Pursuit Group](/wiki/5th_Pursuit_Group \"5th Pursuit Group\"), formerly of Second Army in France was moved to Coblenz, and the IV Corps Observation Group was moved to the new Aerodrome at Sinzig. There, IV Corps was to establish a Liaison School, modeled on the one operating by VII Corps at Trier. Other new units assigned to the Third Army AS were the 166th, 24th and 256th Aero Squadrons to the III Corps, and the 278th and 354th AS to IV Corps.",
"Between 23 and 27 April, the Third Army held a Horse\\-Motor and Aviation Show at Coblenz. The Air Service took a large part, putting on both air and Ground exhibitions. Pursuit, Observation, Day Bombardment, and Aerial Reconnaissance planes were placed on display, all fully equipped for duty over the lines. Also a Radio Section was on display showing the methods of liaison from ground to air and air to ground employed by the Air Service during the War. Other displays presented were from the Armament Section, with a full display of munitions and other pyrotechnics; various aircraft engines, aerial cameras, and a Balloon Exhibit of lighter\\-than\\-air observation craft. Pursuit plane races, message dropping contests, the winner being the one dropping a message from an aircraft closest to a panel, and a demonstration of aerobatic stunt flying by members of the Air Service.",
"The show was attended by several thousand Air Service personnel, members of Third Army and also, and most importantly, members of the general public, who saw the capabilities of the Air Service on display. The walls, ceilings, and fronts of two aircraft hangars used for the exhibits were completely covered by large U.S. Flags. An orchestra furnished music both mornings and afternoons.",
"However, the entire Third Army Air Service, excepting that of the III Corps [138th Aero Squadron](/wiki/138th_Aero_Squadron \"138th Aero Squadron\"), one air park, and one construction squadron were relieved from further duty with the Third Army on 12 May 1919, and ordered to proceed to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey, France, for demobilization. The 138th was reassigned to Air Service HQ and took over the courier and liaison duties of the 9th Aero until the entire Third Army Air Service Headquarters itself was demobilized on 2 July 1919\\.",
""
] |
Decryption
----------
In order to decrypt, we turn the ciphertext back into a vector, then simply multiply by the [inverse matrix](/wiki/Matrix_inversion "Matrix inversion") of the key matrix (IFK{{silver (color)\|/}}VIV{{silver (color)\|/}}VMI in letters). We find that, [modulo](/wiki/Modular_arithmetic "Modular arithmetic") 26, the inverse of the matrix used in the previous example is:
\\begin{pmatrix} 6 \& 24 \& 1 \\\\ 13 \& 16 \& 10 \\\\ 20 \& 17 \& 15 \\end{pmatrix}^{\-1} \\pmod{26}\\equiv \\begin{pmatrix} 8 \& 5 \& 10 \\\\ 21 \& 8 \& 21 \\\\ 21 \& 12 \& 8 \\end{pmatrix}
Taking the previous example ciphertext of 'POH', we get:
\\begin{pmatrix} 8 \& 5 \& 10 \\\\ 21 \& 8 \& 21 \\\\ 21 \& 12 \& 8 \\end{pmatrix} \\begin{pmatrix} 15 \\\\ 14 \\\\ 7 \\end{pmatrix} \= \\begin{pmatrix} 260 \\\\ 574 \\\\ 539 \\end{pmatrix} \\equiv \\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\\\ 2 \\\\ 19 \\end{pmatrix} \\pmod{26}
which gets us back to 'ACT', as expected.
One complication exists in picking the encrypting matrix:
1. Not all matrices have an [inverse](/wiki/Invertible_matrix "Invertible matrix"). The matrix will have an inverse if and only if its [determinant](/wiki/Determinant "Determinant") is inversible modulo n, where n is the modular base.
Thus, if we work modulo 26 as above, the determinant must be nonzero, and must not be divisible by 2 or 13\. If the determinant is 0, or has common factors with the modular base, then the matrix cannot be used in the Hill cipher, and another matrix must be chosen (otherwise it will not be possible to decrypt). Fortunately, matrices which satisfy the conditions to be used in the Hill cipher are fairly common.
For our example key matrix:
\\begin{vmatrix} 6 \& 24\& 1 \\\\ 13 \& 16 \& 10 \\\\ 20 \& 17 \& 15 \\end{vmatrix} \= 6(16\\cdot15\-10\\cdot17\)\-24(13\\cdot15\-10\\cdot20\)\+1(13\\cdot17\-16\\cdot20\) \= 441 \\equiv 25 \\pmod{26}
So, modulo 26, the determinant is 25\. Since 25\=5^2 and 26\=2 \\times 13, 25 has no common factors with 26, and this matrix can be used for the Hill cipher.
The risk of the determinant having common factors with the modulus can be eliminated by making the modulus [prime](/wiki/Prime_number "Prime number"). Consequently, a useful variant of the Hill cipher adds 3 extra symbols (such as a space, a period and a question mark) to increase the modulus to 29\.
|
[
"Decryption\n----------",
"In order to decrypt, we turn the ciphertext back into a vector, then simply multiply by the [inverse matrix](/wiki/Matrix_inversion \"Matrix inversion\") of the key matrix (IFK{{silver (color)\\|/}}VIV{{silver (color)\\|/}}VMI in letters). We find that, [modulo](/wiki/Modular_arithmetic \"Modular arithmetic\") 26, the inverse of the matrix used in the previous example is:\n\\\\begin{pmatrix} 6 \\& 24 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 13 \\& 16 \\& 10 \\\\\\\\ 20 \\& 17 \\& 15 \\\\end{pmatrix}^{\\-1} \\\\pmod{26}\\\\equiv \\\\begin{pmatrix} 8 \\& 5 \\& 10 \\\\\\\\ 21 \\& 8 \\& 21 \\\\\\\\ 21 \\& 12 \\& 8 \\\\end{pmatrix} \nTaking the previous example ciphertext of 'POH', we get:\n\\\\begin{pmatrix} 8 \\& 5 \\& 10 \\\\\\\\ 21 \\& 8 \\& 21 \\\\\\\\ 21 \\& 12 \\& 8 \\\\end{pmatrix} \\\\begin{pmatrix} 15 \\\\\\\\ 14 \\\\\\\\ 7 \\\\end{pmatrix} \\= \\\\begin{pmatrix} 260 \\\\\\\\ 574 \\\\\\\\ 539 \\\\end{pmatrix} \\\\equiv \\\\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\\\\\\\ 2 \\\\\\\\ 19 \\\\end{pmatrix} \\\\pmod{26}\nwhich gets us back to 'ACT', as expected.",
"One complication exists in picking the encrypting matrix:\n1. Not all matrices have an [inverse](/wiki/Invertible_matrix \"Invertible matrix\"). The matrix will have an inverse if and only if its [determinant](/wiki/Determinant \"Determinant\") is inversible modulo n, where n is the modular base.",
"Thus, if we work modulo 26 as above, the determinant must be nonzero, and must not be divisible by 2 or 13\\. If the determinant is 0, or has common factors with the modular base, then the matrix cannot be used in the Hill cipher, and another matrix must be chosen (otherwise it will not be possible to decrypt). Fortunately, matrices which satisfy the conditions to be used in the Hill cipher are fairly common.",
"For our example key matrix:\n\\\\begin{vmatrix} 6 \\& 24\\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 13 \\& 16 \\& 10 \\\\\\\\ 20 \\& 17 \\& 15 \\\\end{vmatrix} \\= 6(16\\\\cdot15\\-10\\\\cdot17\\)\\-24(13\\\\cdot15\\-10\\\\cdot20\\)\\+1(13\\\\cdot17\\-16\\\\cdot20\\) \\= 441 \\\\equiv 25 \\\\pmod{26}\nSo, modulo 26, the determinant is 25\\. Since 25\\=5^2 and 26\\=2 \\\\times 13, 25 has no common factors with 26, and this matrix can be used for the Hill cipher.",
"The risk of the determinant having common factors with the modulus can be eliminated by making the modulus [prime](/wiki/Prime_number \"Prime number\"). Consequently, a useful variant of the Hill cipher adds 3 extra symbols (such as a space, a period and a question mark) to increase the modulus to 29\\.",
""
] |
Year\-by\-year breakdown
------------------------
### 1960
NBC held individual team contracts with the [Pittsburgh Steelers](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Steelers "Pittsburgh Steelers") and [Baltimore Colts](/wiki/Baltimore_Colts "Baltimore Colts") in [1959](/wiki/1959_NFL_season "1959 NFL season"), [1960](/wiki/1960_NFL_season "1960 NFL season") and [1961](/wiki/1961_NFL_season "1961 NFL season"). While the games were [blacked out](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 "Blackout (broadcasting)") in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh") and [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"), they were broadcast on other NBC stations. In some cases, the game broadcast was seen on CBS in the visiting team's home region. NBC covered eleven games in 1960 and 13 games in 1961 in a "Game of the Week" format. NBC would take one week off due to its [coverage](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_on_NBC "Major League Baseball on NBC") of the [World Series](/wiki/List_of_World_Series_broadcasters "List of World Series broadcasters"). During this era, NBC broadcast pre\-recorded and edited hour\-long broadcasts of NFL games in the off\-season under the title *Best of Pro Football*.
On June 9, 1960, the league signed a five\-year television contract with ABC, which brought in revenues of approximately [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")2,125,000 per year for the entire league. The deal called for ABC to broadcast approximately 37 regular season games, the [AFL Championship Game](/wiki/List_of_AFL_Championship_Game_broadcasters "List of AFL Championship Game broadcasters") and the [AFL All\-Star Game](/wiki/List_of_AFL_All-Star_Game_broadcasters "List of AFL All-Star Game broadcasters"). These games were typically broadcast regionally on 15 consecutive Sundays and on [Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/NFL_on_Thanksgiving_Day%231960%E2%80%931969 "NFL on Thanksgiving Day#1960–1969"). This became the first\-ever cooperative television plan for [professional football](/wiki/Professional_football_%28gridiron%29 "Professional football (gridiron)"), in which the proceeds of the contract were divided equally among member clubs; the [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") would follow suit in 1961, a move that required Congress to pass the [Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961](/wiki/Sports_Broadcasting_Act_of_1961 "Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961") to accommodate such collective broadcasting contracts.
### 1961
On April 5, 1961, NBC was awarded a two\-year contract (1961–62\) for the radio and television rights to the NFL Championship Game, paying US$615,000 annually for the rights ($300,000 of which was to go directly into the [NFL Player Benefit Plan](/wiki/NFL_Player_Benefit_Plan "NFL Player Benefit Plan")). On May 23, 1963, NBC was awarded exclusive network broadcast rights for the 1963 NFL Championship Game for $926,000\.
In [1961](/wiki/1961_NFL_season "1961 NFL season"), then\-CBS affiliate [WISN\-TV](/wiki/WISN-TV "WISN-TV") (channel 12, now an [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") affiliate) in [Milwaukee](/wiki/Milwaukee "Milwaukee") opted not to carry that year's annual telecast of *[The Wizard of Oz](/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_%281939_film%29 "The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)")*, running a [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/1961_Green_Bay_Packers_season "1961 Green Bay Packers season") football game instead. In contrast to the infamous *[Heidi](/wiki/Heidi_Game "Heidi Game")* telecast in [1968](/wiki/1968_American_Football_League_season "1968 American Football League season"), the popularity of *The Wizard of Oz* [as an annual television event](/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_on_television "The Wizard of Oz on television") at that time was such that the station ran the movie locally at a later date. On September 17, 1961, [CBS Sports](/wiki/CBS_Sports "CBS Sports") broadcast the first remote 15\-minute pre\-game show, the first of its kind on network sports television; *[Pro Football Kickoff](/wiki/The_NFL_Today "The NFL Today")* originated from NFL stadiums around the country with a comprehensive look at all the day's games. Hosted by [Johnny Lujack](/wiki/Johnny_Lujack "Johnny Lujack"), the program originated from NFL stadiums around the country with a comprehensive look at the day's games. This show was succeeded in [1962](/wiki/1962_NFL_season "1962 NFL season") and [1963](/wiki/1963_NFL_season "1963 NFL season") by ***NFL Kickoff***, with [Kyle Rote](/wiki/Kyle_Rote "Kyle Rote") serving as its host.
### 1962
In [1962](/wiki/1962_NFL_season "1962 NFL season"), the NFL followed the [American Football League](/wiki/American_Football_League "American Football League")'s (AFL) suit with its own revenue sharing plan after CBS agreed to telecast all regular season games for an annual fee of US$4\.65 million. CBS also acquired the rights to the championship games for [1964](/wiki/1964_NFL_Championship_Game "1964 NFL Championship Game") and [1965](/wiki/1965_NFL_Championship_Game "1965 NFL Championship Game") for $1\.8 million per game, on April 17, 1964\.
The [Colts](/wiki/1962_Baltimore_Colts_season "1962 Baltimore Colts season") and [Redskins](/wiki/1962_Washington_Redskins_season "1962 Washington Redskins season") had some sort of co\-op arrangement for 1962\. In this instance, for the Week 1 game between [Los Angeles](/wiki/1962_Los_Angeles_Rams_season "1962 Los Angeles Rams season")\-Baltimore game was seen throughout the vast Redskins network that extended all the way to the [Florida Keys](/wiki/Florida_Keys "Florida Keys"). Meanwhile, the Washington\-[Dallas](/wiki/1962_Dallas_Cowboys_season "1962 Dallas Cowboys season") game was seen only on [Channel 9](/wiki/WUSA_%28TV%29 "WUSA (TV)") in the DC viewing area. The Colts network in 1962 consisted of about four stations; Baltimore, [Salisbury](/wiki/Salisbury%2C_Maryland "Salisbury, Maryland"), York, Pennsylvania, and [Harrisburg, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania "Harrisburg, Pennsylvania"). Meanwhile, the Redskins network covered [DC](/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Washington%2C_D.C. "List of television stations in Washington, D.C."), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), [the Carolinas](/wiki/The_Carolinas "The Carolinas"), [Georgia](/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "List of television stations in Georgia (U.S. state)"), [Alabama](/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Alabama "List of television stations in Alabama"), [Florida](/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Florida "List of television stations in Florida") at least. For Week 3, the Detroit\-Baltimore game was apparently seen on the full Colts/Redskins network. Meanwhile, the [St. Louis](/wiki/1962_St._Louis_Cardinals_%28NFL%29_season "1962 St. Louis Cardinals (NFL) season")\-Washington game seen only on the Cardinals network.
The [New York](/wiki/1962_New_York_Giants_season "1962 New York Giants season")\-[Cleveland](/wiki/1962_Cleveland_Browns_season "1962 Cleveland Browns season") game on September 16, marked [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall "Pat Summerall")'s debut as an NFL game commentator. Summerall worked alongside Chris Schenkel for the New York market while Ken Coleman and [Warren Lahr](/wiki/Warren_Lahr "Warren Lahr") called the game for the Cleveland market. The Browns network plugged into the Pittsburgh\-Washington game in Week 14\. It used its own audio with Coleman and Lahr calling the game. Coleman had apparently taken the [red\-eye](/wiki/Red-eye_flight "Red-eye flight") across the country after working the first half (Bob Fouts called the second half alongside color commentator Gordy Soltau) of the December 15 national telecast between the Browns and [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/1962_San_Francisco_49ers_season "1962 San Francisco 49ers season") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco").
CBS executive vice president [James T. Aubrey, Jr.](/wiki/James_T._Aubrey%2C_Jr. "James T. Aubrey, Jr."), who on May 9, 1963, warned the network's affiliates the high cost of rights for professional sports could price them off television, nevertheless in January 1964 agreed to pay $28\.2 million to air [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") games for two years, spanning 17 games each season. In an interview with *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, Aubrey said regarding the package, "We know how much these games mean to the viewing audience, our affiliated stations, and the nation's advertisers". Along with obtaining the aforementioned rights to the NFL Championship Game, in April 1964, he agreed to extend the deal for another year for a total of $31\.8 million.{{cite news\|title\=C.B.S. Relents: Ignores Own Warning on Spiraling Costs.\|author\=Val Adams\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|page\=X17\|date\=April 26, 1964}}{{cite news\|title\=C.B.S.\-TV to Pay $28\.2 Million For 2\-Year Pro Football Rights.\|author\=Val Adams\|work\=The New York Times\|page\=1\|date\=January 25, 1964}}
### 1963
CBS executive vice president [James T. Aubrey, Jr.](/wiki/James_T._Aubrey%2C_Jr. "James T. Aubrey, Jr."), who on May 9, 1963, warned the network's affiliates the high cost of rights for professional sports could price them off television, nevertheless in January 1964 agreed to pay $28\.2 million to air [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") games for two years, spanning 17 games each season. In an interview with *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, Aubrey said regarding the package, "We know how much these games mean to the viewing audience, our affiliated stations, and the nation's advertisers". Along with obtaining the aforementioned rights to the NFL Championship Game, in April 1964, he agreed to extend the deal for another year for a total of $31\.8 million.{{cite news\|title\=C.B.S. Relents: Ignores Own Warning on Spiraling Costs.\|author\=Val Adams\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|page\=X17\|date\=April 26, 1964}}{{cite news\|title\=C.B.S.\-TV to Pay $28\.2 Million For 2\-Year Pro Football Rights.\|author\=Val Adams\|work\=The New York Times\|page\=1\|date\=January 25, 1964}}
On November 24, 1963, just two days after the [assassination](/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy "Assassination of John F. Kennedy") of President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy"), the NFL played its normal schedule of games. Commissioner [Pete Rozelle](/wiki/Pete_Rozelle "Pete Rozelle") said about playing the games: "It has been traditional in sports for athletes to perform in times of great personal tragedy. Football was Mr. Kennedy's game. He thrived on competition."{{cite news\|title\=It's Tradition To Carry on, Rozelle Says\|author\=Dave Brady\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|date\=November 24, 1963\|page\=C2}} No NFL games were telecast, since on the afternoon of the 22nd, just after the president had been pronounced dead, CBS President [Frank Stanton](/wiki/Frank_Stanton_%28executive%29 "Frank Stanton (executive)") ordered that all regular programming be pre\-empted until after Kennedy was buried at his funeral procession. Normal programming, including the NFL, was replaced by non\-stop news coverage, broadcast without commercials. Less than one hour prior to kickoff of the games in the Eastern Time Zone, [Lee Harvey Oswald](/wiki/Lee_Harvey_Oswald "Lee Harvey Oswald"), who had been charged with Kennedy's assassination, was himself shot to death by [Jack Ruby](/wiki/Jack_Ruby "Jack Ruby") in the basement of the [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas "Dallas") city jail as he was being transferred to the [Dallas County](/wiki/Dallas_County%2C_Texas "Dallas County, Texas") jail.
NBC televised the NFL Championship Game until [1963](/wiki/1963_NFL_season "1963 NFL season"). The contract for the title game was separate from the regular season contracts held by [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS"), which started televising NFL games in [1956](/wiki/1956_NFL_season "1956 NFL season"). Prior to [1962](/wiki/1962_NFL_season "1962 NFL season"), each team had its own individual television contract. (This was in contrast to the [American Football League](/wiki/American_Football_League "American Football League") as well as established practice in [college football](/wiki/College_football "College football"), both of which forced all of their members to participate in a collective television contract. As the legality of such a collective contract was still in question at the time, and would eventually be [declared illegal in 1984](/wiki/NCAA_v._Board_of_Regents_of_the_University_of_Oklahoma "NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma"), the NFL did not pursue such a contract until Congress explicitly allowed for the NFL to do so, with conditions, in the [Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961](/wiki/Sports_Broadcasting_Act_of_1961 "Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961").)
### 1964
In [1964](/wiki/1964_NFL_season "1964 NFL season"), CBS experimented with a "half\-and\-half" format for their announcers. The first half of each telecast would be called by the home teams' commentators while the second half would be done by the visitors' commentators (this practice would later be revived decades later by the [NFL Network](/wiki/NFL_Network "NFL Network") when replaying [preseason games](/wiki/National_Football_League_exhibition_season "National Football League exhibition season") that were broadcast by local stations as opposed to a national network). Also in 1964, CBS ditched the concept of using pooled video and split audio feeds. In [1962](/wiki/1962_NFL_season "1962 NFL season") and [1963](/wiki/1963_NFL_season "1963 NFL season"), CBS would provide separate audio for a telecast (for instance, if the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers") hosted the [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears "Chicago Bears"), the telecast would have the same video, Chicago area viewers watching on [WBBM\-TV](/wiki/WBBM-TV "WBBM-TV") would hear [Red Grange](/wiki/Red_Grange "Red Grange") and [George Connor](/wiki/George_Connor_%28American_football%29 "George Connor (American football)") call the action; meanwhile, viewers in [Milwaukee](/wiki/Milwaukee "Milwaukee") and other parts of [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin "Wisconsin") ([Green Bay](/wiki/Green_Bay%2C_Wisconsin "Green Bay, Wisconsin") itself was blacked out) would hear [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 "Ray Scott (sportscaster)") and [Tony Canadeo](/wiki/Tony_Canadeo "Tony Canadeo") describe the game). Ray Scott was not a fan of the separate audio concept and temporarily left CBS for a job calling a regional slate of [college football](/wiki/College_football "College football") games for NBC. Ultimately, CBS dumped the four\-man crew and resumed the 1962–63 method for the great majority of games in [1965](/wiki/1965_NFL_season "1965 NFL season"), [1966](/wiki/1966_NFL_season "1966 NFL season") and [1967](/wiki/1967_NFL_season "1967 NFL season").
On September 13, 1964, [Frank Gifford](/wiki/Frank_Gifford "Frank Gifford") began hosting the renamed ***NFL Report***, which was subsequently retitled ***The NFL Today*** later that season. This version of *The NFL Today*{{cite web\|url\=http://cbs.sportsline.com/cbssports/nfltoday/story/10311671\|publisher\=CBS Sportsline\|date\=August 21, 2007\|access\-date\=October 3, 2012\|quote\=Similar to today's NFL Today show, which has a segment during the last 10 minutes of the show called "First to the Field" featuring the current NFL on CBS broadcast teams commenting on news and players surrounding their respective games, 1964's program originated live and on videotape at the playing fields where the games were being played and from special television studios at each stadium. The show was broadcast regionally to the same area carrying the game that followed\|title\= The NFL Today marks 40th year \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114125026/http://cbs.sportsline.com/cbssports/nfltoday/story/10311671\|archive\-date\=November 14, 2007}} was a 15\-minute, regional sports program that presented interviews with NFL players and coaches, and news and features about the league.
### 1965
CBS' afternoon [exhibition](/wiki/NFL_preseason "NFL preseason") telecast of [Dallas](/wiki/1965_Dallas_Cowboys_season "1965 Dallas Cowboys season") vs. [San Francisco](/wiki/1965_San_Francisco_49ers_season "1965 San Francisco 49ers season") on August 21, 1965, was interrupted by coverage of the [Gemini V](/wiki/Gemini_5 "Gemini 5") blastoff, which resulted in a healthy amount of angry phone calls from fans. The game (called by [John Roach](/wiki/John_Roach_%28American_football%29 "John Roach (American football)"), [Frank Glieber](/wiki/Frank_Glieber "Frank Glieber"), and [Gordy Soltau](/wiki/Gordy_Soltau "Gordy Soltau")) was subsequently broadcast on [tape\-delay](/wiki/Broadcast_delay "Broadcast delay") basis the following afternoon in a number of cities due to the late start. The August 26 exhibition game between [Baltimore](/wiki/1965_Baltimore_Colts_season "1965 Baltimore Colts season")\-[Cleveland](/wiki/1965_Cleveland_Browns_season "1965 Cleveland Browns season") game (called by Glieber and [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall "Pat Summerall")) however was not tape\-delayed. it was the nightcap of [Art Modell](/wiki/Art_Modell "Art Modell")'s exhibition doubleheader that ran from [1962](/wiki/1962_Cleveland_Browns_season "1962 Cleveland Browns season")\-[71](/wiki/1971_Cleveland_Browns_season "1971 Cleveland Browns season").
On November 25, 1965 ([Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 "Thanksgiving (United States)")), CBS featured the first color broadcast of a regular\-season NFL game, the traditional Thanksgiving Day game at [Detroit](/wiki/1965_Detroit_Lions_season "1965 Detroit Lions season"). It was only the second time that the network's first color mobile unit had been used (it had been used a month earlier to cover the attempted launch of an [Atlas\-Agena](/wiki/Atlas-Agena "Atlas-Agena"), which was to have been the rendezvous target for the [Gemini 6](/wiki/Gemini_6 "Gemini 6") space mission). Only a handful of games during the rest of the season were shown in color, along with the [NFL Western Conference Playoff](/wiki/NFL_playoffs%2C_1965 "NFL playoffs, 1965"), the [NFL Championship Game](/wiki/1965_NFL_Championship_Game "1965 NFL Championship Game"),{{cite web\|title\=CBS TV audio from 1965 NFL Championship game\|url\=http://www.classictvsports.com/2014/01/cbs\-tv\-audio\-from\-1965\-nfl\-championship.html\|website\=Classic TV Sports\|date\=January 23, 2014\|access\-date\=January 29, 2014}} the [Playoff Bowl](/wiki/Playoff_Bowl "Playoff Bowl") and the [Pro Bowl](/wiki/1965_Pro_Bowl "1965 Pro Bowl"). In 1966, most of the network's NFL games were broadcast in color, and by [1968](/wiki/1968_NFL_season "1968 NFL season"), all of the network's NFL telecasts were in color.
On December 29, 1965, CBS acquired the rights to the NFL regular season games in 1966 and 1967, with an option to extend the contract through [1968](/wiki/1968_NFL_season "1968 NFL season"), for $18\.8 million per year (in sharp contrast to the $14\.1 million per year it paid for the rights in 1964\). On February 14, 1966, the rights to the [1966](/wiki/1966_NFL_Championship_Game "1966 NFL Championship Game") and [1967 NFL Championship Games](/wiki/1967_NFL_Championship_Game "1967 NFL Championship Game") (the Ice Bowl) were sold to CBS for $2 million per game. 1967 also marked the last year that CBS had separate commentator crews for each team for about 90% to 95% of their NFL games.
### 1966
In Week 11 of the 1966 season, the [Philadelphia](/wiki/1966_Philadelphia_Eagles_season "1966 Philadelphia Eagles season")\-San Francisco game was a regional telecast with a single audio feed. San Francisco play\-by\-play announcer Bob Fouts worked with Philadelphia analyst [Tom Brookshier](/wiki/Tom_Brookshier "Tom Brookshier"), while [Chick Hearn](/wiki/Chick_Hearn "Chick Hearn") was called in for [CBS Control](/wiki/CBS_Broadcast_Center "CBS Broadcast Center") duty. For that year's Thanksgiving Day game, CBS aired a "day/twilight" doubleheader that were both in color. For the San Francisco\-Detroit game, Van Patrick and Frank Gifford called the first half while Bob Fouts and Gifford worked the second half. For the Cleveland\-Dallas game, Jack Buck and Pat Summerall were on the call for the first half, while Frank Glieber and Summerall announced the second half. Week 12's Green Bay\-Minnesota game was the Sunday doubleheader telecast. Hal Scott called the first half, while Ray Scott called the second half. Tony Canadeo was the analyst for the full game and Jim Morse had CBS Control duties. For Week 12, St. Louis\-Dallas was the main doubleheader game with Jack Buck and Eddie LeBaron working the first half and Jack Drees and LeBaron calling the second half.
On December 13, 1966, the rights to the Super Bowl for four years were sold to CBS and NBC for $9\.5 million. The first ever [AFL\-NFL World Championship Game](/wiki/Super_Bowl_I "Super Bowl I") was played on January 15, 1967\. Because [CBS](/wiki/NFL_on_CBS "NFL on CBS") held the rights to nationally televise NFL games and NBC had the rights to broadcast AFL games, it was decided by the newly merged league to have both of them cover that first game (the only other NFL game since to have been carried nationally on more than one network until December 29, 2007 [New England Patriots\-New York Giants](/wiki/2007_New_England_Patriots-New_York_Giants_game "2007 New England Patriots-New York Giants game") game, which aired on NBC, CBS and the [NFL Network](/wiki/NFL_Network "NFL Network")). However, NBC was also forced to broadcast the game over CBS' feed and cameras (CBS received prerogative to use its feed and camera angles since the Coliseum was home to the NFL's Rams), while only CBS' cameras and technical crew were allowed to work the game, although NBC was allowed to use its own commentators. As a result, NBC's crew had little to no control over how the game was filmed. Each network used its own announcers: [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 "Ray Scott (sportscaster)") (doing [play\-by\-play](/wiki/Play-by-play "Play-by-play") for the first half), [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker "Jack Whitaker") (doing play\-by\-play for the second half) and [Frank Gifford](/wiki/Frank_Gifford "Frank Gifford") provided commentary on CBS; while [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy "Curt Gowdy") and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman "Paul Christman") did so for NBC. NBC did have some problems with the dual telecast; the network did not return in time from a [halftime](/wiki/Halftime "Halftime") commercial break for the start of the second half. Therefore, the first [kickoff](/wiki/Kickoff_%28American_football%29 "Kickoff (American football)") was stopped by the game's officials and was redone once NBC returned to the broadcast.
### 1967
The first [AFL\-NFL World Championship Game](/wiki/Super_Bowl_I "Super Bowl I") was played on January 15, 1967\. Because CBS held the rights to nationally televise NFL games and NBC had the rights to broadcast AFL games, it was decided by the newly merged league to have both of them cover that first game. Ray Scott, [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker_%28sportscaster%29 "Jack Whitaker (sportscaster)"), Frank Gifford and Pat Summerall called the game for CBS. 39\.9 million viewers would watch [Bart Starr](/wiki/Bart_Starr "Bart Starr")'s performance in the game that earned him the [MVP](/wiki/Super_Bowl_MVP "Super Bowl MVP") trophy. NBC did have some problems. The network did not return from a commercial break during [halftime](/wiki/Halftime "Halftime") in time for the start of the second half; therefore, the first [kickoff](/wiki/Kickoff_%28American_football%29 "Kickoff (American football)") was stopped by the game's officials and was redone once NBC was back on the air. NBC was also forced to broadcast the game over CBS' feed and cameras (CBS received prerogative to use its feed and camera angles since the [Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Coliseum "Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum") was home to the NFL's [Rams](/wiki/1966_Los_Angeles_Rams_season "1966 Los Angeles Rams season")). In other words, NBC's crew had little to no control over how the game was shot. The next three AFL\-NFL World Championship Games, later renamed the Super Bowl, were then divided by the two networks: CBS televised [Super Bowls II](/wiki/Super_Bowl_II "Super Bowl II") and [IV](/wiki/Super_Bowl_IV "Super Bowl IV") while NBC covered [Super Bowl III](/wiki/Super_Bowl_III "Super Bowl III").
During the week, tensions flared between the staffs of the two networks (longtime arch\-rivals in American broadcasting), who each wanted to win the ratings war, to the point where a fence was built between the CBS and NBC trucks.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1986/01/26/super\-bowl\-i\-cbs\-vs\-nbc/ \| title\=Super Bowl I: CBS vs. NBC \| date\=January 26, 1986 \| first\=Skip \| last\=Myslenski \| work\=Chicago Tribune \| access\-date\=February 10, 2013}}
Each network used its own announcers: [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 "Ray Scott (sportscaster)") (doing play\-by\-play for the first half), [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker "Jack Whitaker") (doing play\-by\-play for the second half) and [Frank Gifford](/wiki/Frank_Gifford "Frank Gifford") provided commentary on CBS, while [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy "Curt Gowdy") and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman "Paul Christman") were on NBC.{{cite book\|last1\=Deninger\|first1\=Dennis\|title\=Sports on Television: The how and why Behind what You See\|date\=2012\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|location\=New York\|isbn\=978\-0415896757}} While Rozelle allowed NBC to telecast the game, he decreed it would not be able to use its cameramen and technical personnel, instead forcing it to use the feed provided by CBS,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.history.com/news/10\-things\-you\-may\-not\-know\-about\-the\-first\-super\-bowl\|title\=10 Things You May Not Know About the First Super Bowl\|date\=February 10, 2023 }} since the Coliseum was home to the NFL's Rams.
Super Bowl I was the only Super Bowl in history that was not a sellout in terms of attendance, despite a TV [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 "Blackout (broadcasting)") in the Los Angeles area (at the time, NFL games were required to be blacked out in the market of origin, even if it was a neutral site game and if it sold out). Of the 94,000\-seat capacity in the Coliseum, 33,000 went unsold.{{cite web\| url\=http://thesportdigest.com/2011/02/super\-bowl\-xlv\-vince\-lombardi\-wanted\-no\-part\-of\-the\-super\-bowl/ \| title\=Vince Lombardi wanted no part of the Super Bowl \| author\=Evan Weiner \| work\=The Sports Digest \| date\=February 3, 2011 \| access\-date\=February 22, 2012}} Days before the game, local newspapers printed editorials about what they viewed as a then\-exorbitant $12 price for tickets, and wrote stories about how viewers could pull in the game from stations in surrounding markets such as [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California "Bakersfield, California"), [Santa Barbara](/wiki/Santa_Barbara%2C_California "Santa Barbara, California") and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego").
In [1967](/wiki/1967_NFL_season "1967 NFL season"), *The NFL Today* expanded to a 30\-minute format preceding game coverage.
Week 4 of the [1967 AFL season](/wiki/1967_AFL_season "1967 AFL season") coincided with the race for the [American League](/wiki/American_League "American League") pennant. NBC decided to focus on their [baseball coverage](/wiki/MLB_on_NBC "MLB on NBC") instead of covering the early games; thus resulting in [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy "Curt Gowdy") calling the [Twins](/wiki/1967_Minnesota_Twins_season "1967 Minnesota Twins season")\-[Red Sox](/wiki/1967_Boston_Red_Sox_season "1967 Boston Red Sox season") game; [Jim Simpson](/wiki/Jim_Simpson_%28sportscaster%29 "Jim Simpson (sportscaster)") calling the [Angels](/wiki/1967_California_Angels_season "1967 California Angels season")\-[Tigers](/wiki/1967_Detroit_Tigers_season "1967 Detroit Tigers season") game); while the AFL schedule resulted in the two early games ([Broncos](/wiki/1967_Denver_Broncos_season "1967 Denver Broncos season")\-[Oilers](/wiki/1967_Houston_Oilers_season "1967 Houston Oilers season") and [Dolphins](/wiki/1967_Miami_Dolphins_season "1967 Miami Dolphins season")\-[Jets](/wiki/1967_New_York_Jets_season "1967 New York Jets season") games not being televised with another [Chargers](/wiki/1967_San_Diego_Chargers_season "1967 San Diego Chargers season")\-[Bills](/wiki/1967_Buffalo_Bills_season "1967 Buffalo Bills season") game being a locally televised game airing only in San Diego on then\-NBC affiliate KOGO (now ABC affiliate [KGTV](/wiki/KGTV "KGTV")).
### 1968
Super Bowl II was televised in the United States by [CBS](/wiki/NFL_on_CBS "NFL on CBS"), with [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 "Ray Scott (sportscaster)") handling the [play\-by\-play](/wiki/Play-by-play "Play-by-play") duties and [color commentators](/wiki/Color_commentator "Color commentator") [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall "Pat Summerall") and [Jack Kemp](/wiki/Jack_Kemp "Jack Kemp") in the broadcast booth. Kemp was the first Super Bowl commentator who was still an active player (with [Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo_Bills "Buffalo Bills") of the [AFL](/wiki/American_Football_League "American Football League")) at the time of the broadcast. The CBS telecast of this game is considered lost; all that survives are in\-game photos, most of which were shown in the January 8, 1969 edition of [Sports Illustrated](/wiki/Sports_Illustrated "Sports Illustrated"). Not even [NFL Films](/wiki/NFL_Films "NFL Films"), the league's official filmmaker, has a copy of the full game available; however, they do have game footage that they used for their game highlight film.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nfl.com/news/the\-mystery\-of\-the\-super\-bowl\-i\-tapes\-0ap3000000622357\|title \= The Mystery of the Super Bowl I tapes\| website\=\[\[NFL.com]] }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nflfilms.com/specialorders/twNFL.php\|title \= NFL Films \| Watch NFL Stories}}
Unlike the previous year's game, Super Bowl II was televised live on only one network, which has been the case for all subsequent Super Bowl games. While the Orange Bowl was sold out for the game, the NFL's unconditional [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 "Blackout (broadcasting)") rules in place then prevented the live telecast from being shown in the Miami area.
During the latter part of the second quarter, and again for three minutes of halftime, almost 80 percent of the country (with the exceptions of New York City, [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") and much of the [Northeast](/wiki/Northeastern_United_States "Northeastern United States")) lost the video feed of the CBS broadcast. CBS, who had paid $2\.5 million for broadcast rights, blamed the glitch on a breakdown in [AT\&T](/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation "AT&T Corporation") [cable lines](/wiki/Coaxial_cable "Coaxial cable"). The overnight [Arbitron](/wiki/Arbitron "Arbitron") rating was 43\.0, a slight increase from Super Bowl I's combined CBS\-NBC rating of 42\.2\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1968/1968\-01\-22\-BC.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1968/1968-01-22-BC.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}}
When CBS decided to abandon its practice of using dedicated announcing crews for particular teams in [1968](/wiki/1968_NFL_season "1968 NFL season"), the network instituted a semi\-merit system in its place, with certain crews (such as Ray Scott and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman "Paul Christman") or [Jack Buck](/wiki/Jack_Buck "Jack Buck") and Pat Summerall) being assigned to each week's most prominent games regardless of the participating teams.
One of the most remembered games on NBC was a [1968](/wiki/American_Football_League_seasons%231968 "American Football League seasons#1968") game known as the *[Heidi Game](/wiki/Heidi_Game "Heidi Game")*. As its nationally televised game between the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/1968_Oakland_Raiders_season "1968 Oakland Raiders season") and [New York Jets](/wiki/1968_New_York_Jets_season "1968 New York Jets season") running late, the network discontinued coverage while the game was still playing to air the movie *[Heidi](/wiki/Heidi "Heidi")* just moments after the Jets' [Jim Turner](/wiki/Jim_Turner_%28placekicker%29 "Jim Turner (placekicker)") kicked what appeared to be the game\-winning field goal with 1:05 remaining. While millions of irate fans, missing the finale, jammed NBC's phone lines, the Raiders scored two touchdowns in eight seconds during the final minute to win 43–32\.
The reaction to *The Heidi Game* resulted in the AFL, and most other sports leagues, demanding thereafter that television networks broadcast all games to their conclusion. NFL contracts with the networks now require games to be shown in a team's market area to conclusion, regardless of the score.
To avoid a repeat incident, a 1975 NBC broadcast of *[Willy Wonka \& the Chocolate Factory](/wiki/Willy_Wonka_%26_the_Chocolate_Factory "Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory")* was delayed until the completion of a [Washington Redskins](/wiki/1975_Washington_Redskins_season "1975 Washington Redskins season")–[Raiders](/wiki/1975_Oakland_Raiders_season "1975 Oakland Raiders season") game. The network installed a new phone in the control room wired to a separate exchange, becoming known as the *Heidi Phone*, to prevent this situation from occurring in the future.
On December 22, 1968, CBS interrupted coverage of a [Western Conference championship game](/wiki/NFL_playoffs%2C_1968 "NFL playoffs, 1968") between the [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/1968_Minnesota_Vikings_season "1968 Minnesota Vikings season") and [Baltimore Colts](/wiki/1968_Baltimore_Colts_season "1968 Baltimore Colts season") to show a broadcast from inside the [Apollo 8](/wiki/Apollo_8 "Apollo 8") spacecraft, headed towards the Moon (the first crewed space mission to orbit the Moon, and a major step towards the lunar landing the following July). The interruption began approximately three minutes before halftime of the game, and lasted 17 minutes. CBS showed highlights of the missed action (in which neither team scored) when the network returned to football coverage; nonetheless, the network received approximately 3,000 complaints after the game.
### 1969
The next three AFL\-NFL World Championship Games, later renamed the *[Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl "Super Bowl")*, were then divided by the two networks (with each network broadcasting the game exclusively): CBS broadcast Super Bowls [II](/wiki/Super_Bowl_II "Super Bowl II") and [IV](/wiki/Super_Bowl_IV "Super Bowl IV") while NBC covered [III](/wiki/Super_Bowl_III "Super Bowl III"). When NBC Sports broadcast Super Bowl III, sports broadcasts were produced under the oversight of the [NBC News](/wiki/NBC_News "NBC News") division (this remained the case until well into the 1970s, long after both CBS and [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") had spun\-off their sports operations into departments separate from their news divisions). Curt Gowdy handled the play\-by\-play duties and was joined by [color commentators](/wiki/Color_commentator "Color commentator") [Al DeRogatis](/wiki/Al_DeRogatis "Al DeRogatis") and [Kyle Rote](/wiki/Kyle_Rote "Kyle Rote") in the broadcast booth. Also helping with NBC's coverage were [Jim Simpson](/wiki/Jim_Simpson_%28sportscaster%29 "Jim Simpson (sportscaster)") (reporting from the sidelines) and [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall "Pat Summerall") (helping conduct player interviews for the pregame show, along with Rote). In an interview later done with [NFL Films](/wiki/NFL_Films "NFL Films"), Gowdy called it the most memorable game he ever called because of its historical significance.{{cite news\|title\=TV SPORTS; Two Generations of Reminiscences by Gowdys\|url\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=990CE7DD1E3FF937A15752C0A963958260\&sec\=\&spon\=\&partner\=permalink\&exprod\=permalink\|author\=Richard Sandomir\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=January 24, 1995}} While the Orange Bowl was sold out for the game, the live telecast was not shown in Miami due to both leagues' unconditional [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 "Blackout (broadcasting)") rules at the time. This game is thought to be the earliest surviving Super Bowl game preserved on videotape in its entirety save for a portion of the [Baltimore Colts](/wiki/1968_Baltimore_Colts_season "1968 Baltimore Colts season")' fourth quarter scoring drive.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, CBS used a [marching band](/wiki/Marching_band "Marching band")\-like instrumental arrangement of the song "Confidence" (from [Leon Carr](/wiki/Leon_Carr "Leon Carr")'s score for the 1964 off\-Broadway musical *[The Secret Life of Walter Mitty](/wiki/The_Secret_Life_of_Walter_Mitty%23Stage_adaptations "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty#Stage adaptations")*) as the theme for their NFL broadcasts.
With 1969 being the final season before the [AFL–NFL merger](/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93NFL_merger "AFL–NFL merger"), this was also the final season where both leagues would have Thanksgiving doubleheaders. Starting in [1970](/wiki/1970_NFL_season "1970 NFL season"), only two games would be played on [Thanksgiving](/wiki/NFL_on_Thanksgiving_Day "NFL on Thanksgiving Day"), with the [Lions](/wiki/1970_Detroit_Lions_season "1970 Detroit Lions season") and [Cowboys](/wiki/1970_Dallas_Cowboys_season "1970 Dallas Cowboys season") hosting those games, and an AFC team rotating as the visiting team between Detroit and Dallas every year.
|
[
"Year\\-by\\-year breakdown\n------------------------",
"### 1960",
"NBC held individual team contracts with the [Pittsburgh Steelers](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Steelers \"Pittsburgh Steelers\") and [Baltimore Colts](/wiki/Baltimore_Colts \"Baltimore Colts\") in [1959](/wiki/1959_NFL_season \"1959 NFL season\"), [1960](/wiki/1960_NFL_season \"1960 NFL season\") and [1961](/wiki/1961_NFL_season \"1961 NFL season\"). While the games were [blacked out](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 \"Blackout (broadcasting)\") in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\") and [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"), they were broadcast on other NBC stations. In some cases, the game broadcast was seen on CBS in the visiting team's home region. NBC covered eleven games in 1960 and 13 games in 1961 in a \"Game of the Week\" format. NBC would take one week off due to its [coverage](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_on_NBC \"Major League Baseball on NBC\") of the [World Series](/wiki/List_of_World_Series_broadcasters \"List of World Series broadcasters\"). During this era, NBC broadcast pre\\-recorded and edited hour\\-long broadcasts of NFL games in the off\\-season under the title *Best of Pro Football*.",
"On June 9, 1960, the league signed a five\\-year television contract with ABC, which brought in revenues of approximately [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")2,125,000 per year for the entire league. The deal called for ABC to broadcast approximately 37 regular season games, the [AFL Championship Game](/wiki/List_of_AFL_Championship_Game_broadcasters \"List of AFL Championship Game broadcasters\") and the [AFL All\\-Star Game](/wiki/List_of_AFL_All-Star_Game_broadcasters \"List of AFL All-Star Game broadcasters\"). These games were typically broadcast regionally on 15 consecutive Sundays and on [Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/NFL_on_Thanksgiving_Day%231960%E2%80%931969 \"NFL on Thanksgiving Day#1960–1969\"). This became the first\\-ever cooperative television plan for [professional football](/wiki/Professional_football_%28gridiron%29 \"Professional football (gridiron)\"), in which the proceeds of the contract were divided equally among member clubs; the [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") would follow suit in 1961, a move that required Congress to pass the [Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961](/wiki/Sports_Broadcasting_Act_of_1961 \"Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961\") to accommodate such collective broadcasting contracts.",
"### 1961",
"On April 5, 1961, NBC was awarded a two\\-year contract (1961–62\\) for the radio and television rights to the NFL Championship Game, paying US$615,000 annually for the rights ($300,000 of which was to go directly into the [NFL Player Benefit Plan](/wiki/NFL_Player_Benefit_Plan \"NFL Player Benefit Plan\")). On May 23, 1963, NBC was awarded exclusive network broadcast rights for the 1963 NFL Championship Game for $926,000\\.",
"In [1961](/wiki/1961_NFL_season \"1961 NFL season\"), then\\-CBS affiliate [WISN\\-TV](/wiki/WISN-TV \"WISN-TV\") (channel 12, now an [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") affiliate) in [Milwaukee](/wiki/Milwaukee \"Milwaukee\") opted not to carry that year's annual telecast of *[The Wizard of Oz](/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_%281939_film%29 \"The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)\")*, running a [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/1961_Green_Bay_Packers_season \"1961 Green Bay Packers season\") football game instead. In contrast to the infamous *[Heidi](/wiki/Heidi_Game \"Heidi Game\")* telecast in [1968](/wiki/1968_American_Football_League_season \"1968 American Football League season\"), the popularity of *The Wizard of Oz* [as an annual television event](/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_on_television \"The Wizard of Oz on television\") at that time was such that the station ran the movie locally at a later date. On September 17, 1961, [CBS Sports](/wiki/CBS_Sports \"CBS Sports\") broadcast the first remote 15\\-minute pre\\-game show, the first of its kind on network sports television; *[Pro Football Kickoff](/wiki/The_NFL_Today \"The NFL Today\")* originated from NFL stadiums around the country with a comprehensive look at all the day's games. Hosted by [Johnny Lujack](/wiki/Johnny_Lujack \"Johnny Lujack\"), the program originated from NFL stadiums around the country with a comprehensive look at the day's games. This show was succeeded in [1962](/wiki/1962_NFL_season \"1962 NFL season\") and [1963](/wiki/1963_NFL_season \"1963 NFL season\") by ***NFL Kickoff***, with [Kyle Rote](/wiki/Kyle_Rote \"Kyle Rote\") serving as its host.",
"### 1962",
"In [1962](/wiki/1962_NFL_season \"1962 NFL season\"), the NFL followed the [American Football League](/wiki/American_Football_League \"American Football League\")'s (AFL) suit with its own revenue sharing plan after CBS agreed to telecast all regular season games for an annual fee of US$4\\.65 million. CBS also acquired the rights to the championship games for [1964](/wiki/1964_NFL_Championship_Game \"1964 NFL Championship Game\") and [1965](/wiki/1965_NFL_Championship_Game \"1965 NFL Championship Game\") for $1\\.8 million per game, on April 17, 1964\\.",
"The [Colts](/wiki/1962_Baltimore_Colts_season \"1962 Baltimore Colts season\") and [Redskins](/wiki/1962_Washington_Redskins_season \"1962 Washington Redskins season\") had some sort of co\\-op arrangement for 1962\\. In this instance, for the Week 1 game between [Los Angeles](/wiki/1962_Los_Angeles_Rams_season \"1962 Los Angeles Rams season\")\\-Baltimore game was seen throughout the vast Redskins network that extended all the way to the [Florida Keys](/wiki/Florida_Keys \"Florida Keys\"). Meanwhile, the Washington\\-[Dallas](/wiki/1962_Dallas_Cowboys_season \"1962 Dallas Cowboys season\") game was seen only on [Channel 9](/wiki/WUSA_%28TV%29 \"WUSA (TV)\") in the DC viewing area. The Colts network in 1962 consisted of about four stations; Baltimore, [Salisbury](/wiki/Salisbury%2C_Maryland \"Salisbury, Maryland\"), York, Pennsylvania, and [Harrisburg, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Harrisburg%2C_Pennsylvania \"Harrisburg, Pennsylvania\"). Meanwhile, the Redskins network covered [DC](/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Washington%2C_D.C. \"List of television stations in Washington, D.C.\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), [the Carolinas](/wiki/The_Carolinas \"The Carolinas\"), [Georgia](/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"List of television stations in Georgia (U.S. state)\"), [Alabama](/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Alabama \"List of television stations in Alabama\"), [Florida](/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Florida \"List of television stations in Florida\") at least. For Week 3, the Detroit\\-Baltimore game was apparently seen on the full Colts/Redskins network. Meanwhile, the [St. Louis](/wiki/1962_St._Louis_Cardinals_%28NFL%29_season \"1962 St. Louis Cardinals (NFL) season\")\\-Washington game seen only on the Cardinals network.",
"The [New York](/wiki/1962_New_York_Giants_season \"1962 New York Giants season\")\\-[Cleveland](/wiki/1962_Cleveland_Browns_season \"1962 Cleveland Browns season\") game on September 16, marked [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall \"Pat Summerall\")'s debut as an NFL game commentator. Summerall worked alongside Chris Schenkel for the New York market while Ken Coleman and [Warren Lahr](/wiki/Warren_Lahr \"Warren Lahr\") called the game for the Cleveland market. The Browns network plugged into the Pittsburgh\\-Washington game in Week 14\\. It used its own audio with Coleman and Lahr calling the game. Coleman had apparently taken the [red\\-eye](/wiki/Red-eye_flight \"Red-eye flight\") across the country after working the first half (Bob Fouts called the second half alongside color commentator Gordy Soltau) of the December 15 national telecast between the Browns and [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/1962_San_Francisco_49ers_season \"1962 San Francisco 49ers season\") in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\").",
"CBS executive vice president [James T. Aubrey, Jr.](/wiki/James_T._Aubrey%2C_Jr. \"James T. Aubrey, Jr.\"), who on May 9, 1963, warned the network's affiliates the high cost of rights for professional sports could price them off television, nevertheless in January 1964 agreed to pay $28\\.2 million to air [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") games for two years, spanning 17 games each season. In an interview with *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, Aubrey said regarding the package, \"We know how much these games mean to the viewing audience, our affiliated stations, and the nation's advertisers\". Along with obtaining the aforementioned rights to the NFL Championship Game, in April 1964, he agreed to extend the deal for another year for a total of $31\\.8 million.{{cite news\\|title\\=C.B.S. Relents: Ignores Own Warning on Spiraling Costs.\\|author\\=Val Adams\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|page\\=X17\\|date\\=April 26, 1964}}{{cite news\\|title\\=C.B.S.\\-TV to Pay $28\\.2 Million For 2\\-Year Pro Football Rights.\\|author\\=Val Adams\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|page\\=1\\|date\\=January 25, 1964}}",
"### 1963",
"CBS executive vice president [James T. Aubrey, Jr.](/wiki/James_T._Aubrey%2C_Jr. \"James T. Aubrey, Jr.\"), who on May 9, 1963, warned the network's affiliates the high cost of rights for professional sports could price them off television, nevertheless in January 1964 agreed to pay $28\\.2 million to air [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") games for two years, spanning 17 games each season. In an interview with *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, Aubrey said regarding the package, \"We know how much these games mean to the viewing audience, our affiliated stations, and the nation's advertisers\". Along with obtaining the aforementioned rights to the NFL Championship Game, in April 1964, he agreed to extend the deal for another year for a total of $31\\.8 million.{{cite news\\|title\\=C.B.S. Relents: Ignores Own Warning on Spiraling Costs.\\|author\\=Val Adams\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|page\\=X17\\|date\\=April 26, 1964}}{{cite news\\|title\\=C.B.S.\\-TV to Pay $28\\.2 Million For 2\\-Year Pro Football Rights.\\|author\\=Val Adams\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|page\\=1\\|date\\=January 25, 1964}}",
"On November 24, 1963, just two days after the [assassination](/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy \"Assassination of John F. Kennedy\") of President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\"), the NFL played its normal schedule of games. Commissioner [Pete Rozelle](/wiki/Pete_Rozelle \"Pete Rozelle\") said about playing the games: \"It has been traditional in sports for athletes to perform in times of great personal tragedy. Football was Mr. Kennedy's game. He thrived on competition.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=It's Tradition To Carry on, Rozelle Says\\|author\\=Dave Brady\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|date\\=November 24, 1963\\|page\\=C2}} No NFL games were telecast, since on the afternoon of the 22nd, just after the president had been pronounced dead, CBS President [Frank Stanton](/wiki/Frank_Stanton_%28executive%29 \"Frank Stanton (executive)\") ordered that all regular programming be pre\\-empted until after Kennedy was buried at his funeral procession. Normal programming, including the NFL, was replaced by non\\-stop news coverage, broadcast without commercials. Less than one hour prior to kickoff of the games in the Eastern Time Zone, [Lee Harvey Oswald](/wiki/Lee_Harvey_Oswald \"Lee Harvey Oswald\"), who had been charged with Kennedy's assassination, was himself shot to death by [Jack Ruby](/wiki/Jack_Ruby \"Jack Ruby\") in the basement of the [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas \"Dallas\") city jail as he was being transferred to the [Dallas County](/wiki/Dallas_County%2C_Texas \"Dallas County, Texas\") jail.",
"NBC televised the NFL Championship Game until [1963](/wiki/1963_NFL_season \"1963 NFL season\"). The contract for the title game was separate from the regular season contracts held by [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\"), which started televising NFL games in [1956](/wiki/1956_NFL_season \"1956 NFL season\"). Prior to [1962](/wiki/1962_NFL_season \"1962 NFL season\"), each team had its own individual television contract. (This was in contrast to the [American Football League](/wiki/American_Football_League \"American Football League\") as well as established practice in [college football](/wiki/College_football \"College football\"), both of which forced all of their members to participate in a collective television contract. As the legality of such a collective contract was still in question at the time, and would eventually be [declared illegal in 1984](/wiki/NCAA_v._Board_of_Regents_of_the_University_of_Oklahoma \"NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma\"), the NFL did not pursue such a contract until Congress explicitly allowed for the NFL to do so, with conditions, in the [Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961](/wiki/Sports_Broadcasting_Act_of_1961 \"Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961\").)",
"### 1964",
"In [1964](/wiki/1964_NFL_season \"1964 NFL season\"), CBS experimented with a \"half\\-and\\-half\" format for their announcers. The first half of each telecast would be called by the home teams' commentators while the second half would be done by the visitors' commentators (this practice would later be revived decades later by the [NFL Network](/wiki/NFL_Network \"NFL Network\") when replaying [preseason games](/wiki/National_Football_League_exhibition_season \"National Football League exhibition season\") that were broadcast by local stations as opposed to a national network). Also in 1964, CBS ditched the concept of using pooled video and split audio feeds. In [1962](/wiki/1962_NFL_season \"1962 NFL season\") and [1963](/wiki/1963_NFL_season \"1963 NFL season\"), CBS would provide separate audio for a telecast (for instance, if the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\") hosted the [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears \"Chicago Bears\"), the telecast would have the same video, Chicago area viewers watching on [WBBM\\-TV](/wiki/WBBM-TV \"WBBM-TV\") would hear [Red Grange](/wiki/Red_Grange \"Red Grange\") and [George Connor](/wiki/George_Connor_%28American_football%29 \"George Connor (American football)\") call the action; meanwhile, viewers in [Milwaukee](/wiki/Milwaukee \"Milwaukee\") and other parts of [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin \"Wisconsin\") ([Green Bay](/wiki/Green_Bay%2C_Wisconsin \"Green Bay, Wisconsin\") itself was blacked out) would hear [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 \"Ray Scott (sportscaster)\") and [Tony Canadeo](/wiki/Tony_Canadeo \"Tony Canadeo\") describe the game). Ray Scott was not a fan of the separate audio concept and temporarily left CBS for a job calling a regional slate of [college football](/wiki/College_football \"College football\") games for NBC. Ultimately, CBS dumped the four\\-man crew and resumed the 1962–63 method for the great majority of games in [1965](/wiki/1965_NFL_season \"1965 NFL season\"), [1966](/wiki/1966_NFL_season \"1966 NFL season\") and [1967](/wiki/1967_NFL_season \"1967 NFL season\").",
"On September 13, 1964, [Frank Gifford](/wiki/Frank_Gifford \"Frank Gifford\") began hosting the renamed ***NFL Report***, which was subsequently retitled ***The NFL Today*** later that season. This version of *The NFL Today*{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cbs.sportsline.com/cbssports/nfltoday/story/10311671\\|publisher\\=CBS Sportsline\\|date\\=August 21, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=October 3, 2012\\|quote\\=Similar to today's NFL Today show, which has a segment during the last 10 minutes of the show called \"First to the Field\" featuring the current NFL on CBS broadcast teams commenting on news and players surrounding their respective games, 1964's program originated live and on videotape at the playing fields where the games were being played and from special television studios at each stadium. The show was broadcast regionally to the same area carrying the game that followed\\|title\\= The NFL Today marks 40th year \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114125026/http://cbs.sportsline.com/cbssports/nfltoday/story/10311671\\|archive\\-date\\=November 14, 2007}} was a 15\\-minute, regional sports program that presented interviews with NFL players and coaches, and news and features about the league.",
"### 1965",
"CBS' afternoon [exhibition](/wiki/NFL_preseason \"NFL preseason\") telecast of [Dallas](/wiki/1965_Dallas_Cowboys_season \"1965 Dallas Cowboys season\") vs. [San Francisco](/wiki/1965_San_Francisco_49ers_season \"1965 San Francisco 49ers season\") on August 21, 1965, was interrupted by coverage of the [Gemini V](/wiki/Gemini_5 \"Gemini 5\") blastoff, which resulted in a healthy amount of angry phone calls from fans. The game (called by [John Roach](/wiki/John_Roach_%28American_football%29 \"John Roach (American football)\"), [Frank Glieber](/wiki/Frank_Glieber \"Frank Glieber\"), and [Gordy Soltau](/wiki/Gordy_Soltau \"Gordy Soltau\")) was subsequently broadcast on [tape\\-delay](/wiki/Broadcast_delay \"Broadcast delay\") basis the following afternoon in a number of cities due to the late start. The August 26 exhibition game between [Baltimore](/wiki/1965_Baltimore_Colts_season \"1965 Baltimore Colts season\")\\-[Cleveland](/wiki/1965_Cleveland_Browns_season \"1965 Cleveland Browns season\") game (called by Glieber and [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall \"Pat Summerall\")) however was not tape\\-delayed. it was the nightcap of [Art Modell](/wiki/Art_Modell \"Art Modell\")'s exhibition doubleheader that ran from [1962](/wiki/1962_Cleveland_Browns_season \"1962 Cleveland Browns season\")\\-[71](/wiki/1971_Cleveland_Browns_season \"1971 Cleveland Browns season\").",
"On November 25, 1965 ([Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 \"Thanksgiving (United States)\")), CBS featured the first color broadcast of a regular\\-season NFL game, the traditional Thanksgiving Day game at [Detroit](/wiki/1965_Detroit_Lions_season \"1965 Detroit Lions season\"). It was only the second time that the network's first color mobile unit had been used (it had been used a month earlier to cover the attempted launch of an [Atlas\\-Agena](/wiki/Atlas-Agena \"Atlas-Agena\"), which was to have been the rendezvous target for the [Gemini 6](/wiki/Gemini_6 \"Gemini 6\") space mission). Only a handful of games during the rest of the season were shown in color, along with the [NFL Western Conference Playoff](/wiki/NFL_playoffs%2C_1965 \"NFL playoffs, 1965\"), the [NFL Championship Game](/wiki/1965_NFL_Championship_Game \"1965 NFL Championship Game\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=CBS TV audio from 1965 NFL Championship game\\|url\\=http://www.classictvsports.com/2014/01/cbs\\-tv\\-audio\\-from\\-1965\\-nfl\\-championship.html\\|website\\=Classic TV Sports\\|date\\=January 23, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=January 29, 2014}} the [Playoff Bowl](/wiki/Playoff_Bowl \"Playoff Bowl\") and the [Pro Bowl](/wiki/1965_Pro_Bowl \"1965 Pro Bowl\"). In 1966, most of the network's NFL games were broadcast in color, and by [1968](/wiki/1968_NFL_season \"1968 NFL season\"), all of the network's NFL telecasts were in color.",
"On December 29, 1965, CBS acquired the rights to the NFL regular season games in 1966 and 1967, with an option to extend the contract through [1968](/wiki/1968_NFL_season \"1968 NFL season\"), for $18\\.8 million per year (in sharp contrast to the $14\\.1 million per year it paid for the rights in 1964\\). On February 14, 1966, the rights to the [1966](/wiki/1966_NFL_Championship_Game \"1966 NFL Championship Game\") and [1967 NFL Championship Games](/wiki/1967_NFL_Championship_Game \"1967 NFL Championship Game\") (the Ice Bowl) were sold to CBS for $2 million per game. 1967 also marked the last year that CBS had separate commentator crews for each team for about 90% to 95% of their NFL games.",
"### 1966",
"In Week 11 of the 1966 season, the [Philadelphia](/wiki/1966_Philadelphia_Eagles_season \"1966 Philadelphia Eagles season\")\\-San Francisco game was a regional telecast with a single audio feed. San Francisco play\\-by\\-play announcer Bob Fouts worked with Philadelphia analyst [Tom Brookshier](/wiki/Tom_Brookshier \"Tom Brookshier\"), while [Chick Hearn](/wiki/Chick_Hearn \"Chick Hearn\") was called in for [CBS Control](/wiki/CBS_Broadcast_Center \"CBS Broadcast Center\") duty. For that year's Thanksgiving Day game, CBS aired a \"day/twilight\" doubleheader that were both in color. For the San Francisco\\-Detroit game, Van Patrick and Frank Gifford called the first half while Bob Fouts and Gifford worked the second half. For the Cleveland\\-Dallas game, Jack Buck and Pat Summerall were on the call for the first half, while Frank Glieber and Summerall announced the second half. Week 12's Green Bay\\-Minnesota game was the Sunday doubleheader telecast. Hal Scott called the first half, while Ray Scott called the second half. Tony Canadeo was the analyst for the full game and Jim Morse had CBS Control duties. For Week 12, St. Louis\\-Dallas was the main doubleheader game with Jack Buck and Eddie LeBaron working the first half and Jack Drees and LeBaron calling the second half.",
"On December 13, 1966, the rights to the Super Bowl for four years were sold to CBS and NBC for $9\\.5 million. The first ever [AFL\\-NFL World Championship Game](/wiki/Super_Bowl_I \"Super Bowl I\") was played on January 15, 1967\\. Because [CBS](/wiki/NFL_on_CBS \"NFL on CBS\") held the rights to nationally televise NFL games and NBC had the rights to broadcast AFL games, it was decided by the newly merged league to have both of them cover that first game (the only other NFL game since to have been carried nationally on more than one network until December 29, 2007 [New England Patriots\\-New York Giants](/wiki/2007_New_England_Patriots-New_York_Giants_game \"2007 New England Patriots-New York Giants game\") game, which aired on NBC, CBS and the [NFL Network](/wiki/NFL_Network \"NFL Network\")). However, NBC was also forced to broadcast the game over CBS' feed and cameras (CBS received prerogative to use its feed and camera angles since the Coliseum was home to the NFL's Rams), while only CBS' cameras and technical crew were allowed to work the game, although NBC was allowed to use its own commentators. As a result, NBC's crew had little to no control over how the game was filmed. Each network used its own announcers: [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 \"Ray Scott (sportscaster)\") (doing [play\\-by\\-play](/wiki/Play-by-play \"Play-by-play\") for the first half), [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker \"Jack Whitaker\") (doing play\\-by\\-play for the second half) and [Frank Gifford](/wiki/Frank_Gifford \"Frank Gifford\") provided commentary on CBS; while [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy \"Curt Gowdy\") and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman \"Paul Christman\") did so for NBC. NBC did have some problems with the dual telecast; the network did not return in time from a [halftime](/wiki/Halftime \"Halftime\") commercial break for the start of the second half. Therefore, the first [kickoff](/wiki/Kickoff_%28American_football%29 \"Kickoff (American football)\") was stopped by the game's officials and was redone once NBC returned to the broadcast.",
"### 1967",
"The first [AFL\\-NFL World Championship Game](/wiki/Super_Bowl_I \"Super Bowl I\") was played on January 15, 1967\\. Because CBS held the rights to nationally televise NFL games and NBC had the rights to broadcast AFL games, it was decided by the newly merged league to have both of them cover that first game. Ray Scott, [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker_%28sportscaster%29 \"Jack Whitaker (sportscaster)\"), Frank Gifford and Pat Summerall called the game for CBS. 39\\.9 million viewers would watch [Bart Starr](/wiki/Bart_Starr \"Bart Starr\")'s performance in the game that earned him the [MVP](/wiki/Super_Bowl_MVP \"Super Bowl MVP\") trophy. NBC did have some problems. The network did not return from a commercial break during [halftime](/wiki/Halftime \"Halftime\") in time for the start of the second half; therefore, the first [kickoff](/wiki/Kickoff_%28American_football%29 \"Kickoff (American football)\") was stopped by the game's officials and was redone once NBC was back on the air. NBC was also forced to broadcast the game over CBS' feed and cameras (CBS received prerogative to use its feed and camera angles since the [Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Coliseum \"Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum\") was home to the NFL's [Rams](/wiki/1966_Los_Angeles_Rams_season \"1966 Los Angeles Rams season\")). In other words, NBC's crew had little to no control over how the game was shot. The next three AFL\\-NFL World Championship Games, later renamed the Super Bowl, were then divided by the two networks: CBS televised [Super Bowls II](/wiki/Super_Bowl_II \"Super Bowl II\") and [IV](/wiki/Super_Bowl_IV \"Super Bowl IV\") while NBC covered [Super Bowl III](/wiki/Super_Bowl_III \"Super Bowl III\").",
"During the week, tensions flared between the staffs of the two networks (longtime arch\\-rivals in American broadcasting), who each wanted to win the ratings war, to the point where a fence was built between the CBS and NBC trucks.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1986/01/26/super\\-bowl\\-i\\-cbs\\-vs\\-nbc/ \\| title\\=Super Bowl I: CBS vs. NBC \\| date\\=January 26, 1986 \\| first\\=Skip \\| last\\=Myslenski \\| work\\=Chicago Tribune \\| access\\-date\\=February 10, 2013}}",
"Each network used its own announcers: [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 \"Ray Scott (sportscaster)\") (doing play\\-by\\-play for the first half), [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker \"Jack Whitaker\") (doing play\\-by\\-play for the second half) and [Frank Gifford](/wiki/Frank_Gifford \"Frank Gifford\") provided commentary on CBS, while [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy \"Curt Gowdy\") and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman \"Paul Christman\") were on NBC.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Deninger\\|first1\\=Dennis\\|title\\=Sports on Television: The how and why Behind what You See\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|location\\=New York\\|isbn\\=978\\-0415896757}} While Rozelle allowed NBC to telecast the game, he decreed it would not be able to use its cameramen and technical personnel, instead forcing it to use the feed provided by CBS,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.history.com/news/10\\-things\\-you\\-may\\-not\\-know\\-about\\-the\\-first\\-super\\-bowl\\|title\\=10 Things You May Not Know About the First Super Bowl\\|date\\=February 10, 2023 }} since the Coliseum was home to the NFL's Rams.",
"Super Bowl I was the only Super Bowl in history that was not a sellout in terms of attendance, despite a TV [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 \"Blackout (broadcasting)\") in the Los Angeles area (at the time, NFL games were required to be blacked out in the market of origin, even if it was a neutral site game and if it sold out). Of the 94,000\\-seat capacity in the Coliseum, 33,000 went unsold.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://thesportdigest.com/2011/02/super\\-bowl\\-xlv\\-vince\\-lombardi\\-wanted\\-no\\-part\\-of\\-the\\-super\\-bowl/ \\| title\\=Vince Lombardi wanted no part of the Super Bowl \\| author\\=Evan Weiner \\| work\\=The Sports Digest \\| date\\=February 3, 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=February 22, 2012}} Days before the game, local newspapers printed editorials about what they viewed as a then\\-exorbitant $12 price for tickets, and wrote stories about how viewers could pull in the game from stations in surrounding markets such as [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California \"Bakersfield, California\"), [Santa Barbara](/wiki/Santa_Barbara%2C_California \"Santa Barbara, California\") and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\").",
"In [1967](/wiki/1967_NFL_season \"1967 NFL season\"), *The NFL Today* expanded to a 30\\-minute format preceding game coverage.",
"Week 4 of the [1967 AFL season](/wiki/1967_AFL_season \"1967 AFL season\") coincided with the race for the [American League](/wiki/American_League \"American League\") pennant. NBC decided to focus on their [baseball coverage](/wiki/MLB_on_NBC \"MLB on NBC\") instead of covering the early games; thus resulting in [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy \"Curt Gowdy\") calling the [Twins](/wiki/1967_Minnesota_Twins_season \"1967 Minnesota Twins season\")\\-[Red Sox](/wiki/1967_Boston_Red_Sox_season \"1967 Boston Red Sox season\") game; [Jim Simpson](/wiki/Jim_Simpson_%28sportscaster%29 \"Jim Simpson (sportscaster)\") calling the [Angels](/wiki/1967_California_Angels_season \"1967 California Angels season\")\\-[Tigers](/wiki/1967_Detroit_Tigers_season \"1967 Detroit Tigers season\") game); while the AFL schedule resulted in the two early games ([Broncos](/wiki/1967_Denver_Broncos_season \"1967 Denver Broncos season\")\\-[Oilers](/wiki/1967_Houston_Oilers_season \"1967 Houston Oilers season\") and [Dolphins](/wiki/1967_Miami_Dolphins_season \"1967 Miami Dolphins season\")\\-[Jets](/wiki/1967_New_York_Jets_season \"1967 New York Jets season\") games not being televised with another [Chargers](/wiki/1967_San_Diego_Chargers_season \"1967 San Diego Chargers season\")\\-[Bills](/wiki/1967_Buffalo_Bills_season \"1967 Buffalo Bills season\") game being a locally televised game airing only in San Diego on then\\-NBC affiliate KOGO (now ABC affiliate [KGTV](/wiki/KGTV \"KGTV\")).",
"### 1968",
"Super Bowl II was televised in the United States by [CBS](/wiki/NFL_on_CBS \"NFL on CBS\"), with [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 \"Ray Scott (sportscaster)\") handling the [play\\-by\\-play](/wiki/Play-by-play \"Play-by-play\") duties and [color commentators](/wiki/Color_commentator \"Color commentator\") [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall \"Pat Summerall\") and [Jack Kemp](/wiki/Jack_Kemp \"Jack Kemp\") in the broadcast booth. Kemp was the first Super Bowl commentator who was still an active player (with [Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo_Bills \"Buffalo Bills\") of the [AFL](/wiki/American_Football_League \"American Football League\")) at the time of the broadcast. The CBS telecast of this game is considered lost; all that survives are in\\-game photos, most of which were shown in the January 8, 1969 edition of [Sports Illustrated](/wiki/Sports_Illustrated \"Sports Illustrated\"). Not even [NFL Films](/wiki/NFL_Films \"NFL Films\"), the league's official filmmaker, has a copy of the full game available; however, they do have game footage that they used for their game highlight film.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nfl.com/news/the\\-mystery\\-of\\-the\\-super\\-bowl\\-i\\-tapes\\-0ap3000000622357\\|title \\= The Mystery of the Super Bowl I tapes\\| website\\=\\[\\[NFL.com]] }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nflfilms.com/specialorders/twNFL.php\\|title \\= NFL Films \\| Watch NFL Stories}}",
"Unlike the previous year's game, Super Bowl II was televised live on only one network, which has been the case for all subsequent Super Bowl games. While the Orange Bowl was sold out for the game, the NFL's unconditional [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 \"Blackout (broadcasting)\") rules in place then prevented the live telecast from being shown in the Miami area.",
"During the latter part of the second quarter, and again for three minutes of halftime, almost 80 percent of the country (with the exceptions of New York City, [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") and much of the [Northeast](/wiki/Northeastern_United_States \"Northeastern United States\")) lost the video feed of the CBS broadcast. CBS, who had paid $2\\.5 million for broadcast rights, blamed the glitch on a breakdown in [AT\\&T](/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation \"AT&T Corporation\") [cable lines](/wiki/Coaxial_cable \"Coaxial cable\"). The overnight [Arbitron](/wiki/Arbitron \"Arbitron\") rating was 43\\.0, a slight increase from Super Bowl I's combined CBS\\-NBC rating of 42\\.2\\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1968/1968\\-01\\-22\\-BC.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1968/1968-01-22-BC.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}}",
"When CBS decided to abandon its practice of using dedicated announcing crews for particular teams in [1968](/wiki/1968_NFL_season \"1968 NFL season\"), the network instituted a semi\\-merit system in its place, with certain crews (such as Ray Scott and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman \"Paul Christman\") or [Jack Buck](/wiki/Jack_Buck \"Jack Buck\") and Pat Summerall) being assigned to each week's most prominent games regardless of the participating teams.",
"One of the most remembered games on NBC was a [1968](/wiki/American_Football_League_seasons%231968 \"American Football League seasons#1968\") game known as the *[Heidi Game](/wiki/Heidi_Game \"Heidi Game\")*. As its nationally televised game between the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/1968_Oakland_Raiders_season \"1968 Oakland Raiders season\") and [New York Jets](/wiki/1968_New_York_Jets_season \"1968 New York Jets season\") running late, the network discontinued coverage while the game was still playing to air the movie *[Heidi](/wiki/Heidi \"Heidi\")* just moments after the Jets' [Jim Turner](/wiki/Jim_Turner_%28placekicker%29 \"Jim Turner (placekicker)\") kicked what appeared to be the game\\-winning field goal with 1:05 remaining. While millions of irate fans, missing the finale, jammed NBC's phone lines, the Raiders scored two touchdowns in eight seconds during the final minute to win 43–32\\.",
"The reaction to *The Heidi Game* resulted in the AFL, and most other sports leagues, demanding thereafter that television networks broadcast all games to their conclusion. NFL contracts with the networks now require games to be shown in a team's market area to conclusion, regardless of the score.",
"To avoid a repeat incident, a 1975 NBC broadcast of *[Willy Wonka \\& the Chocolate Factory](/wiki/Willy_Wonka_%26_the_Chocolate_Factory \"Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory\")* was delayed until the completion of a [Washington Redskins](/wiki/1975_Washington_Redskins_season \"1975 Washington Redskins season\")–[Raiders](/wiki/1975_Oakland_Raiders_season \"1975 Oakland Raiders season\") game. The network installed a new phone in the control room wired to a separate exchange, becoming known as the *Heidi Phone*, to prevent this situation from occurring in the future.",
"On December 22, 1968, CBS interrupted coverage of a [Western Conference championship game](/wiki/NFL_playoffs%2C_1968 \"NFL playoffs, 1968\") between the [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/1968_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"1968 Minnesota Vikings season\") and [Baltimore Colts](/wiki/1968_Baltimore_Colts_season \"1968 Baltimore Colts season\") to show a broadcast from inside the [Apollo 8](/wiki/Apollo_8 \"Apollo 8\") spacecraft, headed towards the Moon (the first crewed space mission to orbit the Moon, and a major step towards the lunar landing the following July). The interruption began approximately three minutes before halftime of the game, and lasted 17 minutes. CBS showed highlights of the missed action (in which neither team scored) when the network returned to football coverage; nonetheless, the network received approximately 3,000 complaints after the game.",
"### 1969",
"The next three AFL\\-NFL World Championship Games, later renamed the *[Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl \"Super Bowl\")*, were then divided by the two networks (with each network broadcasting the game exclusively): CBS broadcast Super Bowls [II](/wiki/Super_Bowl_II \"Super Bowl II\") and [IV](/wiki/Super_Bowl_IV \"Super Bowl IV\") while NBC covered [III](/wiki/Super_Bowl_III \"Super Bowl III\"). When NBC Sports broadcast Super Bowl III, sports broadcasts were produced under the oversight of the [NBC News](/wiki/NBC_News \"NBC News\") division (this remained the case until well into the 1970s, long after both CBS and [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") had spun\\-off their sports operations into departments separate from their news divisions). Curt Gowdy handled the play\\-by\\-play duties and was joined by [color commentators](/wiki/Color_commentator \"Color commentator\") [Al DeRogatis](/wiki/Al_DeRogatis \"Al DeRogatis\") and [Kyle Rote](/wiki/Kyle_Rote \"Kyle Rote\") in the broadcast booth. Also helping with NBC's coverage were [Jim Simpson](/wiki/Jim_Simpson_%28sportscaster%29 \"Jim Simpson (sportscaster)\") (reporting from the sidelines) and [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall \"Pat Summerall\") (helping conduct player interviews for the pregame show, along with Rote). In an interview later done with [NFL Films](/wiki/NFL_Films \"NFL Films\"), Gowdy called it the most memorable game he ever called because of its historical significance.{{cite news\\|title\\=TV SPORTS; Two Generations of Reminiscences by Gowdys\\|url\\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=990CE7DD1E3FF937A15752C0A963958260\\&sec\\=\\&spon\\=\\&partner\\=permalink\\&exprod\\=permalink\\|author\\=Richard Sandomir\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=January 24, 1995}} While the Orange Bowl was sold out for the game, the live telecast was not shown in Miami due to both leagues' unconditional [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 \"Blackout (broadcasting)\") rules at the time. This game is thought to be the earliest surviving Super Bowl game preserved on videotape in its entirety save for a portion of the [Baltimore Colts](/wiki/1968_Baltimore_Colts_season \"1968 Baltimore Colts season\")' fourth quarter scoring drive.",
"In the late 1960s and early 1970s, CBS used a [marching band](/wiki/Marching_band \"Marching band\")\\-like instrumental arrangement of the song \"Confidence\" (from [Leon Carr](/wiki/Leon_Carr \"Leon Carr\")'s score for the 1964 off\\-Broadway musical *[The Secret Life of Walter Mitty](/wiki/The_Secret_Life_of_Walter_Mitty%23Stage_adaptations \"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty#Stage adaptations\")*) as the theme for their NFL broadcasts.",
"With 1969 being the final season before the [AFL–NFL merger](/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93NFL_merger \"AFL–NFL merger\"), this was also the final season where both leagues would have Thanksgiving doubleheaders. Starting in [1970](/wiki/1970_NFL_season \"1970 NFL season\"), only two games would be played on [Thanksgiving](/wiki/NFL_on_Thanksgiving_Day \"NFL on Thanksgiving Day\"), with the [Lions](/wiki/1970_Detroit_Lions_season \"1970 Detroit Lions season\") and [Cowboys](/wiki/1970_Dallas_Cowboys_season \"1970 Dallas Cowboys season\") hosting those games, and an AFC team rotating as the visiting team between Detroit and Dallas every year.",
""
] |
### 1967
The first [AFL\-NFL World Championship Game](/wiki/Super_Bowl_I "Super Bowl I") was played on January 15, 1967\. Because CBS held the rights to nationally televise NFL games and NBC had the rights to broadcast AFL games, it was decided by the newly merged league to have both of them cover that first game. Ray Scott, [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker_%28sportscaster%29 "Jack Whitaker (sportscaster)"), Frank Gifford and Pat Summerall called the game for CBS. 39\.9 million viewers would watch [Bart Starr](/wiki/Bart_Starr "Bart Starr")'s performance in the game that earned him the [MVP](/wiki/Super_Bowl_MVP "Super Bowl MVP") trophy. NBC did have some problems. The network did not return from a commercial break during [halftime](/wiki/Halftime "Halftime") in time for the start of the second half; therefore, the first [kickoff](/wiki/Kickoff_%28American_football%29 "Kickoff (American football)") was stopped by the game's officials and was redone once NBC was back on the air. NBC was also forced to broadcast the game over CBS' feed and cameras (CBS received prerogative to use its feed and camera angles since the [Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Coliseum "Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum") was home to the NFL's [Rams](/wiki/1966_Los_Angeles_Rams_season "1966 Los Angeles Rams season")). In other words, NBC's crew had little to no control over how the game was shot. The next three AFL\-NFL World Championship Games, later renamed the Super Bowl, were then divided by the two networks: CBS televised [Super Bowls II](/wiki/Super_Bowl_II "Super Bowl II") and [IV](/wiki/Super_Bowl_IV "Super Bowl IV") while NBC covered [Super Bowl III](/wiki/Super_Bowl_III "Super Bowl III").
During the week, tensions flared between the staffs of the two networks (longtime arch\-rivals in American broadcasting), who each wanted to win the ratings war, to the point where a fence was built between the CBS and NBC trucks.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1986/01/26/super\-bowl\-i\-cbs\-vs\-nbc/ \| title\=Super Bowl I: CBS vs. NBC \| date\=January 26, 1986 \| first\=Skip \| last\=Myslenski \| work\=Chicago Tribune \| access\-date\=February 10, 2013}}
Each network used its own announcers: [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 "Ray Scott (sportscaster)") (doing play\-by\-play for the first half), [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker "Jack Whitaker") (doing play\-by\-play for the second half) and [Frank Gifford](/wiki/Frank_Gifford "Frank Gifford") provided commentary on CBS, while [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy "Curt Gowdy") and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman "Paul Christman") were on NBC.{{cite book\|last1\=Deninger\|first1\=Dennis\|title\=Sports on Television: The how and why Behind what You See\|date\=2012\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|location\=New York\|isbn\=978\-0415896757}} While Rozelle allowed NBC to telecast the game, he decreed it would not be able to use its cameramen and technical personnel, instead forcing it to use the feed provided by CBS,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.history.com/news/10\-things\-you\-may\-not\-know\-about\-the\-first\-super\-bowl\|title\=10 Things You May Not Know About the First Super Bowl\|date\=February 10, 2023 }} since the Coliseum was home to the NFL's Rams.
Super Bowl I was the only Super Bowl in history that was not a sellout in terms of attendance, despite a TV [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 "Blackout (broadcasting)") in the Los Angeles area (at the time, NFL games were required to be blacked out in the market of origin, even if it was a neutral site game and if it sold out). Of the 94,000\-seat capacity in the Coliseum, 33,000 went unsold.{{cite web\| url\=http://thesportdigest.com/2011/02/super\-bowl\-xlv\-vince\-lombardi\-wanted\-no\-part\-of\-the\-super\-bowl/ \| title\=Vince Lombardi wanted no part of the Super Bowl \| author\=Evan Weiner \| work\=The Sports Digest \| date\=February 3, 2011 \| access\-date\=February 22, 2012}} Days before the game, local newspapers printed editorials about what they viewed as a then\-exorbitant $12 price for tickets, and wrote stories about how viewers could pull in the game from stations in surrounding markets such as [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California "Bakersfield, California"), [Santa Barbara](/wiki/Santa_Barbara%2C_California "Santa Barbara, California") and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego").
In [1967](/wiki/1967_NFL_season "1967 NFL season"), *The NFL Today* expanded to a 30\-minute format preceding game coverage.
Week 4 of the [1967 AFL season](/wiki/1967_AFL_season "1967 AFL season") coincided with the race for the [American League](/wiki/American_League "American League") pennant. NBC decided to focus on their [baseball coverage](/wiki/MLB_on_NBC "MLB on NBC") instead of covering the early games; thus resulting in [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy "Curt Gowdy") calling the [Twins](/wiki/1967_Minnesota_Twins_season "1967 Minnesota Twins season")\-[Red Sox](/wiki/1967_Boston_Red_Sox_season "1967 Boston Red Sox season") game; [Jim Simpson](/wiki/Jim_Simpson_%28sportscaster%29 "Jim Simpson (sportscaster)") calling the [Angels](/wiki/1967_California_Angels_season "1967 California Angels season")\-[Tigers](/wiki/1967_Detroit_Tigers_season "1967 Detroit Tigers season") game); while the AFL schedule resulted in the two early games ([Broncos](/wiki/1967_Denver_Broncos_season "1967 Denver Broncos season")\-[Oilers](/wiki/1967_Houston_Oilers_season "1967 Houston Oilers season") and [Dolphins](/wiki/1967_Miami_Dolphins_season "1967 Miami Dolphins season")\-[Jets](/wiki/1967_New_York_Jets_season "1967 New York Jets season") games not being televised with another [Chargers](/wiki/1967_San_Diego_Chargers_season "1967 San Diego Chargers season")\-[Bills](/wiki/1967_Buffalo_Bills_season "1967 Buffalo Bills season") game being a locally televised game airing only in San Diego on then\-NBC affiliate KOGO (now ABC affiliate [KGTV](/wiki/KGTV "KGTV")).
|
[
"### 1967",
"The first [AFL\\-NFL World Championship Game](/wiki/Super_Bowl_I \"Super Bowl I\") was played on January 15, 1967\\. Because CBS held the rights to nationally televise NFL games and NBC had the rights to broadcast AFL games, it was decided by the newly merged league to have both of them cover that first game. Ray Scott, [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker_%28sportscaster%29 \"Jack Whitaker (sportscaster)\"), Frank Gifford and Pat Summerall called the game for CBS. 39\\.9 million viewers would watch [Bart Starr](/wiki/Bart_Starr \"Bart Starr\")'s performance in the game that earned him the [MVP](/wiki/Super_Bowl_MVP \"Super Bowl MVP\") trophy. NBC did have some problems. The network did not return from a commercial break during [halftime](/wiki/Halftime \"Halftime\") in time for the start of the second half; therefore, the first [kickoff](/wiki/Kickoff_%28American_football%29 \"Kickoff (American football)\") was stopped by the game's officials and was redone once NBC was back on the air. NBC was also forced to broadcast the game over CBS' feed and cameras (CBS received prerogative to use its feed and camera angles since the [Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Coliseum \"Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum\") was home to the NFL's [Rams](/wiki/1966_Los_Angeles_Rams_season \"1966 Los Angeles Rams season\")). In other words, NBC's crew had little to no control over how the game was shot. The next three AFL\\-NFL World Championship Games, later renamed the Super Bowl, were then divided by the two networks: CBS televised [Super Bowls II](/wiki/Super_Bowl_II \"Super Bowl II\") and [IV](/wiki/Super_Bowl_IV \"Super Bowl IV\") while NBC covered [Super Bowl III](/wiki/Super_Bowl_III \"Super Bowl III\").",
"During the week, tensions flared between the staffs of the two networks (longtime arch\\-rivals in American broadcasting), who each wanted to win the ratings war, to the point where a fence was built between the CBS and NBC trucks.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1986/01/26/super\\-bowl\\-i\\-cbs\\-vs\\-nbc/ \\| title\\=Super Bowl I: CBS vs. NBC \\| date\\=January 26, 1986 \\| first\\=Skip \\| last\\=Myslenski \\| work\\=Chicago Tribune \\| access\\-date\\=February 10, 2013}}",
"Each network used its own announcers: [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 \"Ray Scott (sportscaster)\") (doing play\\-by\\-play for the first half), [Jack Whitaker](/wiki/Jack_Whitaker \"Jack Whitaker\") (doing play\\-by\\-play for the second half) and [Frank Gifford](/wiki/Frank_Gifford \"Frank Gifford\") provided commentary on CBS, while [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy \"Curt Gowdy\") and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman \"Paul Christman\") were on NBC.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Deninger\\|first1\\=Dennis\\|title\\=Sports on Television: The how and why Behind what You See\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|location\\=New York\\|isbn\\=978\\-0415896757}} While Rozelle allowed NBC to telecast the game, he decreed it would not be able to use its cameramen and technical personnel, instead forcing it to use the feed provided by CBS,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.history.com/news/10\\-things\\-you\\-may\\-not\\-know\\-about\\-the\\-first\\-super\\-bowl\\|title\\=10 Things You May Not Know About the First Super Bowl\\|date\\=February 10, 2023 }} since the Coliseum was home to the NFL's Rams.",
"Super Bowl I was the only Super Bowl in history that was not a sellout in terms of attendance, despite a TV [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 \"Blackout (broadcasting)\") in the Los Angeles area (at the time, NFL games were required to be blacked out in the market of origin, even if it was a neutral site game and if it sold out). Of the 94,000\\-seat capacity in the Coliseum, 33,000 went unsold.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://thesportdigest.com/2011/02/super\\-bowl\\-xlv\\-vince\\-lombardi\\-wanted\\-no\\-part\\-of\\-the\\-super\\-bowl/ \\| title\\=Vince Lombardi wanted no part of the Super Bowl \\| author\\=Evan Weiner \\| work\\=The Sports Digest \\| date\\=February 3, 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=February 22, 2012}} Days before the game, local newspapers printed editorials about what they viewed as a then\\-exorbitant $12 price for tickets, and wrote stories about how viewers could pull in the game from stations in surrounding markets such as [Bakersfield](/wiki/Bakersfield%2C_California \"Bakersfield, California\"), [Santa Barbara](/wiki/Santa_Barbara%2C_California \"Santa Barbara, California\") and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\").",
"In [1967](/wiki/1967_NFL_season \"1967 NFL season\"), *The NFL Today* expanded to a 30\\-minute format preceding game coverage.",
"Week 4 of the [1967 AFL season](/wiki/1967_AFL_season \"1967 AFL season\") coincided with the race for the [American League](/wiki/American_League \"American League\") pennant. NBC decided to focus on their [baseball coverage](/wiki/MLB_on_NBC \"MLB on NBC\") instead of covering the early games; thus resulting in [Curt Gowdy](/wiki/Curt_Gowdy \"Curt Gowdy\") calling the [Twins](/wiki/1967_Minnesota_Twins_season \"1967 Minnesota Twins season\")\\-[Red Sox](/wiki/1967_Boston_Red_Sox_season \"1967 Boston Red Sox season\") game; [Jim Simpson](/wiki/Jim_Simpson_%28sportscaster%29 \"Jim Simpson (sportscaster)\") calling the [Angels](/wiki/1967_California_Angels_season \"1967 California Angels season\")\\-[Tigers](/wiki/1967_Detroit_Tigers_season \"1967 Detroit Tigers season\") game); while the AFL schedule resulted in the two early games ([Broncos](/wiki/1967_Denver_Broncos_season \"1967 Denver Broncos season\")\\-[Oilers](/wiki/1967_Houston_Oilers_season \"1967 Houston Oilers season\") and [Dolphins](/wiki/1967_Miami_Dolphins_season \"1967 Miami Dolphins season\")\\-[Jets](/wiki/1967_New_York_Jets_season \"1967 New York Jets season\") games not being televised with another [Chargers](/wiki/1967_San_Diego_Chargers_season \"1967 San Diego Chargers season\")\\-[Bills](/wiki/1967_Buffalo_Bills_season \"1967 Buffalo Bills season\") game being a locally televised game airing only in San Diego on then\\-NBC affiliate KOGO (now ABC affiliate [KGTV](/wiki/KGTV \"KGTV\")).",
""
] |
### 1968
Super Bowl II was televised in the United States by [CBS](/wiki/NFL_on_CBS "NFL on CBS"), with [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 "Ray Scott (sportscaster)") handling the [play\-by\-play](/wiki/Play-by-play "Play-by-play") duties and [color commentators](/wiki/Color_commentator "Color commentator") [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall "Pat Summerall") and [Jack Kemp](/wiki/Jack_Kemp "Jack Kemp") in the broadcast booth. Kemp was the first Super Bowl commentator who was still an active player (with [Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo_Bills "Buffalo Bills") of the [AFL](/wiki/American_Football_League "American Football League")) at the time of the broadcast. The CBS telecast of this game is considered lost; all that survives are in\-game photos, most of which were shown in the January 8, 1969 edition of [Sports Illustrated](/wiki/Sports_Illustrated "Sports Illustrated"). Not even [NFL Films](/wiki/NFL_Films "NFL Films"), the league's official filmmaker, has a copy of the full game available; however, they do have game footage that they used for their game highlight film.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nfl.com/news/the\-mystery\-of\-the\-super\-bowl\-i\-tapes\-0ap3000000622357\|title \= The Mystery of the Super Bowl I tapes\| website\=\[\[NFL.com]] }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nflfilms.com/specialorders/twNFL.php\|title \= NFL Films \| Watch NFL Stories}}
Unlike the previous year's game, Super Bowl II was televised live on only one network, which has been the case for all subsequent Super Bowl games. While the Orange Bowl was sold out for the game, the NFL's unconditional [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 "Blackout (broadcasting)") rules in place then prevented the live telecast from being shown in the Miami area.
During the latter part of the second quarter, and again for three minutes of halftime, almost 80 percent of the country (with the exceptions of New York City, [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") and much of the [Northeast](/wiki/Northeastern_United_States "Northeastern United States")) lost the video feed of the CBS broadcast. CBS, who had paid $2\.5 million for broadcast rights, blamed the glitch on a breakdown in [AT\&T](/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation "AT&T Corporation") [cable lines](/wiki/Coaxial_cable "Coaxial cable"). The overnight [Arbitron](/wiki/Arbitron "Arbitron") rating was 43\.0, a slight increase from Super Bowl I's combined CBS\-NBC rating of 42\.2\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-BC/BC\-1968/1968\-01\-22\-BC.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1968/1968-01-22-BC.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}}
When CBS decided to abandon its practice of using dedicated announcing crews for particular teams in [1968](/wiki/1968_NFL_season "1968 NFL season"), the network instituted a semi\-merit system in its place, with certain crews (such as Ray Scott and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman "Paul Christman") or [Jack Buck](/wiki/Jack_Buck "Jack Buck") and Pat Summerall) being assigned to each week's most prominent games regardless of the participating teams.
One of the most remembered games on NBC was a [1968](/wiki/American_Football_League_seasons%231968 "American Football League seasons#1968") game known as the *[Heidi Game](/wiki/Heidi_Game "Heidi Game")*. As its nationally televised game between the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/1968_Oakland_Raiders_season "1968 Oakland Raiders season") and [New York Jets](/wiki/1968_New_York_Jets_season "1968 New York Jets season") running late, the network discontinued coverage while the game was still playing to air the movie *[Heidi](/wiki/Heidi "Heidi")* just moments after the Jets' [Jim Turner](/wiki/Jim_Turner_%28placekicker%29 "Jim Turner (placekicker)") kicked what appeared to be the game\-winning field goal with 1:05 remaining. While millions of irate fans, missing the finale, jammed NBC's phone lines, the Raiders scored two touchdowns in eight seconds during the final minute to win 43–32\.
The reaction to *The Heidi Game* resulted in the AFL, and most other sports leagues, demanding thereafter that television networks broadcast all games to their conclusion. NFL contracts with the networks now require games to be shown in a team's market area to conclusion, regardless of the score.
To avoid a repeat incident, a 1975 NBC broadcast of *[Willy Wonka \& the Chocolate Factory](/wiki/Willy_Wonka_%26_the_Chocolate_Factory "Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory")* was delayed until the completion of a [Washington Redskins](/wiki/1975_Washington_Redskins_season "1975 Washington Redskins season")–[Raiders](/wiki/1975_Oakland_Raiders_season "1975 Oakland Raiders season") game. The network installed a new phone in the control room wired to a separate exchange, becoming known as the *Heidi Phone*, to prevent this situation from occurring in the future.
On December 22, 1968, CBS interrupted coverage of a [Western Conference championship game](/wiki/NFL_playoffs%2C_1968 "NFL playoffs, 1968") between the [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/1968_Minnesota_Vikings_season "1968 Minnesota Vikings season") and [Baltimore Colts](/wiki/1968_Baltimore_Colts_season "1968 Baltimore Colts season") to show a broadcast from inside the [Apollo 8](/wiki/Apollo_8 "Apollo 8") spacecraft, headed towards the Moon (the first crewed space mission to orbit the Moon, and a major step towards the lunar landing the following July). The interruption began approximately three minutes before halftime of the game, and lasted 17 minutes. CBS showed highlights of the missed action (in which neither team scored) when the network returned to football coverage; nonetheless, the network received approximately 3,000 complaints after the game.
|
[
"### 1968",
"Super Bowl II was televised in the United States by [CBS](/wiki/NFL_on_CBS \"NFL on CBS\"), with [Ray Scott](/wiki/Ray_Scott_%28sportscaster%29 \"Ray Scott (sportscaster)\") handling the [play\\-by\\-play](/wiki/Play-by-play \"Play-by-play\") duties and [color commentators](/wiki/Color_commentator \"Color commentator\") [Pat Summerall](/wiki/Pat_Summerall \"Pat Summerall\") and [Jack Kemp](/wiki/Jack_Kemp \"Jack Kemp\") in the broadcast booth. Kemp was the first Super Bowl commentator who was still an active player (with [Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo_Bills \"Buffalo Bills\") of the [AFL](/wiki/American_Football_League \"American Football League\")) at the time of the broadcast. The CBS telecast of this game is considered lost; all that survives are in\\-game photos, most of which were shown in the January 8, 1969 edition of [Sports Illustrated](/wiki/Sports_Illustrated \"Sports Illustrated\"). Not even [NFL Films](/wiki/NFL_Films \"NFL Films\"), the league's official filmmaker, has a copy of the full game available; however, they do have game footage that they used for their game highlight film.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nfl.com/news/the\\-mystery\\-of\\-the\\-super\\-bowl\\-i\\-tapes\\-0ap3000000622357\\|title \\= The Mystery of the Super Bowl I tapes\\| website\\=\\[\\[NFL.com]] }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nflfilms.com/specialorders/twNFL.php\\|title \\= NFL Films \\| Watch NFL Stories}}",
"Unlike the previous year's game, Super Bowl II was televised live on only one network, which has been the case for all subsequent Super Bowl games. While the Orange Bowl was sold out for the game, the NFL's unconditional [blackout](/wiki/Blackout_%28broadcasting%29 \"Blackout (broadcasting)\") rules in place then prevented the live telecast from being shown in the Miami area.",
"During the latter part of the second quarter, and again for three minutes of halftime, almost 80 percent of the country (with the exceptions of New York City, [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") and much of the [Northeast](/wiki/Northeastern_United_States \"Northeastern United States\")) lost the video feed of the CBS broadcast. CBS, who had paid $2\\.5 million for broadcast rights, blamed the glitch on a breakdown in [AT\\&T](/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation \"AT&T Corporation\") [cable lines](/wiki/Coaxial_cable \"Coaxial cable\"). The overnight [Arbitron](/wiki/Arbitron \"Arbitron\") rating was 43\\.0, a slight increase from Super Bowl I's combined CBS\\-NBC rating of 42\\.2\\.[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-BC/BC\\-1968/1968\\-01\\-22\\-BC.pdf](http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC/BC-1968/1968-01-22-BC.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}}",
"When CBS decided to abandon its practice of using dedicated announcing crews for particular teams in [1968](/wiki/1968_NFL_season \"1968 NFL season\"), the network instituted a semi\\-merit system in its place, with certain crews (such as Ray Scott and [Paul Christman](/wiki/Paul_Christman \"Paul Christman\") or [Jack Buck](/wiki/Jack_Buck \"Jack Buck\") and Pat Summerall) being assigned to each week's most prominent games regardless of the participating teams.",
"One of the most remembered games on NBC was a [1968](/wiki/American_Football_League_seasons%231968 \"American Football League seasons#1968\") game known as the *[Heidi Game](/wiki/Heidi_Game \"Heidi Game\")*. As its nationally televised game between the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/1968_Oakland_Raiders_season \"1968 Oakland Raiders season\") and [New York Jets](/wiki/1968_New_York_Jets_season \"1968 New York Jets season\") running late, the network discontinued coverage while the game was still playing to air the movie *[Heidi](/wiki/Heidi \"Heidi\")* just moments after the Jets' [Jim Turner](/wiki/Jim_Turner_%28placekicker%29 \"Jim Turner (placekicker)\") kicked what appeared to be the game\\-winning field goal with 1:05 remaining. While millions of irate fans, missing the finale, jammed NBC's phone lines, the Raiders scored two touchdowns in eight seconds during the final minute to win 43–32\\.",
"The reaction to *The Heidi Game* resulted in the AFL, and most other sports leagues, demanding thereafter that television networks broadcast all games to their conclusion. NFL contracts with the networks now require games to be shown in a team's market area to conclusion, regardless of the score.",
"To avoid a repeat incident, a 1975 NBC broadcast of *[Willy Wonka \\& the Chocolate Factory](/wiki/Willy_Wonka_%26_the_Chocolate_Factory \"Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory\")* was delayed until the completion of a [Washington Redskins](/wiki/1975_Washington_Redskins_season \"1975 Washington Redskins season\")–[Raiders](/wiki/1975_Oakland_Raiders_season \"1975 Oakland Raiders season\") game. The network installed a new phone in the control room wired to a separate exchange, becoming known as the *Heidi Phone*, to prevent this situation from occurring in the future.",
"On December 22, 1968, CBS interrupted coverage of a [Western Conference championship game](/wiki/NFL_playoffs%2C_1968 \"NFL playoffs, 1968\") between the [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/1968_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"1968 Minnesota Vikings season\") and [Baltimore Colts](/wiki/1968_Baltimore_Colts_season \"1968 Baltimore Colts season\") to show a broadcast from inside the [Apollo 8](/wiki/Apollo_8 \"Apollo 8\") spacecraft, headed towards the Moon (the first crewed space mission to orbit the Moon, and a major step towards the lunar landing the following July). The interruption began approximately three minutes before halftime of the game, and lasted 17 minutes. CBS showed highlights of the missed action (in which neither team scored) when the network returned to football coverage; nonetheless, the network received approximately 3,000 complaints after the game.",
""
] |
History \& Politics
-------------------
### Malie \& the Malietoa
The paramount *[matai](/wiki/Fa%CA%BBamatai "Faʻamatai")* title of Tuamasaga is the [Malietoa](/wiki/Malietoa "Malietoa") title. Led by Auimatagi, Sa Malietoa and the nine senior orators of [Malie](/wiki/Malie "Malie") are responsible for the election of the Malietoa titleholder at Niuʻula in Malie. Given that the district of [Aiga\-i\-le\-Tai](/wiki/Aiga-i-le-Tai "Aiga-i-le-Tai") ([Manono](/wiki/Manono_Island "Manono Island") and [Apolima](/wiki/Apolima "Apolima")) and the district of [Faʻasaleleaga](/wiki/Fa%CA%BBasaleleaga "Faʻasaleleaga") on [Savaiʻi](/wiki/Savai%CA%BBi "Savaiʻi") are two key footholds of the Aiga Sa Malietoa (Malietoa clan), Malie often consults with Manono (capital of Aiga\-i\-le\-Tai) and [Safotulafai](/wiki/Safotulafai "Safotulafai") (capital of Faʻasaleleaga) in the election of the Malietoa.
The village of Malie is the seat of the Malietoa.
At a national level, the Malietoa title is one of the four *Tama\-a\-Aiga* (noble families) titles. [Apia](/wiki/Apia "Apia"), the nation's capital, is situated in the north of the district. The national parliament also sits at [Mulinuʻu](/wiki/Mulinu%CA%BBu "Mulinuʻu") to the west of Apia, and the main seaport is situated at [Matautu](/wiki/Matautu "Matautu") to the north of Apia around the shores of Apia harbour.
**Afega, Safata and the *pāpā* titles**
The paramount *pāpā* titles of Tuamasaga are Gatoaitele and Vaetamasoalii. Afega is the seat of Gatoaitele. Once a decision is made, the village of Afega, through the chiefs Fata and Maulolo, must lead the bestowal process on behalf of the Fale Tuamasaga (the parliament of Tuamasaga). Safata is the seat of the Vaetamasoalii *pāpā*. These pāpā titles are usually bestowed upon the highest *matai* of Tuamasaga and one of the four *Tama\-a\-Aiga* (noble families) of Samoa.
Historically, the Fale Tuamasaga meets at [Afega](/wiki/Afega "Afega") (*malae a Vaitoelau*) in times of war and at Malie (*malae a filemu*) in times of peace.
### Tumua
Together with the *faleiva* of [Leulumoega](/wiki/Leulumoega "Leulumoega") and the *faleono* of [Lufilufi](/wiki/Lufilufi "Lufilufi"), the lead orators of Malie \& Afega (collectively called *'Tuisamau ma Auimatagi')* comprise the group of *tulafale alii* (orator chiefs) who speak on behalf of Upolu on matters of state, the Tumua.
|
[
"History \\& Politics\n-------------------",
"### Malie \\& the Malietoa",
"The paramount *[matai](/wiki/Fa%CA%BBamatai \"Faʻamatai\")* title of Tuamasaga is the [Malietoa](/wiki/Malietoa \"Malietoa\") title. Led by Auimatagi, Sa Malietoa and the nine senior orators of [Malie](/wiki/Malie \"Malie\") are responsible for the election of the Malietoa titleholder at Niuʻula in Malie. Given that the district of [Aiga\\-i\\-le\\-Tai](/wiki/Aiga-i-le-Tai \"Aiga-i-le-Tai\") ([Manono](/wiki/Manono_Island \"Manono Island\") and [Apolima](/wiki/Apolima \"Apolima\")) and the district of [Faʻasaleleaga](/wiki/Fa%CA%BBasaleleaga \"Faʻasaleleaga\") on [Savaiʻi](/wiki/Savai%CA%BBi \"Savaiʻi\") are two key footholds of the Aiga Sa Malietoa (Malietoa clan), Malie often consults with Manono (capital of Aiga\\-i\\-le\\-Tai) and [Safotulafai](/wiki/Safotulafai \"Safotulafai\") (capital of Faʻasaleleaga) in the election of the Malietoa.",
"The village of Malie is the seat of the Malietoa.",
"At a national level, the Malietoa title is one of the four *Tama\\-a\\-Aiga* (noble families) titles. [Apia](/wiki/Apia \"Apia\"), the nation's capital, is situated in the north of the district. The national parliament also sits at [Mulinuʻu](/wiki/Mulinu%CA%BBu \"Mulinuʻu\") to the west of Apia, and the main seaport is situated at [Matautu](/wiki/Matautu \"Matautu\") to the north of Apia around the shores of Apia harbour.",
"**Afega, Safata and the *pāpā* titles**",
"The paramount *pāpā* titles of Tuamasaga are Gatoaitele and Vaetamasoalii. Afega is the seat of Gatoaitele. Once a decision is made, the village of Afega, through the chiefs Fata and Maulolo, must lead the bestowal process on behalf of the Fale Tuamasaga (the parliament of Tuamasaga). Safata is the seat of the Vaetamasoalii *pāpā*. These pāpā titles are usually bestowed upon the highest *matai* of Tuamasaga and one of the four *Tama\\-a\\-Aiga* (noble families) of Samoa.",
"Historically, the Fale Tuamasaga meets at [Afega](/wiki/Afega \"Afega\") (*malae a Vaitoelau*) in times of war and at Malie (*malae a filemu*) in times of peace.",
"### Tumua",
"Together with the *faleiva* of [Leulumoega](/wiki/Leulumoega \"Leulumoega\") and the *faleono* of [Lufilufi](/wiki/Lufilufi \"Lufilufi\"), the lead orators of Malie \\& Afega (collectively called *'Tuisamau ma Auimatagi')* comprise the group of *tulafale alii* (orator chiefs) who speak on behalf of Upolu on matters of state, the Tumua.",
""
] |
Professional wrestling career
-----------------------------
### New Japan Pro\-Wrestling (1984–2010\)
#### Early years (1984–1989\)
Chōno debuted in 1984 against [Keiji Mutoh](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh "Keiji Mutoh") at a [New Japan Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling "New Japan Pro-Wrestling") (NJPW) event in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama_Prefecture "Saitama Prefecture"), Japan.John Molinaro, *The Top 100 Pro Wrestlers of All Time*, (Winding Stair Press: 2002\), page 198\. In 1987, he defeated [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto "Shinya Hashimoto") to win the [Young Lions Cup](/wiki/Young_Lions_Cup "Young Lions Cup"). After winning the tournament, he went on an excursion that started in Europe, wrestling for [Otto Wanz](/wiki/Otto_Wanz "Otto Wanz")'s [Catch Wrestling Association](/wiki/Catch_Wrestling_Association "Catch Wrestling Association").
After a while in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), Chono went on an excursion to [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"), starting in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") for [Central States Wrestling](/wiki/Heart_of_America_Sports_Attractions "Heart of America Sports Attractions") in Kansas City, which by then broke away from the [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance "National Wrestling Alliance") to form the World Wrestling Alliance. He would also later wrestle in the Canadian Maritimes for [Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling](/wiki/Atlantic_Grand_Prix_Wrestling "Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling") and in [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico"), where he, Hashimoto, and Mutoh formed [The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers_%28professional_wrestling%29 "The Three Musketeers (professional wrestling)").
Chono returned to NJPW part\-time in July 1988\. He came back to the United States in October 1988 and teamed with [Mike Davis](/wiki/Mike_Davis_%28wrestler%29 "Mike Davis (wrestler)") in [Continental Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Continental_Championship_Wrestling "Continental Championship Wrestling") (CCW), by then renamed the Continental Wrestling Federation (CWF), and won that company's tag titles as the Japanese Connection.
In April 1989, he took part in the [IWGP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Heavyweight_Championship "IWGP Heavyweight Championship") tournament, held at New Japan's very first show at the [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome "Tokyo Dome"); he lost to eventual winner of the tournament and new champion [Big Van Vader](/wiki/Big_Van_Vader "Big Van Vader") in the quarterfinals. During this time, he would return to the United States and have a brief run in [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia").
#### Rise to superstardom (1989–1994\)
Upon Chono's return to New Japan in October 1989, he reinvented himself. On October 15, 1989 during a match against [Matt Borne](/wiki/Matt_Borne "Matt Borne") where he was victorious, he debuted his signature move, the STF. On February 10, 1990, he wrestled in the main\-event of NJPW's second [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome "Tokyo Dome") show, teaming with [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto "Shinya Hashimoto") against [Antonio Inoki](/wiki/Antonio_Inoki "Antonio Inoki") and [Seiji Sakaguchi](/wiki/Seiji_Sakaguchi "Seiji Sakaguchi"), on April 27 he won the [IWGP Tag Team Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Tag_Team_Championship "IWGP Tag Team Championship") with Mutoh, and on December 26 he defeated his mentor, wrestling legend [Lou Thesz](/wiki/Lou_Thesz "Lou Thesz"), when Thesz came out of retirement for one last match. The next year, Chono solidified his main\-event status with an amazing performance in the first [G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax "G1 Climax") tournament, winning the tournament in a thirty\-minute final over Mutoh.
He won the tournament again in 1992, winning the [NWA World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship "NWA World Heavyweight Championship") in the process. Since then, he has won the tournament on three more occasions. On September 23, 1992, Chono suffered a serious neck injury from a botched sitdown tombstone piledriver while defending the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against [Steve Austin](/wiki/Stone_Cold_Steve_Austin "Stone Cold Steve Austin"). On January 4, 1993, he lost the NWA World title to IWGP Heavyweight champion [The Great Muta](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh "Keiji Mutoh") in a Title vs. Title match. Around 1993, he participated in his third G1 Climax tournament, losing to [Hiroshi Hase](/wiki/Hiroshi_Hase "Hiroshi Hase") in the semi\-finals. In January 1994, he received a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship against Shinya Hashimoto, though he would ultimately lose the match. In August 1994, he won his third G1 Climax tournament, defeating [Power Warrior](/wiki/Kensuke_Sasaki "Kensuke Sasaki") in the finals.
#### nWo Japan and Team 2000 (1994–2004\)
A short time after winning his third G1 Climax, Chono underwent a change in attitude. Originally a clean\-cut fan favorite during his NWA World title reign, he turned heel, angered that Power Warrior received a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship before him, as he won the tournament. He also changed his image and adopted a [yakuza](/wiki/Yakuza "Yakuza") [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Gimmick (professional wrestling)"), complete with sunglasses, menacing mannerisms and black coats and tights.
Chono's partnering with [Hiroyoshi Tenzan](/wiki/Hiroyoshi_Tenzan "Hiroyoshi Tenzan") and [Hiro Saito](/wiki/Hiro_Saito "Hiro Saito") as "Team Wolf" provided a foundation to NJPW's [nWo Japan](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28professional_wrestling%29 "New World Order (professional wrestling)"). Establishing himself as leader of its Japanese sister stable, Chono joined the American nWo in December 1996 as it was gaining momentum in [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling "World Championship Wrestling") (WCW). He would also join its successor, Team 2000, which would eventually restructure again. In a match against WCW's [Bill Goldberg](/wiki/Bill_Goldberg "Bill Goldberg"), Chono supposedly "[shot](/wiki/Shoot_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Shoot (professional wrestling)")" the match (actually employing legitimate combat) and dislocated his shoulder.
Upon returning to Japan, Chono rejoined NJPW, where he achieved much success. He won the IWGP Tag Team Titles on six occasions and also won the very prestigious IWGP Heavyweight Title in 1998\. In 2002, Chono won his fourth [G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax "G1 Climax") tournament and had a brief, memorable feud with WWE's [Chyna](/wiki/Chyna "Chyna"). He also became a [booker](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23B "List of professional wrestling terms#B") for NJPW around this time. In 2003, Chono briefly joined Pro Wrestling NOAH for a handful of matches and was defeated by GHC Champion [Kenta Kobashi](/wiki/Kenta_Kobashi "Kenta Kobashi") on 2 May of that year. On October 13, he lost to [Hulk Hogan](/wiki/Hulk_Hogan "Hulk Hogan").
#### Black New Japan and ChoTen (2004–2007\)
In early 2004, Chono became the leader of the [Black New Japan](/wiki/Black_New_Japan "Black New Japan") stable, which was the most dominating heel stable in NJPW until it was disbanded by [Riki Choshu](/wiki/Riki_Choshu "Riki Choshu"). As a reaction to this, Chono lead an "Anti\-Choshu Army" with Hiroyoshi Tenzan and [Black Strong Machine](/wiki/Junji_Hirata "Junji Hirata"). Chono won the [2005 G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax%232005 "G1 Climax#2005") tournament, thus having achieved a record\-setting five G1 victories. His success in the G1 has given him the nickname Mr. August.
On October 30, 2005, Masahiro Chono and Tenzan defeated the team of [Shinsuke Nakamura](/wiki/Shinsuke_Nakamura "Shinsuke Nakamura") and [Hiroshi Tanahashi](/wiki/Hiroshi_Tanahashi "Hiroshi Tanahashi") to win their fifth IWGP Tag Team Championship. The team went on to rename themselves [Cho\-Ten](/wiki/Cho-Ten "Cho-Ten"), a [portmanteau](/wiki/Portmanteau "Portmanteau") of the members' names. They were stripped of the titles in late 2006 after they split up, and refused to defend them together. Masahiro Chono formed a stable with [Shinsuke Nakamura](/wiki/Shinsuke_Nakamura "Shinsuke Nakamura") in 2006 called Chono and Nakamura\-gun, which began feuding with Tenzan's new group, [GBH](/wiki/Great_Bash_Heel "Great Bash Heel").
#### Legend (2007–2010\)
[thumb\|Chono in November 2010](/wiki/File:Masahiro_Chono_2.jpg "Masahiro Chono 2.jpg")
Chono continued to wrestle full\-time in 2007, but also began working as a promoter, with New Japan permitting him to set up cards in different areas of Japan. Following the [2007 G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax%232007 "G1 Climax#2007"), it appears that Chono may be breaking away from his BLACK faction and formed the Legend stable, having sworn in wrestlers such as Riki Choshu, [Jushin Thunder Liger](/wiki/Jushin_Thunder_Liger "Jushin Thunder Liger"), [Shiro Koshinaka](/wiki/Shiro_Koshinaka "Shiro Koshinaka"), and [AKIRA](/wiki/Akira_Nogami "Akira Nogami").
Outside wrestling, Chono began appearing on [Gaki no Tsukai](/wiki/Gaki_no_Tsukai "Gaki no Tsukai")'s "[No Laughing Batsu Game](/wiki/Downtown_no_Gaki_no_Tsukai_ya_Arahende%21%21%23Batsu_Game "Downtown no Gaki no Tsukai ya Arahende!!#Batsu Game")" as one of the attackers, usually giving [Hōsei Tsukitei](/wiki/H%C5%8Dsei_Tsukitei "Hōsei Tsukitei") a slap to the face.
In January 2010 it was reported that Chono would be leaving New Japan and becoming a freelancer, after spending most of his career with the company.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.puroresufan.com/njpw/?p\=1359\|title\=Chono becomes a freelancer\|date\=January 21, 2010\|access\-date\=2010\-01\-25\|publisher\=Strong Style Spirit}}
### Later career (2010–2023\)
In March 2010, Chono portrayed [Nobunaga Oda](/wiki/Nobunaga_Oda "Nobunaga Oda") in two matches during a Samurai Festival after leaving New Japan. Chono wrestled AKIRA, who portrayed [Mitsuhide Akechi](/wiki/Mitsuhide_Akechi "Mitsuhide Akechi"), on both days, winning the first match and losing the second. On August 15, 2010, Chono returned to New Japan to serve as the special ring announcer for the G1 Climax final match between Hiroshi Tanahashi and [Satoshi Kojima](/wiki/Satoshi_Kojima "Satoshi Kojima").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.puroresufan.com/njpw/?p\=1973\|title\=(Results) New Japan, 8/15/10\|work\=Strong Style Spirit\|date\=August 15, 2010\|access\-date\=2010\-08\-22}} On November 5 and 6, Chono appeared in a series of shows in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") for All Japan. On November 5, Chono and Mutoh defeated the [Voodoo Murders](/wiki/Voodoo_Murders "Voodoo Murders") ([TARU](/wiki/Yoshikazu_Taru "Yoshikazu Taru") and [Rene Dupree](/wiki/Rene_Dupree "Rene Dupree")). The following day, Chono teamed with Mutoh and [Masakatsu Funaki](/wiki/Masakatsu_Funaki "Masakatsu Funaki") to defeat the Voodoo Murders (Dupree, [KENSO](/wiki/Kenzo_Suzuki "Kenzo Suzuki"), and [Joe Doering](/wiki/Joe_Doering "Joe Doering")).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cagematch.net/?id\=2\&nr\=961\&view\=matches\#matches \|title\=Masahiro Chono " Wrestlers Database " CAGEMATCH – The Internet Wrestling Database \|publisher\=Cagematch.net \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-03}} In December 2010, Chono began working for Antonio Inoki's [Inoki Genome Federation](/wiki/Inoki_Genome_Federation "Inoki Genome Federation") as a booker.
On March 6, 2011, Chono entered [Pro Wrestling ZERO1](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_ZERO1 "Pro Wrestling ZERO1") for their 10th Anniversary Show, where he defeated Daichi Hashimoto in his debut match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.purolove.com/zero1/results/results11\.php \|title\=Purolove.Com \|publisher\=Purolove.Com \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-03}} On April 17, 2011, Chono wrestled for Osaka Pro, where he teamed with Kuuga and [Orochi](/wiki/Miyawaki_%28wrestler%29 "Miyawaki (wrestler)") in a losing effort against [Shodai Tiger Mask](/wiki/Satoru_Sayama "Satoru Sayama"), Billyken Kid, and Tsubasa.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.purolove.com/misc/osaka/results/results11\.php \|title\=Purolove.Com \|publisher\=Purolove.Com \|access\-date\=2013\-10\-03}} On August 14, 2011, Chono returned to Osaka Pro, teaming with TAJIRI and Zeus in a victory over JOKER (Kuuga, Orochi, and [Tadasuke](/wiki/Tadasuke "Tadasuke")).{{cite web \|last1\=Kreikenbohm \|first1\=Philip \|title\=Osaka Pro Osaka Hurricane 2011 \|url\=https://www.cagematch.net//?id\=1\&nr\=67488 \|website\=Cagematch: The Internet Wrestling Database \|access\-date\=9 June 2019}} On October 3, 2011, Chono returned to NJPW for a Team Wolf reunion match, teaming with Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Hiro Saito to defeat Osamu Nishimura, [Koji Kanemoto](/wiki/Koji_Kanemoto "Koji Kanemoto"), and Shinjiro Otani.{{cite web \|last1\=Kreikenbohm \|first1\=Philip \|title\=NJPW Hiroyoshi Tenzan 20th Anniversary \~Hard Mogyu\~ \|url\=https://www.cagematch.net//?id\=1\&nr\=69814 \|website\=Cagematch: The Internet Wrestling Database \|access\-date\=9 June 2019}}
In January 2013, Chono signed with [All Japan Pro Wrestling](/wiki/All_Japan_Pro_Wrestling "All Japan Pro Wrestling") (AJPW) as an advisor. On August 25, 2013, Chono teamed with [Joe Doering](/wiki/Joe_Doering "Joe Doering") and defeated [KENSO](/wiki/Kenzo_Suzuki "Kenzo Suzuki") and AJPW President Nobuo Shiraishi in an exhibition tag team match. Chono left AJPW in 2014\.
After returning to freelance, Chono wrestled once in eight years: a six man tag team match for Dotonbori Pro Wrestling on April 13, 2014\. He teamed with [Daisuke Masaoka](/wiki/Daisuke_Masaoka "Daisuke Masaoka") and [Hayata](/wiki/Hayata_%28wrestler%29 "Hayata (wrestler)") in a loss to [Super Delfin](/wiki/Super_Delfin "Super Delfin"), [Hub](/wiki/Hub_%28wrestler%29 "Hub (wrestler)"), and [Gran Hamada](/wiki/Gran_Hamada "Gran Hamada"). Since 2014, Chono's appearances have been limited to non\-active roles such as commentary, talk battles and special appearances. In a 2017 interview, Chono did not completely rule out the possibility of a return to the ring but believed it would be unlikely due to various injuries.{{Cite web \|title\=天才テリー伊藤対談「蝶野正洋」（3）実質的にプロレスは「引退」ですね \|url\=https://www.asagei.com/76775 \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-22 \|website\=アサ芸プラス \|language\=ja}} In 2021, he revealed that he had been suffering from [spinal stenosis](/wiki/Spinal_stenosis "Spinal stenosis") and underwent surgery for it, which was successful.{{Cite web \|last\=INC \|first\=SANKEI DIGITAL \|date\=2021\-12\-15 \|title\=蝶野正洋、入院していた 手術成功も「普通に歩ける様に成るには少し時間掛かりそう」 \|url\=https://www.sanspo.com/article/20211215\-RCYEW2LMWRFL5JJTAIKHIE4FUE/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-22 \|website\=サンスポ \|language\=ja}}
In a 2022 interview, Chono discussed how Keiji Muto requested to have his retirement match with him but was unsure if he could compete.{{Cite web \|title\=蝶野正洋、武藤敬司の「夢は蝶野と引退試合」どうする？ 手術で全治9か月 状態を直撃 \|url\=https://encount.press/archives/311720/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-22 \|website\=ENCOUNT \|language\=ja}} On February 21, 2023, Chono was challenged to an impromptu match by Muto during [Muto's retirement show](/wiki/Keiji_Muto_Grand_Final_Pro-Wrestling_%22Last%22_Love "Keiji Muto Grand Final Pro-Wrestling ") at the [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome "Tokyo Dome"), which Chono won.{{Cite web \|title\=2023年02月21日 火 chocoZAP presents KEIJI MUTO GRAND FINAL PRO\-WRESTLING "LAST" LOVE ～HOLD OUT～ \|url\=https://www.noah.co.jp/schedule/418/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-22 \|website\=プロレスリング・ノア公式サイト {{!}} PRO\-WRESTLING NOAH OFFICIAL SITE\|date\=February 21, 2023 }} Chono announced his own retirement following the match.
|
[
"Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------",
"### New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling (1984–2010\\)",
"#### Early years (1984–1989\\)",
"Chōno debuted in 1984 against [Keiji Mutoh](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh \"Keiji Mutoh\") at a [New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling \"New Japan Pro-Wrestling\") (NJPW) event in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama_Prefecture \"Saitama Prefecture\"), Japan.John Molinaro, *The Top 100 Pro Wrestlers of All Time*, (Winding Stair Press: 2002\\), page 198\\. In 1987, he defeated [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto \"Shinya Hashimoto\") to win the [Young Lions Cup](/wiki/Young_Lions_Cup \"Young Lions Cup\"). After winning the tournament, he went on an excursion that started in Europe, wrestling for [Otto Wanz](/wiki/Otto_Wanz \"Otto Wanz\")'s [Catch Wrestling Association](/wiki/Catch_Wrestling_Association \"Catch Wrestling Association\").",
"After a while in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), Chono went on an excursion to [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"), starting in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") for [Central States Wrestling](/wiki/Heart_of_America_Sports_Attractions \"Heart of America Sports Attractions\") in Kansas City, which by then broke away from the [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance \"National Wrestling Alliance\") to form the World Wrestling Alliance. He would also later wrestle in the Canadian Maritimes for [Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling](/wiki/Atlantic_Grand_Prix_Wrestling \"Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling\") and in [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\"), where he, Hashimoto, and Mutoh formed [The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"The Three Musketeers (professional wrestling)\").",
"Chono returned to NJPW part\\-time in July 1988\\. He came back to the United States in October 1988 and teamed with [Mike Davis](/wiki/Mike_Davis_%28wrestler%29 \"Mike Davis (wrestler)\") in [Continental Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Continental_Championship_Wrestling \"Continental Championship Wrestling\") (CCW), by then renamed the Continental Wrestling Federation (CWF), and won that company's tag titles as the Japanese Connection.",
"In April 1989, he took part in the [IWGP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Heavyweight_Championship \"IWGP Heavyweight Championship\") tournament, held at New Japan's very first show at the [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome \"Tokyo Dome\"); he lost to eventual winner of the tournament and new champion [Big Van Vader](/wiki/Big_Van_Vader \"Big Van Vader\") in the quarterfinals. During this time, he would return to the United States and have a brief run in [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\").",
"#### Rise to superstardom (1989–1994\\)",
"Upon Chono's return to New Japan in October 1989, he reinvented himself. On October 15, 1989 during a match against [Matt Borne](/wiki/Matt_Borne \"Matt Borne\") where he was victorious, he debuted his signature move, the STF. On February 10, 1990, he wrestled in the main\\-event of NJPW's second [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome \"Tokyo Dome\") show, teaming with [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto \"Shinya Hashimoto\") against [Antonio Inoki](/wiki/Antonio_Inoki \"Antonio Inoki\") and [Seiji Sakaguchi](/wiki/Seiji_Sakaguchi \"Seiji Sakaguchi\"), on April 27 he won the [IWGP Tag Team Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Tag_Team_Championship \"IWGP Tag Team Championship\") with Mutoh, and on December 26 he defeated his mentor, wrestling legend [Lou Thesz](/wiki/Lou_Thesz \"Lou Thesz\"), when Thesz came out of retirement for one last match. The next year, Chono solidified his main\\-event status with an amazing performance in the first [G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax \"G1 Climax\") tournament, winning the tournament in a thirty\\-minute final over Mutoh.",
"He won the tournament again in 1992, winning the [NWA World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"NWA World Heavyweight Championship\") in the process. Since then, he has won the tournament on three more occasions. On September 23, 1992, Chono suffered a serious neck injury from a botched sitdown tombstone piledriver while defending the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against [Steve Austin](/wiki/Stone_Cold_Steve_Austin \"Stone Cold Steve Austin\"). On January 4, 1993, he lost the NWA World title to IWGP Heavyweight champion [The Great Muta](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh \"Keiji Mutoh\") in a Title vs. Title match. Around 1993, he participated in his third G1 Climax tournament, losing to [Hiroshi Hase](/wiki/Hiroshi_Hase \"Hiroshi Hase\") in the semi\\-finals. In January 1994, he received a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship against Shinya Hashimoto, though he would ultimately lose the match. In August 1994, he won his third G1 Climax tournament, defeating [Power Warrior](/wiki/Kensuke_Sasaki \"Kensuke Sasaki\") in the finals.",
"#### nWo Japan and Team 2000 (1994–2004\\)",
"A short time after winning his third G1 Climax, Chono underwent a change in attitude. Originally a clean\\-cut fan favorite during his NWA World title reign, he turned heel, angered that Power Warrior received a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship before him, as he won the tournament. He also changed his image and adopted a [yakuza](/wiki/Yakuza \"Yakuza\") [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Gimmick (professional wrestling)\"), complete with sunglasses, menacing mannerisms and black coats and tights.\nChono's partnering with [Hiroyoshi Tenzan](/wiki/Hiroyoshi_Tenzan \"Hiroyoshi Tenzan\") and [Hiro Saito](/wiki/Hiro_Saito \"Hiro Saito\") as \"Team Wolf\" provided a foundation to NJPW's [nWo Japan](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"New World Order (professional wrestling)\"). Establishing himself as leader of its Japanese sister stable, Chono joined the American nWo in December 1996 as it was gaining momentum in [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling \"World Championship Wrestling\") (WCW). He would also join its successor, Team 2000, which would eventually restructure again. In a match against WCW's [Bill Goldberg](/wiki/Bill_Goldberg \"Bill Goldberg\"), Chono supposedly \"[shot](/wiki/Shoot_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Shoot (professional wrestling)\")\" the match (actually employing legitimate combat) and dislocated his shoulder.",
"Upon returning to Japan, Chono rejoined NJPW, where he achieved much success. He won the IWGP Tag Team Titles on six occasions and also won the very prestigious IWGP Heavyweight Title in 1998\\. In 2002, Chono won his fourth [G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax \"G1 Climax\") tournament and had a brief, memorable feud with WWE's [Chyna](/wiki/Chyna \"Chyna\"). He also became a [booker](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23B \"List of professional wrestling terms#B\") for NJPW around this time. In 2003, Chono briefly joined Pro Wrestling NOAH for a handful of matches and was defeated by GHC Champion [Kenta Kobashi](/wiki/Kenta_Kobashi \"Kenta Kobashi\") on 2 May of that year. On October 13, he lost to [Hulk Hogan](/wiki/Hulk_Hogan \"Hulk Hogan\").",
"#### Black New Japan and ChoTen (2004–2007\\)",
"In early 2004, Chono became the leader of the [Black New Japan](/wiki/Black_New_Japan \"Black New Japan\") stable, which was the most dominating heel stable in NJPW until it was disbanded by [Riki Choshu](/wiki/Riki_Choshu \"Riki Choshu\"). As a reaction to this, Chono lead an \"Anti\\-Choshu Army\" with Hiroyoshi Tenzan and [Black Strong Machine](/wiki/Junji_Hirata \"Junji Hirata\"). Chono won the [2005 G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax%232005 \"G1 Climax#2005\") tournament, thus having achieved a record\\-setting five G1 victories. His success in the G1 has given him the nickname Mr. August.",
"On October 30, 2005, Masahiro Chono and Tenzan defeated the team of [Shinsuke Nakamura](/wiki/Shinsuke_Nakamura \"Shinsuke Nakamura\") and [Hiroshi Tanahashi](/wiki/Hiroshi_Tanahashi \"Hiroshi Tanahashi\") to win their fifth IWGP Tag Team Championship. The team went on to rename themselves [Cho\\-Ten](/wiki/Cho-Ten \"Cho-Ten\"), a [portmanteau](/wiki/Portmanteau \"Portmanteau\") of the members' names. They were stripped of the titles in late 2006 after they split up, and refused to defend them together. Masahiro Chono formed a stable with [Shinsuke Nakamura](/wiki/Shinsuke_Nakamura \"Shinsuke Nakamura\") in 2006 called Chono and Nakamura\\-gun, which began feuding with Tenzan's new group, [GBH](/wiki/Great_Bash_Heel \"Great Bash Heel\").",
"#### Legend (2007–2010\\)",
"[thumb\\|Chono in November 2010](/wiki/File:Masahiro_Chono_2.jpg \"Masahiro Chono 2.jpg\")\nChono continued to wrestle full\\-time in 2007, but also began working as a promoter, with New Japan permitting him to set up cards in different areas of Japan. Following the [2007 G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax%232007 \"G1 Climax#2007\"), it appears that Chono may be breaking away from his BLACK faction and formed the Legend stable, having sworn in wrestlers such as Riki Choshu, [Jushin Thunder Liger](/wiki/Jushin_Thunder_Liger \"Jushin Thunder Liger\"), [Shiro Koshinaka](/wiki/Shiro_Koshinaka \"Shiro Koshinaka\"), and [AKIRA](/wiki/Akira_Nogami \"Akira Nogami\").",
"Outside wrestling, Chono began appearing on [Gaki no Tsukai](/wiki/Gaki_no_Tsukai \"Gaki no Tsukai\")'s \"[No Laughing Batsu Game](/wiki/Downtown_no_Gaki_no_Tsukai_ya_Arahende%21%21%23Batsu_Game \"Downtown no Gaki no Tsukai ya Arahende!!#Batsu Game\")\" as one of the attackers, usually giving [Hōsei Tsukitei](/wiki/H%C5%8Dsei_Tsukitei \"Hōsei Tsukitei\") a slap to the face.",
"In January 2010 it was reported that Chono would be leaving New Japan and becoming a freelancer, after spending most of his career with the company.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.puroresufan.com/njpw/?p\\=1359\\|title\\=Chono becomes a freelancer\\|date\\=January 21, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-25\\|publisher\\=Strong Style Spirit}}",
"### Later career (2010–2023\\)",
"In March 2010, Chono portrayed [Nobunaga Oda](/wiki/Nobunaga_Oda \"Nobunaga Oda\") in two matches during a Samurai Festival after leaving New Japan. Chono wrestled AKIRA, who portrayed [Mitsuhide Akechi](/wiki/Mitsuhide_Akechi \"Mitsuhide Akechi\"), on both days, winning the first match and losing the second. On August 15, 2010, Chono returned to New Japan to serve as the special ring announcer for the G1 Climax final match between Hiroshi Tanahashi and [Satoshi Kojima](/wiki/Satoshi_Kojima \"Satoshi Kojima\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.puroresufan.com/njpw/?p\\=1973\\|title\\=(Results) New Japan, 8/15/10\\|work\\=Strong Style Spirit\\|date\\=August 15, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-22}} On November 5 and 6, Chono appeared in a series of shows in [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") for All Japan. On November 5, Chono and Mutoh defeated the [Voodoo Murders](/wiki/Voodoo_Murders \"Voodoo Murders\") ([TARU](/wiki/Yoshikazu_Taru \"Yoshikazu Taru\") and [Rene Dupree](/wiki/Rene_Dupree \"Rene Dupree\")). The following day, Chono teamed with Mutoh and [Masakatsu Funaki](/wiki/Masakatsu_Funaki \"Masakatsu Funaki\") to defeat the Voodoo Murders (Dupree, [KENSO](/wiki/Kenzo_Suzuki \"Kenzo Suzuki\"), and [Joe Doering](/wiki/Joe_Doering \"Joe Doering\")).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cagematch.net/?id\\=2\\&nr\\=961\\&view\\=matches\\#matches \\|title\\=Masahiro Chono \" Wrestlers Database \" CAGEMATCH – The Internet Wrestling Database \\|publisher\\=Cagematch.net \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-03}} In December 2010, Chono began working for Antonio Inoki's [Inoki Genome Federation](/wiki/Inoki_Genome_Federation \"Inoki Genome Federation\") as a booker.",
"On March 6, 2011, Chono entered [Pro Wrestling ZERO1](/wiki/Pro_Wrestling_ZERO1 \"Pro Wrestling ZERO1\") for their 10th Anniversary Show, where he defeated Daichi Hashimoto in his debut match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.purolove.com/zero1/results/results11\\.php \\|title\\=Purolove.Com \\|publisher\\=Purolove.Com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-03}} On April 17, 2011, Chono wrestled for Osaka Pro, where he teamed with Kuuga and [Orochi](/wiki/Miyawaki_%28wrestler%29 \"Miyawaki (wrestler)\") in a losing effort against [Shodai Tiger Mask](/wiki/Satoru_Sayama \"Satoru Sayama\"), Billyken Kid, and Tsubasa.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.purolove.com/misc/osaka/results/results11\\.php \\|title\\=Purolove.Com \\|publisher\\=Purolove.Com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-03}} On August 14, 2011, Chono returned to Osaka Pro, teaming with TAJIRI and Zeus in a victory over JOKER (Kuuga, Orochi, and [Tadasuke](/wiki/Tadasuke \"Tadasuke\")).{{cite web \\|last1\\=Kreikenbohm \\|first1\\=Philip \\|title\\=Osaka Pro Osaka Hurricane 2011 \\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net//?id\\=1\\&nr\\=67488 \\|website\\=Cagematch: The Internet Wrestling Database \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2019}} On October 3, 2011, Chono returned to NJPW for a Team Wolf reunion match, teaming with Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Hiro Saito to defeat Osamu Nishimura, [Koji Kanemoto](/wiki/Koji_Kanemoto \"Koji Kanemoto\"), and Shinjiro Otani.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Kreikenbohm \\|first1\\=Philip \\|title\\=NJPW Hiroyoshi Tenzan 20th Anniversary \\~Hard Mogyu\\~ \\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net//?id\\=1\\&nr\\=69814 \\|website\\=Cagematch: The Internet Wrestling Database \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2019}}",
"In January 2013, Chono signed with [All Japan Pro Wrestling](/wiki/All_Japan_Pro_Wrestling \"All Japan Pro Wrestling\") (AJPW) as an advisor. On August 25, 2013, Chono teamed with [Joe Doering](/wiki/Joe_Doering \"Joe Doering\") and defeated [KENSO](/wiki/Kenzo_Suzuki \"Kenzo Suzuki\") and AJPW President Nobuo Shiraishi in an exhibition tag team match. Chono left AJPW in 2014\\.",
"After returning to freelance, Chono wrestled once in eight years: a six man tag team match for Dotonbori Pro Wrestling on April 13, 2014\\. He teamed with [Daisuke Masaoka](/wiki/Daisuke_Masaoka \"Daisuke Masaoka\") and [Hayata](/wiki/Hayata_%28wrestler%29 \"Hayata (wrestler)\") in a loss to [Super Delfin](/wiki/Super_Delfin \"Super Delfin\"), [Hub](/wiki/Hub_%28wrestler%29 \"Hub (wrestler)\"), and [Gran Hamada](/wiki/Gran_Hamada \"Gran Hamada\"). Since 2014, Chono's appearances have been limited to non\\-active roles such as commentary, talk battles and special appearances. In a 2017 interview, Chono did not completely rule out the possibility of a return to the ring but believed it would be unlikely due to various injuries.{{Cite web \\|title\\=天才テリー伊藤対談「蝶野正洋」（3）実質的にプロレスは「引退」ですね \\|url\\=https://www.asagei.com/76775 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=アサ芸プラス \\|language\\=ja}} In 2021, he revealed that he had been suffering from [spinal stenosis](/wiki/Spinal_stenosis \"Spinal stenosis\") and underwent surgery for it, which was successful.{{Cite web \\|last\\=INC \\|first\\=SANKEI DIGITAL \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-15 \\|title\\=蝶野正洋、入院していた 手術成功も「普通に歩ける様に成るには少し時間掛かりそう」 \\|url\\=https://www.sanspo.com/article/20211215\\-RCYEW2LMWRFL5JJTAIKHIE4FUE/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=サンスポ \\|language\\=ja}}",
"In a 2022 interview, Chono discussed how Keiji Muto requested to have his retirement match with him but was unsure if he could compete.{{Cite web \\|title\\=蝶野正洋、武藤敬司の「夢は蝶野と引退試合」どうする？ 手術で全治9か月 状態を直撃 \\|url\\=https://encount.press/archives/311720/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=ENCOUNT \\|language\\=ja}} On February 21, 2023, Chono was challenged to an impromptu match by Muto during [Muto's retirement show](/wiki/Keiji_Muto_Grand_Final_Pro-Wrestling_%22Last%22_Love \"Keiji Muto Grand Final Pro-Wrestling \") at the [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome \"Tokyo Dome\"), which Chono won.{{Cite web \\|title\\=2023年02月21日 火 chocoZAP presents KEIJI MUTO GRAND FINAL PRO\\-WRESTLING \"LAST\" LOVE ～HOLD OUT～ \\|url\\=https://www.noah.co.jp/schedule/418/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=プロレスリング・ノア公式サイト {{!}} PRO\\-WRESTLING NOAH OFFICIAL SITE\\|date\\=February 21, 2023 }} Chono announced his own retirement following the match.",
""
] |
### New Japan Pro\-Wrestling (1984–2010\)
#### Early years (1984–1989\)
Chōno debuted in 1984 against [Keiji Mutoh](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh "Keiji Mutoh") at a [New Japan Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling "New Japan Pro-Wrestling") (NJPW) event in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama_Prefecture "Saitama Prefecture"), Japan.John Molinaro, *The Top 100 Pro Wrestlers of All Time*, (Winding Stair Press: 2002\), page 198\. In 1987, he defeated [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto "Shinya Hashimoto") to win the [Young Lions Cup](/wiki/Young_Lions_Cup "Young Lions Cup"). After winning the tournament, he went on an excursion that started in Europe, wrestling for [Otto Wanz](/wiki/Otto_Wanz "Otto Wanz")'s [Catch Wrestling Association](/wiki/Catch_Wrestling_Association "Catch Wrestling Association").
After a while in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), Chono went on an excursion to [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"), starting in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") for [Central States Wrestling](/wiki/Heart_of_America_Sports_Attractions "Heart of America Sports Attractions") in Kansas City, which by then broke away from the [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance "National Wrestling Alliance") to form the World Wrestling Alliance. He would also later wrestle in the Canadian Maritimes for [Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling](/wiki/Atlantic_Grand_Prix_Wrestling "Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling") and in [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico "Puerto Rico"), where he, Hashimoto, and Mutoh formed [The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers_%28professional_wrestling%29 "The Three Musketeers (professional wrestling)").
Chono returned to NJPW part\-time in July 1988\. He came back to the United States in October 1988 and teamed with [Mike Davis](/wiki/Mike_Davis_%28wrestler%29 "Mike Davis (wrestler)") in [Continental Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Continental_Championship_Wrestling "Continental Championship Wrestling") (CCW), by then renamed the Continental Wrestling Federation (CWF), and won that company's tag titles as the Japanese Connection.
In April 1989, he took part in the [IWGP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Heavyweight_Championship "IWGP Heavyweight Championship") tournament, held at New Japan's very first show at the [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome "Tokyo Dome"); he lost to eventual winner of the tournament and new champion [Big Van Vader](/wiki/Big_Van_Vader "Big Van Vader") in the quarterfinals. During this time, he would return to the United States and have a brief run in [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia").
#### Rise to superstardom (1989–1994\)
Upon Chono's return to New Japan in October 1989, he reinvented himself. On October 15, 1989 during a match against [Matt Borne](/wiki/Matt_Borne "Matt Borne") where he was victorious, he debuted his signature move, the STF. On February 10, 1990, he wrestled in the main\-event of NJPW's second [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome "Tokyo Dome") show, teaming with [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto "Shinya Hashimoto") against [Antonio Inoki](/wiki/Antonio_Inoki "Antonio Inoki") and [Seiji Sakaguchi](/wiki/Seiji_Sakaguchi "Seiji Sakaguchi"), on April 27 he won the [IWGP Tag Team Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Tag_Team_Championship "IWGP Tag Team Championship") with Mutoh, and on December 26 he defeated his mentor, wrestling legend [Lou Thesz](/wiki/Lou_Thesz "Lou Thesz"), when Thesz came out of retirement for one last match. The next year, Chono solidified his main\-event status with an amazing performance in the first [G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax "G1 Climax") tournament, winning the tournament in a thirty\-minute final over Mutoh.
He won the tournament again in 1992, winning the [NWA World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship "NWA World Heavyweight Championship") in the process. Since then, he has won the tournament on three more occasions. On September 23, 1992, Chono suffered a serious neck injury from a botched sitdown tombstone piledriver while defending the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against [Steve Austin](/wiki/Stone_Cold_Steve_Austin "Stone Cold Steve Austin"). On January 4, 1993, he lost the NWA World title to IWGP Heavyweight champion [The Great Muta](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh "Keiji Mutoh") in a Title vs. Title match. Around 1993, he participated in his third G1 Climax tournament, losing to [Hiroshi Hase](/wiki/Hiroshi_Hase "Hiroshi Hase") in the semi\-finals. In January 1994, he received a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship against Shinya Hashimoto, though he would ultimately lose the match. In August 1994, he won his third G1 Climax tournament, defeating [Power Warrior](/wiki/Kensuke_Sasaki "Kensuke Sasaki") in the finals.
#### nWo Japan and Team 2000 (1994–2004\)
A short time after winning his third G1 Climax, Chono underwent a change in attitude. Originally a clean\-cut fan favorite during his NWA World title reign, he turned heel, angered that Power Warrior received a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship before him, as he won the tournament. He also changed his image and adopted a [yakuza](/wiki/Yakuza "Yakuza") [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Gimmick (professional wrestling)"), complete with sunglasses, menacing mannerisms and black coats and tights.
Chono's partnering with [Hiroyoshi Tenzan](/wiki/Hiroyoshi_Tenzan "Hiroyoshi Tenzan") and [Hiro Saito](/wiki/Hiro_Saito "Hiro Saito") as "Team Wolf" provided a foundation to NJPW's [nWo Japan](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28professional_wrestling%29 "New World Order (professional wrestling)"). Establishing himself as leader of its Japanese sister stable, Chono joined the American nWo in December 1996 as it was gaining momentum in [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling "World Championship Wrestling") (WCW). He would also join its successor, Team 2000, which would eventually restructure again. In a match against WCW's [Bill Goldberg](/wiki/Bill_Goldberg "Bill Goldberg"), Chono supposedly "[shot](/wiki/Shoot_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Shoot (professional wrestling)")" the match (actually employing legitimate combat) and dislocated his shoulder.
Upon returning to Japan, Chono rejoined NJPW, where he achieved much success. He won the IWGP Tag Team Titles on six occasions and also won the very prestigious IWGP Heavyweight Title in 1998\. In 2002, Chono won his fourth [G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax "G1 Climax") tournament and had a brief, memorable feud with WWE's [Chyna](/wiki/Chyna "Chyna"). He also became a [booker](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23B "List of professional wrestling terms#B") for NJPW around this time. In 2003, Chono briefly joined Pro Wrestling NOAH for a handful of matches and was defeated by GHC Champion [Kenta Kobashi](/wiki/Kenta_Kobashi "Kenta Kobashi") on 2 May of that year. On October 13, he lost to [Hulk Hogan](/wiki/Hulk_Hogan "Hulk Hogan").
#### Black New Japan and ChoTen (2004–2007\)
In early 2004, Chono became the leader of the [Black New Japan](/wiki/Black_New_Japan "Black New Japan") stable, which was the most dominating heel stable in NJPW until it was disbanded by [Riki Choshu](/wiki/Riki_Choshu "Riki Choshu"). As a reaction to this, Chono lead an "Anti\-Choshu Army" with Hiroyoshi Tenzan and [Black Strong Machine](/wiki/Junji_Hirata "Junji Hirata"). Chono won the [2005 G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax%232005 "G1 Climax#2005") tournament, thus having achieved a record\-setting five G1 victories. His success in the G1 has given him the nickname Mr. August.
On October 30, 2005, Masahiro Chono and Tenzan defeated the team of [Shinsuke Nakamura](/wiki/Shinsuke_Nakamura "Shinsuke Nakamura") and [Hiroshi Tanahashi](/wiki/Hiroshi_Tanahashi "Hiroshi Tanahashi") to win their fifth IWGP Tag Team Championship. The team went on to rename themselves [Cho\-Ten](/wiki/Cho-Ten "Cho-Ten"), a [portmanteau](/wiki/Portmanteau "Portmanteau") of the members' names. They were stripped of the titles in late 2006 after they split up, and refused to defend them together. Masahiro Chono formed a stable with [Shinsuke Nakamura](/wiki/Shinsuke_Nakamura "Shinsuke Nakamura") in 2006 called Chono and Nakamura\-gun, which began feuding with Tenzan's new group, [GBH](/wiki/Great_Bash_Heel "Great Bash Heel").
#### Legend (2007–2010\)
[thumb\|Chono in November 2010](/wiki/File:Masahiro_Chono_2.jpg "Masahiro Chono 2.jpg")
Chono continued to wrestle full\-time in 2007, but also began working as a promoter, with New Japan permitting him to set up cards in different areas of Japan. Following the [2007 G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax%232007 "G1 Climax#2007"), it appears that Chono may be breaking away from his BLACK faction and formed the Legend stable, having sworn in wrestlers such as Riki Choshu, [Jushin Thunder Liger](/wiki/Jushin_Thunder_Liger "Jushin Thunder Liger"), [Shiro Koshinaka](/wiki/Shiro_Koshinaka "Shiro Koshinaka"), and [AKIRA](/wiki/Akira_Nogami "Akira Nogami").
Outside wrestling, Chono began appearing on [Gaki no Tsukai](/wiki/Gaki_no_Tsukai "Gaki no Tsukai")'s "[No Laughing Batsu Game](/wiki/Downtown_no_Gaki_no_Tsukai_ya_Arahende%21%21%23Batsu_Game "Downtown no Gaki no Tsukai ya Arahende!!#Batsu Game")" as one of the attackers, usually giving [Hōsei Tsukitei](/wiki/H%C5%8Dsei_Tsukitei "Hōsei Tsukitei") a slap to the face.
In January 2010 it was reported that Chono would be leaving New Japan and becoming a freelancer, after spending most of his career with the company.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.puroresufan.com/njpw/?p\=1359\|title\=Chono becomes a freelancer\|date\=January 21, 2010\|access\-date\=2010\-01\-25\|publisher\=Strong Style Spirit}}
|
[
"### New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling (1984–2010\\)",
"#### Early years (1984–1989\\)",
"Chōno debuted in 1984 against [Keiji Mutoh](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh \"Keiji Mutoh\") at a [New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling \"New Japan Pro-Wrestling\") (NJPW) event in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama_Prefecture \"Saitama Prefecture\"), Japan.John Molinaro, *The Top 100 Pro Wrestlers of All Time*, (Winding Stair Press: 2002\\), page 198\\. In 1987, he defeated [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto \"Shinya Hashimoto\") to win the [Young Lions Cup](/wiki/Young_Lions_Cup \"Young Lions Cup\"). After winning the tournament, he went on an excursion that started in Europe, wrestling for [Otto Wanz](/wiki/Otto_Wanz \"Otto Wanz\")'s [Catch Wrestling Association](/wiki/Catch_Wrestling_Association \"Catch Wrestling Association\").",
"After a while in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), Chono went on an excursion to [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"), starting in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") for [Central States Wrestling](/wiki/Heart_of_America_Sports_Attractions \"Heart of America Sports Attractions\") in Kansas City, which by then broke away from the [National Wrestling Alliance](/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance \"National Wrestling Alliance\") to form the World Wrestling Alliance. He would also later wrestle in the Canadian Maritimes for [Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling](/wiki/Atlantic_Grand_Prix_Wrestling \"Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling\") and in [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\"), where he, Hashimoto, and Mutoh formed [The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"The Three Musketeers (professional wrestling)\").",
"Chono returned to NJPW part\\-time in July 1988\\. He came back to the United States in October 1988 and teamed with [Mike Davis](/wiki/Mike_Davis_%28wrestler%29 \"Mike Davis (wrestler)\") in [Continental Championship Wrestling](/wiki/Continental_Championship_Wrestling \"Continental Championship Wrestling\") (CCW), by then renamed the Continental Wrestling Federation (CWF), and won that company's tag titles as the Japanese Connection.",
"In April 1989, he took part in the [IWGP Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Heavyweight_Championship \"IWGP Heavyweight Championship\") tournament, held at New Japan's very first show at the [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome \"Tokyo Dome\"); he lost to eventual winner of the tournament and new champion [Big Van Vader](/wiki/Big_Van_Vader \"Big Van Vader\") in the quarterfinals. During this time, he would return to the United States and have a brief run in [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\").",
"#### Rise to superstardom (1989–1994\\)",
"Upon Chono's return to New Japan in October 1989, he reinvented himself. On October 15, 1989 during a match against [Matt Borne](/wiki/Matt_Borne \"Matt Borne\") where he was victorious, he debuted his signature move, the STF. On February 10, 1990, he wrestled in the main\\-event of NJPW's second [Tokyo Dome](/wiki/Tokyo_Dome \"Tokyo Dome\") show, teaming with [Shinya Hashimoto](/wiki/Shinya_Hashimoto \"Shinya Hashimoto\") against [Antonio Inoki](/wiki/Antonio_Inoki \"Antonio Inoki\") and [Seiji Sakaguchi](/wiki/Seiji_Sakaguchi \"Seiji Sakaguchi\"), on April 27 he won the [IWGP Tag Team Championship](/wiki/IWGP_Tag_Team_Championship \"IWGP Tag Team Championship\") with Mutoh, and on December 26 he defeated his mentor, wrestling legend [Lou Thesz](/wiki/Lou_Thesz \"Lou Thesz\"), when Thesz came out of retirement for one last match. The next year, Chono solidified his main\\-event status with an amazing performance in the first [G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax \"G1 Climax\") tournament, winning the tournament in a thirty\\-minute final over Mutoh.",
"He won the tournament again in 1992, winning the [NWA World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/NWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship \"NWA World Heavyweight Championship\") in the process. Since then, he has won the tournament on three more occasions. On September 23, 1992, Chono suffered a serious neck injury from a botched sitdown tombstone piledriver while defending the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against [Steve Austin](/wiki/Stone_Cold_Steve_Austin \"Stone Cold Steve Austin\"). On January 4, 1993, he lost the NWA World title to IWGP Heavyweight champion [The Great Muta](/wiki/Keiji_Mutoh \"Keiji Mutoh\") in a Title vs. Title match. Around 1993, he participated in his third G1 Climax tournament, losing to [Hiroshi Hase](/wiki/Hiroshi_Hase \"Hiroshi Hase\") in the semi\\-finals. In January 1994, he received a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship against Shinya Hashimoto, though he would ultimately lose the match. In August 1994, he won his third G1 Climax tournament, defeating [Power Warrior](/wiki/Kensuke_Sasaki \"Kensuke Sasaki\") in the finals.",
"#### nWo Japan and Team 2000 (1994–2004\\)",
"A short time after winning his third G1 Climax, Chono underwent a change in attitude. Originally a clean\\-cut fan favorite during his NWA World title reign, he turned heel, angered that Power Warrior received a shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship before him, as he won the tournament. He also changed his image and adopted a [yakuza](/wiki/Yakuza \"Yakuza\") [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Gimmick (professional wrestling)\"), complete with sunglasses, menacing mannerisms and black coats and tights.\nChono's partnering with [Hiroyoshi Tenzan](/wiki/Hiroyoshi_Tenzan \"Hiroyoshi Tenzan\") and [Hiro Saito](/wiki/Hiro_Saito \"Hiro Saito\") as \"Team Wolf\" provided a foundation to NJPW's [nWo Japan](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"New World Order (professional wrestling)\"). Establishing himself as leader of its Japanese sister stable, Chono joined the American nWo in December 1996 as it was gaining momentum in [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling \"World Championship Wrestling\") (WCW). He would also join its successor, Team 2000, which would eventually restructure again. In a match against WCW's [Bill Goldberg](/wiki/Bill_Goldberg \"Bill Goldberg\"), Chono supposedly \"[shot](/wiki/Shoot_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Shoot (professional wrestling)\")\" the match (actually employing legitimate combat) and dislocated his shoulder.",
"Upon returning to Japan, Chono rejoined NJPW, where he achieved much success. He won the IWGP Tag Team Titles on six occasions and also won the very prestigious IWGP Heavyweight Title in 1998\\. In 2002, Chono won his fourth [G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax \"G1 Climax\") tournament and had a brief, memorable feud with WWE's [Chyna](/wiki/Chyna \"Chyna\"). He also became a [booker](/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23B \"List of professional wrestling terms#B\") for NJPW around this time. In 2003, Chono briefly joined Pro Wrestling NOAH for a handful of matches and was defeated by GHC Champion [Kenta Kobashi](/wiki/Kenta_Kobashi \"Kenta Kobashi\") on 2 May of that year. On October 13, he lost to [Hulk Hogan](/wiki/Hulk_Hogan \"Hulk Hogan\").",
"#### Black New Japan and ChoTen (2004–2007\\)",
"In early 2004, Chono became the leader of the [Black New Japan](/wiki/Black_New_Japan \"Black New Japan\") stable, which was the most dominating heel stable in NJPW until it was disbanded by [Riki Choshu](/wiki/Riki_Choshu \"Riki Choshu\"). As a reaction to this, Chono lead an \"Anti\\-Choshu Army\" with Hiroyoshi Tenzan and [Black Strong Machine](/wiki/Junji_Hirata \"Junji Hirata\"). Chono won the [2005 G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax%232005 \"G1 Climax#2005\") tournament, thus having achieved a record\\-setting five G1 victories. His success in the G1 has given him the nickname Mr. August.",
"On October 30, 2005, Masahiro Chono and Tenzan defeated the team of [Shinsuke Nakamura](/wiki/Shinsuke_Nakamura \"Shinsuke Nakamura\") and [Hiroshi Tanahashi](/wiki/Hiroshi_Tanahashi \"Hiroshi Tanahashi\") to win their fifth IWGP Tag Team Championship. The team went on to rename themselves [Cho\\-Ten](/wiki/Cho-Ten \"Cho-Ten\"), a [portmanteau](/wiki/Portmanteau \"Portmanteau\") of the members' names. They were stripped of the titles in late 2006 after they split up, and refused to defend them together. Masahiro Chono formed a stable with [Shinsuke Nakamura](/wiki/Shinsuke_Nakamura \"Shinsuke Nakamura\") in 2006 called Chono and Nakamura\\-gun, which began feuding with Tenzan's new group, [GBH](/wiki/Great_Bash_Heel \"Great Bash Heel\").",
"#### Legend (2007–2010\\)",
"[thumb\\|Chono in November 2010](/wiki/File:Masahiro_Chono_2.jpg \"Masahiro Chono 2.jpg\")\nChono continued to wrestle full\\-time in 2007, but also began working as a promoter, with New Japan permitting him to set up cards in different areas of Japan. Following the [2007 G1 Climax](/wiki/G1_Climax%232007 \"G1 Climax#2007\"), it appears that Chono may be breaking away from his BLACK faction and formed the Legend stable, having sworn in wrestlers such as Riki Choshu, [Jushin Thunder Liger](/wiki/Jushin_Thunder_Liger \"Jushin Thunder Liger\"), [Shiro Koshinaka](/wiki/Shiro_Koshinaka \"Shiro Koshinaka\"), and [AKIRA](/wiki/Akira_Nogami \"Akira Nogami\").",
"Outside wrestling, Chono began appearing on [Gaki no Tsukai](/wiki/Gaki_no_Tsukai \"Gaki no Tsukai\")'s \"[No Laughing Batsu Game](/wiki/Downtown_no_Gaki_no_Tsukai_ya_Arahende%21%21%23Batsu_Game \"Downtown no Gaki no Tsukai ya Arahende!!#Batsu Game\")\" as one of the attackers, usually giving [Hōsei Tsukitei](/wiki/H%C5%8Dsei_Tsukitei \"Hōsei Tsukitei\") a slap to the face.",
"In January 2010 it was reported that Chono would be leaving New Japan and becoming a freelancer, after spending most of his career with the company.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.puroresufan.com/njpw/?p\\=1359\\|title\\=Chono becomes a freelancer\\|date\\=January 21, 2010\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-25\\|publisher\\=Strong Style Spirit}}",
""
] |
Career
------
While still in college, Bones went to work as a station hand at [KLAZ](/wiki/KLAZ "KLAZ") in Hot Springs, Arkansas, but was put on the air within a few days of being hired. A manager there gave him the choice of going on the air as Bobby Z or Bobby Bones of which he chose the latter. Bones' first full\-time radio contract paid him $17,000\. In 2002, Bones was hired by Q100/KQAR in [Little Rock, Arkansas](/wiki/Little_Rock%2C_Arkansas "Little Rock, Arkansas"). He then worked for radio station ([KLAL](/wiki/KLAL "KLAL")), which led to his hosting *The Bobby Bones Show* on [KHFI\-FM](/wiki/KHFI-FM "KHFI-FM") in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas "Austin, Texas").
According to *The Washington Post*, Bones is different from typical radio DJs, as he doesn't have the "classic, booming radio DJ voice".{{cite news
\| last \=Yar \| first \=Emily \| title \=Bobby Bones, new to WMZQ, hosts a different kind of country music morning radio show \| newspaper \=The Washington Post \| date \=March 18, 2013 \| url \=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/music/bobby\-bones\-new\-to\-wmzq\-hosts\-a\-different\-kind\-of\-country\-music\-morning\-radio\-show/2014/03/18/3d9fe638\-aec5\-11e3\-9627\-c65021d6d572\_story.html \| access\-date \=June 28, 2014}} Despite being commonly referred to as such Bones does not refer to himself as a DJ.
### Austin
Bones was originally hired for the evening shift on KHFI\-FM and was soon moved to mornings. While in Austin, he met two of his future co\-hosts, Lunchbox (in a bar) and Amy (in a Culver's). Bones believed in Amy and put her on the air immediately.{{cite web \| last \=Shea \| first \=Stewart \| title \=Country Radio's New Voice \| work \=Arkansas Online \| date \=March 11, 2014 \| url \=http://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2014/mar/11/country\-radios\-new\-voice/?print \| access\-date \=June 11, 2014 }} His executive producer at the time, Alayna Messer, was previously an intern on the show.
Over ten years, the show built its audience into the top\-rated morning show in Austin{{cite web
\| last \=Dinges \| first \=Gary \| title \=Bobby Bones Austin's Top Morning Host \| publisher \=Austin 360 \| date \=October 9, 2013 \| url \=http://www.austin360\.com/weblogs/tv\-radio\-blog/2013/oct/09/radio\-ratings\-bobby\-bones\-austins\-top\-morning\-host/ \| access\-date \=June 10, 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20141205053425/http://www.austin360\.com/weblogs/tv\-radio\-blog/2013/oct/09/radio\-ratings\-bobby\-bones\-austins\-top\-morning\-host/ \| url\-status \=dead \| archive\-date \=December 5, 2014}} and was syndicated in a few regional markets. At the height of his popularity, Bones was offered a job outside of radio but ultimately chose to remain with Clear Channel (now iHeart Media).
### Nashville
In 2012, [Clear Channel](/wiki/Clear_Channel_Communications "Clear Channel Communications") moved Bones and his show from Austin with its Top 40 format to [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville "Nashville") and a country music format while taking *The Bobby Bones Show* nationwide. Bones took over the slot hosted by longtime DJ [Gerry House](/wiki/Gerry_House "Gerry House"),{{cite web \| title \=Air talent is radio's new country crossover \| publisher \=Inside Radio \| url \=http://www.insideradio.com/Article.asp?id\=2613255\&spid\=32061 \| access\-date \=June 29, 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20140702122632/http://www.insideradio.com/Article.asp?id\=2613255\&spid\=32061
\| url\-status \=dead \| archive\-date \=July 2, 2014}} who retired in 2010\. Bones now broadcasts from the WSIX\-FM studios in Nashville on weekday mornings from 5:00 a.m. to 10 a.m. (CT). His co\-host is Amy, and features Producer Eddie, Lunchbox, Raymundo, Morgan Number 2, Mike D., Abby, and Scuba Steve.
The Bobby Bones Show has become a regular interview stop for top country music stars and even artists/celebrities outside the genre of country.{{cite web \| title \=The Bobby Bones Show \| url \=http://www.bobbybones.com/main.html \| access\-date \=June 28, 2014 }} [Luke Bryan](/wiki/Luke_Bryan "Luke Bryan"), John Mayer, [Taylor Swift](/wiki/Taylor_Swift "Taylor Swift"), Garth Brooks, Ed Sheeran, [Blake Shelton](/wiki/Blake_Shelton "Blake Shelton"), [Tim McGraw](/wiki/Tim_McGraw "Tim McGraw"), [Lady Antebellum](/wiki/Lady_Antebellum "Lady Antebellum"), [Jason Aldean](/wiki/Jason_Aldean "Jason Aldean"), [Dierks Bentley](/wiki/Dierks_Bentley "Dierks Bentley"), and more have been featured in interviews on the morning show.
### Syndication
In February 2013, *The Bobby Bones Show* was nationally syndicated through iHeart Media\-owned [Premiere Networks](/wiki/Premiere_Networks "Premiere Networks"){{cite web \| title \=Bobby Bones Shifts From Top 40 To Country, Launching Daily National Country Show And Weekend Countdown Show \| date \=February 23, 2013 \| url \=http://www.allaccess.com/net\-news/archive/story/114921/bobby\-bones\-shifts\-from\-top\-40\-to\-country\-launchin \| access\-date \=June 29, 2014
}} and was made available via [iHeartRadio.com](/wiki/IHeartRadio.com "IHeartRadio.com") and the iHeartRadio mobile app. The show is currently heard on more than 150 radio stations in the U.S., Canada, and UK.{{cite web
\| title \=Bobby Bones Show Affiliates \| url \=http://www.bobbybones.com/pages/affiliates\_ct30\.html \| access\-date \=June 28, 2014 \| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707185015/http://www.bobbybones.com/pages/affiliates\_ct30\.html \| archive\-date \=July 7, 2014 \| url\-status \=dead }}
*The Bobby Bones Show* has an estimated audience of nearly 9\.2 million listeners a week.
Bones also hosts the weekly “Country Top 30 with Bobby Bones,” carried on over 100 radio stations nationwide.{{cite web \| title \=Country Top 30 with Bobby Bones \| url \=http://www.bobbybones.com/charts/country\-top\-30\-with\-bobby\-bones\-144/ \| access\-date \=June 28, 2014 \| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110114009/http://www.bobbybones.com/charts/country\-top\-30\-with\-bobby\-bones\-144/ \| archive\-date \=November 10, 2014 \| url\-status \=dead }}
As part of the iHeart Media family, Bones has been tapped to host, present, and even perform at the annual [iHeartRadio Country Festival](/wiki/IHeartRadio_Country_Festival "IHeartRadio Country Festival") held in Austin, Texas, iHeartRadio Music Festival held in Las Vegas, Nevada and the annual [iHeartRadio Music Awards](/wiki/IHeartRadio_Music_Awards "IHeartRadio Music Awards") in Los Angeles, California.{{cite web \| title \=Bobby Presents at iHeart Radio Awards \| date \=May 1, 2014 \| url \=http://www.bobbybones.com/articles/what\-we\-talked\-about\-457650/bobby\-presents\-at\-iheartradio\-awards\-12310709/ \| access\-date \=June 28, 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20140702122637/http://www.bobbybones.com/articles/what\-we\-talked\-about\-457650/bobby\-presents\-at\-iheartradio\-awards\-12310709/ \| url\-status \=dead \| archive\-date \=July 2, 2014}}
### Accidental trigger of Emergency Alert System
In October 2014, Bones accidentally triggered the [Emergency Alert System](/wiki/Emergency_Alert_System "Emergency Alert System") by playing EAS tones during an on\-air rant about an erroneous EAS test interrupting coverage locally of the [2014 World Series](/wiki/2014_World_Series "2014 World Series") on [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company "Fox Broadcasting Company") affiliate [WZTV](/wiki/WZTV "WZTV"). The EAS tones would have only triggered the EAS issuance in Nashville, but since the show was in syndication, the signal cascaded through the show's nationwide affiliates, and caused [AT\&T U\-verse](/wiki/AT%26T_U-verse "AT&T U-verse") boxes nationwide to lock up with the erroneous test.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.wkrn.com/story/26886059/glitch\-on\-bobby\-bones\-show\-may\-have\-caused\-u\-verse\-error \|title\=Glitch on Bobby Bones show may have caused U\-verse error \- WKRN News 2 \|access\-date\=October 27, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027153258/http://www.wkrn.com/story/26886059/glitch\-on\-bobby\-bones\-show\-may\-have\-caused\-u\-verse\-error \|archive\-date\=October 27, 2014 \|url\-status\=dead }} In May 2015, Bones's employer iHeartMedia paid a $1 million FCC fine due to the incident and removed all EAS sound effects from their nationwide sound library to prevent a recurrence.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fcc.gov/document/iheart\-pay\-1m\-misusing\-eas\-tones\-during\-bobby\-bones\-show\|title\=iHeart to Pay $1M for Misusing EAS Tones During The Bobby Bones Show\|date\=December 9, 2015}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"While still in college, Bones went to work as a station hand at [KLAZ](/wiki/KLAZ \"KLAZ\") in Hot Springs, Arkansas, but was put on the air within a few days of being hired. A manager there gave him the choice of going on the air as Bobby Z or Bobby Bones of which he chose the latter. Bones' first full\\-time radio contract paid him $17,000\\. In 2002, Bones was hired by Q100/KQAR in [Little Rock, Arkansas](/wiki/Little_Rock%2C_Arkansas \"Little Rock, Arkansas\"). He then worked for radio station ([KLAL](/wiki/KLAL \"KLAL\")), which led to his hosting *The Bobby Bones Show* on [KHFI\\-FM](/wiki/KHFI-FM \"KHFI-FM\") in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\").",
"According to *The Washington Post*, Bones is different from typical radio DJs, as he doesn't have the \"classic, booming radio DJ voice\".{{cite news\n \\| last \\=Yar \\| first \\=Emily \\| title \\=Bobby Bones, new to WMZQ, hosts a different kind of country music morning radio show \\| newspaper \\=The Washington Post \\| date \\=March 18, 2013 \\| url \\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/music/bobby\\-bones\\-new\\-to\\-wmzq\\-hosts\\-a\\-different\\-kind\\-of\\-country\\-music\\-morning\\-radio\\-show/2014/03/18/3d9fe638\\-aec5\\-11e3\\-9627\\-c65021d6d572\\_story.html \\| access\\-date \\=June 28, 2014}} Despite being commonly referred to as such Bones does not refer to himself as a DJ.",
"### Austin",
"Bones was originally hired for the evening shift on KHFI\\-FM and was soon moved to mornings. While in Austin, he met two of his future co\\-hosts, Lunchbox (in a bar) and Amy (in a Culver's). Bones believed in Amy and put her on the air immediately.{{cite web \\| last \\=Shea \\| first \\=Stewart \\| title \\=Country Radio's New Voice \\| work \\=Arkansas Online \\| date \\=March 11, 2014 \\| url \\=http://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2014/mar/11/country\\-radios\\-new\\-voice/?print \\| access\\-date \\=June 11, 2014 }} His executive producer at the time, Alayna Messer, was previously an intern on the show.",
"Over ten years, the show built its audience into the top\\-rated morning show in Austin{{cite web\n \\| last \\=Dinges \\| first \\=Gary \\| title \\=Bobby Bones Austin's Top Morning Host \\| publisher \\=Austin 360 \\| date \\=October 9, 2013 \\| url \\=http://www.austin360\\.com/weblogs/tv\\-radio\\-blog/2013/oct/09/radio\\-ratings\\-bobby\\-bones\\-austins\\-top\\-morning\\-host/ \\| access\\-date \\=June 10, 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20141205053425/http://www.austin360\\.com/weblogs/tv\\-radio\\-blog/2013/oct/09/radio\\-ratings\\-bobby\\-bones\\-austins\\-top\\-morning\\-host/ \\| url\\-status \\=dead \\| archive\\-date \\=December 5, 2014}} and was syndicated in a few regional markets. At the height of his popularity, Bones was offered a job outside of radio but ultimately chose to remain with Clear Channel (now iHeart Media).",
"### Nashville",
"In 2012, [Clear Channel](/wiki/Clear_Channel_Communications \"Clear Channel Communications\") moved Bones and his show from Austin with its Top 40 format to [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville \"Nashville\") and a country music format while taking *The Bobby Bones Show* nationwide. Bones took over the slot hosted by longtime DJ [Gerry House](/wiki/Gerry_House \"Gerry House\"),{{cite web \\| title \\=Air talent is radio's new country crossover \\| publisher \\=Inside Radio \\| url \\=http://www.insideradio.com/Article.asp?id\\=2613255\\&spid\\=32061 \\| access\\-date \\=June 29, 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20140702122632/http://www.insideradio.com/Article.asp?id\\=2613255\\&spid\\=32061\n \\| url\\-status \\=dead \\| archive\\-date \\=July 2, 2014}} who retired in 2010\\. Bones now broadcasts from the WSIX\\-FM studios in Nashville on weekday mornings from 5:00 a.m. to 10 a.m. (CT). His co\\-host is Amy, and features Producer Eddie, Lunchbox, Raymundo, Morgan Number 2, Mike D., Abby, and Scuba Steve.",
"The Bobby Bones Show has become a regular interview stop for top country music stars and even artists/celebrities outside the genre of country.{{cite web \\| title \\=The Bobby Bones Show \\| url \\=http://www.bobbybones.com/main.html \\| access\\-date \\=June 28, 2014 }} [Luke Bryan](/wiki/Luke_Bryan \"Luke Bryan\"), John Mayer, [Taylor Swift](/wiki/Taylor_Swift \"Taylor Swift\"), Garth Brooks, Ed Sheeran, [Blake Shelton](/wiki/Blake_Shelton \"Blake Shelton\"), [Tim McGraw](/wiki/Tim_McGraw \"Tim McGraw\"), [Lady Antebellum](/wiki/Lady_Antebellum \"Lady Antebellum\"), [Jason Aldean](/wiki/Jason_Aldean \"Jason Aldean\"), [Dierks Bentley](/wiki/Dierks_Bentley \"Dierks Bentley\"), and more have been featured in interviews on the morning show.",
"### Syndication",
"In February 2013, *The Bobby Bones Show* was nationally syndicated through iHeart Media\\-owned [Premiere Networks](/wiki/Premiere_Networks \"Premiere Networks\"){{cite web \\| title \\=Bobby Bones Shifts From Top 40 To Country, Launching Daily National Country Show And Weekend Countdown Show \\| date \\=February 23, 2013 \\| url \\=http://www.allaccess.com/net\\-news/archive/story/114921/bobby\\-bones\\-shifts\\-from\\-top\\-40\\-to\\-country\\-launchin \\| access\\-date \\=June 29, 2014\n}} and was made available via [iHeartRadio.com](/wiki/IHeartRadio.com \"IHeartRadio.com\") and the iHeartRadio mobile app. The show is currently heard on more than 150 radio stations in the U.S., Canada, and UK.{{cite web\n \\| title \\=Bobby Bones Show Affiliates \\| url \\=http://www.bobbybones.com/pages/affiliates\\_ct30\\.html \\| access\\-date \\=June 28, 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707185015/http://www.bobbybones.com/pages/affiliates\\_ct30\\.html \\| archive\\-date \\=July 7, 2014 \\| url\\-status \\=dead }}",
"*The Bobby Bones Show* has an estimated audience of nearly 9\\.2 million listeners a week.",
"Bones also hosts the weekly “Country Top 30 with Bobby Bones,” carried on over 100 radio stations nationwide.{{cite web \\| title \\=Country Top 30 with Bobby Bones \\| url \\=http://www.bobbybones.com/charts/country\\-top\\-30\\-with\\-bobby\\-bones\\-144/ \\| access\\-date \\=June 28, 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110114009/http://www.bobbybones.com/charts/country\\-top\\-30\\-with\\-bobby\\-bones\\-144/ \\| archive\\-date \\=November 10, 2014 \\| url\\-status \\=dead }}",
"As part of the iHeart Media family, Bones has been tapped to host, present, and even perform at the annual [iHeartRadio Country Festival](/wiki/IHeartRadio_Country_Festival \"IHeartRadio Country Festival\") held in Austin, Texas, iHeartRadio Music Festival held in Las Vegas, Nevada and the annual [iHeartRadio Music Awards](/wiki/IHeartRadio_Music_Awards \"IHeartRadio Music Awards\") in Los Angeles, California.{{cite web \\| title \\=Bobby Presents at iHeart Radio Awards \\| date \\=May 1, 2014 \\| url \\=http://www.bobbybones.com/articles/what\\-we\\-talked\\-about\\-457650/bobby\\-presents\\-at\\-iheartradio\\-awards\\-12310709/ \\| access\\-date \\=June 28, 2014 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20140702122637/http://www.bobbybones.com/articles/what\\-we\\-talked\\-about\\-457650/bobby\\-presents\\-at\\-iheartradio\\-awards\\-12310709/ \\| url\\-status \\=dead \\| archive\\-date \\=July 2, 2014}}",
"### Accidental trigger of Emergency Alert System",
"In October 2014, Bones accidentally triggered the [Emergency Alert System](/wiki/Emergency_Alert_System \"Emergency Alert System\") by playing EAS tones during an on\\-air rant about an erroneous EAS test interrupting coverage locally of the [2014 World Series](/wiki/2014_World_Series \"2014 World Series\") on [Fox](/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company \"Fox Broadcasting Company\") affiliate [WZTV](/wiki/WZTV \"WZTV\"). The EAS tones would have only triggered the EAS issuance in Nashville, but since the show was in syndication, the signal cascaded through the show's nationwide affiliates, and caused [AT\\&T U\\-verse](/wiki/AT%26T_U-verse \"AT&T U-verse\") boxes nationwide to lock up with the erroneous test.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wkrn.com/story/26886059/glitch\\-on\\-bobby\\-bones\\-show\\-may\\-have\\-caused\\-u\\-verse\\-error \\|title\\=Glitch on Bobby Bones show may have caused U\\-verse error \\- WKRN News 2 \\|access\\-date\\=October 27, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027153258/http://www.wkrn.com/story/26886059/glitch\\-on\\-bobby\\-bones\\-show\\-may\\-have\\-caused\\-u\\-verse\\-error \\|archive\\-date\\=October 27, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In May 2015, Bones's employer iHeartMedia paid a $1 million FCC fine due to the incident and removed all EAS sound effects from their nationwide sound library to prevent a recurrence.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fcc.gov/document/iheart\\-pay\\-1m\\-misusing\\-eas\\-tones\\-during\\-bobby\\-bones\\-show\\|title\\=iHeart to Pay $1M for Misusing EAS Tones During The Bobby Bones Show\\|date\\=December 9, 2015}}",
""
] |
History
-------
On 10 July 1958, the [158th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron](/wiki/158th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron "158th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron") of the Georgia ANG was authorized to expand to the size of a group, and the **165th Fighter\-Interceptor Group** was established by the [National Guard Bureau](/wiki/National_Guard_Bureau "National Guard Bureau"). The 158th FIS becoming the group's flying squadron. Other squadrons assigned into the group were the 165th Headquarters, 165th Material Squadron (Maintenance), 165th Combat Support Squadron, and the 165th USAF Dispensary.
Gained by [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command "Air Defense Command"), along with the activation of the group, the 158th FIS was re\-equipped with the [F\-86L Sabre Interceptor](/wiki/F-86L_Sabre_Interceptor "F-86L Sabre Interceptor"), a day/night/all\-weather aircraft designed to be integrated into the ADC SAGE interceptor direction and control system. In 1958, the 116th implemented the ADC Runway Alert Program, in which interceptors of the 128th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron were committed to a five\-minute runway alert.
### Airlift mission
[thumb\|158th Fighter\-Interceptor Squadron F\-84Fs on alert at Travis Field, 1957](/wiki/File:158th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron_F-84F_51-9520.jpg "158th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron F-84F 51-9520.jpg")
[thumb\|Georgia Air Guard [Douglas C\-124C Globemaster II](/wiki/Douglas_C-124_Globemaster_II "Douglas C-124 Globemaster II")](/wiki/File:C124b.jpg "C124b.jpg")
In 1962 the unit gave up its fighters and shifted to an airlift mission. The 158th Fighter Squadron became the 158th Air Transport Squadron on 1 July 1962 assigned to the 165th Air Group. They traded in its Sabre interceptors for four\-engined [Boeing C\-97 Stratofreighter](/wiki/Boeing_C-97_Stratofreighter "Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter") transports. With air transportation recognized as a critical wartime need, the squadron was re\-designated the 128th Air Transport Squadron (Heavy). The 116th ATG was assigned to the MATS [Eastern Transport Air Force](/wiki/Eastern_Transport_Air_Force "Eastern Transport Air Force") (EASTAF), to fly long\-distance transport missions, frequently sending aircraft to the Caribbean, Europe, Greenland, and the Middle East.
In 1966 MATS became the [Military Airlift Command](/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command "Military Airlift Command") (MAC) and EASTAF became the MAC [Twenty\-First Air Force](/wiki/Twenty-First_Air_Force "Twenty-First Air Force"). The 116th ATG was upgraded to the [C\-124 Globemaster II](/wiki/C-124_Globemaster_II "C-124 Globemaster II") strategic heavy airlifter in 1965\. Due to the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), missions were flown across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, South Vietnam, Okinawa and Thailand.
On 8 August 1975, the first of the C\-130E aircraft, aptly named "Hercules", came to the City of Savannah at the international airport to replace the older C\-124's. While the C\-124's were being retired from the Air Force inventory, the C\-130s were arriving at the 165th Tactical Airlift Group.
The 158th received seven new C\-130H Hercules aircraft directly from the Lockheed Factory manufactured for the unit during September and October 1981\. On 15 April 1992, the unit was redesignated the 165th Airlift Group. On 1 October 1995, the unit received its current designation, the 165th Airlift Wing.
In 2005, the unit deployed aircraft and more than 100 personnel to [Karshi\-Khanabad Air Base](/wiki/Karshi-Khanabad_Air_Base "Karshi-Khanabad Air Base"), Uzbekistan, for 11 months. During this period, the unit airlifted more than 35,660 tons of cargo for U.S. troops in Afghanistan (just south of Uzbekistan), in Iraq, and elsewhere.See [Georgia Air National Guard\#165th Airlift Wing](/wiki/Georgia_Air_National_Guard%23165th_Airlift_Wing "Georgia Air National Guard#165th Airlift Wing")
Since the beginning of operations in the Persian Gulf, the 165th Airlift Wing has been integrally involved in air operations. Several elements of the wing have been deployed throughout the region, with airmen serving in [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan"), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") and [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan"). In 2009, the 165th Airlift Wing was sent again to carry cargo for the [War in Afghanistan (2001–2021\)](/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_%282001%E2%80%932021%29 "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)").see 165th Airlift Wing airmen arrive home from Afghanistan deployment
### Recent operations
[thumb\|C\-130H of 165th Airlift Wing, Georgia Air Guard, 2016](/wiki/File:Georgia_National_Guard_%2829551010233%29.jpg "Georgia National Guard (29551010233).jpg")
In January 2010, in response to the earthquake in Haiti, the 165th Airlift Wing placed a C\-130 aircraft and crew on standby for the relief effort as ordered by the National Guard Bureau. The 165th quickly established a kitchen and dining area, one of fifteen in the burgeoning military sections of the city.{{Cite web \|url\=http://gadod.net/index.php/news/ga\-dod/archives/240\-when\-disaster\-strikes\-your\-national\-guard\-responds \|title\=When disaster strikes, your National Guard responds \|access\-date\=22 September 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921023349/http://www.gadod.net/index.php/news/ga\-dod/archives/240\-when\-disaster\-strikes\-your\-national\-guard\-responds \|archive\-date\=21 September 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} On 25 January 2010, a small group of airmen deployed from the 165th Airlift Wing to [Haiti](/wiki/Haiti "Haiti") in support of the Haitian relief efforts.see 165th Airlift Wing prepares for Haiti deployment
In January 2011, the last of six C\-130H2 Hercules aircraft began a three\-month stint at Bagram Air Base. This was the ninth time the 165th has deployed – to Iraq or Afghanistan – since 11 September 2001\. Deploying with the aircraft were more than 150 Georgia Guard airmen, including all of the wing's operations division and more than 50 percent of its maintenance department.{{Cite web \|url\=http://gadod.net/index.php/news/ga\-dod/archives/381\-165th\-airlift\-wing\-deploys\-for\-ninth\-time\-since\-911 \|title\=165th Airlift Wing deploys for ninth time since 9/11 \|access\-date\=22 September 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916093611/http://www.gadod.net/index.php/news/ga\-dod/archives/381\-165th\-airlift\-wing\-deploys\-for\-ninth\-time\-since\-911 \|archive\-date\=16 September 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }}
During the summer of 2011, personnel from the 165th Airlift Wing assisted the Georgia Forestry Commission in fighting wildfires in southern Georgia.{{Cite web \|url\=http://gadod.net/index.php/press/news\-releases/443\-guard\-completes\-its\-involvement\-in\-south\-georgia\-firefighting\-efforts \|title\=Guard completes its involvement in South Georgia firefighting efforts \|access\-date\=22 September 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927232402/http://www.gadod.net/index.php/press/news\-releases/443\-guard\-completes\-its\-involvement\-in\-south\-georgia\-firefighting\-efforts \|archive\-date\=27 September 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }}
From August 2012 until March 2013, 14 airmen from the 165th Airlift Wing's Aerial Port Squadron deployed to [Camp Bastion](/wiki/Camp_Bastion "Camp Bastion"), Afghanistan, managing passenger and cargo arrivals supporting the United States and the NATO\-led [International Security Assistance Force](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force "International Security Assistance Force") – principally British forces there.
### Lineage
* Designated **165th Fighter\-Interceptor Group**, and allotted to Georgia ANG, 1958
Extended federal recognition and activated, 10 July 1958
Re\-designated: **165th Air Transport Group**, 1 July 1962
Re\-designated: **165th Military Airlift Group**, 3 January 1966
Re\-designated: **165th Tactical Airlift Group**, 8 August 1975
Re\-designated: **165th Airlift Group**, 16 March 1992
Status changed from group to wing, 1 October 1995
Re\-designated: **165th Airlift Wing**, 1 October 1995
### Assignments
* [Georgia Air National Guard](/wiki/Georgia_Air_National_Guard "Georgia Air National Guard"), 10 July 1958 – Present
Gained by: [35th Air Division](/wiki/35th_Air_Division "35th Air Division"), [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command "Air Defense Command")
Gained by: [Eastern Transport Air Force](/wiki/Eastern_Transport_Air_Force "Eastern Transport Air Force"), [Military Air Transport Service](/wiki/Military_Air_Transport_Service "Military Air Transport Service"), 1 July 1962
Gained by: [Twenty\-First Air Force](/wiki/Twenty-First_Air_Force "Twenty-First Air Force"), [Military Airlift Command](/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command "Military Airlift Command"), 3 January 1966
Gained by: [Air Combat Command](/wiki/Air_Combat_Command "Air Combat Command"), 1 June 1992
Gained by: [Air Mobility Command](/wiki/Air_Mobility_Command "Air Mobility Command"), 1 April 1997
### Components
* 165th Operations Group, 1 October 1995 – Present
* [158th Fighter\-Interceptor (later Air Transport, Military Airlift, Tactical Airlift, Airlift) Squadron](/wiki/158th_Airlift_Squadron "158th Airlift Squadron"), 10 July 1958 – 1 October 1995
Assigned to 165 OG 1 October 1995–Present
### Stations
* Chatham Army Airfield, renamed Travis Field (now [Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport](/wiki/Savannah/Hilton_Head_International_Airport "Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport")), 10 July 1958
Designated: [Savannah Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Savannah_Air_National_Guard_Base "Savannah Air National Guard Base"), 1991–Present
### Aircraft
{{Col\-begin}}
{{Col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* [F\-86L Sabre Interceptor](/wiki/F-86L_Sabre_Interceptor "F-86L Sabre Interceptor"), 1958–1962
* [C\-97F Stratofreighter](/wiki/C-97F_Stratofreighter "C-97F Stratofreighter"), 1962–1965
* [C\-124C Globemaster II](/wiki/C-124C_Globemaster_II "C-124C Globemaster II"), 1965–1975
{{Col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* [C\-130E Hercules](/wiki/C-130E_Hercules "C-130E Hercules"), 1975–1981
* [C\-130H Hercules](/wiki/C-130H_Hercules "C-130H Hercules"), 1981–2024
* [C\-130J Hercules](/wiki/C-130J_Hercules "C-130J Hercules"), 2024–Present
{{col\-end}}
### Decorations
* [File:Outstanding Unit ribbon.svg](/wiki/File:Outstanding_Unit_ribbon.svg "Outstanding Unit ribbon.svg") [Air Force Outstanding Unit Award](/wiki/Air_Force_Outstanding_Unit_Award "Air Force Outstanding Unit Award")[Air Force Personnel Center Awards Search (Post\-1991\)](http://wwa.afpc.randolph.af.mil/AwardsNet/SearchUnitAwards.aspx?Mode=Graphics) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124045234/http://wwa.afpc.randolph.af.mil/AwardsNet/SearchUnitAwards.aspx?Mode\=Graphics \|date\=24 January 2008 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"On 10 July 1958, the [158th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron](/wiki/158th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron \"158th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron\") of the Georgia ANG was authorized to expand to the size of a group, and the **165th Fighter\\-Interceptor Group** was established by the [National Guard Bureau](/wiki/National_Guard_Bureau \"National Guard Bureau\"). The 158th FIS becoming the group's flying squadron. Other squadrons assigned into the group were the 165th Headquarters, 165th Material Squadron (Maintenance), 165th Combat Support Squadron, and the 165th USAF Dispensary.",
"Gained by [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command \"Air Defense Command\"), along with the activation of the group, the 158th FIS was re\\-equipped with the [F\\-86L Sabre Interceptor](/wiki/F-86L_Sabre_Interceptor \"F-86L Sabre Interceptor\"), a day/night/all\\-weather aircraft designed to be integrated into the ADC SAGE interceptor direction and control system. In 1958, the 116th implemented the ADC Runway Alert Program, in which interceptors of the 128th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron were committed to a five\\-minute runway alert.",
"### Airlift mission",
"[thumb\\|158th Fighter\\-Interceptor Squadron F\\-84Fs on alert at Travis Field, 1957](/wiki/File:158th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron_F-84F_51-9520.jpg \"158th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron F-84F 51-9520.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Georgia Air Guard [Douglas C\\-124C Globemaster II](/wiki/Douglas_C-124_Globemaster_II \"Douglas C-124 Globemaster II\")](/wiki/File:C124b.jpg \"C124b.jpg\")\nIn 1962 the unit gave up its fighters and shifted to an airlift mission. The 158th Fighter Squadron became the 158th Air Transport Squadron on 1 July 1962 assigned to the 165th Air Group. They traded in its Sabre interceptors for four\\-engined [Boeing C\\-97 Stratofreighter](/wiki/Boeing_C-97_Stratofreighter \"Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter\") transports. With air transportation recognized as a critical wartime need, the squadron was re\\-designated the 128th Air Transport Squadron (Heavy). The 116th ATG was assigned to the MATS [Eastern Transport Air Force](/wiki/Eastern_Transport_Air_Force \"Eastern Transport Air Force\") (EASTAF), to fly long\\-distance transport missions, frequently sending aircraft to the Caribbean, Europe, Greenland, and the Middle East.",
"In 1966 MATS became the [Military Airlift Command](/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command \"Military Airlift Command\") (MAC) and EASTAF became the MAC [Twenty\\-First Air Force](/wiki/Twenty-First_Air_Force \"Twenty-First Air Force\"). The 116th ATG was upgraded to the [C\\-124 Globemaster II](/wiki/C-124_Globemaster_II \"C-124 Globemaster II\") strategic heavy airlifter in 1965\\. Due to the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"), missions were flown across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, South Vietnam, Okinawa and Thailand.",
"On 8 August 1975, the first of the C\\-130E aircraft, aptly named \"Hercules\", came to the City of Savannah at the international airport to replace the older C\\-124's. While the C\\-124's were being retired from the Air Force inventory, the C\\-130s were arriving at the 165th Tactical Airlift Group.",
"The 158th received seven new C\\-130H Hercules aircraft directly from the Lockheed Factory manufactured for the unit during September and October 1981\\. On 15 April 1992, the unit was redesignated the 165th Airlift Group. On 1 October 1995, the unit received its current designation, the 165th Airlift Wing.",
"In 2005, the unit deployed aircraft and more than 100 personnel to [Karshi\\-Khanabad Air Base](/wiki/Karshi-Khanabad_Air_Base \"Karshi-Khanabad Air Base\"), Uzbekistan, for 11 months. During this period, the unit airlifted more than 35,660 tons of cargo for U.S. troops in Afghanistan (just south of Uzbekistan), in Iraq, and elsewhere.See [Georgia Air National Guard\\#165th Airlift Wing](/wiki/Georgia_Air_National_Guard%23165th_Airlift_Wing \"Georgia Air National Guard#165th Airlift Wing\")",
"Since the beginning of operations in the Persian Gulf, the 165th Airlift Wing has been integrally involved in air operations. Several elements of the wing have been deployed throughout the region, with airmen serving in [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan \"Uzbekistan\"), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"), [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") and [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\"). In 2009, the 165th Airlift Wing was sent again to carry cargo for the [War in Afghanistan (2001–2021\\)](/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_%282001%E2%80%932021%29 \"War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)\").see 165th Airlift Wing airmen arrive home from Afghanistan deployment",
"### Recent operations",
"[thumb\\|C\\-130H of 165th Airlift Wing, Georgia Air Guard, 2016](/wiki/File:Georgia_National_Guard_%2829551010233%29.jpg \"Georgia National Guard (29551010233).jpg\")",
"In January 2010, in response to the earthquake in Haiti, the 165th Airlift Wing placed a C\\-130 aircraft and crew on standby for the relief effort as ordered by the National Guard Bureau. The 165th quickly established a kitchen and dining area, one of fifteen in the burgeoning military sections of the city.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://gadod.net/index.php/news/ga\\-dod/archives/240\\-when\\-disaster\\-strikes\\-your\\-national\\-guard\\-responds \\|title\\=When disaster strikes, your National Guard responds \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921023349/http://www.gadod.net/index.php/news/ga\\-dod/archives/240\\-when\\-disaster\\-strikes\\-your\\-national\\-guard\\-responds \\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} On 25 January 2010, a small group of airmen deployed from the 165th Airlift Wing to [Haiti](/wiki/Haiti \"Haiti\") in support of the Haitian relief efforts.see 165th Airlift Wing prepares for Haiti deployment",
"In January 2011, the last of six C\\-130H2 Hercules aircraft began a three\\-month stint at Bagram Air Base. This was the ninth time the 165th has deployed – to Iraq or Afghanistan – since 11 September 2001\\. Deploying with the aircraft were more than 150 Georgia Guard airmen, including all of the wing's operations division and more than 50 percent of its maintenance department.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://gadod.net/index.php/news/ga\\-dod/archives/381\\-165th\\-airlift\\-wing\\-deploys\\-for\\-ninth\\-time\\-since\\-911 \\|title\\=165th Airlift Wing deploys for ninth time since 9/11 \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916093611/http://www.gadod.net/index.php/news/ga\\-dod/archives/381\\-165th\\-airlift\\-wing\\-deploys\\-for\\-ninth\\-time\\-since\\-911 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 September 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"During the summer of 2011, personnel from the 165th Airlift Wing assisted the Georgia Forestry Commission in fighting wildfires in southern Georgia.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://gadod.net/index.php/press/news\\-releases/443\\-guard\\-completes\\-its\\-involvement\\-in\\-south\\-georgia\\-firefighting\\-efforts \\|title\\=Guard completes its involvement in South Georgia firefighting efforts \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927232402/http://www.gadod.net/index.php/press/news\\-releases/443\\-guard\\-completes\\-its\\-involvement\\-in\\-south\\-georgia\\-firefighting\\-efforts \\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"From August 2012 until March 2013, 14 airmen from the 165th Airlift Wing's Aerial Port Squadron deployed to [Camp Bastion](/wiki/Camp_Bastion \"Camp Bastion\"), Afghanistan, managing passenger and cargo arrivals supporting the United States and the NATO\\-led [International Security Assistance Force](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force \"International Security Assistance Force\") – principally British forces there.",
"### Lineage",
"* Designated **165th Fighter\\-Interceptor Group**, and allotted to Georgia ANG, 1958",
"Extended federal recognition and activated, 10 July 1958\n Re\\-designated: **165th Air Transport Group**, 1 July 1962\n Re\\-designated: **165th Military Airlift Group**, 3 January 1966\n Re\\-designated: **165th Tactical Airlift Group**, 8 August 1975\n Re\\-designated: **165th Airlift Group**, 16 March 1992\n Status changed from group to wing, 1 October 1995\n Re\\-designated: **165th Airlift Wing**, 1 October 1995\n### Assignments",
"* [Georgia Air National Guard](/wiki/Georgia_Air_National_Guard \"Georgia Air National Guard\"), 10 July 1958 – Present",
"Gained by: [35th Air Division](/wiki/35th_Air_Division \"35th Air Division\"), [Air Defense Command](/wiki/Air_Defense_Command \"Air Defense Command\")\n Gained by: [Eastern Transport Air Force](/wiki/Eastern_Transport_Air_Force \"Eastern Transport Air Force\"), [Military Air Transport Service](/wiki/Military_Air_Transport_Service \"Military Air Transport Service\"), 1 July 1962\n Gained by: [Twenty\\-First Air Force](/wiki/Twenty-First_Air_Force \"Twenty-First Air Force\"), [Military Airlift Command](/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command \"Military Airlift Command\"), 3 January 1966\n Gained by: [Air Combat Command](/wiki/Air_Combat_Command \"Air Combat Command\"), 1 June 1992\n Gained by: [Air Mobility Command](/wiki/Air_Mobility_Command \"Air Mobility Command\"), 1 April 1997\n### Components",
"* 165th Operations Group, 1 October 1995 – Present\n* [158th Fighter\\-Interceptor (later Air Transport, Military Airlift, Tactical Airlift, Airlift) Squadron](/wiki/158th_Airlift_Squadron \"158th Airlift Squadron\"), 10 July 1958 – 1 October 1995",
"Assigned to 165 OG 1 October 1995–Present\n### Stations",
"* Chatham Army Airfield, renamed Travis Field (now [Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport](/wiki/Savannah/Hilton_Head_International_Airport \"Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport\")), 10 July 1958",
"Designated: [Savannah Air National Guard Base](/wiki/Savannah_Air_National_Guard_Base \"Savannah Air National Guard Base\"), 1991–Present\n### Aircraft",
"{{Col\\-begin}}\n{{Col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* [F\\-86L Sabre Interceptor](/wiki/F-86L_Sabre_Interceptor \"F-86L Sabre Interceptor\"), 1958–1962\n* [C\\-97F Stratofreighter](/wiki/C-97F_Stratofreighter \"C-97F Stratofreighter\"), 1962–1965\n* [C\\-124C Globemaster II](/wiki/C-124C_Globemaster_II \"C-124C Globemaster II\"), 1965–1975\n{{Col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* [C\\-130E Hercules](/wiki/C-130E_Hercules \"C-130E Hercules\"), 1975–1981\n* [C\\-130H Hercules](/wiki/C-130H_Hercules \"C-130H Hercules\"), 1981–2024\n* [C\\-130J Hercules](/wiki/C-130J_Hercules \"C-130J Hercules\"), 2024–Present\n{{col\\-end}}",
"### Decorations",
"* [File:Outstanding Unit ribbon.svg](/wiki/File:Outstanding_Unit_ribbon.svg \"Outstanding Unit ribbon.svg\") [Air Force Outstanding Unit Award](/wiki/Air_Force_Outstanding_Unit_Award \"Air Force Outstanding Unit Award\")[Air Force Personnel Center Awards Search (Post\\-1991\\)](http://wwa.afpc.randolph.af.mil/AwardsNet/SearchUnitAwards.aspx?Mode=Graphics) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124045234/http://wwa.afpc.randolph.af.mil/AwardsNet/SearchUnitAwards.aspx?Mode\\=Graphics \\|date\\=24 January 2008 }}"
] |
Adult life
----------
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Titus, c. 70 AD](/wiki/File:Titus%2C_Roman%2C_c._70_AD%2C_marble_-_Galleria_Borghese_-_Rome%2C_Italy_-_DSC04762.jpg "Titus, Roman, c. 70 AD, marble - Galleria Borghese - Rome, Italy - DSC04762.jpg")
From around 57 to 59 he was a military [tribune](/wiki/Tribune "Tribune") in [Germania](/wiki/Germania "Germania"). He also served in [Britannia](/wiki/Roman_Britain "Roman Britain") and perhaps arrived about 60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of [Boudica](/wiki/Boudica "Boudica"). About 63, he returned to Rome and married [Arrecina Tertulla](/wiki/Arrecina_Tertulla "Arrecina Tertulla"), daughter of [Marcus Arrecinus Clemens](/wiki/Marcus_Arrecinus_Clemens_%28praetorian_prefect_under_Caligula%29 "Marcus Arrecinus Clemens (praetorian prefect under Caligula)"), a former [Prefect of the Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Prefect_of_the_Praetorian_Guard "Prefect of the Praetorian Guard"). She died about 65\.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [4](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4), with Jones and Milns, pp. 95–96
Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, [Marcia Furnilla](/wiki/Marcia_Furnilla "Marcia Furnilla"). However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to [Nero](/wiki/Nero "Nero"). Her uncle [Barea Soranus](/wiki/Barea_Soranus "Barea Soranus") and his daughter [Servilia](/wiki/Marcia_Servilia_Sorana "Marcia Servilia Sorana") were among those who perished after the failed [Pisonian conspiracy](/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy "Pisonian conspiracy") of 65\.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Annals](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 "Annals (Tacitus)")* [XVI.30–33](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_16%2330 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 16#30") Some modern historians think that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.Gavin Townend, "Some Flavian Connections", *The Journal of Roman Studies* (1961\), p. 57\. See [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [4](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4)Jones (1992\), p. 11
Titus never remarried and appears to have had daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.[Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus "Philostratus"), *The Life of Apollonius of Tyana* [VII.7](https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_7_06.html#%A77) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174856/http://www.livius.org/ap\-ark/apollonius/life/va\_7\_06\.html\#%A77 \|date\=3 March 2016 }}[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [4](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4) The only one known to have survived to adulthood was [Julia Flavia](/wiki/Julia_Flavia "Julia Flavia"), perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.Jones and Milns, pp. 96, 167\. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of [quaestor](/wiki/Quaestor "Quaestor").
### Judaean campaigns
{{Further\|First Jewish\-Roman War}}
[thumb\|250px\|The [province of Judaea](/wiki/Iudaea_Province "Iudaea Province") during the 1st century.](/wiki/Image:First_century_Iudaea_province.gif "First century Iudaea province.gif")
In 66, the [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews") of the [Judaea Province](/wiki/Judaea_Province "Judaea Province") [revolted against the Roman Empire](/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War "First Jewish-Roman War"). [Cestius Gallus](/wiki/Cestius_Gallus "Cestius Gallus"), the [legate of Syria](/wiki/Roman_Syria "Roman Syria"), was defeated at [the battle of](/wiki/Battle_of_Beth_Horon_%2866%29 "Battle of Beth Horon (66)") [Beth\-Horon](/wiki/Beth-Horon "Beth-Horon") and forced to retreat from [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [II.19\.9](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_II%23Chapter_19 "The War of the Jews/Book II#Chapter 19") The pro\-Roman King [Agrippa II](/wiki/Agrippa_II "Agrippa II") and his sister [Berenice](/wiki/Berenice_%28daughter_of_Agrippa_I%29 "Berenice (daughter of Agrippa I)") fled the city to [Galilee](/wiki/Galilee "Galilee"), where they later gave themselves up to the Romans.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [III.1\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_1 "The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 1")
Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the [Fifth Legion](/wiki/Legio_V_Macedonica "Legio V Macedonica") and [Tenth Legion](/wiki/Legio_X_Fretensis "Legio X Fretensis"). He was later joined at [Ptolemais](/wiki/Acre%2C_Israel "Acre, Israel") by Titus with the [Fifteenth Legion](/wiki/Fifteenth_Legion "Fifteenth Legion").Josephus, *The War of the Jews* [III.4\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_4 "The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 4") With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem.
The history of the war was covered in detail by the Roman\-Jewish historian [Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus") in his work *[The War of the Jews](/wiki/The_War_of_the_Jews "The War of the Jews")*. Josephus served as a commander in the city of [Yodfat](/wiki/Yodfat "Yodfat") when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67\. After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed. Titus, however, was not simply set on ending the war.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [III.7\.34](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_7 "The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 7")
Surviving one of several group suicides, Josephus surrendered to Vespasian and became a prisoner. He later wrote that he had provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [III.8\.8](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_8 "The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 8") By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman Army, with decisive victories won at [Taricheae](/wiki/Magdala "Magdala") and [Gamala](/wiki/Gamala "Gamala"), where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [III.10](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_10 "The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 10")
#### Year of the Four Emperors
[thumb\|350px\|A map of the Roman Empire during the [Year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors "Year of the Four Emperors") (AD 69\). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and [Gaius Licinius Mucianus](/wiki/Gaius_Licinius_Mucianus "Gaius Licinius Mucianus").](/wiki/Image:Roman_Empire_69.svg "Roman Empire 69.svg")
The last and most significant fortified city held by the [Jewish resistance](/wiki/Zealotry "Zealotry") was Jerusalem. The campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [IV.9\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_IV%23Chapter_9 "The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 9") Almost simultaneously, the [Roman Senate](/wiki/Roman_Senate "Roman Senate") had declared [Galba](/wiki/Galba "Galba"), the governor of [Hispania](/wiki/Hispania "Hispania"), as emperor. Vespasian decided to await further orders and sent Titus to greet the new *[princeps](/wiki/Princeps "Princeps")*.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* [II.1](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%231 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#1")
Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by [Otho](/wiki/Otho "Otho"), the governor of [Lusitania](/wiki/Lusitania "Lusitania"), and that [Vitellius](/wiki/Vitellius "Vitellius") and his armies in [Germania](/wiki/Germania "Germania") were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* [II.2](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%232 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#2") Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the [First Battle of Bedriacum](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bedriacum "First Battle of Bedriacum") and committed suicide.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* [II.41–49](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%2341 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#41")
When the news reached the armies in Judaea and [Ægyptus](/wiki/%C3%86gyptus "Ægyptus"), they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69\.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [IV.10\.4](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_IV%23Chapter_10 "The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 10") Vespasian accepted and, after negotiations by Titus, joined forces with [Gaius Licinius Mucianus](/wiki/Gaius_Licinius_Mucianus "Gaius Licinius Mucianus"), governor of Syria.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* [II.5](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%235 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#5") A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, and Vespasian travelled to [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"), leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [IV.11\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_IV%23Chapter_11 "The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 11")[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* [II.82](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%2382 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#82") By the end of 69, the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on 21 December, thus ending the [Year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors "Year of the Four Emperors").[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* [IV.3](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_4%233 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#3")
#### Siege of Jerusalem
{{Main\|Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70\)}}
[thumb\|[Arch of Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus "Arch of Titus"): North inner panel, relief of Titus as *triumphator*](/wiki/File:04_2022_Roma_%28Arco_di_Trionfo_di_Tito-_Bassorilievi%29_FO228683_bis_Photo_by_Paolo_Villa.jpg "04 2022 Roma (Arco di Trionfo di Tito- Bassorilievi) FO228683 bis Photo by Paolo Villa.jpg")
[thumb\|[Arch of Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus "Arch of Titus"): South inner panel, close\-up of [relief](/wiki/Relief "Relief") showing spoils from the [fall of Jerusalem](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%2870_CE%29 "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)")](/wiki/File:04_2022_Roma_%28Arco_di_Trionfo_di_Tito-_Bassorilievi%29_FO228685_bis_Photo_by_Paolo_Villa.jpg "04 2022 Roma (Arco di Trionfo di Tito- Bassorilievi) FO228685 bis Photo by Paolo Villa.jpg")
[thumb\|*Conquest of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus*, by [Nicolas Poussin](/wiki/Nicolas_Poussin "Nicolas Poussin") (1638\), depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple](/wiki/File:Nicolas_Poussin_-_The_Conquest_of_Jerusalem_by_Emperor_Titus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg "Nicolas Poussin - The Conquest of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus - Google Art Project.jpg")
Meanwhile, the Jews had become embroiled in a civil war of their own by splitting the resistance in Jerusalem among several factions. The [Sicarii](/wiki/Sicarii "Sicarii"), led by [Menahem ben Judah](/wiki/Menahem_ben_Judah "Menahem ben Judah"), could hold on for long; the [Zealots](/wiki/Zealots "Zealots"), led by [Eleazar ben Simon](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Simon "Eleazar ben Simon"), eventually fell under the command of the Galilean leader [John of Gush Halav](/wiki/John_of_Gischala "John of Gischala"); and the other northern rebel commander, [Simon Bar Giora](/wiki/Simon_Bar_Giora "Simon Bar Giora"), managed to gain leadership over the [Idumeans](/wiki/Edom "Edom").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [V.1\.4](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_1 "The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 1") Titus [besieged Jerusalem](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%2870%29 "Siege of Jerusalem (70)"). The Roman Army was joined by the [Twelfth Legion](/wiki/Legio_XII_Fulminata "Legio XII Fulminata"), which had been previously defeated under [Cestius Gallus](/wiki/Cestius_Gallus "Cestius Gallus"), and from Alexandria, Vespasian sent [Tiberius Julius Alexander](/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Alexander "Tiberius Julius Alexander"), governor of Egypt, to act as Titus' second in command.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [V.1\.6](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_1 "The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 1")
Titus surrounded the city with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the [Mount of Olives](/wiki/Mount_of_Olives "Mount of Olives") to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate [Passover](/wiki/Passover "Passover") and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman Army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [V.2\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_2 "The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 2")
After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [V.6–V.9](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_6 "The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 6") To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to be [crucified](/wiki/Crucified "Crucified") around the city wall.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [V.11\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_11 "The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 11") By that time the Jews had been exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was breached, bitter street fighting ensued.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [VI.2–VI.3](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VI%23Chapter_2 "The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 2")
The Romans finally captured the [Antonia Fortress](/wiki/Antonia_Fortress "Antonia Fortress") and began a frontal assault on the gates of the [Second Temple](/wiki/Second_Temple "Second Temple").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [VI.4\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VI%23Chapter_4 "The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 4") As they breached the gate, the Romans set the upper and lower city aflame, culminating with the destruction of the Temple. When the fires subsided, Titus gave the order to destroy the remainder of the city, allegedly intending that no one would remember the name Jerusalem.[Sulpicius Severus](/wiki/Sulpicius_Severus "Sulpicius Severus"), *Chronicles* [II](http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sulpiciusseveruschron2.html).30\.6–7\. For [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus") as the source, see {{Cite journal\|author\=T.D. Barnes \|date\=July 1977 \|title\=The Fragments of Tacitus' ''Histories'' \|journal\=Classical Philology \|volume\=72 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=224–231, pp. 226–228 \| doi \= 10\.1086/366355\|s2cid\=161875316 }} The Temple was demolished, Titus's soldiers proclaimed him *[imperator](/wiki/Imperator "Imperator")* in honour of the victory.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [VI.6\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VI%23Chapter_6 "The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 6")
[Jerusalem was sacked](/wiki/Destruction_of_Jerusalem "Destruction of Jerusalem") and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, most of whom were Jewish.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [VI.9\.3](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VI%23Chapter_9 "The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 9") Josephus's death toll assumptions are rejected as impossible by modern scholarship since about a million people then lived in the Land of Israel, half of them Jewish, and sizable Jewish populations remained in the area after the war was over, even in the hard\-hit region of Judea.{{cite encyclopedia \|encyclopedia\=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman\-Rabbinic Period \|editor\-first1\=William David \|editor\-last1\=Davies \|editor\-first2\=Louis \|editor\-last2\=Finkelstein \|editor\-first3\=Steven T. \|editor\-last3\=Katz \|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]] \|year\=1984 \|first\=Seth \|last\=Schwartz \|title\=Political, social and economic life in the land of Israel \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BjtWLZhhMoYC \|page\=24\|isbn\=978\-0521772488 }} However, 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar\-Giora and John of [Gischala](/wiki/Gischala "Gischala"). Many fled to areas around the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea"). Titus reportedly refused to accept a [wreath of victory](/wiki/Wreath_of_victory "Wreath of victory"), as he claimed that he had not won the victory on his own but had been the vehicle through which their God had manifested his wrath against his people.[Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus "Philostratus"), *The Life of Apollonius of Tyana* [6\.29](https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_26.html#%A729) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315005913/http://www.livius.org/ap\-ark/apollonius/life/va\_6\_26\.html\#%A729 \|date\=15 March 2016 }}
The [Jewish diaspora](/wiki/Jewish_diaspora "Jewish diaspora") during the Temple's destruction, according to [Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), was in [Parthia](/wiki/Parthia "Parthia") (Persia), [Babylonia](/wiki/Babylonia "Babylonia") (Iraq), and [Arabia](/wiki/Arabia "Arabia"), and some were beyond the [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates") and in [Adiabene](/wiki/Adiabene "Adiabene") (Kurdistan).{{PACEJ\|text\=JW\|bookno\=1\|chap\=1\|sec\=5\|show\-translator\=no\|show\-source\=no\|abbr\=yes}}
### Heir to Vespasian
[thumb\|300px\|Titus's [triumph](/wiki/Roman_triumph "Roman triumph") after the [First Jewish\-Roman War](/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War "First Jewish-Roman War") was celebrated with the [Arch of Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus "Arch of Titus") in Rome, which shows the treasures taken from the Temple, including the [Menorah](/wiki/Menorah_%28Temple%29 "Menorah (Temple)") and the trumpets of Jericho.](/wiki/Image:Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png "Arch of Titus Menorah.png")
Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at [Caesarea Maritima](/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima "Caesarea Maritima") and [Berytus](/wiki/Berytus "Berytus") and then travelled to [Zeugma](/wiki/Zeugma%2C_Commagene "Zeugma, Commagene") on the [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates"), where he was presented with a crown by [Vologases I of Parthia](/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia "Vologases I of Parthia"). While he was visiting [Antioch](/wiki/Antioch "Antioch"), he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [VII.3\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII%23Chapter_3 "The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 3"), [VII.5\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII%23Chapter_5 "The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5")
[thumb\|upright\|Statue of Titus modelled after the *[Doryphoros](/wiki/Doryphoros "Doryphoros")* of [Polykleitos](/wiki/Polykleitos "Polykleitos"), 79–81 AD, [Vatican Museums](/wiki/Vatican_Museums "Vatican Museums")](/wiki/File:Torso_di_doriforo_di_policleto_con_ritratto_di_tito%2C_79-81_dc..JPG "Torso di doriforo di policleto con ritratto di tito, 79-81 dc..JPG")
On his way to [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria"), he stopped in [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Egypt "Memphis, Egypt") to consecrate the sacred bull [Apis](/wiki/Apis_%28Egyptian_mythology%29 "Apis (Egyptian mythology)"). According to Suetonius, that caused consternation since the ceremony required Titus to wear a [diadem](/wiki/Diadem "Diadem"), which the Romans associated with monarchy, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome in the hope, according to Suetonius, of allaying any suspicions about his conduct.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [5](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#5)
Upon his arrival in Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a [triumph](/wiki/Roman_triumph "Roman triumph").[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXV.6](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#6) Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, Titus rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re\-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the [Menorah](/wiki/Menorah_%28Temple%29 "Menorah (Temple)") and the [Pentateuch](/wiki/Pentateuch "Pentateuch").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [VII.5\.5](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII%23Chapter_5 "The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5") Simon Bar Giora was executed in the [Forum](/wiki/Forum_Romanum "Forum Romanum"), and the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the [Temple of Jupiter](/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_%28Capitoline_Hill%29 "Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus "Josephus"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews "The Wars of the Jews")* [VII.5\.6](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII%23Chapter_5 "The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5")
The [triumphal](/wiki/Triumphal_arch "Triumphal arch") [Arch of Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus "Arch of Titus"), which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorialises the victory of Titus.
With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian received the title of *[Caesar](/wiki/Caesar_%28title%29 "Caesar (title)")* from the Senate.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXV.1](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#1) In addition to sharing [tribunician power](/wiki/Tribune "Tribune") with his father, Titus held seven [consulships](/wiki/Roman_consul "Roman consul") during Vespasian's reign[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [6](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#6) and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf. More crucially, he was appointed [Praetorian prefect](/wiki/Praetorian_prefect "Praetorian prefect") (commander of the [Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Praetorian_Guard "Praetorian Guard")), ensuring its loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler.
In that capacity, Titus achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot. When in 79, a plot by [Aulus Caecina Alienus](/wiki/Aulus_Caecina_Alienus "Aulus Caecina Alienus") and [Eprius Marcellus](/wiki/Titus_Clodius_Eprius_Marcellus "Titus Clodius Eprius Marcellus") to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXV.16](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#16)
During the Jewish Wars, Titus had begun a love affair with [Berenice](/wiki/Berenice_%28daughter_of_Herod_Agrippa_I%29 "Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa I)"), the sister of [Agrippa II](/wiki/Agrippa_II "Agrippa II"). The [Herodians](/wiki/Herodian_Dynasty "Herodian Dynasty") had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian in his campaign to become emperor.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* [II.81](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%2381 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#81") In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the eastern queen and disapproved of their relationship.Schalit, A. (2007\). Berenice. In M. Berenbaum \& F. Skolnik (Eds.), *Encyclopaedia Judaica* (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 410–411\). Macmillan Reference US. When the pair was publicly denounced by [Cynics](/wiki/Cynicism_%28philosophy%29 "Cynicism (philosophy)") in the theatre, Titus acceded to the pressure and sent her away,[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXV.15](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#66-15) but his reputation suffered further regardless.
|
[
"Adult life\n----------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Titus, c. 70 AD](/wiki/File:Titus%2C_Roman%2C_c._70_AD%2C_marble_-_Galleria_Borghese_-_Rome%2C_Italy_-_DSC04762.jpg \"Titus, Roman, c. 70 AD, marble - Galleria Borghese - Rome, Italy - DSC04762.jpg\")\nFrom around 57 to 59 he was a military [tribune](/wiki/Tribune \"Tribune\") in [Germania](/wiki/Germania \"Germania\"). He also served in [Britannia](/wiki/Roman_Britain \"Roman Britain\") and perhaps arrived about 60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of [Boudica](/wiki/Boudica \"Boudica\"). About 63, he returned to Rome and married [Arrecina Tertulla](/wiki/Arrecina_Tertulla \"Arrecina Tertulla\"), daughter of [Marcus Arrecinus Clemens](/wiki/Marcus_Arrecinus_Clemens_%28praetorian_prefect_under_Caligula%29 \"Marcus Arrecinus Clemens (praetorian prefect under Caligula)\"), a former [Prefect of the Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Prefect_of_the_Praetorian_Guard \"Prefect of the Praetorian Guard\"). She died about 65\\.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [4](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4), with Jones and Milns, pp. 95–96",
"Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, [Marcia Furnilla](/wiki/Marcia_Furnilla \"Marcia Furnilla\"). However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to [Nero](/wiki/Nero \"Nero\"). Her uncle [Barea Soranus](/wiki/Barea_Soranus \"Barea Soranus\") and his daughter [Servilia](/wiki/Marcia_Servilia_Sorana \"Marcia Servilia Sorana\") were among those who perished after the failed [Pisonian conspiracy](/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy \"Pisonian conspiracy\") of 65\\.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Annals](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 \"Annals (Tacitus)\")* [XVI.30–33](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_16%2330 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 16#30\") Some modern historians think that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.Gavin Townend, \"Some Flavian Connections\", *The Journal of Roman Studies* (1961\\), p. 57\\. See [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [4](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4)Jones (1992\\), p. 11",
"Titus never remarried and appears to have had daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.[Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus \"Philostratus\"), *The Life of Apollonius of Tyana* [VII.7](https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_7_06.html#%A77) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174856/http://www.livius.org/ap\\-ark/apollonius/life/va\\_7\\_06\\.html\\#%A77 \\|date\\=3 March 2016 }}[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [4](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4) The only one known to have survived to adulthood was [Julia Flavia](/wiki/Julia_Flavia \"Julia Flavia\"), perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.Jones and Milns, pp. 96, 167\\. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of [quaestor](/wiki/Quaestor \"Quaestor\").",
"### Judaean campaigns",
"{{Further\\|First Jewish\\-Roman War}}\n[thumb\\|250px\\|The [province of Judaea](/wiki/Iudaea_Province \"Iudaea Province\") during the 1st century.](/wiki/Image:First_century_Iudaea_province.gif \"First century Iudaea province.gif\")",
"In 66, the [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") of the [Judaea Province](/wiki/Judaea_Province \"Judaea Province\") [revolted against the Roman Empire](/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War \"First Jewish-Roman War\"). [Cestius Gallus](/wiki/Cestius_Gallus \"Cestius Gallus\"), the [legate of Syria](/wiki/Roman_Syria \"Roman Syria\"), was defeated at [the battle of](/wiki/Battle_of_Beth_Horon_%2866%29 \"Battle of Beth Horon (66)\") [Beth\\-Horon](/wiki/Beth-Horon \"Beth-Horon\") and forced to retreat from [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [II.19\\.9](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_II%23Chapter_19 \"The War of the Jews/Book II#Chapter 19\") The pro\\-Roman King [Agrippa II](/wiki/Agrippa_II \"Agrippa II\") and his sister [Berenice](/wiki/Berenice_%28daughter_of_Agrippa_I%29 \"Berenice (daughter of Agrippa I)\") fled the city to [Galilee](/wiki/Galilee \"Galilee\"), where they later gave themselves up to the Romans.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [III.1\\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_1 \"The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 1\")",
"Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the [Fifth Legion](/wiki/Legio_V_Macedonica \"Legio V Macedonica\") and [Tenth Legion](/wiki/Legio_X_Fretensis \"Legio X Fretensis\"). He was later joined at [Ptolemais](/wiki/Acre%2C_Israel \"Acre, Israel\") by Titus with the [Fifteenth Legion](/wiki/Fifteenth_Legion \"Fifteenth Legion\").Josephus, *The War of the Jews* [III.4\\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_4 \"The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 4\") With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem.",
"The history of the war was covered in detail by the Roman\\-Jewish historian [Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\") in his work *[The War of the Jews](/wiki/The_War_of_the_Jews \"The War of the Jews\")*. Josephus served as a commander in the city of [Yodfat](/wiki/Yodfat \"Yodfat\") when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67\\. After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed. Titus, however, was not simply set on ending the war.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [III.7\\.34](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_7 \"The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 7\")",
"Surviving one of several group suicides, Josephus surrendered to Vespasian and became a prisoner. He later wrote that he had provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [III.8\\.8](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_8 \"The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 8\") By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman Army, with decisive victories won at [Taricheae](/wiki/Magdala \"Magdala\") and [Gamala](/wiki/Gamala \"Gamala\"), where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [III.10](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_III%23Chapter_10 \"The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 10\")",
"#### Year of the Four Emperors",
"[thumb\\|350px\\|A map of the Roman Empire during the [Year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors \"Year of the Four Emperors\") (AD 69\\). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and [Gaius Licinius Mucianus](/wiki/Gaius_Licinius_Mucianus \"Gaius Licinius Mucianus\").](/wiki/Image:Roman_Empire_69.svg \"Roman Empire 69.svg\")",
"The last and most significant fortified city held by the [Jewish resistance](/wiki/Zealotry \"Zealotry\") was Jerusalem. The campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [IV.9\\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_IV%23Chapter_9 \"The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 9\") Almost simultaneously, the [Roman Senate](/wiki/Roman_Senate \"Roman Senate\") had declared [Galba](/wiki/Galba \"Galba\"), the governor of [Hispania](/wiki/Hispania \"Hispania\"), as emperor. Vespasian decided to await further orders and sent Titus to greet the new *[princeps](/wiki/Princeps \"Princeps\")*.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* [II.1](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%231 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#1\")",
"Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by [Otho](/wiki/Otho \"Otho\"), the governor of [Lusitania](/wiki/Lusitania \"Lusitania\"), and that [Vitellius](/wiki/Vitellius \"Vitellius\") and his armies in [Germania](/wiki/Germania \"Germania\") were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* [II.2](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%232 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#2\") Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the [First Battle of Bedriacum](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bedriacum \"First Battle of Bedriacum\") and committed suicide.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* [II.41–49](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%2341 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#41\")",
"When the news reached the armies in Judaea and [Ægyptus](/wiki/%C3%86gyptus \"Ægyptus\"), they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69\\.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [IV.10\\.4](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_IV%23Chapter_10 \"The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 10\") Vespasian accepted and, after negotiations by Titus, joined forces with [Gaius Licinius Mucianus](/wiki/Gaius_Licinius_Mucianus \"Gaius Licinius Mucianus\"), governor of Syria.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* [II.5](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%235 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#5\") A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, and Vespasian travelled to [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"), leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [IV.11\\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_IV%23Chapter_11 \"The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 11\")[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* [II.82](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%2382 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#82\") By the end of 69, the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on 21 December, thus ending the [Year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors \"Year of the Four Emperors\").[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* [IV.3](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_4%233 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#3\")",
"#### Siege of Jerusalem",
"{{Main\\|Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70\\)}}\n[thumb\\|[Arch of Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus \"Arch of Titus\"): North inner panel, relief of Titus as *triumphator*](/wiki/File:04_2022_Roma_%28Arco_di_Trionfo_di_Tito-_Bassorilievi%29_FO228683_bis_Photo_by_Paolo_Villa.jpg \"04 2022 Roma (Arco di Trionfo di Tito- Bassorilievi) FO228683 bis Photo by Paolo Villa.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Arch of Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus \"Arch of Titus\"): South inner panel, close\\-up of [relief](/wiki/Relief \"Relief\") showing spoils from the [fall of Jerusalem](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%2870_CE%29 \"Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)\")](/wiki/File:04_2022_Roma_%28Arco_di_Trionfo_di_Tito-_Bassorilievi%29_FO228685_bis_Photo_by_Paolo_Villa.jpg \"04 2022 Roma (Arco di Trionfo di Tito- Bassorilievi) FO228685 bis Photo by Paolo Villa.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|*Conquest of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus*, by [Nicolas Poussin](/wiki/Nicolas_Poussin \"Nicolas Poussin\") (1638\\), depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple](/wiki/File:Nicolas_Poussin_-_The_Conquest_of_Jerusalem_by_Emperor_Titus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg \"Nicolas Poussin - The Conquest of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus - Google Art Project.jpg\")\nMeanwhile, the Jews had become embroiled in a civil war of their own by splitting the resistance in Jerusalem among several factions. The [Sicarii](/wiki/Sicarii \"Sicarii\"), led by [Menahem ben Judah](/wiki/Menahem_ben_Judah \"Menahem ben Judah\"), could hold on for long; the [Zealots](/wiki/Zealots \"Zealots\"), led by [Eleazar ben Simon](/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Simon \"Eleazar ben Simon\"), eventually fell under the command of the Galilean leader [John of Gush Halav](/wiki/John_of_Gischala \"John of Gischala\"); and the other northern rebel commander, [Simon Bar Giora](/wiki/Simon_Bar_Giora \"Simon Bar Giora\"), managed to gain leadership over the [Idumeans](/wiki/Edom \"Edom\").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [V.1\\.4](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_1 \"The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 1\") Titus [besieged Jerusalem](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%2870%29 \"Siege of Jerusalem (70)\"). The Roman Army was joined by the [Twelfth Legion](/wiki/Legio_XII_Fulminata \"Legio XII Fulminata\"), which had been previously defeated under [Cestius Gallus](/wiki/Cestius_Gallus \"Cestius Gallus\"), and from Alexandria, Vespasian sent [Tiberius Julius Alexander](/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Alexander \"Tiberius Julius Alexander\"), governor of Egypt, to act as Titus' second in command.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [V.1\\.6](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_1 \"The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 1\")",
"Titus surrounded the city with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the [Mount of Olives](/wiki/Mount_of_Olives \"Mount of Olives\") to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate [Passover](/wiki/Passover \"Passover\") and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman Army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [V.2\\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_2 \"The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 2\")",
"After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [V.6–V.9](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_6 \"The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 6\") To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to be [crucified](/wiki/Crucified \"Crucified\") around the city wall.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [V.11\\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_V%23Chapter_11 \"The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 11\") By that time the Jews had been exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was breached, bitter street fighting ensued.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [VI.2–VI.3](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VI%23Chapter_2 \"The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 2\")",
"The Romans finally captured the [Antonia Fortress](/wiki/Antonia_Fortress \"Antonia Fortress\") and began a frontal assault on the gates of the [Second Temple](/wiki/Second_Temple \"Second Temple\").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [VI.4\\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VI%23Chapter_4 \"The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 4\") As they breached the gate, the Romans set the upper and lower city aflame, culminating with the destruction of the Temple. When the fires subsided, Titus gave the order to destroy the remainder of the city, allegedly intending that no one would remember the name Jerusalem.[Sulpicius Severus](/wiki/Sulpicius_Severus \"Sulpicius Severus\"), *Chronicles* [II](http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sulpiciusseveruschron2.html).30\\.6–7\\. For [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\") as the source, see {{Cite journal\\|author\\=T.D. Barnes \\|date\\=July 1977 \\|title\\=The Fragments of Tacitus' ''Histories'' \\|journal\\=Classical Philology \\|volume\\=72 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=224–231, pp. 226–228 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1086/366355\\|s2cid\\=161875316 }} The Temple was demolished, Titus's soldiers proclaimed him *[imperator](/wiki/Imperator \"Imperator\")* in honour of the victory.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [VI.6\\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VI%23Chapter_6 \"The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 6\")",
"[Jerusalem was sacked](/wiki/Destruction_of_Jerusalem \"Destruction of Jerusalem\") and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, most of whom were Jewish.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [VI.9\\.3](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VI%23Chapter_9 \"The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 9\") Josephus's death toll assumptions are rejected as impossible by modern scholarship since about a million people then lived in the Land of Israel, half of them Jewish, and sizable Jewish populations remained in the area after the war was over, even in the hard\\-hit region of Judea.{{cite encyclopedia \\|encyclopedia\\=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman\\-Rabbinic Period \\|editor\\-first1\\=William David \\|editor\\-last1\\=Davies \\|editor\\-first2\\=Louis \\|editor\\-last2\\=Finkelstein \\|editor\\-first3\\=Steven T. \\|editor\\-last3\\=Katz \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]] \\|year\\=1984 \\|first\\=Seth \\|last\\=Schwartz \\|title\\=Political, social and economic life in the land of Israel \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BjtWLZhhMoYC \\|page\\=24\\|isbn\\=978\\-0521772488 }} However, 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar\\-Giora and John of [Gischala](/wiki/Gischala \"Gischala\"). Many fled to areas around the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\"). Titus reportedly refused to accept a [wreath of victory](/wiki/Wreath_of_victory \"Wreath of victory\"), as he claimed that he had not won the victory on his own but had been the vehicle through which their God had manifested his wrath against his people.[Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus \"Philostratus\"), *The Life of Apollonius of Tyana* [6\\.29](https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_26.html#%A729) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315005913/http://www.livius.org/ap\\-ark/apollonius/life/va\\_6\\_26\\.html\\#%A729 \\|date\\=15 March 2016 }}",
"The [Jewish diaspora](/wiki/Jewish_diaspora \"Jewish diaspora\") during the Temple's destruction, according to [Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), was in [Parthia](/wiki/Parthia \"Parthia\") (Persia), [Babylonia](/wiki/Babylonia \"Babylonia\") (Iraq), and [Arabia](/wiki/Arabia \"Arabia\"), and some were beyond the [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates \"Euphrates\") and in [Adiabene](/wiki/Adiabene \"Adiabene\") (Kurdistan).{{PACEJ\\|text\\=JW\\|bookno\\=1\\|chap\\=1\\|sec\\=5\\|show\\-translator\\=no\\|show\\-source\\=no\\|abbr\\=yes}}",
"### Heir to Vespasian",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Titus's [triumph](/wiki/Roman_triumph \"Roman triumph\") after the [First Jewish\\-Roman War](/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War \"First Jewish-Roman War\") was celebrated with the [Arch of Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus \"Arch of Titus\") in Rome, which shows the treasures taken from the Temple, including the [Menorah](/wiki/Menorah_%28Temple%29 \"Menorah (Temple)\") and the trumpets of Jericho.](/wiki/Image:Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png \"Arch of Titus Menorah.png\")",
"Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at [Caesarea Maritima](/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima \"Caesarea Maritima\") and [Berytus](/wiki/Berytus \"Berytus\") and then travelled to [Zeugma](/wiki/Zeugma%2C_Commagene \"Zeugma, Commagene\") on the [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates \"Euphrates\"), where he was presented with a crown by [Vologases I of Parthia](/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia \"Vologases I of Parthia\"). While he was visiting [Antioch](/wiki/Antioch \"Antioch\"), he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city.[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [VII.3\\.1](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII%23Chapter_3 \"The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 3\"), [VII.5\\.2](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII%23Chapter_5 \"The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5\")",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Statue of Titus modelled after the *[Doryphoros](/wiki/Doryphoros \"Doryphoros\")* of [Polykleitos](/wiki/Polykleitos \"Polykleitos\"), 79–81 AD, [Vatican Museums](/wiki/Vatican_Museums \"Vatican Museums\")](/wiki/File:Torso_di_doriforo_di_policleto_con_ritratto_di_tito%2C_79-81_dc..JPG \"Torso di doriforo di policleto con ritratto di tito, 79-81 dc..JPG\")",
"On his way to [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\"), he stopped in [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Egypt \"Memphis, Egypt\") to consecrate the sacred bull [Apis](/wiki/Apis_%28Egyptian_mythology%29 \"Apis (Egyptian mythology)\"). According to Suetonius, that caused consternation since the ceremony required Titus to wear a [diadem](/wiki/Diadem \"Diadem\"), which the Romans associated with monarchy, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome in the hope, according to Suetonius, of allaying any suspicions about his conduct.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [5](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#5)",
"Upon his arrival in Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a [triumph](/wiki/Roman_triumph \"Roman triumph\").[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXV.6](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#6) Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, Titus rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re\\-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the [Menorah](/wiki/Menorah_%28Temple%29 \"Menorah (Temple)\") and the [Pentateuch](/wiki/Pentateuch \"Pentateuch\").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [VII.5\\.5](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII%23Chapter_5 \"The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5\") Simon Bar Giora was executed in the [Forum](/wiki/Forum_Romanum \"Forum Romanum\"), and the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the [Temple of Jupiter](/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_%28Capitoline_Hill%29 \"Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)\").[Josephus](/wiki/Josephus \"Josephus\"), *[The Wars of the Jews](/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews \"The Wars of the Jews\")* [VII.5\\.6](/wiki/s:The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII%23Chapter_5 \"The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5\")\nThe [triumphal](/wiki/Triumphal_arch \"Triumphal arch\") [Arch of Titus](/wiki/Arch_of_Titus \"Arch of Titus\"), which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorialises the victory of Titus.",
"With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian received the title of *[Caesar](/wiki/Caesar_%28title%29 \"Caesar (title)\")* from the Senate.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXV.1](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#1) In addition to sharing [tribunician power](/wiki/Tribune \"Tribune\") with his father, Titus held seven [consulships](/wiki/Roman_consul \"Roman consul\") during Vespasian's reign[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [6](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#6) and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf. More crucially, he was appointed [Praetorian prefect](/wiki/Praetorian_prefect \"Praetorian prefect\") (commander of the [Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Praetorian_Guard \"Praetorian Guard\")), ensuring its loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler.",
"In that capacity, Titus achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot. When in 79, a plot by [Aulus Caecina Alienus](/wiki/Aulus_Caecina_Alienus \"Aulus Caecina Alienus\") and [Eprius Marcellus](/wiki/Titus_Clodius_Eprius_Marcellus \"Titus Clodius Eprius Marcellus\") to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXV.16](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#16)",
"During the Jewish Wars, Titus had begun a love affair with [Berenice](/wiki/Berenice_%28daughter_of_Herod_Agrippa_I%29 \"Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa I)\"), the sister of [Agrippa II](/wiki/Agrippa_II \"Agrippa II\"). The [Herodians](/wiki/Herodian_Dynasty \"Herodian Dynasty\") had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian in his campaign to become emperor.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* [II.81](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_2%2381 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#81\") In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the eastern queen and disapproved of their relationship.Schalit, A. (2007\\). Berenice. In M. Berenbaum \\& F. Skolnik (Eds.), *Encyclopaedia Judaica* (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 410–411\\). Macmillan Reference US. When the pair was publicly denounced by [Cynics](/wiki/Cynicism_%28philosophy%29 \"Cynicism (philosophy)\") in the theatre, Titus acceded to the pressure and sent her away,[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXV.15](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#66-15) but his reputation suffered further regardless.",
""
] |
Emperor
-------
### Succession
[thumb\|330px\|A Roman [denarius](/wiki/Denarius "Denarius") depicting Titus, c. 79\. The reverse commemorates his [triumph](/wiki/Roman_triumph "Roman triumph") in the [Judaean Wars](/wiki/Jewish-Roman_wars "Jewish-Roman wars"), representing a Jewish captive kneeling in front of a trophy of arms. Caption: IMP. T. CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG. / TRibunus POTestas VIII, COnSul VII](/wiki/Image:Titus_Augustus_Denarius.png "Titus Augustus Denarius.png")
Vespasian died of an infection on 23[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[Lives of the Twelve Caesars](/wiki/Lives_of_the_Twelve_Caesars "Lives of the Twelve Caesars")*, ["Life of Vespasian" §24](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#24) or 24[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.17](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#17) June 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.18](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#18) He was the first Roman emperor to come to the throne after his own biological father. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Titus adopted the titulary *Autokrator Titos Kaisaros Hununefer Benermerut* ("Emperor Titus Caesar, the perfect and popular youth").{{cite web \|url\=https://pharaoh.se/roman\-emperor/Titus \|title\=Titus \|website\=The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt \|access\-date\=13 March 2018}} Because of his many (alleged) vices, many Romans feared that he would be another Nero.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [7](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#7) Against those expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtues, instead of vices.
One of his first acts as emperor was to order a halt to trials based on treason charges,[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [8](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#8) which had long plagued the [principate](/wiki/Principate "Principate"). The law of [treason](/wiki/Treason "Treason"), or [law of majestas](/wiki/Law_of_majestas "Law of majestas"), was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly "impaired the people and majesty of Rome" by any revolutionary action.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Annals](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 "Annals (Tacitus)")* [I.72](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%2372 "The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#72") Under [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus "Augustus"), however, that custom had been revived and applied to cover [slander](/wiki/Slander "Slander") and [libel](/wiki/Libel "Libel") as well. This led to numerous trials and executions under [Tiberius](/wiki/Tiberius "Tiberius"), [Caligula](/wiki/Caligula "Caligula"), and Nero, and the formation of networks of informers (*[delators](/wiki/Delator "Delator")*), which terrorised Rome's political system for decades.
Titus put an end to that practice against himself or anyone else and declared:
> It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.19](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19)
Consequently, no [senators](/wiki/Roman_senator "Roman senator") were put to death during his reign; he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of [Pontifex Maximus](/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus "Pontifex Maximus") "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained".[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [9](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#9) Informants were publicly punished and banished from the city. Titus further prevented abuses by making it unlawful for a person to be [tried under different laws for the same offense](/wiki/Double_jeopardy "Double jeopardy"). Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.
As emperor, he became known for his generosity, and [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius") states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, "Friends, I have lost a day".
### Challenges
[thumb\|180px\|The [Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79](/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79 "Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79") completely destroyed [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") and [Herculaneum](/wiki/Herculaneum "Herculaneum"). Plaster casts of actual victims found during excavations are now on display in some of the ruins.](/wiki/Image:Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg "Pompeii Garden of the Fugitives 02.jpg")
Although Titus's brief reign was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, he faced a number of major disasters. A few months after his accession, [Mount Vesuvius erupted](/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD "Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD").[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.22](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#22) The eruption almost completely destroyed the cities and resort communities around the [Bay of Naples](/wiki/Bay_of_Naples "Bay of Naples"). The cities of [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") and [Herculaneum](/wiki/Herculaneum "Herculaneum") were buried under metres of stone and ash,[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.23](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#23) killing thousands.The exact number of casualties is unknown, but estimates of the population of Pompeii range between 10,000 ({{cite web \|title\=Engineering of Pompeii: Ruins Reveal Roman Technology for Construction, Transportation, and Water Distribution \|url\=http://enginova.com/engineering\_of\_pompeii.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708190434/http://www.enginova.com/engineering\_of\_pompeii.htm \|archive\-date\=8 July 2008 \|access\-date\=10 March 2009}}) and 25,000 (<http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm>), with at least 1000 bodies currently recovered in and around the city ruins. Titus appointed two ex\-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort and personally donated large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.24](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#24)
During the second visit, in spring of 80, a fire broke out in Rome and burned large parts of the city for three days and three nights. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the [Great Fire](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome "Great Fire of Rome") of 64 and crucially spared the many districts of [insulae](/wiki/Insulae "Insulae"), [Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio") records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's [Pantheon](/wiki/Pantheon%2C_Rome "Pantheon, Rome"), the [Temple of Jupiter](/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_%28Capitoline_Hill%29 "Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)"), the [Diribitorium](/wiki/Diribitorium "Diribitorium"), parts of the [Theatre of Pompey](/wiki/Theatre_of_Pompey "Theatre of Pompey"), and the [Saepta Julia](/wiki/Saepta_Julia "Saepta Julia") among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague also broke out during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, and the death toll are unknown.
Meanwhile, war had resumed in [Britannia](/wiki/Roman_Britain "Roman Britain"), where [Gnaeus Julius Agricola](/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola "Gnaeus Julius Agricola") pushed further into [Caledonia](/wiki/Caledonia "Caledonia") and managed to establish several forts there.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Agricola](/wiki/Agricola_%28book%29 "Agricola (book)")* [22](/wiki/s:Agricola%2322 "Agricola#22") As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of [imperator](/wiki/Imperator%23Imperator_as_an_imperial_title "Imperator#Imperator as an imperial title") for the fifteenth time, between 9 September and 31 December 79 AD.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.20](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#20)
His reign also saw the rebellion led by [Terentius Maximus](/wiki/Terentius_Maximus "Terentius Maximus"), one of several false Neros who appeared throughout the 70s.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 "Histories (Tacitus)")* [I.2](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%232 "The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2") Although Nero was primarily known as a universally\-hated tyrant, there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had survived his overthrow were fuelled by the confusing circumstances of his death and several prophecies foretelling his return.{{Cite journal\| last \= Sanford \| first \= Eva Matthews \| author\-link\=Eva Matthews Sanford \| title \= Nero and the East \| journal \= Harvard Studies in Classical Philology \| volume \= 48 \| year \= 1937 \| pages \= 75–103 \| doi \= 10\.2307/310691 \| jstor\=310691}}
According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the [lyre](/wiki/Lyre "Lyre"). Terentius established a following in [Asia Minor](/wiki/Asia_Minor "Asia Minor") but was soon forced to flee beyond the [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates") and took refuge with the [Parthians](/wiki/Parthian_Empire "Parthian Empire"). In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.26](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#26)
### Public works
[thumb\|left\|The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the [Colosseum](/wiki/Colosseum "Colosseum"), was completed after 10 years construction during the reign of Titus and inaugurated with spectacular games that lasted for 100 days. See *[Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre](/wiki/Inaugural_games_of_the_Flavian_Amphitheatre "Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre")*.](/wiki/Image:Colosseum_in_Rome%2C_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg "Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg")
Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, now better known as the [Colosseum](/wiki/Colosseum "Colosseum"), was begun in 70 under [Vespasian](/wiki/Vespasian "Vespasian") and was finally completed in 80 under Titus.{{Cite book \| first\=Leland M. \| last\=Roth \| year\=1993 \| title\=Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning \| edition\=1st \| publisher\=Westview Press \| location\=Boulder, CO \| isbn\=978\-0\-06\-430158\-9 \| url\-access\=registration \| url\=https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth }} In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the [Jewish Wars](/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War "First Jewish-Roman War").{{Cite book \| first\=Amanda \| last\=Claridge \| year\=1998 \| title\=Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide \| edition\=1st \| publisher\=\[\[Oxford University Press]], 1998 \| location\=Oxford, UK \| isbn\=978\-0\-19\-288003\-1 \| pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 276–282] \| url\-access\=registration \| url\=https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 }}
The [inaugural games](/wiki/Inaugural_games_of_the_Flavian_Amphitheatre "Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre") lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including [gladiatorial combat](/wiki/Gladiatorial_combat "Gladiatorial combat"), fights between wild animals ([elephants](/wiki/Elephant "Elephant") and [cranes](/wiki/Crane_%28bird%29 "Crane (bird)")), [mock naval battles](/wiki/Naumachia "Naumachia") for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio "Cassius Dio"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 "Roman History (Cassius Dio)")* [LXVI.25](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#25) During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold or even [slaves](/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity%23Slavery_in_Rome "Slavery in antiquity#Slavery in Rome")), which could then be traded for the designated item.
Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's [Golden House](/wiki/Golden_House "Golden House"), Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public [bath house](/wiki/Thermae "Thermae"), the [Baths of Titus](/wiki/Baths_of_Titus "Baths of Titus"). Construction of the building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.
Practice of the [imperial cult](/wiki/Imperial_cult_of_ancient_Rome "Imperial cult of ancient Rome") was revived by Titus, but apparently, it met with some difficulty since Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death.Coins bearing the inscription *Divus Vespasianus* were not issued until 80 or 81 by Titus. To honour and glorify the [Flavian dynasty](/wiki/Flavian_dynasty "Flavian dynasty") further, foundations were laid for what would later become the [Temple of Vespasian and Titus](/wiki/Temple_of_Vespasian_and_Titus "Temple of Vespasian and Titus"), which was finished by Domitian.Jones, Brian W. *The Emperor Titus*. New York: St. Martin's P, 1984\. 143\.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Domitian [5](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#5)
### Death
[thumb\|upright\|Marble statue of Titus found near the [Lateran Baptistry](/wiki/Lateran_Baptistry "Lateran Baptistry"), [Chiaramonti Museum](/wiki/Chiaramonti_Museum "Chiaramonti Museum") of the [Vatican Museums](/wiki/Vatican_Museums "Vatican Museums")](/wiki/File:Tito%2C_da_vicinanze_del_battistero_lateranense%2C_inv._2282%2C_02.JPG "Tito, da vicinanze del battistero lateranense, inv. 2282, 02.JPG")
At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths in what was his final recorded act as Emperor. He set out for the [Sabine](/wiki/Sabine "Sabine") territories but fell ill at the first posting station[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [10](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#10) where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farmhouse as his father.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Titus [11](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#11) Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were "I have made but one mistake".
Titus had ruled the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") for just over two years: from the death of his father in 79 to his own on 13 September 81\. He was succeeded by [Domitian](/wiki/Domitian "Domitian"), whose first act as emperor was to [deify](/wiki/Deify "Deify") his brother.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars "The Lives of Twelve Caesars")*, Life of Domitian [2](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#2)
Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. [Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus "Philostratus") wrote that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare (*[Aplysia depilans](/wiki/Aplysia_depilans "Aplysia depilans")*) and that his death had been foretold to him by [Apollonius of Tyana](/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana "Apollonius of Tyana").[Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus "Philostratus"), *The Life of Apollonius of Tyana* [6\.32](https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_31.html#%A732) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165942/http://www.livius.org/ap\-ark/apollonius/life/va\_6\_31\.html\#%A732 \|date\=3 March 2016 }} Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain that he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead. Consequently, Dio believed the mistake to refer to not having Titus's brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him.
The [Babylonian Talmud](/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud "Babylonian Talmud") ([Gittin](/wiki/Gittin "Gittin") 56b) attributes Titus's death to an insect that flew into his nose and picked at his brain for seven years in a repetition of another legend referring to the biblical King [Nimrod](/wiki/Nimrod "Nimrod").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.sefaria.org.il/Gittin.56b.13?lang\=bi\&with\=all\&lang2\=en\|title\=Tractate Gittin 56b\|website\=www.sefaria.org.il}}Rosner, Fred. *Medicine in the Bible and Talmud*. p. 76\. Pub. 1995, KTAV Publishing House, {{ISBN\|0\-88125\-506\-8}}. Extract viewable at ([https://books.google.com/books?id\=SL34EWxAJfYC\&pg\=PA76](https://books.google.com/books?id=SL34EWxAJfYC&pg=PA76))[s:Page:Legends of Old Testament Characters.djvu/178](/wiki/s:Page:Legends_of_Old_Testament_Characters.djvu/178 "Page:Legends of Old Testament Characters.djvu/178") According to Rabbinic literature, Titus was a descendant of [Esau](/wiki/Esau "Esau") and dared to challenge the Lord.[Tituss Death Chabad](https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/953573/jewish/Tituss-Death.htm) Jewish tradition says that Titus was plagued by God for destroying the second Temple and died as a result of a [gnat](/wiki/Gnat "Gnat") going up his nose, causing a large growth inside of his brain that killed him.Quinn, Thomas (Director) (26 June 1995\). Urban Legends: Season 3 Episode 1 \[Television series]. United States. FilmRise.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.chabad.org/library/article\_cdo/aid/953573/jewish/Tituss\-Death.htm \|title\=Titus's Death \|publisher\=Chabad.org \|access\-date\=8 November 2018}} A story is recorded in which [Onkelos](/wiki/Onkelos "Onkelos"), a nephew of the Roman emperor Titus who destroyed the Second Temple, intent on converting to Judaism, summons up spirits to help make up his mind. Each describes his punishment in the afterlife."Onkelos son of Kolonikos ... went and raised Titus from the dead by magical arts, and asked him; 'Who is most in repute in the \[other] world? He replied: Israel. What then, he said, about joining them? He said: Their observances are burdensome and you will not be able to carry them out. Go and attack them in that world and you will be at the top as it is written, Her adversaries are become the head etc.; whoever harasses Israel becomes head. He asked him: What is your punishment \[in the other world]? He replied: What I decreed for myself. Every day my ashes are collected and sentence is passed on me and I am burnt and my ashes are scattered over the seven seas..."Babylonian Talmud Gittin 56b–57a. 1935 Soncino edition
|
[
"Emperor\n-------",
"### Succession",
"[thumb\\|330px\\|A Roman [denarius](/wiki/Denarius \"Denarius\") depicting Titus, c. 79\\. The reverse commemorates his [triumph](/wiki/Roman_triumph \"Roman triumph\") in the [Judaean Wars](/wiki/Jewish-Roman_wars \"Jewish-Roman wars\"), representing a Jewish captive kneeling in front of a trophy of arms. Caption: IMP. T. CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG. / TRibunus POTestas VIII, COnSul VII](/wiki/Image:Titus_Augustus_Denarius.png \"Titus Augustus Denarius.png\")",
"Vespasian died of an infection on 23[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[Lives of the Twelve Caesars](/wiki/Lives_of_the_Twelve_Caesars \"Lives of the Twelve Caesars\")*, [\"Life of Vespasian\" §24](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#24) or 24[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.17](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#17) June 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.18](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#18) He was the first Roman emperor to come to the throne after his own biological father. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Titus adopted the titulary *Autokrator Titos Kaisaros Hununefer Benermerut* (\"Emperor Titus Caesar, the perfect and popular youth\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://pharaoh.se/roman\\-emperor/Titus \\|title\\=Titus \\|website\\=The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2018}} Because of his many (alleged) vices, many Romans feared that he would be another Nero.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [7](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#7) Against those expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtues, instead of vices.",
"One of his first acts as emperor was to order a halt to trials based on treason charges,[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [8](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#8) which had long plagued the [principate](/wiki/Principate \"Principate\"). The law of [treason](/wiki/Treason \"Treason\"), or [law of majestas](/wiki/Law_of_majestas \"Law of majestas\"), was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly \"impaired the people and majesty of Rome\" by any revolutionary action.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Annals](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 \"Annals (Tacitus)\")* [I.72](/wiki/s:The_Annals_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%2372 \"The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#72\") Under [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\"), however, that custom had been revived and applied to cover [slander](/wiki/Slander \"Slander\") and [libel](/wiki/Libel \"Libel\") as well. This led to numerous trials and executions under [Tiberius](/wiki/Tiberius \"Tiberius\"), [Caligula](/wiki/Caligula \"Caligula\"), and Nero, and the formation of networks of informers (*[delators](/wiki/Delator \"Delator\")*), which terrorised Rome's political system for decades.",
"Titus put an end to that practice against himself or anyone else and declared:",
"",
"> It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.19](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19)",
"Consequently, no [senators](/wiki/Roman_senator \"Roman senator\") were put to death during his reign; he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of [Pontifex Maximus](/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus \"Pontifex Maximus\") \"for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained\".[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [9](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#9) Informants were publicly punished and banished from the city. Titus further prevented abuses by making it unlawful for a person to be [tried under different laws for the same offense](/wiki/Double_jeopardy \"Double jeopardy\"). Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.",
"As emperor, he became known for his generosity, and [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\") states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, \"Friends, I have lost a day\".",
"### Challenges",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|The [Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79](/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79 \"Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79\") completely destroyed [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") and [Herculaneum](/wiki/Herculaneum \"Herculaneum\"). Plaster casts of actual victims found during excavations are now on display in some of the ruins.](/wiki/Image:Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg \"Pompeii Garden of the Fugitives 02.jpg\")\nAlthough Titus's brief reign was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, he faced a number of major disasters. A few months after his accession, [Mount Vesuvius erupted](/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD \"Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD\").[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.22](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#22) The eruption almost completely destroyed the cities and resort communities around the [Bay of Naples](/wiki/Bay_of_Naples \"Bay of Naples\"). The cities of [Pompeii](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") and [Herculaneum](/wiki/Herculaneum \"Herculaneum\") were buried under metres of stone and ash,[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.23](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#23) killing thousands.The exact number of casualties is unknown, but estimates of the population of Pompeii range between 10,000 ({{cite web \\|title\\=Engineering of Pompeii: Ruins Reveal Roman Technology for Construction, Transportation, and Water Distribution \\|url\\=http://enginova.com/engineering\\_of\\_pompeii.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708190434/http://www.enginova.com/engineering\\_of\\_pompeii.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=8 July 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2009}}) and 25,000 (<http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm>), with at least 1000 bodies currently recovered in and around the city ruins. Titus appointed two ex\\-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort and personally donated large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.24](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#24)",
"During the second visit, in spring of 80, a fire broke out in Rome and burned large parts of the city for three days and three nights. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the [Great Fire](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome \"Great Fire of Rome\") of 64 and crucially spared the many districts of [insulae](/wiki/Insulae \"Insulae\"), [Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\") records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's [Pantheon](/wiki/Pantheon%2C_Rome \"Pantheon, Rome\"), the [Temple of Jupiter](/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_%28Capitoline_Hill%29 \"Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)\"), the [Diribitorium](/wiki/Diribitorium \"Diribitorium\"), parts of the [Theatre of Pompey](/wiki/Theatre_of_Pompey \"Theatre of Pompey\"), and the [Saepta Julia](/wiki/Saepta_Julia \"Saepta Julia\") among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague also broke out during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, and the death toll are unknown.",
"Meanwhile, war had resumed in [Britannia](/wiki/Roman_Britain \"Roman Britain\"), where [Gnaeus Julius Agricola](/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola \"Gnaeus Julius Agricola\") pushed further into [Caledonia](/wiki/Caledonia \"Caledonia\") and managed to establish several forts there.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Agricola](/wiki/Agricola_%28book%29 \"Agricola (book)\")* [22](/wiki/s:Agricola%2322 \"Agricola#22\") As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of [imperator](/wiki/Imperator%23Imperator_as_an_imperial_title \"Imperator#Imperator as an imperial title\") for the fifteenth time, between 9 September and 31 December 79 AD.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.20](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#20)",
"His reign also saw the rebellion led by [Terentius Maximus](/wiki/Terentius_Maximus \"Terentius Maximus\"), one of several false Neros who appeared throughout the 70s.[Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), *[Histories](/wiki/Histories_%28Tacitus%29 \"Histories (Tacitus)\")* [I.2](/wiki/s:The_Histories_%28Tacitus%29/Book_1%232 \"The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2\") Although Nero was primarily known as a universally\\-hated tyrant, there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had survived his overthrow were fuelled by the confusing circumstances of his death and several prophecies foretelling his return.{{Cite journal\\| last \\= Sanford \\| first \\= Eva Matthews \\| author\\-link\\=Eva Matthews Sanford \\| title \\= Nero and the East \\| journal \\= Harvard Studies in Classical Philology \\| volume \\= 48 \\| year \\= 1937 \\| pages \\= 75–103 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2307/310691 \\| jstor\\=310691}}",
"According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the [lyre](/wiki/Lyre \"Lyre\"). Terentius established a following in [Asia Minor](/wiki/Asia_Minor \"Asia Minor\") but was soon forced to flee beyond the [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates \"Euphrates\") and took refuge with the [Parthians](/wiki/Parthian_Empire \"Parthian Empire\"). In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.26](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#26)",
"### Public works",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the [Colosseum](/wiki/Colosseum \"Colosseum\"), was completed after 10 years construction during the reign of Titus and inaugurated with spectacular games that lasted for 100 days. See *[Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre](/wiki/Inaugural_games_of_the_Flavian_Amphitheatre \"Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre\")*.](/wiki/Image:Colosseum_in_Rome%2C_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg \"Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg\")",
"Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, now better known as the [Colosseum](/wiki/Colosseum \"Colosseum\"), was begun in 70 under [Vespasian](/wiki/Vespasian \"Vespasian\") and was finally completed in 80 under Titus.{{Cite book \\| first\\=Leland M. \\| last\\=Roth \\| year\\=1993 \\| title\\=Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning \\| edition\\=1st \\| publisher\\=Westview Press \\| location\\=Boulder, CO \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-06\\-430158\\-9 \\| url\\-access\\=registration \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth }} In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the [Jewish Wars](/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War \"First Jewish-Roman War\").{{Cite book \\| first\\=Amanda \\| last\\=Claridge \\| year\\=1998 \\| title\\=Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide \\| edition\\=1st \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Oxford University Press]], 1998 \\| location\\=Oxford, UK \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-288003\\-1 \\| pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 276–282] \\| url\\-access\\=registration \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 }}",
"The [inaugural games](/wiki/Inaugural_games_of_the_Flavian_Amphitheatre \"Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre\") lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including [gladiatorial combat](/wiki/Gladiatorial_combat \"Gladiatorial combat\"), fights between wild animals ([elephants](/wiki/Elephant \"Elephant\") and [cranes](/wiki/Crane_%28bird%29 \"Crane (bird)\")), [mock naval battles](/wiki/Naumachia \"Naumachia\") for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.[Cassius Dio](/wiki/Cassius_Dio \"Cassius Dio\"), *[Roman History](/wiki/Roman_History_%28Cassius_Dio%29 \"Roman History (Cassius Dio)\")* [LXVI.25](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#25) During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold or even [slaves](/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity%23Slavery_in_Rome \"Slavery in antiquity#Slavery in Rome\")), which could then be traded for the designated item.",
"Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's [Golden House](/wiki/Golden_House \"Golden House\"), Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public [bath house](/wiki/Thermae \"Thermae\"), the [Baths of Titus](/wiki/Baths_of_Titus \"Baths of Titus\"). Construction of the building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.",
"Practice of the [imperial cult](/wiki/Imperial_cult_of_ancient_Rome \"Imperial cult of ancient Rome\") was revived by Titus, but apparently, it met with some difficulty since Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death.Coins bearing the inscription *Divus Vespasianus* were not issued until 80 or 81 by Titus. To honour and glorify the [Flavian dynasty](/wiki/Flavian_dynasty \"Flavian dynasty\") further, foundations were laid for what would later become the [Temple of Vespasian and Titus](/wiki/Temple_of_Vespasian_and_Titus \"Temple of Vespasian and Titus\"), which was finished by Domitian.Jones, Brian W. *The Emperor Titus*. New York: St. Martin's P, 1984\\. 143\\.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Domitian [5](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#5)",
"### Death",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Marble statue of Titus found near the [Lateran Baptistry](/wiki/Lateran_Baptistry \"Lateran Baptistry\"), [Chiaramonti Museum](/wiki/Chiaramonti_Museum \"Chiaramonti Museum\") of the [Vatican Museums](/wiki/Vatican_Museums \"Vatican Museums\")](/wiki/File:Tito%2C_da_vicinanze_del_battistero_lateranense%2C_inv._2282%2C_02.JPG \"Tito, da vicinanze del battistero lateranense, inv. 2282, 02.JPG\")\nAt the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths in what was his final recorded act as Emperor. He set out for the [Sabine](/wiki/Sabine \"Sabine\") territories but fell ill at the first posting station[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [10](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#10) where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farmhouse as his father.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Titus [11](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#11) Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were \"I have made but one mistake\".",
"Titus had ruled the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") for just over two years: from the death of his father in 79 to his own on 13 September 81\\. He was succeeded by [Domitian](/wiki/Domitian \"Domitian\"), whose first act as emperor was to [deify](/wiki/Deify \"Deify\") his brother.[Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\"), *[The Lives of Twelve Caesars](/wiki/The_Lives_of_Twelve_Caesars \"The Lives of Twelve Caesars\")*, Life of Domitian [2](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#2)",
"Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. [Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus \"Philostratus\") wrote that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare (*[Aplysia depilans](/wiki/Aplysia_depilans \"Aplysia depilans\")*) and that his death had been foretold to him by [Apollonius of Tyana](/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana \"Apollonius of Tyana\").[Philostratus](/wiki/Philostratus \"Philostratus\"), *The Life of Apollonius of Tyana* [6\\.32](https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_31.html#%A732) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165942/http://www.livius.org/ap\\-ark/apollonius/life/va\\_6\\_31\\.html\\#%A732 \\|date\\=3 March 2016 }} Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain that he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead. Consequently, Dio believed the mistake to refer to not having Titus's brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him.",
"The [Babylonian Talmud](/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud \"Babylonian Talmud\") ([Gittin](/wiki/Gittin \"Gittin\") 56b) attributes Titus's death to an insect that flew into his nose and picked at his brain for seven years in a repetition of another legend referring to the biblical King [Nimrod](/wiki/Nimrod \"Nimrod\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sefaria.org.il/Gittin.56b.13?lang\\=bi\\&with\\=all\\&lang2\\=en\\|title\\=Tractate Gittin 56b\\|website\\=www.sefaria.org.il}}Rosner, Fred. *Medicine in the Bible and Talmud*. p. 76\\. Pub. 1995, KTAV Publishing House, {{ISBN\\|0\\-88125\\-506\\-8}}. Extract viewable at ([https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SL34EWxAJfYC\\&pg\\=PA76](https://books.google.com/books?id=SL34EWxAJfYC&pg=PA76))[s:Page:Legends of Old Testament Characters.djvu/178](/wiki/s:Page:Legends_of_Old_Testament_Characters.djvu/178 \"Page:Legends of Old Testament Characters.djvu/178\") According to Rabbinic literature, Titus was a descendant of [Esau](/wiki/Esau \"Esau\") and dared to challenge the Lord.[Tituss Death Chabad](https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/953573/jewish/Tituss-Death.htm) Jewish tradition says that Titus was plagued by God for destroying the second Temple and died as a result of a [gnat](/wiki/Gnat \"Gnat\") going up his nose, causing a large growth inside of his brain that killed him.Quinn, Thomas (Director) (26 June 1995\\). Urban Legends: Season 3 Episode 1 \\[Television series]. United States. FilmRise.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.chabad.org/library/article\\_cdo/aid/953573/jewish/Tituss\\-Death.htm \\|title\\=Titus's Death \\|publisher\\=Chabad.org \\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2018}} A story is recorded in which [Onkelos](/wiki/Onkelos \"Onkelos\"), a nephew of the Roman emperor Titus who destroyed the Second Temple, intent on converting to Judaism, summons up spirits to help make up his mind. Each describes his punishment in the afterlife.\"Onkelos son of Kolonikos ... went and raised Titus from the dead by magical arts, and asked him; 'Who is most in repute in the \\[other] world? He replied: Israel. What then, he said, about joining them? He said: Their observances are burdensome and you will not be able to carry them out. Go and attack them in that world and you will be at the top as it is written, Her adversaries are become the head etc.; whoever harasses Israel becomes head. He asked him: What is your punishment \\[in the other world]? He replied: What I decreed for myself. Every day my ashes are collected and sentence is passed on me and I am burnt and my ashes are scattered over the seven seas...\"Babylonian Talmud Gittin 56b–57a. 1935 Soncino edition",
""
] |
Earthquake
----------
The earthquake was the result of normal [faulting](/wiki/Tectonic_fault "Tectonic fault") at a [shallow crustal depth](/wiki/Depth_of_focus_%28tectonics%29 "Depth of focus (tectonics)") within the Aegean Sea Plate in the eastern Aegean Sea, about {{cvt\|250\|km}} north of the closest plate boundary, the [Hellenic Trench](/wiki/Hellenic_Trench "Hellenic Trench"), where the African Plate moves north at a rate of approximately {{cvt\|10\|mm}}/yr with respect to the Eurasian Plate. Due to its geological setting away from a plate boundary, it is considered an [intraplate earthquake](/wiki/Intraplate_earthquake "Intraplate earthquake"). A [focal mechanism](/wiki/Focal_mechanism "Focal mechanism") analysis indicated that the earthquake occurred on a moderately dipping [normal fault](/wiki/Normal_fault "Normal fault") striking either eastward or westward. This mechanism indicates north\-south oriented extension that is common in the Aegean Sea. The [United States Geological Survey](/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey "United States Geological Survey") stated that normal faulting events of this size typically have a fault area of {{cvt\|50\|km}} x {{cvt\|20\|km}}.{{cite web\|url\=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us7000c7y0/executive\|title\=M 7\.0 – 15 km NNE of Néon Karlovásion, Greece\|access\-date\=30 October 2020\|work\=USGS\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030161600/https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us7000c7y0/executive\|archive\-date\=30 October 2020}} {{PD\-notice}}
The North Samos Fault, also known as the Kaystrios Fault, is an [east–west striking, north–northeast dipping](/wiki/Strike_and_dip "Strike and dip") [normal fault](/wiki/Extensional_fault "Extensional fault") located offshore, north of the coast of Samos.{{cite journal \|author1\=Kemal Onder Cetin \|author2\=George Mylonakis \|author3\=Anastasios Sextos \|author4\=Jonathan Paul Stewart \|title\=Seismological and Engineering Effects of the M 7\.0 Samos Island (Aegean Sea) Earthquake \|journal\=Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance Association \|date\=31 December 2020 \|volume\=GEER\-069 \|doi\=10\.18118/G6H088 \|url\=http://learningfromearthquakes.org/images/earthquakes/2020\_Samos\_Greece\_Izmir\_Turkey/Samos\_Island\_Earthquake\_Final\_Report.pdf \|access\-date\=23 September 2021}} The fault was previously determined to have the potential to produce an earthquake of magnitude 6\.8\.{{Cite journal\|last\=Spyros PAVLIDES, Theodoros TSAPANOS, Nikos ZOUROS, Sotiris SBORAS, George KORAVOS and Alexandros CHATZIPETROS\|date\=2009\|title\=Using active fault data for assessing seismic hazard: a case study from NE Aegean sea, Greece\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/3244389\|journal\=Proceedings of the XVII International Conference on Soil Mechanics \& Geotechnical Engineering, Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering Satellite Conference}}{{Cite web\|last\=P. Papadimitriou, V. Kapetanidis, A. Karakonstantis, I. Spingos, I. Kassaras, V. Sakkas, V. Kouskouna, A. Karatzetzou, K. Pavlou, G. Kaviris, N. Voulgaris\|date\=2020\|title\=Preliminary report on the Mw\=6\.9 Samos earthquake of 30 October 2020\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346037567\|access\-date\=26 December 2020}} It likely [ruptured](/wiki/Earthquake_rupture "Earthquake rupture") entirely during the earthquake for a length of approximately {{cvt\|60\|km\|abbr\= on}}.{{Cite web\|last1\=Ganas\|first1\=Athanassios\|last2\=Elias\|first2\=Panagiotis\|last3\=Briole\|first3\=Pierre\|last4\=Tsironi\|first4\=Varvara\|last5\=Valkaniotis\|first5\=Sotiris\|last6\=Escartin\|first6\=Javier\|last7\=Karasante\|first7\=Ilektra\|last8\=Efstathiou\|first8\=Eirini\|date\=5 November 2020\|title\=Fault responsible for Samos earthquake identified\|url\=https://temblor.net/earthquake\-insights/fault\-responsible\-for\-samos\-earthquake\-identified\-12040/\|website\=Temblor}} The epicentral location suggests it was on the western extension of the geologically active [Büyük Menderes Graben](/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Menderes_Graben "Büyük Menderes Graben").{{cite journal \|author1\=Jiannan Meng \|author2\=Ozan Sinoplu \|author3\=Zhipeng Zhou \|author4\=Bulent Tokay \|author5\=Timothy Kusky \|author6\=Erdin Bozkurt \|author7\=Lu Wang \|title\=Greece and Turkey Shaken by African tectonic retreat \|journal\=Scientific Reports \|date\=2021 \|volume\=11 \|issue\=6486 \|page\=6486 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41598\-021\-86063\-y \|pmid\=33753832 \|pmc\=7985315 \|bibcode\=2021NatSR..11\.6486M \|s2cid\=232322725 }} The earthquake released a [seismic moment](/wiki/Seismic_moment "Seismic moment") of 3\.3 × 1019 [N\-m](/wiki/Newton-metre "Newton-metre"), corresponding to a moment magnitude of 7\.0\. A maximum slip of {{cvt\|4\.6\|m\|abbr\= on}} at a depth of {{cvt\|7\|km\|abbr\= on}} was inferred.{{cite journal \|author1\=Konstantinos Chousianitis \|author2\=A. Ozgun Konca \|title\=Rupture Process of the 2020 Mw7\.0 Samos Earthquake and its Effect on Surrounding Active Faults \|journal\=Geophysical Research Letters \|date\=2021 \|volume\=48 \|issue\=14 \|doi\=10\.1029/2021GL094162\|bibcode\=2021GeoRL..4894162C \|s2cid\=237715488 }} The earthquake produced up to {{cvt\|1\|m\|abbr\= on}} of slip on the seafloor, causing a moderate tsunami, and [tectonic uplift](/wiki/Tectonic_uplift "Tectonic uplift") and [subsidence](/wiki/Subsidence "Subsidence") on land.{{cite journal \|author1\=Vladimir Plicka \|author2\=Frantisek Gallovic \|author3\=Jiří Zahradník \|author4\=Anna Serpetsidaki \|author5\=Efthimios Sokos \|author6\=Nikos Vavlas \|author7\=Anastasia A. Kiratzi \|title\=The 2020 Samos (Aegean Sea) M7 earthquake: a normal fault with rupture directivity and near surface slip explaining the tsunami generation and coastal uplift \|journal\=Tectonics \|date\=2021 \|volume\=105 \|doi\=10\.1002/essoar.10506903\.1 \|publisher\=ESSOAr\|bibcode\=2021esoar.10506903P \|s2cid\=239735948 }}
### Strong ground motion
| Modified Mercalli intensities in selected locations | |
| --- | --- |
| [MMI](/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scale "Mercalli intensity scale") | Locations |
| {{MMI\|8}} | [Samos](/wiki/Samos "Samos") |
| {{MMI\|6}}–{{MMI\|7}} | [Gümüldür Atatürk](/wiki/G%C3%BCm%C3%BCld%C3%BCr_Atat%C3%BCrk "Gümüldür Atatürk"), [Kuşadası](/wiki/Ku%C5%9Fadas%C4%B1 "Kuşadası"), [Seferihisar](/wiki/Seferihisar "Seferihisar"), [Sığacık](/wiki/S%C4%B1%C4%9Fac%C4%B1k "Sığacık"), [Bayraklı](/wiki/Bayrakl%C4%B1 "Bayraklı") |
| {{MMI\|5}} | [Balıklıova](/wiki/Bal%C4%B1kl%C4%B1ova "Balıklıova"), [Manisa](/wiki/Manisa "Manisa") |
| {{MMI\|4}} | [Sarıkemer](/wiki/Sar%C4%B1kemer "Sarıkemer") |
The earthquake achieved a [peak ground acceleration](/wiki/Peak_ground_acceleration "Peak ground acceleration") (pga) of 0\.27 *g* in Samos. Weaker ground acceleration was recorded at 0\.1 *g* in İzmir, however, in the [Bayraklı](/wiki/Bayrakl%C4%B1 "Bayraklı") and [Karşıyaka](/wiki/Kar%C5%9F%C4%B1yaka "Karşıyaka") metropolitan districts, these ground motions were amplified with longer periods of 1\.5 seconds. Ground motions were severely amplified in these districts due to the soil condition consisting of loose sediments.{{cite journal \|author1\=Ayhan Nuhoğlu \|author2\=Mehmet Fahrettin Erener \|author3\=Çağlayan Hızal \|author4\=Cem Kıncal \|author5\=Devrim Şüfa Erdoğan \|author6\=Özkan Cevde Özdağ \|author7\=Mustafa Akgün \|author8\=Emre Ercan \|author9\=Emre Kalfa \|author10\=Duygu Köksal \|author11\=Yaprak İpek \|author12\=Alper Sezer \|title\=A reconnaissance study in Izmir (Bornova Plain) affected by October 30, 2020 Samos earthquake \|journal\=International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction \|date\=2021 \|volume\=63 \|issue\=102465 \|page\=102465 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.ijdrr.2021\.102465 \|bibcode\=2021IJDRR..6302465N \|hdl\=11147/11835 \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S221242092100426X \|access\-date\=24 September 2021\|hdl\-access\=free }} In the Turkish town of [Kuşadası](/wiki/Ku%C5%9Fadas%C4%B1 "Kuşadası"), the pga was 0\.18 *g*. At {{cvt\|22\.27\|km\|abbr\= on}} away from the epicentre, on Turkish soil, the highest pga was recorded 0\.98 *g*.{{cite web \|author1\=Mauricio Morales \|author2\=Oguz C. Celik \|title\=EERI PERW 2021 – Part 1: Aegean Sea Earthquake \|url\=https://slc.eeri.org/2021\-sdc/perw/ \|website\=slc.eeri.org \|publisher\=Earthquake Engineering Research Institute \|access\-date\=12 October 2021 \|archive\-date\=27 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627065554/https://slc.eeri.org/2021\-sdc/perw/ \|url\-status\=dead }} The maximum intensity was recorded on Samos Island, VIII (*Severe*), a revision from X (*Extreme*).{{cite web \|title\=ITSAK ShakeMap: Northern coast of W. Turkey \|url\=http://shakemaps.itsak.gr/auth2020vimx/intensity.html \|publisher\=Institute of Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering \|access\-date\=8 June 2021 \|date\=30 October 2020}}{{cite web \|title\=Earthquake Seismic Stations \|url\=http://shakemaps.itsak.gr/auth2020vimx/stationlist.html \|website\=shakemaps.itsak.gr \|publisher\=Institute of Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering \|access\-date\=8 June 2021 \|date\=30 October 2020}} Shaking was also felt on the Greek island of Crete, and in some regions of [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens").{{Cite news\|url\= https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-europe\-54749509 \|title\= Earthquake hits Greece and Turkey, bringing deaths and floods. \|work\= BBC News \|date\= 30 October 2020 }}
### Foreshocks and aftershocks
The earthquake was preceded by a [foreshock](/wiki/Foreshock "Foreshock") sequence consisting of 39 events beginning three months prior to the mainshock. Within the first month, more than 1,800 aftershocks measured {{M\|l\|link\=y}} 2\.0 or larger. More than 40 aftershock were larger than {{M\|w}} 4\.0; the largest measuring {{M\|w}} 5\.2 and 5\.1\. These aftershocks were distributed across a {{cvt\|70\|km}} trend striking east–west. The aftershock distribution illuminated a fault plane dipping north, consistent with a known offshore fault structure. The low aftershock activity within the critical [asperity](/wiki/Asperity_%28faults%29 "Asperity (faults)") that ruptured possibly indicated a near\-total strain release during the mainshock.{{cite journal \|last1\=Chousianitis \|first1\=Konstantinos \|last2\=Konca \|first2\=A. Ozgun \|title\=Rupture Process of the 2020 Mw7\.0 Samos Earthquake and its Effect on Surrounding Active Faults \|journal\=Geophysical Research Letters \|date\=2021 \|volume\=48 \|issue\=14 \|doi\=10\.1029/2021GL094162\|bibcode\=2021GeoRL..4894162C }}
### Tsunami
Tsunami information was issued by the [Kandilli Observatory](/wiki/Kandilli_Observatory "Kandilli Observatory") Earthquake Monitoring and Tsunami Warning Center to the Earthquake Research Department of Turkey approximately 11 minutes after the earthquake, but was not broadcast to the coastal regions. The tsunami arrived between 10 and 15 minutes after the mainshock.
Multiple social media posts showed water rushing through streets and ports in the region following the earthquake, along with tsunami warnings being issued for the islands of [Ikaria](/wiki/Ikaria "Ikaria"), [Kos](/wiki/Kos "Kos"), [Chios](/wiki/Chios "Chios") and [Samos](/wiki/Samos "Samos").{{Cite news \|first1\=Megan \|last1\=Specia \|first2\=Matina \|last2\=Stevis\-Gridneff \|date\=30 October 2020 \|title\=Earthquake Rattles Western Turkey and Greece, Leveling Buildings \|language\=en\-US \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/30/world/europe/greece\-turkey\-earthquake\-izmir.html\|access\-date\=30 October 2020\|issn\=0362\-4331}} Flooding from the coasts reached heights of {{cvt\|1\.9\|m\|abbr\= on}}, however at [Akarca](/wiki/Akarca%2C_%C5%9Eerefliko%C3%A7hisar "Akarca, Şereflikoçhisar"), the tsunami reached heights of {{cvt\|6\|m\|abbr\= on}}.{{Cite news\|last\=Dağ\|first\=Burak\|date\=4 November 2020\|title\=Turkey sees larger tsunami after latest quake\|work\=Anadolu Agency\|url\=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey\-sees\-larger\-tsunami\-after\-latest\-quake/2031162\|access\-date\=9 November 2020\|archive\-date\=9 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109131841/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey\-sees\-larger\-tsunami\-after\-latest\-quake/2031162\|url\-status\=dead}} In [Azmak](/wiki/Azmak_Creek "Azmak Creek"), the tsunami penetrated {{cvt\|1\.3\|km\|abbr\= on}} inland, {{cvt\|0\.82\|km\|abbr\= on}} in Akarca, and {{cvt\|0\.32\|km\|abbr\= on}} in [Sigacik](/wiki/S%C4%B1%C4%9Fac%C4%B1k%2C_Seferihisar "Sığacık, Seferihisar"). Recorded heights of the tsunami from this event were larger than those of other similar magnitude earthquakes in the same region with the exception of the [1956 Amorgos earthquake](/wiki/1956_Amorgos_earthquake "1956 Amorgos earthquake").
Damage to buildings caused by the tsunami in Greece and Turkey was moderate and non\-structural. The tsunami produced unusually long basin oscillations, persisting for over a day after the earthquake. The earthquake itself generated an unusually large tsunami for its magnitude and normal [focal mechanism](/wiki/Focal_mechanism "Focal mechanism").{{cite journal \|author1\=Mohammad Heidarzadeh \|author2\=Ignatius Ryan Pranantyo \|author3\=Ryo Okuwaki \|author4\=Gozde Guney Dogan \|author5\=Ahmet C. Yalciner \|title\=Long Tsunami Oscillations Following the 30 October 2020 Mw 7\.0 Aegean Sea Earthquake: Observations and Modelling \|journal\=Pure and Applied Geophysics \|date\=2021 \|volume\=178 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=1531–1548 \|doi\=10\.1007/s00024\-021\-02761\-8\|bibcode\=2021PApGe.178\.1531H \|s2cid\=235173559 \|doi\-access\=free }}
#### Turkish coast
In [Akarca](/wiki/Seferihisar "Seferihisar"), north of Samos, the tsunami run\-up heights were up to {{cvt\|3\.8\|m\|abbr\= on}}, reaching as far as {{cvt\|290\|m\|abbr\= on}} inland. The maximum wave height in this area was {{cvt\|6\|m\|abbr\= on}}. A {{cvt\|2\.2\|m\|abbr\= on}} surge flooded and damaged a diving center near the coast. Garden walls and fences of homes at the shore were also damaged. Cars and boats were among the large objects picked up by the surge and moved inland. The only known tsunami fatality was reported in this town.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.ntv.com.tr/video/turkiye/izmirde\-meydana\-gelen\-6\-6\-siddetindeki\-depremin\-ardindan\-sular\-yukseldi,Z6XWjM13IEaI\_n2A5\_v5ng \|title\=Seferihisar'da tsunami: Sokakları deniz suyu bastı \|trans\-title\=Tsunami in Seferihisar: Sea water flooded the streets \|publisher\=NTV \|date\=30 October 2020 \|access\-date\=30 October 2020}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/son\-dakika\-izmirde\-tsunami\-panigi\-6342969 \|title\=Son dakika! İzmir'de tsunami paniği \|trans\-title\=Last minute! Tsunami panic in Izmir \|work\=Milliyet \|date\=30 October 2020 \|access\-date\=30 October 2020}}
In [Alaçatı](/wiki/Ala%C3%A7at%C4%B1 "Alaçatı") on the [Çeşme](/wiki/%C3%87e%C5%9Fme "Çeşme") Peninsula, the tsunami flowed up a stream and inundated inland by as much as {{cvt\|2\.49\|km\|abbr\= on}}. It carried a fishing vessel {{cvt\|1\.16\|km\|abbr\= on}} inland along the stream during the inundation. Analysis of video footage on the coast showed that the tsunami had a maximum height of {{cvt\|1\.7\|m\|abbr\= on}} when it struck.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dogan, G.G., Yalciner, A.C., Yuksel, Y. \|title\=The 30 October 2020 Aegean Sea Tsunami: Post\-Event Field Survey Along Turkish Coast \|journal\=Pure and Applied Geophysics \|date\=2021 \|volume\=178 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=785–812 \|doi\=10\.1007/s00024\-021\-02693\-3\| issn\=0033\-4553\|pmid\=33776149 \|pmc\=7982910 \|bibcode\=2021PApGe.178\..785D \|doi\-access\=free }}
East of Alaçatı is Zeytineli, where the tsunami severely damaged unoccupied resort houses along a stretch of beach. Debris from damaged structures were strewn along the beach. Concrete blocks were also displaced by as much as {{cvt\|25\|m\|abbr\= on}}. A maximum inundation of {{cvt\|760\|m\|abbr\= on}} was measured, as well as a flow height of {{cvt\|1\.9\|m\|abbr\= on}} at a palm tree, {{cvt\|50\|m\|abbr\= on}} from the shore. At [Sığacık](/wiki/S%C4%B1%C4%9Fac%C4%B1k "Sığacık"), a wave struck the coast with a run\-up height of {{cvt\|5\.0–5\.6\|m\|abbr\= on}}. The tsunami waves where higher in this region due to the geometry of the coast; the presence of a shallow [bay](/wiki/Bay "Bay").{{cite journal \|author1\=M. Ersen Aksoy \|title\=Post\-event field observations in the İzmir–Sığacık village for the tsunami of the 30 October 2020 Samos (Greece) Mw 6\.9 earthquake \|journal\=Acta Geophysica \|date\=24 May 2021 \|volume\=69 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=1113–1125 \|doi\=10\.1007/s11600\-021\-00582\-w \|bibcode\=2021AcGeo..69\.1113A \|s2cid\=235128278 \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s11600\-021\-00582\-w}}
#### Greek coast
On the island of Samos, the tsunami caused major flooding on its northern coast, and was recorded by multiple people on video camera. No deaths were reported by the tsunami.{{cite news \|title\=Water floods streets of Greek island of Samos after earthquake \|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2020/10/31/water\-floods\-streets\-of\-greek\-island\-of\-samos\-after\-earthquake \|access\-date\=5 May 2021 \|agency\=euronews \|date\=31 October 2020}} Many offices and businesses were immediately flooded when the surge broke through windows and doors. Waves of {{cvt\|1\.5–2\.0\|m\|abbr\= on}} traveled as far as 101 meters inland. Damage to boats and cars were widely reported in the aftermath.{{cite journal \|last1\=Ιoanna Triantafyllou, Marilia Gogou, Spyridon Mavroulis, Katerina\-Navsika Katsetsiadou, Efthymios Lekkas and Gerassimos A. Papadopoulos \|title\=The tsunami caused by the 30 October 2020 Samos (Greece), East Aegean Sea, Mw6\.9 earthquake: impact assessment from post\-event field survey and video records (v2, 16 Nov. 2020\) \|journal\=Journal of Marine Science and Engineering \|volume\=9 \|issue\=1 \|doi\=10\.3390/jmse9010068\|doi\-access\=free }} A number of small boats and cars were carried inland or lost at sea by the tsunami. Some boats were smashed along [breakwater](/wiki/Breakwater_%28structure%29 "Breakwater (structure)") structures as well. Shops, hotel lobbies, restaurants, offices and homes suffered slight damage when the tsunami inundated the ground level and indoors. A maximum run\-up height of {{cvt\|3\.35\|m\|abbr\= on}} was measured on the northern coast of Samos about {{cvt\|5\.8\|km\|abbr\= on}} east of Karlovasi Port. The tsunami caused some material damage to a home that was located at the coast.
### Geological effects
The earthquake produced significant coseismic uplift on the island of Samos. [Surface ruptures](/wiki/Surface_rupture "Surface rupture") were also observed on the island. The beaches, ports, and coasts of Samos were partially raised in the aftermath. At [Karlovasi](/wiki/Karlovasi "Karlovasi"), up to {{cvt\|24\|cm\|abbr\= on}} of permanent uplift was measured at a [breakwater](/wiki/Breakwater_%28structure%29 "Breakwater (structure)") off the coast. Approximately {{cvt\|1\.5\|km\|abbr\= on}} west of Karlovasi is the Akra coast consisting of [marble](/wiki/Marble "Marble"), which was raised 20 cm. Between {{cvt\|15\|cm\|abbr\= on}} and {{cvt\|20\|cm\|abbr\= on}} of uplift was measured at Ayios Nikolaos, located {{cvt\|12\|km\|abbr\= on}} southwest of the epicentre. An [aftershock](/wiki/Aftershock "Aftershock") measuring {{M\|w}} 4\.5 on 20 January 2021 generated {{cvt\|8–10\|cm}} of additional uplift in the same area. Similar measurements were taken at a [marina](/wiki/Marina "Marina") in [Marathokampos](/wiki/Marathokampos "Marathokampos"). The [Pythagoreio](/wiki/Pythagoreio "Pythagoreio") Fault in Pythagoreio, {{cvt\|29\|km\|abbr\= on}} southeast of the earthquake, generated {{cvt\|29\|cm\|abbr\= on}} of surface deformation during the quake. An estimated uplift of {{cvt\|25\|cm\|abbr\= on}} is thought to have occurred at Potokaki as reported by tourists.{{cite journal \|author1\=Spyridon Mavroulis \|author2\=Ioanna Triantafyllou \|author3\=Andreas Karavias \|author4\=Marilia Gogou \|author5\=Katerina\-Navsika Katsetsiadou \|author6\=Efthymios Lekkas \|author7\=Gerassimos A. Papadopoulos \|author8\=Issaak Parcharidis \|title\=Primary and Secondary Environmental Effects Triggered by the 30 October 2020, Mw \= 7\.0, Samos (Eastern Aegean Sea, Greece) Earthquake Based on Post\-Event Field Surveys and InSAR Analysis \|journal\=Applied Sciences \|date\=6 April 2021 \|volume\=11 \|issue\=7 \|page\=3281 \|doi\=10\.3390/app11073281 \|doi\-access\=free }} According to the Earth Applied Sciences Disasters Program of [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA"), [synthetic\-aperture radar](/wiki/Synthetic-aperture_radar "Synthetic-aperture radar") data revealed Samos Island was raised by as much as {{cvt\|10\|cm}} meanwhile its northern coast subsided by the same amount. The ground uplift and subsidence pattern suggested a coseismic [rupture](/wiki/Earthquake_rupture "Earthquake rupture") along a fault located north of the island, [dipping](/wiki/Strike_and_dip "Strike and dip") at an angle towards the north.{{cite web \|title\=Aegean Sea Earthquake October 2020 \|url\=https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/what\-we\-do/disasters/disasters\-activations/aegean\-sea\-earthquake\-october\-2020 \|website\=NASA Applied Science \|publisher\=\[\[NASA]] \|access\-date\=29 October 2021 \|date\=30 October 2020}}
Small [normal\-mechanism](/wiki/Focal_mechanism "Focal mechanism") surface ruptures were documented near the villages of [Kontakaiika](/wiki/Kontakaiika "Kontakaiika"), Ayios Nikolaos, and Ayios Elias. Vertical displacements of up to {{cvt\|8\|cm\|abbr\= on}} were observed on the ground, and across roads. The coseismic [surface ruptures](/wiki/Surface_ruptures "Surface ruptures") resulted in some damage to roads and brick walls. Although these uplifts were on the order of several centimeters, it added up to a length of {{cvt\|1\|km\|abbr\= on}}.
Small [landslides](/wiki/Landslide "Landslide"), [rockfalls](/wiki/Rockfall "Rockfall") and [slope failures](/wiki/Slope_failure "Slope failure") were reported along [fault scarps](/wiki/Fault_scarp "Fault scarp") on [Samos](/wiki/Samos "Samos"). Some instances of rockfalls caused minor traffic disruption when they partially blocked roads. A small rockfall caused slight damage to an adjacent building in [Kokkari](/wiki/Kokkari "Kokkari"). Ground cracks appeared on a road at Malagari. The cracked caused part of the road, and small trees to slide several centimeters closer to the shore as a result of lateral spreading. Minor [liquefaction](/wiki/Liquefaction "Liquefaction") occurred at the beach near the town as well.
|
[
"Earthquake\n----------",
"The earthquake was the result of normal [faulting](/wiki/Tectonic_fault \"Tectonic fault\") at a [shallow crustal depth](/wiki/Depth_of_focus_%28tectonics%29 \"Depth of focus (tectonics)\") within the Aegean Sea Plate in the eastern Aegean Sea, about {{cvt\\|250\\|km}} north of the closest plate boundary, the [Hellenic Trench](/wiki/Hellenic_Trench \"Hellenic Trench\"), where the African Plate moves north at a rate of approximately {{cvt\\|10\\|mm}}/yr with respect to the Eurasian Plate. Due to its geological setting away from a plate boundary, it is considered an [intraplate earthquake](/wiki/Intraplate_earthquake \"Intraplate earthquake\"). A [focal mechanism](/wiki/Focal_mechanism \"Focal mechanism\") analysis indicated that the earthquake occurred on a moderately dipping [normal fault](/wiki/Normal_fault \"Normal fault\") striking either eastward or westward. This mechanism indicates north\\-south oriented extension that is common in the Aegean Sea. The [United States Geological Survey](/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey \"United States Geological Survey\") stated that normal faulting events of this size typically have a fault area of {{cvt\\|50\\|km}} x {{cvt\\|20\\|km}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us7000c7y0/executive\\|title\\=M 7\\.0 – 15 km NNE of Néon Karlovásion, Greece\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2020\\|work\\=USGS\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030161600/https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us7000c7y0/executive\\|archive\\-date\\=30 October 2020}} {{PD\\-notice}}",
"The North Samos Fault, also known as the Kaystrios Fault, is an [east–west striking, north–northeast dipping](/wiki/Strike_and_dip \"Strike and dip\") [normal fault](/wiki/Extensional_fault \"Extensional fault\") located offshore, north of the coast of Samos.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Kemal Onder Cetin \\|author2\\=George Mylonakis \\|author3\\=Anastasios Sextos \\|author4\\=Jonathan Paul Stewart \\|title\\=Seismological and Engineering Effects of the M 7\\.0 Samos Island (Aegean Sea) Earthquake \\|journal\\=Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance Association \\|date\\=31 December 2020 \\|volume\\=GEER\\-069 \\|doi\\=10\\.18118/G6H088 \\|url\\=http://learningfromearthquakes.org/images/earthquakes/2020\\_Samos\\_Greece\\_Izmir\\_Turkey/Samos\\_Island\\_Earthquake\\_Final\\_Report.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2021}} The fault was previously determined to have the potential to produce an earthquake of magnitude 6\\.8\\.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Spyros PAVLIDES, Theodoros TSAPANOS, Nikos ZOUROS, Sotiris SBORAS, George KORAVOS and Alexandros CHATZIPETROS\\|date\\=2009\\|title\\=Using active fault data for assessing seismic hazard: a case study from NE Aegean sea, Greece\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/3244389\\|journal\\=Proceedings of the XVII International Conference on Soil Mechanics \\& Geotechnical Engineering, Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering Satellite Conference}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=P. Papadimitriou, V. Kapetanidis, A. Karakonstantis, I. Spingos, I. Kassaras, V. Sakkas, V. Kouskouna, A. Karatzetzou, K. Pavlou, G. Kaviris, N. Voulgaris\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=Preliminary report on the Mw\\=6\\.9 Samos earthquake of 30 October 2020\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346037567\\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2020}} It likely [ruptured](/wiki/Earthquake_rupture \"Earthquake rupture\") entirely during the earthquake for a length of approximately {{cvt\\|60\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}}.{{Cite web\\|last1\\=Ganas\\|first1\\=Athanassios\\|last2\\=Elias\\|first2\\=Panagiotis\\|last3\\=Briole\\|first3\\=Pierre\\|last4\\=Tsironi\\|first4\\=Varvara\\|last5\\=Valkaniotis\\|first5\\=Sotiris\\|last6\\=Escartin\\|first6\\=Javier\\|last7\\=Karasante\\|first7\\=Ilektra\\|last8\\=Efstathiou\\|first8\\=Eirini\\|date\\=5 November 2020\\|title\\=Fault responsible for Samos earthquake identified\\|url\\=https://temblor.net/earthquake\\-insights/fault\\-responsible\\-for\\-samos\\-earthquake\\-identified\\-12040/\\|website\\=Temblor}} The epicentral location suggests it was on the western extension of the geologically active [Büyük Menderes Graben](/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Menderes_Graben \"Büyük Menderes Graben\").{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Jiannan Meng \\|author2\\=Ozan Sinoplu \\|author3\\=Zhipeng Zhou \\|author4\\=Bulent Tokay \\|author5\\=Timothy Kusky \\|author6\\=Erdin Bozkurt \\|author7\\=Lu Wang \\|title\\=Greece and Turkey Shaken by African tectonic retreat \\|journal\\=Scientific Reports \\|date\\=2021 \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=6486 \\|page\\=6486 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41598\\-021\\-86063\\-y \\|pmid\\=33753832 \\|pmc\\=7985315 \\|bibcode\\=2021NatSR..11\\.6486M \\|s2cid\\=232322725 }} The earthquake released a [seismic moment](/wiki/Seismic_moment \"Seismic moment\") of 3\\.3 × 1019 [N\\-m](/wiki/Newton-metre \"Newton-metre\"), corresponding to a moment magnitude of 7\\.0\\. A maximum slip of {{cvt\\|4\\.6\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} at a depth of {{cvt\\|7\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} was inferred.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Konstantinos Chousianitis \\|author2\\=A. Ozgun Konca \\|title\\=Rupture Process of the 2020 Mw7\\.0 Samos Earthquake and its Effect on Surrounding Active Faults \\|journal\\=Geophysical Research Letters \\|date\\=2021 \\|volume\\=48 \\|issue\\=14 \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2021GL094162\\|bibcode\\=2021GeoRL..4894162C \\|s2cid\\=237715488 }} The earthquake produced up to {{cvt\\|1\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} of slip on the seafloor, causing a moderate tsunami, and [tectonic uplift](/wiki/Tectonic_uplift \"Tectonic uplift\") and [subsidence](/wiki/Subsidence \"Subsidence\") on land.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Vladimir Plicka \\|author2\\=Frantisek Gallovic \\|author3\\=Jiří Zahradník \\|author4\\=Anna Serpetsidaki \\|author5\\=Efthimios Sokos \\|author6\\=Nikos Vavlas \\|author7\\=Anastasia A. Kiratzi \\|title\\=The 2020 Samos (Aegean Sea) M7 earthquake: a normal fault with rupture directivity and near surface slip explaining the tsunami generation and coastal uplift \\|journal\\=Tectonics \\|date\\=2021 \\|volume\\=105 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/essoar.10506903\\.1 \\|publisher\\=ESSOAr\\|bibcode\\=2021esoar.10506903P \\|s2cid\\=239735948 }}",
"### Strong ground motion",
"",
"| Modified Mercalli intensities in selected locations | |\n| --- | --- |\n| [MMI](/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scale \"Mercalli intensity scale\") | Locations |\n| {{MMI\\|8}} | [Samos](/wiki/Samos \"Samos\") |\n| {{MMI\\|6}}–{{MMI\\|7}} | [Gümüldür Atatürk](/wiki/G%C3%BCm%C3%BCld%C3%BCr_Atat%C3%BCrk \"Gümüldür Atatürk\"), [Kuşadası](/wiki/Ku%C5%9Fadas%C4%B1 \"Kuşadası\"), [Seferihisar](/wiki/Seferihisar \"Seferihisar\"), [Sığacık](/wiki/S%C4%B1%C4%9Fac%C4%B1k \"Sığacık\"), [Bayraklı](/wiki/Bayrakl%C4%B1 \"Bayraklı\") |\n| {{MMI\\|5}} | [Balıklıova](/wiki/Bal%C4%B1kl%C4%B1ova \"Balıklıova\"), [Manisa](/wiki/Manisa \"Manisa\") |\n| {{MMI\\|4}} | [Sarıkemer](/wiki/Sar%C4%B1kemer \"Sarıkemer\") |",
"The earthquake achieved a [peak ground acceleration](/wiki/Peak_ground_acceleration \"Peak ground acceleration\") (pga) of 0\\.27 *g* in Samos. Weaker ground acceleration was recorded at 0\\.1 *g* in İzmir, however, in the [Bayraklı](/wiki/Bayrakl%C4%B1 \"Bayraklı\") and [Karşıyaka](/wiki/Kar%C5%9F%C4%B1yaka \"Karşıyaka\") metropolitan districts, these ground motions were amplified with longer periods of 1\\.5 seconds. Ground motions were severely amplified in these districts due to the soil condition consisting of loose sediments.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Ayhan Nuhoğlu \\|author2\\=Mehmet Fahrettin Erener \\|author3\\=Çağlayan Hızal \\|author4\\=Cem Kıncal \\|author5\\=Devrim Şüfa Erdoğan \\|author6\\=Özkan Cevde Özdağ \\|author7\\=Mustafa Akgün \\|author8\\=Emre Ercan \\|author9\\=Emre Kalfa \\|author10\\=Duygu Köksal \\|author11\\=Yaprak İpek \\|author12\\=Alper Sezer \\|title\\=A reconnaissance study in Izmir (Bornova Plain) affected by October 30, 2020 Samos earthquake \\|journal\\=International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction \\|date\\=2021 \\|volume\\=63 \\|issue\\=102465 \\|page\\=102465 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ijdrr.2021\\.102465 \\|bibcode\\=2021IJDRR..6302465N \\|hdl\\=11147/11835 \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S221242092100426X \\|access\\-date\\=24 September 2021\\|hdl\\-access\\=free }} In the Turkish town of [Kuşadası](/wiki/Ku%C5%9Fadas%C4%B1 \"Kuşadası\"), the pga was 0\\.18 *g*. At {{cvt\\|22\\.27\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} away from the epicentre, on Turkish soil, the highest pga was recorded 0\\.98 *g*.{{cite web \\|author1\\=Mauricio Morales \\|author2\\=Oguz C. Celik \\|title\\=EERI PERW 2021 – Part 1: Aegean Sea Earthquake \\|url\\=https://slc.eeri.org/2021\\-sdc/perw/ \\|website\\=slc.eeri.org \\|publisher\\=Earthquake Engineering Research Institute \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627065554/https://slc.eeri.org/2021\\-sdc/perw/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The maximum intensity was recorded on Samos Island, VIII (*Severe*), a revision from X (*Extreme*).{{cite web \\|title\\=ITSAK ShakeMap: Northern coast of W. Turkey \\|url\\=http://shakemaps.itsak.gr/auth2020vimx/intensity.html \\|publisher\\=Institute of Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering \\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2021 \\|date\\=30 October 2020}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Earthquake Seismic Stations \\|url\\=http://shakemaps.itsak.gr/auth2020vimx/stationlist.html \\|website\\=shakemaps.itsak.gr \\|publisher\\=Institute of Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering \\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2021 \\|date\\=30 October 2020}} Shaking was also felt on the Greek island of Crete, and in some regions of [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\").{{Cite news\\|url\\= https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-europe\\-54749509 \\|title\\= Earthquake hits Greece and Turkey, bringing deaths and floods. \\|work\\= BBC News \\|date\\= 30 October 2020 }}",
"### Foreshocks and aftershocks",
"The earthquake was preceded by a [foreshock](/wiki/Foreshock \"Foreshock\") sequence consisting of 39 events beginning three months prior to the mainshock. Within the first month, more than 1,800 aftershocks measured {{M\\|l\\|link\\=y}} 2\\.0 or larger. More than 40 aftershock were larger than {{M\\|w}} 4\\.0; the largest measuring {{M\\|w}} 5\\.2 and 5\\.1\\. These aftershocks were distributed across a {{cvt\\|70\\|km}} trend striking east–west. The aftershock distribution illuminated a fault plane dipping north, consistent with a known offshore fault structure. The low aftershock activity within the critical [asperity](/wiki/Asperity_%28faults%29 \"Asperity (faults)\") that ruptured possibly indicated a near\\-total strain release during the mainshock.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Chousianitis \\|first1\\=Konstantinos \\|last2\\=Konca \\|first2\\=A. Ozgun \\|title\\=Rupture Process of the 2020 Mw7\\.0 Samos Earthquake and its Effect on Surrounding Active Faults \\|journal\\=Geophysical Research Letters \\|date\\=2021 \\|volume\\=48 \\|issue\\=14 \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2021GL094162\\|bibcode\\=2021GeoRL..4894162C }}",
"### Tsunami",
"Tsunami information was issued by the [Kandilli Observatory](/wiki/Kandilli_Observatory \"Kandilli Observatory\") Earthquake Monitoring and Tsunami Warning Center to the Earthquake Research Department of Turkey approximately 11 minutes after the earthquake, but was not broadcast to the coastal regions. The tsunami arrived between 10 and 15 minutes after the mainshock.",
"Multiple social media posts showed water rushing through streets and ports in the region following the earthquake, along with tsunami warnings being issued for the islands of [Ikaria](/wiki/Ikaria \"Ikaria\"), [Kos](/wiki/Kos \"Kos\"), [Chios](/wiki/Chios \"Chios\") and [Samos](/wiki/Samos \"Samos\").{{Cite news \\|first1\\=Megan \\|last1\\=Specia \\|first2\\=Matina \\|last2\\=Stevis\\-Gridneff \\|date\\=30 October 2020 \\|title\\=Earthquake Rattles Western Turkey and Greece, Leveling Buildings \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/30/world/europe/greece\\-turkey\\-earthquake\\-izmir.html\\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2020\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} Flooding from the coasts reached heights of {{cvt\\|1\\.9\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}}, however at [Akarca](/wiki/Akarca%2C_%C5%9Eerefliko%C3%A7hisar \"Akarca, Şereflikoçhisar\"), the tsunami reached heights of {{cvt\\|6\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}}.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Dağ\\|first\\=Burak\\|date\\=4 November 2020\\|title\\=Turkey sees larger tsunami after latest quake\\|work\\=Anadolu Agency\\|url\\=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey\\-sees\\-larger\\-tsunami\\-after\\-latest\\-quake/2031162\\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=9 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109131841/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey\\-sees\\-larger\\-tsunami\\-after\\-latest\\-quake/2031162\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In [Azmak](/wiki/Azmak_Creek \"Azmak Creek\"), the tsunami penetrated {{cvt\\|1\\.3\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} inland, {{cvt\\|0\\.82\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} in Akarca, and {{cvt\\|0\\.32\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} in [Sigacik](/wiki/S%C4%B1%C4%9Fac%C4%B1k%2C_Seferihisar \"Sığacık, Seferihisar\"). Recorded heights of the tsunami from this event were larger than those of other similar magnitude earthquakes in the same region with the exception of the [1956 Amorgos earthquake](/wiki/1956_Amorgos_earthquake \"1956 Amorgos earthquake\").",
"Damage to buildings caused by the tsunami in Greece and Turkey was moderate and non\\-structural. The tsunami produced unusually long basin oscillations, persisting for over a day after the earthquake. The earthquake itself generated an unusually large tsunami for its magnitude and normal [focal mechanism](/wiki/Focal_mechanism \"Focal mechanism\").{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Mohammad Heidarzadeh \\|author2\\=Ignatius Ryan Pranantyo \\|author3\\=Ryo Okuwaki \\|author4\\=Gozde Guney Dogan \\|author5\\=Ahmet C. Yalciner \\|title\\=Long Tsunami Oscillations Following the 30 October 2020 Mw 7\\.0 Aegean Sea Earthquake: Observations and Modelling \\|journal\\=Pure and Applied Geophysics \\|date\\=2021 \\|volume\\=178 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=1531–1548 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s00024\\-021\\-02761\\-8\\|bibcode\\=2021PApGe.178\\.1531H \\|s2cid\\=235173559 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"#### Turkish coast",
"In [Akarca](/wiki/Seferihisar \"Seferihisar\"), north of Samos, the tsunami run\\-up heights were up to {{cvt\\|3\\.8\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}}, reaching as far as {{cvt\\|290\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} inland. The maximum wave height in this area was {{cvt\\|6\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}}. A {{cvt\\|2\\.2\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} surge flooded and damaged a diving center near the coast. Garden walls and fences of homes at the shore were also damaged. Cars and boats were among the large objects picked up by the surge and moved inland. The only known tsunami fatality was reported in this town.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.ntv.com.tr/video/turkiye/izmirde\\-meydana\\-gelen\\-6\\-6\\-siddetindeki\\-depremin\\-ardindan\\-sular\\-yukseldi,Z6XWjM13IEaI\\_n2A5\\_v5ng \\|title\\=Seferihisar'da tsunami: Sokakları deniz suyu bastı \\|trans\\-title\\=Tsunami in Seferihisar: Sea water flooded the streets \\|publisher\\=NTV \\|date\\=30 October 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2020}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/son\\-dakika\\-izmirde\\-tsunami\\-panigi\\-6342969 \\|title\\=Son dakika! İzmir'de tsunami paniği \\|trans\\-title\\=Last minute! Tsunami panic in Izmir \\|work\\=Milliyet \\|date\\=30 October 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2020}}",
"In [Alaçatı](/wiki/Ala%C3%A7at%C4%B1 \"Alaçatı\") on the [Çeşme](/wiki/%C3%87e%C5%9Fme \"Çeşme\") Peninsula, the tsunami flowed up a stream and inundated inland by as much as {{cvt\\|2\\.49\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}}. It carried a fishing vessel {{cvt\\|1\\.16\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} inland along the stream during the inundation. Analysis of video footage on the coast showed that the tsunami had a maximum height of {{cvt\\|1\\.7\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} when it struck.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dogan, G.G., Yalciner, A.C., Yuksel, Y. \\|title\\=The 30 October 2020 Aegean Sea Tsunami: Post\\-Event Field Survey Along Turkish Coast \\|journal\\=Pure and Applied Geophysics \\|date\\=2021 \\|volume\\=178 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=785–812 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s00024\\-021\\-02693\\-3\\| issn\\=0033\\-4553\\|pmid\\=33776149 \\|pmc\\=7982910 \\|bibcode\\=2021PApGe.178\\..785D \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"East of Alaçatı is Zeytineli, where the tsunami severely damaged unoccupied resort houses along a stretch of beach. Debris from damaged structures were strewn along the beach. Concrete blocks were also displaced by as much as {{cvt\\|25\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}}. A maximum inundation of {{cvt\\|760\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} was measured, as well as a flow height of {{cvt\\|1\\.9\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} at a palm tree, {{cvt\\|50\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} from the shore. At [Sığacık](/wiki/S%C4%B1%C4%9Fac%C4%B1k \"Sığacık\"), a wave struck the coast with a run\\-up height of {{cvt\\|5\\.0–5\\.6\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}}. The tsunami waves where higher in this region due to the geometry of the coast; the presence of a shallow [bay](/wiki/Bay \"Bay\").{{cite journal \\|author1\\=M. Ersen Aksoy \\|title\\=Post\\-event field observations in the İzmir–Sığacık village for the tsunami of the 30 October 2020 Samos (Greece) Mw 6\\.9 earthquake \\|journal\\=Acta Geophysica \\|date\\=24 May 2021 \\|volume\\=69 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=1113–1125 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s11600\\-021\\-00582\\-w \\|bibcode\\=2021AcGeo..69\\.1113A \\|s2cid\\=235128278 \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s11600\\-021\\-00582\\-w}}",
"#### Greek coast",
"On the island of Samos, the tsunami caused major flooding on its northern coast, and was recorded by multiple people on video camera. No deaths were reported by the tsunami.{{cite news \\|title\\=Water floods streets of Greek island of Samos after earthquake \\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2020/10/31/water\\-floods\\-streets\\-of\\-greek\\-island\\-of\\-samos\\-after\\-earthquake \\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2021 \\|agency\\=euronews \\|date\\=31 October 2020}} Many offices and businesses were immediately flooded when the surge broke through windows and doors. Waves of {{cvt\\|1\\.5–2\\.0\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} traveled as far as 101 meters inland. Damage to boats and cars were widely reported in the aftermath.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Ιoanna Triantafyllou, Marilia Gogou, Spyridon Mavroulis, Katerina\\-Navsika Katsetsiadou, Efthymios Lekkas and Gerassimos A. Papadopoulos \\|title\\=The tsunami caused by the 30 October 2020 Samos (Greece), East Aegean Sea, Mw6\\.9 earthquake: impact assessment from post\\-event field survey and video records (v2, 16 Nov. 2020\\) \\|journal\\=Journal of Marine Science and Engineering \\|volume\\=9 \\|issue\\=1 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/jmse9010068\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} A number of small boats and cars were carried inland or lost at sea by the tsunami. Some boats were smashed along [breakwater](/wiki/Breakwater_%28structure%29 \"Breakwater (structure)\") structures as well. Shops, hotel lobbies, restaurants, offices and homes suffered slight damage when the tsunami inundated the ground level and indoors. A maximum run\\-up height of {{cvt\\|3\\.35\\|m\\|abbr\\= on}} was measured on the northern coast of Samos about {{cvt\\|5\\.8\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} east of Karlovasi Port. The tsunami caused some material damage to a home that was located at the coast.",
"### Geological effects",
"The earthquake produced significant coseismic uplift on the island of Samos. [Surface ruptures](/wiki/Surface_rupture \"Surface rupture\") were also observed on the island. The beaches, ports, and coasts of Samos were partially raised in the aftermath. At [Karlovasi](/wiki/Karlovasi \"Karlovasi\"), up to {{cvt\\|24\\|cm\\|abbr\\= on}} of permanent uplift was measured at a [breakwater](/wiki/Breakwater_%28structure%29 \"Breakwater (structure)\") off the coast. Approximately {{cvt\\|1\\.5\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} west of Karlovasi is the Akra coast consisting of [marble](/wiki/Marble \"Marble\"), which was raised 20 cm. Between {{cvt\\|15\\|cm\\|abbr\\= on}} and {{cvt\\|20\\|cm\\|abbr\\= on}} of uplift was measured at Ayios Nikolaos, located {{cvt\\|12\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} southwest of the epicentre. An [aftershock](/wiki/Aftershock \"Aftershock\") measuring {{M\\|w}} 4\\.5 on 20 January 2021 generated {{cvt\\|8–10\\|cm}} of additional uplift in the same area. Similar measurements were taken at a [marina](/wiki/Marina \"Marina\") in [Marathokampos](/wiki/Marathokampos \"Marathokampos\"). The [Pythagoreio](/wiki/Pythagoreio \"Pythagoreio\") Fault in Pythagoreio, {{cvt\\|29\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}} southeast of the earthquake, generated {{cvt\\|29\\|cm\\|abbr\\= on}} of surface deformation during the quake. An estimated uplift of {{cvt\\|25\\|cm\\|abbr\\= on}} is thought to have occurred at Potokaki as reported by tourists.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Spyridon Mavroulis \\|author2\\=Ioanna Triantafyllou \\|author3\\=Andreas Karavias \\|author4\\=Marilia Gogou \\|author5\\=Katerina\\-Navsika Katsetsiadou \\|author6\\=Efthymios Lekkas \\|author7\\=Gerassimos A. Papadopoulos \\|author8\\=Issaak Parcharidis \\|title\\=Primary and Secondary Environmental Effects Triggered by the 30 October 2020, Mw \\= 7\\.0, Samos (Eastern Aegean Sea, Greece) Earthquake Based on Post\\-Event Field Surveys and InSAR Analysis \\|journal\\=Applied Sciences \\|date\\=6 April 2021 \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=7 \\|page\\=3281 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/app11073281 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} According to the Earth Applied Sciences Disasters Program of [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\"), [synthetic\\-aperture radar](/wiki/Synthetic-aperture_radar \"Synthetic-aperture radar\") data revealed Samos Island was raised by as much as {{cvt\\|10\\|cm}} meanwhile its northern coast subsided by the same amount. The ground uplift and subsidence pattern suggested a coseismic [rupture](/wiki/Earthquake_rupture \"Earthquake rupture\") along a fault located north of the island, [dipping](/wiki/Strike_and_dip \"Strike and dip\") at an angle towards the north.{{cite web \\|title\\=Aegean Sea Earthquake October 2020 \\|url\\=https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/what\\-we\\-do/disasters/disasters\\-activations/aegean\\-sea\\-earthquake\\-october\\-2020 \\|website\\=NASA Applied Science \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NASA]] \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2021 \\|date\\=30 October 2020}}",
"Small [normal\\-mechanism](/wiki/Focal_mechanism \"Focal mechanism\") surface ruptures were documented near the villages of [Kontakaiika](/wiki/Kontakaiika \"Kontakaiika\"), Ayios Nikolaos, and Ayios Elias. Vertical displacements of up to {{cvt\\|8\\|cm\\|abbr\\= on}} were observed on the ground, and across roads. The coseismic [surface ruptures](/wiki/Surface_ruptures \"Surface ruptures\") resulted in some damage to roads and brick walls. Although these uplifts were on the order of several centimeters, it added up to a length of {{cvt\\|1\\|km\\|abbr\\= on}}.",
"Small [landslides](/wiki/Landslide \"Landslide\"), [rockfalls](/wiki/Rockfall \"Rockfall\") and [slope failures](/wiki/Slope_failure \"Slope failure\") were reported along [fault scarps](/wiki/Fault_scarp \"Fault scarp\") on [Samos](/wiki/Samos \"Samos\"). Some instances of rockfalls caused minor traffic disruption when they partially blocked roads. A small rockfall caused slight damage to an adjacent building in [Kokkari](/wiki/Kokkari \"Kokkari\"). Ground cracks appeared on a road at Malagari. The cracked caused part of the road, and small trees to slide several centimeters closer to the shore as a result of lateral spreading. Minor [liquefaction](/wiki/Liquefaction \"Liquefaction\") occurred at the beach near the town as well.",
""
] |
Modern era
----------
In the 19th century, with the end of the inquisition, some affluent families of Sephardi Jewish Portuguese origin, namely from Morocco and Gibraltar, returned to Portugal (such as the Ruah, Bensaúde, Anahory, Abecassis, and Buzzaglo). Jews were formally allowed back in Portugal near the year 1800\.{{cite web \| url\=https://jewishheritagealliance.com/portugal\-history/\#portugalhistory5 \| title\=Portugal\-history \| Jewish Heritage Alliance \| date\=8 January 2019 }} The first synagogue to be built in Portugal since the 15th century was the [Lisbon Synagogue](/wiki/Lisbon_Synagogue "Lisbon Synagogue"), inaugurated in 1904\.{{citation\|last1\=Mucznik\|first1\=Esther\|title\=Os Judeus em Portugal\|website\=Israeli community of Lisbon \- Comunidade Israelita de Lisboa\|publisher\=Also published in Revista História n.º 15, June 1999}}{{cite web\|last1\=Mucznik\|first1\=Esther\|title\=Jewish community of Lisbon\|url\=http://www.redejudiariasportugal.com/index.php/en/comunidade\-israelita\-de\-lisboa\|website\=The Portuguese Network of Jewish Quarters}}
### World War II
A new chapter for Jews in Portugal was marked by [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). From 1932 Portugal was under the nationalist regime of [António de Oliveira Salazar](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar "António de Oliveira Salazar"), but Portuguese nationalism was not grounded on race or biology. In 1934 Salazar made it clear that Portuguese nationalism did not include pagan anti\-human ideals that glorified a race, and in 1937, he published a book where he criticized the ideals behind the [Nuremberg laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_laws "Nuremberg laws").Salazar, António de Oliveira – “Como se Levanta um Estado”, {{ISBN\|9789899537705}} In 1938, he sent a telegram to the Portuguese Embassy in Berlin ordering that it should be made clear to the German Reich that Portuguese law did not allow any distinction based on race and therefore Portuguese Jewish citizens could not be discriminated against.Dez anos de Politica Externa, Vol 1, pag 137\. Edicao Imprensa Nacional 1961
In 1937, Adolfo Benarus, Honorary Chairman of COMASSISPortuguese Committee for the Assistance of Jewish Refugees in Portugal (COMASSIS), which was led by Augusto Esaguy and Elias Baruel, and had Moses Amzalak and Adolfo Benarus as its honorary chairmen. and a leader of the Lisbon's Jewish Community published a book where he rejoiced with the fact that there was no [anti\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism "Anti-Semitism") in Portugal.Benarus, Adolfo – “O Antisemitismo” \- 1937 (Lisboa : Sociedade Nacional de Tipografia)
Portuguese Jewish scholar and economist Moses Amzalak, leader of the Lisbon Jewish community for more than fifty years (from 1926 until 1978\), believed that Nazis were defending Europe from communism. Later, when Nazi anti\-Semitic policies became evident, Amzalak got actively involved in rescue operations leveraging his friendship with Salazar.
Yad Vashem historian Avraham Milgram says that modern anti\-Semitism failed "to establish even a toehold in Portugal"Avraham Milgram, *Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews*, Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2011, p.11\. while it grew racist and virulent elsewhere in early twentieth\-century Europe.
Early in September 1939, Portugal proclaimed its neutrality to combat threats to its colonial possessions from nations in both the Allied and Axis camps. Nonetheless, its sympathies were clearly on the side of the allies following Germany's invasion of the Catholic nation of Poland.
Upon the declaration of war, the Portuguese Government announced that the [Anglo\-Portuguese Alliance](/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance "Anglo-Portuguese Alliance") remained intact, but since the British did not seek Portuguese assistance, Portugal would remain neutral. The British Government confirmed the understanding. From the British perspective, Portuguese non\-belligerency was essential to keep Spain from entering the war on the side of the Axis."Leite, Joaquim da Costa. "Neutrality by Agreement: Portugal and the British Alliance in World War II." American University International Law Review 14, no. 1 (1998\): 185\-199
At the outbreak of World War II, to the nearly 400 Jews that were living in Portugal an additional 650 Jewish refugees from Central Europe were granted a quasi\-resident status. However, under threat of military action from the Nazis Salazar issued orders on November 11, 1939, that consuls were not to issue Portuguese visas to "foreigners of indefinite or contested nationality; the stateless; or Jews expelled from their countries of origin". This order was followed only six months later by one stating that "under no circumstances" were visas to be issued without prior case\-by\-case approval from [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"). Portugal's regime did not distinguish between Jews and non\-Jews but rather between immigrant Jews who came and had the means to leave the country and those lacking them. Portugal prevented Jews from putting down roots in the country not because they were Jews but because the regime feared foreign influence in general, and feared the entrance of Bolsheviks and left\-wing agitators fleeing from Germany.Milgram, Avraham. "Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews", translated by Naftali Greenwood. Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011, (page 266\) {{ISBN\|978\-965\-308\-387\-5}} Antisemitic ideological patterns had no hold in the ruling structure of the “[Estado Novo](/wiki/Estado_Novo_%28Portugal%29 "Estado Novo (Portugal)")” and *a fortiori* in the various strata of Portuguese society.Milgram, Avraham. "Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews", Publication Date: March 20, 2012 {{ISBN\|978\-9653083875}} pp 13
Germany's invasion of France in 1940 brought the Nazis to the Pyrenees which allowed Hitler to bring unanticipated pressures on both Spain and Portugal.*The New History of Portugal*, H.V. Livermore, Cambridge University Press, 1969
On June 26, 1940, the main [HIAS\-HICEM](/wiki/HIAS "HIAS") (Jewish relief organization) European Office was authorized by Salazar to be transferred from Paris to Lisbon.
A few weeks later, in the summer of 1940, the Jewish community on the Portuguese island of [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira "Madeira") also grew considerably due to the [Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II](/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Gibraltarian_civilian_population_during_World_War_II "Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II") to Madeira, which included a number of Jews, who attended the [Synagogue of Funchal](/wiki/Synagogue_of_Funchal "Synagogue of Funchal"). Some of these evacuees were buried in the [Jewish Cemetery of Funchal](/wiki/Jewish_Cemetery_of_Funchal "Jewish Cemetery of Funchal").{{cite web \|url\=https://jewishphotolibrary.smugmug.com/AFRICA/AFRICAislands/MADEIRA/PTFunchalJewishCemetery/i\-MqcfhkQ
\|title\=MADEIRA (Portugal), Funchal. Jewish Cemetery (8\.2015\)
\|author\=Jono David
\|publisher\=HaChayim HaYehudim Jewish Photo Library
\|year\= 2015
\|access\-date\=2015\-12\-20}}
Following the Nazi invasion of Russia which cut off their supply of [wolfram](/wiki/Tungsten "Tungsten") ([tungsten](/wiki/Tungsten "Tungsten")) from Asia, Germany initiated tactics to extract wolfram from Portugal, initially by artificially running up prices in an attempt to get the people to bypass the Portuguese government and sell directly to German Agents. Salazar's government attempted to limit this and in October 1941 Germany retaliated by sinking a Portuguese merchant ship, the first neutral ship to be attacked during World War II. Germany torpedoed a second Portuguese ship in December. England then invoked long\-standing treaties with Portugal dating from 1373 ([Anglo\-Portuguese Alliance](/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance "Anglo-Portuguese Alliance")) and 1386 ([Treaty of Windsor](/wiki/Treaty_of_Windsor_1386 "Treaty of Windsor 1386")) and Portugal honored these by granting a military base in the [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores") to the Allies. The Allies then promised all possible aid in the event of a German attack against Portugal. Portugal continued to export wolfram and other goods to both Allied countries and Germany (partly via [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland")) until 1944 when Portugal declared a total embargo of wolfram to Germany.
Despite Salazar's strict policy, efforts to provide entry visas into Portugal to Jews via rescue operations continued. The number of refugees that has escaped through Portugal during the war has estimates that range from one hundred thousand to one million, an impressive number considering the size of the country's population at that time (circa 6 million).Neil Lochery estimates a high end number of one million \- Lochery, Neill \-*Lisbon: War in the Shadows of the City of Light, 1939–45*, Public Affairs; 1 edition (November 1, 2011\), {{ISBN\|1586488791}} *"In 1940 Lisbon, happiness was staged so that God could believe it still existed,"* wrote the French writer [Antoine de Saint\-Exupéry](/wiki/Antoine_de_Saint-Exup%C3%A9ry "Antoine de Saint-Exupéry").Saint\-Exupery escaped from France to Portugal and ended up in Lisbon, waiting for a visa to go to America. The Portuguese capital became a symbol of hope for many refugees. Even Ilsa and Rick, the star\-crossed lovers in the film [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca_%28film%29 "Casablanca (film)"), sought a ticket to that "great embarkation point." Thousands had flooded the city, trying to obtain the documents necessary to escape to the United States or the British Mandate of Palestine/ Eretz Israel. Not all found their way.
The number of visas issued by [Aristides de Sousa Mendes](/wiki/Aristides_de_Sousa_Mendes "Aristides de Sousa Mendes"), Portuguese consul in Paris, cannot be determined. There is no consensus on the number of refugees that used Portugal as an escape route in those early days of World War II. Yehuda Bauer says that the number of visas must have been close to 10,000American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945, p. 44, {{ISBN\|0\-8143\-1672\-7}} and that is the number of refugees who actually reached Portugal in the summer of 1940\. But he adds that of these 10,000 *“not all of them received visas from Mendes, but a very high proportion must have”*. To reach a more accurate figure, the visas granted by the Portuguese consulates in Rotterdam, Den Hague, Antwerp, Paris, Toulouse, Berlin, Geneva, and other cities would need to be counted, according to [Yad Vashem](/wiki/Yad_Vashem "Yad Vashem") historian Avraham Milgram in a study from 1999 published by the Shoah Resource CenterPortugal, the Consuls, and the Jewish Refugees, 1938–1941 • Avraham Milgram, Shoah Resource Center, International School for Holocaust Studies An analysis of the list of visas granted by Sousa Mendes to Jews and non\-Jews in May and June 1940 indicates that the number of visas granted by the consul was lower than the numbers mentioned in the literature, raising questions about Portugal and the entry of Jewish refugees. Milgram concludes that *the discrepancy between the reality and the myth of the number of visas granted by Sousa Mendes is great*.
|
[
"Modern era\n----------",
"In the 19th century, with the end of the inquisition, some affluent families of Sephardi Jewish Portuguese origin, namely from Morocco and Gibraltar, returned to Portugal (such as the Ruah, Bensaúde, Anahory, Abecassis, and Buzzaglo). Jews were formally allowed back in Portugal near the year 1800\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://jewishheritagealliance.com/portugal\\-history/\\#portugalhistory5 \\| title\\=Portugal\\-history \\| Jewish Heritage Alliance \\| date\\=8 January 2019 }} The first synagogue to be built in Portugal since the 15th century was the [Lisbon Synagogue](/wiki/Lisbon_Synagogue \"Lisbon Synagogue\"), inaugurated in 1904\\.{{citation\\|last1\\=Mucznik\\|first1\\=Esther\\|title\\=Os Judeus em Portugal\\|website\\=Israeli community of Lisbon \\- Comunidade Israelita de Lisboa\\|publisher\\=Also published in Revista História n.º 15, June 1999}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Mucznik\\|first1\\=Esther\\|title\\=Jewish community of Lisbon\\|url\\=http://www.redejudiariasportugal.com/index.php/en/comunidade\\-israelita\\-de\\-lisboa\\|website\\=The Portuguese Network of Jewish Quarters}}",
"### World War II",
"A new chapter for Jews in Portugal was marked by [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). From 1932 Portugal was under the nationalist regime of [António de Oliveira Salazar](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar \"António de Oliveira Salazar\"), but Portuguese nationalism was not grounded on race or biology. In 1934 Salazar made it clear that Portuguese nationalism did not include pagan anti\\-human ideals that glorified a race, and in 1937, he published a book where he criticized the ideals behind the [Nuremberg laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_laws \"Nuremberg laws\").Salazar, António de Oliveira – “Como se Levanta um Estado”, {{ISBN\\|9789899537705}} In 1938, he sent a telegram to the Portuguese Embassy in Berlin ordering that it should be made clear to the German Reich that Portuguese law did not allow any distinction based on race and therefore Portuguese Jewish citizens could not be discriminated against.Dez anos de Politica Externa, Vol 1, pag 137\\. Edicao Imprensa Nacional 1961",
"In 1937, Adolfo Benarus, Honorary Chairman of COMASSISPortuguese Committee for the Assistance of Jewish Refugees in Portugal (COMASSIS), which was led by Augusto Esaguy and Elias Baruel, and had Moses Amzalak and Adolfo Benarus as its honorary chairmen. and a leader of the Lisbon's Jewish Community published a book where he rejoiced with the fact that there was no [anti\\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism \"Anti-Semitism\") in Portugal.Benarus, Adolfo – “O Antisemitismo” \\- 1937 (Lisboa : Sociedade Nacional de Tipografia)",
"Portuguese Jewish scholar and economist Moses Amzalak, leader of the Lisbon Jewish community for more than fifty years (from 1926 until 1978\\), believed that Nazis were defending Europe from communism. Later, when Nazi anti\\-Semitic policies became evident, Amzalak got actively involved in rescue operations leveraging his friendship with Salazar.",
"Yad Vashem historian Avraham Milgram says that modern anti\\-Semitism failed \"to establish even a toehold in Portugal\"Avraham Milgram, *Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews*, Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2011, p.11\\. while it grew racist and virulent elsewhere in early twentieth\\-century Europe.",
"Early in September 1939, Portugal proclaimed its neutrality to combat threats to its colonial possessions from nations in both the Allied and Axis camps. Nonetheless, its sympathies were clearly on the side of the allies following Germany's invasion of the Catholic nation of Poland.",
"Upon the declaration of war, the Portuguese Government announced that the [Anglo\\-Portuguese Alliance](/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance \"Anglo-Portuguese Alliance\") remained intact, but since the British did not seek Portuguese assistance, Portugal would remain neutral. The British Government confirmed the understanding. From the British perspective, Portuguese non\\-belligerency was essential to keep Spain from entering the war on the side of the Axis.\"Leite, Joaquim da Costa. \"Neutrality by Agreement: Portugal and the British Alliance in World War II.\" American University International Law Review 14, no. 1 (1998\\): 185\\-199",
"At the outbreak of World War II, to the nearly 400 Jews that were living in Portugal an additional 650 Jewish refugees from Central Europe were granted a quasi\\-resident status. However, under threat of military action from the Nazis Salazar issued orders on November 11, 1939, that consuls were not to issue Portuguese visas to \"foreigners of indefinite or contested nationality; the stateless; or Jews expelled from their countries of origin\". This order was followed only six months later by one stating that \"under no circumstances\" were visas to be issued without prior case\\-by\\-case approval from [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"). Portugal's regime did not distinguish between Jews and non\\-Jews but rather between immigrant Jews who came and had the means to leave the country and those lacking them. Portugal prevented Jews from putting down roots in the country not because they were Jews but because the regime feared foreign influence in general, and feared the entrance of Bolsheviks and left\\-wing agitators fleeing from Germany.Milgram, Avraham. \"Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews\", translated by Naftali Greenwood. Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011, (page 266\\) {{ISBN\\|978\\-965\\-308\\-387\\-5}} Antisemitic ideological patterns had no hold in the ruling structure of the “[Estado Novo](/wiki/Estado_Novo_%28Portugal%29 \"Estado Novo (Portugal)\")” and *a fortiori* in the various strata of Portuguese society.Milgram, Avraham. \"Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews\", Publication Date: March 20, 2012 {{ISBN\\|978\\-9653083875}} pp 13",
"Germany's invasion of France in 1940 brought the Nazis to the Pyrenees which allowed Hitler to bring unanticipated pressures on both Spain and Portugal.*The New History of Portugal*, H.V. Livermore, Cambridge University Press, 1969",
"On June 26, 1940, the main [HIAS\\-HICEM](/wiki/HIAS \"HIAS\") (Jewish relief organization) European Office was authorized by Salazar to be transferred from Paris to Lisbon.",
"A few weeks later, in the summer of 1940, the Jewish community on the Portuguese island of [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira \"Madeira\") also grew considerably due to the [Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II](/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Gibraltarian_civilian_population_during_World_War_II \"Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II\") to Madeira, which included a number of Jews, who attended the [Synagogue of Funchal](/wiki/Synagogue_of_Funchal \"Synagogue of Funchal\"). Some of these evacuees were buried in the [Jewish Cemetery of Funchal](/wiki/Jewish_Cemetery_of_Funchal \"Jewish Cemetery of Funchal\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://jewishphotolibrary.smugmug.com/AFRICA/AFRICAislands/MADEIRA/PTFunchalJewishCemetery/i\\-MqcfhkQ\n\\|title\\=MADEIRA (Portugal), Funchal. Jewish Cemetery (8\\.2015\\)\n\\|author\\=Jono David\n\\|publisher\\=HaChayim HaYehudim Jewish Photo Library\n\\|year\\= 2015\n\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-12\\-20}}",
"Following the Nazi invasion of Russia which cut off their supply of [wolfram](/wiki/Tungsten \"Tungsten\") ([tungsten](/wiki/Tungsten \"Tungsten\")) from Asia, Germany initiated tactics to extract wolfram from Portugal, initially by artificially running up prices in an attempt to get the people to bypass the Portuguese government and sell directly to German Agents. Salazar's government attempted to limit this and in October 1941 Germany retaliated by sinking a Portuguese merchant ship, the first neutral ship to be attacked during World War II. Germany torpedoed a second Portuguese ship in December. England then invoked long\\-standing treaties with Portugal dating from 1373 ([Anglo\\-Portuguese Alliance](/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance \"Anglo-Portuguese Alliance\")) and 1386 ([Treaty of Windsor](/wiki/Treaty_of_Windsor_1386 \"Treaty of Windsor 1386\")) and Portugal honored these by granting a military base in the [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\") to the Allies. The Allies then promised all possible aid in the event of a German attack against Portugal. Portugal continued to export wolfram and other goods to both Allied countries and Germany (partly via [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")) until 1944 when Portugal declared a total embargo of wolfram to Germany.",
"Despite Salazar's strict policy, efforts to provide entry visas into Portugal to Jews via rescue operations continued. The number of refugees that has escaped through Portugal during the war has estimates that range from one hundred thousand to one million, an impressive number considering the size of the country's population at that time (circa 6 million).Neil Lochery estimates a high end number of one million \\- Lochery, Neill \\-*Lisbon: War in the Shadows of the City of Light, 1939–45*, Public Affairs; 1 edition (November 1, 2011\\), {{ISBN\\|1586488791}} *\"In 1940 Lisbon, happiness was staged so that God could believe it still existed,\"* wrote the French writer [Antoine de Saint\\-Exupéry](/wiki/Antoine_de_Saint-Exup%C3%A9ry \"Antoine de Saint-Exupéry\").Saint\\-Exupery escaped from France to Portugal and ended up in Lisbon, waiting for a visa to go to America. The Portuguese capital became a symbol of hope for many refugees. Even Ilsa and Rick, the star\\-crossed lovers in the film [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca_%28film%29 \"Casablanca (film)\"), sought a ticket to that \"great embarkation point.\" Thousands had flooded the city, trying to obtain the documents necessary to escape to the United States or the British Mandate of Palestine/ Eretz Israel. Not all found their way.",
"The number of visas issued by [Aristides de Sousa Mendes](/wiki/Aristides_de_Sousa_Mendes \"Aristides de Sousa Mendes\"), Portuguese consul in Paris, cannot be determined. There is no consensus on the number of refugees that used Portugal as an escape route in those early days of World War II. Yehuda Bauer says that the number of visas must have been close to 10,000American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945, p. 44, {{ISBN\\|0\\-8143\\-1672\\-7}} and that is the number of refugees who actually reached Portugal in the summer of 1940\\. But he adds that of these 10,000 *“not all of them received visas from Mendes, but a very high proportion must have”*. To reach a more accurate figure, the visas granted by the Portuguese consulates in Rotterdam, Den Hague, Antwerp, Paris, Toulouse, Berlin, Geneva, and other cities would need to be counted, according to [Yad Vashem](/wiki/Yad_Vashem \"Yad Vashem\") historian Avraham Milgram in a study from 1999 published by the Shoah Resource CenterPortugal, the Consuls, and the Jewish Refugees, 1938–1941 • Avraham Milgram, Shoah Resource Center, International School for Holocaust Studies An analysis of the list of visas granted by Sousa Mendes to Jews and non\\-Jews in May and June 1940 indicates that the number of visas granted by the consul was lower than the numbers mentioned in the literature, raising questions about Portugal and the entry of Jewish refugees. Milgram concludes that *the discrepancy between the reality and the myth of the number of visas granted by Sousa Mendes is great*.",
""
] |
### World War II
A new chapter for Jews in Portugal was marked by [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). From 1932 Portugal was under the nationalist regime of [António de Oliveira Salazar](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar "António de Oliveira Salazar"), but Portuguese nationalism was not grounded on race or biology. In 1934 Salazar made it clear that Portuguese nationalism did not include pagan anti\-human ideals that glorified a race, and in 1937, he published a book where he criticized the ideals behind the [Nuremberg laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_laws "Nuremberg laws").Salazar, António de Oliveira – “Como se Levanta um Estado”, {{ISBN\|9789899537705}} In 1938, he sent a telegram to the Portuguese Embassy in Berlin ordering that it should be made clear to the German Reich that Portuguese law did not allow any distinction based on race and therefore Portuguese Jewish citizens could not be discriminated against.Dez anos de Politica Externa, Vol 1, pag 137\. Edicao Imprensa Nacional 1961
In 1937, Adolfo Benarus, Honorary Chairman of COMASSISPortuguese Committee for the Assistance of Jewish Refugees in Portugal (COMASSIS), which was led by Augusto Esaguy and Elias Baruel, and had Moses Amzalak and Adolfo Benarus as its honorary chairmen. and a leader of the Lisbon's Jewish Community published a book where he rejoiced with the fact that there was no [anti\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism "Anti-Semitism") in Portugal.Benarus, Adolfo – “O Antisemitismo” \- 1937 (Lisboa : Sociedade Nacional de Tipografia)
Portuguese Jewish scholar and economist Moses Amzalak, leader of the Lisbon Jewish community for more than fifty years (from 1926 until 1978\), believed that Nazis were defending Europe from communism. Later, when Nazi anti\-Semitic policies became evident, Amzalak got actively involved in rescue operations leveraging his friendship with Salazar.
Yad Vashem historian Avraham Milgram says that modern anti\-Semitism failed "to establish even a toehold in Portugal"Avraham Milgram, *Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews*, Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2011, p.11\. while it grew racist and virulent elsewhere in early twentieth\-century Europe.
Early in September 1939, Portugal proclaimed its neutrality to combat threats to its colonial possessions from nations in both the Allied and Axis camps. Nonetheless, its sympathies were clearly on the side of the allies following Germany's invasion of the Catholic nation of Poland.
Upon the declaration of war, the Portuguese Government announced that the [Anglo\-Portuguese Alliance](/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance "Anglo-Portuguese Alliance") remained intact, but since the British did not seek Portuguese assistance, Portugal would remain neutral. The British Government confirmed the understanding. From the British perspective, Portuguese non\-belligerency was essential to keep Spain from entering the war on the side of the Axis."Leite, Joaquim da Costa. "Neutrality by Agreement: Portugal and the British Alliance in World War II." American University International Law Review 14, no. 1 (1998\): 185\-199
At the outbreak of World War II, to the nearly 400 Jews that were living in Portugal an additional 650 Jewish refugees from Central Europe were granted a quasi\-resident status. However, under threat of military action from the Nazis Salazar issued orders on November 11, 1939, that consuls were not to issue Portuguese visas to "foreigners of indefinite or contested nationality; the stateless; or Jews expelled from their countries of origin". This order was followed only six months later by one stating that "under no circumstances" were visas to be issued without prior case\-by\-case approval from [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"). Portugal's regime did not distinguish between Jews and non\-Jews but rather between immigrant Jews who came and had the means to leave the country and those lacking them. Portugal prevented Jews from putting down roots in the country not because they were Jews but because the regime feared foreign influence in general, and feared the entrance of Bolsheviks and left\-wing agitators fleeing from Germany.Milgram, Avraham. "Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews", translated by Naftali Greenwood. Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011, (page 266\) {{ISBN\|978\-965\-308\-387\-5}} Antisemitic ideological patterns had no hold in the ruling structure of the “[Estado Novo](/wiki/Estado_Novo_%28Portugal%29 "Estado Novo (Portugal)")” and *a fortiori* in the various strata of Portuguese society.Milgram, Avraham. "Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews", Publication Date: March 20, 2012 {{ISBN\|978\-9653083875}} pp 13
Germany's invasion of France in 1940 brought the Nazis to the Pyrenees which allowed Hitler to bring unanticipated pressures on both Spain and Portugal.*The New History of Portugal*, H.V. Livermore, Cambridge University Press, 1969
On June 26, 1940, the main [HIAS\-HICEM](/wiki/HIAS "HIAS") (Jewish relief organization) European Office was authorized by Salazar to be transferred from Paris to Lisbon.
A few weeks later, in the summer of 1940, the Jewish community on the Portuguese island of [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira "Madeira") also grew considerably due to the [Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II](/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Gibraltarian_civilian_population_during_World_War_II "Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II") to Madeira, which included a number of Jews, who attended the [Synagogue of Funchal](/wiki/Synagogue_of_Funchal "Synagogue of Funchal"). Some of these evacuees were buried in the [Jewish Cemetery of Funchal](/wiki/Jewish_Cemetery_of_Funchal "Jewish Cemetery of Funchal").{{cite web \|url\=https://jewishphotolibrary.smugmug.com/AFRICA/AFRICAislands/MADEIRA/PTFunchalJewishCemetery/i\-MqcfhkQ
\|title\=MADEIRA (Portugal), Funchal. Jewish Cemetery (8\.2015\)
\|author\=Jono David
\|publisher\=HaChayim HaYehudim Jewish Photo Library
\|year\= 2015
\|access\-date\=2015\-12\-20}}
Following the Nazi invasion of Russia which cut off their supply of [wolfram](/wiki/Tungsten "Tungsten") ([tungsten](/wiki/Tungsten "Tungsten")) from Asia, Germany initiated tactics to extract wolfram from Portugal, initially by artificially running up prices in an attempt to get the people to bypass the Portuguese government and sell directly to German Agents. Salazar's government attempted to limit this and in October 1941 Germany retaliated by sinking a Portuguese merchant ship, the first neutral ship to be attacked during World War II. Germany torpedoed a second Portuguese ship in December. England then invoked long\-standing treaties with Portugal dating from 1373 ([Anglo\-Portuguese Alliance](/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance "Anglo-Portuguese Alliance")) and 1386 ([Treaty of Windsor](/wiki/Treaty_of_Windsor_1386 "Treaty of Windsor 1386")) and Portugal honored these by granting a military base in the [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores") to the Allies. The Allies then promised all possible aid in the event of a German attack against Portugal. Portugal continued to export wolfram and other goods to both Allied countries and Germany (partly via [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland")) until 1944 when Portugal declared a total embargo of wolfram to Germany.
Despite Salazar's strict policy, efforts to provide entry visas into Portugal to Jews via rescue operations continued. The number of refugees that has escaped through Portugal during the war has estimates that range from one hundred thousand to one million, an impressive number considering the size of the country's population at that time (circa 6 million).Neil Lochery estimates a high end number of one million \- Lochery, Neill \-*Lisbon: War in the Shadows of the City of Light, 1939–45*, Public Affairs; 1 edition (November 1, 2011\), {{ISBN\|1586488791}} *"In 1940 Lisbon, happiness was staged so that God could believe it still existed,"* wrote the French writer [Antoine de Saint\-Exupéry](/wiki/Antoine_de_Saint-Exup%C3%A9ry "Antoine de Saint-Exupéry").Saint\-Exupery escaped from France to Portugal and ended up in Lisbon, waiting for a visa to go to America. The Portuguese capital became a symbol of hope for many refugees. Even Ilsa and Rick, the star\-crossed lovers in the film [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca_%28film%29 "Casablanca (film)"), sought a ticket to that "great embarkation point." Thousands had flooded the city, trying to obtain the documents necessary to escape to the United States or the British Mandate of Palestine/ Eretz Israel. Not all found their way.
The number of visas issued by [Aristides de Sousa Mendes](/wiki/Aristides_de_Sousa_Mendes "Aristides de Sousa Mendes"), Portuguese consul in Paris, cannot be determined. There is no consensus on the number of refugees that used Portugal as an escape route in those early days of World War II. Yehuda Bauer says that the number of visas must have been close to 10,000American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945, p. 44, {{ISBN\|0\-8143\-1672\-7}} and that is the number of refugees who actually reached Portugal in the summer of 1940\. But he adds that of these 10,000 *“not all of them received visas from Mendes, but a very high proportion must have”*. To reach a more accurate figure, the visas granted by the Portuguese consulates in Rotterdam, Den Hague, Antwerp, Paris, Toulouse, Berlin, Geneva, and other cities would need to be counted, according to [Yad Vashem](/wiki/Yad_Vashem "Yad Vashem") historian Avraham Milgram in a study from 1999 published by the Shoah Resource CenterPortugal, the Consuls, and the Jewish Refugees, 1938–1941 • Avraham Milgram, Shoah Resource Center, International School for Holocaust Studies An analysis of the list of visas granted by Sousa Mendes to Jews and non\-Jews in May and June 1940 indicates that the number of visas granted by the consul was lower than the numbers mentioned in the literature, raising questions about Portugal and the entry of Jewish refugees. Milgram concludes that *the discrepancy between the reality and the myth of the number of visas granted by Sousa Mendes is great*.
|
[
"### World War II",
"A new chapter for Jews in Portugal was marked by [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). From 1932 Portugal was under the nationalist regime of [António de Oliveira Salazar](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar \"António de Oliveira Salazar\"), but Portuguese nationalism was not grounded on race or biology. In 1934 Salazar made it clear that Portuguese nationalism did not include pagan anti\\-human ideals that glorified a race, and in 1937, he published a book where he criticized the ideals behind the [Nuremberg laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_laws \"Nuremberg laws\").Salazar, António de Oliveira – “Como se Levanta um Estado”, {{ISBN\\|9789899537705}} In 1938, he sent a telegram to the Portuguese Embassy in Berlin ordering that it should be made clear to the German Reich that Portuguese law did not allow any distinction based on race and therefore Portuguese Jewish citizens could not be discriminated against.Dez anos de Politica Externa, Vol 1, pag 137\\. Edicao Imprensa Nacional 1961",
"In 1937, Adolfo Benarus, Honorary Chairman of COMASSISPortuguese Committee for the Assistance of Jewish Refugees in Portugal (COMASSIS), which was led by Augusto Esaguy and Elias Baruel, and had Moses Amzalak and Adolfo Benarus as its honorary chairmen. and a leader of the Lisbon's Jewish Community published a book where he rejoiced with the fact that there was no [anti\\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism \"Anti-Semitism\") in Portugal.Benarus, Adolfo – “O Antisemitismo” \\- 1937 (Lisboa : Sociedade Nacional de Tipografia)",
"Portuguese Jewish scholar and economist Moses Amzalak, leader of the Lisbon Jewish community for more than fifty years (from 1926 until 1978\\), believed that Nazis were defending Europe from communism. Later, when Nazi anti\\-Semitic policies became evident, Amzalak got actively involved in rescue operations leveraging his friendship with Salazar.",
"Yad Vashem historian Avraham Milgram says that modern anti\\-Semitism failed \"to establish even a toehold in Portugal\"Avraham Milgram, *Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews*, Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2011, p.11\\. while it grew racist and virulent elsewhere in early twentieth\\-century Europe.",
"Early in September 1939, Portugal proclaimed its neutrality to combat threats to its colonial possessions from nations in both the Allied and Axis camps. Nonetheless, its sympathies were clearly on the side of the allies following Germany's invasion of the Catholic nation of Poland.",
"Upon the declaration of war, the Portuguese Government announced that the [Anglo\\-Portuguese Alliance](/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance \"Anglo-Portuguese Alliance\") remained intact, but since the British did not seek Portuguese assistance, Portugal would remain neutral. The British Government confirmed the understanding. From the British perspective, Portuguese non\\-belligerency was essential to keep Spain from entering the war on the side of the Axis.\"Leite, Joaquim da Costa. \"Neutrality by Agreement: Portugal and the British Alliance in World War II.\" American University International Law Review 14, no. 1 (1998\\): 185\\-199",
"At the outbreak of World War II, to the nearly 400 Jews that were living in Portugal an additional 650 Jewish refugees from Central Europe were granted a quasi\\-resident status. However, under threat of military action from the Nazis Salazar issued orders on November 11, 1939, that consuls were not to issue Portuguese visas to \"foreigners of indefinite or contested nationality; the stateless; or Jews expelled from their countries of origin\". This order was followed only six months later by one stating that \"under no circumstances\" were visas to be issued without prior case\\-by\\-case approval from [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"). Portugal's regime did not distinguish between Jews and non\\-Jews but rather between immigrant Jews who came and had the means to leave the country and those lacking them. Portugal prevented Jews from putting down roots in the country not because they were Jews but because the regime feared foreign influence in general, and feared the entrance of Bolsheviks and left\\-wing agitators fleeing from Germany.Milgram, Avraham. \"Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews\", translated by Naftali Greenwood. Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011, (page 266\\) {{ISBN\\|978\\-965\\-308\\-387\\-5}} Antisemitic ideological patterns had no hold in the ruling structure of the “[Estado Novo](/wiki/Estado_Novo_%28Portugal%29 \"Estado Novo (Portugal)\")” and *a fortiori* in the various strata of Portuguese society.Milgram, Avraham. \"Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews\", Publication Date: March 20, 2012 {{ISBN\\|978\\-9653083875}} pp 13",
"Germany's invasion of France in 1940 brought the Nazis to the Pyrenees which allowed Hitler to bring unanticipated pressures on both Spain and Portugal.*The New History of Portugal*, H.V. Livermore, Cambridge University Press, 1969",
"On June 26, 1940, the main [HIAS\\-HICEM](/wiki/HIAS \"HIAS\") (Jewish relief organization) European Office was authorized by Salazar to be transferred from Paris to Lisbon.",
"A few weeks later, in the summer of 1940, the Jewish community on the Portuguese island of [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira \"Madeira\") also grew considerably due to the [Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II](/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Gibraltarian_civilian_population_during_World_War_II \"Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II\") to Madeira, which included a number of Jews, who attended the [Synagogue of Funchal](/wiki/Synagogue_of_Funchal \"Synagogue of Funchal\"). Some of these evacuees were buried in the [Jewish Cemetery of Funchal](/wiki/Jewish_Cemetery_of_Funchal \"Jewish Cemetery of Funchal\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://jewishphotolibrary.smugmug.com/AFRICA/AFRICAislands/MADEIRA/PTFunchalJewishCemetery/i\\-MqcfhkQ\n\\|title\\=MADEIRA (Portugal), Funchal. Jewish Cemetery (8\\.2015\\)\n\\|author\\=Jono David\n\\|publisher\\=HaChayim HaYehudim Jewish Photo Library\n\\|year\\= 2015\n\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-12\\-20}}",
"Following the Nazi invasion of Russia which cut off their supply of [wolfram](/wiki/Tungsten \"Tungsten\") ([tungsten](/wiki/Tungsten \"Tungsten\")) from Asia, Germany initiated tactics to extract wolfram from Portugal, initially by artificially running up prices in an attempt to get the people to bypass the Portuguese government and sell directly to German Agents. Salazar's government attempted to limit this and in October 1941 Germany retaliated by sinking a Portuguese merchant ship, the first neutral ship to be attacked during World War II. Germany torpedoed a second Portuguese ship in December. England then invoked long\\-standing treaties with Portugal dating from 1373 ([Anglo\\-Portuguese Alliance](/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance \"Anglo-Portuguese Alliance\")) and 1386 ([Treaty of Windsor](/wiki/Treaty_of_Windsor_1386 \"Treaty of Windsor 1386\")) and Portugal honored these by granting a military base in the [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\") to the Allies. The Allies then promised all possible aid in the event of a German attack against Portugal. Portugal continued to export wolfram and other goods to both Allied countries and Germany (partly via [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")) until 1944 when Portugal declared a total embargo of wolfram to Germany.",
"Despite Salazar's strict policy, efforts to provide entry visas into Portugal to Jews via rescue operations continued. The number of refugees that has escaped through Portugal during the war has estimates that range from one hundred thousand to one million, an impressive number considering the size of the country's population at that time (circa 6 million).Neil Lochery estimates a high end number of one million \\- Lochery, Neill \\-*Lisbon: War in the Shadows of the City of Light, 1939–45*, Public Affairs; 1 edition (November 1, 2011\\), {{ISBN\\|1586488791}} *\"In 1940 Lisbon, happiness was staged so that God could believe it still existed,\"* wrote the French writer [Antoine de Saint\\-Exupéry](/wiki/Antoine_de_Saint-Exup%C3%A9ry \"Antoine de Saint-Exupéry\").Saint\\-Exupery escaped from France to Portugal and ended up in Lisbon, waiting for a visa to go to America. The Portuguese capital became a symbol of hope for many refugees. Even Ilsa and Rick, the star\\-crossed lovers in the film [Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca_%28film%29 \"Casablanca (film)\"), sought a ticket to that \"great embarkation point.\" Thousands had flooded the city, trying to obtain the documents necessary to escape to the United States or the British Mandate of Palestine/ Eretz Israel. Not all found their way.",
"The number of visas issued by [Aristides de Sousa Mendes](/wiki/Aristides_de_Sousa_Mendes \"Aristides de Sousa Mendes\"), Portuguese consul in Paris, cannot be determined. There is no consensus on the number of refugees that used Portugal as an escape route in those early days of World War II. Yehuda Bauer says that the number of visas must have been close to 10,000American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945, p. 44, {{ISBN\\|0\\-8143\\-1672\\-7}} and that is the number of refugees who actually reached Portugal in the summer of 1940\\. But he adds that of these 10,000 *“not all of them received visas from Mendes, but a very high proportion must have”*. To reach a more accurate figure, the visas granted by the Portuguese consulates in Rotterdam, Den Hague, Antwerp, Paris, Toulouse, Berlin, Geneva, and other cities would need to be counted, according to [Yad Vashem](/wiki/Yad_Vashem \"Yad Vashem\") historian Avraham Milgram in a study from 1999 published by the Shoah Resource CenterPortugal, the Consuls, and the Jewish Refugees, 1938–1941 • Avraham Milgram, Shoah Resource Center, International School for Holocaust Studies An analysis of the list of visas granted by Sousa Mendes to Jews and non\\-Jews in May and June 1940 indicates that the number of visas granted by the consul was lower than the numbers mentioned in the literature, raising questions about Portugal and the entry of Jewish refugees. Milgram concludes that *the discrepancy between the reality and the myth of the number of visas granted by Sousa Mendes is great*.",
""
] |
Communities
-----------
The roots of Portuguese Jewry lay way prior to the forging of the [Portuguese kingdom](/wiki/Portuguese_kingdom "Portuguese kingdom"). When [Afonso I of Portugal](/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal "Afonso I of Portugal") obtained recognition of his independent kingdom, in 1143, Jews had lived in the [Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula "Iberian Peninsula") for at least one millennium.STEINHARDT, Inácio \- Raízes dos judeus em Portugal: entre Godos e Sarracenos. \[S.l.]: Nova Vega, 2012
Later, with the [Edict](/wiki/Edict "Edict") of expulsion of the Jews by [Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal") (1496\) and the official establishment of the [Portuguese Inquisition](/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition "Portuguese Inquisition") by [John III](/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal "John III of Portugal") (1536\) came a period of intolerance and prejudice that lasted for several centuries and led to the almost complete extermination of [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") and the Jews in [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal").TÁVARES, Maria José Pimenta Ferro \- Judaísmo e Inquisição: Estudos. Lisboa: Presença, 1987 It wasn't until the twentieth century that organized [Jewish communities](/wiki/Jewish_communities "Jewish communities") settled again in Portugal.
### Lisbon
The Jewish Community of [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") (Portuguese: *Comunidade Israelita de Lisboa \- CIL*) was officially recognized in 1913\. It brings together the Jews of Lisbon. Its headquarters are on Avenida Alexandre Herculano, no.59 in Lisbon, where the synagogue [Shaaré Tikvah](/wiki/Lisbon_Synagogue "Lisbon Synagogue") (Gates of Hope) is located. According to its official website, the purpose of the Jewish Community of Lisbon is to promote religious education for the new generations according to the values of Judaism, to recruit new members and to strengthen its engagement in the local and national affairs, by means of dialogue and interaction with the authorities as well as with civil and religious institutions.
File:Fachada da sinagoga Shaare Tikva, em Lisboa.jpg\|Facade
File:Interior da sinagoga de Lisboa, Shaarei Tikva.JPG\|Interior
#### Ohel Jacob Synagogue
The Ohel Jacob Synagogue (“Tent of Jacob”) was founded in 1934 by a small Jewish group of Ashkenazic origin from Central Europe, which began by meeting at the premises of the now established Hehaber – Israel Youth Zionist character, which had been created by young Jews in Lisbon in 1925\. This group of Jews, mostly Poles, would play a remarkable role in the dynamization of this religious space, a singular synagogue, characterized by its openness to the outside, tolerance and understanding for Jews of all origins, especially the integration of the descendants of [Marranos – or b’nei anussim](/wiki/Marrano "Marrano").{{Cite web \|title\=Institutional \|url\=https://hehaver\-oheljacob.org/en/institutional/ \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-18 \|website\=Ohel Jacob Synagogue and Hehaver Community \|language\=en\-GB}}
Ohel Jacob is the only [reform](/wiki/Reform_Judaism "Reform Judaism") synagogue in Portugal, and is under the guidance of Rabbi [Alona Lisitsa](/wiki/Alona_Lisitsa "Alona Lisitsa"). It is also an affiliate member of the [European Union for Progressive Judaism (EUPJ)](https://eupj.org/) and [World Union for Progressive Judaism (WUPJ)](/wiki/World_Union_for_Progressive_Judaism "World Union for Progressive Judaism").{{Cite web \|title\=EUPJ \- WUPJ \|url\=https://hehaver\-oheljacob.org/en/ohel\-jacob\-eupj\-member/ \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-18 \|website\=Ohel Jacob Synagogue and Hehaver Community \|language\=en\-GB}}
### Porto
The foundation of the synagogue dates to 1923, with the initiatives of the Jewish community in Porto and of [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28OF-2%29 "Captain (OF-2)") [Artur Barros Basto](/wiki/Artur_Carlos_de_Barros_Basto "Artur Carlos de Barros Basto"), who converted to [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism").{{citation \|url\=http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP\_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id\=5567 \|title\=Sinagoga do Porto/Sinagoga Kadoorie Mekor Haim/Museu Judaico do Porto (IPA.00005567/PT011312070213\) \|publisher\=SIPA – Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico \|location\=Lisbon, Portugal \|language\=pt \|first\=Isabel \|last\=Sereno \|year\=1998 \|access\-date\=7 May 2017}} Generally, [three organized Jewish communities](/wiki/Jewish_Communities_of_Portugal "Jewish Communities of Portugal") had existed in Portugal: in Lisbon, Porto and Belmonte; there are{{Clarify timeframe\|date\=February 2020}} 6000 people who consider themselves Jewish. Captain Barros Basto was one of the most important figures in the community, linked to the founding of an organized Jewish movement in the northern community. There were at least twenty [Ashkenazi](/wiki/Ashkenazim "Ashkenazim") Jews in the city; since there was no synagogue, they needed to travel to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") for all their religious needs.
Barros Basto began to plan a synagogue, officially registering the local Jewish community, the Comunidade Israelita do Porto (Israelite Community of Porto), with the local government in 1923\. During this time, the membership used a house on the Rua Elias Garcia. In 1927, Barros Basto founded the Portuguese Jewish newspaper *[Ha\-Lapid](/wiki/Ha-Lapid "Ha-Lapid")*.
In 1929, with the aim of trying to convert the Marranos that existed in Trás\-os\-Montes and Beiras into official Judaism, Barros Basto raised funds. On 13 November 1929 an application for the necessary licensing to begin work was delivered to the municipal council; a few weeks later, the first stone was laid and construction begun. The architects were Artur de Almeida Júnior and Augusto dos Santos Malta (who trained in the Escola das Belas Artes de Porto), in collaboration with interior designer Rogério de Azevedo. Rogério de Azevedo may have executed some of the finish work himself, as some touches, including woodwork in the library, were completed in a style characteristic of his work.Elvira de Azevedo Mea and Inácio Steinhardt (1997\), p.222
Between 1930 and 1935, the Israeli Technology Institute was installed in the building, even before its completion. The work progressed slowly until 1933, despite support from the Committee for Spanish\-Portuguese Jews in [London](/wiki/London "London"). In 1937, the synagogue was complete thanks to the contributions from the Jewish community in London and from funds donated by the [Kadoorie family](/wiki/Kadoorie_family "Kadoorie family") and Iraqi Jews from Portugal. Upon the death of Laura Kadoorie, the wife of prominent [Mizrahi](/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews "Mizrahi Jews") Jewish philanthropist Sir [Elly Kadoorie](/wiki/Elly_Kadoorie "Elly Kadoorie"), her children wished to honor their mother, a descendant of Portuguese Jews who had fled the country following the [Inquisition](/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition "Portuguese Inquisition"). This tribute was reflected in the monetary support by the Kadoorie family to assist in the construction of large part of the synagogue in Porto, which was later renamed Synagogue Kadoorie \- Mekor Haim. In the same year, Captain Artur Barros Basto was expelled from the Portuguese army for his participation in circumcisions. The synagogue was inaugurated in 1938\. The synagogue has always had a small number of members and, for much of the 20th century, has been entrusted to families in Central and Eastern Europe (Roskin, Kniskinsky, Finkelstein, Cymerman, Pressman and others), who married among themselves.
During the Second World War, hundreds of refugees passed through the doors of the synagogue en route to the United States.
Former Captain Barros Bastos died in 1961\.
In 2012, the synagogue was opened to the public.
Representatives from an [Israeli](/wiki/Israel "Israel") governmental agency visited in 2014 and approved co\-financing for renovations and security upgrades. On 21 May 2015, the Jewish Museum of Porto was opened to the public. It was inaugurated on 28 June in the presence of the president of the Comunidade Israelita do Porto and various cultural, education and political personalities. A fence was erected along the sides and rear of the building.
The community counts among its members Jews of origins as diverse as [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"), [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") and [England](/wiki/England "England"). The present [rabbi](/wiki/Rabbi "Rabbi") is Daniel Litvak, a native of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"), and the current vice president is Isabel Ferreira Lopes, the granddaughter of Captain Barros Basto.
[thumb\|[Shabbaton](/wiki/Shabbaton "Shabbaton") 2020](/wiki/File:Shabbaton_2020.jpg "Shabbaton 2020.jpg")
According to the official blog of the community, it includes about 500 Jews originally from more than thirty countries and gathers all standards and degrees of observance of Judaism.
In recent years, the members of the community have connected the organization with the rest of the Jewish world, written the Community's rules, restored the synagogue building, organized departments and created the necessary conditions for Jewish life to flourish again in Oporto.
The organisation has a [beit din](/wiki/Beth_din "Beth din"), two official rabbis, and structures for [kashrut](/wiki/Kashrut "Kashrut"). It offers courses to schoolteachers to combat [anti\-Semitism](/wiki/Antisemitism "Antisemitism"), and has a museum, a cinema, films about its history, and cooperation protocols with the Portuguese state, the Israeli Embassy to Portugal, [B'nai B'rith International](/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith "B'nai B'rith"), the [Anti\-Defamation League](/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League "Anti-Defamation League"), [Keren Hayesod](/wiki/Keren_Hayesod "Keren Hayesod"), and [Chabad Lubavitch](/wiki/Chabad "Chabad"), as well as with the [Oporto Diocese](/wiki/Diocese_of_Porto "Diocese of Porto"){{Cite web\|url\=https://www.vidaeconomica.pt/vida\-economica\-1/comunidades\-judaica\-e\-catolica\-do\-porto\-doam\-20\-mil\-euros\-quatro\-instituicoes\-de\-pobreza\|title \= Comunidades Judaica e Católica do Porto doam 20 mil euros a quatro instituições de pobreza}} and Oporto's [Muslim](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims") community.
In January 2019, the President of the Republic, [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa "Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa"), visited the Porto Synagogue, where he attended the celebration of the Shabbat Cabalat, after which he took the floor. Upon arrival, the Head of State was received by the President of the Jewish Community of Porto, Dias Ben Zion, and by the Chief Rabbi, Daniel Litvak.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.presidencia.pt/?idc\=10\&idi\=158818\|title \= Presidente da República visitou Sinagoga do Porto}}
In September 2020, the Jewish Community of Porto was received by the Mayor of Porto, Rui Moreira, in the City Hall. The Mayor welcomed the leadership of a rapidly growing and rejuvenating community in the city, representing about 500 Jews from more than 30 countries.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.porto.pt/noticias/comunidade\-judaica\-do\-porto\-foi\-hoje\-recebida\-por\-rui\-moreira\-na\-camara\|title \= Comunidade Judaica do Porto foi hoje recebida por Rui Moreira na Câmara\|date \= 15 September 2020}}
In 2021, the [Holocaust Museum of Oporto](/wiki/Holocaust_Museum_of_Oporto "Holocaust Museum of Oporto") was inaugurated.{{cite web \|last1\=Zaig \|first1\=Gadi \|title\=First Holocaust museum to be inaugurated in Oporto, Portugal \|url\=https://www.jpost.com/international/first\-holocaust\-museum\-to\-be\-inaugurated\-in\-oporto\-portugal\-655279 \|website\=The Jerusalem Post \|date\=13 January 2021 \|access\-date\=1 July 2024}}{{cite web \|title\=Portugal opens the doors to Oporto Holocaust museum \|url\=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/portugal\-opens\-the\-doors\-to\-oporto\-holocaust\-museum\-664505 \|website\=The Jerusalem Post \|date\=8 April 2021 \|access\-date\=1 July 2024}}
File:Sinagoga Kadoorie10\.jpg\|Facade
File:Sinagoga Kadoorie11\.jpg\|Interior
### Belmonte
The Jewish community of [Belmonte](/wiki/Belmonte_Municipality "Belmonte Municipality") was officially recognized in 1989\. It brings together the [Jews of Belmonte](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belmonte "History of the Jews in Belmonte") and its surroundings. Its headquarters are located in Rua Fonte Rosa, 6250\-041, Belmonte, where the Synagogue Beit Eliahu (House of Elijah) was built. According to the official blog of the Jewish community of Belmonte, this is the only community in Portugal that can be considered truly [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_people "Portuguese people"). Its members are descendants of [crypto\-Jews](/wiki/Crypto-Jews "Crypto-Jews") that managed to preserve many of the rites, prayers and social relations throughout the period of the Inquisition, marrying inside a community constituted by a few families. The *[Museu Judaico de Belmonte](/wiki/Museu_Judaico_de_Belmonte "Museu Judaico de Belmonte") (Judaic Museum of Belmonte)* inaugurated in 2005, was the first museum of that kind in [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal").{{Cite web \|title\=Museu Judaico \|url\=https://www.cm\-belmonte.com/?q\=node/126 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-11 \|website\=Belmonte \|language\=pt\-pt}}
File:Sinagoga Belmonte01\.jpg\|Facade
### Cascais
The [Avner Cohen Chabad House](/wiki/Avner_Cohen_Chabad_House "Avner Cohen Chabad House") is a [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") community centre situated in [Cascais](/wiki/Cascais "Cascais") in the [Lisbon District](/wiki/Lisbon_District "Lisbon District"). It includes a library that places special emphasis on works about the [Torah](/wiki/Torah "Torah"), either those written by Portuguese Jewish scholars or printed in Portugal in the late 15th\-century. This is the first [Chabad House](/wiki/Chabad_House "Chabad House") to be established in Portugal, having been opened in 2019\.{{cite web \|title\=About Us \|url\=https://www.chabadportugal.com/templates/articlecco\_cdo/aid/2209205/jewish/About\-Us.htm \|website\=Chabad Lubavitch of Portugal \|access\-date\=12 October 2022}}
### History of the Jews in Madeira
{{Main\|History of the Jews in Madeira}}
### Migration to Israel
{{Infobox ethnic group
\|image\= File:Quatre synagogues sefardi Jerusalem.JPG
\|group\=Portuguese people in Israel
\|population\= 10,000
\|popplace\= Jerusalem (with an extremely important and significant minority in Tel Aviv)
\|rels\= \[\[Roman Catholicism]], \[\[Judaism]]
\|langs\= \[\[Portuguese language\|Portuguese]]
}}
**The [Portuguese people](/wiki/Portuguese_people "Portuguese people")** are the fifth largest Western European immigrant group in Israel, after Dutch people, French people, Britons and Germans. Also, Israel is home to the largest Portuguese immigrant community in Middle East.
{{Demographics of Israel}}
{{Portuguese diaspora}}
|
[
"Communities\n-----------",
"The roots of Portuguese Jewry lay way prior to the forging of the [Portuguese kingdom](/wiki/Portuguese_kingdom \"Portuguese kingdom\"). When [Afonso I of Portugal](/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal \"Afonso I of Portugal\") obtained recognition of his independent kingdom, in 1143, Jews had lived in the [Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula \"Iberian Peninsula\") for at least one millennium.STEINHARDT, Inácio \\- Raízes dos judeus em Portugal: entre Godos e Sarracenos. \\[S.l.]: Nova Vega, 2012",
"Later, with the [Edict](/wiki/Edict \"Edict\") of expulsion of the Jews by [Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\") (1496\\) and the official establishment of the [Portuguese Inquisition](/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition \"Portuguese Inquisition\") by [John III](/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal \"John III of Portugal\") (1536\\) came a period of intolerance and prejudice that lasted for several centuries and led to the almost complete extermination of [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\") and the Jews in [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\").TÁVARES, Maria José Pimenta Ferro \\- Judaísmo e Inquisição: Estudos. Lisboa: Presença, 1987 It wasn't until the twentieth century that organized [Jewish communities](/wiki/Jewish_communities \"Jewish communities\") settled again in Portugal.",
"### Lisbon",
"The Jewish Community of [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") (Portuguese: *Comunidade Israelita de Lisboa \\- CIL*) was officially recognized in 1913\\. It brings together the Jews of Lisbon. Its headquarters are on Avenida Alexandre Herculano, no.59 in Lisbon, where the synagogue [Shaaré Tikvah](/wiki/Lisbon_Synagogue \"Lisbon Synagogue\") (Gates of Hope) is located. According to its official website, the purpose of the Jewish Community of Lisbon is to promote religious education for the new generations according to the values of Judaism, to recruit new members and to strengthen its engagement in the local and national affairs, by means of dialogue and interaction with the authorities as well as with civil and religious institutions.",
"",
"",
"File:Fachada da sinagoga Shaare Tikva, em Lisboa.jpg\\|Facade\nFile:Interior da sinagoga de Lisboa, Shaarei Tikva.JPG\\|Interior",
"#### Ohel Jacob Synagogue",
"The Ohel Jacob Synagogue (“Tent of Jacob”) was founded in 1934 by a small Jewish group of Ashkenazic origin from Central Europe, which began by meeting at the premises of the now established Hehaber – Israel Youth Zionist character, which had been created by young Jews in Lisbon in 1925\\. This group of Jews, mostly Poles, would play a remarkable role in the dynamization of this religious space, a singular synagogue, characterized by its openness to the outside, tolerance and understanding for Jews of all origins, especially the integration of the descendants of [Marranos – or b’nei anussim](/wiki/Marrano \"Marrano\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Institutional \\|url\\=https://hehaver\\-oheljacob.org/en/institutional/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-18 \\|website\\=Ohel Jacob Synagogue and Hehaver Community \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"Ohel Jacob is the only [reform](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\") synagogue in Portugal, and is under the guidance of Rabbi [Alona Lisitsa](/wiki/Alona_Lisitsa \"Alona Lisitsa\"). It is also an affiliate member of the [European Union for Progressive Judaism (EUPJ)](https://eupj.org/) and [World Union for Progressive Judaism (WUPJ)](/wiki/World_Union_for_Progressive_Judaism \"World Union for Progressive Judaism\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=EUPJ \\- WUPJ \\|url\\=https://hehaver\\-oheljacob.org/en/ohel\\-jacob\\-eupj\\-member/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-18 \\|website\\=Ohel Jacob Synagogue and Hehaver Community \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"### Porto",
"The foundation of the synagogue dates to 1923, with the initiatives of the Jewish community in Porto and of [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28OF-2%29 \"Captain (OF-2)\") [Artur Barros Basto](/wiki/Artur_Carlos_de_Barros_Basto \"Artur Carlos de Barros Basto\"), who converted to [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\").{{citation \\|url\\=http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP\\_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id\\=5567 \\|title\\=Sinagoga do Porto/Sinagoga Kadoorie Mekor Haim/Museu Judaico do Porto (IPA.00005567/PT011312070213\\) \\|publisher\\=SIPA – Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico \\|location\\=Lisbon, Portugal \\|language\\=pt \\|first\\=Isabel \\|last\\=Sereno \\|year\\=1998 \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2017}} Generally, [three organized Jewish communities](/wiki/Jewish_Communities_of_Portugal \"Jewish Communities of Portugal\") had existed in Portugal: in Lisbon, Porto and Belmonte; there are{{Clarify timeframe\\|date\\=February 2020}} 6000 people who consider themselves Jewish. Captain Barros Basto was one of the most important figures in the community, linked to the founding of an organized Jewish movement in the northern community. There were at least twenty [Ashkenazi](/wiki/Ashkenazim \"Ashkenazim\") Jews in the city; since there was no synagogue, they needed to travel to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") for all their religious needs.",
"Barros Basto began to plan a synagogue, officially registering the local Jewish community, the Comunidade Israelita do Porto (Israelite Community of Porto), with the local government in 1923\\. During this time, the membership used a house on the Rua Elias Garcia. In 1927, Barros Basto founded the Portuguese Jewish newspaper *[Ha\\-Lapid](/wiki/Ha-Lapid \"Ha-Lapid\")*.",
"In 1929, with the aim of trying to convert the Marranos that existed in Trás\\-os\\-Montes and Beiras into official Judaism, Barros Basto raised funds. On 13 November 1929 an application for the necessary licensing to begin work was delivered to the municipal council; a few weeks later, the first stone was laid and construction begun. The architects were Artur de Almeida Júnior and Augusto dos Santos Malta (who trained in the Escola das Belas Artes de Porto), in collaboration with interior designer Rogério de Azevedo. Rogério de Azevedo may have executed some of the finish work himself, as some touches, including woodwork in the library, were completed in a style characteristic of his work.Elvira de Azevedo Mea and Inácio Steinhardt (1997\\), p.222",
"Between 1930 and 1935, the Israeli Technology Institute was installed in the building, even before its completion. The work progressed slowly until 1933, despite support from the Committee for Spanish\\-Portuguese Jews in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). In 1937, the synagogue was complete thanks to the contributions from the Jewish community in London and from funds donated by the [Kadoorie family](/wiki/Kadoorie_family \"Kadoorie family\") and Iraqi Jews from Portugal. Upon the death of Laura Kadoorie, the wife of prominent [Mizrahi](/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews \"Mizrahi Jews\") Jewish philanthropist Sir [Elly Kadoorie](/wiki/Elly_Kadoorie \"Elly Kadoorie\"), her children wished to honor their mother, a descendant of Portuguese Jews who had fled the country following the [Inquisition](/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition \"Portuguese Inquisition\"). This tribute was reflected in the monetary support by the Kadoorie family to assist in the construction of large part of the synagogue in Porto, which was later renamed Synagogue Kadoorie \\- Mekor Haim. In the same year, Captain Artur Barros Basto was expelled from the Portuguese army for his participation in circumcisions. The synagogue was inaugurated in 1938\\. The synagogue has always had a small number of members and, for much of the 20th century, has been entrusted to families in Central and Eastern Europe (Roskin, Kniskinsky, Finkelstein, Cymerman, Pressman and others), who married among themselves.",
"During the Second World War, hundreds of refugees passed through the doors of the synagogue en route to the United States.",
"Former Captain Barros Bastos died in 1961\\.",
"In 2012, the synagogue was opened to the public.",
"Representatives from an [Israeli](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") governmental agency visited in 2014 and approved co\\-financing for renovations and security upgrades. On 21 May 2015, the Jewish Museum of Porto was opened to the public. It was inaugurated on 28 June in the presence of the president of the Comunidade Israelita do Porto and various cultural, education and political personalities. A fence was erected along the sides and rear of the building.",
"The community counts among its members Jews of origins as diverse as [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"), [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") and [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). The present [rabbi](/wiki/Rabbi \"Rabbi\") is Daniel Litvak, a native of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"), and the current vice president is Isabel Ferreira Lopes, the granddaughter of Captain Barros Basto.",
"[thumb\\|[Shabbaton](/wiki/Shabbaton \"Shabbaton\") 2020](/wiki/File:Shabbaton_2020.jpg \"Shabbaton 2020.jpg\")\nAccording to the official blog of the community, it includes about 500 Jews originally from more than thirty countries and gathers all standards and degrees of observance of Judaism.\nIn recent years, the members of the community have connected the organization with the rest of the Jewish world, written the Community's rules, restored the synagogue building, organized departments and created the necessary conditions for Jewish life to flourish again in Oporto.\nThe organisation has a [beit din](/wiki/Beth_din \"Beth din\"), two official rabbis, and structures for [kashrut](/wiki/Kashrut \"Kashrut\"). It offers courses to schoolteachers to combat [anti\\-Semitism](/wiki/Antisemitism \"Antisemitism\"), and has a museum, a cinema, films about its history, and cooperation protocols with the Portuguese state, the Israeli Embassy to Portugal, [B'nai B'rith International](/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith \"B'nai B'rith\"), the [Anti\\-Defamation League](/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League \"Anti-Defamation League\"), [Keren Hayesod](/wiki/Keren_Hayesod \"Keren Hayesod\"), and [Chabad Lubavitch](/wiki/Chabad \"Chabad\"), as well as with the [Oporto Diocese](/wiki/Diocese_of_Porto \"Diocese of Porto\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.vidaeconomica.pt/vida\\-economica\\-1/comunidades\\-judaica\\-e\\-catolica\\-do\\-porto\\-doam\\-20\\-mil\\-euros\\-quatro\\-instituicoes\\-de\\-pobreza\\|title \\= Comunidades Judaica e Católica do Porto doam 20 mil euros a quatro instituições de pobreza}} and Oporto's [Muslim](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\") community.",
"In January 2019, the President of the Republic, [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa \"Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa\"), visited the Porto Synagogue, where he attended the celebration of the Shabbat Cabalat, after which he took the floor. Upon arrival, the Head of State was received by the President of the Jewish Community of Porto, Dias Ben Zion, and by the Chief Rabbi, Daniel Litvak.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.presidencia.pt/?idc\\=10\\&idi\\=158818\\|title \\= Presidente da República visitou Sinagoga do Porto}}",
"In September 2020, the Jewish Community of Porto was received by the Mayor of Porto, Rui Moreira, in the City Hall. The Mayor welcomed the leadership of a rapidly growing and rejuvenating community in the city, representing about 500 Jews from more than 30 countries.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.porto.pt/noticias/comunidade\\-judaica\\-do\\-porto\\-foi\\-hoje\\-recebida\\-por\\-rui\\-moreira\\-na\\-camara\\|title \\= Comunidade Judaica do Porto foi hoje recebida por Rui Moreira na Câmara\\|date \\= 15 September 2020}}",
"In 2021, the [Holocaust Museum of Oporto](/wiki/Holocaust_Museum_of_Oporto \"Holocaust Museum of Oporto\") was inaugurated.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Zaig \\|first1\\=Gadi \\|title\\=First Holocaust museum to be inaugurated in Oporto, Portugal \\|url\\=https://www.jpost.com/international/first\\-holocaust\\-museum\\-to\\-be\\-inaugurated\\-in\\-oporto\\-portugal\\-655279 \\|website\\=The Jerusalem Post \\|date\\=13 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2024}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Portugal opens the doors to Oporto Holocaust museum \\|url\\=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/portugal\\-opens\\-the\\-doors\\-to\\-oporto\\-holocaust\\-museum\\-664505 \\|website\\=The Jerusalem Post \\|date\\=8 April 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2024}}",
"",
"",
"File:Sinagoga Kadoorie10\\.jpg\\|Facade\nFile:Sinagoga Kadoorie11\\.jpg\\|Interior",
"### Belmonte",
"The Jewish community of [Belmonte](/wiki/Belmonte_Municipality \"Belmonte Municipality\") was officially recognized in 1989\\. It brings together the [Jews of Belmonte](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belmonte \"History of the Jews in Belmonte\") and its surroundings. Its headquarters are located in Rua Fonte Rosa, 6250\\-041, Belmonte, where the Synagogue Beit Eliahu (House of Elijah) was built. According to the official blog of the Jewish community of Belmonte, this is the only community in Portugal that can be considered truly [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_people \"Portuguese people\"). Its members are descendants of [crypto\\-Jews](/wiki/Crypto-Jews \"Crypto-Jews\") that managed to preserve many of the rites, prayers and social relations throughout the period of the Inquisition, marrying inside a community constituted by a few families. The *[Museu Judaico de Belmonte](/wiki/Museu_Judaico_de_Belmonte \"Museu Judaico de Belmonte\") (Judaic Museum of Belmonte)* inaugurated in 2005, was the first museum of that kind in [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Museu Judaico \\|url\\=https://www.cm\\-belmonte.com/?q\\=node/126 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-11 \\|website\\=Belmonte \\|language\\=pt\\-pt}}",
"",
"",
"File:Sinagoga Belmonte01\\.jpg\\|Facade",
"### Cascais",
"The [Avner Cohen Chabad House](/wiki/Avner_Cohen_Chabad_House \"Avner Cohen Chabad House\") is a [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") community centre situated in [Cascais](/wiki/Cascais \"Cascais\") in the [Lisbon District](/wiki/Lisbon_District \"Lisbon District\"). It includes a library that places special emphasis on works about the [Torah](/wiki/Torah \"Torah\"), either those written by Portuguese Jewish scholars or printed in Portugal in the late 15th\\-century. This is the first [Chabad House](/wiki/Chabad_House \"Chabad House\") to be established in Portugal, having been opened in 2019\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=About Us \\|url\\=https://www.chabadportugal.com/templates/articlecco\\_cdo/aid/2209205/jewish/About\\-Us.htm \\|website\\=Chabad Lubavitch of Portugal \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2022}}",
"### History of the Jews in Madeira",
"{{Main\\|History of the Jews in Madeira}}",
"### Migration to Israel",
"{{Infobox ethnic group\n\\|image\\= File:Quatre synagogues sefardi Jerusalem.JPG\n\\|group\\=Portuguese people in Israel\n\\|population\\= 10,000 \n\\|popplace\\= Jerusalem (with an extremely important and significant minority in Tel Aviv)\n\\|rels\\= \\[\\[Roman Catholicism]], \\[\\[Judaism]]\n\\|langs\\= \\[\\[Portuguese language\\|Portuguese]]\n}}",
"**The [Portuguese people](/wiki/Portuguese_people \"Portuguese people\")** are the fifth largest Western European immigrant group in Israel, after Dutch people, French people, Britons and Germans. Also, Israel is home to the largest Portuguese immigrant community in Middle East.",
"{{Demographics of Israel}}\n{{Portuguese diaspora}}",
""
] |
### Porto
The foundation of the synagogue dates to 1923, with the initiatives of the Jewish community in Porto and of [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28OF-2%29 "Captain (OF-2)") [Artur Barros Basto](/wiki/Artur_Carlos_de_Barros_Basto "Artur Carlos de Barros Basto"), who converted to [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism").{{citation \|url\=http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP\_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id\=5567 \|title\=Sinagoga do Porto/Sinagoga Kadoorie Mekor Haim/Museu Judaico do Porto (IPA.00005567/PT011312070213\) \|publisher\=SIPA – Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico \|location\=Lisbon, Portugal \|language\=pt \|first\=Isabel \|last\=Sereno \|year\=1998 \|access\-date\=7 May 2017}} Generally, [three organized Jewish communities](/wiki/Jewish_Communities_of_Portugal "Jewish Communities of Portugal") had existed in Portugal: in Lisbon, Porto and Belmonte; there are{{Clarify timeframe\|date\=February 2020}} 6000 people who consider themselves Jewish. Captain Barros Basto was one of the most important figures in the community, linked to the founding of an organized Jewish movement in the northern community. There were at least twenty [Ashkenazi](/wiki/Ashkenazim "Ashkenazim") Jews in the city; since there was no synagogue, they needed to travel to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") for all their religious needs.
Barros Basto began to plan a synagogue, officially registering the local Jewish community, the Comunidade Israelita do Porto (Israelite Community of Porto), with the local government in 1923\. During this time, the membership used a house on the Rua Elias Garcia. In 1927, Barros Basto founded the Portuguese Jewish newspaper *[Ha\-Lapid](/wiki/Ha-Lapid "Ha-Lapid")*.
In 1929, with the aim of trying to convert the Marranos that existed in Trás\-os\-Montes and Beiras into official Judaism, Barros Basto raised funds. On 13 November 1929 an application for the necessary licensing to begin work was delivered to the municipal council; a few weeks later, the first stone was laid and construction begun. The architects were Artur de Almeida Júnior and Augusto dos Santos Malta (who trained in the Escola das Belas Artes de Porto), in collaboration with interior designer Rogério de Azevedo. Rogério de Azevedo may have executed some of the finish work himself, as some touches, including woodwork in the library, were completed in a style characteristic of his work.Elvira de Azevedo Mea and Inácio Steinhardt (1997\), p.222
Between 1930 and 1935, the Israeli Technology Institute was installed in the building, even before its completion. The work progressed slowly until 1933, despite support from the Committee for Spanish\-Portuguese Jews in [London](/wiki/London "London"). In 1937, the synagogue was complete thanks to the contributions from the Jewish community in London and from funds donated by the [Kadoorie family](/wiki/Kadoorie_family "Kadoorie family") and Iraqi Jews from Portugal. Upon the death of Laura Kadoorie, the wife of prominent [Mizrahi](/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews "Mizrahi Jews") Jewish philanthropist Sir [Elly Kadoorie](/wiki/Elly_Kadoorie "Elly Kadoorie"), her children wished to honor their mother, a descendant of Portuguese Jews who had fled the country following the [Inquisition](/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition "Portuguese Inquisition"). This tribute was reflected in the monetary support by the Kadoorie family to assist in the construction of large part of the synagogue in Porto, which was later renamed Synagogue Kadoorie \- Mekor Haim. In the same year, Captain Artur Barros Basto was expelled from the Portuguese army for his participation in circumcisions. The synagogue was inaugurated in 1938\. The synagogue has always had a small number of members and, for much of the 20th century, has been entrusted to families in Central and Eastern Europe (Roskin, Kniskinsky, Finkelstein, Cymerman, Pressman and others), who married among themselves.
During the Second World War, hundreds of refugees passed through the doors of the synagogue en route to the United States.
Former Captain Barros Bastos died in 1961\.
In 2012, the synagogue was opened to the public.
Representatives from an [Israeli](/wiki/Israel "Israel") governmental agency visited in 2014 and approved co\-financing for renovations and security upgrades. On 21 May 2015, the Jewish Museum of Porto was opened to the public. It was inaugurated on 28 June in the presence of the president of the Comunidade Israelita do Porto and various cultural, education and political personalities. A fence was erected along the sides and rear of the building.
The community counts among its members Jews of origins as diverse as [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"), [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") and [England](/wiki/England "England"). The present [rabbi](/wiki/Rabbi "Rabbi") is Daniel Litvak, a native of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"), and the current vice president is Isabel Ferreira Lopes, the granddaughter of Captain Barros Basto.
[thumb\|[Shabbaton](/wiki/Shabbaton "Shabbaton") 2020](/wiki/File:Shabbaton_2020.jpg "Shabbaton 2020.jpg")
According to the official blog of the community, it includes about 500 Jews originally from more than thirty countries and gathers all standards and degrees of observance of Judaism.
In recent years, the members of the community have connected the organization with the rest of the Jewish world, written the Community's rules, restored the synagogue building, organized departments and created the necessary conditions for Jewish life to flourish again in Oporto.
The organisation has a [beit din](/wiki/Beth_din "Beth din"), two official rabbis, and structures for [kashrut](/wiki/Kashrut "Kashrut"). It offers courses to schoolteachers to combat [anti\-Semitism](/wiki/Antisemitism "Antisemitism"), and has a museum, a cinema, films about its history, and cooperation protocols with the Portuguese state, the Israeli Embassy to Portugal, [B'nai B'rith International](/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith "B'nai B'rith"), the [Anti\-Defamation League](/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League "Anti-Defamation League"), [Keren Hayesod](/wiki/Keren_Hayesod "Keren Hayesod"), and [Chabad Lubavitch](/wiki/Chabad "Chabad"), as well as with the [Oporto Diocese](/wiki/Diocese_of_Porto "Diocese of Porto"){{Cite web\|url\=https://www.vidaeconomica.pt/vida\-economica\-1/comunidades\-judaica\-e\-catolica\-do\-porto\-doam\-20\-mil\-euros\-quatro\-instituicoes\-de\-pobreza\|title \= Comunidades Judaica e Católica do Porto doam 20 mil euros a quatro instituições de pobreza}} and Oporto's [Muslim](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims") community.
In January 2019, the President of the Republic, [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa "Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa"), visited the Porto Synagogue, where he attended the celebration of the Shabbat Cabalat, after which he took the floor. Upon arrival, the Head of State was received by the President of the Jewish Community of Porto, Dias Ben Zion, and by the Chief Rabbi, Daniel Litvak.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.presidencia.pt/?idc\=10\&idi\=158818\|title \= Presidente da República visitou Sinagoga do Porto}}
In September 2020, the Jewish Community of Porto was received by the Mayor of Porto, Rui Moreira, in the City Hall. The Mayor welcomed the leadership of a rapidly growing and rejuvenating community in the city, representing about 500 Jews from more than 30 countries.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.porto.pt/noticias/comunidade\-judaica\-do\-porto\-foi\-hoje\-recebida\-por\-rui\-moreira\-na\-camara\|title \= Comunidade Judaica do Porto foi hoje recebida por Rui Moreira na Câmara\|date \= 15 September 2020}}
In 2021, the [Holocaust Museum of Oporto](/wiki/Holocaust_Museum_of_Oporto "Holocaust Museum of Oporto") was inaugurated.{{cite web \|last1\=Zaig \|first1\=Gadi \|title\=First Holocaust museum to be inaugurated in Oporto, Portugal \|url\=https://www.jpost.com/international/first\-holocaust\-museum\-to\-be\-inaugurated\-in\-oporto\-portugal\-655279 \|website\=The Jerusalem Post \|date\=13 January 2021 \|access\-date\=1 July 2024}}{{cite web \|title\=Portugal opens the doors to Oporto Holocaust museum \|url\=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/portugal\-opens\-the\-doors\-to\-oporto\-holocaust\-museum\-664505 \|website\=The Jerusalem Post \|date\=8 April 2021 \|access\-date\=1 July 2024}}
File:Sinagoga Kadoorie10\.jpg\|Facade
File:Sinagoga Kadoorie11\.jpg\|Interior
|
[
"### Porto",
"The foundation of the synagogue dates to 1923, with the initiatives of the Jewish community in Porto and of [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28OF-2%29 \"Captain (OF-2)\") [Artur Barros Basto](/wiki/Artur_Carlos_de_Barros_Basto \"Artur Carlos de Barros Basto\"), who converted to [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\").{{citation \\|url\\=http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP\\_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id\\=5567 \\|title\\=Sinagoga do Porto/Sinagoga Kadoorie Mekor Haim/Museu Judaico do Porto (IPA.00005567/PT011312070213\\) \\|publisher\\=SIPA – Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico \\|location\\=Lisbon, Portugal \\|language\\=pt \\|first\\=Isabel \\|last\\=Sereno \\|year\\=1998 \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2017}} Generally, [three organized Jewish communities](/wiki/Jewish_Communities_of_Portugal \"Jewish Communities of Portugal\") had existed in Portugal: in Lisbon, Porto and Belmonte; there are{{Clarify timeframe\\|date\\=February 2020}} 6000 people who consider themselves Jewish. Captain Barros Basto was one of the most important figures in the community, linked to the founding of an organized Jewish movement in the northern community. There were at least twenty [Ashkenazi](/wiki/Ashkenazim \"Ashkenazim\") Jews in the city; since there was no synagogue, they needed to travel to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") for all their religious needs.",
"Barros Basto began to plan a synagogue, officially registering the local Jewish community, the Comunidade Israelita do Porto (Israelite Community of Porto), with the local government in 1923\\. During this time, the membership used a house on the Rua Elias Garcia. In 1927, Barros Basto founded the Portuguese Jewish newspaper *[Ha\\-Lapid](/wiki/Ha-Lapid \"Ha-Lapid\")*.",
"In 1929, with the aim of trying to convert the Marranos that existed in Trás\\-os\\-Montes and Beiras into official Judaism, Barros Basto raised funds. On 13 November 1929 an application for the necessary licensing to begin work was delivered to the municipal council; a few weeks later, the first stone was laid and construction begun. The architects were Artur de Almeida Júnior and Augusto dos Santos Malta (who trained in the Escola das Belas Artes de Porto), in collaboration with interior designer Rogério de Azevedo. Rogério de Azevedo may have executed some of the finish work himself, as some touches, including woodwork in the library, were completed in a style characteristic of his work.Elvira de Azevedo Mea and Inácio Steinhardt (1997\\), p.222",
"Between 1930 and 1935, the Israeli Technology Institute was installed in the building, even before its completion. The work progressed slowly until 1933, despite support from the Committee for Spanish\\-Portuguese Jews in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). In 1937, the synagogue was complete thanks to the contributions from the Jewish community in London and from funds donated by the [Kadoorie family](/wiki/Kadoorie_family \"Kadoorie family\") and Iraqi Jews from Portugal. Upon the death of Laura Kadoorie, the wife of prominent [Mizrahi](/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews \"Mizrahi Jews\") Jewish philanthropist Sir [Elly Kadoorie](/wiki/Elly_Kadoorie \"Elly Kadoorie\"), her children wished to honor their mother, a descendant of Portuguese Jews who had fled the country following the [Inquisition](/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition \"Portuguese Inquisition\"). This tribute was reflected in the monetary support by the Kadoorie family to assist in the construction of large part of the synagogue in Porto, which was later renamed Synagogue Kadoorie \\- Mekor Haim. In the same year, Captain Artur Barros Basto was expelled from the Portuguese army for his participation in circumcisions. The synagogue was inaugurated in 1938\\. The synagogue has always had a small number of members and, for much of the 20th century, has been entrusted to families in Central and Eastern Europe (Roskin, Kniskinsky, Finkelstein, Cymerman, Pressman and others), who married among themselves.",
"During the Second World War, hundreds of refugees passed through the doors of the synagogue en route to the United States.",
"Former Captain Barros Bastos died in 1961\\.",
"In 2012, the synagogue was opened to the public.",
"Representatives from an [Israeli](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") governmental agency visited in 2014 and approved co\\-financing for renovations and security upgrades. On 21 May 2015, the Jewish Museum of Porto was opened to the public. It was inaugurated on 28 June in the presence of the president of the Comunidade Israelita do Porto and various cultural, education and political personalities. A fence was erected along the sides and rear of the building.",
"The community counts among its members Jews of origins as diverse as [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"), [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") and [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). The present [rabbi](/wiki/Rabbi \"Rabbi\") is Daniel Litvak, a native of [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"), and the current vice president is Isabel Ferreira Lopes, the granddaughter of Captain Barros Basto.",
"[thumb\\|[Shabbaton](/wiki/Shabbaton \"Shabbaton\") 2020](/wiki/File:Shabbaton_2020.jpg \"Shabbaton 2020.jpg\")\nAccording to the official blog of the community, it includes about 500 Jews originally from more than thirty countries and gathers all standards and degrees of observance of Judaism.\nIn recent years, the members of the community have connected the organization with the rest of the Jewish world, written the Community's rules, restored the synagogue building, organized departments and created the necessary conditions for Jewish life to flourish again in Oporto.\nThe organisation has a [beit din](/wiki/Beth_din \"Beth din\"), two official rabbis, and structures for [kashrut](/wiki/Kashrut \"Kashrut\"). It offers courses to schoolteachers to combat [anti\\-Semitism](/wiki/Antisemitism \"Antisemitism\"), and has a museum, a cinema, films about its history, and cooperation protocols with the Portuguese state, the Israeli Embassy to Portugal, [B'nai B'rith International](/wiki/B%27nai_B%27rith \"B'nai B'rith\"), the [Anti\\-Defamation League](/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League \"Anti-Defamation League\"), [Keren Hayesod](/wiki/Keren_Hayesod \"Keren Hayesod\"), and [Chabad Lubavitch](/wiki/Chabad \"Chabad\"), as well as with the [Oporto Diocese](/wiki/Diocese_of_Porto \"Diocese of Porto\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.vidaeconomica.pt/vida\\-economica\\-1/comunidades\\-judaica\\-e\\-catolica\\-do\\-porto\\-doam\\-20\\-mil\\-euros\\-quatro\\-instituicoes\\-de\\-pobreza\\|title \\= Comunidades Judaica e Católica do Porto doam 20 mil euros a quatro instituições de pobreza}} and Oporto's [Muslim](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\") community.",
"In January 2019, the President of the Republic, [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa \"Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa\"), visited the Porto Synagogue, where he attended the celebration of the Shabbat Cabalat, after which he took the floor. Upon arrival, the Head of State was received by the President of the Jewish Community of Porto, Dias Ben Zion, and by the Chief Rabbi, Daniel Litvak.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.presidencia.pt/?idc\\=10\\&idi\\=158818\\|title \\= Presidente da República visitou Sinagoga do Porto}}",
"In September 2020, the Jewish Community of Porto was received by the Mayor of Porto, Rui Moreira, in the City Hall. The Mayor welcomed the leadership of a rapidly growing and rejuvenating community in the city, representing about 500 Jews from more than 30 countries.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.porto.pt/noticias/comunidade\\-judaica\\-do\\-porto\\-foi\\-hoje\\-recebida\\-por\\-rui\\-moreira\\-na\\-camara\\|title \\= Comunidade Judaica do Porto foi hoje recebida por Rui Moreira na Câmara\\|date \\= 15 September 2020}}",
"In 2021, the [Holocaust Museum of Oporto](/wiki/Holocaust_Museum_of_Oporto \"Holocaust Museum of Oporto\") was inaugurated.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Zaig \\|first1\\=Gadi \\|title\\=First Holocaust museum to be inaugurated in Oporto, Portugal \\|url\\=https://www.jpost.com/international/first\\-holocaust\\-museum\\-to\\-be\\-inaugurated\\-in\\-oporto\\-portugal\\-655279 \\|website\\=The Jerusalem Post \\|date\\=13 January 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2024}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Portugal opens the doors to Oporto Holocaust museum \\|url\\=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/portugal\\-opens\\-the\\-doors\\-to\\-oporto\\-holocaust\\-museum\\-664505 \\|website\\=The Jerusalem Post \\|date\\=8 April 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2024}}",
"",
"",
"File:Sinagoga Kadoorie10\\.jpg\\|Facade\nFile:Sinagoga Kadoorie11\\.jpg\\|Interior"
] |
Professional career
-------------------
From 1956 through 1966, Mikaelyan worked as a design engineer at the Automatic Line Plant in Minsk, [Byelorussian SSR](/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR "Byelorussian SSR"), and at the Factory of Boring Machines in Lusavan, [Armenian SSR](/wiki/Armenian_SSR "Armenian SSR").
From 1966 through 1971, he worked at the [State Planning Committee](/wiki/Gosplan "Gosplan") of the Government of Armenian SSR as a head of the department of material funds.
From 1974 through 1976 and from 1981 through 1991, he worked at the [State Committee on Science and Technology](/wiki/State_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union "State Committee of the Soviet Union") of the [Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union "Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union") as a head of the bureau of scientific and technological cooperation with foreign countries.
From 1976 through 1981, he worked at the [United Nations Industrial Development Organization](/wiki/United_Nations_Industrial_Development_Organization "United Nations Industrial Development Organization") (UNIDO) in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria"). He served as a supervisor of the department with the professional level of P5 and was in charge of organizing industrial support to developing countries in [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe "Eastern Europe") and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia"). During his tenure in office, he completed multimillion\-dollar programs allotted by the [United Nations Development Programme](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme "United Nations Development Programme") (UNDP) for industrial construction projects in [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia"), and [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan").
From 1991 through 1996, he served first as a deputy chairman and then as an acting chairman of the [Committee for Relations with Armenian Diaspora](http://www.mindiaspora.am/en/index) in the Government of Armenia. The goal of his appointment was to foster the reorganization and restructuring of the [Armenian diaspora](/wiki/Armenian_diaspora "Armenian diaspora") in order to form and develop the so\-called Armenian factor in international politics. In 1994, he facilitated the establishment of the Confederation of Armenian Communities headquartered in [Simferopol](/wiki/Simferopol "Simferopol") of [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea") and the publication of the Confederation's periodical gazette World Armenian Congress.{{Cite web\|url \= http://krymology.info/index.php/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B\_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0\|title \= Газеты Крыма\|website\=krymology.info/}}
Under the Committee for Relations with the Armenian Diaspora, he established an official monthly newspaper, Hayutyun, in the second issue of which Mikaelyan published an article discussing the need for the convention of an All\-Armenian World Congress.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"From 1956 through 1966, Mikaelyan worked as a design engineer at the Automatic Line Plant in Minsk, [Byelorussian SSR](/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR \"Byelorussian SSR\"), and at the Factory of Boring Machines in Lusavan, [Armenian SSR](/wiki/Armenian_SSR \"Armenian SSR\").",
"From 1966 through 1971, he worked at the [State Planning Committee](/wiki/Gosplan \"Gosplan\") of the Government of Armenian SSR as a head of the department of material funds.",
"From 1974 through 1976 and from 1981 through 1991, he worked at the [State Committee on Science and Technology](/wiki/State_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union \"State Committee of the Soviet Union\") of the [Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union\") as a head of the bureau of scientific and technological cooperation with foreign countries.",
"From 1976 through 1981, he worked at the [United Nations Industrial Development Organization](/wiki/United_Nations_Industrial_Development_Organization \"United Nations Industrial Development Organization\") (UNIDO) in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"). He served as a supervisor of the department with the professional level of P5 and was in charge of organizing industrial support to developing countries in [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe \"Eastern Europe\") and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia \"Southeast Asia\"). During his tenure in office, he completed multimillion\\-dollar programs allotted by the [United Nations Development Programme](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme \"United Nations Development Programme\") (UNDP) for industrial construction projects in [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), and [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\").",
"From 1991 through 1996, he served first as a deputy chairman and then as an acting chairman of the [Committee for Relations with Armenian Diaspora](http://www.mindiaspora.am/en/index) in the Government of Armenia. The goal of his appointment was to foster the reorganization and restructuring of the [Armenian diaspora](/wiki/Armenian_diaspora \"Armenian diaspora\") in order to form and develop the so\\-called Armenian factor in international politics. In 1994, he facilitated the establishment of the Confederation of Armenian Communities headquartered in [Simferopol](/wiki/Simferopol \"Simferopol\") of [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\") and the publication of the Confederation's periodical gazette World Armenian Congress.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://krymology.info/index.php/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B\\_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0\\|title \\= Газеты Крыма\\|website\\=krymology.info/}}",
"Under the Committee for Relations with the Armenian Diaspora, he established an official monthly newspaper, Hayutyun, in the second issue of which Mikaelyan published an article discussing the need for the convention of an All\\-Armenian World Congress.",
""
] |
Ideological views
-----------------
Karen Mikaelyan advocates the formation of Armenian national and state political thinking, based on the critical analysis of the historical path, traversed from the mid\-19th century through today, particularly during the period of the so\-called Armenian Liberation Movement, which is known as one of the most fatal periods in the history of the Armenian nation.
In his articles, Karen Mikaelyan scrutinizes the actions of carriers and followers of the Ideology of the Western Armenian Revolution (as defined by the Armenian historian Leo) which failed to prevent the national disaster of Meds Yeghern. He also analyzes the causes of the loss of sovereignty of the [First Armenian Republic](/wiki/First_Armenian_Republic "First Armenian Republic"), followed by dismemberment of its territories under the joint Bolshevik\-Kemalist aggression in 1920–21\.
Karen Mikaelyan is the author of articles on the origins of the [Nagorno\-Karabakh conflict](/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict "Nagorno-Karabakh conflict") and his expert recommendations on solving the conflict as part of the yet unsolved Armenian Question.
The ideological basis of his views on the Karabakh problem is that he considers the beginning of the conflict not in 1989, as it's widely considered, but in 1921, with the unlawful act of the Soviet government, which handed over the [Nagorno\-Karabakh](/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh "Nagorno-Karabakh") and [Nakhichevan regions](/wiki/Nakhichevan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") to the [Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic").
Thus he sees the path of liberation of Karabakh not through the national self\-determination and the consequent creation of a second Armenian republic, but as the act of the reunion of the divided Armenian nation and the partial restoration of the territorial integrity of the Armenian state.
By reviving the Russian newsmagazine Grazhdanin, Mikaelyan sought to actualize the problem of continuity of Russian statehood, which was ruined as a consequence of the counter\-revolutionary coup in October 1917, which has interrupted the process of establishing a Russian federal democratic state that had started with the [February 1917 Democratic Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution "February Revolution").
[The October 1917](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution") coup d’état resulted in artificially created Soviet Socialist Republics on the former provinces of the Russia Empire \- in fact subservient states integrated into a unitary union state – with conventional and unlawfully defined borders, which during the collapse of Soviet Union and after the [Belavezha accords](/wiki/Belavezha_Accords "Belavezha Accords"), signed without indispensable negotiations on the revision of the old boundaries making sense only in a unitary state, has become a source of numerous ethnic and territorial conflicts in the post\-Soviet space, as well as the cause of the loss of tens of thousands of square kilometers of historical Russian territories populated with over 25 million ethnic Russians.
Mikaelyan sees the need for the formation of financial and political power, which should represent an alliance of emerging national capital and national\-oriented Russian intellectuals able to consolidate the nation around the idea of revival and the development of a free, independent, and progressive Russia through complete political, cultural, and ideological complete de\-Sovietization, which could help Russia to take its rightful place in the process of developing a more humane and just world order.
|
[
"Ideological views\n-----------------",
"Karen Mikaelyan advocates the formation of Armenian national and state political thinking, based on the critical analysis of the historical path, traversed from the mid\\-19th century through today, particularly during the period of the so\\-called Armenian Liberation Movement, which is known as one of the most fatal periods in the history of the Armenian nation.",
"In his articles, Karen Mikaelyan scrutinizes the actions of carriers and followers of the Ideology of the Western Armenian Revolution (as defined by the Armenian historian Leo) which failed to prevent the national disaster of Meds Yeghern. He also analyzes the causes of the loss of sovereignty of the [First Armenian Republic](/wiki/First_Armenian_Republic \"First Armenian Republic\"), followed by dismemberment of its territories under the joint Bolshevik\\-Kemalist aggression in 1920–21\\.\nKaren Mikaelyan is the author of articles on the origins of the [Nagorno\\-Karabakh conflict](/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict \"Nagorno-Karabakh conflict\") and his expert recommendations on solving the conflict as part of the yet unsolved Armenian Question.\nThe ideological basis of his views on the Karabakh problem is that he considers the beginning of the conflict not in 1989, as it's widely considered, but in 1921, with the unlawful act of the Soviet government, which handed over the [Nagorno\\-Karabakh](/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh \"Nagorno-Karabakh\") and [Nakhichevan regions](/wiki/Nakhichevan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") to the [Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic\").",
"Thus he sees the path of liberation of Karabakh not through the national self\\-determination and the consequent creation of a second Armenian republic, but as the act of the reunion of the divided Armenian nation and the partial restoration of the territorial integrity of the Armenian state.",
"By reviving the Russian newsmagazine Grazhdanin, Mikaelyan sought to actualize the problem of continuity of Russian statehood, which was ruined as a consequence of the counter\\-revolutionary coup in October 1917, which has interrupted the process of establishing a Russian federal democratic state that had started with the [February 1917 Democratic Revolution](/wiki/February_Revolution \"February Revolution\").",
"[The October 1917](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\") coup d’état resulted in artificially created Soviet Socialist Republics on the former provinces of the Russia Empire \\- in fact subservient states integrated into a unitary union state – with conventional and unlawfully defined borders, which during the collapse of Soviet Union and after the [Belavezha accords](/wiki/Belavezha_Accords \"Belavezha Accords\"), signed without indispensable negotiations on the revision of the old boundaries making sense only in a unitary state, has become a source of numerous ethnic and territorial conflicts in the post\\-Soviet space, as well as the cause of the loss of tens of thousands of square kilometers of historical Russian territories populated with over 25 million ethnic Russians.",
"Mikaelyan sees the need for the formation of financial and political power, which should represent an alliance of emerging national capital and national\\-oriented Russian intellectuals able to consolidate the nation around the idea of revival and the development of a free, independent, and progressive Russia through complete political, cultural, and ideological complete de\\-Sovietization, which could help Russia to take its rightful place in the process of developing a more humane and just world order.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Cesa graduated in Political Science from the LUISS University in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"). He was manager of important companies and banks, including [ANAS](/wiki/ANAS "ANAS").
He was elected Municipal Councillor of Rome with the [Christian Democracy](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 "Christian Democracy (Italy)"), and subsequently joined the [Christian Democratic Centre](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Centre "Christian Democratic Centre") and the [Union of Christian and Centre Democrats](/wiki/Union_of_Christian_and_Centre_Democrats "Union of Christian and Centre Democrats").
In the 2004 European Parliament election Cesa was elected [MEP](/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament "Member of the European Parliament") with 103,000 preference votes.
On 27 October 2005 he was elected Secretary of the UDC, succeeding [Marco Follini](/wiki/Marco_Follini "Marco Follini").
In the 2006 general election he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, so he resigned as MEP. He was also re\-elected MP in the 2008 and 2013 elections.
In the 2014 European Parliament election he was again elected MEP, among the ranks of the [New Centre\-Right – UDC](/wiki/New_Centre-Right_%E2%80%93_Union_of_the_Centre "New Centre-Right – Union of the Centre"). In the general election of 2018 he was a candidate for the Chamber of Deputies, in the uni\-nominal college of [Nola](/wiki/Nola "Nola") (with the support of the centre\-right coalition) and in the relative proportional list ([Us with Italy – UDC](/wiki/Us_with_Italy "Us with Italy")), but he was not elected, so kept the office as an MEP.
In the 2019 European election Cesa was candidate on the [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia_%282013%29 "Forza Italia (2013)") list, but he was not re\-elected.[Europee, i candidati promossi e quelli bocciati: i numeri dei signori delle preferenze](https://www.youtrend.it/2019/05/28/elezioni-europee-2019-candidati-eletti-preferenze-circoscrizioni/)
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Cesa graduated in Political Science from the LUISS University in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"). He was manager of important companies and banks, including [ANAS](/wiki/ANAS \"ANAS\").",
"He was elected Municipal Councillor of Rome with the [Christian Democracy](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 \"Christian Democracy (Italy)\"), and subsequently joined the [Christian Democratic Centre](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Centre \"Christian Democratic Centre\") and the [Union of Christian and Centre Democrats](/wiki/Union_of_Christian_and_Centre_Democrats \"Union of Christian and Centre Democrats\").",
"In the 2004 European Parliament election Cesa was elected [MEP](/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament \"Member of the European Parliament\") with 103,000 preference votes.",
"On 27 October 2005 he was elected Secretary of the UDC, succeeding [Marco Follini](/wiki/Marco_Follini \"Marco Follini\").",
"In the 2006 general election he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, so he resigned as MEP. He was also re\\-elected MP in the 2008 and 2013 elections.",
"In the 2014 European Parliament election he was again elected MEP, among the ranks of the [New Centre\\-Right – UDC](/wiki/New_Centre-Right_%E2%80%93_Union_of_the_Centre \"New Centre-Right – Union of the Centre\"). In the general election of 2018 he was a candidate for the Chamber of Deputies, in the uni\\-nominal college of [Nola](/wiki/Nola \"Nola\") (with the support of the centre\\-right coalition) and in the relative proportional list ([Us with Italy – UDC](/wiki/Us_with_Italy \"Us with Italy\")), but he was not elected, so kept the office as an MEP.",
"In the 2019 European election Cesa was candidate on the [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia_%282013%29 \"Forza Italia (2013)\") list, but he was not re\\-elected.[Europee, i candidati promossi e quelli bocciati: i numeri dei signori delle preferenze](https://www.youtrend.it/2019/05/28/elezioni-europee-2019-candidati-eletti-preferenze-circoscrizioni/)",
""
] |
Life
----
Cabrera was born in [San Juan, Argentina](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Argentina "San Juan, Argentina")
{{cite web
\| title\= Assassination of Argentine Sex Worker and Activist Sandra Cabrera
\| url\= http://www.nswp.org/timeline/event/assassination\-argentine\-sex\-worker\-and\-activist\-sandra\-cabrera
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2014\-01\-27
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160915230047/http://www.nswp.org/timeline/event/assassination\-argentine\-sex\-worker\-and\-activist\-sandra\-cabrera
\| archive\-date\= 2016\-09\-15
}}
in 1970\. She moved to [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario "Rosario") in 1994, leaving two children with her mother. People who met her remember her eyes, dark enough to seem black, a wealth of black hair, and her direct gaze, sometimes interpreted as inquisitive,
{{cite news
\|title \= La disciplina del miedo
\|url \= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-4654\-2009\-01\-25\.html
\|url\-status \= live
\|date \= 2009\-01\-23
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20161112102808/http://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-4654\-2009\-01\-25\.html
\|archive\-date \= 2016\-11\-12
}}
sometimes as defiant.
{{cite news
\| title\= ni una más
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-990\-2004\-01\-30\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-01\-30
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170217062307/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-990\-2004\-01\-30\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-02\-17
}}
At the time of her murder, she had been planning to travel to another city with a friend to attend a rock festival.
{{ cite news
\| title\= Sandra Cabrera: La impunidad que mata
\| url\= http://www.enredando.org.ar/2015/01/27/sandra\-cabrera\-la\-impunidad\-que\-mata
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2015\-01\-27
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170823163955/http://www.enredando.org.ar/2015/01/27/sandra\-cabrera\-la\-impunidad\-que\-mata
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-23
}}
Her first contact with [AMMAR](/wiki/Association_of_Women_Sex_Workers_in_Argentina_in_Action_for_Our_Rights "Association of Women Sex Workers in Argentina in Action for Our Rights") (Association of Women Prostitutes of Argentina) occurred in 2000, but she didn't begin working with the union until 2001\.
{{cite web
\| title\= Sandra Cabrera, una luchadora social
\| url\= http://www.ammar.org.ar/Sandra\-Cabrera\-una\-luchadora.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-04\-07
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160828232928/http://www.ammar.org.ar/Sandra\-Cabrera\-una\-luchadora.html
\| archive\-date\= 2016\-08\-28
}}
{{ blockquote \| text\= I was working in a corner of the Terminal area and a group of pimps and bouncers from a bar in the area beat me up pretty badly. I reported that in the media and there the girls from Buenos Aires showed up. At first I didn't take them seriously, but the following year, when a group of police beat up another coworker in the south area, we began to work with everything.
\| author\= Sandra Cabrera
}}
During Argentina's economic crisis in 2001, Cabrera discovered the power of union association. She complained publicly that the lack of cash had left the women on the street desperately poor, to the point of not knowing if they would have food for their families on Christmas. The Ministry of Social Advancement gave the union sacks of food that Cabrera distributed, working from 8 in the morning to 10 at night.
{{ blockquote \| text\= "There were many women who had nothing to eat, so we started to manage food boxes and work plans... At 10:30 pm my daughter and I fell asleep and when I woke up the other day I worried because we had not celebrated Christmas, but she (her daughter Macarena, 7 years old) told me not to worry about it, because thanks to what we had done the day before, many of our companions had something to celebrate.
\| author\= Sandra Cabrera
}}
Cabrera seems to have been a devoted mother to the daughter she called "Maca". She encouraged her education and ensured that she learned computer skills. She took her to the theater. At the time of the murder, Macarena was away at a scouting camp in Mendoza.
Cabrera's work to stop the spread of [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS "AIDS") and other STDs began in October, 2001\.
{{ blockquote \| text\= The word of someone unknown is not the same as one of us talking to our colleagues, with our language, explaining how to take care of ourselves through our experience.
There are women who did not know how to protect themselves when they \[clients] ask for a ''francesa'' \[oral sex]... We have a manual with pictures of healthy vaginas next to diseased vaginas, healthy penises next to diseased penises, because for us things also enter our eyes.
\| author\= Sandra Cabrera
}}
Lacking resources for its own place, AMMAR's Rosario chapter maintained an office with the Government Workers Association, where the AMMAR women were known affectionately as "the Sanjua gang", after Cabrera's place of origin. Cabrera reportedly had a love/hate relationship with AMMAR's national leadership. Her interactions with Elena Reynaga, Secretary General of the union at the time, have been described as "explosive". Reynaga acknowledged that no one she worked with fought her as Cabrera did,
{{cite news
\| title\= El paso al frente
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-1745\-2005\-02\-04\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2005\-02\-04
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151005034620/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-1745\-2005\-02\-04\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2015\-10\-05
}}
but she also acknowledged Cabrera's effectiveness:
{{ blockquote
\| text\= She cared about the others, the injustices spurred her on, she got what she wanted.
\| author\= Elena Reynaga
}}
Organizing gave her a position in a social network that she couldn't get any other way.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= She was very lacking in \[i.e. hadn't received] affection, like so many of us. In the organization she began to find something we all seek, to be recognized for something and to be important.
\| author\= Elena Reynaga
}}
And in Rosario, she found that recognition.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= We admire her strength, how she achieves things for us. It makes us think that if we unite we can aspire to a retirement, to a more dignified life.
\| author\= Rosario sex worker
}}
She was the consummate union organizer. For two years before her murder, she used her motorcycle to take her every place in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario "Rosario") where her colleagues were working the street, listening to their complaints and planning how to use the union to protect them. After she died this was how many people remembered her; on her bike, distributing condoms, asking about people's problems. She learned how to make statements to the news media that the media would pick up and publish, spreading her message.
{{cite news
\| title\= Crimen con olor a venganza mafiosa
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\-30866\-2004\-01\-28\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-01\-28
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100420082851/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\-30866\-2004\-01\-28\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2010\-04\-20
}}
{{ blockquote
\| text\= The police are chasing street workers instead of combating child prostitution or pimping, which are punishable by law. In fact they commit pimping, because they live by extracting money through blackmail of women who practice prostitution.
\| author\= Sandra Cabrera
}}
Perhaps Cabrera's hardest task was just persuading her colleagues that a union was possible. Claudia Lucero, her close friend, sometime dancing partner, godmother of her daughter, and eventual successor as secretary general of the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") chapter of AMMAR, had to be won over.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= When she proposed it, I did not want to know anything. I told her it was crazy, that it could not be that we had a union, because we had never had anything. Society always had us as the lowest, for me it was like we did not exist. When the crisis came in late 2001, Sandra got social plans. There I started to go to the headquarters of the Central of Argentine Workers (CTA), but still thought that we could not get to where we arrived today. When I started to go, I met all the union guys who treated us differently, they said 'how are you, girls.' There I began to realize that we were not what they had made us believe. Because we suffered so much repression, the police made us believe that we were nobody. There I realized that it was not so.
\| author\= Claudia Lucero
}}
Other street workers had other reasons for not joining. Stella Maris Longoni found it easier just to pay her police extortionist fifty pesos a week and be left in peace, until the day she paid and the police arrested her anyway. Released from jail, with police warnings not to join the union still ringing in her ears, she went straight to Cabrera and AMMAR.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Cabrera was born in [San Juan, Argentina](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Argentina \"San Juan, Argentina\")",
"{{cite web\n\\| title\\= Assassination of Argentine Sex Worker and Activist Sandra Cabrera \n\\| url\\= http://www.nswp.org/timeline/event/assassination\\-argentine\\-sex\\-worker\\-and\\-activist\\-sandra\\-cabrera\n\\| url\\-status\\= live \n\\| date\\= 2014\\-01\\-27\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160915230047/http://www.nswp.org/timeline/event/assassination\\-argentine\\-sex\\-worker\\-and\\-activist\\-sandra\\-cabrera\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2016\\-09\\-15\n }} \nin 1970\\. She moved to [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario \"Rosario\") in 1994, leaving two children with her mother. People who met her remember her eyes, dark enough to seem black, a wealth of black hair, and her direct gaze, sometimes interpreted as inquisitive,",
"{{cite news\n \\|title \\= La disciplina del miedo\n \\|url \\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-4654\\-2009\\-01\\-25\\.html\n \\|url\\-status \\= live\n \\|date \\= 2009\\-01\\-23\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20161112102808/http://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-4654\\-2009\\-01\\-25\\.html\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2016\\-11\\-12\n}} \nsometimes as defiant.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= ni una más\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-990\\-2004\\-01\\-30\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-01\\-30\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170217062307/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-990\\-2004\\-01\\-30\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-02\\-17\n }} \nAt the time of her murder, she had been planning to travel to another city with a friend to attend a rock festival.",
"{{ cite news\n\\| title\\= Sandra Cabrera: La impunidad que mata\n\\| url\\= http://www.enredando.org.ar/2015/01/27/sandra\\-cabrera\\-la\\-impunidad\\-que\\-mata\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2015\\-01\\-27\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170823163955/http://www.enredando.org.ar/2015/01/27/sandra\\-cabrera\\-la\\-impunidad\\-que\\-mata\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-23\n}}",
"Her first contact with [AMMAR](/wiki/Association_of_Women_Sex_Workers_in_Argentina_in_Action_for_Our_Rights \"Association of Women Sex Workers in Argentina in Action for Our Rights\") (Association of Women Prostitutes of Argentina) occurred in 2000, but she didn't begin working with the union until 2001\\.",
"{{cite web\n\\| title\\= Sandra Cabrera, una luchadora social\n\\| url\\= http://www.ammar.org.ar/Sandra\\-Cabrera\\-una\\-luchadora.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-04\\-07\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160828232928/http://www.ammar.org.ar/Sandra\\-Cabrera\\-una\\-luchadora.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2016\\-08\\-28\n }}",
"{{ blockquote \\| text\\= I was working in a corner of the Terminal area and a group of pimps and bouncers from a bar in the area beat me up pretty badly. I reported that in the media and there the girls from Buenos Aires showed up. At first I didn't take them seriously, but the following year, when a group of police beat up another coworker in the south area, we began to work with everything.\n\\| author\\= Sandra Cabrera \n}}",
"During Argentina's economic crisis in 2001, Cabrera discovered the power of union association. She complained publicly that the lack of cash had left the women on the street desperately poor, to the point of not knowing if they would have food for their families on Christmas. The Ministry of Social Advancement gave the union sacks of food that Cabrera distributed, working from 8 in the morning to 10 at night.",
"{{ blockquote \\| text\\= \"There were many women who had nothing to eat, so we started to manage food boxes and work plans... At 10:30 pm my daughter and I fell asleep and when I woke up the other day I worried because we had not celebrated Christmas, but she (her daughter Macarena, 7 years old) told me not to worry about it, because thanks to what we had done the day before, many of our companions had something to celebrate.\n\\| author\\= Sandra Cabrera \n}}",
"Cabrera seems to have been a devoted mother to the daughter she called \"Maca\". She encouraged her education and ensured that she learned computer skills. She took her to the theater. At the time of the murder, Macarena was away at a scouting camp in Mendoza.",
"Cabrera's work to stop the spread of [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS \"AIDS\") and other STDs began in October, 2001\\.",
"{{ blockquote \\| text\\= The word of someone unknown is not the same as one of us talking to our colleagues, with our language, explaining how to take care of ourselves through our experience.",
"There are women who did not know how to protect themselves when they \\[clients] ask for a ''francesa'' \\[oral sex]... We have a manual with pictures of healthy vaginas next to diseased vaginas, healthy penises next to diseased penises, because for us things also enter our eyes. \n\\| author\\= Sandra Cabrera\n}}",
"Lacking resources for its own place, AMMAR's Rosario chapter maintained an office with the Government Workers Association, where the AMMAR women were known affectionately as \"the Sanjua gang\", after Cabrera's place of origin. Cabrera reportedly had a love/hate relationship with AMMAR's national leadership. Her interactions with Elena Reynaga, Secretary General of the union at the time, have been described as \"explosive\". Reynaga acknowledged that no one she worked with fought her as Cabrera did,",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= El paso al frente\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-1745\\-2005\\-02\\-04\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2005\\-02\\-04\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20151005034620/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-1745\\-2005\\-02\\-04\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2015\\-10\\-05\n }} \nbut she also acknowledged Cabrera's effectiveness:",
"{{ blockquote \n\\| text\\= She cared about the others, the injustices spurred her on, she got what she wanted.\n\\| author\\= Elena Reynaga \n}}",
"Organizing gave her a position in a social network that she couldn't get any other way.",
"{{ blockquote \n\\| text\\= She was very lacking in \\[i.e. hadn't received] affection, like so many of us. In the organization she began to find something we all seek, to be recognized for something and to be important.\n\\| author\\= Elena Reynaga \n}}",
"And in Rosario, she found that recognition.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= We admire her strength, how she achieves things for us. It makes us think that if we unite we can aspire to a retirement, to a more dignified life.\n\\| author\\= Rosario sex worker \n}}",
"She was the consummate union organizer. For two years before her murder, she used her motorcycle to take her every place in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario \"Rosario\") where her colleagues were working the street, listening to their complaints and planning how to use the union to protect them. After she died this was how many people remembered her; on her bike, distributing condoms, asking about people's problems. She learned how to make statements to the news media that the media would pick up and publish, spreading her message.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Crimen con olor a venganza mafiosa\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\\-30866\\-2004\\-01\\-28\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-01\\-28\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100420082851/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\\-30866\\-2004\\-01\\-28\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2010\\-04\\-20\n}} \n{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= The police are chasing street workers instead of combating child prostitution or pimping, which are punishable by law. In fact they commit pimping, because they live by extracting money through blackmail of women who practice prostitution.\n\\| author\\= Sandra Cabrera \n}}",
"Perhaps Cabrera's hardest task was just persuading her colleagues that a union was possible. Claudia Lucero, her close friend, sometime dancing partner, godmother of her daughter, and eventual successor as secretary general of the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") chapter of AMMAR, had to be won over.",
"{{ blockquote \n\\| text\\= When she proposed it, I did not want to know anything. I told her it was crazy, that it could not be that we had a union, because we had never had anything. Society always had us as the lowest, for me it was like we did not exist. When the crisis came in late 2001, Sandra got social plans. There I started to go to the headquarters of the Central of Argentine Workers (CTA), but still thought that we could not get to where we arrived today. When I started to go, I met all the union guys who treated us differently, they said 'how are you, girls.' There I began to realize that we were not what they had made us believe. Because we suffered so much repression, the police made us believe that we were nobody. There I realized that it was not so.\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero\n}}",
"Other street workers had other reasons for not joining. Stella Maris Longoni found it easier just to pay her police extortionist fifty pesos a week and be left in peace, until the day she paid and the police arrested her anyway. Released from jail, with police warnings not to join the union still ringing in her ears, she went straight to Cabrera and AMMAR.",
""
] |
Lead up to murder
-----------------
{{ blockquote
\| text\= ... for much more than two years it was said during the night that they were going to find her dead, because they said she does not respect the codes...
{{ cite news
\|title \= El caso Sandra Cabrera. Las redes policiales
\|url \= http://revistaelvecino.blogspot.com/2008/09/el\-caso\-sandra\-cabrera\-las\-redes.html
\|url\-status \= live
\|date \= 2008\-09\-04
\|archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20170819151342/http://revistaelvecino.blogspot.nl/2008/09/el\-caso\-sandra\-cabrera\-las\-redes.html
\|archive\-date \= 2017\-08\-19
}}
\| author\= testimony of Rosa Maria Teresa Signorelli }}
During Sandra Cabrera's murder investigation, a source inside the investigation told a news reporter that Cabrera had been defending herself on three fronts: the violence and risk of working on the street, the assaults arranged by the brothel businesses she and her independent street colleagues were competing with, and the harassment and threats from the police whose graft networks she was disrupting. The corrupt connection between the brothel owners and the police meant that Cabrera's struggle to protect street workers was necessarily a struggle against corruption.
By way of background, the journalist Carlos del Frade has described a meeting in 1991 between Rodolfo Enrique Riegé, Secretary of Public Security for the province of Santa Fe, and Atilio Bléfari, head of police in Rosario. Riegé informed Bléfari that if he didn't increase the graft revenues that he was paying to Riegé, Riegé would relieve him of command and force him to retire. The resulting struggle for control of the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") was not a struggle between justice and corruption, but a struggle between a corrupt police officer and his even more corrupt superior. The document that del Frade cites as a source goes on to list the sources of extralegal income the police were collecting, which included theft of goods during transport, bank robbery, car theft, gambling, exploitation of juveniles in nightclubs and discos, and medical quackery, among other things. Category number two was income from the Public Morality units of the police, and included
{{ blockquote
\| text\= drug traffickers, drug addicts, prostitutes, exploiters, pimps, nightclubs, discos, motels }}
Since the nightclubs and discos were fronts for brothels, this can be summarized as drugs and prostitution.
{{cite web
\| title\= Matar para robar, luchar para vivir
\| url\= http://www.desaparecidos.org/nuncamas/web/investig/frade04/frade04\_04\.htm
\| url\-status\= live
\| access\-date\= 2017\-08\-18
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170628153929/http://www.desaparecidos.org/nuncamas/web/investig/frade04/frade04\_04\.htm
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-06\-28
}}
As part of her campaign for sex worker rights, Cabrera fought for the elimination of the articles of the provincial Misdemeanor Code that criminalized prostitution. Different officers in Rosario's Public Morality unit were able to use the Code to play different sides. Some officers were paid by the brothel owners to enforce the Code against the street workers who were competing with the brothels. Other officers collected bribes from street workers for not enforcing the Code.
Another complication was her romantic involvement with an officer of the Federal police, Diego Parvlucyk. She acted as an informant and he gave her drugs that had been seized during police operations, which she sold. Initially her connection with the Federal police seemed to give her some protection from the provincial police, or at least a feeling of protection, but the relationship with Parvlucyk became more difficult and he was later arrested for her murder, although released and never tried. For many of Argentina's sex workers, this relationship didn't seem unusual.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= Our colleagues, who are human beings and have feelings, fall in love with the police and pimps.
\| author\= Elena Reynaga }}
From 1999 to 2002, there is record of ten formal complaints made by Cabrera against the police. Most of them involve harassment or threats against her or a colleague.
On March 4, 2003, Marcela Patricia Morelli, a street sex worker and member of AMMAR, filed a complaint against officers of the Ludueña neighborhood police station. She and two trans sex workers had been detained by the officers in what she felt was an excessive manner and with "a humiliating treatment". One of the trans sex workers was released after two hours, but Morelli and the other remained for more than six hours. The police removed money and clothing from the other trans sex worker, humiliated the person, and left the person lying on the floor, naked. In the morning the station chief arrived and told them that he didn't want "male or female prostitutes" in his jurisdiction, and threatened more violent measures. He threatened to drag Morelli by her hair if he saw her again.
As leader of AMMAR's Rosario chapter, Cabrera made the following statements.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= We are asking for security. We are fed up with being presented to the merchants of the neighborhoods as sources of insecurity, when many times the presence of prostitutes has avoided robberies.
We know that we are at fault and do not refuse to be delayed by the police in routine checks, but most of us have school\-age children and we have already talked to government ministry personnel so we will not be detained in days during the school year, in order to send our children to school.
These things are repeated every time there are changes of leadership in the sections. When we are stopped we do not refuse to show the latest test results for HIV, despite the fact that the National AIDS Act, 23,798, guarantees the confidentiality of those results.
\| author\= Sandra Cabrera}}
On September 10, 2003, Cabrera organized a formal complaint against the chief and deputy chief of the Public Morality unit of the police, accusing them of harassing sex workers at the stops near the Rosario Bus Terminal in order to protect brothels in the area from competition from independent street workers. An investigation turned up evidence that they were providing protection for a brothel whose women included underage girls and women trafficked from the Dominican Republic. The complaint also accused police officers of forcing street\-based sex workers to pay bribes in order to work. The chief and deputy chief were removed, and the new head of the Public Morality section was a woman, nominally chosen to ensure that the corrupt practices ended, but perhaps in reality chosen to take the pressure off without actually changing anything. Not quite five months later, when Cabrera was murdered, the disgraced ex\-chief of Public Morality had been reassigned as head of the Zavalla police station.
{{ cite news
\|title \= Masiva marcha pidió que se aclare el crimen de Sandra
\|url \= http://www.ellitoral.com/accesorios/imprimir.php?id\=/diarios/2004/02/06/sucesos/SUCE\-02\.html
\|url\-status \= live
\|date \= 2004\-02\-06
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170815161454/http://www.ellitoral.com/accesorios/imprimir.php?id\=%2Fdiarios%2F2004%2F02%2F06%2Fsucesos%2FSUCE\-02\.html
\|archive\-date \= 2017\-08\-15
}}
Following the complaint, some of the bars the two police chiefs had been protecting closed, and a few others stopped making payments to the police. One of the sex workers who joined Cabrera in the complaint testified during the murder investigation that Cabrera had expressed fear that the police would retaliate.
On October 9, someone called the headquarters of the Government Workers Association, where AMMAR kept an office, and said "Tell Sandra that the girl will die before tomorrow." The girl was Cabrera's eight\-year\-old daughter, Macarena. From then until shortly before Cabrera's murder, the police Personal Security unit kept a nightly guard on her home.
A few days later, an anonymous complaint filed in the juvenile courts claimed that "Sandra sent the girl to beg and did not go to school." A social worker investigated and confirmed that Macarena had, in fact, been going to school.
On October 17 a sex worker was assaulted by a cyclist who struck her strongly in the head with a chain. The women went to the police and together they searched the area, but her assailant was never found.
At some point, while the police guard was temporarily away from Cabrera's home, someone got in and beat her. At another point, two men got into her home, put a gun to the head of her dog, and told her to stop fucking with them.
The last complaint Cabrera helped file, four days before her murder, involved an officer who charged a woman fifty pesos a week for the privilege of working without trouble from the police. In spite of punctual payments, the woman was arrested by the Public Morality police, who informed her that the officer she was paying was no longer working in that division. When she announced that she was going to join AMMAR, the Morality police threatened her with daily arrests. Cabrera went with her to file an extortion complaint and was with her when she spoke to the news media. Cabrera told a reporter that she was afraid that someone from the Public Morality unit would come back for her.
During her murder investigation, the investigating judge found evidence of fifteen death threats against her.
|
[
"Lead up to murder\n-----------------",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= ... for much more than two years it was said during the night that they were going to find her dead, because they said she does not respect the codes...\n{{ cite news\n \\|title \\= El caso Sandra Cabrera. Las redes policiales\n \\|url \\= http://revistaelvecino.blogspot.com/2008/09/el\\-caso\\-sandra\\-cabrera\\-las\\-redes.html\n \\|url\\-status \\= live\n \\|date \\= 2008\\-09\\-04\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20170819151342/http://revistaelvecino.blogspot.nl/2008/09/el\\-caso\\-sandra\\-cabrera\\-las\\-redes.html\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2017\\-08\\-19\n}}\n\\| author\\= testimony of Rosa Maria Teresa Signorelli }}\nDuring Sandra Cabrera's murder investigation, a source inside the investigation told a news reporter that Cabrera had been defending herself on three fronts: the violence and risk of working on the street, the assaults arranged by the brothel businesses she and her independent street colleagues were competing with, and the harassment and threats from the police whose graft networks she was disrupting. The corrupt connection between the brothel owners and the police meant that Cabrera's struggle to protect street workers was necessarily a struggle against corruption.",
"By way of background, the journalist Carlos del Frade has described a meeting in 1991 between Rodolfo Enrique Riegé, Secretary of Public Security for the province of Santa Fe, and Atilio Bléfari, head of police in Rosario. Riegé informed Bléfari that if he didn't increase the graft revenues that he was paying to Riegé, Riegé would relieve him of command and force him to retire. The resulting struggle for control of the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") was not a struggle between justice and corruption, but a struggle between a corrupt police officer and his even more corrupt superior. The document that del Frade cites as a source goes on to list the sources of extralegal income the police were collecting, which included theft of goods during transport, bank robbery, car theft, gambling, exploitation of juveniles in nightclubs and discos, and medical quackery, among other things. Category number two was income from the Public Morality units of the police, and included\n{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= drug traffickers, drug addicts, prostitutes, exploiters, pimps, nightclubs, discos, motels }}\nSince the nightclubs and discos were fronts for brothels, this can be summarized as drugs and prostitution.",
"{{cite web\n\\| title\\= Matar para robar, luchar para vivir\n\\| url\\= http://www.desaparecidos.org/nuncamas/web/investig/frade04/frade04\\_04\\.htm\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| access\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-18\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170628153929/http://www.desaparecidos.org/nuncamas/web/investig/frade04/frade04\\_04\\.htm\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-06\\-28\n}}",
"As part of her campaign for sex worker rights, Cabrera fought for the elimination of the articles of the provincial Misdemeanor Code that criminalized prostitution. Different officers in Rosario's Public Morality unit were able to use the Code to play different sides. Some officers were paid by the brothel owners to enforce the Code against the street workers who were competing with the brothels. Other officers collected bribes from street workers for not enforcing the Code.",
"Another complication was her romantic involvement with an officer of the Federal police, Diego Parvlucyk. She acted as an informant and he gave her drugs that had been seized during police operations, which she sold. Initially her connection with the Federal police seemed to give her some protection from the provincial police, or at least a feeling of protection, but the relationship with Parvlucyk became more difficult and he was later arrested for her murder, although released and never tried. For many of Argentina's sex workers, this relationship didn't seem unusual.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= Our colleagues, who are human beings and have feelings, fall in love with the police and pimps.\n\\| author\\= Elena Reynaga }}",
"From 1999 to 2002, there is record of ten formal complaints made by Cabrera against the police. Most of them involve harassment or threats against her or a colleague.",
"On March 4, 2003, Marcela Patricia Morelli, a street sex worker and member of AMMAR, filed a complaint against officers of the Ludueña neighborhood police station. She and two trans sex workers had been detained by the officers in what she felt was an excessive manner and with \"a humiliating treatment\". One of the trans sex workers was released after two hours, but Morelli and the other remained for more than six hours. The police removed money and clothing from the other trans sex worker, humiliated the person, and left the person lying on the floor, naked. In the morning the station chief arrived and told them that he didn't want \"male or female prostitutes\" in his jurisdiction, and threatened more violent measures. He threatened to drag Morelli by her hair if he saw her again.",
"As leader of AMMAR's Rosario chapter, Cabrera made the following statements.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= We are asking for security. We are fed up with being presented to the merchants of the neighborhoods as sources of insecurity, when many times the presence of prostitutes has avoided robberies.",
"We know that we are at fault and do not refuse to be delayed by the police in routine checks, but most of us have school\\-age children and we have already talked to government ministry personnel so we will not be detained in days during the school year, in order to send our children to school.",
"These things are repeated every time there are changes of leadership in the sections. When we are stopped we do not refuse to show the latest test results for HIV, despite the fact that the National AIDS Act, 23,798, guarantees the confidentiality of those results. \n\\| author\\= Sandra Cabrera}}",
"On September 10, 2003, Cabrera organized a formal complaint against the chief and deputy chief of the Public Morality unit of the police, accusing them of harassing sex workers at the stops near the Rosario Bus Terminal in order to protect brothels in the area from competition from independent street workers. An investigation turned up evidence that they were providing protection for a brothel whose women included underage girls and women trafficked from the Dominican Republic. The complaint also accused police officers of forcing street\\-based sex workers to pay bribes in order to work. The chief and deputy chief were removed, and the new head of the Public Morality section was a woman, nominally chosen to ensure that the corrupt practices ended, but perhaps in reality chosen to take the pressure off without actually changing anything. Not quite five months later, when Cabrera was murdered, the disgraced ex\\-chief of Public Morality had been reassigned as head of the Zavalla police station.",
"{{ cite news\n \\|title \\= Masiva marcha pidió que se aclare el crimen de Sandra\n \\|url \\= http://www.ellitoral.com/accesorios/imprimir.php?id\\=/diarios/2004/02/06/sucesos/SUCE\\-02\\.html\n \\|url\\-status \\= live\n \\|date \\= 2004\\-02\\-06\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170815161454/http://www.ellitoral.com/accesorios/imprimir.php?id\\=%2Fdiarios%2F2004%2F02%2F06%2Fsucesos%2FSUCE\\-02\\.html\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2017\\-08\\-15\n}}",
"Following the complaint, some of the bars the two police chiefs had been protecting closed, and a few others stopped making payments to the police. One of the sex workers who joined Cabrera in the complaint testified during the murder investigation that Cabrera had expressed fear that the police would retaliate.",
"On October 9, someone called the headquarters of the Government Workers Association, where AMMAR kept an office, and said \"Tell Sandra that the girl will die before tomorrow.\" The girl was Cabrera's eight\\-year\\-old daughter, Macarena. From then until shortly before Cabrera's murder, the police Personal Security unit kept a nightly guard on her home.",
"A few days later, an anonymous complaint filed in the juvenile courts claimed that \"Sandra sent the girl to beg and did not go to school.\" A social worker investigated and confirmed that Macarena had, in fact, been going to school.",
"On October 17 a sex worker was assaulted by a cyclist who struck her strongly in the head with a chain. The women went to the police and together they searched the area, but her assailant was never found.",
"At some point, while the police guard was temporarily away from Cabrera's home, someone got in and beat her. At another point, two men got into her home, put a gun to the head of her dog, and told her to stop fucking with them.",
"The last complaint Cabrera helped file, four days before her murder, involved an officer who charged a woman fifty pesos a week for the privilege of working without trouble from the police. In spite of punctual payments, the woman was arrested by the Public Morality police, who informed her that the officer she was paying was no longer working in that division. When she announced that she was going to join AMMAR, the Morality police threatened her with daily arrests. Cabrera went with her to file an extortion complaint and was with her when she spoke to the news media. Cabrera told a reporter that she was afraid that someone from the Public Morality unit would come back for her.",
"During her murder investigation, the investigating judge found evidence of fifteen death threats against her.",
""
] |
Murder
------
{{ blockquote
\| text\= The testimony of the comrades and the prostitutes may not have had the weight that was expected. It can be a matter of fear and pressure... Perhaps Sandra's companions were affected by issues of self\-security, of their children or their family when it came to involving people who could somehow exercise some power over them... I believe that the case would have had another course with more protection.
\| author\= Ismael Manfrín, prosecutor }}
### Evidence
Testimony indicates that Sandra Cabrera was standing at her usual corner with a colleague at around 4:30 on the morning of 27 January 2004\. She was approached by a client and walked toward him, away from her colleague. The colleague never saw the man's face and didn't recognize him. From behind, he appeared to be tall and thin, in light shorts. Cabrera and the client left together to go to her home.
She was found dead from a shot in the back of the neck. The investigation determined that the muzzle of the gun had been pushed against her neck and the gun was partially supported by her skull when it was fired.
{{ cite news
\| title\= Cuando el zorro investiga un crimen en el gallinero
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\-31074\-2004\-02\-03\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-02\-03
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160414064021/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\-31074\-2004\-02\-03\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2016\-04\-14
}}
Her body was two blocks from the Omnibus Terminal, one block from the stop where she worked.
{{ cite news
\| title\= Con la mira en la policía provincial
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\-30900\-2004\-01\-29\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-01\-29
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090615044959/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\-30900\-2004\-01\-29\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2009\-06\-15
}}
There were no scuff marks on her sandals or clothes, indicating that she had not been dragged, but had been killed where she was found. The bullet that killed her has been sometimes reported to be a 9 mm, but news reports at the time of the investigation said the investigators found a .32 caliber slug. (Various police departments in Argentina have issued 9 mm handguns to their officers ([Bersa Thunder 9](/wiki/Bersa_Thunder_9 "Bersa Thunder 9")), but the .32 caliber bullet is considered too small for police work.)
Her pants were pulled down below her hips but her underpants were in their normal position. A condom wrapper was found next to her body.
The police lab found semen in her vaginal and anal cavities. Testimony indicated that she had had sex with her lover a couple of hours before she was last seen alive.
Analysis by forensic experts suggests a planned assassination, not a spur\-of\-the\-moment crime of passion. Her killer was probably either familiar with the area, or had cased it ahead of time, and led her to the entry of a private house where they were less likely to be observed. The murder weapon was a small caliber handgun that was easier to hide than the larger handguns issued by police departments. The killer apparently knew how to use a smaller weapon to ensure that Cabrera was killed by one shot, without the need for a second. The forensic analysts believe that he stood behind her, held her head with his left hand, forced the muzzle of the gun against her neck, and fired while standing with his knees slightly flexed. She died instantly. Diego Parvluczyk, former deputy chief of the Dangerous Drugs Division of the Federal Police was the only individual arrested for Cabrera's [femicide](/wiki/Femicide "Femicide") but later acquitted for lack of evidence.
The forensic report concluded:
{{ blockquote
\| text\= The possibility is raised of a killer who has chosen circumstances of time and place, has killed at the right moment of least resistance of the victim, has held the corpse so that it does not strike with suddenness when falling and has left without leaving evidence of his presence. The hypothesis speaks of a professional profile of the victimizer with knowledge in the area, the habits of the victim and the task to be performed. Likewise the neatness of their movements must be considered. This consideration offers the probable alternative that the assailant knew the victim during a previous encounter provoked precisely to obtain data of habits and circumstances in which the victim moved. }}
### Reaction
Her murder was a shock to the national political system. Almost immediately the national Minister of Justice got in touch with the [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") governor, and the Secretary for National Human Rights came to [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") to get involved in the case. Within two days the investigating judge had convened a multi\-disciplinary meeting at the Institute of Forensic Medicine with ten forensic experts; an extraordinary step in any murder case, much less a case involving a street\-based sex worker.
{{cite news
\| title\= Disuelven la división Moralidad de la Policía
\| url\= https://www.clarin.com/policiales/disuelven\-division\-moralidad\-policia\_0\_BJizGHAyRKg.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-01\-30
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170811233621/https://www.clarin.com/policiales/disuelven\-division\-moralidad\-policia\_0\_BJizGHAyRKg.html
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-11
}}
The investigating judge laid out three lines of investigation: she was killed by a client, she was killed by the brothel owners, or she was killed by the police. At the time, there were no reports of clients committing crimes against prostitutes. Sources in the police department reported that the police were seriously looking into the possibility that she had been killed by someone hired by the brothel owners. Her first encounter with AMMAR occurred when she complained to the media about being assaulted by pimps and bouncers, i.e. by men associated with a bar that was a front for a brothel. The two chiefs of the Public Morality unit who were removed after her complaint were being paid by brothel owners to drive off street sex workers. Her struggle against the brothel owners went back many years.
Everyone else assumed it was the police. The police in [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") have a history of killing reformers and killing sex workers. A few years earlier, investigators in [Mar del Plata](/wiki/Mar_del_Plata "Mar del Plata") had uncovered a police conspiracy to use a fictional serial killer to cover up the murder of thirty two sex workers,
{{cite news
\| title\= A un año del asesinato de Sandra Cabrera
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/20\-1737\-2005\-01\-30\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2005\-01\-28
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170812220032/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/20\-1737\-2005\-01\-30\.html
\| archive\-date\=2017\-08\-12
}}
killed because they wanted to leave their pimps, who were paying the police.
{{cite news
\| title\= Explotadores y explotadas
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-1001\-2004\-02\-08\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-02\-06
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080625080125/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-1001\-2004\-02\-08\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2008\-06\-25
}}
The [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") police killed the social activist [Claudio Lepratti](/wiki/Pocho_Lepratti "Pocho Lepratti") during the disturbances of 2001 when he tried to warn them off from firing at a school where children were eating lunch. At Cabrera's funeral procession, the AMMAR members shouted "We know, we know, that our colleague was killed by the police."
Among political insiders and unionists there were two theories about the police. The first was that they killed Cabrera to silence her. The second was that they killed her to warn the new provincial government in [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") to stop interfering with the graft. Changes of administrations in [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") had typically been accompanied by some sort of organized criminal action by the police, just to remind everybody of the rules of the game. Carlos del Frade relates that during [Obeid](/wiki/Jorge_Obeid "Jorge Obeid")'s first administration as governor of [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province"), he removed a half dozen police officers who had been involved in state sponsored torture and terrorism. The police responded with a message that if he removed any more police officers, it would break the institutional peace in the province.
The previous administration had responded to Cabrera's complaints by removing high\-ranking officers for corruption, and the new administration was arresting street level officers for extortion. This second theory implies that Cabrera's killers just wanted to warn off the government from the dangerous experiment of punishing police officers for corruption.
To show its resolve in moving the case forward, the provincial government quickly appointed a committee of five police officers to investigate. The committee was under the direct orders of José Manuel Maldonado, head of Regional Unit II of the provincial police; in effect, chief of police for the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"). Previously, as head of the Judicial Police, he had been accused of shielding officers involved with the killing of [Claudio Lepratti](/wiki/Pocho_Lepratti "Pocho Lepratti") and protecting 1st Precinct policemen accused of raping a sixteen\-year\-old girl. According to the assistant secretary of the [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union "Argentine Workers' Central Union") (the union federation AMMAR belongs to), Maldonado ensured that proceeds from the payments extorted from sex workers and the money that pimps paid for protection were distributed to officers and politicians appropriately. The unit he currently headed had been linked three years previously to extrajudicial executions and deaths in custody. So he was head of a police unit accused of exactly the type of assassination people were accusing the police of in the Cabrera case, he was believed to be responsible for administering the graft that she had been campaigning against, and he appeared to be experienced in covering up police crimes. The [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union "Argentine Workers' Central Union") and the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") association of prosecutors demanded his removal.
After several months of investigation, the investigating judge ordered the detention of Parvlucyk, the Federal police officer Cabrera had been involved with, and charged him with murder. In addition to their troubled relationship, Parvlucyk had stated in his testimony that his immediate superior had asked him to silence Cabrera, and his superior has stated that Parvlucyk always complied with orders.
{{cite news
\| title\= Una impunidad estructural
\| url\= http://boletin.enredando.org.ar/imprimir.shtml?AA\_SL\_Session\=24ef123c70339a022caa748293587a23\&sh\_itm\=25da05375696bda66988dcb24694f439\&add\_disc\=1
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2008\-10\-30
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170828170250/http://boletin.enredando.org.ar/imprimir.shtml?AA\_SL\_Session\=24ef123c70339a022caa748293587a23\&sh\_itm\=25da05375696bda66988dcb24694f439\&add\_disc\=1
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-28
}}
On appeal, the judge's decision was overturned, and neither Parvlucyk nor anyone else has been tried for Cabrera's murder. The panel of judges that overturned the decision of the investigating judge referred to some of the witnesses as ""people with street activities who pass their mornings with a wandering itinerary". One of the appeals judges discredited the testimony of over twenty street\-based sex workers because they were women who "have an activity that can not be described as good morals," according to the journalist Carlos Del Frade. He claims that the possibility that Parvlucyk killed Cabrera because he was ordered to silence her was never properly investigated. Del Frade also claims that the link between Cabrera's murder and the structural corruption in the provincial and Federal police organizations was never investigated.
Among the members of AMMAR's [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Argentina "Rosario, Argentina") chapter, the reaction to Cabrera's murder was a mixture of fear and bravado. "If AMMAR dies, we fatten the pigs," they told each other, and "She paid for everything, and that's why the fight continues." But when Cabrera's friend Claudia Lucero took over as general secretary of the chapter, she found it sometimes difficult to reach out to her colleagues. They warned her, "Don't get involved, you'll end up like Sandra." A lawyer who worked for [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union "Argentine Workers' Central Union"), the trade union federation that AMMAR is part of, and who represented AMMAR during the murder investigation, said that some of the women who might have testified refused to get involved in the case, and others left [Santa Fe province](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") out of fear. Four years later, Lucero reported similar fear among the street workers.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= Fear is present. When I tell you, let's get together, come, they're afraid. I can not tell them we are going to a march or when we are going to do some research work as well. To myself they say "How do you keep going"?
\| author\= Claudia Lucero}}
As for Macarena Cabrera, Sandra's daughter, one can only imagine her reaction to it all. Growing up she had access to the Internet and knew about the failure of the murder investigation and the various theories people proposed. Nine years after the murder she went to the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") branch of the Government Workers Association, the union that had provided AMMAR Rosario with office space and where her mother had been well known, and told them she really wanted to know what happened to her mother. They were probably able to give her a lot of information, but the source for this says that actual explanations were in short supply.
|
[
"Murder\n------",
"{{ blockquote \n\\| text\\= The testimony of the comrades and the prostitutes may not have had the weight that was expected. It can be a matter of fear and pressure... Perhaps Sandra's companions were affected by issues of self\\-security, of their children or their family when it came to involving people who could somehow exercise some power over them... I believe that the case would have had another course with more protection.\n\\| author\\= Ismael Manfrín, prosecutor }}",
"### Evidence",
"Testimony indicates that Sandra Cabrera was standing at her usual corner with a colleague at around 4:30 on the morning of 27 January 2004\\. She was approached by a client and walked toward him, away from her colleague. The colleague never saw the man's face and didn't recognize him. From behind, he appeared to be tall and thin, in light shorts. Cabrera and the client left together to go to her home.",
"She was found dead from a shot in the back of the neck. The investigation determined that the muzzle of the gun had been pushed against her neck and the gun was partially supported by her skull when it was fired.",
"{{ cite news\n\\| title\\= Cuando el zorro investiga un crimen en el gallinero\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\\-31074\\-2004\\-02\\-03\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-02\\-03\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160414064021/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\\-31074\\-2004\\-02\\-03\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2016\\-04\\-14\n}} \nHer body was two blocks from the Omnibus Terminal, one block from the stop where she worked.",
"{{ cite news\n\\| title\\= Con la mira en la policía provincial\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\\-30900\\-2004\\-01\\-29\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-01\\-29\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090615044959/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\\-30900\\-2004\\-01\\-29\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2009\\-06\\-15\n}} \nThere were no scuff marks on her sandals or clothes, indicating that she had not been dragged, but had been killed where she was found. The bullet that killed her has been sometimes reported to be a 9 mm, but news reports at the time of the investigation said the investigators found a .32 caliber slug. (Various police departments in Argentina have issued 9 mm handguns to their officers ([Bersa Thunder 9](/wiki/Bersa_Thunder_9 \"Bersa Thunder 9\")), but the .32 caliber bullet is considered too small for police work.)",
"Her pants were pulled down below her hips but her underpants were in their normal position. A condom wrapper was found next to her body.\nThe police lab found semen in her vaginal and anal cavities. Testimony indicated that she had had sex with her lover a couple of hours before she was last seen alive.",
"Analysis by forensic experts suggests a planned assassination, not a spur\\-of\\-the\\-moment crime of passion. Her killer was probably either familiar with the area, or had cased it ahead of time, and led her to the entry of a private house where they were less likely to be observed. The murder weapon was a small caliber handgun that was easier to hide than the larger handguns issued by police departments. The killer apparently knew how to use a smaller weapon to ensure that Cabrera was killed by one shot, without the need for a second. The forensic analysts believe that he stood behind her, held her head with his left hand, forced the muzzle of the gun against her neck, and fired while standing with his knees slightly flexed. She died instantly. Diego Parvluczyk, former deputy chief of the Dangerous Drugs Division of the Federal Police was the only individual arrested for Cabrera's [femicide](/wiki/Femicide \"Femicide\") but later acquitted for lack of evidence.",
"The forensic report concluded:",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= The possibility is raised of a killer who has chosen circumstances of time and place, has killed at the right moment of least resistance of the victim, has held the corpse so that it does not strike with suddenness when falling and has left without leaving evidence of his presence. The hypothesis speaks of a professional profile of the victimizer with knowledge in the area, the habits of the victim and the task to be performed. Likewise the neatness of their movements must be considered. This consideration offers the probable alternative that the assailant knew the victim during a previous encounter provoked precisely to obtain data of habits and circumstances in which the victim moved. }}",
"### Reaction",
"Her murder was a shock to the national political system. Almost immediately the national Minister of Justice got in touch with the [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") governor, and the Secretary for National Human Rights came to [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") to get involved in the case. Within two days the investigating judge had convened a multi\\-disciplinary meeting at the Institute of Forensic Medicine with ten forensic experts; an extraordinary step in any murder case, much less a case involving a street\\-based sex worker.",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= Disuelven la división Moralidad de la Policía\n\\| url\\= https://www.clarin.com/policiales/disuelven\\-division\\-moralidad\\-policia\\_0\\_BJizGHAyRKg.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-01\\-30\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170811233621/https://www.clarin.com/policiales/disuelven\\-division\\-moralidad\\-policia\\_0\\_BJizGHAyRKg.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-11\n }}",
"The investigating judge laid out three lines of investigation: she was killed by a client, she was killed by the brothel owners, or she was killed by the police. At the time, there were no reports of clients committing crimes against prostitutes. Sources in the police department reported that the police were seriously looking into the possibility that she had been killed by someone hired by the brothel owners. Her first encounter with AMMAR occurred when she complained to the media about being assaulted by pimps and bouncers, i.e. by men associated with a bar that was a front for a brothel. The two chiefs of the Public Morality unit who were removed after her complaint were being paid by brothel owners to drive off street sex workers. Her struggle against the brothel owners went back many years.",
"Everyone else assumed it was the police. The police in [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") have a history of killing reformers and killing sex workers. A few years earlier, investigators in [Mar del Plata](/wiki/Mar_del_Plata \"Mar del Plata\") had uncovered a police conspiracy to use a fictional serial killer to cover up the murder of thirty two sex workers,",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= A un año del asesinato de Sandra Cabrera\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/20\\-1737\\-2005\\-01\\-30\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2005\\-01\\-28\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170812220032/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/20\\-1737\\-2005\\-01\\-30\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-12\n }}\nkilled because they wanted to leave their pimps, who were paying the police.",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= Explotadores y explotadas\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-1001\\-2004\\-02\\-08\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-02\\-06\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080625080125/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-1001\\-2004\\-02\\-08\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2008\\-06\\-25\n }} \nThe [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") police killed the social activist [Claudio Lepratti](/wiki/Pocho_Lepratti \"Pocho Lepratti\") during the disturbances of 2001 when he tried to warn them off from firing at a school where children were eating lunch. At Cabrera's funeral procession, the AMMAR members shouted \"We know, we know, that our colleague was killed by the police.\"",
"Among political insiders and unionists there were two theories about the police. The first was that they killed Cabrera to silence her. The second was that they killed her to warn the new provincial government in [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") to stop interfering with the graft. Changes of administrations in [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") had typically been accompanied by some sort of organized criminal action by the police, just to remind everybody of the rules of the game. Carlos del Frade relates that during [Obeid](/wiki/Jorge_Obeid \"Jorge Obeid\")'s first administration as governor of [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\"), he removed a half dozen police officers who had been involved in state sponsored torture and terrorism. The police responded with a message that if he removed any more police officers, it would break the institutional peace in the province.",
"The previous administration had responded to Cabrera's complaints by removing high\\-ranking officers for corruption, and the new administration was arresting street level officers for extortion. This second theory implies that Cabrera's killers just wanted to warn off the government from the dangerous experiment of punishing police officers for corruption.",
"To show its resolve in moving the case forward, the provincial government quickly appointed a committee of five police officers to investigate. The committee was under the direct orders of José Manuel Maldonado, head of Regional Unit II of the provincial police; in effect, chief of police for the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"). Previously, as head of the Judicial Police, he had been accused of shielding officers involved with the killing of [Claudio Lepratti](/wiki/Pocho_Lepratti \"Pocho Lepratti\") and protecting 1st Precinct policemen accused of raping a sixteen\\-year\\-old girl. According to the assistant secretary of the [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union \"Argentine Workers' Central Union\") (the union federation AMMAR belongs to), Maldonado ensured that proceeds from the payments extorted from sex workers and the money that pimps paid for protection were distributed to officers and politicians appropriately. The unit he currently headed had been linked three years previously to extrajudicial executions and deaths in custody. So he was head of a police unit accused of exactly the type of assassination people were accusing the police of in the Cabrera case, he was believed to be responsible for administering the graft that she had been campaigning against, and he appeared to be experienced in covering up police crimes. The [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union \"Argentine Workers' Central Union\") and the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") association of prosecutors demanded his removal.",
"After several months of investigation, the investigating judge ordered the detention of Parvlucyk, the Federal police officer Cabrera had been involved with, and charged him with murder. In addition to their troubled relationship, Parvlucyk had stated in his testimony that his immediate superior had asked him to silence Cabrera, and his superior has stated that Parvlucyk always complied with orders.",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= Una impunidad estructural\n\\| url\\= http://boletin.enredando.org.ar/imprimir.shtml?AA\\_SL\\_Session\\=24ef123c70339a022caa748293587a23\\&sh\\_itm\\=25da05375696bda66988dcb24694f439\\&add\\_disc\\=1\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2008\\-10\\-30\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170828170250/http://boletin.enredando.org.ar/imprimir.shtml?AA\\_SL\\_Session\\=24ef123c70339a022caa748293587a23\\&sh\\_itm\\=25da05375696bda66988dcb24694f439\\&add\\_disc\\=1\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-28\n }} \nOn appeal, the judge's decision was overturned, and neither Parvlucyk nor anyone else has been tried for Cabrera's murder. The panel of judges that overturned the decision of the investigating judge referred to some of the witnesses as \"\"people with street activities who pass their mornings with a wandering itinerary\". One of the appeals judges discredited the testimony of over twenty street\\-based sex workers because they were women who \"have an activity that can not be described as good morals,\" according to the journalist Carlos Del Frade. He claims that the possibility that Parvlucyk killed Cabrera because he was ordered to silence her was never properly investigated. Del Frade also claims that the link between Cabrera's murder and the structural corruption in the provincial and Federal police organizations was never investigated.",
"Among the members of AMMAR's [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Argentina \"Rosario, Argentina\") chapter, the reaction to Cabrera's murder was a mixture of fear and bravado. \"If AMMAR dies, we fatten the pigs,\" they told each other, and \"She paid for everything, and that's why the fight continues.\" But when Cabrera's friend Claudia Lucero took over as general secretary of the chapter, she found it sometimes difficult to reach out to her colleagues. They warned her, \"Don't get involved, you'll end up like Sandra.\" A lawyer who worked for [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union \"Argentine Workers' Central Union\"), the trade union federation that AMMAR is part of, and who represented AMMAR during the murder investigation, said that some of the women who might have testified refused to get involved in the case, and others left [Santa Fe province](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") out of fear. Four years later, Lucero reported similar fear among the street workers.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= Fear is present. When I tell you, let's get together, come, they're afraid. I can not tell them we are going to a march or when we are going to do some research work as well. To myself they say \"How do you keep going\"?\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero}}",
"As for Macarena Cabrera, Sandra's daughter, one can only imagine her reaction to it all. Growing up she had access to the Internet and knew about the failure of the murder investigation and the various theories people proposed. Nine years after the murder she went to the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") branch of the Government Workers Association, the union that had provided AMMAR Rosario with office space and where her mother had been well known, and told them she really wanted to know what happened to her mother. They were probably able to give her a lot of information, but the source for this says that actual explanations were in short supply.",
""
] |
### Reaction
Her murder was a shock to the national political system. Almost immediately the national Minister of Justice got in touch with the [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") governor, and the Secretary for National Human Rights came to [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") to get involved in the case. Within two days the investigating judge had convened a multi\-disciplinary meeting at the Institute of Forensic Medicine with ten forensic experts; an extraordinary step in any murder case, much less a case involving a street\-based sex worker.
{{cite news
\| title\= Disuelven la división Moralidad de la Policía
\| url\= https://www.clarin.com/policiales/disuelven\-division\-moralidad\-policia\_0\_BJizGHAyRKg.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-01\-30
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170811233621/https://www.clarin.com/policiales/disuelven\-division\-moralidad\-policia\_0\_BJizGHAyRKg.html
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-11
}}
The investigating judge laid out three lines of investigation: she was killed by a client, she was killed by the brothel owners, or she was killed by the police. At the time, there were no reports of clients committing crimes against prostitutes. Sources in the police department reported that the police were seriously looking into the possibility that she had been killed by someone hired by the brothel owners. Her first encounter with AMMAR occurred when she complained to the media about being assaulted by pimps and bouncers, i.e. by men associated with a bar that was a front for a brothel. The two chiefs of the Public Morality unit who were removed after her complaint were being paid by brothel owners to drive off street sex workers. Her struggle against the brothel owners went back many years.
Everyone else assumed it was the police. The police in [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") have a history of killing reformers and killing sex workers. A few years earlier, investigators in [Mar del Plata](/wiki/Mar_del_Plata "Mar del Plata") had uncovered a police conspiracy to use a fictional serial killer to cover up the murder of thirty two sex workers,
{{cite news
\| title\= A un año del asesinato de Sandra Cabrera
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/20\-1737\-2005\-01\-30\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2005\-01\-28
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170812220032/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/20\-1737\-2005\-01\-30\.html
\| archive\-date\=2017\-08\-12
}}
killed because they wanted to leave their pimps, who were paying the police.
{{cite news
\| title\= Explotadores y explotadas
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-1001\-2004\-02\-08\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-02\-06
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080625080125/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\-1001\-2004\-02\-08\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2008\-06\-25
}}
The [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") police killed the social activist [Claudio Lepratti](/wiki/Pocho_Lepratti "Pocho Lepratti") during the disturbances of 2001 when he tried to warn them off from firing at a school where children were eating lunch. At Cabrera's funeral procession, the AMMAR members shouted "We know, we know, that our colleague was killed by the police."
Among political insiders and unionists there were two theories about the police. The first was that they killed Cabrera to silence her. The second was that they killed her to warn the new provincial government in [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") to stop interfering with the graft. Changes of administrations in [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") had typically been accompanied by some sort of organized criminal action by the police, just to remind everybody of the rules of the game. Carlos del Frade relates that during [Obeid](/wiki/Jorge_Obeid "Jorge Obeid")'s first administration as governor of [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province"), he removed a half dozen police officers who had been involved in state sponsored torture and terrorism. The police responded with a message that if he removed any more police officers, it would break the institutional peace in the province.
The previous administration had responded to Cabrera's complaints by removing high\-ranking officers for corruption, and the new administration was arresting street level officers for extortion. This second theory implies that Cabrera's killers just wanted to warn off the government from the dangerous experiment of punishing police officers for corruption.
To show its resolve in moving the case forward, the provincial government quickly appointed a committee of five police officers to investigate. The committee was under the direct orders of José Manuel Maldonado, head of Regional Unit II of the provincial police; in effect, chief of police for the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"). Previously, as head of the Judicial Police, he had been accused of shielding officers involved with the killing of [Claudio Lepratti](/wiki/Pocho_Lepratti "Pocho Lepratti") and protecting 1st Precinct policemen accused of raping a sixteen\-year\-old girl. According to the assistant secretary of the [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union "Argentine Workers' Central Union") (the union federation AMMAR belongs to), Maldonado ensured that proceeds from the payments extorted from sex workers and the money that pimps paid for protection were distributed to officers and politicians appropriately. The unit he currently headed had been linked three years previously to extrajudicial executions and deaths in custody. So he was head of a police unit accused of exactly the type of assassination people were accusing the police of in the Cabrera case, he was believed to be responsible for administering the graft that she had been campaigning against, and he appeared to be experienced in covering up police crimes. The [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union "Argentine Workers' Central Union") and the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") association of prosecutors demanded his removal.
After several months of investigation, the investigating judge ordered the detention of Parvlucyk, the Federal police officer Cabrera had been involved with, and charged him with murder. In addition to their troubled relationship, Parvlucyk had stated in his testimony that his immediate superior had asked him to silence Cabrera, and his superior has stated that Parvlucyk always complied with orders.
{{cite news
\| title\= Una impunidad estructural
\| url\= http://boletin.enredando.org.ar/imprimir.shtml?AA\_SL\_Session\=24ef123c70339a022caa748293587a23\&sh\_itm\=25da05375696bda66988dcb24694f439\&add\_disc\=1
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2008\-10\-30
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170828170250/http://boletin.enredando.org.ar/imprimir.shtml?AA\_SL\_Session\=24ef123c70339a022caa748293587a23\&sh\_itm\=25da05375696bda66988dcb24694f439\&add\_disc\=1
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-28
}}
On appeal, the judge's decision was overturned, and neither Parvlucyk nor anyone else has been tried for Cabrera's murder. The panel of judges that overturned the decision of the investigating judge referred to some of the witnesses as ""people with street activities who pass their mornings with a wandering itinerary". One of the appeals judges discredited the testimony of over twenty street\-based sex workers because they were women who "have an activity that can not be described as good morals," according to the journalist Carlos Del Frade. He claims that the possibility that Parvlucyk killed Cabrera because he was ordered to silence her was never properly investigated. Del Frade also claims that the link between Cabrera's murder and the structural corruption in the provincial and Federal police organizations was never investigated.
Among the members of AMMAR's [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Argentina "Rosario, Argentina") chapter, the reaction to Cabrera's murder was a mixture of fear and bravado. "If AMMAR dies, we fatten the pigs," they told each other, and "She paid for everything, and that's why the fight continues." But when Cabrera's friend Claudia Lucero took over as general secretary of the chapter, she found it sometimes difficult to reach out to her colleagues. They warned her, "Don't get involved, you'll end up like Sandra." A lawyer who worked for [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union "Argentine Workers' Central Union"), the trade union federation that AMMAR is part of, and who represented AMMAR during the murder investigation, said that some of the women who might have testified refused to get involved in the case, and others left [Santa Fe province](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province") out of fear. Four years later, Lucero reported similar fear among the street workers.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= Fear is present. When I tell you, let's get together, come, they're afraid. I can not tell them we are going to a march or when we are going to do some research work as well. To myself they say "How do you keep going"?
\| author\= Claudia Lucero}}
As for Macarena Cabrera, Sandra's daughter, one can only imagine her reaction to it all. Growing up she had access to the Internet and knew about the failure of the murder investigation and the various theories people proposed. Nine years after the murder she went to the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") branch of the Government Workers Association, the union that had provided AMMAR Rosario with office space and where her mother had been well known, and told them she really wanted to know what happened to her mother. They were probably able to give her a lot of information, but the source for this says that actual explanations were in short supply.
|
[
"### Reaction",
"Her murder was a shock to the national political system. Almost immediately the national Minister of Justice got in touch with the [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") governor, and the Secretary for National Human Rights came to [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") to get involved in the case. Within two days the investigating judge had convened a multi\\-disciplinary meeting at the Institute of Forensic Medicine with ten forensic experts; an extraordinary step in any murder case, much less a case involving a street\\-based sex worker.",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= Disuelven la división Moralidad de la Policía\n\\| url\\= https://www.clarin.com/policiales/disuelven\\-division\\-moralidad\\-policia\\_0\\_BJizGHAyRKg.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-01\\-30\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170811233621/https://www.clarin.com/policiales/disuelven\\-division\\-moralidad\\-policia\\_0\\_BJizGHAyRKg.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-11\n }}",
"The investigating judge laid out three lines of investigation: she was killed by a client, she was killed by the brothel owners, or she was killed by the police. At the time, there were no reports of clients committing crimes against prostitutes. Sources in the police department reported that the police were seriously looking into the possibility that she had been killed by someone hired by the brothel owners. Her first encounter with AMMAR occurred when she complained to the media about being assaulted by pimps and bouncers, i.e. by men associated with a bar that was a front for a brothel. The two chiefs of the Public Morality unit who were removed after her complaint were being paid by brothel owners to drive off street sex workers. Her struggle against the brothel owners went back many years.",
"Everyone else assumed it was the police. The police in [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") have a history of killing reformers and killing sex workers. A few years earlier, investigators in [Mar del Plata](/wiki/Mar_del_Plata \"Mar del Plata\") had uncovered a police conspiracy to use a fictional serial killer to cover up the murder of thirty two sex workers,",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= A un año del asesinato de Sandra Cabrera\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/20\\-1737\\-2005\\-01\\-30\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2005\\-01\\-28\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170812220032/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/20\\-1737\\-2005\\-01\\-30\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-12\n }}\nkilled because they wanted to leave their pimps, who were paying the police.",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= Explotadores y explotadas\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-1001\\-2004\\-02\\-08\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-02\\-06\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080625080125/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13\\-1001\\-2004\\-02\\-08\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2008\\-06\\-25\n }} \nThe [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") police killed the social activist [Claudio Lepratti](/wiki/Pocho_Lepratti \"Pocho Lepratti\") during the disturbances of 2001 when he tried to warn them off from firing at a school where children were eating lunch. At Cabrera's funeral procession, the AMMAR members shouted \"We know, we know, that our colleague was killed by the police.\"",
"Among political insiders and unionists there were two theories about the police. The first was that they killed Cabrera to silence her. The second was that they killed her to warn the new provincial government in [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") to stop interfering with the graft. Changes of administrations in [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") had typically been accompanied by some sort of organized criminal action by the police, just to remind everybody of the rules of the game. Carlos del Frade relates that during [Obeid](/wiki/Jorge_Obeid \"Jorge Obeid\")'s first administration as governor of [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\"), he removed a half dozen police officers who had been involved in state sponsored torture and terrorism. The police responded with a message that if he removed any more police officers, it would break the institutional peace in the province.",
"The previous administration had responded to Cabrera's complaints by removing high\\-ranking officers for corruption, and the new administration was arresting street level officers for extortion. This second theory implies that Cabrera's killers just wanted to warn off the government from the dangerous experiment of punishing police officers for corruption.",
"To show its resolve in moving the case forward, the provincial government quickly appointed a committee of five police officers to investigate. The committee was under the direct orders of José Manuel Maldonado, head of Regional Unit II of the provincial police; in effect, chief of police for the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"). Previously, as head of the Judicial Police, he had been accused of shielding officers involved with the killing of [Claudio Lepratti](/wiki/Pocho_Lepratti \"Pocho Lepratti\") and protecting 1st Precinct policemen accused of raping a sixteen\\-year\\-old girl. According to the assistant secretary of the [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union \"Argentine Workers' Central Union\") (the union federation AMMAR belongs to), Maldonado ensured that proceeds from the payments extorted from sex workers and the money that pimps paid for protection were distributed to officers and politicians appropriately. The unit he currently headed had been linked three years previously to extrajudicial executions and deaths in custody. So he was head of a police unit accused of exactly the type of assassination people were accusing the police of in the Cabrera case, he was believed to be responsible for administering the graft that she had been campaigning against, and he appeared to be experienced in covering up police crimes. The [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union \"Argentine Workers' Central Union\") and the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") association of prosecutors demanded his removal.",
"After several months of investigation, the investigating judge ordered the detention of Parvlucyk, the Federal police officer Cabrera had been involved with, and charged him with murder. In addition to their troubled relationship, Parvlucyk had stated in his testimony that his immediate superior had asked him to silence Cabrera, and his superior has stated that Parvlucyk always complied with orders.",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= Una impunidad estructural\n\\| url\\= http://boletin.enredando.org.ar/imprimir.shtml?AA\\_SL\\_Session\\=24ef123c70339a022caa748293587a23\\&sh\\_itm\\=25da05375696bda66988dcb24694f439\\&add\\_disc\\=1\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2008\\-10\\-30\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170828170250/http://boletin.enredando.org.ar/imprimir.shtml?AA\\_SL\\_Session\\=24ef123c70339a022caa748293587a23\\&sh\\_itm\\=25da05375696bda66988dcb24694f439\\&add\\_disc\\=1\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-28\n }} \nOn appeal, the judge's decision was overturned, and neither Parvlucyk nor anyone else has been tried for Cabrera's murder. The panel of judges that overturned the decision of the investigating judge referred to some of the witnesses as \"\"people with street activities who pass their mornings with a wandering itinerary\". One of the appeals judges discredited the testimony of over twenty street\\-based sex workers because they were women who \"have an activity that can not be described as good morals,\" according to the journalist Carlos Del Frade. He claims that the possibility that Parvlucyk killed Cabrera because he was ordered to silence her was never properly investigated. Del Frade also claims that the link between Cabrera's murder and the structural corruption in the provincial and Federal police organizations was never investigated.",
"Among the members of AMMAR's [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Argentina \"Rosario, Argentina\") chapter, the reaction to Cabrera's murder was a mixture of fear and bravado. \"If AMMAR dies, we fatten the pigs,\" they told each other, and \"She paid for everything, and that's why the fight continues.\" But when Cabrera's friend Claudia Lucero took over as general secretary of the chapter, she found it sometimes difficult to reach out to her colleagues. They warned her, \"Don't get involved, you'll end up like Sandra.\" A lawyer who worked for [CTA](/wiki/Argentine_Workers%27_Central_Union \"Argentine Workers' Central Union\"), the trade union federation that AMMAR is part of, and who represented AMMAR during the murder investigation, said that some of the women who might have testified refused to get involved in the case, and others left [Santa Fe province](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\") out of fear. Four years later, Lucero reported similar fear among the street workers.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= Fear is present. When I tell you, let's get together, come, they're afraid. I can not tell them we are going to a march or when we are going to do some research work as well. To myself they say \"How do you keep going\"?\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero}}",
"As for Macarena Cabrera, Sandra's daughter, one can only imagine her reaction to it all. Growing up she had access to the Internet and knew about the failure of the murder investigation and the various theories people proposed. Nine years after the murder she went to the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") branch of the Government Workers Association, the union that had provided AMMAR Rosario with office space and where her mother had been well known, and told them she really wanted to know what happened to her mother. They were probably able to give her a lot of information, but the source for this says that actual explanations were in short supply.",
""
] |
Legacy
------
### Influence
#### RedTraSex Archive/Virtual Library
To honor Sandra Cabrera's legacy, [RedTraSex](/wiki/RedTraSex "RedTraSex") named their virtual library after her as the first sex worker\-themed archive. {{cite web\|website\=ONUSIDA\|title\=Centro de información para fortalecer la participación protagónica de las mujeres con VIH y las trabajadoras sexuales en los informes nacionales CEDAW\|access\-date\=11 April 2023\|url\=https://onusidalac.org/1/index.php/areas\-de\-trabajo/cedaw\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205200740/http://onusidalac.org/1/index.php/areas\-de\-trabajo/cedaw\|archive\-date\=5 February 2023\|lang\=es}}{{Failed verification\|date\=July 2024}}
#### Public Morality police unit
If the police were, in fact, trying to send a message to the new provincial administration, it backfired. Cabrera's murder gave the government the political cover it needed to eliminate the Public Morality section of the provincial police. High on the list of her legacies is the fact that two days after her murder, the Santa Fe Minister of Government announced that the Public Morality section would be dissolved and the officers that served in it would be distributed among different units. He said that the move had been under consideration since the beginning of the new administration:
{{ blockquote
\| text\= ... because it is an obsolete unit that allows a certain degree of corruption, without passing judgment on the officers that served in it.
\| author\= Alberto Gianneschi, Minister of Government in Santa Fe province at the time of Sandra Cabrera's murder
}}
But he acknowledged that he was making the announcement in the context of Cabrera's murder.
{{cite press release
\|title \= Noticia del jueves 29 de enero de 2004
\|url \= http://gobierno.santafe.gov.ar/prensa/mitemplate.php?idnoticia\=18447\&mostrarmenu\=si\&include\=noticias\_prensa/2004/290104r3\.htm\&ptitulo\=Noticia%20del%20jueves%2029%20de%20enero%20de%202004%20(290104r3\.htm)\&fechanoticia\=\&volverurl\=\&pDescDiaMax\=Lunes\&intvalDi
\|url\-status \= live
\|date \= 2004\-01\-29
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20190709233018/http://gobierno.santafe.gov.ar/prensa/mitemplate.php?idnoticia\=18447\&mostrarmenu\=si\&include\=noticias\_prensa/2004/290104r3\.htm\&ptitulo\=Noticia%20del%20jueves%2029%20de%20enero%20de%202004%20(290104r3\.htm)\&fechanoticia\=\&volverurl\=\&pDescDiaMax\=Lunes\&intvalDi
\|archive\-date \= 2019\-07\-09
}}
#### Misdemeanor Code
On the other hand, the government wanted to amend, rather than repeal, the articles of the Misdemeanor Code that criminalized sex work and transgenderism. The political opposition favored straight repeal, but the government was concerned about voter reaction and opposition from the Church. As the Minister of Government put it with Victorian sensibility:
{{ blockquote
\| text\= We are looking for a balance between the claims of the defense of modesty and scandalous prostitution through a new bill.
\| author\= Alberto Gianneschi
}}
As the new secretary general of AMMAR's [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") chapter, Claudia Lucero continued the campaign to repeal the articles.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= "The contravention codes are not repealed. The situation is the same, the only thing that changed is that there is no more Public Morality, but there are the precincts, there is the command \[police unit], the police are still chasing us. After Sandra's death, a month later, we had a partner in Baigorria who was threatened and beaten. The harassment continues, the mobile units stop us, some police come and say 'you have to go because the neighbor says' and that is a lie. They make it up so that the sex worker gives them money and they let her work. The commands are in the red zone and that's because the codes are not repealed and the police still have power.
\| author\= Claudia Lucero }}
For AMMAR [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), the campaign was an important rallying point. The constant police harassment intimidated the women in the street, but it also gave them strong motivation to take steps, however risky, to join the campaign against laws that legitimized the harassment. And since the campaign had been Cabrera's initiative, it gave the union frequent opportunity to invoke the name of Sandra Cabrera, who had become an important symbol for sex workers' rights.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= I said when Sandra passed, let's try to continue because otherwise everything is dying. And that is the commitment and at the same time persuades me that the death of Sandra was not in vain, beyond that we do not have justice. But it was not in vain, because we followed the path she left us. The day that the codes are repealed will not be our achievement, that's the way Sandra prepared us, so the achievement will be hers.
\| author\= Claudia Lucero }}
Finally, in 2010, after years of lobbying and activism by AMMAR [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), a different administration repealed the articles of the law that Cabrera had campaigned against.
{{cite news
\| title\= Santa Fe despenalizó la prostitución y el travestismo
\| url\= http://www.diariojudicial.com/nota/25632
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2010\-07\-23
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170813002127/http://www.diariojudicial.com/nota/25632
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-13
}}
While she didn't live to see the victory, she was part of the fight, and it was a more fundamental restructuring of society's relationship with sex work than eliminating a police unit.
#### Rosario
Walter Miranda, who had been removed as chief of the Public Morality unit following Cabrera's complaint because he had been providing protection to brothels that trafficked underage girls and foreign women, as well as extorting bribes from street\-based sex workers, continued to advance through the ranks. By 2012 he had become head of Regional Unit II, which gave him control of all provincial police forces in the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"). The brothels in the area around the bus terminal that he had been protecting were still there. During an investigation of trafficking in humans, a phone tap of one of the brothel owners recorded the owner asking how to go about selling cocaine. The answer was that he should bribe Hugo Tognoli, the highest ranking police officer in the province of [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province"). Laura Cosido, a judge in the Federal Chamber of Rosario, stated that "There was never such an open relationship between narcos and police." AMMAR, Cabrera's union, complained that the drug and human trafficking networks were the same.
{{cite news
\| title\= Rosario: abusos, trata, droga y complicidades
\| url\= http://www.plazademayo.com/2012/11/rosario\-abusos\-trata\-droga\-y\-complicidades
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2012\-11\-01
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170823034011/http://www.plazademayo.com/2012/11/rosario\-abusos\-trata\-droga\-y\-complicidades
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-23
}}
Around the same time, Claudia Lucero was complaining that in spite of the revocation of the articles of the Misdemeanor Code that criminalized street prostitution, the police were still finding ways to extort money from street workers.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= "I had to go and talk to the commissioner of the 7th precinct, after a worker was detained in the terminal area and extorted by the police.
{{cite news
\| title\= Meretrices con nuevo proyecto
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\-27128\-2011\-01\-24\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2011\-01\-24
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160414003514/http://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\-27128\-2011\-01\-24\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2016\-04\-14
}}
\| author\= Claudia Lucero
}}
Shortly thereafter, sex work in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") went through the same change in law and enforcement that the rest of Argentina experienced. The anti\-trafficking law, passed a few years earlier, began to be enforced consistently, ending the legal regulation of brothels by municipalities. One of the last cabarets in Rosario was closed when city inspectors found an entertainer performing oral sex on a customer. Announcing that they were closing the place, the inspectors were attacked by the madame and the female employees, who threw glasses and punched and kicked the inspectors. Driven into the street, they took refuge in a local bar where the women found them and again attacked, throwing and breaking tables and stealing the tape used to officially seal a closed business. Not everyone in Argentina embraced the new anti\-trafficking regime.
{{cite news
\| title\= Un prostíbulo, a todas luces
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\-37782\-2013\-02\-23\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2013\-02\-23
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160413065957/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\-37782\-2013\-02\-23\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2016\-04\-13
}}
Some of the women who had worked in the cabarets and *whiskerías* that fronted for brothels moved to private apartments operated by the same type of people who had operated the brothels.
{{cite news
\| title\= Prostitución en la sombra: cómo se ejerce hoy la actividad en Rosario
\| url\= http://www.rosarioplus.com/ensacoycorbata/Prostitucion\-en\-la\-sombra\-como\-se\-ejerce\-hoy\-la\-actividad\-en\-Rosario\-\-20170529\-0043\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2017\-05\-30
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830010221/http://www.rosarioplus.com/ensacoycorbata/Prostitucion\-en\-la\-sombra\-como\-se\-ejerce\-hoy\-la\-actividad\-en\-Rosario\-\-20170529\-0043\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-30
}}
The motels that once rented to independent sex workers now turn them away in order to avoid problems with the city. In response, some of the women have organized *casitas*, where a group of women rent a house and set aside a part of the earnings from each client session to cover the rent. Basically, women who were previously working in brothels are still working in brothels, and women who were previously independent are still independent. Georgina Orellano, secretary general of AMMAR as of 2017, says of the new legal regime that "It took all the activity to a much darker and hidden place."
For the street based workers, Orellano says that since Mauricio Macri became Argentina's president, institutional violence has increased in public spaces.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= We suffer more searches, more humiliation, more payment of fines and the difficulty of making use of the street. Lately, there are reports that the police drive the girls away, beat them, do not let them work, ask them for sexual favors and ask for money.
\| author\= Georgina Orellano
}}
Orellano says that the new prohibitionist regime recognizes only victims and pimps, and criminalizes women who enter sex work voluntarily. The current municipal law on sex work in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), passed in 2013, mentions assistance and support; Orellano says that the city department responsible for implementing the assistance has helped so few women that they can be counted on the fingers of the two hands. AMMAR's last survey found one hundred women working the streets in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), and it is estimated that another six hundred are working indoors.
The legal and police system that Sandra Cabrera struggled with has changed. Where it once tolerated brothels it has become prohibitionist. The laws that once referred to street based sex work as "scandalous" and an "offense to modesty" now speak of assisting sex workers. The owners of regulated brothels who once assaulted independent sex workers in the streets, or paid the police to do the same, now operate illegally in private apartments, driven underground by the prohibitionist movement that currently opposes AMMAR in the media and the legislatures. The political projects of Cabrera and AMMAR's founders have been challenged by new social forces with different concepts of sex worker rights and agency. And yet street based sex workers face the same problems, including police violence and extortion. Perhaps Cabrera's most important legacy is illustrated by a little story told by Claudia Lucero a year after Cabrera's death:
{{ blockquote
\| text\= A short while ago the Command \[Radio Command, a police unit] wanted to take bribes from a member \[of AMMAR], and it turns out that she is unionized. She told them to take her prisoner, but she would call her lawyer as soon as she got to the police station because she had that right. The cops wanted to arrange something, give them money, or go to jail. But when she told them that, they dropped her at a corner and left.
\| author\= Claudia Lucero
}}
### Recognition
Nine days after Cabrera's murder, marches were held in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires "Buenos Aires"), and [Salta province](/wiki/Salta_province "Salta province"), demanding justice and sex workers rights. The counts of participants weren't given for the marches, but the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") march was described as "multitudinous" and included a cross section of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") civic society, including leaders of political parties, unions, and human rights groups.
{{ cite news
\| title\= Pedido de justicia por el crimen de Sandra
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\-31182\-2004\-02\-06\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-02\-06
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830185454/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\-31182\-2004\-02\-06\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-30
}}
Another march in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") a month later was described in the same terms and included the same civic groups.
{{ cite news
\| title\= MULTITUDINARIA MARCHA A UN MES DEL ASESINATO DE SANDRA CABRERA
\| url\= http://notife.com/14984\-multitudinaria\-marcha\-a\-un\-mes\-del\-asesinato\-de\-sandra\-cabrera
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2004\-02\-28
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830185311/http://notife.com/14984\-multitudinaria\-marcha\-a\-un\-mes\-del\-asesinato\-de\-sandra\-cabrera
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-30
}}
These marches have been repeated over the years on the anniversary of her murder, up to the present.
{{ cite news
\| title\= Marcha a un año del asesinato de Sandra Cabrera
\| url\= http://argentina.indymedia.org/news/2005/01/260269\_comment.php
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2005\-01\-29
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830190216/http://argentina.indymedia.org/news/2005/01/260269\_comment.php
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-30
}}
{{ cite news
\| title\= Recuerdan a Sandra Cabrera
\| url\= http://www.ellitoral.com/index.php/id\_um/18950\-
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2007\-01\-26
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830190711/http://www.ellitoral.com/index.php/id\_um/18950\-
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-30
}}
{{ cite news
\| title\= Una marcha para recordar a Sandra Cabrera
\| url\= http://www.rosarioplus.com/noticias/Una\-marcha\-para\-recordar\-a\-Sandra\-Cabrera\-20150126\-0051\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2015\-01\-27
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830190940/http://www.rosarioplus.com/noticias/Una\-marcha\-para\-recordar\-a\-Sandra\-Cabrera\-20150126\-0051\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-30
}}
In 2012 the director Lucrecia Mastrangelo released a film titled, *Sex, dignity and death: Sandra Cabrera, unpunished crime*.[AMMAR remembered Sandra Cabrera](http://www.redtrasex.org/spip.php?page=imprimir_articulo&id_article=568), 6 June 2012, redtrasex.org, Retrieved 2 September 2016
In 2017, a small public square in the area around the bus terminal where she had worked was named in her honor.
{{cite news
\| title\= A 13 años de su crimen, inauguran la plazoleta Sandra Cabrera
\| url\= http://www.rosario3\.com/noticias/A\-13\-anos\-de\-su\-crimen\-inauguran\-la\-plazoleta\-Sandra\-Cabrera\-20170126\-0031\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2017\-01\-26
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170126153707/https://www.rosario3\.com/noticias/A\-13\-anos\-de\-su\-crimen\-inauguran\-la\-plazoleta\-Sandra\-Cabrera\-20170126\-0031\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-01\-26
}}
|
[
"Legacy\n------",
"### Influence",
"#### RedTraSex Archive/Virtual Library",
"To honor Sandra Cabrera's legacy, [RedTraSex](/wiki/RedTraSex \"RedTraSex\") named their virtual library after her as the first sex worker\\-themed archive. {{cite web\\|website\\=ONUSIDA\\|title\\=Centro de información para fortalecer la participación protagónica de las mujeres con VIH y las trabajadoras sexuales en los informes nacionales CEDAW\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2023\\|url\\=https://onusidalac.org/1/index.php/areas\\-de\\-trabajo/cedaw\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205200740/http://onusidalac.org/1/index.php/areas\\-de\\-trabajo/cedaw\\|archive\\-date\\=5 February 2023\\|lang\\=es}}{{Failed verification\\|date\\=July 2024}}",
"#### Public Morality police unit",
"If the police were, in fact, trying to send a message to the new provincial administration, it backfired. Cabrera's murder gave the government the political cover it needed to eliminate the Public Morality section of the provincial police. High on the list of her legacies is the fact that two days after her murder, the Santa Fe Minister of Government announced that the Public Morality section would be dissolved and the officers that served in it would be distributed among different units. He said that the move had been under consideration since the beginning of the new administration:",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= ... because it is an obsolete unit that allows a certain degree of corruption, without passing judgment on the officers that served in it.\n\\| author\\= Alberto Gianneschi, Minister of Government in Santa Fe province at the time of Sandra Cabrera's murder\n}}",
"But he acknowledged that he was making the announcement in the context of Cabrera's murder.",
"{{cite press release\n \\|title \\= Noticia del jueves 29 de enero de 2004\n \\|url \\= http://gobierno.santafe.gov.ar/prensa/mitemplate.php?idnoticia\\=18447\\&mostrarmenu\\=si\\&include\\=noticias\\_prensa/2004/290104r3\\.htm\\&ptitulo\\=Noticia%20del%20jueves%2029%20de%20enero%20de%202004%20(290104r3\\.htm)\\&fechanoticia\\=\\&volverurl\\=\\&pDescDiaMax\\=Lunes\\&intvalDi\n \\|url\\-status \\= live\n \\|date \\= 2004\\-01\\-29\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20190709233018/http://gobierno.santafe.gov.ar/prensa/mitemplate.php?idnoticia\\=18447\\&mostrarmenu\\=si\\&include\\=noticias\\_prensa/2004/290104r3\\.htm\\&ptitulo\\=Noticia%20del%20jueves%2029%20de%20enero%20de%202004%20(290104r3\\.htm)\\&fechanoticia\\=\\&volverurl\\=\\&pDescDiaMax\\=Lunes\\&intvalDi\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2019\\-07\\-09\n}}",
"#### Misdemeanor Code",
"On the other hand, the government wanted to amend, rather than repeal, the articles of the Misdemeanor Code that criminalized sex work and transgenderism. The political opposition favored straight repeal, but the government was concerned about voter reaction and opposition from the Church. As the Minister of Government put it with Victorian sensibility:",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= We are looking for a balance between the claims of the defense of modesty and scandalous prostitution through a new bill.\n\\| author\\= Alberto Gianneschi\n}}",
"As the new secretary general of AMMAR's [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") chapter, Claudia Lucero continued the campaign to repeal the articles.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= \"The contravention codes are not repealed. The situation is the same, the only thing that changed is that there is no more Public Morality, but there are the precincts, there is the command \\[police unit], the police are still chasing us. After Sandra's death, a month later, we had a partner in Baigorria who was threatened and beaten. The harassment continues, the mobile units stop us, some police come and say 'you have to go because the neighbor says' and that is a lie. They make it up so that the sex worker gives them money and they let her work. The commands are in the red zone and that's because the codes are not repealed and the police still have power.\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero }}",
"For AMMAR [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), the campaign was an important rallying point. The constant police harassment intimidated the women in the street, but it also gave them strong motivation to take steps, however risky, to join the campaign against laws that legitimized the harassment. And since the campaign had been Cabrera's initiative, it gave the union frequent opportunity to invoke the name of Sandra Cabrera, who had become an important symbol for sex workers' rights.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= I said when Sandra passed, let's try to continue because otherwise everything is dying. And that is the commitment and at the same time persuades me that the death of Sandra was not in vain, beyond that we do not have justice. But it was not in vain, because we followed the path she left us. The day that the codes are repealed will not be our achievement, that's the way Sandra prepared us, so the achievement will be hers.\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero }}",
"Finally, in 2010, after years of lobbying and activism by AMMAR [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), a different administration repealed the articles of the law that Cabrera had campaigned against.",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= Santa Fe despenalizó la prostitución y el travestismo\n\\| url\\= http://www.diariojudicial.com/nota/25632\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2010\\-07\\-23\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170813002127/http://www.diariojudicial.com/nota/25632\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-13\n }} \nWhile she didn't live to see the victory, she was part of the fight, and it was a more fundamental restructuring of society's relationship with sex work than eliminating a police unit.",
"#### Rosario",
"Walter Miranda, who had been removed as chief of the Public Morality unit following Cabrera's complaint because he had been providing protection to brothels that trafficked underage girls and foreign women, as well as extorting bribes from street\\-based sex workers, continued to advance through the ranks. By 2012 he had become head of Regional Unit II, which gave him control of all provincial police forces in the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"). The brothels in the area around the bus terminal that he had been protecting were still there. During an investigation of trafficking in humans, a phone tap of one of the brothel owners recorded the owner asking how to go about selling cocaine. The answer was that he should bribe Hugo Tognoli, the highest ranking police officer in the province of [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\"). Laura Cosido, a judge in the Federal Chamber of Rosario, stated that \"There was never such an open relationship between narcos and police.\" AMMAR, Cabrera's union, complained that the drug and human trafficking networks were the same.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Rosario: abusos, trata, droga y complicidades\n\\| url\\= http://www.plazademayo.com/2012/11/rosario\\-abusos\\-trata\\-droga\\-y\\-complicidades\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2012\\-11\\-01\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170823034011/http://www.plazademayo.com/2012/11/rosario\\-abusos\\-trata\\-droga\\-y\\-complicidades\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-23\n }}",
"Around the same time, Claudia Lucero was complaining that in spite of the revocation of the articles of the Misdemeanor Code that criminalized street prostitution, the police were still finding ways to extort money from street workers.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= \"I had to go and talk to the commissioner of the 7th precinct, after a worker was detained in the terminal area and extorted by the police.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Meretrices con nuevo proyecto\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\\-27128\\-2011\\-01\\-24\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2011\\-01\\-24\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160414003514/http://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\\-27128\\-2011\\-01\\-24\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2016\\-04\\-14\n }}\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero\n}}",
"Shortly thereafter, sex work in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") went through the same change in law and enforcement that the rest of Argentina experienced. The anti\\-trafficking law, passed a few years earlier, began to be enforced consistently, ending the legal regulation of brothels by municipalities. One of the last cabarets in Rosario was closed when city inspectors found an entertainer performing oral sex on a customer. Announcing that they were closing the place, the inspectors were attacked by the madame and the female employees, who threw glasses and punched and kicked the inspectors. Driven into the street, they took refuge in a local bar where the women found them and again attacked, throwing and breaking tables and stealing the tape used to officially seal a closed business. Not everyone in Argentina embraced the new anti\\-trafficking regime.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Un prostíbulo, a todas luces\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\\-37782\\-2013\\-02\\-23\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2013\\-02\\-23\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160413065957/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\\-37782\\-2013\\-02\\-23\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2016\\-04\\-13\n }}",
"Some of the women who had worked in the cabarets and *whiskerías* that fronted for brothels moved to private apartments operated by the same type of people who had operated the brothels.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Prostitución en la sombra: cómo se ejerce hoy la actividad en Rosario\n\\| url\\= http://www.rosarioplus.com/ensacoycorbata/Prostitucion\\-en\\-la\\-sombra\\-como\\-se\\-ejerce\\-hoy\\-la\\-actividad\\-en\\-Rosario\\-\\-20170529\\-0043\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2017\\-05\\-30\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830010221/http://www.rosarioplus.com/ensacoycorbata/Prostitucion\\-en\\-la\\-sombra\\-como\\-se\\-ejerce\\-hoy\\-la\\-actividad\\-en\\-Rosario\\-\\-20170529\\-0043\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-30\n }} \nThe motels that once rented to independent sex workers now turn them away in order to avoid problems with the city. In response, some of the women have organized *casitas*, where a group of women rent a house and set aside a part of the earnings from each client session to cover the rent. Basically, women who were previously working in brothels are still working in brothels, and women who were previously independent are still independent. Georgina Orellano, secretary general of AMMAR as of 2017, says of the new legal regime that \"It took all the activity to a much darker and hidden place.\"",
"For the street based workers, Orellano says that since Mauricio Macri became Argentina's president, institutional violence has increased in public spaces.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= We suffer more searches, more humiliation, more payment of fines and the difficulty of making use of the street. Lately, there are reports that the police drive the girls away, beat them, do not let them work, ask them for sexual favors and ask for money.\n\\| author\\= Georgina Orellano\n}}",
"Orellano says that the new prohibitionist regime recognizes only victims and pimps, and criminalizes women who enter sex work voluntarily. The current municipal law on sex work in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), passed in 2013, mentions assistance and support; Orellano says that the city department responsible for implementing the assistance has helped so few women that they can be counted on the fingers of the two hands. AMMAR's last survey found one hundred women working the streets in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), and it is estimated that another six hundred are working indoors.",
"The legal and police system that Sandra Cabrera struggled with has changed. Where it once tolerated brothels it has become prohibitionist. The laws that once referred to street based sex work as \"scandalous\" and an \"offense to modesty\" now speak of assisting sex workers. The owners of regulated brothels who once assaulted independent sex workers in the streets, or paid the police to do the same, now operate illegally in private apartments, driven underground by the prohibitionist movement that currently opposes AMMAR in the media and the legislatures. The political projects of Cabrera and AMMAR's founders have been challenged by new social forces with different concepts of sex worker rights and agency. And yet street based sex workers face the same problems, including police violence and extortion. Perhaps Cabrera's most important legacy is illustrated by a little story told by Claudia Lucero a year after Cabrera's death:",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= A short while ago the Command \\[Radio Command, a police unit] wanted to take bribes from a member \\[of AMMAR], and it turns out that she is unionized. She told them to take her prisoner, but she would call her lawyer as soon as she got to the police station because she had that right. The cops wanted to arrange something, give them money, or go to jail. But when she told them that, they dropped her at a corner and left.\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero\n}}",
"### Recognition",
"Nine days after Cabrera's murder, marches were held in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\"), and [Salta province](/wiki/Salta_province \"Salta province\"), demanding justice and sex workers rights. The counts of participants weren't given for the marches, but the [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") march was described as \"multitudinous\" and included a cross section of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") civic society, including leaders of political parties, unions, and human rights groups.",
"{{ cite news\n\\| title\\= Pedido de justicia por el crimen de Sandra\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\\-31182\\-2004\\-02\\-06\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-02\\-06\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830185454/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3\\-31182\\-2004\\-02\\-06\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-30\n}} \nAnother march in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") a month later was described in the same terms and included the same civic groups.",
"{{ cite news\n\\| title\\= MULTITUDINARIA MARCHA A UN MES DEL ASESINATO DE SANDRA CABRERA\n\\| url\\= http://notife.com/14984\\-multitudinaria\\-marcha\\-a\\-un\\-mes\\-del\\-asesinato\\-de\\-sandra\\-cabrera\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2004\\-02\\-28\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830185311/http://notife.com/14984\\-multitudinaria\\-marcha\\-a\\-un\\-mes\\-del\\-asesinato\\-de\\-sandra\\-cabrera\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-30\n}} \nThese marches have been repeated over the years on the anniversary of her murder, up to the present.",
"{{ cite news\n\\| title\\= Marcha a un año del asesinato de Sandra Cabrera\n\\| url\\= http://argentina.indymedia.org/news/2005/01/260269\\_comment.php\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2005\\-01\\-29\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830190216/http://argentina.indymedia.org/news/2005/01/260269\\_comment.php\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-30\n}}",
"{{ cite news\n\\| title\\= Recuerdan a Sandra Cabrera\n\\| url\\= http://www.ellitoral.com/index.php/id\\_um/18950\\-\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2007\\-01\\-26\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830190711/http://www.ellitoral.com/index.php/id\\_um/18950\\-\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-30\n}}",
"{{ cite news\n\\| title\\= Una marcha para recordar a Sandra Cabrera\n\\| url\\= http://www.rosarioplus.com/noticias/Una\\-marcha\\-para\\-recordar\\-a\\-Sandra\\-Cabrera\\-20150126\\-0051\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2015\\-01\\-27\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830190940/http://www.rosarioplus.com/noticias/Una\\-marcha\\-para\\-recordar\\-a\\-Sandra\\-Cabrera\\-20150126\\-0051\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-30\n}}",
"In 2012 the director Lucrecia Mastrangelo released a film titled, *Sex, dignity and death: Sandra Cabrera, unpunished crime*.[AMMAR remembered Sandra Cabrera](http://www.redtrasex.org/spip.php?page=imprimir_articulo&id_article=568), 6 June 2012, redtrasex.org, Retrieved 2 September 2016",
"In 2017, a small public square in the area around the bus terminal where she had worked was named in her honor.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= A 13 años de su crimen, inauguran la plazoleta Sandra Cabrera\n\\| url\\= http://www.rosario3\\.com/noticias/A\\-13\\-anos\\-de\\-su\\-crimen\\-inauguran\\-la\\-plazoleta\\-Sandra\\-Cabrera\\-20170126\\-0031\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2017\\-01\\-26\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170126153707/https://www.rosario3\\.com/noticias/A\\-13\\-anos\\-de\\-su\\-crimen\\-inauguran\\-la\\-plazoleta\\-Sandra\\-Cabrera\\-20170126\\-0031\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-01\\-26\n }}",
""
] |
### Influence
#### RedTraSex Archive/Virtual Library
To honor Sandra Cabrera's legacy, [RedTraSex](/wiki/RedTraSex "RedTraSex") named their virtual library after her as the first sex worker\-themed archive. {{cite web\|website\=ONUSIDA\|title\=Centro de información para fortalecer la participación protagónica de las mujeres con VIH y las trabajadoras sexuales en los informes nacionales CEDAW\|access\-date\=11 April 2023\|url\=https://onusidalac.org/1/index.php/areas\-de\-trabajo/cedaw\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205200740/http://onusidalac.org/1/index.php/areas\-de\-trabajo/cedaw\|archive\-date\=5 February 2023\|lang\=es}}{{Failed verification\|date\=July 2024}}
#### Public Morality police unit
If the police were, in fact, trying to send a message to the new provincial administration, it backfired. Cabrera's murder gave the government the political cover it needed to eliminate the Public Morality section of the provincial police. High on the list of her legacies is the fact that two days after her murder, the Santa Fe Minister of Government announced that the Public Morality section would be dissolved and the officers that served in it would be distributed among different units. He said that the move had been under consideration since the beginning of the new administration:
{{ blockquote
\| text\= ... because it is an obsolete unit that allows a certain degree of corruption, without passing judgment on the officers that served in it.
\| author\= Alberto Gianneschi, Minister of Government in Santa Fe province at the time of Sandra Cabrera's murder
}}
But he acknowledged that he was making the announcement in the context of Cabrera's murder.
{{cite press release
\|title \= Noticia del jueves 29 de enero de 2004
\|url \= http://gobierno.santafe.gov.ar/prensa/mitemplate.php?idnoticia\=18447\&mostrarmenu\=si\&include\=noticias\_prensa/2004/290104r3\.htm\&ptitulo\=Noticia%20del%20jueves%2029%20de%20enero%20de%202004%20(290104r3\.htm)\&fechanoticia\=\&volverurl\=\&pDescDiaMax\=Lunes\&intvalDi
\|url\-status \= live
\|date \= 2004\-01\-29
\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20190709233018/http://gobierno.santafe.gov.ar/prensa/mitemplate.php?idnoticia\=18447\&mostrarmenu\=si\&include\=noticias\_prensa/2004/290104r3\.htm\&ptitulo\=Noticia%20del%20jueves%2029%20de%20enero%20de%202004%20(290104r3\.htm)\&fechanoticia\=\&volverurl\=\&pDescDiaMax\=Lunes\&intvalDi
\|archive\-date \= 2019\-07\-09
}}
#### Misdemeanor Code
On the other hand, the government wanted to amend, rather than repeal, the articles of the Misdemeanor Code that criminalized sex work and transgenderism. The political opposition favored straight repeal, but the government was concerned about voter reaction and opposition from the Church. As the Minister of Government put it with Victorian sensibility:
{{ blockquote
\| text\= We are looking for a balance between the claims of the defense of modesty and scandalous prostitution through a new bill.
\| author\= Alberto Gianneschi
}}
As the new secretary general of AMMAR's [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") chapter, Claudia Lucero continued the campaign to repeal the articles.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= "The contravention codes are not repealed. The situation is the same, the only thing that changed is that there is no more Public Morality, but there are the precincts, there is the command \[police unit], the police are still chasing us. After Sandra's death, a month later, we had a partner in Baigorria who was threatened and beaten. The harassment continues, the mobile units stop us, some police come and say 'you have to go because the neighbor says' and that is a lie. They make it up so that the sex worker gives them money and they let her work. The commands are in the red zone and that's because the codes are not repealed and the police still have power.
\| author\= Claudia Lucero }}
For AMMAR [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), the campaign was an important rallying point. The constant police harassment intimidated the women in the street, but it also gave them strong motivation to take steps, however risky, to join the campaign against laws that legitimized the harassment. And since the campaign had been Cabrera's initiative, it gave the union frequent opportunity to invoke the name of Sandra Cabrera, who had become an important symbol for sex workers' rights.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= I said when Sandra passed, let's try to continue because otherwise everything is dying. And that is the commitment and at the same time persuades me that the death of Sandra was not in vain, beyond that we do not have justice. But it was not in vain, because we followed the path she left us. The day that the codes are repealed will not be our achievement, that's the way Sandra prepared us, so the achievement will be hers.
\| author\= Claudia Lucero }}
Finally, in 2010, after years of lobbying and activism by AMMAR [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), a different administration repealed the articles of the law that Cabrera had campaigned against.
{{cite news
\| title\= Santa Fe despenalizó la prostitución y el travestismo
\| url\= http://www.diariojudicial.com/nota/25632
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2010\-07\-23
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170813002127/http://www.diariojudicial.com/nota/25632
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-13
}}
While she didn't live to see the victory, she was part of the fight, and it was a more fundamental restructuring of society's relationship with sex work than eliminating a police unit.
#### Rosario
Walter Miranda, who had been removed as chief of the Public Morality unit following Cabrera's complaint because he had been providing protection to brothels that trafficked underage girls and foreign women, as well as extorting bribes from street\-based sex workers, continued to advance through the ranks. By 2012 he had become head of Regional Unit II, which gave him control of all provincial police forces in the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"). The brothels in the area around the bus terminal that he had been protecting were still there. During an investigation of trafficking in humans, a phone tap of one of the brothel owners recorded the owner asking how to go about selling cocaine. The answer was that he should bribe Hugo Tognoli, the highest ranking police officer in the province of [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province "Santa Fe province"). Laura Cosido, a judge in the Federal Chamber of Rosario, stated that "There was never such an open relationship between narcos and police." AMMAR, Cabrera's union, complained that the drug and human trafficking networks were the same.
{{cite news
\| title\= Rosario: abusos, trata, droga y complicidades
\| url\= http://www.plazademayo.com/2012/11/rosario\-abusos\-trata\-droga\-y\-complicidades
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2012\-11\-01
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170823034011/http://www.plazademayo.com/2012/11/rosario\-abusos\-trata\-droga\-y\-complicidades
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-23
}}
Around the same time, Claudia Lucero was complaining that in spite of the revocation of the articles of the Misdemeanor Code that criminalized street prostitution, the police were still finding ways to extort money from street workers.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= "I had to go and talk to the commissioner of the 7th precinct, after a worker was detained in the terminal area and extorted by the police.
{{cite news
\| title\= Meretrices con nuevo proyecto
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\-27128\-2011\-01\-24\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2011\-01\-24
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160414003514/http://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\-27128\-2011\-01\-24\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2016\-04\-14
}}
\| author\= Claudia Lucero
}}
Shortly thereafter, sex work in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe") went through the same change in law and enforcement that the rest of Argentina experienced. The anti\-trafficking law, passed a few years earlier, began to be enforced consistently, ending the legal regulation of brothels by municipalities. One of the last cabarets in Rosario was closed when city inspectors found an entertainer performing oral sex on a customer. Announcing that they were closing the place, the inspectors were attacked by the madame and the female employees, who threw glasses and punched and kicked the inspectors. Driven into the street, they took refuge in a local bar where the women found them and again attacked, throwing and breaking tables and stealing the tape used to officially seal a closed business. Not everyone in Argentina embraced the new anti\-trafficking regime.
{{cite news
\| title\= Un prostíbulo, a todas luces
\| url\= https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\-37782\-2013\-02\-23\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2013\-02\-23
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160413065957/https://www.pagina12\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\-37782\-2013\-02\-23\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2016\-04\-13
}}
Some of the women who had worked in the cabarets and *whiskerías* that fronted for brothels moved to private apartments operated by the same type of people who had operated the brothels.
{{cite news
\| title\= Prostitución en la sombra: cómo se ejerce hoy la actividad en Rosario
\| url\= http://www.rosarioplus.com/ensacoycorbata/Prostitucion\-en\-la\-sombra\-como\-se\-ejerce\-hoy\-la\-actividad\-en\-Rosario\-\-20170529\-0043\.html
\| url\-status\= live
\| date\= 2017\-05\-30
\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830010221/http://www.rosarioplus.com/ensacoycorbata/Prostitucion\-en\-la\-sombra\-como\-se\-ejerce\-hoy\-la\-actividad\-en\-Rosario\-\-20170529\-0043\.html
\| archive\-date\= 2017\-08\-30
}}
The motels that once rented to independent sex workers now turn them away in order to avoid problems with the city. In response, some of the women have organized *casitas*, where a group of women rent a house and set aside a part of the earnings from each client session to cover the rent. Basically, women who were previously working in brothels are still working in brothels, and women who were previously independent are still independent. Georgina Orellano, secretary general of AMMAR as of 2017, says of the new legal regime that "It took all the activity to a much darker and hidden place."
For the street based workers, Orellano says that since Mauricio Macri became Argentina's president, institutional violence has increased in public spaces.
{{ blockquote
\| text\= We suffer more searches, more humiliation, more payment of fines and the difficulty of making use of the street. Lately, there are reports that the police drive the girls away, beat them, do not let them work, ask them for sexual favors and ask for money.
\| author\= Georgina Orellano
}}
Orellano says that the new prohibitionist regime recognizes only victims and pimps, and criminalizes women who enter sex work voluntarily. The current municipal law on sex work in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), passed in 2013, mentions assistance and support; Orellano says that the city department responsible for implementing the assistance has helped so few women that they can be counted on the fingers of the two hands. AMMAR's last survey found one hundred women working the streets in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe "Rosario, Santa Fe"), and it is estimated that another six hundred are working indoors.
The legal and police system that Sandra Cabrera struggled with has changed. Where it once tolerated brothels it has become prohibitionist. The laws that once referred to street based sex work as "scandalous" and an "offense to modesty" now speak of assisting sex workers. The owners of regulated brothels who once assaulted independent sex workers in the streets, or paid the police to do the same, now operate illegally in private apartments, driven underground by the prohibitionist movement that currently opposes AMMAR in the media and the legislatures. The political projects of Cabrera and AMMAR's founders have been challenged by new social forces with different concepts of sex worker rights and agency. And yet street based sex workers face the same problems, including police violence and extortion. Perhaps Cabrera's most important legacy is illustrated by a little story told by Claudia Lucero a year after Cabrera's death:
{{ blockquote
\| text\= A short while ago the Command \[Radio Command, a police unit] wanted to take bribes from a member \[of AMMAR], and it turns out that she is unionized. She told them to take her prisoner, but she would call her lawyer as soon as she got to the police station because she had that right. The cops wanted to arrange something, give them money, or go to jail. But when she told them that, they dropped her at a corner and left.
\| author\= Claudia Lucero
}}
|
[
"### Influence",
"#### RedTraSex Archive/Virtual Library",
"To honor Sandra Cabrera's legacy, [RedTraSex](/wiki/RedTraSex \"RedTraSex\") named their virtual library after her as the first sex worker\\-themed archive. {{cite web\\|website\\=ONUSIDA\\|title\\=Centro de información para fortalecer la participación protagónica de las mujeres con VIH y las trabajadoras sexuales en los informes nacionales CEDAW\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2023\\|url\\=https://onusidalac.org/1/index.php/areas\\-de\\-trabajo/cedaw\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205200740/http://onusidalac.org/1/index.php/areas\\-de\\-trabajo/cedaw\\|archive\\-date\\=5 February 2023\\|lang\\=es}}{{Failed verification\\|date\\=July 2024}}",
"#### Public Morality police unit",
"If the police were, in fact, trying to send a message to the new provincial administration, it backfired. Cabrera's murder gave the government the political cover it needed to eliminate the Public Morality section of the provincial police. High on the list of her legacies is the fact that two days after her murder, the Santa Fe Minister of Government announced that the Public Morality section would be dissolved and the officers that served in it would be distributed among different units. He said that the move had been under consideration since the beginning of the new administration:",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= ... because it is an obsolete unit that allows a certain degree of corruption, without passing judgment on the officers that served in it.\n\\| author\\= Alberto Gianneschi, Minister of Government in Santa Fe province at the time of Sandra Cabrera's murder\n}}",
"But he acknowledged that he was making the announcement in the context of Cabrera's murder.",
"{{cite press release\n \\|title \\= Noticia del jueves 29 de enero de 2004\n \\|url \\= http://gobierno.santafe.gov.ar/prensa/mitemplate.php?idnoticia\\=18447\\&mostrarmenu\\=si\\&include\\=noticias\\_prensa/2004/290104r3\\.htm\\&ptitulo\\=Noticia%20del%20jueves%2029%20de%20enero%20de%202004%20(290104r3\\.htm)\\&fechanoticia\\=\\&volverurl\\=\\&pDescDiaMax\\=Lunes\\&intvalDi\n \\|url\\-status \\= live\n \\|date \\= 2004\\-01\\-29\n \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20190709233018/http://gobierno.santafe.gov.ar/prensa/mitemplate.php?idnoticia\\=18447\\&mostrarmenu\\=si\\&include\\=noticias\\_prensa/2004/290104r3\\.htm\\&ptitulo\\=Noticia%20del%20jueves%2029%20de%20enero%20de%202004%20(290104r3\\.htm)\\&fechanoticia\\=\\&volverurl\\=\\&pDescDiaMax\\=Lunes\\&intvalDi\n \\|archive\\-date \\= 2019\\-07\\-09\n}}",
"#### Misdemeanor Code",
"On the other hand, the government wanted to amend, rather than repeal, the articles of the Misdemeanor Code that criminalized sex work and transgenderism. The political opposition favored straight repeal, but the government was concerned about voter reaction and opposition from the Church. As the Minister of Government put it with Victorian sensibility:",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= We are looking for a balance between the claims of the defense of modesty and scandalous prostitution through a new bill.\n\\| author\\= Alberto Gianneschi\n}}",
"As the new secretary general of AMMAR's [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") chapter, Claudia Lucero continued the campaign to repeal the articles.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= \"The contravention codes are not repealed. The situation is the same, the only thing that changed is that there is no more Public Morality, but there are the precincts, there is the command \\[police unit], the police are still chasing us. After Sandra's death, a month later, we had a partner in Baigorria who was threatened and beaten. The harassment continues, the mobile units stop us, some police come and say 'you have to go because the neighbor says' and that is a lie. They make it up so that the sex worker gives them money and they let her work. The commands are in the red zone and that's because the codes are not repealed and the police still have power.\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero }}",
"For AMMAR [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), the campaign was an important rallying point. The constant police harassment intimidated the women in the street, but it also gave them strong motivation to take steps, however risky, to join the campaign against laws that legitimized the harassment. And since the campaign had been Cabrera's initiative, it gave the union frequent opportunity to invoke the name of Sandra Cabrera, who had become an important symbol for sex workers' rights.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= I said when Sandra passed, let's try to continue because otherwise everything is dying. And that is the commitment and at the same time persuades me that the death of Sandra was not in vain, beyond that we do not have justice. But it was not in vain, because we followed the path she left us. The day that the codes are repealed will not be our achievement, that's the way Sandra prepared us, so the achievement will be hers.\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero }}",
"Finally, in 2010, after years of lobbying and activism by AMMAR [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), a different administration repealed the articles of the law that Cabrera had campaigned against.",
"{{cite news \n\\| title\\= Santa Fe despenalizó la prostitución y el travestismo\n\\| url\\= http://www.diariojudicial.com/nota/25632\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2010\\-07\\-23\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170813002127/http://www.diariojudicial.com/nota/25632\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-13\n }} \nWhile she didn't live to see the victory, she was part of the fight, and it was a more fundamental restructuring of society's relationship with sex work than eliminating a police unit.",
"#### Rosario",
"Walter Miranda, who had been removed as chief of the Public Morality unit following Cabrera's complaint because he had been providing protection to brothels that trafficked underage girls and foreign women, as well as extorting bribes from street\\-based sex workers, continued to advance through the ranks. By 2012 he had become head of Regional Unit II, which gave him control of all provincial police forces in the city of [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"). The brothels in the area around the bus terminal that he had been protecting were still there. During an investigation of trafficking in humans, a phone tap of one of the brothel owners recorded the owner asking how to go about selling cocaine. The answer was that he should bribe Hugo Tognoli, the highest ranking police officer in the province of [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe_province \"Santa Fe province\"). Laura Cosido, a judge in the Federal Chamber of Rosario, stated that \"There was never such an open relationship between narcos and police.\" AMMAR, Cabrera's union, complained that the drug and human trafficking networks were the same.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Rosario: abusos, trata, droga y complicidades\n\\| url\\= http://www.plazademayo.com/2012/11/rosario\\-abusos\\-trata\\-droga\\-y\\-complicidades\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2012\\-11\\-01\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170823034011/http://www.plazademayo.com/2012/11/rosario\\-abusos\\-trata\\-droga\\-y\\-complicidades\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-23\n }}",
"Around the same time, Claudia Lucero was complaining that in spite of the revocation of the articles of the Misdemeanor Code that criminalized street prostitution, the police were still finding ways to extort money from street workers.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= \"I had to go and talk to the commissioner of the 7th precinct, after a worker was detained in the terminal area and extorted by the police.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Meretrices con nuevo proyecto\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\\-27128\\-2011\\-01\\-24\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2011\\-01\\-24\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160414003514/http://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\\-27128\\-2011\\-01\\-24\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2016\\-04\\-14\n }}\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero\n}}",
"Shortly thereafter, sex work in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\") went through the same change in law and enforcement that the rest of Argentina experienced. The anti\\-trafficking law, passed a few years earlier, began to be enforced consistently, ending the legal regulation of brothels by municipalities. One of the last cabarets in Rosario was closed when city inspectors found an entertainer performing oral sex on a customer. Announcing that they were closing the place, the inspectors were attacked by the madame and the female employees, who threw glasses and punched and kicked the inspectors. Driven into the street, they took refuge in a local bar where the women found them and again attacked, throwing and breaking tables and stealing the tape used to officially seal a closed business. Not everyone in Argentina embraced the new anti\\-trafficking regime.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Un prostíbulo, a todas luces\n\\| url\\= https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\\-37782\\-2013\\-02\\-23\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2013\\-02\\-23\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160413065957/https://www.pagina12\\.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9\\-37782\\-2013\\-02\\-23\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2016\\-04\\-13\n }}",
"Some of the women who had worked in the cabarets and *whiskerías* that fronted for brothels moved to private apartments operated by the same type of people who had operated the brothels.",
"{{cite news\n\\| title\\= Prostitución en la sombra: cómo se ejerce hoy la actividad en Rosario\n\\| url\\= http://www.rosarioplus.com/ensacoycorbata/Prostitucion\\-en\\-la\\-sombra\\-como\\-se\\-ejerce\\-hoy\\-la\\-actividad\\-en\\-Rosario\\-\\-20170529\\-0043\\.html\n\\| url\\-status\\= live\n\\| date\\= 2017\\-05\\-30\n\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170830010221/http://www.rosarioplus.com/ensacoycorbata/Prostitucion\\-en\\-la\\-sombra\\-como\\-se\\-ejerce\\-hoy\\-la\\-actividad\\-en\\-Rosario\\-\\-20170529\\-0043\\.html\n\\| archive\\-date\\= 2017\\-08\\-30\n }} \nThe motels that once rented to independent sex workers now turn them away in order to avoid problems with the city. In response, some of the women have organized *casitas*, where a group of women rent a house and set aside a part of the earnings from each client session to cover the rent. Basically, women who were previously working in brothels are still working in brothels, and women who were previously independent are still independent. Georgina Orellano, secretary general of AMMAR as of 2017, says of the new legal regime that \"It took all the activity to a much darker and hidden place.\"",
"For the street based workers, Orellano says that since Mauricio Macri became Argentina's president, institutional violence has increased in public spaces.",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= We suffer more searches, more humiliation, more payment of fines and the difficulty of making use of the street. Lately, there are reports that the police drive the girls away, beat them, do not let them work, ask them for sexual favors and ask for money.\n\\| author\\= Georgina Orellano\n}}",
"Orellano says that the new prohibitionist regime recognizes only victims and pimps, and criminalizes women who enter sex work voluntarily. The current municipal law on sex work in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), passed in 2013, mentions assistance and support; Orellano says that the city department responsible for implementing the assistance has helped so few women that they can be counted on the fingers of the two hands. AMMAR's last survey found one hundred women working the streets in [Rosario](/wiki/Rosario%2C_Santa_Fe \"Rosario, Santa Fe\"), and it is estimated that another six hundred are working indoors.",
"The legal and police system that Sandra Cabrera struggled with has changed. Where it once tolerated brothels it has become prohibitionist. The laws that once referred to street based sex work as \"scandalous\" and an \"offense to modesty\" now speak of assisting sex workers. The owners of regulated brothels who once assaulted independent sex workers in the streets, or paid the police to do the same, now operate illegally in private apartments, driven underground by the prohibitionist movement that currently opposes AMMAR in the media and the legislatures. The political projects of Cabrera and AMMAR's founders have been challenged by new social forces with different concepts of sex worker rights and agency. And yet street based sex workers face the same problems, including police violence and extortion. Perhaps Cabrera's most important legacy is illustrated by a little story told by Claudia Lucero a year after Cabrera's death:",
"{{ blockquote\n\\| text\\= A short while ago the Command \\[Radio Command, a police unit] wanted to take bribes from a member \\[of AMMAR], and it turns out that she is unionized. She told them to take her prisoner, but she would call her lawyer as soon as she got to the police station because she had that right. The cops wanted to arrange something, give them money, or go to jail. But when she told them that, they dropped her at a corner and left.\n\\| author\\= Claudia Lucero\n}}",
""
] |
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